American Studies Periodical

International Black Sea University

Faculty of Humanities Direction of American Studies

5th Edition

American Studies International Research Conference Materials

Tbilisi

2012

Chief Editor: Prof. Dr. Tamar Shioshvili, The Dean of the Faculties of Humanities and Education International Black Sea University

Computer and Editorial Assistance: Tea Chumburidze, B.A., Research Assistant of the Faculty of Humanities International Black Sea University

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

TAMAR SHIOSHVILI American Identities in an Age of Globalization ...... 5 OMAR TSERETELI The Rights and Status of Children and Juveniles in the Unites States and in Georgia ...... 12 PIKRIA KOSHADZE Securing Rights for the Persons with Disabilities...... 19 NANA PARINOS Terrorism as an Effective Media PR Stunt (US case)...... 27 NINO DANELIA Privacy Rights in the United States and in Georgia ...... 33 TAMAR BERIDZE Special Protection for Older Americans ...... 40 SALOME GVICHIANI Religion in the United States ...... 45 MARI MIKADZE The Amish People ...... 56 ANASTASIA ZAKARIADZE Ethics: Who Needs It?! ...... 71

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues

TAISIA MUZAFAROVA Lost Generation According to the Moveable Feast by Ernest Hemingway ...... 81 TAMAR KOBESHAVIDZE Sallinger’s Novel The Catcher in the Rye and the Beginning of American Counterculture ...... 86 ELENE SHENGELIA Top Politician Women ...... 93

MARIAM ABDUSHELISHVILI American Women’s History from 1500 till Present ...... 107 ELENE MEDZMARIASHVILI Role of Women in the US and Georgian Politics (comparative analyses) ...... 129

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics

KETEVAN ROSTIASHVILI The USA World Superpower: Theoretical Discourse ...... 138 TEA CHUMBURIDZE Ronald Reagan – The Man who Defeated Communism ...... 144 LELA VANISHVILI Basic Aspects of Online Communication in Public Relations ...... 149 MIKHEIL BARNOVI Quanah Parker and Satanta - Last War Chiefs of Comanche and Kiowa Tribes ...... 159 KETEVAN DOLAKIDZE Portal to the Land of Dreams – Ellis Island ...... 165 MARIAM TSETSKHLADZE Gender Discrimination at Workplace in the U.S...... 176 NICKOLAS GEORGE MAKHARASHVILI Basic Specifics of Strategic Management in PR Practice (US Based) ...... 184

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

American Identities in an Age of Globalization

TAMAR SHIOSHVILI

Migrations, great and small, have been focal to human experience. Without migration human life would not exist in the great diversity and extent that it does in present. Global diversity is a direct consequence of the reality that some of us have always left our homeland to move to another place. During the last five centuries developed transportation systems have made long- distance travel over oceans and continents quite frequent. This fact is more appropriate to the U.S. where the nation-state itself is outlined as a product of immigration. Most countries of the world today economically, socially, culturally, and demographically are multicultural outcome of long-distance migrations stimulated by war, conquest, empire- building, search for political or economic shelter. Increased exchange across national borders was expected to transform peoples’ sense of physical, social, and political place, so that Delhi no longer seemed too distant from Denver, Darwin (a city in Australia), or Delft (a town in South Holland province). Too fundamental changes would occur in our sense of self and identity. In particular, theorists claimed, nation- states were becoming deterritorialized, and the national would no longer anchor human identities as it had in the twentieth century (Glick Schiller et al. 1992; Basch et. Al. 1994). The impact of hastened rates of cultural and economic exchange across national borders during the last three decades of the twentieth century can scarcely be denied. It is true that the things we produce travel faster, farther, and in greater numbers than ever before. New transportation and communication technologies allow humans to travel with great speed and to remain easily in touch with family, friends, and business associates over long distances. Videos, wireless telephones, cables, satellites, and the World Wide Web make sounds and images produced by people in one corner of the world readily accessible to persons living on the other side of the globe. It is also true, that the world is currently experiencing massive movements of

 Prof. Dr., Dean of the Faculties: Humanities and Education, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues people across national and regional borders: approximately 140 million person now live outside the country of their birth. Long-term historians of migration (e.g. Hoerder 2002) have even denied that today’s international migrations are unprecedented in scale; they may actually be relatively less important numerically that the so-called mass migrations of the end of the nineteenth century (who over 125 million persons were internationally mobile throughout a world with much less than half of today’s population). Significantly, these mass migrations did not undermine or prevent the expansion of the power of national states; in fact historians have often referred to the era of mass migration in the nineteenth century as an age of nationalism. The previous mass migrations across national borders did not spell the end of the nation-state cautions against such predictions now. The possibility that migration changes human lives and identities is best studied with methodologies that allow comparisons of people on the move in both the past and the present. The impact of changing technology, movement, and communications is best identified through the examination of particular places and the social, economic, political relations within which people in these places live. As a self-proclaimed nation of immigrants, the United States can provide a firm foundation for such study.

National Studies in an Age of Globalization Internationalizing the Interdisciplinary Study of Mobile Lives Since the 1500s, almost every corner of the world has been touched by vast international migrations. The U.S. may be one of a very few nations worldwide that considers itself, proudly, a nation of immigrants, but it is only one of many nations formed through long-distance migrations. Most of the migrants we study in this material initially lived or are now living transnational lives. In other words, their lives occur simultaneously in more than one national territory. But most are also simultaneously engaged in creating new identities that link them in some way to places and territories – including national ones – both “at home” and where they live and work abroad, even if only temporarily. Our focus on the United States can be justified in at least three ways.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues First, rightly or wrongly, the U.S. continues to be regarded throughout the world as the paradigmatic nation of immigrants and as a place where transformations of identity are an element of nation-building and national life. The symbolic importance of the U.S. as a nation of immigrants has persisted even during periods of reduced immigration and even during periods when other countries have received and in some cases incorporated – proportionately far greater numbers of newcomer than has the United States. In both the nineteenth and late twentieth centuries the vast size of the U.S. – facing two oceans and connected historically through the slave trade empire-building to Africa, the Caribbean and Latin America as well as Asia – has made it a popular destination for a culturally more diverse group of mobile people than most other countries. Secondly, in an increasingly interconnected world, the United States also functions symbolically as a hyper-present model of a culturally plural or multicultural nation of individuals with complex identities. This American embrace of what is usually called multiculturalism is relatively recent, however. In the past the United States was instead more often praised or criticized for its insistence on transforming the identities of some immigrant (supposedly making “ethnics’, “Americans”, or “whites” of mobile people from Europe) while simultaneously seeking to exclude people of African and Asian descent from the American nation. It is unlikely that many nations worldwide share with the U.S. its distinctive combination of a long history of slavery and of the segregation of African-Americans with its relative openness to the admission and naturalization of large numbers of foreign-born workers and settlers. But there can be little doubt that it is the intensive study of the United States that has allowed scholars worldwide to pose questions about the determinants and typologies of multiculturalism as it is now practiced worldwide. Attention to the hyphenated, hybrid, and ethnic identities of the U.S., as well as their relationship to an American sense of national belonging, has also provided a scholarly ‘other” against which studies of mobile people elsewhere have often been measured. The third, and perhaps most important reason for again collecting a new set of essays on immigrant life in the United States, is that much of the work in globalism and transnationalism treats the U.S. as an agent of economic and cultural globalization elsewhere. Surely the influence of the U.S. commerce and culture on the wider world is well documented. (Winant, 1994)

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues Migration into, within, and out of the United States provides an opportunity to examine how globalization may be transforming human lives in the paradigmatic nation of immigrants. Are these transformations pushing newer immigrants in the direction – away from the importance of the nation – that some theorists of transnationalism have posited? In which human relationships, if any, do mobile people put in the forefront their American or foreign national identities? Are identities among today’s transmigrants any more fluid (changing easily), disputed and complex than those of the immigrants of the past? Scholars today are focused on the consequences of migration. The interdisciplinary fields such as American Studies, ethnic studies, women’s studies, and migration fields have changed in recent years. Almost all scholarly disciplines have in the past two decades struggled to come to terms with the impact of theories of globalization and globality on their often fundamentally national subject matter. This struggle has been particularly intense in American Studies. Contemporary unease about continuing to define scholarly fields around national territories or cultures seems to encourage a wider understanding of interdisciplinarity than was traditionally the case, for example in American Studies. A half century ago historians and specialists on literature collaborated to create American studies. Today the number of interdisciplinary fields, or “studies” programs has greatly increased; within these interdisciplinary fields historians and literature scholars now interact more frequently with scholars trained in ethnic, women’s and cultural studies, and even in the social sciences. Literature and cultural studies – the more usual support of interdisciplinary studies of all kinds in the 1990s – are replaced by social and cultural analysis in the past decade. As philosophical deviation of modernist and post modernist scholars of 1990s has begun to decline, a wide variety of interdisciplinary fields offer the study of the material, social and phenomenological dimensions of human life by the newer generation of scientists. In short, a new and more globally informed analysis of linkage of cultural, ethnic and natural identities seems in order – both in the United States and worldwide. We know from historical literature on immigrants in the U.S. that distinctive social practices – in families, neighborhoods, and communities – have been important sites of identity formation.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues The Transnational Condition and High-tech Immigration Computer programming is a major force behind the current round of globalization, and programmers some of its key players. A transnational organization of capital, labor and corporations is daily imagined and realized in the electronic space of programming languages. In this ever-intensifying global — presumably post-national — economic order, very often the complex nationalist orientation of Indian programmers who are temporary or permanent immigrants to the United States carry paradoxes and ironies of transnational living within a nationalist framework. Lacking a transnational or post-nationalist way of perceiving reality, these programmers according A. Aneesh display a continuous nostalgia for the “other” nation: that is they miss India while in the United States and long for American life when they go back to India: This immigrant condition, produced by a specific digressive practice can be termed “total closure”, whose logic helps constitute the world in terms of neatly divisible, bounded, and closed substances, such as nations or races. ‘Total closure’ expresses itself in terms of immigration restrictions, constituting these programmers as ‘aliens’, who, despite unsteady identities, recognize themselves as Indians alone. The empirical ground for this discussion is a larger research project, conducted over 18 months of field work in India and the United States in 1999-2000. With 50 formal interviews (35 in India and 15 in the U.S.) and a similar number of informal conversations with software professionals and executives in India and the U.S. This project took place in three alternating research phases of six months each in India and the U.S. and India again. While in the U.S., research interactions occurred in New Jersey, which boasts one of the highest concentrations of Indian immigrants in the U.S., in India, the specific field of inquiry was the northern hub of software development located in Delhi and its suburbs – Noida and Gurgaon. (Aneesh, 2001) One may question the significance of the category of programmers for a study on migration. Traditionally, migration research has focused on low-skilled labor whose importance for the U.S. economy is indisputable. In recent years, however, an increasing trend is seen in the United States toward a conversation of labor into information work, especially in service industries that employ the largest section of the working population in the U.S. In this context, the centrality of programmers or information technology (IT) workers for the new economy is undeniable. Their significance can be measured from the persistent demand and influx of IT workers that forced turn-of-the century immigration debates to shift

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues from low-skilled to high-skilled sphere of employment. (Cornelius, 2001) The debate was torn between corporate pressures on the U.S. government to relax immigration quotas for IT workers due to an IT labor shortage, rising wage pressure, competitive advantage, and the general fears that such immigration would deny U.S. nationals the high-tech jobs and lower their wages. Yet, the importance of programming labor for the changing economy was clear to both sides of the debate. A variety of bills were introduced, defeated, revived, passed and rewritten between the House of Representatives, the Senate, and the White House, eventually raising the quota of H1-B visas for fiscal years 1999 and 2000, Congress was again forced to increase the number of H-1B visas to 195,000 a year for three years. So, the importance of IT workers for the new information and network-based economy could not be overstated. All computer-related and engineering occupations accounted for 70 percent of total H-1B petitions in 1998-9. Immigrants from India accounted for the highest percentage of H-1B visas. The mechanism by which programmers from India come to the U.S. on H-1B visas is generally called body shopping. Consultancy firms recruit software professional in India in order to contract them out for short-term projects in the United States. At the end of such projects, programmers look for other projects, usually through the same contractors. Most U.S. employers find this mode of recruitment convenient since there is less time, money, and employment obligations involved. Although certain transnational forces, including U.S. corporations and the Indian software industry, were responsible through their lobbying efforts in Congress for raising the number of visas, immigration essentially is a question that centers on the nation-state and its modes of sociopolitical closure.

References:

1. Aneesh, A. (2001) ‘Rethinking migration: online labor flows from India to the United States’, “The International Migration of the Highly Skilled. CA: Center for U.S. – Mexican Studies, pp. 351-70

2. Basch, L. G., Glick Schiller, “Nations Unbound; Transnational Projects, Postcolonial Predicaments, and Deterriorialized Nation-States, Langhorne, PA: Gordin and Breach

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

3. Cornelius, W.A., The International Migration of the Highly Skilled, CA: Center for U.S. – Mexican Studies, 2001

4. Winant, H. (1994) Racial Conditions; Politics, Theory, Comparisons, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

The Rights and Status of Children and Juveniles in the Unites States and in Georgia

OMAR TSERETELI

“Many things can wait; the child cannot. Now is the time his bones are being formed, his mind is being developed. To him, we cannot say tomorrow, his name is Today” Kellie M. Johnson

United States of America The famous quotation of our time is the best indicator that specifies the role of the children in the world’s global socializing process. Their involvement in developing political processes is welcomed in many democratic countries, therefore, coin has two sides, and the democratic institutions invest lots of money to cope with serious problems such as Civil and Criminal Proceedings, Criminal and Voting rights of young and some other challenges associating with the rights of Juveniles… The United States was founded on the principles of individual freedom, equality and due process in a democratic society, but in the area of the justice system, these principles have often been challenged. Nowhere are the principles of human rights and democratic society more at risk today than in the U.S. juvenile justice system, but still, it’s considered to be one of the most unique and self-regulated systems ever created. Nowadays, approximately 88 million Americans-about 28 percent of the total population _ is under 21 years of age. The definition of juveniles ranges from under age 16 to persons under age 21. However defined, children in the United States have fewer rights and protections than adults. The reason for this lack of rights is the presumption of society that children basically are protected by their parents. This approach caused some controversy in the society, as there are

 Senior Student, Faculty of Humanities, Direction of American Studies, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues cases when children, themselves needed protection from their parents (I mean- drank parents, abusing environment or domestic and community violence and poverty) the policy like this wouldn’t guarantee juveniles’ personal rights. The Supreme Court decisions affecting children’s rights began a process of slow evolution with Brown v. Board of education of Topeka, the landmark civil rights case of 1954 discussed earlier in this period. In the Brown case, the court granted children the status of “rights-bearing persons”. Five years later, the court acknowledged that “Children are ‘persons’ within the meaning of the Bill of Rights. We have held so over and over again”.

Right to Vote (Election) The twenty-sixth Amendment to the constitution, ratified in 1971, reads as follows: “The right of citizens of the United States, who are eighteen years of age or older, to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of age”. Before this amendment was ratified, the age at which citizens could vote was 21 in most status. There was a question __ why did the 26th amendment specify age eighteen? Why not seventeen or sixteen? One of the arguments used for granting suffrage to eighteen-year-olds was that, because they could be drafted to fight in the country’s wars, they had a stake in public policy. Moreover, at the time, the example of Vietnam War (1964-75) was paramount.

Criminal Rights of Juveniles One of the main requirements for an accusation to be criminal is intent. The law gives children certain defenses against criminal prosecution because of their presumed inability to have criminal intent. Under the common Law, children up to seven years of age were considered incapable of committing a crime, because they didn’t have the moral sense to understand that they were doing wrong. Children between the ages of seven and fourteen were also presumed to be incapable of committing a crime, but this presumption could be challenged by showing that the child understood the wrongful nature of the act. Today, statuses vary in their approaches. Most states retain the common law approach, although age limits vary from state to state. Other states have simply set a minimum age for criminal responsibilities.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

But, there is another problem that most states allow juveniles to be tried as ADULTS for certain crimes, such as murder. When they are tried as adults, they may also face adult penalties. These used to include death penalty. In 2005, however, the Supreme Court opined that sixteen- and-seventeen-year-olds do not have a fully developed sense of right and wrong, so they should be cautions during making any decisions.

Child Labor Violations FLSA protects, among other groups, child laborers. When it was enacted, farming was primarily a family activity, and it was understood that children would help on the family farm. Thus, the restrictions on agricultural work are much less stringent. By the end of the twentieth century, the number of family farms had dwindled, and most farming was done on large commercial establishments. But the lax restrictions remained, and farm conglomerates took advantage of this. Under FLSA, no child under the age of 13 can work in a nonagricultural setting, and children of 14 and 15 can work but only for a set number of hours each day. For children working on a farm, the situation is quite different. Children can go to work in the fields as young as nine years old in some states, as long as they have signed parental consent. Even with the relaxed standards for agricultural work, children are often overworked, are expected to work during what would be school hours, and are paid far less than what is legally required. A report issued in 2000 by Human Rights Watch noted that children under the age of 16 are often required to put in several hours before the school day begins; during the summer months they may work 12-hour days. The dangers of agricultural work are surprisingly many, and for minors these dangers are even more troubling. Agricultural workers can be exposed to pesticides and other chemicals. They may be sent to work in oppressive heat but without adequate water to keep from becoming dehydrated. Often, they work with heavy or dangerous equipment that children often have little experience with. Because they work long hours, often having to rise before dawn to begin their work, lack of sleep is a major problem. For children, this is not only more dangerous, it also

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues curtails their ability to succeed in school. Injury is common; children can fall or have accidents with heavy equipment or sharp objects. It is important to remember that many adult farm workers are also exploited, forced to work long hours for little pay. Often, families are so poor and desperate that they feel compelled to give their young children permission to work on the farm, thus bringing in a small but needed amount of extra money. Organizations such as Human Rights Watch have urged the U.S. government to revise FLSA to offer additional protection to minor children working on farms, and to ensure that farms are more careful about whom they hire and also more diligent about improving working conditions and wages.

Convention on the Rights of the Child In an effort to create a universally accepted set of children's rights, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Rights of the Child in November 1989. This document promises children the basic human rights of life and liberty, as well as access to education and health care. It also calls for protection against DISCRIMINATION and abuse, protection from economic exploitation, and protection against torture. While children's rights have become more visible since then, there are still many instances around the world of children's rights violations. The United States did sign the Convention in 1995 but it was never submitted to the Senate for RATIFICATION. Although the government has stated that it has no intention of ratifying the Convention, it has consistently reaffirmed its commitment to children's rights. Among the reason the United States has failed to ratify the Convention is the fact that the Convention clearly states that anyone under the age of 18 is a child. The U.S. government has reservations about how that would affect matters when a 16- or 17-year old commits a crime; currently, in certain instances that child can be tried as an adult. Also, the United States Government says that many of the declarations included in the document are not issues for which the federal government is in charge. For example, education in the United States is controlled by the states, not the federal government.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

Whether the United States eventually ratifies the Convention, it still does maintain an enviable record of honoring most children's rights. Human rights groups are convinced that the United States can and should do more, and they continue to make their points of view known in the United States and abroad.

Georgia As for an example of Georgian Civil Code, it defines a child as a person from birth to the age of 18. Yet, it can be attained before 18 in two cases. Marriage is permitted from the age of 16 with advance written permission from parents or legal representatives of the Civil Code states, also allows for emancipation of a child at 16 by legal representatives for independent management of an enterprise. According to the Georgian Law on Education, schooling is compulsory from the age of six and minimum school leaving age is 14. The minimum age of employment is 14 for vocational or light work, and 16 for contracted work. These provisions create a vacuum for children who leave school at the age of 14 for socio-economic reasons. Many of the social programs dealing with children’s development in Georgia are financed by the U.S NGOs, UNICEF and World Bank. They encourage decreasing the discrimination environment and lifting children’s social status out of poverty. And actually, lots of positive steps have been taken in this respect. The immense contributor in the above-mentioned social programs is UNICEF.

UNICEF Its mission is to advocate for the protection of children’s rights, to help meet basic needs and to expand their opportunities to reach their full potential… Convention is a universally agreed set of non-negotiable standards and obligations. These basic standards—also called human rights— set minimum entitlements and freedoms that should be respected by governments. They are founded on respect for the dignity and worth of each individual, regardless of race, color, gender, language, religion, opinions, origins, wealth, birth status or ability and therefore apply to every human being everywhere. With these rights comes the obligation on both governments and individuals not to infringe on the parallel rights of others. These standards are both

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues interdependent and indivisible; we cannot ensure some rights without—or at the expense of— other rights.

Elections in Georgia In Georgia, the citizens could vote at the age of 18 according to the first adopted Constitution of the independent country in 1995. The reason why the constitution specified age 18 appeared in the same coincidence as the example of the United States. Wars and inappropriate social- economic environment were the key reasons why the Juveniles had to vote from the age of 18. The provision stayed the same although, Georgian people got a new Constitution.

Criminal rights and Proceeding The same issue of Juvenile justice in Georgia is not so complicated. Criminal liability starts at the age of 14 in Georgia. According to official information, 14 year-old children are only held criminally liable for what is considered as “Grave Crime”, and the legislation provides that they can be sentenced to up 10 years of imprisonment. 16 year old children are held criminally liable for any crime one must be sentenced to a minimum of 10 years and a maximum of 15 years for “Grave Crime”. Anyway, Georgia has no specific jurisdiction for children. The country needs strong document of jurisdiction which deals with lots of challenges in this regard and answers lots of questions which our society concerns about…

Conclusion In conclusion, it’s obvious that the problem still exists in lots of democratic countries. The societies In the United States and in Georgia need to consent to common idea that a CHILD IS A PERSON AND NOT A “SUBPERSON” over whom the parent has an absolute possessory interest. The term “child” does not necessarily mean minor but can include adult children as well as nondependent children. Children are generally afforded the basic rights embodied by the Constitution in both countries. I reckon that, our (Georgian) government should take all possible steps to eradicate the problem of child abusing. Child abuse is more than bruises and broken

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues bones. By learning about common signs of neglect and domestic violence and what we can do to intervene, we can make a huge difference on child’s life. Therefore, it’s expedient to give one more chance to Juvenile Prisoners… Personally, I’d recommend our government to establish some probationary or penitentiary services or reform schools or public commissions or psychological institutions which investigate the individual cases of Juvenile prisoners and take fair verdicts and morally right decisions. That will help us change something important in our life as it already happened in the society of the United States of America…

References:

1. The Child Advocacy Handbook. Fernandez, Happy Craven, Pilgrim Press, 1980.

2. Children's Rights: A Reference Handbook. Edmonds, Beverly C., and William R. Fernekes, ABC-CLIO, 1996.

3. Children's Rights in the United States: In Search of a National Policy. Walker, Nancy E., Catherine M. Brooks, and Lawrence S. Wrightsman, Sage Publications, 1999.

4. The Children's Rights Movement: A History of Advocacy and Protection. Hawes, Joseph M., Twayne Publishers, 1991.

5. What Are My Rights? Ninety-Five Questions and Answers about Teens and the Law. Jacobs, Thomas A., Free Spirit Publications, 1997.

6. http://www.enotes.com/civil-rights-reference/children-s-rights

7. http://www.unicef.org/crc/

8. http://www.enotes.com/civil-rights-reference/children-s-rights

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

Securing Rights for the Persons with Disabilities

PIKRIA KOSHADZE Introduction In the past forty years, law, policy, and public attitudes affecting persons with disabilities have changed dramatically. Historically, disability was seen as a defect that prevented someone from participating in “normal” life activities. It wasn’t until the 1970s, when people with disabilities first began to view themselves as a minority group with civil rights to be protected similar to other minority groups fighting for equality. This new rights-based approach fostered the passage of laws guaranteeing accessibility to employment, voting, air travel, and independence in education and housing, culminating in 1990 with passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). (Peter Blanck, PhD, JD, 2008).

History of the ADA The history of the ADA did not begin on July 26, 1990 at the signing ceremony at the White House. It did not begin in 1988 when the first ADA was introduced in Congress. The ADA story began a long time ago in cities and towns throughout the United States when people with disabilities began to challenge societal barriers that excluded them from their communities. The ADA owes its birthright not to any one person, or any few, but thousands of people who have worked for years organizing and attending protests, licking envelopes, sending out alerts, drafting legislation, speaking, testifying, negotiating, lobbying, being arrested - doing whatever they could for a cause they believed in. Without the work of so many - without the disability rights movement - there would be no ADA. The disability rights movement has made the injustices faced by people with disabilities visible to the American public and to politicians. Like the African-Americans who sat in at segregated lunch counters and refused to move to the back of the bus, people with disabilities sat

 Senior Student, Faculty of Humanities, Direction of American Studies, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues in federal buildings, obstructed the movement of inaccessible buses, and marched through the streets to protest injustice. A profound and historic shift in disability public policy took place in 1973 with the passage of Section 504 of the 1973 Rehabilitation Act. For the first time, the exclusion and segregation of people with disabilities was viewed as discrimination. Previously, it had been assumed that the problems faced by people with disabilities, such as unemployment and lack of education, were inevitable consequences of the physical or mental limitations imposed by the disability itself. Section 504 was also historic because for the first time people with disabilities were viewed as a class - a minority group. Each disability group was seen as separate, with differing needs. The history of the ADA is a testament to the movement's commitment to solidarity among people with different disabilities. After Section 504 established the fundamental civil right of non-discrimination in 1973, the next step was to define what non-discrimination meant in the context of disability. The Department of Health, Education and Welfare (HEW) had been given the task of promulgating regulations to implement Section 504, which would serve as guidelines for all other federal agencies. The first task was to assure that the regulations provided meaningful anti- discrimination protections. The regulations mandated affirmative conduct to remove architectural and communication barriers and provide accommodations. The second step was to force a recalcitrant agency to get the regulations out. All over the country people with disabilities sat-in at HEW buildings. The longest sit-in was in San Francisco, lasting 28 days. Furthermore, the disability community mobilized a successful campaign using a variety of strategies, and on May 4, 1977 the Section 504 regulations were issued. It is these regulations which form the basis of the ADA. However, after taking office President Reagan established the Task Force on Regulatory Relief under the leadership of then Vice President George Bush. The mission of the Task Force was to "de-regulate" regulations which were burdensome on businesses, so these regulations were chosen for "de-regulation." For two years, representatives from the disability community met with Administration officials to explain why all of the various de-regulation proposals must not be adopted. After a remarkable show of force and commitment by the disability community, the Administration

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues announced a halt to all attempts to de-regulate Section 504. This was a tremendous victory for the disability movement. So those two years proved to be invaluable in setting the stage for the ADA. During the 1980's the disability community was also successful in overturning by legislation several disabilities - specific negative Supreme Court rulings. Legislation was passed to restore the coverage of anti-discrimination provisions to all airlines, the right to sue states for violations of Section 504, and the right of parents to recover attorney fees under the Education for Handicapped Children's Act (now called IDEA). Hence, these legislative victories further advanced the reputation of the disability community and its advocates in Congress. Working in coalition again, in 1988, the civil rights community amended the Fair Housing Act (FHA) to improve enforcement mechanisms, and for the first time disability anti- discrimination provisions were included in a traditional civil rights statute banning race discrimination. The ADA, as we know it today, went through numerous drafts, revisions, negotiations, and amendments since the first version was introduced in 1988. Spurred by a draft bill prepared by the National Council on Disability, an independent federal agency whose members were appointed by President Reagan, Senator Weicker and Representative Coelho introduced the first version of the ADA in April 1988 in the 100th Congress. The disability community began to educate people with disabilities about the ADA and to gather evidence to support the need for broad anti-discrimination protections. A national campaign was initiated to write "discrimination diaries." People with disabilities were asked to document daily instances of inaccessibility and discrimination. The first hearing in the 101st Senate on the new ADA was a historic event that set the tone for future hearings and lobbying efforts. It was kicked off by the primary sponsors talking about their personal experiences with disability. Senator Harkin spoke of his brother who is deaf, Senator Kennedy of his son, who has a leg amputation, and Representative Coelho, who has epilepsy, spoke about how the discrimination he faced almost destroyed him. The stories did not end in the hearing room. People with disabilities came from around the country to talk to members of Congress, to advocate for the Bill, to explain why each provision was necessary, to address a very real barrier or form of discrimination. People who

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues couldn't come to Washington told their stories in letters, attended town meetings and made endless phone calls. After the spectacular Senate vote of 76 to 8 on September 7, 1989, the Bill went to the House where it was considered by an unprecedented four Committees. Each Committee had at least one subcommittee hearing, and more amendments to be explained, lobbied and defeated. For every hearing the hearing room was full and for every proposed amendment to weaken the bill letters poured in and the halls of Congress was canvassed. As the effective date for Title III of the ADA covering Public Accommodations and Title II of the ADA covering State and Local Government were passed on January 26, 1992. As the effective date for the employment provisions in Title I of the ADA approach on July 26, 1992. ADA Title IV -Telecommunications ADA Title V - Miscellaneous Provisions. For the first time in the history of the country, and for the history of the world, businesses had to stop and think about access to people with disabilities. If the ADA means anything, it means that people with disabilities will no longer be out of sight and out of mind. The ADA is based on a basic presumption that people with disabilities want to work and are capable of working, want to be members of their communities and are capable of being members of their communities and that exclusion and segregation cannot be tolerated. Accommodating a person with a disability is no longer a matter of charity but instead a basic issue of civil rights. (Arlene Mayerson, 1992)

Social life of the persons with Disabilities in Georgia and in the US The U.S. (The 2010 statistics about the Distribution of disabled population by the U.S census bureau) There are 57 million people with a disability living in the United States. They represent 19 percent of the civilian non-institutionalized population. However, they are engaged in common life activities and are enjoying by the rights guaranteed by the constitution.

On the Job 41% -Percentage of people 21 to 64 with a disability are employed. 28% -Percentage of people 21 to 64 with severe disabilities are also employed. This compares with 71 percent for individuals with non-severe disabilities.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

Income and Poverty $1,577 -Median monthly earnings for people 21 to 64 with severe disabilities, while those with non-severe disabilities have median monthly earnings of $2,402, $2,838 - Median monthly earnings for people 21 to 64 with disabilities associated only with communication, including blindness or difficulty seeing, deafness or difficulty hearing, and difficulty having speech understood. 29% of people 15 to 64 with severe disabilities live in poverty, while 18% with non- severe disabilities are poor.

Program Participation 59% of people 15 to 64 with severe disabilities receive public assistance. 33% receive social security benefits, this compares with 9% with non-severe disabilities who receive Social Security benefits. 28% of adults with severe disabilities receive food stamp benefits, compared with 8 % for those with no disability. 11% of people 15 to 64 with severe disabilities receive public housing assistance. This compares with 9% of people 65 and older with severe disabilities.

Health Insurance 48% of adults 15 to 64 with severe disabilities receive government health coverage. 40% of adults 15 to 64 with severe disabilities have private health insurance coverage. 23%-Percentage of people with severe disabilities receives Medicare coverage. 35% of people 15 to 64 with severe disabilities receive Medicaid, while 9 % have dual coverage, receiving Medicare and Medicaid benefits. 21% of people 15 to 64 with severe disabilities are uninsured different from the 21% of those with non-severe disabilities.

Georgia (Overall Condition) Unfortunately, there are no statistics available about the employment number or about the social aids for the Georgian disabled people as we had in case of U.S. But, there are many challenges for people with disabilities to feel comfortable. However, every disabled person has the rights to participate in all the processes that are going on in the society. Disabilities caused by

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues illness, physical injury or born with it should not be discriminative. It is crucial to have a cognizance that disability is not only the physical problem, but the societal injustices and violation of the rights those people possesses. A disabled person frequently mentioned or called as an invalid is not correct, but offensive. The term invalid refers to the thing that is worthless or useless. The conditions of these people aren’t supposed to change if people won’t recognize and previse their conducts by which they are expelling disabled people from the society. Furthermore, the environment in which these persons are living throughout the country isn’t adapted for them. They are restricted in almost every activity to move and to live independently. Discrimination hurts, disabled people face so many obstacles in their daily lives that it automatically pushes them to alienation, and thereon nobody seems to care about it. It is true that there are some organizations in Georgia, for example Coalition for independent life, working on the problems of people with disabilities, but still there are many problematic issues to deal with. The main problems for disabled people are impediment movement in the streets and entrances to the public institutions. For example, any persons who use wheelchairs are forced to forego the choice of visiting locations which are inaccessible or blocked by architectural barriers. Generally, there are no conditions for them to cross the roads, to enter to the market, to the library or even to their apartments without the help of the others and if someone does it because of compassion. One may argue, that there are some facilities for them to enter the buildings or cross the roads by using the pedestrian bridges but it is far from reality while this ramps aren’t standardized they are so high and sloping that it is impossible for disabled people to move on it even if someone helps them, it seems to be more intended to transfer the baggage. Furthermore, there are no public transports available for them like it is in the United States or elsewhere. According to the (Regional Debates) the issue of social protection and welfare is also a common problem for disabled persons all over Georgia. Moreover, most of them are living in poverty, the social security benefits and health insurance in case of possession is too little to afford living properly. In Georgia the discrimination and isolation of these people is artificially created by the society, by government and by each of us. There is a quote of one Georgian disabled person (Discriminated in Ability and Right, 2011) “I don’t need compassion. I don’t

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues want people to free the way for me in bank queue or anywhere else because of my disability. I only want to live independently. Give me opportunity to get an education, to rest, to entertain, to work, to move and to have a normal relationship with other people. Government and the majority of people remember me only during some celebrations and it seems to be a charity and sometimes even mocking. We disabled people are afraid not to be discriminated even in the right to stay alive.”

Conclusion In conclusion, people with disabilities are part of our society. They are created by God, as they are called by some “God’s angels”. We all and especially government are responsible to provide them with all kind of necessities, to provide them with accessible education, convenient transports, employment, financial and healthcare aids. Furthermore, it is crucial if we people of every nation recognize that people with disabilities are like us, we shouldn’t mock at them, be afraid of them, and we must keep ourselves from attacking and violating their rights. We must defend them while they are frequent victims of rape and violence. All people should remember that they are humans, that the inferior social and economic status is not consequence of the disability itself, but the result of societal barriers and prejudices, that attitudes are the real disability.

References:

1. Disability Rights Education and Defense Fund Publication, The History of the ADA: A Movement Perspective by Arlene Mayerson, 1992, http://dredf.org/publications/ada_history.shtml

2. Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA), http://www.disabled- world.com/disability/ada/

3. The statistics come from “Americans with Disabilities: 2010” www.census.gov/prod/2012pubs/p70-131.pdf> http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/facts_for_features_special_editions/c b12-ff16.html

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

4. Internet Newspaper, Problems Disabled People Face in Georgia By Tamar Keshelava, Saerto Gazeti, http://saertogazeti.ge/s%2017-14.htmli

5. Areuli wordpress, Discriminated in Ability and Right, April 8, 2011 By unknown author http://areuli.wordpress.com/2011/04/08/shezgudulebi/

6. Employment of Persons with Disabilities: Past, Present and Future, 2008 By Peter Blanck, PhD, JD http://www.apa.org/pi/disability/resources/publications/newsletter/2008/08/employment.a spx

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

Terrorism as an Effective Media PR Stunt

(US case)

Abstract NANA PARINOS

Mainly Terrorism is defined as “the calculated use of unlawful violence or threat of unlawful violence to inculcate fear; intended to coerce or to intimidate governments or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political, religious, or ideological. Nowadays the United States of America is one of the targets of the most terrible world known terrorist attacks. This is not the first conflict in which America has faced such deprivations against life and property. Terrorism has not been a stranger to the American History in early days. There was another time when it was determined that diplomacy would not only be futile, but humiliating and in the long run disastrous. Who encouraged terrorism? Where is the border between just news and PR? The major reason is in media. Terrorism became widely reported. Since the Vietnam War, the media have changed the way in which news gets to the public. Media is the first weapon of controlling terrorism. In other words, terrorism is used by relatively weak groups to create a relatively large amount of noise. “If you look at terrorism as a PR stunt, which it is, the logical conclusion would be that if the media stopped publicizing terrorist acts, they would become useless. Media earns a lot of money by reporting news in details do not thinking about consequences. Society must be informed but not in that way. Money is very important but peace much more.

 Graduate Student, Faculty of Humanities, Direction of American Studies, Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

Terrorism as an Effective Media PR Stunt

(US case)

NANA PARINOS

The United States Department of Defense defines terrorism as “the calculated use of unlawful violence or threat of unlawful violence to inculcate fear; intended to coerce or to intimidate governments or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political, religious, or ideological.” Within this definition, there are three key elements—violence, fear, and intimidation—and each element produces terror in its victims. The FBI uses this: "Terrorism is the unlawful use of force and violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives." The U.S. Department of State defines "terrorism" to be "premeditated politically- motivated violence perpetrated against non-combatant targets by sub-national groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience (What is Terrorism? http://www.terrorism-research.com/). Nowadays the United States of America is one of the targets of the most terrible world known terrorist attacks. The events of September 11, 2001 shocked the United States out of its complacency concerning its invulnerability. Even though the U.S. has the most powerful military machine on earth, it might be of little avail; American government investigated the matter and declared Osama Bin Laden as the prime suspect and started War against Terrorism (Jewett. T: Terrorism in Early America). This is not the first conflict in which America has faced such deprivations against life and property. Terrorism has not been a stranger to the American History in early days. There was another time when it was determined that diplomacy would not only be futile, but humiliating and in the long run disastrous. A time when ransom or tribute would not buy peace. A time when

 Graduate Student, Faculty of Humanities, Direction of American Studies, Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues war was considered more effective and honorable. And, a time when war would be fought, not with large concentrations of military might, but by small bands peopled with individuals of indomitable spirit. Almost 180 years ago US attacked Tripoli under circumstances that are eerily similar to contemporary times. That conflict, immortalized in the Marine Corps Hymn, "From the Halls of Montezuma to the shores of Tripoli" called the Tripolitan War or the Barbary Pirate War, came shortly after the United States gained independence from England. The United States chose to fight the pirates of Barbary, rather than pay tribute, as did all the other nations who traded in the Mediterranean Sea. The decision was bold, but the eventual victory by the tiny United States Navy broke a pattern of international blackmail and terrorism dating back more than one hundred and fifty years (The American Heritage Encyclopedia of American History, 2002). The main target of terrorism is to be worldwide. Terrorism attacks in the Unites States began 180 years ago but it became more popular in 1960s. What was the reason? Who encouraged terrorism? Where is the border between just news and PR? Between responsibility and benefit? The major reason is in media. Terrorism became widely reported. Since the Vietnam War, the media have changed the way in which news gets to the public. The largest shift occurred from print news to video and electronic news sources, including the rise of the blogosphere and online news sources, along with a concomitant shift from hard to soft news (Hook, Chapter 9). The institution of the media is closely connected to the shaping and manipulating of public opinion. The news media acts as both a government watchdog and a source of information and analysis. They often “set the stage” for the mass public and public officials through interviews, stories, and special reports. The news media’s role in a democracy is often in conflict with the marketplace, as large media organizations and conglomerates are geared toward profits and ratings. These mixed goals present a number of obstacles and problems. The Internet and global news organizations are also primary and growing means for the public to receive information and voice opinions about foreign policy, bringing forth concerns about cyber terrorism and other disconnects (Hook, Chapter 9).

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues Media exposure may be a primary goal of those carrying out terrorism, to expose issues that would otherwise be ignored by the media. Some consider this to be manipulation and exploitation of the media (Hook, Chapter 9). The internet has created a new channel for groups to spread their messages. This has created a cycle of measures and counter measures by groups in support of and in opposition to terrorist movements. The United Nations has created its own online counter-terrorism resource. The mass media will, on occasion, censor organizations involved in terrorism (through self-restraint or regulation) to discourage further terrorism. However, this may encourage organizations to perform more extreme acts of terrorism to be shown in the mass media. Conversely James F. Pastor explains the significant relationship between terrorism and the media, and the underlying benefit each receives from the other. “There is always a point at which the terrorist ceases to manipulate the media gestalt. A point at which the violence may well escalate, but beyond which the terrorist has become symptomatic of the media gestalt itself. Terrorism as we ordinarily understand it is innately media-related”, (Novelist William Gibson). By hijacking a plane with a few hundred passengers on board, terrorists deliver a message to all people in a foreign country. By blowing up a building and killing scores of people, terrorists demonstrate that they can arbitrarily take the lives of innocent people. And what did media do? They helped them to send the message, helped them to make people scared much more of their attacks. Some of us believe that terrorism is something that can not be controlled, just like poverty, discrimination and crime, which is just there. But that’s wrong attitude towards terrorism. Media is the first weapon of controlling terrorism. In other words, according to Rebecca Rachmany terrorism is used by relatively weak groups to create a relatively large amount of noise. How do they create this noise? By doing something sensational and using the media to get the word out that you should be scared of them and/or listen to them (Rachmany, PR 101). “If you look at terrorism as a PR stunt, which it is, the logical conclusion would be that if the media stopped publicizing terrorist acts, they would become useless. It’s somewhat radical to say “newspapers should stop publicizing terrorist attacks.” But they should. They could publicize

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues some details, for example, there’s some police activity holding up the trains. That’s it. (Rachmany, PR 101). According to Noam Chomsky (http://www.goodreads.com): “Everyone’s worried about stopping terrorism. Well, there’s really an easy way: Stop participating in it”

Conclusion We came to the conclusion and found out where was the problem. The problem is in the way how media reports the news and not in the media itself. Society must be informed but not in that way. We are not talking about the limits on media reporting we are just talking about the right form of delivering information to the public in order to avoid further terrorism encouragement. “Every time you express your outrage at the latest terrorist attack, you are encouraging the next one”. (Rachmany, PR 101). Terrorism is a PR stunt which cannot exist without media; it’s absolutely media-related. So we have the main weapon and elaborated tactics to act. Media earns a lot of money by reporting news in details do not thinking about consequences. Money is very important but peace much more. Our main target is to stop our participation in terrorism attacks. No media reporting, no interest in society, no terrorism. The terrorist would lose that battle. No publicity, no fear” (Rachmany, PR 101) So media should think a little bit before doing something as they must remember that they are responsible for human lives.

References: 1. Jewett. T., Terrorism In Early America, The U.S. Wages War Against The Barbary States To End International Blackmail and Terrorism (http://www.earlyamerica.com/review/2002_winter_spring/terrorism.htm)

2. Rachmany, R., PR 101, or How to Stop Terrorism (http://rebeccarachmany.com/2012/02/pr-101-or-how-to-stop-terrorism/)

3. Hook, S., US Foreign Policy-The Paradox of World Power, Chapter 9 (http://college.cqpress.com/sites/hook/Home/chapter8.aspx)

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

4. The American Heritage Encyclopedia of American History: The First American Barbary War (http://www.americanhistorycentral.com/entry.php?rec=468)

5. Laquer, W., The new terrorism: Fanatism and the arms of mass destruction. N.Y: Oxford univ. press, 1999

6. Albritton, J. S., The Technique of Terrorism, Department of Political Science & Criminal Justice, North Georgia College & State University, Forum on Public Policy, 2006

7. Bergen, Peter, Holy War, Inc.: Inside the Secret World of Osama bin Laden (NY: Free Press, 2001).

8. Crenshaw, M., The Causes of Terrorism, Comparative Politics, Vol. 13, No. 4 (Jul., 1981), Published by: Ph.D. Program in Political Science of the City University of New York

9. Carruthers, Susan L., Winning Hearts and Minds: British Governments, the Media and Colonial Counter-Insurgency 1944-1960. London and New York: Leicester University Press, 1995.

10. Scott M. Doran, Somebody Else’s Civil War// Foreign Affairs.- N.Y., 2002

11. Chomsky Noam, “Everyone’s worried about stopping terrorism. Well, there’s really an easy way: Stop participating in it.” (http://www.goodreads.com)

12. What is Terrorism? (http://www.terrorism-research.com/)

13. PANTHER MODERN'S EYES (http://williamgibsonblog.blogspot.com/2004_10_01_archive.html)

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

Privacy Rights in the United States and in Georgia

NINO DANELIA

Introduction The Constitution does not explicitly guarantee any "right to privacy". Over time, however, courts have established some privacy rights. Three legal bases for privacy rights: privacy torts, explicit guarantees of aspects of privacy, and implicit guarantees of broader privacy rights. Americans assume that it is one of the rights they possess as Americans. But the right to privacy is more difficult to define, and less explicitly protected than other rights guaranteed to them. In addition to the Constitution's expressed protections of certain aspects of privacy, the Supreme Court has also held that there are additional privacy rights implied within the Constitution. Since the early twentieth century, the Court has recognized certain zones of privacy that hover around the more precisely suggested guarantees within the Bill of Rights. In a series of cases that ranged from school choice to marital choice, from the right of married couples to decide what language to teach their children to their right to decide whether or not to use contraceptives, the Court has held that a fundamental and somewhat fluid right to privacy is protected under the Constitution. The understanding of privacy rights has been given broader application by the Court's conclusion that these rights are also a liberty claim. This means that privacy is one of those fundamental liberties guaranteed to Americans under the Fourteenth Amendment. The identification of privacy as a liberty claim has meant that the states, as well as the federal government, may not violate this more comprehensive understanding of privacy without violating the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.

 Senior Student, Faculty of Humanities, Direction of American Studies, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

The Federal Privacy Act It is a rare individual who has managed to keep at least some of their personal information from being stored in a US Federal government database. Doing just about anything will get your name and numbers recorded. Here are just few examples: Gotten a Social Security Card; gotten a paycheck; Filed a tax return; Registered for the draft; Served in the Military; Applied for or gotten a government loan; Received Social Security or VA benefits; Worked or contracted for the Federal Government. The Privacy Act of 1974 regulates what personal information the Federal Government can collect about private individuals and how that information can be used. Under the Privacy Act you have the right to: See the information the Government has about you, subject to the Act's exemptions. Change or delete any information that is incorrect, irrelevant, untimely, or incomplete. Sue the Government for violations of the Act, including allowing others unauthorized access to your personal information. Much like the Freedom of Information Act, the Privacy Act provides a legal process for accessing personal information. The Privacy Act does not apply to all government information or agencies. Only Executive Branch agencies fall under the Privacy Act. In addition, you may only request information or records that can be retrieved by your name, Social Security number, or some other personal identifier. For example: You cannot request information regarding your participation in a private club or organization unless the agency indexes and can retrieve the information by your name or other personal identifiers. As with the Freedom of Information Act, the government can withhold certain information "exempted" under the Privacy Act. Examples include information concerning national security or criminal investigations. Another commonly used Privacy Act exemption protects records that might identify an agency's source of confidential information. For Example: If you apply for a job in the CIA, you would probably not be allowed to find out the names of people the CIA interviewed in regard to your background.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

Patriot Act The USA PATRIOT Act (commonly known as the Patriot Act) is an Act of the U.S. Congress that was signed into law by President George W. Bush on October 26, 2001. The title of the act is a ten letter backronym (USA PATRIOT) that stands for Uniting (and) Strengthening America (by) Providing Appropriate Tools Required (to) Intercept (and) Obstruct Terrorism Act of 2001. During the post-war period in Georgia, in 2008, the member of the parliament, George Tortladze, proposed the Patriot Act, which actually duplicated American Patriot Act. This act was not passed in Georgia. The purpose of the USA PATRIOT Act is to deter and punish terrorist acts in the United States and around the world, to enhance law enforcement investigatory tools, and other purposes, some of which include: To strengthen U.S. measures to prevent, detect and prosecute international money laundering and financing of terrorism; To subject to special scrutiny foreign jurisdictions, foreign financial institutions, and classes of international transactions or types of accounts that are susceptible to criminal abuse; To require all appropriate elements of the financial services industry to report potential money laundering; To strengthen measures to prevent use of the U.S. financial system for personal gain by corrupt foreign officials and facilitate repatriation of stolen assets to the citizens of countries to whom such assets belong. The act, as a response to the terrorist attacks of September 11th, significantly reduced restrictions in law enforcement agencies' gathering of intelligence within the United States; expanded the Secretary of the Treasury’s authority to regulate financial transactions, particularly those involving foreign individuals and entities; and broadened the discretion of law enforcement and immigration authorities in detaining and deporting immigrants suspected of terrorism-related acts. The act also expanded the definition of terrorism to include domestic terrorism, thus enlarging the number of activities to which the USA PATRIOT Act’s expanded law enforcement powers can be applied.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

Opponents of the law have criticized its authorization of indefinite detentions of immigrants; searches through which law enforcement officers search a home or business without the owner’s or the occupant’s permission or knowledge; the expanded use of National Security Letters, which allows the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) to search telephone, e-mail, and financial records without a court order, and the expanded access of law enforcement agencies to business records, including library and financial records. Since its passage, several legal challenges have been brought against the act, and Federal courts have ruled that a number of provisions are unconstitutional. This Act is controversial. On one hand, it protects people from criminals, terrorists. On the other hand, it violates people’s right to privacy. Due to its controversial nature, a number of bills were proposed to amend the USA PATRIOT Act. These included the Protecting the Rights of Individuals Act, the Benjamin Franklin True Patriot Act, and the Security and Freedom Ensured Act (SAFE), none of which passed. In late January 2003, the founder of the Center for Public Integrity, Charles Lewis, published a leaked draft copy of an Administration proposal titled the Domestic Security Enhancement Act of 2003. This highly controversial document was quickly dubbed "PATRIOT II" or "Son of PATRIOT" by the media and organizations such as the Electronic Frontier Foundation. The draft, which was circulated to 10 divisions of the Department of Justice, proposed to make further extensive modifications to extend the USA PATRIOT Act. It was widely condemned, although the Department of Justice claimed that it was only a draft and contained no further proposals. On May 26, 2011, President Barack Obama used an Autopen to sign a four-year extension of three key provisions in the USA PATRIOT Act while he was in France: roving wiretaps, searches of business records (the "library records provision"), and conducting surveillance of "lone wolves" — individuals suspected of terrorist-related activities not linked to terrorist groups. Republican leaders questioned if the use of the Autopen met the constitutional requirements for signing a bill into law.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

Constitutional Privacy Framework in Georgia The Constitution of Georgia guarantees the right to privacy in Article 20 of the Constitution. This article sets out guarantees against arbitrary search and seizures. Article 20 states: (1) Everyone's private life, place of personal activity, personal records, correspondence, communication by telephone or other technical means, as well as messages received through technical means shall be inviolable. Restriction of the aforementioned rights shall be permissible by a court decision or also without such decision in the case of the urgent necessity provided for by law; (2) No one shall have the right to enter the house and other possessions against the will of possessors, or conduct search unless there is a court decision or the urgent necessity provided for by law. Despite constitutional guarantees, there is no precise legislation for the protection of privacy or personal information. The Civil Code of Georgia, which entered into force in 1997, recognizes right to privacy, as a civil law tort. The code includes a very general article stating that a person may demand retraction of information invading into his/her private life: "A person is entitled to demand in court the retraction of information that defames his honor, dignity, privacy, personal inviolability or business reputation unless the person who has disseminated such information can prove that it corresponds to the true state of affairs. The same rule applies to the incomplete dissemination of facts, if such dissemination defames the honor, dignity or business reputation of a person." Georgia has adopted laws on access to government-held information. Although the laws provide right of access consistent with international standards, in reality access is often hampered by resistance from officials, lack of external oversight, broad exemptions, and poor implementation.

Wiretapping and Surveillance Rules Law enforcement wiretapping, search, seizure and electronic surveillance authority is regulated by Law of Georgia on Operative and Investigative Activities adopted in 1999. Aims of the operative and investigative activities are listed in Article 2: prevention and detection of crime; detection of person who fled prosecution; detection of property gained by illegal action,

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues detection of lost persons and gathering of evidence for criminal prosecution. Activities covered by the law and relevant for privacy issues are: gathering of information and visual surveillance, seizure of correspondence, wiretapping and covert eavesdropping, seizure and control of electronic correspondence and electronic surveillance. A warrant from a judge is only required for wiretapping, seizure and control of electronic correspondence and electronic surveillance. In cases of urgency, a warrant is not required; however, a judge should be notified within 48 hours. The judge may approve or disprove of the measure and order the destruction of information acquired. The decision of the judge is final and there are no mechanisms to challenge the legality of the measure. Privacy claims are very rare in Georgian courts. They started to appear in 2001. Most of those claims are dealt with under the Civil Code, which includes provisions for the protection of privacy. An amendment to the Criminal Code added the crime of cyber terrorism. Cyber terrorism is defined as “illegal acquisition of computer information protected by law, its use or threat of use, which poses the threat of grave results, and violates public security, state strategic, political or economic interest, committed with the purpose of coercing the population and/or influencing the state agency.” The crime is punishable with imprisonment for 10 to 15 years. The same activity resulting in death or other grave consequences is punishable with imprisonment from 10 to 20 years or a life sentence.

Conclusion Overall, I’d like to say that the right to privacy is important because it has to do with ourselves. We have the right to decide what parts of ourselves to share with others, to be as public or as private as we desire. Moreover, the right to privacy is an intimate right in that we have the right to restrict others access to our most personal information and activities. The right to privacy and privacy acts contradict one another. On one hand, they protect people from criminals, terrorists; on the other hand, those acts violate people’s right to privacy. So the medal has two sides. In the era of the Internet, social networks, our rights to privacy don’t seem to be protected. The social network Facebook is one of the best sources to control people.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

Our personal information on Facebook is available to everyone, not only in our country, but all around the world. So, it’s difficult to protect privacy rights in the epoch of the Internet.

References:

1. The Right of Privacy - The Issue: Does the Constitution protect the right of privacy? If so, what aspects of privacy receive protection? http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/conlaw/rightofprivacy.html

2. Your Right Of Privacy - Where Is It Written? http://netsecurity.about.com/od/newsandeditorial1/a/aaprivacyrights.htm

3. Where is the right to privacy found in the US Constitution? http://answers.com/Q/Where_is_the_right_to_privacy_found_in_the_US_Constitution

4. USA PATRIOT Act http://www.fincen.gov/statutes_regs/patriot/

5. The USA PATRIOT Act: Preserving Life and Liberty http://www.justice.gov/archive/ll/highlights.htm

6. Privacy and Human Rights Report http://www.worldlii.org/int/journals/EPICPrivHR/2006/PHR2006-Republic-10.html

7. Your Right to Privacy (July 17, 2003) http://www.aclu.org/technology-and-liberty/your-right-privacy

8. The Federal Privacy Act http://usgovinfo.about.com/library/weekly/aa121299a.htm

9. Privacy Act of 1974, as amended http://www.ftc.gov/foia/privacy_act.shtm

10. Surveillance Under the USA PATRIOT Act (December 10, 2010) http://www.aclu.org/national-security/surveillance-under-usa-patriot-act

11. Supreme Court Decisions on Privacy http://atheism.about.com/library/decisions/indexes/bldec_PrivacyIndex.htm

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

Special Protection for Older Americans

TAMAR BERIDZE

Introduction Older people can be athletes, statesmen, innovators, entrepreneurs, caregivers, activists and they can teach, inspire, influence, lead, innovate and create. One would think that employers would be happy to have experienced, older workers on the payroll. Unfortunately, this is not always the case in today's job market. With the “graying” of America, age discrimination has become one of the fasting growing types of employment discrimination claims in the U.S. Jack London said:”Age is never so old as youth would measure it.”

Special Protection for Older Americans Americas are getting older. About half the populations living in colonial times were under the age of sixteen. By 2000, fewer than one in four Americans were under the age of sixteen. The “aging of America” is a weaker phenomenon than in many other wealthy countries, however. Today, the median age of the population is thirty-seven in the United States. By 2050, the median age in the United States is expected to rise slightly, to thirty-nine. As a result, the government will be under pressure to revise the social security system. The larger number of older persons will strain health-care budgets. Not only do older persons require more medical care, but we can expect that advance in medical science will cause the demand for medical services to rise in the future. Older citizens face a variety of other difficulties. One of the main problems is age discrimination in employment. (Barbara A. Bardes, Mack C. Shelley, Steffen W. Schmidt)

 Senior Student, Faculty of Humanities, Direction of American Studies, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

Age Discrimination in Employment Employment discrimination happens when a job seeker or an employee is treated unfavorably because of his or her race, skin color, national origin, gender, disability, religion, or age. The unstated policies of some companies not to hire or to remote or dismiss people they feel are” too old” have made it difficult for some older workers to succeed in their jobs or continue with their careers. Additionally, older workers have fallen victim at times to cost-cutting efforts by employers. To reduce operational cost, companies may replace older, high-salaried workers with younger, lower-salaried workers.

Older Americans Act of 1965 In 1965, Congress enacted the Older Americans Act, which established the U.S. Administration on Aging (AoA) and state agencies on aging to address the social services needs of older people. The Act is considered the major vehicle for promoting the delivery of social services to the aging population. Its mission is broad: to help older people maintain maximum independence in their homes and communities and to promote a continuum of care for the vulnerable elderly. In successive amendments, Congress authorized targeted programs to respond to specific needs of the older population. Considering the broad sweep of services included in its mission, the Act’s reach is constrained by modest resources. Authorization for the Act’s programs expired at the end of fiscal year (FY) 2011. Congress appropriated funds to support the Act’s programs for FY 2012 in the FY 2012 Consolidated Appropriations Act. (Carol V. O'Shaughnessy, FEBRUARY 23, 2012)

Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 The Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) forbids public and private employers to engage in discrimination in employment on the basis of age against persons over the age of forty. Employers cannot refuse to hire people over the age of forty, fire employees simply because they are too old, or make distinctions among employees on the basis of age.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues The ADEA grew out of the congressional debate on Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibits discrimination in employment on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. Instead of including age as one of the categories in the 1964 Civil Rights Act, Congress directed the secretary of labor to study the issues and then to submit specific proposals for prohibiting age discrimination. President Lyndon Johnson delivered a special message to Congress concerning older Americans. Congress found that older workers were disadvantaged in their efforts to regain employment when displaced from jobs that arbitrary age limits were commonplace, and that unemployment adversely affected the skill, morale, and employer acceptability of older workers. It also found, however, that age discrimination was rarely based on the sort of hostility behind other forms of discrimination, such as race or gender. Instead, it was based on stereotypes about older workers that were often unsupported by objective facts. In response, Congress passed the ADEA in 1967 to promote the employment of older workers and to prohibit arbitrary age policies in employment. The ADEA, as initially passed, did not address one of the major problems facing older workers-mandatory retirement rules, which require employees to retire when they reach a certain age. Mandatory retirement rules often mean that competent, well-trained employees who want to continue working are unable to do so. In 1978, in an amendment to the ADEA, Congress prohibited mandatory retirement rules for most employees under the age of 70. In 1986, Congress outlawed mandatory retirement rules entirely for all but a few selected occupations, such as firefighting.

Pensions in the United States In the United States, employers play a key role in helping workers save for retirement. About half of all privately employed people and most government employees are covered by some type of pension plan. Employers are not required to sponsor pension plans, but the government encourages them to do so by offering generous tax breaks if they establish and contribute to employee pensions. The amount of money available to employees upon retirement, then, depends on how much has been contributed and how successfully the employees invest their own the funds. The federal government administers several types of pension plans for its employees, including members of

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues the military and civil service as well as disabled war veterans. But the most important pension system run by the government is the Social Security program, which provides full benefits to working people who retire and apply for benefits at age 65 or older, or reduced benefits to those retiring and applying for benefits between the ages of 62 and 65. Although the program is run by a federal agency, the Social Security Administration, its funds come from employers and employees through payroll taxes. Many people generally those who are self-employed, those whose employers do not provide a pension, and those who believe their pension plans inadequate also can save part of their income in special tax-favored accounts known as Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs) and Keogh plans. ("Outline of the U.S. Economy" by Conte and Carr)

What is a cash balance plan? There are two general types of pension plans — defined benefit plans and defined contribution plans. In general, defined benefit plans provide a specific benefit at retirement for each eligible employee, while defined contribution plans specify the amount of contributions to be made by the employer toward an employee's retirement account. In a defined contribution plan, the actual amount of retirement benefits provided to an employee depends on the amount of the contributions as well as the gains or losses of the account.

Georgia Age discrimination had been detected in Georgia in last two decades. This tendency can be easily observed while reading job advertisements. Mostly under the age thirty is required and privileged is given to person between twenty-one to thirty. In Georgia there are a lot of older people, who are limited to certain functions. That’s why, they need our help and support to not feel themselves lonely. Also, there are several non- governmental organizations, which take care of the elderly. There are as boarding houses, as well as humanitarian aid for the elderly. The increased unemployment and age discrimination made many older professionals unemployed. No one suppose to take elderly to work, despite its high level of professionalism. For example: older person who has higher education as a scientist, now are working as street cleaners or other low cost job to support his family.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues I think it is necessary to enact age discrimination act in Georgia. It will defend Georgian job market and help to retire experienced professionals, whose many years working experience and knowledge pave the way young generation. This also bridge generation gap in Georgia and will built a solid foundation for the country development.

Conclusion Finally, discrimination should be avoided at all costs and at all places whether it is private sector or public sector. Various states have also framed their own laws and regulations against age discrimination in employments issues. This is to underscore the importance given to protect people from facing unhealthy and discriminatory practices at workplace. Moreover if you are an employer, it is your duty to provide an atmosphere free of discrimination against age.

References:

1. American Government and Politics Today: THE ESSENTIALS./Publisher-Clark Baxter

2. http://economics.about.com/od/laborinamerica/a/pensions.htm

3. http://www.dol.gov/ebsa/FAQs/faq_consumer_cashbalanceplans.html#.UKIvA-Q09Eo

4. http://www.nhpf.org/library/the-basics/Basics_OlderAmericansAct_02-23-12.pdf

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

Religion in the United States SALOME GVICHIANI

Religion in the United States is characterized by a diversity of religious beliefs and practices. Many faiths have flourished in the United States, including faiths that span the country's multicultural immigrant heritage, as well as those founded within the country: these have led the United States to become one of the most religiously diverse countries in the world. A majority of Americans report that religion plays a "very important" role in their lives, a proportion unique among developed nations. (Buck, Christopher (2009)

Overview From early colonial days, when some English and German settlers came in search of religious freedom, America has been profoundly influenced by religion. That influence continues in American culture, social life, and politics. Several of the original Thirteen Colonies were established by settlers who wished to practice their own religion within a community of like- minded people: the Massachusetts Bay Colony was established by English Puritans (Congregationalists), Pennsylvania by British Quakers, Maryland by English Catholics, and Virginia by English Anglicans. The text of the First Amendment to the country's Constitution states that "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances." It guarantees the free exercise of religion while also preventing the government from establishing a state religion. The Supreme Court has also interpreted this as preventing the government from having any authority in religion.

 Junior Student, Faculty of Humanities, Direction of American Studies, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues The majority of Americans (73%) identify themselves as Christians (belief in the teaching of Jesus Christ) and about 20% have no religious affiliation. According to the American Religious Identification Survey (ARIS), those who identify themselves as Catholics make up about 25% of the adult population, while "other Christians" account for another 51%. The same survey says that other religions (including, for example, Judaism, Buddhism, Islam, and Hinduism) collectively make up about 4% of the adult population, another 15% of the adult population claims no religious affiliation, and 5.2% said they did not know, or they refused to reply. Among the non-Christian religions, Judaism is the largest, with roughly 2% of the population. In addition, the U.S.A has a great variety of other religions, including about 5million Muslims, nearly 2million Buddhists, and 800.000 Hindus. American are proud of their nation’s religious diversity and of the religious freedom that all enjoy.

Christianity Christianity (from the Ancient Greek: Χριστιανός Christianos and the Latin suffix -itas) is a monotheistic and Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus). The mainstream Christian belief is that Jesus is the Son of God, fully divine and fully human and the savior of humanity. Because of this, Christians commonly refer to Jesus as Christ or Messiah. American Christians are divided into many different groups, including Roman Catholic (The term "catholic" is derived from the Greek word καθολικός (katholikos) meaning "universal" and was first used to describe the Church in the early 2nd century) it is the world's largest Christian church, with more than one billion members worldwide. It is among the oldest institutions in the world and has played a prominent role in the history of Western civilisation. The Catholic hierarchy is led by the Pope and includes cardinals, patriarchs and diocesan bishops. Eastern Orthodox churches("Orthodox”, from Greek orthos ("right", "true", "straight") + doxa ("opinion" or "belief", related to dokein, "to think") was adopted by the Church in order to distinguish itself from what was becoming a larger and larger body of non-orthodox Christian denominations. is the second largest Christian church in the world, with an estimated 300 million adherents. It is the religious denomination of the majority of the populations of Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova, Georgia, Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Cyprus

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues and hundreds of different Protestant denominations and sects. The largest Protestant groups are the The Southern Baptist Convention (SBC) is a United States-based Christian denomination. It is the world's largest Baptist denomination and the largest Protestant body in the United States, with over 16 million members as of 2010.. This also makes it the second largest Christian body in the United States, after the Catholic Church. Most early Baptists in the British colonies came from England in the 17th century, after the established Church of England persecuted them for their dissenting religious views. The United Methodist Church (was formed in 1968 by a merger of the Methodist Church and The Evangelical United Brethren Church) and the National Baptist Convention. Christianity began as a Jewish sect in the mid-1st century. Originating in the Levant region of the Middle East (modern Israel and Palestine), it quickly spread to Syria, Mesopotamia, Asia Minor and Egypt. As of the early 21st century, Christianity has approximately 2.2 billion adherents. Christianity represents about a third of the world's population and is the world's largest religion. Christianity is the state religion of several countries. Among all Christians, 37.5% live in the Americas, 25.7% live in Europe, 22.5% live in Africa, 13.1% live in Asia, 1.2% live in Oceania and 0.9% live in the Middle East. Christianity has played a prominent role in shaping of Western civilization. (Allen, James B. (1966))

Islam American Islam effectively began with the arrival of African slaves. It is estimated that about 10% of African slaves transported to the United States were Muslim. Most, however, became Christians, and significant Muslim numbers awaited the arrival of immigrant populations from Arabic and East Asian Muslim areas. Islam gained a higher profile through the Nation of Islam, a religious group that appealed to black Americans after the 1940s; its prominent converts included Malcolm X and Muhammad Ali. The first Muslim elected in Congress was Keith Ellison in 2006, followed by Andre Carson in 2008. Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable and the purpose of existence is to love and serve God. Muslims also believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a primordial faith that was revealed at many times and places before, including through Abraham, Moses and Jesus, whom they consider prophets. The majority of Muslims are Sunni, being 75–90% of all Muslims. The second largest sect, Shia,

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues makes up 10–20%. The most populous Muslim-majority country is Indonesia home to 12.7% of the world's Muslims followed by Pakistan (11.0%), Bangladesh (9.2%), and Egypt (4.9%). Sizable minorities are also found in India, China, Russia, and parts of Europe. With about 1.6 to 1.7 billion followers or 22 to 24% of earth's population, slam is the second-largest and one of the fastest-growing religions in the world. Research indicates that Muslims in the US are generally more assimilated and prosperous than Muslims in Europe. Surveys also suggest, however, that they are less assimilated than other American subcultural and religious communities, especially after the 9/11 terrorist attacks. Like other subcultural and religious communities, the Islamic community has generated its own political organizations and charity organizations. (Shipps, Jan (2000))

Faith and food Fact Files – Muslim Which ingredients are forbidden? • Pork, lard or any porcine substance • Gelatine from animal source which is not halal • Meat that is not slaughtered in the prescribed Islamic way • Meat coming from a lawful animal which died before slaughter • Blood (direct or indirect) • Any food or drink with alcohol in it (all intoxicant and hazardous drinks) • Any human substance or part • All carnivorous animals and birds of prey

What are the main laws or beliefs relating to food? Eating is a matter of faith in Islam. Muslim dietary practice is fundamentally about obeying God. All practicing Muslim believers obey God Almighty by eating the allowed foods (halal) and avoiding the forbidden foods (haram) which are mentioned in the Qur’an and in the sayings of the final prophet Muhammad (Peace Be Upon Him). It is important to eat only when you are hungry. When you do eat, you should not eat in excess. As advised by the Prophet, one should divide his / her stomach into 3 parts - a third each for food, fluid, and respiration. Remember the hungry when you eat. One could avoid going to hell by feeding a hungry dying person or animal.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues Halal pure healthy meat, chicken, fish, milk, olive oil and honey are highly recommended in Islam.

Muslim Clothing: Modern Traditions for women If you live in the West, or in a westernized country, it’s often difficult to wear traditional Muslim clothing. You may feel as if everyone is staring at you, which defeats the purpose of women’s Muslim clothing: to allow women to be modest and discreet. However, there are ways to maintain tradition and still be modern and ordinary enough to satisfy modesty. The hijab is vital to the Muslim woman. It covers her hair for modesty’s sake, and it gives her a constant reminder to be pure in the name of God. The hijab is the only unusual requirement of a woman's dress. The Quran specifies that a woman should be modest and cover everything but her face and hands; it does not specify that you should wear abaya and veil, which is guaranteed to make you stand out in Western society. That leaves a lot of leeway. Wearing hijab and ensuring nothing shows but your hands and your face are enough to satisfy Muslim restrictions in clothing if you are a woman; but some women, even in the West, choose to veil their faces with the bashiya and the niqab. And though it’s not necessary according to the Quran, many women also choose to wear black because it’s so traditional a color for outer women’s clothing in Muslim countries. Traditional Muslim wedding clothing can be very expensive. A Muslim matrimonial dress may have thousands of hand-sewn glass beads and be shipped in from India or Pakistan. And there are other expenses, like henna painting, that can get quite expensive.

Judaism After Christianity, Judaism (is the religion, philosophy and way of life of the Jewish people) it is the next largest religious affiliation in the US, though this identification is not necessarily indicative of religious beliefs or practices. A significant number of people identify themselves as American Jews on ethnic and cultural grounds, rather than religious ones. For example, 19% of self-identified American Jews believe God does not exist. The 2001 ARIS study projected from its sample that there are about 5.3 million adults in the American Jewish population: 2.83 million adults (1.4% of the U.S. adult population) are estimated to be adherents of Judaism; 1.08 million are estimated to be adherents of no religion; and 1.36 million are estimated to be adherents of a

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues religion other than Judaism. ARIS 2008 estimated about 2.68 million people (1.2%) in the country identify Judaism as their faith. Jews have been present in what is now the US since the 17th century, though large scale immigration did not take place until the 19th century, largely as a result of persecutions in parts of Eastern Europe. According to the 2001 National Jewish Population Survey, 4.3 million American Jewish adults have some sort of strong connection to the Jewish community, whether religious or cultural. Jewishness is generally considered an ethnic identity as well as a religious one. Among the 4.3 million American Jews described as "strongly connected" to Judaism, over 80% have some sort of active engagement with Judaism, ranging from attendance at daily prayer services on one end of the spectrum to attending Passover Seders or lighting Hanukkah candles on the other. The survey also discovered that Jews in the Northeast and Midwest are generally more observant than Jews in the South or West. Reflecting a trend also observed among other religious groups, Jews in the Northwestern United States are typically the least observant. Among American Jews actively observing their faith, 33% belong to Orthodox synagogues, 32% are affiliated with the Conservative tradition, 28% belong to Reform congregations, 3% are Reconstructionists, and 4% belong to some other tradition.

Judaism and Sexuality Traditionally, Judaism only approves of sex between a husband and wife. The first commandment in the Torah is "Be fruitful and multiply," and procreation is one of the reasons that sex is considered holy. Contraception is problematic because it interferes with the religious obligation to procreate; nonetheless, it is not absolutely prohibited. Traditional sources on sex tend to address men only, and the Talmud understands the commandment to procreate as a legal obligation specifically for men. Thus Jewish authorities are more lenient with female contraception, like the birth control pill.

Food Restrictions and Allergies • No pork and shellfish • Fish is acceptable as long as it has fins and scales • All animals with split hooves and which chew the cud (including sheep and cows)

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

• Refrain from eating meat and dairy products at the same meal • No wine, unless it’s kosher wine • All meat has to be prepared by a qualified kosher butcher (SHOCHET) • If meat was eaten in the same day, one must wait six hours before consuming any dairy products

Buddhism Buddhism(is a religion indigenous to the Indian subcontinent that encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs, and practices largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, who is commonly known as the Buddha (meaning "the awakened one" in Sanskrit and Pāli). entered the US during the 19th century with the arrival of the first immigrants from Eastern Asia. The first Buddhist temple was established in San Francisco in 1853 by Chinese Americans. During the late 19th century Buddhist missionaries from Japan came to the US. Simultaneously to these processes, US intellectuals started to take interest in Buddhism. The first prominent US citizen to publicly convert to Buddhism was Henry Steel Olcott. An event that contributed to strengthen Buddhism in the US was the Parliament of the World's Religions in 1893, which was attended by many Buddhist delegates sent from India, China, Japan, Vietnam, Thailand and Sri Lanka. The early 20th century was characterized by a continuation of the tendencies with roots in the 19th century. The second half, by contrast, saw the emergence of new approaches, and the move of Buddhism into the mainstream making itself a mass and social religious phenomenon. (Nyanaponika Thera, 1965)

Hinduism The first time Hinduism (The word Hindu was borrowed into European languages from the Arabic term al-Hind, referring to the land of the people who live across the River Indus, itself from the Persian term Hindū, which refers to all Indians. By the 13th century, Hindustān emerged as a popular alternative name of India, meaning the "land of Hindus". It is the predominant religion of the Indian subcontinent, and one of its indigenous religions Hinduism is formed of diverse traditions and has no single founder. Among its direct roots is the historical

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues Vedic religion of Iron Age India and, as such, Hinduism is often called the "oldest living religion" or the "oldest living major religion" in the world) entered the US is not clearly identifiable. However, large groups of Hindus have immigrated from India and other Asian countries since the enactment of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965. During the 1960s and 1970s Hinduism exercised fascination contributing to the development of New Age thought. During the same decades the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (a Vaishnavite Hindu reform organization) was founded in the US. According to recent surveys, estimates for Hindus in the US suggest they number nearly 800 thousand people or about 0.4% of the total population. In 2004 the Hindu American Foundation—a national institution protecting rights the Hindu community of US—was founded.

What are the main laws or beliefs relating to food? According to Vedic (Hindu scripture) texts, one should offer all food as a sacrifice to God: “...All that you do, all that you eat, all that you offer and give away, as well as all austerities that you may perform, should be done as an offering unto Me.” Food plays an important role in worship, and the food offered to God (prasada) is thought to bestow considerable religious merit, purifying body, mind and spirit. Taking prasada that has been cooked and offered with devotion inclines the mind towards spirituality. Many Hindus have an altar at home and offer their food before eating.

Hindu beliefs and traditions Hindus believe there is one God. God is called Brahman, Brahman can use different bodies. Hindus worship these different gods and goddesses. Hindus believe in reincarnation. This means people are born. Then they die. Then they are born again. Each new life is called an incarnation. It can be a person or an animal. If you live a good life you will have a good incarnation. Hindus believe people have different duties. Karma is a law or duty. Everyone in the world has duties.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

Stages of Life Hindus are expected to pass through four stages (ashramas) over the course of their life: 1. brahmacharga, which takes place during the school years, is focused on acquiring knowledge and developing character 2. grastha, the middle years, is focused on worldly pursuits and pleasures such as marriage, family and career 3. vanaprastha, when one's children reach adulthood, is a time of increased focus on spiritual things 4. sanngasu, in the last years of life, one may abandon the world entirely for a life of contemplation.

Jainism Adherents of Jainism (is an Indian religion that prescribes a path of non-violence towards all living beings. Jain doctrine teaches that Jainism has always existed and will always exist; Jainism offers an elaborate cosmology, including heavenly beings (demi-gods) with supernatural powers. These demi-gods are subject to suffering and change like all other living beings, and have limited life of enjoyment at their heavenly abodes. Jainism does not encourage dependency on any supreme being for enlightenment. The Tirthankara is a guide and teacher who points the way to enlightenment/Nirvana, but the struggle for enlightenment is one's own. Karmic rewards and sufferings are not the work of any divine being, but as result of an innate self-regulating mechanism whereby the individual reaps the fruits of his own thoughs, speech and actions. First arrived in the United States in the 20th century. The most significant time of Jain immigration was in the early 1970s. The United States has since become a center of the Jain Diaspora. The Federation of Jain Associations in North America is an umbrella organization of local American and Canadian Jain congregations to preserve, practice, and promote Jainism and the Jain Way of Life.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

Conclusion I have and still am studying many religions and I feel that there is truth in all religions. There have been and are many people on this planet who have found the right path - for them, at least. There are many paths to the Divine, mine is but one. Picture, if you will a huge field. At the center is the biggest tree you can imagine. There are perhaps a million or more ways to get to that tree. It all depends on where you are currently standing. There is no one right way to get to the center. Will not any path to the center of the field get you to the tree? No matter what side of the field you are on, your path is to the center. The tree is the Tree of Life. It is the source of all knowledge. I feel Jesus was the son of God, just as we all are the sons and daughters of God. You ever notice how little Jesus actually talked about sin? He did say a lot about love. He lived his life as an example of what others could be and to show he was like us. I want to show you something I have come across myself while studying. This was put together to show the similarities of the many religions of the world. You might take a special notice as to where the wording of 'The Golden Rule' actually comes from. All religions have such 'rules'. The religions are in Bold print, followed by the quote and then the source text. I do feel that if he was a real person, Jesus was a great man. His teachings are full of truth. It is some of the people that think they are following his teachings, that I sometimes have problems with. These people are not truly representative of the entire Christian path though. Just as there is good in everyone, there is also a tendency to - well, not so good. Jesus taught love, not hatred. Jesus taught tolerance, he treated all as equals. I feel that all religions stem from the same source. Just what the source is, I am not sure. Call it whatever you wish. We are all also a part of that source. We are one. One human family, one world, one universe. As the Dalai Lama says it: "All human beings come from a mother's womb. We are all the same part of one human family. We should have a clear realization of the oneness of all humanity."

"All religions are essentially the same in their goal of developing a good human heart so that we may become better human beings."

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

References:

1. Buck, Christopher (2009). Religious myths and visions of America

2. De La Torre, Miguel A., Encyclopedia on Hispanic American Religious Culture vol. 2

3. Gaustad, Edwin (1962). Historical atlas of religion in America.

4. Gordon, Melton, J. Encyclopedia of American Religions

5. Lippy, Charles H., ed. Encyclopedia of the American Religious Experience (vol. 3 Scribners, 1988)

6. Nyanaponika Thera (1965). The Heart of Buddhist Meditation.

External links:

7. Association of Religion Data Archives

8. 2008 ARIS Survey

9. CNN Article on 2008 Pew Results, 2/25/2008

10. Religious Affiliation Underestimated in U.S., Study Shows

11. Map Gallery of Religion in the United States

12. http://www.adherents.com/rel_USA.html#religions

13. U.S. Census links and Statistical Abstract - ARIS Data - PDF & XLS (Excel)

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

The Amish People MARI MIKADZE

The Amish sometimes referred to as Amish Mennonites, are a group of Christian church fellowships that form a subgroup of the Mennonite churches. The Amish are known for simple living, plain dress, and reluctance to adopt many conveniences of modern technology. (Kraybill 2001, pp. 7–8) The history of the Amish church began with a schism in Switzerland within a group of Swiss and Alsatian Anabaptists in 1693 led by Jakob Ammann. (Kraybill 2001, pp. 7– 8) Those who followed Ammann became known as Amish. (Kraybill 2001, p. 8)

The Amish History

The Amish movement takes its name from Jakob Ammann (c. 1656–1730), a Swiss Mennonite leader. Ammann believed Mennonites, the peaceful Anabaptists of the Low Countries and Germany, were drifting away from the teachings of Menno Simons and the 1632 Mennonite Dordrecht Confession of Faith. Ammann favored stronger church discipline, including a more rigid application of shunning, the social exclusion of excommunicated members. Swiss Anabaptists, who were scattered by persecution throughout the Alsace and the Electorate of the Palatinate, never practiced strict shunning as had some lowland Anabaptists. Ammann insisted upon this practice, even to the point of expecting spouses to refuse to eat with each other, until the banned spouse repented. (Smith & Krahn 1981, pp. 68–69, 84–85) This type of strict literalism, on this issue, as well as others, brought about a division among the Mennonites of Southern Germany, the Alsace and Switzerland in 1693, and led to withdrawal of those who sided with Ammann. Swiss Anabaptism developed, from this point, in two parallel streams. Those following Ammann became known as Amish or Amish Mennonite. The others eventually formed the basis of the Swiss Mennonite Conference. Because of this common heritage, Amish and Mennonites

 Junior Student, Faculty of Humanities, Direction of American Studies, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues retain many similarities. Those who leave the Amish fold tend to join various congregations of Conservative Mennonites. (Smith & Krahn 1981, pp. 212–4, Kraybill 2000, pp. 63–4) Amish Mennonites began migrating to Pennsylvania in the 18th century as part of a larger migration from the Palatinate and neighboring areas. This migration was a reaction to religious wars, poverty, and religious persecution on the Continent. During that decade Dienerversammlungen (ministerial conferences) were held in Wayne County, Ohio, concerning how the Amish should deal with the pressures of modern society. The meetings themselves were a progressive idea; for bishops to assemble to discuss uniformity was an unprecedented notion in the Amish church. By the first several meetings, the more traditionally minded bishops agreed to boycott the conferences. The more progressive members, comprising approximately two thirds of the group, retained the name Amish Mennonite. Many of these eventually united with the Mennonite Church, and other Mennonite denominations, especially in the early 20th century. The more traditionally minded groups became known as the Old Order Amish.

Population and Distribution Because members usually get baptized no earlier than 18 and children are not counted in local congregation numbers, it is difficult to put an exact figure on the number of Amish. Rough estimates from various studies have placed their numbers at 125,000 in 1992; 166,000 in 2000; and 221,000 in 2008. (Amish Population Change Summary 1992–2008) Thus, from 1992 to 2008, population growth among the Amish in North America was 84% (3.6% per year). During that time they established 184 new settlements and moved into six new states. (Population Trends 1992–2008) In 2000, approximately 165,620 Old Order Amish resided in the United States, of whom 73,609 were church members. (Kraybill 2000) The Amish are among the fastest-growing populations in the world, with an average of 7 children per family.

Ethnicity

The Amish largely share a German or Swiss-German ancestry. They generally use the term "Amish" only for members of their faith community, and not as an ethnic designation. Those

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues who choose to affiliate with the church, or young children raised in Amish homes, but too young to yet be church members, are considered to be Amish.

Health Amish populations have higher incidences of particular genetic disorders, including dwarfism (Ellis-van Creveld syndrome), (Ellis-van Creveld syndrome and the Amish", Nature Genetics 24 (3). 2000) and various disorders, as well as an unusual distribution of blood types. (Hostetler 1993, p. 330) Since almost all Amish descend from about 200 18th-century founders, genetic disorders that come out due to inbreeding exist in more isolated districts some of these disorders are quite rare, or unique, and are serious enough to increase the mortality rate among Amish children. The majority of Amish accept these as "Gottes Wille" (God's will); they reject use of preventive genetic tests prior to marriage and genetic testing of unborn children to discover genetic disorders. However, Amish are willing to participate in studies of genetic diseases. Their extensive family histories are useful to researchers investigating diseases such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and macular degeneration. The Amish are conscious of the advantages of exogamy. A common bloodline in one community will often be absent in another, and genetic disorders can be avoided by choosing spouses from unrelated communities. Although not forbidden or thought of as immoral, most Amish do not practice any form of birth control, hence their large families. They are against abortion and also find "artificial insemination, genetics, eugenics, and stem cell research" to be "inconsistent with Amish values and beliefs".

Part One: The Amish Church Service Amish church services are held every other Sunday. The geographic area where the Amish live is divided into church districts for this purpose. Since church services are held in homes, not in a church building, each family normally hosts church about once a year. Worship begins at about 8:00 a.m. and usually lasts over three hours. Hymns are sung from the AUSBUND, a special hymnal used by the Amish. There are usually three to seven preachers and bishops at a service. Around 8:30 a.m., the first sermon begins.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

The Funeral Service In Lancaster County for many years now, the body is taken to a local funeral director who is familiar with Amish funeral customs. Family members might wash the body before the undertaker comes for the body. The undertaker embalms the body and normally dresses it in long underwear before placing it in the coffin and returning to the Amish family. There are about 20 Amish cemeteries in Lancaster County. Gravestones are fairly uniform. No one shows his status or wealth with an extravagant tombstone. The stone states the name, birth date, death date, and age in years, months, and days. Older cemeteries may have stones in German, but nowadays they are in English.

The Amish Wedding Most Amish wedding take place at this time of year, from late October through December, after the autumn harvest. Traditionally, the days for weddings are Tuesdays and Thursdays, so there is time in between to get ready for and clean up after each. Even so, it can get pretty busy during the "wedding season," with some Amish going to two or three weddings in one day! During the wedding meal, the couple sits at the corner of two tables called the "eck," with their attendants on both side, and the unmarried boys sitting opposite the girls.

Technology & the Amish The Amish are averse to any technology which they feel weakens the family structure. The conveniences that the rest of us take for granted such as electricity, television, automobiles, telephones and tractors are considered to be a temptation that could cause vanity, create inequality, or lead the Amish away from their close-knit community and, as such, are not encouraged or accepted in most orders. Most Amish cultivate their fields with horse-drawn machinery, live in houses without electricity, and get around in horse-drawn buggies. The New Order Amish permit the use of electricity, ownership of automobiles, modern farming machines, and telephones in the home. It is common for Amish communities to allow the use of telephones, but not in the home. Instead, several Amish families will share a telephone in a wooden shanty between farms. When the telephone first appeared in the late 1890's in rural Pennsylvania, the Amish did not reject it.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues In fact, several Amish families had purchased phones and had installed them inside their homes. Trouble soon followed, however, when two Amish women were caught gossiping. The matter became a church issue and the phone was banned from household use in 1908. Today's Amish are not entirely sure why the bishops banned phones in the household, except that they made gossip too easy, were too handy, and were worldly. Today, though, the phone is seen as very impersonal, breaking down the closeness associated with Amish life. There are loopholes to the phone issue. Though phones are banned from the household, they are not banned from being "used." Many Amish have no problem using the phone under certain circumstances. Phones are acceptably used for business purposes, to call for medical attention, police, or to call the fire department. While the Amish are not allowed to have phone lines leading directly to their houses, they can have what are called phone shanties. A phone shanty is a small shack with a telephone located at a site accessible to multiple Amish families. Anyone needing to use the phone can walk to these shacks and use one. The shack inhibits excessive use of the phone because it is dark, hot or cold depending on the season, and too far from the house to be convenient. The Amish can also use their neighbor's phone if they absolutely must. They will place phone calls, but rarely answer incoming ones. The only exception to this is a business phone, which can be connected to an individual building and is used more often. The Amish have always rejected automobiles. The horse-drawn carriage is so much a symbol of Gelassenheit that the car became instantly incompatible with the Amish lifestyle. The term, "automatic mobility," suggests a worldliness that is not acceptable to most. However, if the Amish must use an automobile, whether to visit distant relatives, or to travel beyond the range of their horse and buggies, they are allowed to ride in one. The Ordnung specifically points out that the Amish are not allowed to physically operate automobiles. A driver must be hired to take the Amish where they want to go. Many groups rent busses to take them on mass excursions to old meeting houses or cemeteries. The Amish have also been known to use airplanes for long distance travel. As long as they are not operating the machines, they are not breaking the laws of the Ordnung. Even though many Amish travel by automobile and airplane, excessive long distance travel is discouraged. There is a fear that such travel will lead to an eventual separation of the community.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues Electricity is sometimes used in certain situations, such as electric fences for cattle, flashing electric lights on buggies, and heating homes. Windmills are often used as a source of naturally generated electric power in such instances. It is also not unusual to see Amish using such 20th- century technologies as inline skates, disposable diapers and gas barbecue grills, because they are not specifically prohibited by the Ordnung. It is surprising to know that the Amish use modern farming equipment. The Ordnung requires all Amish to use horses to pull any equipment while working in the field. Therefore, many Amish have adapted haybalers, sprayers, spreaders, and reapers for use with horses. Also, many modern machines are operated by small internal combustion or steam engines that replace the large engines that would have been needed to propel them. One Amish Bishop is quoted as saying, "if you can pull it with horses, you can have it." Tractors are permissible around the barn to haul things and to operate equipment. Chemical fertilizers and insecticides are also permissible. There is a common misconception about the Amish opinion of medical technology. The Ordnung actually says nothing about the acceptance of modern medicine. Most Amish have no problem visiting an optometrist for vision correction, seeing a dentist for a semiannual checkup, or going to a local physician for an examination. The Amish usually will not refuse medical treatment for serious illness. They will take modern drugs, and will go to a hospital for surgery. There are several ways that the Amish integrate a technology into their society. The most common way is that a technology will "slide" in and take its place unnoticed. Minor technologies, such as the rubber band, have slid into use without the need of a review. If a technology poses a real threat to the Gelassenheit values or threatens Amish traditions, than the threatening technology is reviewed at a meeting known as the Ordnungsgemee. This meeting is held semiannually, right before communion Sunday. Here, both church leaders and members debate upon the ramifications that a technology will have if accepted into the Amish society. After the debate, a vote is taken. If the church leaders are in agreement, the majority rules. However, if the church leaders disagree with the decision, the laity is overruled. The bishops, priests, and deacons, have the final word. The last way that a technology is accepted or rejected is by direct word of the bishop. If the bishop decides that a technology threatens to weaken Amish culture, he has the power to ban the technology instantly, without discussing the problem

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues with the laity. Donald Kraybill has discerned that fourteen cultural regulators determine whether or not the Amish will accept a technology into their society.

Amish Nicknames Since so many people have the same names, a person is sometimes identified by the name of his parents and grandparents, such as "Amos's John's Sammy" or "Jake's Suzie's Mary." Sometimes a man gets a nickname from his wife's name. "Lomey Abe" got his name from his wife, Salome; "Rache Crist" from his wife, Rachael; The first characteristic nickname is one common in all cultures---the abbreviated first name. Common examples are Mose (from Moses), Sol (Solomon).

In the Genes The next category of nicknames derives from physical or personality traits. Some names based on physical traits include Big Ben, Brownie Eli, Black Sam, Chubby Jonas, Skinny Davie, and Limpy John.

Getting Personal "Doggie Aaron" loved dogs.

Earned Nicknames Occupation often figures into a nickname. "Butter Jake" made and sold butter, "Elevator Ike" invented a farm elevator.

All about Town Where a person lives also enters into nicknames. Gap Dave, Kinzer Jake, Quarryville Elmer, and Dry Hill Johnny.

Back to School: Amish-Style The Amish do not usually educate their children past the eighth grade, believing that the basic knowledge offered up to that point is sufficient to prepare one for the Amish lifestyle.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues Almost no Amish go to high school and college. In many communities, the Amish operate their own schools, which are typically one-room schoolhouses with teachers (young unmarried women) in their late teens or early 20's, from the Amish community. In their late teens or early 20's, who teach for several years before getting married. No one usually teaches after marriage; it is too big of a commitment. There are some women who never marry, however, that may continue to teach.

How many students and teachers are there in the school? Schools are usually one room, one teacher, although occasionally there is a helper in schools of more than 30 pupils. (Special schools for students with learning or other disabilities often have one teacher per four pupils.) Usually there are 25-30 "scholars" from grades 1-8, and ages 6-13. They may start at the age of five if their birthday is before the end of the year.

What is a typical day like in your school? A typical day starts with the teacher reading a chapter from the Bible. Then students rise and say the Lord's Prayer. Students file to the front and sing three or four songs from the songbooks. The teacher has arithmetic assignments on the board for grades three to eight daily. The teacher begins with first and second grade phonics or reading. During recess, softball is usually played whenever weather permits. Smaller children play tag, prisoner's base, jump rope etc. On rainy days, ping-pong, board games, or party games are played inside. At lunchtime, a prayer is recited in unison. A story is read to all after the lunch recess. Classes continue in the afternoon. At dismissal, a goodbye song is usually sung.

Nurturing & Belonging One cannot raise Amish children alone. It is the effort of a whole community, intently devoted to a way of life. Nurturing children is one of the strongest factors in Amish fathers and mothers choosing to work at home; it is the reason for the Amish community's investment in its school system. The Amish have large families by 21st century North American standards; these children's days are not given shape by a line-up of soccer games, piano lessons, camp, or play groups.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues Instead, the morning sun, chore-time twice a day, and the coming of evening set a structure for their time. "What holds our young people?" asks an Amish grandfather. "The support they have from their parents and from the community. For me, it was the closeness I felt to the group. I felt wanted. I belonged. As a teenager I saw I would have support for being an adult."

Amish food The term “Amish”, when attached to food products, enhances sales, as the obsession for hand-crafted, artisanal foods converges with the natural and local food movements. Amish farming families have traditionally used small scale food production and retail sales to augment income. Common products include produce, eggs and poultry, cured deli meats and dairy products. Beautifully preserved fruits and vegetables in an array of colors may be displayed in jars. These include traditional canned products as well as jellies, jams, fruit butters and preserves.

Amish Dress Symbolic of their faith, Amish clothing styles encourage humility and separation from the world. The Amish dress in a very simple style, avoiding all but the most basic ornamentation. Clothing is made at home of plain fabrics and is primarily dark in color. Amish men in general wear straight-cut suits and coats without collars, lapels or pockets. Trousers never have creases or cuffs and are worn with suspenders. Belts are forbidden, as are sweaters, neckties and gloves. Men's shirts fasten with traditional buttons in most orders, while suit coats and vests fasten with hooks and eyes. Young men are clean shaven prior to marriage, while married men are required to let their beards grow. Mustaches are forbidden. Amish women typically wear solid-color dresses with long sleeves and a full skirt, covered with a cape and an apron. They never cut their hair, and wear it in a braid or bun on the back of the head concealed with a small white cap or black bonnet. Clothing is fastened with straight pins or snaps, stockings are black cotton and shoes are also black. Amish women are not permitted to wear patterned clothing or jewelry. The Ordnung of the specific Amish order may dictate matters of dress as explicit as the length of a skirt or the width of a seam. (Albrecht Powell)

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

Discipline in Amish schools Amish recognize the importance of proper discipline to their children’s future development. Yet it is generally recognized that spanking should not be done in anger, but out of love with the goal of teaching the child. In some cases, teachers in Amish schools will be expected to make use of corporal punishment to discipline children as well. Karen Johnson-Weiner notes that use of spanking varies among Amish schools. Johnson-Weiner finds evidence that corporal punishment is applied in conservative Swartzentruber Amish schools, though this does not necessarily mean that teachers enjoy it. Even teachers in progressive Amish schools use physical discipline on occasion. A teacher in a progressive Amish school admitted that “We do resort to the paddle if need be and depending on the offense. Not the most exciting job, but it brings amazing results. In my six years I’ve spanked only once…and I hope I won’t have to again”. A paddle may be used to administer discipline in Amish schools. Other forms of discipline may be less harsh. Teachers may talk with students to explain the reasons and need for punishment. Students may be required to sit inside during recess, or to write lines of handwriting. Amish teachers may enlist the help of parents to maintain order with children. The Amish approach to school discipline, including physical punishment now extinct in modern public schools, reflects the role of the Amish community in raising children to exhibit Christian values. Amish stress disciplining in a spirit of love rather than anger. Though Amish parents and teachers typically consider it unpleasant and difficult to discipline children, they know that neglecting to do so would mean neglecting the child’s well-being.

Behavior of Amish children Amish children are generally well-behaved. Though there are always exceptions, generally they know to speak when spoken too, and typically remain quiet in the presence of outsiders. Amish children quickly learn that disobedience is dealt with, and Amish use of corporal punishment helps to shape the character and behavior of their children. Children being children, Amish parents may need to resort to punishment more than once to instill the proper message.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues In some instances, Rumspringa-age Amish youth may exhibit wild behavior when out from under the direct influence of their parents. But generally, the lessons of obedience and submission learned in youth stick with Amish as youth and adults. These values help them to be better church members and, the Amish believe, better Christians by following Christ’s dictates to obedience and submission.

Shunning Excommunicated members of the Amish community are not only expelled from the church but shunned as well. This means that all active members must avoid the offending individual in all social activities. (Johnson Weiner) Members who refuse to shun the offending individuals risk excommunication themselves. Life-long friends and family members are also required to shun the wayward individual. Even parents must shun their own grown children. It is felt that by avoiding the transgressing individual, the faithful won't become defiled by their sin. Usually, the excommunicated member drifts away from the church and the Amish community. Actually, shunning does not mean total avoidance. Restricted interaction is permitted. For instance, spouses may continue to live together but they may not engage in sexual intercourse. Also, shunned members may attend family gatherings. However, on such occasions they are required to sit at a separate table to symbolize their exclusion. Usually, active members can not engage in business transactions with shunned members. However, if such a transaction is unavoidable, a third party must handle the exchange of money. Although rarely implemented, shunning has proven to be an effective means of social control. For the Pennsylvania Amish who value the importance of community very highly, the fear of being cut off from one's friends and family has likely prevented many individuals from the temptation to join a more moderate church where electricity and automobiles are allowed. (Johnson Weiner)

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

An interview with an Amish Girl who escaped from the community I’m twenty-seven and graduated from Columbia University in 2007. I escaped from my family and the Amish when I was fifteen. I’m the oldest of eleven children. Four of my siblings were born after I escaped. The biggest negatives? The rape, incest and other sexual abuse that run rampant in the community -Rudimentary education -Physical and verbal abuse in the name of discipline -Women (and children ) have no rights -Religion-and all its associated fear and brainwashing-as a means of control (and an extremely effective means at that) -Animal abuse

People generally have a peaceful image of the Amish. Can you explain the physical abuse? The Amish take the Bible verse “spare the rod and spoil the child in a literal sense. Parents routinely beat their children with anything from fly swatters, to leather straps (the most typical weapon), to whips to pieces of wood. When she was a little girl, her mom used to make her run down to the cellar to retrieve a piece of wood to get beaten with. She’d choose the thinner ones because she thought they’d hurt less. One day she couldn’t find a thin piece and she had to get a thicker one. Luckily, she discovered that the thick ones hurt less. So every time after that she’d get a thick one. It made her mother that she was hurting her more, and she’d scream harder just to make sure she didn’t catch on that it actually hurt less. She says that one of her acquaintances stuttered when he was little and his dad would make him put his toe under the rocking chair, and then his dad would sit the chair and rock over the toe and tell him that’s what he gets for stuttering. Even little babies get abused for crying too much during church or otherwise “misbehaving.” She has heard women beat their babies-under a year old- so much that she cringed in pain.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

Example of Sexual Abuse Some 90 percent of children raised Amish choose to stay in the community. But one who did not is 20-year-old Mary Byler. "I would read books and I'd imagine. I had a great imagination that would take me to faraway places, you know, places where I was afraid I would never be, but wanted to be," she told "20/20's" Elizabeth Vargas. Mary says she'd use those fantasies as an emotional escape from what she says was her horrible reality -- a childhood and adolescence of sexual assault and rape. "If somebody was raping me, I'd look up to the ceiling, count the blocks or count the cracks in the wall, or just I was completely not there emotionally. I would have committed suicide many times over if I wouldn't be strong," she said. Through the years, by Mary's account, she was raped by several different attackers. But one abused her more often than the others -- her brother Johnny. Johnny, one of Mary's eight brothers, began assaulting her when he was 12 and she was 6. The assaults continued into her teen years, she said. "I couldn't go to the outhouse because there was always somebody waiting there. I couldn't go anywhere alone. There was just no place could I be alone," she said. As time passed, another brother, Eli, followed suit. The violence in Mary's family began with the head of it -- a stepfather who, she says, continually beat both Mary and her brothers. "He hit them with shovels and hacksaws, fists, halters, anything and everything he could get his hands on," she said.

A Community of Submission Irene Garrett left the Amish community to marry an outsider and has written several books on Amish life. Sadly, Garrett says, Mary's plight is not an isolated case. "Overall in an Amish community, women are very quiet, they're very submissive," Garrett said. Amish women are not taught anything about sex, according to Garrett, which makes it even harder for a girl who's being abused to describe what's happening to her.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues Mary said she didn't know how to describe what was happening. "I thought they were being bad to me. That was the only word I had to express it," she said. In an Amish culture unaccustomed to women speaking up, Mary felt she got more scolding than sympathy when she told her mother what was going on. She said her mother told her, "You don't fight hard enough and you don't pray hard enough." Mary said her mother made her feel as if the assaults were her fault. "Every time I would talk about this she would say that they have already confessed in church and you're just being unforgiving," she said. Indeed, Mary's brothers had confessed in church. In this closed society problems are handled internally, the church elders are both judge and jury. And the punishment might be surprising to outsiders. "The Amish church has a very strong emphasis on first of all, the importance of confession, public confession, if you transgress the teaching, but secondly forgiveness for that and then forgetting it, and letting it go," Kraybill said. "The funny thing is that they view drinking alcohol until you puke as bad a sin as raping somebody. They get the same punishment for either one," Mary said. But Amish-style punishment was not going to bring Mary the justice she wanted. And for her, the final straw came when she suspected a younger brother, David, was molesting their 4-year- old sister. The Amish are distinguishable in the modern society by clothes, culture, traditions and by a lot of other things. Some of us may consider them as a very peaceful, uneducated, hard-working, religious and naïve people and accept their life-style attractive in terms of uniqueness. The Amish community leaves the various feelings when we try to explain their specialness, as we aren’t completely familiar with the real facts and the actions happening there, secretly, hidden away from the public eye. Hence, as humankind is a very inquisitive, our interest is doubled in what the reality of the Amish looks like. However, many Amish try to ease our pursuit in the observation of their culture and give us information that is considered not to be harmful for their belief and generally community to be revealed. Still, from all the information that the modern society has about them, it is enough to see the Amish community as an ordinary group of people with their positive and negative characteristics. Crime isn’t unusual for them as well as other

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues human sins. The family is still the institution of comfort and terror, parents are affectionate as well as strict and cruel, children are obeyed to their parents and rules and they are rioters and recalcitrant in some cases. Finally, the different lifestyle and religious perceiving of reality isn’t enough to free them from the highest institution of the USA called jurisdiction and the major judges called ordinary people.

References:

1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amish

2. www.abcnews.go.com

3. http://pittsburgh.about.com/cs/pennsylvania/a/amish.htm

4. http://pittsburgh.about.com/cs/pennsylvania/a/amish_2.htm

5. http://Shawcreekgeneralstore.com/amisharticle1.htm

6. Johnson Weiner-Amish Studies

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

Ethics: Who Needs It?!

ANASTASIA ZAKARIADZE

"I am primarily the creator of a new code of morality ‘‘ Ayn Rand Who needs ethics? Does it a human being, who needs it? What for? Why?! These questions have been formulated after Friedrich Nietzsche‘s famous key idea: "Gott ist tot" (Friedrich Nietzsche.1974) and become crucial for world intellectual society, for philosophers all over the world, for American philosophy as well, namely for prominent American writer and philosopher Ayn Rand. Everything that have been said, written and thought by her is tapped directly on the American values of democracy, freedom, individual hard work and personality. She herself calls her philosophy Objectivism and estimates that her contributions to philosophy are theory of concepts, ethics and political philosophy. "My philosophy, Objectivism, holds that: 1. Reality exists as an objective absolute — facts are facts independent of man's feelings, wishes, hopes or fears. 2. Reason (the faculty which identifies and integrates the material provided by man's senses) is man's only means of perceiving reality, his only source of knowledge, his only guide to action, and his basic means of survival. 3. Man — every man — is an end in himself, not the means to the ends of others. He must exist for his own sake, neither sacrificing himself to others nor sacrificing others to himself. The pursuit of his own rational self-interest and of his own happiness is the highest moral purpose of his life.

 Professor at Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

4. The ideal political-economic system is laissez-faire capitalism. It is a system where men deal one another, not as victims and executioners, nor as masters and slaves, but as traders, by free, voluntary exchange to mutual benefit. It is a system where no man may obtain any values from others by resorting to physical force, and no man may initiate the use of physical force against others. The government acts only as a policeman that protects man's rights; it uses physical force only in retaliation and only against those who initiate its use, such as criminals or foreign invaders. In a system of full capitalism, there should be (but, historically, has not yet been) a complete separation of state and economics, in the same way and for the same reasons as the separation of state and church.” (Ayn Rand.1962. 343) She argues that she is not primarily an advocate of capitalism, but of egoism; and not an advocate of egoism, but of reason. “If one recognizes the supremacy of reason and applies it consistently, all the rest follows. This — the supremacy of reason — was, is and will be the primary concern of my work, and the essence of Objectivism.” (Ayn Rand.1971. 344) As for influences, she herself acknowledged Aristotle Rand's naturalism, her rejection of intrinsicism and subjectivism in favor of objectivism, echoes Aristotle's argument, that “the good” must always be good-for-something. Lately she remarked that in the history of philosophy she could only recommend "three A's"—Aristotle, Aquinas, and Ayn Rand. (Sciabarra, Chris Matthew, 1995, 12). There also could be found inspiration and influence of Friedrich Nietzsche in early Rand's thought and in her overall writing style. Rand influences Hobbes as well, like him she sees morality as a necessary means to long-term survival, but unlike Hobbes, she does not see morality as requiring a contract or even as a fundamentally social affair. In Rand’s systematic philosophy conception of ethics is fundamental and firmly teleological. Her ethical conception, original viewpoint deeply influences the contemporary philosophical thought as a fresh and newly shaped insight into human being‘s essence. It really became a step forward in ethical discourse. To engage every element of Rand's ethics will not be able. We simply have to be selective and would focus our attention on several important elements of her system.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

Ethics by Rand plays a central role in all human activities. It “is a code of values to guide man's choices and actions—the choices and actions that determine the purpose and the course of his life” (Ayn Rand.1961b. 13). Every action, every thought has at its root certain assumptions and we need to examine those assumptions to live a full, meaningful life. Rand claims that no philosopher before her has provided a satisfactory scientific ethics. Morality, which is created by Rand, is not based on faith, not on emotion, not on arbitrary edicts, mystical or social, but on reason. The need for morality, according to Rand, is dictated by our nature as creatures that must think and produce to survive; hence we would need morality even on a desert island. There is, however, no duty to survive; morality is based on a hypothetical imperative: if you choose to live, then you must value your own long-term survival as an ultimate end, and morality as a necessary means to it. She believed, that man's "highest moral purpose is the achievement of his own happiness, and that he must not force other people, nor accept their right to force him, that each man must live as an end in himself and follow his own rational self-interest." (Ayn Rand. 1964.25) Even in the definition of her philosophy, which Rand called "Objectivism", the essence of philosophy is described in the terms of ethical discourse: “the concept of man as a heroic being, with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute. (Ayn Rand. 2011.1170-1171) The guiding moral principle of Rand’s ethics is rational egoism, in other words, rational self- interest. She said the individual should "exist for his own sake, neither sacrificing himself to others nor sacrificing others to himself. (Ayn Rand.1989, 3)She dedicated the brilliant analyses to the concept of egoism and called it "the virtue of selfishness" (Ayn Rand.1964) The solution to the is-ought problem is foundation of meta-ethical theory which based morality in the needs of "man's survival qua man" (Ayn Rand. 1964, 25) For Rand, morality is a type of enlightened and rational self-interest she thinks that, each individual's moral obligation is to attain his own moral well-being. Rand's ethical egoism sees naturalism as leading to facts that become the basis for objective judgments of value. Here comes in her definition of value’s concept; value is that, «which one acts to gain and/or keep" (ibid. 27). The purpose in pursuing values is the flourishing of one's own life. Values are thus at

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues the root of morality. Proper moral norms are determined by human nature. An objective value is a feature of reality that is positively related to the flourishing of an individual human being. It (objective value) is relational and exists in a life-affirming relationship to a particular person. Rand’s ethical conception is interesting with its originality: it is in a sharp contrast to our culture of relativism that reveals in proclaiming objective moral absolutes, opposition to the ethical nihilist, as well as the subjectivist, deriding the hedonist. Her words, "Just as, in epistemology, the cult of uncertainty is a revolt against reason — so, in ethics, the cult of moral grayness is a revolt against moral values. Both are a revolt against the absolutism of reality, " (Ayn Rand.1961, 90) are very notable in that context. Rand offers a system of ethical absolutes. She writes "There may be ‘gray' men, but there can be no ‘gray' moral principles. Morality is a code of black and white". Thus, "when one is asked: ‘surely you don't think in terms of black- and-white, do you?' — The proper answer (in essence, if not in form) should be: ‘you’re damn right I do!'" (Ayn Rand. 1964, 92) Rand’s ethical egoism could not exist without a concept of "selfishness." This concept is so crucial for her philosophy, that we could call the Randian system of ethics a system of "selfishness." Rand uses "selfishness" as a designation for her ethics and it is important to understand just what she means by "selfishness." In popular usage, the word "selfishness" is a synonym of evil; the image it conjures is of a murderous brute that tramples over piles of corpses to achieve his own ends, who care for no living being and pursues nothing but the gratification of the mindless whims of any immediate moment. Yet the exact meaning and dictionary definition of the word "selfishness" is: concern for one's own interests. (Ayn Rand. 1964, VII) One certainly can appreciate this clarification of "selfishness" as "concern for one's own interests." Rand advocates rational self-interest, a particular brand of ethical egoism. But she rejects psychological egoism, the position that asserts that we always act in our own self-interest anyway, whether consciously or not. (Nathaniel Branden. 1963, 1973, 66–70. William K. Frankena. 1999. 20–23; Richard L. Purtill. 1976, 18–23; Louis P. Pojman. 1999. Wadsworth, 66–71). The egoism Rand advocates is neither automatic nor instinctual; rather, it is rational and must be chosen. Just as man cannot survive by any random means, but must discover and practice the principles which his survival requires, so man's self-interest cannot be determined by blind desires or random whims, but must be discovered and achieved by the

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues guidance of rational principles. This is why the Objectivist ethics is a morality of rational self- interest — or of rational selfishness (Ayn Rand. 1964, IX) Rand’s view of altruism is very extreme. She thinks that Altruism is the morality of the past. It is diametrically opposed to her Objectivist ethical system. It lies on so called "mystic theories of ethics”, based on revelation from transcendental super power. She calls it an ethics of death, as it offers meaning of happiness and true leaving to man only beyond this life. As for "social theory of ethics," to Rand’s mind, it locates the value of human life in society or "the collective," that’s why, it also has to be called an ethics of death for the individual. The "subjectivist theory of ethics", as opposed to Randian objectivist ethics for her is a negation of ethics. It cannot supply guidance for life. Rand calls it an ethics of death. It has lead humans only toward death rather than promoting life. “What we need to live, then, is not a return to this old morality — which is essentially irrational, but to discover a rational ethics and chose to adopt it and live by it. Here come several questions:” Does man need values at all — and why? Why does man need a code of values? . . . What particular code of values should man accept? “(Ayn Rand. 1964, 13– 14). "No philosopher has given a rational, objectively demonstrable, scientific answer to the question of why man needs a code of values. So long as that question remained unanswered, no rational, scientific, objective code of ethics could be discovered or defined" (ibid. 14). So Rand offers her answer to the why of values with reference to the needs of living organisms. For Rand value or “the good,” is the object of pursuit: “that which one acts to gain and/or keep” presupposes the concept of “an entity capable of acting to achieve a goal in the face of an alternative” - and the basic alternative facing any living entity is life or death (ibid.16) An organism's life depends on two factors: the material or fuel which it needs from the outside, from its physical background, and the action of its own body, the action of using that fuel properly. What standard determines what is proper in this context? The standard is the organism's life, or: that which is required for the organism's survival. (ibid. 17). So, for life to be sustained, a living organism must actively seek the fuel needed and use that fuel properly, thus sustaining its life. Such actions are goal-directed actions. Thus there is a basis for values. "Life"

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues thus becomes "the ultimate value . . . that final goal or end to which all lesser goals are the means," and as such, "it sets the standard by which all lesser goals are evaluated." Thus, "An organism's life is its standard of value: that which furthers its life is the good, that which threatens it is the evil" (ibid. 17). Life is the standard and goal of all genuine human values, in the sense that all of them - from food to philosophy to fine art to ethics—must be explained and justified as requirements of human survival. The conditional nature of life gives rise to values, not just human values, but values as such. Values are not just a human phenomenon but a phenomenon of life: life necessitates value. “Metaphysically, life is the only phenomenon that is an end in itself: a value gained and kept by a constant process of action” (ibid. p. 18). Thus, values are relational or objective, following from the nature and existence-needs of the valuing entity. An entity's values are determined by its objective life-needs, the requirements of survival for entities of its kind, and ethics is a requirement of human survival. The concept of value entails the concept of life: “epistemologically, the concept of ‘value’ is genetically dependent upon and derived from the antecedent concept of ‘life’” (Ayn Rand.1961b, p. 18). By Rand “an immortal, indestructible robot, an entity which moves and acts, but which cannot be affected by anything, which cannot be changed in any respect, which cannot be damaged, injured or destroyed” (ibid, p. 16) cannot have values. For every individual human, his/her individual life is an end in itself. It is the ultimate value. To sacrifice it for any lesser value is evil. But just as humans may act toward their own destruction, so they must chose their own values, goals, and actions in order to maintain their lives. The three cardinal values are reason, purpose, and self-esteem. These correspond to the three cardinal virtues of rationality, productivity, and pride. As “Ethics is an objective, metaphysical necessity of man's survival” (ibid. 24). “… Standard of value of the Objectivist ethics … is man's life. . . that is, “the terms, methods, conditions and goals required for the survival of a rational being through the whole of his lifespan—in all those aspects of existence which are open to his choice” (Ayn Rand.1964. 27). to choose to live is to accept one's “own life” as one's “ethical purpose.”

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

Thus we have an ethics of rational self-interest. Any proposal that humans act toward their own destruction is evil. Thus the ethics of altruism, which demand the sacrificing of human life, is evil and irrational. All individual humans are to be viewed as ends in themselves. As such, initiating force against other humans is evil. Though Randian ethics is not classic hedonism, Happiness for Rand is one of the main moral concepts. She thinks that it is the highest moral purpose for humans. Happiness is that joy resultant from one's attainment of one's values. Life and happiness are two aspects of the same thing; one is the ultimate value, the second- ultimate moral purpose. Happiness is defined in a particular context, the context of human nature and human life. It may be the purpose of ethics but it is not its standard. Man is the only species that can transmit and expand his store of knowledge from generation to generation; the knowledge potentially available to man is greater than any one man could begin to acquire in his own lifespan; every man gains an incalculable benefit from the knowledge discovered by others. The second great benefit is the division of labor: it enables a man to devote his effort to a particular field of work and to trade with others who specialize in other fields. This form of cooperation allows all men who take part in it to achieve a greater knowledge, skill and productive return on their effort than they could achieve if each had to produce everything he needs, on a desert island or on a self-sustaining farm. (Ayn Rand.1964, 35–36) Rand’s Objectivist ethics deals with the issues of moral politics as well. The basic political principle by Rand is: no man may initiate the use of physical force against others. . . The principle is: no man may obtain any values from others by resorting to physical force. (ibid, 36) In an essay entitled, "Man's Rights," she explains the nature of "rights": "Rights" are a moral concept — the concept that provides a logical transition from the principles guiding an individual's actions to the principles guiding his relationship with others — the concept that preserves and protects individual morality in a social context — the link between the moral code of a man and the legal code of a society, between ethics and politics. Individual rights are the means of subordinating society to moral law. (ibid, 108)

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

Rand's ethical system has observed several fundamental problems. Theory despite original and deep insight shows some difficulties. For example:  The amoral choice for one's own life as one's ultimate value must be presupposed. Such a choice is amoral is implausible.  When Rand argues that life must be one's ultimate value, she could assign the role of a means to a different ultimate end. As if one were to do this, one would not have to deny the necessary precondition of life. Nevertheless, one's own life need not be one's ultimate value.  The alternative between life and death was necessary to make sense of one's goals and interests. The illustration of the indestructible robot, which was offered by Rand, is confusing, to our mind.  Though one's ability to choose between alternatives is necessary for values is agreeable. But due to Rand’s metaphysical materialism which undermines consciousness, rationality and free will, it does so due to the laws of causality and the implication of causal determinism.  Rand’s pragmatic assertion that, those who adopt an ethics of rational self-interest will experience longevity, while those who adopt any variation of the competing altruism would not, could not be shared, as a serious philosophical argument.  Randian position reveals the difficulty in moving from individual to social or political ethics. To our mind, she could not justify the move from one's own personal interest to the necessary allowance of the interests of others. Despite above mentioned difficulties Ayn Rand’s philosophical vision, especially her ethical conception, plays an immense role in building up contemporary intellectual climate. Central concept for her Objectivist ethics is reason as the chief indispensable human tool of survival, which is exercised by choice and rationality as the fundamental moral virtue, a virtue implicated in all the other virtues, including productiveness. So to the question who and why needs ethics? Rand states: ethics is needed for everybody who feels thinks and perceives himself as a rational human being.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

References: 1. Ayn Rand (1962) August: 35; The Objectivist Newsletter, as quoted in The Ayn Rand Lexicon, (1986), ed. Harry Binswanger, The Ayn Rand Library, Vol. IV (New York, NY: Meridian, p. 343.

2. Ayn Rand, (1971) September:1; "Brief Summary," The Objectivist” as quoted in The Ayn Rand Lexicon, (1986), ed. Harry Binswanger, The Ayn Rand Library, Vol. IV (New York, NY: Meridian,p. 344

3. Ayn Rand (1961, 1964), "The Cult of Moral Grayness," The Virtue of Selfishness: A New Concept of Egoism”. New York, NY: Signet Books, p. 90.

4. Ayn Rand (1964) "Introduction," The Virtue of Selfishness: A New Concept of Egoism.” New York, NY: Signet Books .vii (paragraph division removed).

5. Nathaniel Branden, (1963, 1973), "Isn't Everybody Selfish?" The Virtue of Selfishness, pp.66–70. William K. Frankena, Ethics, Second Edition (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, pp.20–23; Richard L. Purtill, (1976), Thinking About Ethics (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, pp.18–23; and Louis P. Pojman, (1999), Ethics: Discovering Right and Wrong, Third Edition (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, pp.66–71.

6. Ayn Rand (1964) "Introduction," The Virtue of Selfishness: A New Concept of Egoism. New York, NY: Signet Books xi.

7. Ayn Rand, (1964), "The Objectivist Ethics," The Virtue of Selfishness: A New Concept of Egoism. New York, NY: Signet Books, pp.37–38.

8. Ayn Rand, (1964), The Virtue of Selfishness: A New Concept of Egoism. New York, NY: Signet Books,pp. 13–39.

9. Ayn Rand (1964) "Introduction," The Virtue of Selfishness: A New Concept of Egoism. New York, NY: Signet Books. xii.

10. Ayn Rand (1964) "Introduction," The Virtue of Selfishness: A New Concept of Egoism. New York, NY: Signet Books. p.13-14

11. ibid.p.14 12. ibid.p.16 13. ibid.p.17

14. Ayn Rand (1961, b), "The Cult of Moral Grayness," The Virtue of Selfishness: A New Concept of Egoism. New York, NY: Signet Books,p. 18.

SECTION I: Education and Social Issues

15. ibid. p.18 16. ibid. p.16

17. Ayn Rand, (1964), The Virtue of Selfishness: A New Concept of Egoism. New York, NY: Signet Books,p. 35-36

18. ibid.p.36 19. ibid. 108

20. Ayn Rand.( 1957-2011)Atlas Shrugged. New York: Random House.pp.1170-1171

21. Ayn Rand (1989). The Voice of Reason. Peikoff, Leonard. ed. New York: New American Library. p.3

22. Ayn Rand, (1964) "Man's Rights,"in:” The Virtue of Selfishness: A New Concept of Egoism. New York, NY: Signet Books. p. 108

23. Sciabarra, Chris Matthew (1995). Ayn Rand: The Russian Radical. University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press. p.12.

24. Tara Smith ( 2006). Ayn Rand's Normative Ethics. New York: Cambridge University Press.

25. Ayn Rand [1966-67] 1990. Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology. Expanded second edition. Edited by Harry Binswanger and Leonard Peikoff. New York: Meridian

26. Ayn Rand. (1961a). For the New Intellectual: The Philosophy of Ayn Rand, New York: New American Library.

27. Ayn Rand, (2010), "The Metaphysical Versus the Man-Made," Philosophy: Who Needs It? New York, NY: Signet.

28. Eric Mack, (1984), "The Fundamental Moral Elements of Rand's Theory of Rights," in The Philosophic Thought of Ayn Rand, eds. Douglas J. Den Uyl and Douglas B. Rasmussen (Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press

29. Leonard Peikoff, (1991); Objectivism: The Philosophy of Ayn Rand, The Ayn Rand Library, Vol. VI , New York, NY: Meridian, and Ronald E. Merrill, (1991).The Ideas of Ayn Rand. Chicago, IL: Open Court

30. J. Charles King (1984), "Life and the Theory of Value: The Randian Argument Reconsidered," in The Philosophic Thought of Ayn Rand, eds. Douglas J. Den Uyl and Douglas B. Rasmussen ,Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press.

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues

Lost Generation According to the Moveable Feast by Ernest Hemingway

Abstract TAISIA MUZAFAROVA

The article is dedicated to the origination of the term “une génération perdue” (the lost generation) and its literary background. It includes the brief information about post-war decade, enumerating the values and morals of the period. The research was based on the “Moveable Feast”, the autobiographical novel by Ernest Hemingway, depicting the years spent in Paris with a group of young friends, who later will enrich the world with their literary/artistic masterpieces, namely Gertrude Stein, F. Scott Fitzgerald and many other.

 M.A. Student, Faculty of Education Management, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues

Lost Generation According to the Moveable Feast by Ernest Hemingway

The Brief Description of the Results and Economic Effects of the WWI

They shall not grow old, as we that are left grow old: Age shall not weary them, nor the years condemn At the going down of the sun and in the morning We will remember them.

Poem by Laurence Binyon's first published in The Times just before the bloody Battle of Loos in March 1915.

World War I (1914-1918) was a global war centered in Europe. It was predominantly called the World War or the Great War until the start of World War II in 1939. The unprecedented rate of casualties in the US caused a great social trauma. For years afterwards, people mourned the dead and the missing. Families were altered by the departure of fathers, husbands and sons. Many soldiers returned disabled or suffering from the posttraumatic stress disorder. The death of the primary wage earners made women forced to join the workforce in unprecedented number. WWT further compounded the gender imbalance, which resulted in the phenomenon of surplus women, increasing the gender gap by almost a million. Many changes took place in the society that shattered people’s beliefs in traditional values of love, faith, and manhood. The war set new standards for the immorality and death. The new generations was overwhelmed by the feeling of great moral and psychological aimlessness. The optimism of la belle époque was destroyed.

The Term “Lost Generation” – Origination and Meaning The term “Lost Generation” has two meanings, in general it is the post-World War I generation. But specifically it is a group of U.S. writers who went through the war and established their literary reputations in mid 1920s. Though several stories conjecture on how the

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues

Lost Generation came to be called thus, the most plausible seems to be this: One summer in Belley, while Gertrude Stein's Ford auto was in need of some repair, it was serviced quickly by a young garage mechanic at the hotel where she was staying. When she mentioned the young man's efficiency to the proprietor, her friend M. Pernollet, he replied that boys of his age made good workers, though it was different with the ones who had gone to war. Young men became civilized between the ages of 18 and 25, while the soldiers had missed that civilizing experience. They were, he said, une génération perdue. Stein, in telling Hemingway the story, added, "That is what you are. That's what you all are ... all of you young people who served in the war. You are a lost generation." (Hemingway, 1996) The phrase was later popularized by Ernest Hemingway, as he used it as an epigraph for his novel “The Sun Also Rises”, a novel that portrays the lives of men and women whose adulthood was consumed by the World War I. Because of the popularity of the novel, the term stayed associated with the writers of the period. However, in the letter to his editor, Hemingway states that the “point of the book” was not about the generation being lost but that “the earth abideth forever”. He believed the characters in the novel may have been “battered’ but not lost. (Baker, 1972) The three best known writers among The Lost Generation are F. Scott Fitzgerald, Ernest Hemingway and John Dos Passos. Others among the list are distinguished artists like: John Steinbeck, T.S. Eliot, Waldo Peirce, Isadora Duncan, Abraham Walkowitz, Alan Seeger, Erich Marian Remarque, Sherwood Anderson, Kay Boyle, Hart Crane, Ford Maddox Ford and Zelda Fitzgerald. These literary figures criticized American culture in their fictional stories. For example, Fitzgerald's This Side of Paradise shows the young generation of the 1920's masking their general depression behind the forced exuberance of the Jazz Age. The novel originally entitled “The Romantic Egoist” was his first book portraying the life of the former soldiers who fought in the war. Fitzgerald depicts it according to his own experience in the army during the World War I. In the Great Gatsby the main characters are wearing the mask of happiness to hide the real sadness and loneliness of their lives. Fitzgerald has brilliant understanding of lives that are corrupted by greed. “There are only the pursued, the pursuing, the busy, and the tired…It occurred to me that there was no difference between men, in intelligence or race, so profound as the difference between the sick and the well” (Fitzgerald, 1925) The novel is a product mirroring

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues the reality of its generation. “So we beat on, boats against the current, borne back ceaselessly into the past.” (Fitzgerald, 1925)

The Importance of Being Ernest His books are seldom read today, and his legend almost a faded memory. But in the 1930s and 1940s Ernest Hemingway was a literary idol--and role model for young writers who imitated his sparse prose and adventurous lifestyle. Hemingway's novels pioneered a new style of writing which many generations after tried to imitate. Hemingway in turn derived his style from Gertrude Stein, who was then his mentor and patron. His wartime experiences as an ambulance driver (WWI) formed the basis for many of his novels. In his memoir “A Moveable Feast” published posthumously he depicts the story of a young artist living in Paris. The book is a tribute to the numerous characters he met. The author identifies himself with the main character of the story. It is often funny with the drop of sadness. A Moveable Feast looks more as a collection of funny episodes, than a coherent narration. Hemingway moves from subject to subject, creating the portraits of the people his character meets and the atmosphere of Paris at the time. The figures he describes in the book include F.S. Fitzgerald and his troubles relationship with his wife and of course Gertrude Stein, a grand dame of letters – a great mentor to Hemingway, a distinguished innovator in literature. In the book, the author describes the great deal of drinking, and his extreme poverty which is considered to be autobiographical. More than that, he expresses no regret about his alcoholism (to the known extend) as he considered it to be one of the characteristics of the “lost generation”. Wandering around the streets of Paris, sitting in cafés with a notebook and a pencil and attempting to fix the world in words as it walks past the window, is the meat and bones of this engrossing self-portrait. Witty, brilliant, at times incredibly touching, A Moveable Feast is the product of a great master looking back through the mists of time and desperately wishing for a youth that was long past. “If you are lucky enough to have lived in Paris as a young man, then wherever you go for the rest of your life, it stays with you, for the Paris is a moveable feast.”

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues (Ernest Hemingway, to a friend, 1950) These words show Ernest at his best, as no one has written about Paris as well as Hemingway.

References:

1. American Authors. Hemigway: A look back. (2011) retrieved on 01.11.2012 from http://www.americanlegends.com/authors/

2. Baker, Carlos (1972). Hemingway, the writer as artist. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press.

3. Desnoyers, Megan F. "Ernest Hemingway: A Storyteller's Legacy," JFK Presidential Library and Museum, retrieved on 01.11.2012 from http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/Hemingway+Archive/Online+Resources/ eh_storyteller.htm, Accessed 18 February 2009.

4. Fitzgerald, Scott F. (1925). The Great Gatsby. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. ISBN 0-7432-7356-7

5. Hemingway, Ernest (1996). A Movable Feast. New York:Scribner. ISBN 0-684-82499-X

6. Mellow, James R. (1991). Charmed Circle: Gertrude Stein and Company, p,273. New York: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-47982-7.

7. Mellow, James R. (1992). Hemingway: A Life Without Consequences. New York: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-37777-3.

9. THE LOST GENERATION: AMERICAN WRITERS OF THE 1920'S retrieved from 01.11.2012 from http://www.montgomerycollege.edu/Departments/hpolscrv/jbolhofer.html

10. The Lost Generation: the myth and the reality. Aftermath – when the boys came home. Retrieved on 01.11.2012 from http://www.aftermathww1.com/lostgen.asp on 1 November 2012.

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues

Sallinger’s Novel The Catcher in the Rye and the Beginning of American Counterculture

TAMAR KOBESHAVIDZE

The counterculture in the United States lasted roughly from 1964 to 1972 — coincident with America's involvement in Vietnam (1955-1975) — and reached its peak in 1967, the "summer of love". In the 1960's, young people questioned America's materialism and cultural and political norms, much as they've always done. Americans in that era faced many controversial issues-from civil rights, the Vietnam War, nuclear arms, and the environment to drug use, sexual freedom, and nonconformity; they were moved by racial injustice, fear of nuclear annihilation, and the rampant materialism of capitalist society. As the 1960s progressed, widespread tensions developed in American society that tended to flow along generational lines regarding traditional modes of authority, and a materialist interpretation of the American Dream. Most members of the counterculture were white, middle-class young Americans whose lifestyle integrated many of the ideals and indulgences of the time: peace, love, harmony, music, mysticism, and religions outside the Judeo-Christian tradition, especially Zen Buddism. They used music, politics, and alternative lifestyles to create what came to be known as the counterculture. Some children of the sixties counterculture dropped out and left the cities for the countryside to experiment with utopian lifestyles. Away from urban problems and suburban sameness, they built new lives structured around shared political goals, organic farming, community service, and the longing to live simply with one's peers. The movement divided the country: to some Americans, these attributes reflected American ideals of free speech, equality, world peace, and the pursuit of happiness; to others,

 Associate Professor, Akaki Tsereteli Kutaisi State University, Kutaisi, Georgia.

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues they reflected a self-indulgent, pointlessly rebellious, unpatriotic, and destructive assault on America's traditional moral order. Parents argued with their children and worried about their children's personal safety, while the children worried about the world's future. Some adults accepted elements of the counterculture, while others became estranged from sons and daughters. J. D. Salinger produced the first shock to the tranquil suburban landscape with the publication of The Catcher in the Rye in 1951, a decade earlier than the countercultural movement began. Caufield’s rejection of the regimentation and “phoniness” of the world around him resonated with the struggle for meaning that drove the Beat Generation. Salinger’s rejection of traditional middle-class values signaled the first widely recognized public stand against the cultural conformist pressure. The novel was pronounced not only anti – Catholic, but somehow also “pro – Jewish and pro- Negro.” The novelist was accused of being so subversive, that he was “vehemently anti-army”, even “anti- American.” Few American novels of the postwar era have elicited as much scholarly and critical attention as The Catcher in the Rye. It has served as a firestorm for controversy and debate. Critics have argued the moral issues raised by the book and the context in which it is presented, as it possesses many of the middle class value that claims to reject. It got into the list of the most banned books in schools libraries, curricula and public libraries. In 1973 the American School Board Journal called the book “monster best-seller”, “the most widely censored book in the United States” and the most frequently taught novel in public schools. Nearly a decade later it was noted as “the most frequently censored book across the nation and the second – most frequently taught novel in public high schools” (Whitfield, 1997). Nevertheless The Catcher in the Rye was banned in from many schools libraries because of the sexual context, offensive language used, and melancholy nature. The challenger to the novel even have continued well into the 1990`s. In 1992, parents in the Corona - Norco ,California School district protested the use of the novel as a required reading , because it was “centered around negative activity.” The other important fact about scandal reputation of the novel is that in December 1980, with a copy of Salinger`s novel, Mark David Chapman murdered John Lennon. Before the police arrived, the assassin began reading the novel to himself and when he was sentenced,

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues read the passage that begins with ”anyway, I keep picturing all these little kids” and ends with “ I would just be the catcher in the rye and all (Whitfield, 1997). John Hinckley, Jr. described himself in his high school days as “ a rebel without a cause “ and was shocked to hear that Lennon had been murdered. A year later Hinckley himself tried to kill President Reagan. In Hinckley`s hotel room, police found, along with a 1981 John Lennon colour calendar, Salinger`s novel among a half- dozen paperbacks. Many people believed that their (Chapman`s and Hinckley`s) disaffection were similar to Holden Caulfield. There were critics who thought that the book “best presents the whole atmosphere of American life”. Carol and Richard Ohmann related the novel’s immense success to the political climate of the Cold War by trying to show that Caulfield provides a critique of the phoniness everywhere, “thinking constantly who or what was phony”. Although they trend to oversimplify both the text and the relationship between literature and history, they contend that the creator records “a serious critical mimesis of bourgeois life in the Eastern United States, ca.1950 - snobbery, privilege, class injury, culture as a badge of superiority, sexual exploitation, education subordinated to status, warped social feeling, competitiveness, stunted human possibility, the list could go on. “The Catcher in the Rye mirrors a contradiction of bourgeois society” and of “advanced capitalism”, which promises many good things but frustrates their acquisition and equitable distribution (Ohmann Carol and Richard, 1976). It was at this time where people weren’t allowed to do what they wanted to do. They couldn’t speak out or express their beliefs as well. In addition, there was a great deal of pressuring people, especially the young ones, to conform to the societal norm. This societal trend relates to the American Dream because the dream became more desirable. Since people were told to not do this or to not do that, they wanted to break the barriers of conformity and achieve their own dreams, like Holden Caulfield. He is upset with the world he is living in so he decides to break free from it. David Riesman's classic sociological study The Lonely Crowd was published one year before Catcher. Riesman's book aroused the same problem from which Holden Caulfield suffers (Rowe, 1991). American society impels individuals to "other-directedness", individuals seek their neighbors' approval and fear being outcast from their community. This lifestyle compels people to abandon "inner-direction" of their lives, and induces them to take on the goals, ideology, likes, and dislikes of their community. Instead of living according to traditions, or

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues conforming to the values of organized religion, of the family, or societal codes, the new middle class became the other-directed and identified themselves through references to others in their communities - what they earned, owned, consumed, believed in. Like Scott Fitzgerald, Salinger envisions American society as a kind of gigantic Midas, frozen at the heart and thus unable to mature. For all its wealth, its members cannot generate enough respect for their own humanity to care either for their past or their future. He was one of the first who suggests the idea of hippie life in literature. Decade later hippie culture became an important aspect of counterculture. A lot of young people moved to Southern California to create a new sense of community, where they could practice an alternative lifestyle in a warm climate. They raised organic food, espousing a back-to-nature lifestyle and helped popularize health- consciousness, yoga, and organic food in the United States. Hippies seldom worried whether they had money, hotel reservations or any of the other standard accoutrements of travel. They tended to travel light, and could pick up and go wherever the action was at any time. Fed up with the world that is dominated by falsity Holden asks Sally to run off to Massachusetts and Vermont with him, to live in cabin camps, in the wood, somewhere with a river: “I have about a hundred and eighty bucks in the bank…I could go down and get this guy’s car…we could live somewhere with a brook and all, later on, we could get married or something. I could chop all our own wood in the wintertime and all” (Salinger, 1968). Holden makes the mistake of trying to talk with Sally about his passions; he only confuses and frightens her. Sally was not the right girl to ask about such a venture. She is a practical girl, ambitious in conventional ways, greedy, a bit of a social climber, who will get what she wants when she wants it, because she always has. Sally is neither spontaneous nor sensitive. She has little imagination and suggests thinking about all this after college. Holden realizes that nothing good is expected in their trivial, boring and primitive future: “there wouldn’t be marvelous places to go to after I went college and all. Open your ears. It’d be entirely different. We’d have to go downstairs in elevators with suitcases and stuff. We’d have to phone up everybody and tell ‘em good-by and send ‘em postcards from hotels and all……It would be the same at all” (Salinger, 1968). Most members of the counterculture confessed religions outside the Judeo-Christian tradition, especially Zen Buddism. The British Rider edition of the Essays in Zen Buddhism

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues came out in both London and New York in August of 1949. The first American edition of the book appeared in New York City on May 10, 1950, published by HarperCollins (then called “Harper Brothers”). The publication of Catcher by Little, Brown and Co. just over a year later, on July 16, 1951, means that Suzuki’s book was available to Salinger in its earlier British edition during his writing of the novel’s first draft and, in its American edition, during his completion of the draft in spring and summer1950. (McCort, 1997) Although Salinger nowhere mentions Suzuki’s Essays by name as his source for the ducks, the circumstantial evidence for his having worked with this well-known introductory text during the writing of Catcher is compelling. There are indeed traces of Zen in Catcher, at least two traces that are woven into character and narrative. Symbolic echoes of other literature in the work of a great writer are usually a matter of deliberate encoding. At the beginning of the novel Holden Caulfield dutifully listened to the wisdom told him by his history teacher Mr. Spencer, but in the back of his mind an odd question asserts itself: “I was thinking about the lagoon in Central Park . . . wondering where the ducks went when the lagoon got all icy and frozen over.” Holden, of course, knows nothing of Zen, but Salinger wants the reader to think of him as working on a koan. The matter of the Central Park ducks like a good koan will not leave him alone until he comes to terms with the central problem of his life. Koan is a story, dialogue, question, or statement, which is used in Zen-practice to provoke the "great doubt", and test a student's progress in Zen practice. The aim of a koan is to frustrate the binary or structure of ordinary consciousness. Salinger’s source for the motif is an anecdote contained in D. T. Suzuki Essays in Zen Buddhism which initially appeared in New York in August of 1949 while the author was hard at work on the first draft of Catcher (McCort, 1997). In Essay 5, entitled “On Satori -The Revelation of a New Truth in Zen Buddhism,” Suzuki relates the following: Hyakujo (Pai-chang Huai-hai, 724-814) one day went out attending his master Baso (Ma-tsu). A flock of wild geese was seen flying and Baso asked: “What are they?” “They are wild geese, sir”. “Whither are they flying?” “They have flown away, sir”.

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues

Baso, abruptly taking hold of Hyakujo’s nose, gave it a twist. Hyakujo's sees only change (duck coming and going), the master wants to call his attention to the other side of the issue (all the same the geese have been here from the very beginning): change and permanence, the transitory and the abiding, are one and the same, an inseparable identity of opposites. Holden’s preoccupation with the ducks is clearly a symbolic extension of this traditional Zen anecdote as recounted in Suzuki's Essays. Hyakujo's mondo become Holden's koan, he has to discover that changeless inviolate innocence that never flies away but "all the same has been here from the very beginning". The fourth and final duck-episode finds Holden wandering around Central Park in half-drunken confusion as he presses on with the quest: “I figured I’d go by that little lake and see what the hell the ducks were doing, see if they were around or not”. After much fruitless groping and stumbling, “Then, finally, I found it. What it was, it was partly frozen and partly not frozen. But I didn’t see any ducks around. I walked all around the whole damn lake - I damn near fell in once, in fact- but I didn`t see a single duck” (Salinger,1968). There are in this sequence several allusions to the traditional ordeal of the spiritual path. For example Holden complains, “I was feeling so damn depressed and lonesome. . . . I wasn’t tired or anything. I just felt blue as hell”. Also, as one would expect, the motif of darkness is emphasized: “Boy, was it dark. . . I kept walking and walking, and it kept getting darker and darker and spookier and spookier” (Salinger, 1968). In its subjective aspect, the darkness motif embodies the anguish of being utterly lost. Finally, there is Holden’s eventual discovery of the duck less lagoon, “partly frozen and partly not frozen.” The qualities of frozenness and fluidity echo Holden’s like koan, that is, the painful contradiction between permanence and change. From the Zen point of view, to resolve one contradiction is to resolve them all - since the distinction between the one and the many is itself a delusion. Every koan, upon solution, shows the same Absolute. Holden needs to go home and he needs to leave it. He fears for the duck when the lagoon freezes over, for he is a duck himself with no place to go. Holden’s Divine Madness begins with his sudden announcement of his decision to “go home,” made to Phoebe at the carrousel. Perhaps here too Salinger had in mind Suzuki, who describes Enlightenment as the return of conscious: “own original abode where there was yet no dualism, and therefore peace prevailed” (McCort, 1997). The whole affair [i.e., life] changes its aspect: what was negative is

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues now positive, and what was positive is now negative. For better or worse, Holden is beginning to grow up; but he is far from any kind of triumph. He will go home and soon collapse, resulting in his stay at the sanitarium in California. We cannot know how he will be in the future. Salinger does not spoon-feed the reader a "happy" ending. Salinger’s novel The Catcher in the Rye ended up as an emblem of counterculture in the 1950`s and 60`s – a symbol of alienation and isolation for the disillusioned and restless postwar generation. Salinger`s own isolation from society only implies the mystery and allure of this important book. We leave Holden alone in his room in the psychiatric ward, we are aware of the book’s last incongruity. It is not Holden who should be examined for a sickness of the mind, but the world in which he has sojourned and found himself an alien.

References: 1. McCort, D. (1997). Hyakujo’s Geese,Amban’s Doughnuts, and Rilke’s Carrousel: Soursec East and West for Salinger’s Catcher. Comparative Literature Studies, 34, no.3, 119 -134.

2. Ohmann, C. and Ohmann, R.(1976, Autumn). Reviewers, Critics, and The Catcher in the Rye. Critical Inquiry 3, no.1,15-37

3. Rowe, J.(1991 . Holden Caulfield and American Protest. New Essays on the Catcher in the Rye, ed. Jack Salzman. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

4. Salinger, J. (1968). The Catcher in the Rye. Moscow: Progress Publishers.

5. Whitefield, S. J. (1997, December). Cherished and Cursed: Toward a Social History of The Catcher in the Rye. New England Quarterly 70.no.4, 135-157

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues

Top Politician Women

ELENE SHENGELIA

Introduction Throughout most of American history women generally have had fewer legal rights and career opportunities than men. Wifehood and motherhood were regarded as women’s most significant professions. Among many limitations there was no right for women to vote that was considered to be only men’s prerogative. All this continued until 1920 when women were granted suffrage but their political roles have been minimal. There were few women who indirectly managed to have an influence upon American politics. The first greatest politician woman was GERALDINE FERRARO. Geraldine Anne Ferraro (August 26, 1935 – March 26, 2011) was born in Newburgh, New York the daughter of Antonetta L. Ferraro, a first-generation Italian American seamstress, and Dominick Ferraro, an Italian immigrant and owner of two restaurants. Her father died of a heart attack in May 1944, when she was eight .Ferraro's mother soon invested and lost the remainder of the family's money, forcing the family to move to a low-income area in the South Bronx while Ferraro's mother worked in the garment industry to support them. Beginning in 1947, she attended and lived at the parochial Marymount Academy in Tarrytown, New York, using income from a family rental property in Italy and skipping seventh grade. At Marymount Ferraro was a member of the honor society, active in several clubs and sports, voted most likely to succeed, and graduated in 1952. Her mother was adamant that she get a full education despite an uncle in the family saying, "Why bother? She's pretty. She's a girl. She'll get married." Ferraro attended Marymount Manhattan College with a scholarship while sometimes holding two or three jobs at the same time. During her senior year she began dating John Zaccaro. Ferraro received a Bachelor of Arts in English in 1956; she was the first woman in her family to gain a college degree. She also passed the city exam to become a licensed school teacher. Ferraro began

 Junior Student, Faculty of Humanities, Direction of American Studies, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues working as an elementary school teacher in public schools in Astoria, Queens. She earned a Juris Doctor degree with honors from Fordham University School of Law in 1960, going to classes at night while continuing to work as a second-grade teacher at school. Ferraro was one of only two women in her graduating class of 179. She was admitted to the bar of New York State in March 1961. Ferraro became engaged to Zaccaro in August 1959 and married him on July 16, 1960.The couple had three children. After that she joined the Queens County District Attorney's Office in 1974, where she headed the new Special Victims Bureau that dealt with sex crimes, child abuse, and domestic violence. She was elected to the House in 1978, where she rose rapidly in the party hierarchy while focusing on legislation to bring equity for women in the areas of wages, pensions, and retirement plans. In 1984, former Vice President and presidential candidate Walter Mondale selected Ferraro to be his running mate in the upcoming election. In doing so she became the only Italian American to be a major-party national nominee in addition to being the first woman. The positive polling the Mondale-Ferraro ticket received when she joined faded as questions about her and her husband's finances arose. In the general election, Mondale and Ferraro were defeated in a landslide by incumbent President Ronald Reagan and Vice President George H. W. Bush. In 1980, Ferraro co-founded the National Organization of Italian American Women, which sought to support the educational and professional goals of its members and put forward positive role models in order to fight ethnic stereotyping. Ferraro ran campaigns for a seat in the United States Senate from New York in 1992 and 1998, both times starting as the front-runner for her party's nomination before losing in the primary election. She served as a United States Ambassador to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights from 1993 until 1996, in the presidential administration of Bill Clinton. Bill Clinton claimed that she was “a highly effective voice for the human rights of women around the world”. The Clinton administration named Ferraro vice-chair of the U.S. delegation to the landmark September 1995 Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing; in this role she picked a strong team of experts in human rights issues to serve with her. During her stint on the commission, it for the first time condemned anti-Semitism as a human rights violation, and also for the first time prevented China from blocking a motion criticizing its human rights record. Regarding a previous China motion that had failed, Ferraro had told the commission, "Let us do what we were sent here to do—decide important questions of human rights on their merits, not

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues avoid them." Ferraro held the U.N. position into 1996. She also continued her career as a journalist, author, and businesswoman, and served in the 2008 presidential campaign of Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton. Ferraro died on March 26, 2011, from multiple myeloma, 12 years after being diagnosed. Another top woman is ABIGAIL ADAMS. Abigail Adams (November 22, 1744 – October 28, 1818) was the wife of John Adams, who was the second President of the United States, and the mother of John Quincy Adams, the sixth. She was the first Second Lady of the United States, and the second First Lady of the United States. Adams is remembered for the many letters she wrote to her husband while he stayed in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, during the Continental Congresses. John frequently sought the advice of Abigail on many matters, and their letters are filled with intellectual discussions on government and politics. The letters serve as eyewitness accounts of the American Revolutionary War home front as well as excellent sources of political commentary. Abigail Adams was born at the North Parish Congregational Church in Weymouth, Massachusetts, to Reverend William Smith and Elizabeth Smith. On her mother's side she was descended from the Quincy family, a well-known political family in the Massachusetts colony. Through her mother she was a cousin of Dorothy Quincy, wife of John Hancock. Adams was also the great-granddaughter of the Rev. John Norton, founding pastor of Old Ship Church in Hingham, Massachusetts, the only remaining 17th-century Puritan meetinghouse in Massachusetts. Adams was a sickly child and was not considered healthy enough for formal schooling. Although she did not receive a formal education, her mother taught her and her sisters. As third cousins, Abigail and John had known each other since they were children. The couple married on October 25, 1764, five days before John's 29th birthday In 10 years, she gave birth to six children. Abigail Adams was an advocate of married women's property rights and more opportunities for women, particularly in the field of education. Women, she believed, should not submit to laws not made in their interest, nor should they be content with the simple role of being companions to their husbands. They should educate themselves and thus be recognized for their intellectual capabilities, so they could guide and influence the lives of their children and husbands. She is known for her March, 1776 letter to John and the Continental Congress, requesting that they, “remember the ladies, and be more generous and favorable to

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues them than your ancestors. Do not put such unlimited power into the hands of the Husbands. Remember all Men would be tyrants if they could. If particular care and attention is not paid to the Ladies we are determined to foment a Rebellion, and will not hold ourselves bound by any Laws in which we have no voice, or Representation”. Along with her husband, Adams believed that slavery was evil and a threat to the American democratic experiment. A notable incident regarding this happened in Philadelphia in 1791, where a free black youth came to her house asking to be taught how to write. Subsequently, she placed the boy in a local evening school, though not without objections from a neighbor. Adams responded that he was "a Freeman as much as any of the young Men and merely because his Face is Black, is he to be denied instruction? How is he to be qualified to procure a livelihood? … I have not thought it any disgrace to myself to take him into my parlor and teach him both to read and write. Abigail Adams died on October 28, 1818, of typhoid fever. She is buried beside her husband in a crypt located in the United First Parish Church in Quincy, Massachusetts. She was 73 years old; exactly two weeks shy of her 74th birthday. Her last words were, "Do not grieve, my friend, my dearest friend. I am ready to go. And John, it will not be long." Women mostly appeared in American politics in the 20th century and occupied the highest political positions in the United States government that was previously considered to be men’s job only. There are a few bright examples of this change who have gone down in American history as great stateswomen. Among them is MADELEINE ALBRIGHT.

Madeleine Korbelová Albright was born in the Smíchov district of Prague, Czechoslovakia. When in march 1938 Czechoslovakia disintegrated and got into Adolf Hitler’s hand The family was forced to exile to the united states for her father’s political beliefs. Albright spent the war years in England, while her father worked for Czechoslovak government-in-exile. They first lived on Kensington Park Road in Notting Hill, London, where they endured the worst of The Blitz, but later moved to Beaconsfield, then Walton-on-Thames, on the outskirts of London While in England, a young Albright appeared as a refugee child in a film designed to promote sympathy for all war refugees in London. Albright spent her teen years in Denver, and graduated from the Kent Denver School in Cherry Hills Village, a suburb of Denver, in 1955,

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues where she founded the school’s international relations club and was its first president. She attended Wellesley College, in Wellesley, Massachusetts, on a full scholarship, majoring in political science and graduated in 1959 .While home in Denver from Wellesley, Albright worked as an intern for The Denver Post, where she met Joseph Medill Patterson Albright. The couples were married in Wellesley in 1959, shortly after her graduation. In 1962, the family moved to Georgetown in Washington, D.C., and Albright began studying international relations and continued studying Russian at the Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies at Johns Hopkins University in Washington DC. She earned a certificate in Russian, a Masters of Arts and Doctor of Philosophy, writing her Master's thesis on the Soviet diplomatic corps, and her doctoral dissertation on the role of journalists in the Prague Spring of 1968. She also took a graduate course given by Zbigniew Brzezinski, who would later be her boss at the U.S. National Security Council. Albright joined the academic staff at Georgetown University in Washington, D.C., in 1982, specializing in Eastern European studies. She has also directed the University's program on women in global politics. She has also served as a major Democratic Party foreign policy advisor, and briefed Vice-Presidential candidate Geraldine Ferraro in 1984 and Presidential candidate Michael Dukakis in 1988 (both campaigns ended in defeat). In 1992, Bill Clinton returned the White House to the Democratic Party, and Albright was employed to handle the transition to a new administration at the National Security Council. In January 1993, Clinton nominated her to be U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations, her first diplomatic posting. In 1997 when Albright took office as the 64th U.S. Secretary of State she became the first female U.S. Secretary of State and the highest-ranking woman in the history of the U.S. government. She has also served as a major Democratic Party foreign policy advisor and briefed Vice- Presidential candidate Geraldine Ferraro in 1984 and presidential candidate Michael Dukasis in 1988.In 1992 bill Clinton returned the white house to the democrats and Albright was employed to handle the transition to a new administration at the National Security Council. Albright currently serves as a Professor of International Relations at Georgetown University's Walsh School of Foreign Service. She holds a PhD from Columbia University. She holds honorary degrees from Brandeis University (1996); the University of Washington (2002); Smith College (2003); University of Winnipeg (2005); the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (2007),

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues and Knox College (2008). In May 2012, she was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by US President Barack Obama. Secretary Albright also serves as a Director on the Board of the Council on Foreign Relations. She still stays in active politics and she is still considered to be highest-ranking woman in the history of the United States government. Madeleine Albright’s legacy was succeeded by Condoleezza Rice the 66th United States Secretary of the State the first African American woman holding the office. Rice was born in Birmingham, Alabama, the only child of Angelina Rice, a high school science, music, and oratory teacher, and John Wesley Rice, Jr., a high school guidance counselor and Presbyterian minister. Her name, Condoleezza, derives from the music-related term, con dolcezza, which in Italian means, "with sweetness". Rice has roots in the American South going back to the pre- Civil War era, and some of her ancestors worked as sharecroppers for a time after emancipation. Rice discovered on the PBS series Finding Your Roots that she is of 51% African, 40% European and 9% Native American or Asian genetic descent. Rice grew up in the Titusville neighborhood at a time when the South was racially segregated. In 1967, the family moved to Denver, Colorado. She attended St. Mary's Academy, an all-girls Catholic high school in Cherry Hills Village, Colorado, graduating in 1971. After studying piano at the Aspen Music Festival and School, Rice enrolled at the University of Denver, where her father was then serving as an assistant dean. She attended an international politics course taught by Josef Korbel, which sparked her interest in the Soviet Union and international relations. Rice later described Korbel (who was the father of Madeleine Albright, a future U.S. Secretary of State), as a central figure in her life. She obtained a master's degree in political science from the University of Notre Dame in 1975.In 1981, at the age of 26, she received her Ph.D. in political science from the Josef Korbel School of International Studies at the University of Denver. Rice was a Democrat until 1982, when she changed her political affiliation to Republican, in part because she disagreed with the foreign policy of Democratic President Jimmy Carter, and because of the influence of her father, who was Republican. As she told the 2000 Republican National Convention, "My father joined our party because the Democrats in Jim Crow Alabama of 1952 would not register him to vote. The Republicans did."At a 1985 meeting of arms control experts at Stanford, Rice's performance drew the attention of Brent Scowcroft, who had served as National Security

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues

Advisor under Gerald Ford. With the election of George H. W. Bush, Scowcroft returned to the White House as National Security Adviser in 1989, and he asked Rice to become his Soviet expert on the United States National Security Council. According to R. Nicholas Burns, President Bush was "captivated" by Rice, and relied heavily on her advice in his dealings with Mikhail Gorbachev and Boris Yeltsin. Rice was the first female African-American secretary of state, as well as the second African American and the second woman. Rice was President Bush's National Security Advisor during his first term, making her the first woman to serve in that position. Before joining the Bush administration, she was a professor of political science at Stanford University where she served as Provost from 1993 to 1999. As Secretary of State, Rice championed the expansion of democratic governments. Rice also reformed and restructured the department, as well as US diplomacy as a whole. "Transformational Diplomacy” is the goal that Rice describes as "work[ing] with our many partners around the world.” As Secretary of State, Rice traveled widely and initiated many diplomatic efforts on behalf of the Bush administration. Her diplomacy relied on strong presidential support and is considered to be the continuation of style defined by former Republican secretaries of state. While Secretary of State, she chaired the Millennium Challenge Corporation's board of directors. In March 2009, Rice returned to Stanford University as a political science professor and the Thomas and Barbara Stephenson Senior Fellow on Public Policy at the Hoover Institution. In September 2010, Rice became a faculty member of the Stanford Graduate School of Business and a director of its Global Center for Business and the Economy. Among other famous women in American politics is Nancy Pelosi. Nancy a D’Alessandro Pelosi. Pelosi is Italian-American and was born Nancy Patricia D’Alessandro in Baltimore, Maryland, the youngest of six children. Her father was a Democratic party U.S. Congressman from Maryland and her brother also a Democrat, was mayor of Baltimore from 1967 to 1971. Pelosi was involved with politics from an early age. In her outgoing remarks as the 60th Speaker of the House, Pelosi noted that she had been present at John F. Kennedy's inaugural address as President in January 1961. She graduated from the Institute of Notre Dame, a Catholic all-girls high school in Baltimore, and from Trinity College. She met Paul Frank Pelosi while she was attending Trinity College. They married in Baltimore at the Cathedral of Mary Our Queen on

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues

September 7, 1963. After moving to San Francisco, Pelosi worked her way up in Democratic politics. She became a friend of one of the leaders of the California Democratic Party, 5th District Congressman Phillip Burton. In 1976, Pelosi was elected as a Democratic National Committee member from California, a position she would hold until 1996. She was elected as party chair for Northern California on January 30, 1977, and for the California Democratic Party, which she held from 1981 until 1983. In 1976, Pelosi was elected as a Democratic National Committee member from California, a position she would hold until 1996. She was elected as party chair for Northern California on January 30, 1977, and for the California Democratic Party, which she held from 1981 until 1983. Pelosi was appointed Finance Chair of the Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee, the campaign arm of the U.S. Senate Democrats, in 1985. That same year, she ran to succeed Chuck Manatt as chair of the Democratic National Committee, but lost to then-DNC Treasurer Paul G. Kirk. Pelosi left her post as DSCC finance chair in 1986. In the House, she served on the Appropriations and Intelligence Committees, and was the ranking Democrat on the Intelligence Committee until her election as Minority Leader. In 2001, Pelosi was elected the House Minority Whip, second-in-command to Minority Leader Dick Gephardt of Missouri. She was the first woman in U.S. history to hold that post. IN 2002, after Gephardt resigned as minority leader to seek the Democratic nomination in the 2004 presidential election, Pelosi was elected to replace him, becoming the first woman to lead a major party in the House. Pelosi is the first woman, the first Californian and first Italian-American to lead a major party in Congress. After the Democrats took control of the House in 2007 and increased their majority in 2009, Pelosi was elected Speaker of the House for the 110th and 111th Congresses. During that position Pelosi strongly opposed the plan of President George W. Bush-“Social Security” It wasn’t the only fact when Pelosi was against president Bush.IN 2007 Pelosi firm against impeachment. In 2008 she withstood a challenge for her seat. On November 17, 2010, Pelosi was elected as the Democratic Leader by House Democrats and therefore the Minority Leader in the Republican-controlled House for the Congress. Pelosi is the Minority Leader of the United States House of Representatives and served as the 60th Speaker of the United States House of Representatives from 2007 to 2011. She was the first woman to hold the office and to date has been the highest-ranking female politician in American history.

100

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues

Sarah Louise Palin is an American politician, commentator and author. Palin was born in Sandpoint, Idaho. She is the third of four children. When Palin was a few months old, the family moved to Skagway, Alaska, where her father received his teaching job. They relocated to Eagle River in 1969, and finally settled to Wasilla in 1972. Palin played flute in the junior high band, then attended Wasilla High School where she was the head of the Fellowship of Christian Athletes, and a member of the girls' basketball and cross country running teams. During her senior year, she was co-captain and point guard of the basketball team that won the 1982 Alaska state championship, earning the nickname "Sarah Barracuda" for her competitive streak. After graduating from high school, Palin enrolled at the University of Hawaii at Hilo. Shortly after arriving in Hawaii, Palin transferred to Hawaii Pacific University in Honolulu for a semester in the fall of 1982, and then to North Idaho College. In 1984, Palin won the Miss Wasilla beauty pageant, and then finished third in the Miss Alaska pageant. She played the flute in the talent portion of the contest, and received both the Miss Congeniality award and a college scholarship. Palin returned to the University of Idaho in January 1986, and received her bachelor's degree in communications with an emphasis in journalism in May 1987.After graduation; she worked as a sportscaster fulfilling an early ambition. On August 29, 1988, she eloped at age 24 with her high school sweetheart, Todd Palin. Following the birth of their first child, she helped in her husband's commercial fishing business. Palin was elected to the Wasilla City Council in 1992 winning 530 votes to 310. Throughout her tenure on the city council and the rest of her political career, Palin has been a Republican since registering in 1982.Concerned that revenue from a new Wasilla sales tax would not be spent wisely, Palin ran for mayor of Wasilla in 1996, defeating incumbent mayor John Stein 651 to 440 votes. Her biographer described her campaign as targeting wasteful spending and high taxes; her opponent, Stein, said that Palin introduced abortion, gun rights, and term limits as campaign issues. The election was nonpartisan, though the state Republican Party ran advertisements for Palin. Palin ran for re-election against Stein in 1999 and won, 909 votes to 292. In 2002, she completed the second of the two consecutive three- year terms allowed by the city charter. She was elected president of the Alaska Conference of Mayors in 1999.During her presidency she did many things: she improved the level of education

101

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues in Alaska, workforce development, public health and safety. Palin promoted development of oil and natural-gas resources in Alaska including drilling the ANWR (Arctic National Wildlife Refuge). In 2003, after an unsuccessful run for lieutenant governor, she was appointed Chairman of the Alaska Oil and Gas Conservation Commission, responsible for overseeing the state's oil and gas fields for safety and efficiency. The youngest person and first woman to be elected Governor of Alaska, Palin held the office from December 2006 until her resignation in July 2009.As the Republican Party nominee for Vice President in the 2008 presidential election, she was the first Alaskan on the national ticket of a major party and first Republican woman nominated for the vice presidency. Her book Going Rogue has sold more than two million copies. Since January 2010, she has provided political commentary for Fox News, and hosted a television show, Sarah Palin’s Alaska. She has since endorsed and campaigned for the Tea Party movement, as well as several candidates in the 2010 midterm elections. From the time of her Vice Presidential nomination in 2008, Palin was considered a potential candidate for the 2012 presidential election until she announced in October 2011 that she would not run.

Another top politician woman is Hilary Rodham Clinton. Hillary Diane Rodham was born at Edgewater Hospital in Chicago, Illinois. She was raised in a United Methodist family, first in Chicago and then, from the age of three, in suburban Park Ridge, Illinois. As a child, Hillary Rodham was a teacher's favorite at her public schools in Park Ridge. She participated in swimming, baseball, and other sports. She also earned numerous awards as a Brownie and Girl Scout. She attended Maine East High School, where she participated in student council, the school newspaper, and was selected for National Honor Society. For her senior year, she was redistricted to Maine South High School, where she was a National Merit Finalist and graduated in the top five percent of her class of 1965. Her mother wanted her to have an independent, professional career, and her father, otherwise a traditionalist, was of the opinion that his daughter's abilities and opportunities should not be limited by gender. Raised in a politically conservative household, at age thirteen Rodham helped canvass South Side Chicago following the very close 1960 U.S. presidential election, where she found evidence of electoral fraud against Republican candidate Richard Nixon. Rodham's early political development was shaped

102

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues most by her high school history teacher with whom she saw and met civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr., in Chicago in 1962.In 1965, Rodham enrolled at Wellesley College, where she majored in political science. During her freshman year, she served as president of the Wellesley Young Republicans. She later stepped down from this position, as her views changed regarding the American Civil Rights Movement and the Vietnam War. In a letter to her youth minister at this time, she described herself as "a mind conservative and a heart liberal. Following the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr., Rodham organized a two-day student strike and worked with Wellesley's black students to recruit more black students and faculty. In early 1968, she was elected president of the Wellesley College Government Association and served through early 1969. A number of her fellow students thought she might someday become the first woman President of the United States. Rodham attended the 1968 Republican National Convention in Miami. In 1969, she graduated with a Bachelor of Arts, with departmental honors in political science. Following pressure from some fellow students she became the first student in Wellesley College history to deliver its commencement address. Rodham then entered Yale Law School, where she served on the editorial board of the Yale Review of Law and Social Action. In the late spring of 1971, she began dating Bill Clinton, also a law student at Yale. Clinton canceled his original summer plans, in order to live with her in California; the couple continued living together in New Haven when they returned to law school. The following summer, Rodham and Clinton campaigned in Texas for unsuccessful 1972 Democratic presidential candidate George McGovern. She received a Juries Doctor degree from Yale in 1973, having stayed on an extra year to be with Clinton. Clinton first proposed marriage to her following graduation, but she declined. Rodham began a year of postgraduate study on children and medicine at the Yale Child Study Center. Her first scholarly article, "Children under the Law", was published in the Harvard Educational Review in late 1973. Discussing the new children's rights movement, it stated that "child citizens" were "powerless individuals “and argued that children should not be considered equally incompetent from birth to attaining legal age, but that instead courts should presume competence except when there is evidence otherwise, on a case-by-case basis. The article became frequently cited in the field.

103

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues

Meanwhile, Clinton had repeatedly asked her to marry him, and she continued to demur. However, after failing the District of Columbia exam and passing the Arkansas exam, Rodham came to a key decision. As she later wrote, "I chose to follow my heart instead of my head”. Hillary Rodham and Bill Clinton bought a house in Fayetteville in the summer of 1975, and Hillary finally agreed to marry. Their wedding took place on October 11, 1975, in a Methodist ceremony in their living room. Hillary Clinton received sustained national attention for the first time when her husband became a candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination of 1992. When Bill Clinton took office as president in January 1993, Hillary Rodham Clinton became the First Lady of the United States, and announced that she would be using that form of her name. She was the first First Lady to hold a postgraduate degree and to have her own professional career up to the time of entering the White House. She was also the first to have an office in the West Wing of the White House in addition to the usual First Lady offices in the East Wing. She is regarded as the most openly empowered presidential wife in American history, save for Eleanor Roosevelt. In 1994, as First Lady of the United States, her major initiative, the Clinton health care plan, failed to gain approval from the U.S. Congress. However, in 1997 and 1999, Clinton played a role in advocating the creation of the State Children's Health Insurance Program, the Adoption and Safe Families Act, and the Foster Care Independence Act. Her years as First Lady drew a polarized response from the American public. The only First Lady to have been subpoenaed, she testified before a federal grand jury in 1996 due to the Whitewater controversy, but was never charged with wrongdoing in this or several other investigations during her husband's administration. The state of her marriage was the subject of considerable speculation following the Lewinsky scandal in 1998. After moving to the state of New York, Clinton was elected as a U.S. Senator in 2000. That election marked the first time an American First Lady had run for public office; Clinton was also the first female senator to represent the state. In the Senate, she initially supported the Bush administration on some foreign policy issues, including a vote for the Iraq War Resolution. She subsequently opposed the administration on its conduct of the war in Iraq and on most domestic issues. Senator Clinton was reelected by a wide margin in 2006. In the 2008 presidential nomination race, Hillary Clinton won more primaries and delegates than any other female candidate in American history,

104

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues but narrowly lost to Illinois Senator Barack Obama. Obama went on to win the election and appoint Clinton as Secretary of State; Clinton became the first former First Lady to serve in a president's cabinet. She has put into place institutional changes seeking to maximize departmental effectiveness and promote the empowerment of women worldwide, and has set records for most-traveled secretary for time in office. She has been at the forefront of the U.S. response to the Arab Spring, including advocating for the military intervention in Libya. She has used "smart power" as the strategy for asserting U.S. leadership and values in the world and has championed the use of social media in getting the U.S. message out. During her lifetime she did many things and she is still active politician woman. She was the 67thUnited States Secretary of State, serving in the administration of President Barack Obama. She was a United States Senator for New York from 2001 to 2009. As the wife of the 42ndPresident of the United States, Bill Clinton, she was the First Lady of the United States from 1993 to 2001. In the 2008 election, Clinton was a leading candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination.

Conclusion My cited examples about those top politician women are very few from what they had done. This fact says that “fragile creature” as men say can manage everything they can do everything to fulfill their goals. There are no doors they can’t unlock. My presentation is the provement of the fact that women are good politicians. By choosing woman to run nation’s second highest office you send a powerful signal to all Americans. We women can be successful politicians we can make serious decisions and bring the peace to our nations. My wish is and the future will also prove that women throughout the world and American women together never will be the second-class citizens again.

References:

1. “Geraldine A Ferraro” n.d. retrieved October 17, 2012.From http://www.biography.com/people/geraldine-a-ferraro-9293789?page=1 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geraldine_Ferraro

2. “The National First Lady’s library “n.d. Retrieved October 17.2012 from http://www.firstladies.org/biographies/firstladies.aspx?biography=2

105

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues

3. “Abigail Adams” n.d. Retrieved October 17.2012 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abigail_Adams

4. “Abigail Adams” n.d. Retrieved October 17.2012 from http://www.abigailadams.org/

5. “Madeleine Albright “n.d. Retrieved October 17, 2012 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madeleine_Albright http://secretary.state.gov/www/albright/albright.html http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/09/03/madeleine-albright-mitt- romney_n_1852789.html

6. “Condoleezza Rice “n.d. Retrieved October 17, 2012 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condoleezza_Rice http://fsi.stanford.edu/people/condoleezza_rice

7. “NANCY PELOSY” n.d. Retrieved October 17, 2012 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nancy_Pelosi http://www.democraticleader.gov/

8. “Sarah Palin”n.d. Retrieved October 17, 2012 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah_Palin http://www.huffingtonpost.com/news/sarah-palin/

9. “Hillary Rodham Clinton” n.d. Retrieved October 17, 2012 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillary_Rodham_Clinton http://www.state.gov/secretary/ http://www.courant.com/topic/politics/government/hillary-clinton-PEPLT007433.topic

106

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues

American Women’s History from 1500 till Present

MARIAM ABDUSHELISHVILI

“History of women in the United States” is the topic of the following material. This huge information about American women’s history is divided into several parts. It begins from the 16th century and ends in 2011. Here is discussed how women gain their goals, how they achieved the rights which they have now. In the past years women in America did not have right to own property. They should be housewives and raise their children as the proper citizens. Women could not read and write and they were subservient to their fathers and after marriage to their husbands. But time passed and they gain freedom. Today they have very important achievements in education, in their career, in politics, etc. despite of the abuses and difficulties they had. How they could? How they revealed their protests? What kind of policy and plans they had? To obtain the answers of these questions you should read the following material.

1500–1600 The first European settlement inside what is now United States territory was founded in 1526.In that year a judge from Santo Domingo, obtained from Charles I, King of Spain, a patent authorizing him to make settlements on the mainland of America, and to Christianize the American natives. Accordingly, with 600 settlers, including women, men, and children, he sailed to America from Puerto de la Plata, San Domingo, with three small vessels. The settlers founded the colony of San Miguel de Gualdape at what is present-day Georgetown, South Carolina. This was the first European settlement in North America. It also contained the first slaves brought to America, about 100 African people, who eventually staged a rebellion and fled into the forest, where they may have taken refuge with the Native Americans. In any case, owing to the severity

 Junior Student, Faculty of Humanities, Direction of American Studies, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

107

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues of winter, the hostility of the Native Americans, and internal discord, in the spring of 1527 all the settlers, under the leadership of Francis Gomez, re-embarked for Santo Domingo in two of the vessels, one of which sank along with all on board, leaving only 150 of the people alive to reach their destination. (Schomp, 2008) Fort Caroline, the first French colony in the present-day United States, was founded in 1564 in what is today Jacksonville, Florida. About 300 people founded this colony, including four women, 110 sailors, 120 soldiers, some artisans, and some servants. However, in 1565 the Spanish destroyed the French colony and built their own settlement in nearby St. Augustine, which became the first permanent European settlement in the continental United States. The French at Fort Caroline had no idea that the Spanish were in the vicinity and were not prepared for this attack. The Spanish soldiers stormed through the unlocked gates of the fort early on the morning of September 20, 1565, easily capturing the fort and many of its defenders. It is believed that 40 or 50 of the French men escaped by leaping over the walls or taking refuge on boats in the river. All the French women and children who did not escape (there were about 50) were taken captive, and later shipped to Puerto Rico. The 140 or so men in the fort were killed. St. Augustine was established in 1565, with 800 people founding it, including less than one hundred women (the exact number is unknown), 500 soldiers, 200 sailors, and some married men, children, and officials; all were from Spain. (http://www.timepage.org/spl/13colony.html) The first English people to arrive in America were the members of the Roanoke Colony. This colony was established in what is now North Carolina in July 1587, with 17 women, 91 men, and 9 boys as the founding colonists. On August 18, 1587, Virginia Dare was born; she was the first English child born in the United States. (Johnson, 2006)

1600–1700 Matoaka was born about 1600 to the Native American chief Powhatan. Powhatan had numerous wives (each wife gave him a single child and then was sent back to her village to be supported by the paramount chief until she found another husband), and thus Matoaka had many half-brothers and half-sisters. Her mother’s name is unknown.

108

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues

She saved John Smith from being clubbed to death by her father in 1607. Smith told the story for the first time seventeen years after it supposedly happened. Early histories did establish that Matoaka befriended Smith and the Jamestown colony. She often went to the settlement and played games with the boys there. But as the colonists expanded their settlement further, the Virginia Indians felt their lands were threatened, and conflicts arose again. Matoaka was taken prisoner by the colonists while she was on a social visit in 1612, when she was seventeen, and was held hostage at Jamestown for over a year, during which time she converted to Christianity and agreed to marry John Rolfe. This marriage occurred in April 1614, resulting in her being given the name Rebecca Rolfe. She never married John Smith. Little is known about her life while imprisoned. Linwood "Little Bear" Custalow, in a 2007 book, asserted that Pocahontas was raped during this time. Matoaka's marriage to John Rolfe was the first recorded interracial marriage in American history. This marriage brought a peace between the English colonists and the Powhatans, and in 1615 Matoaka gave birth to her first child, Thomas. Matoaka and John Rolfe sailed to England in 1616. Matoaka proved popular with the English gentry, and she was presented at the court of King James I. In March 1617, Matoaka and John prepared to sail back to Virginia. However, the day before they were to leave, Matoaka died, probably of smallpox, and was buried at the parish church of St. George in Gravesend, England. (Egloft, 2011) Jamestown, the first English settlement in America, was established in 1607 in what is now Virginia. The first women to arrive in Jamestown, Mrs. Anne Forrest and her fourteen-year-old maid, Anne Burras, arrived in late 1608. In December 1608 Anne Burras married a carpenter and laborer named John Laydon in the first wedding ceremony held in Jamestown, and in 1609 they had a child named Virginia Laydon, who was the first child born in Jamestown. The first American slaves were brought to Jamestown in 1619.These slaves were from the Caribbean, and there were twenty of them, including three women. Also in 1619, 90 young single women from England went to Jamestown to become wives of the men there, with the women being auctioned off for 150 pounds of tobacco each, as that was the cost of each woman's travel to America. Such women were called "tobacco brides". There were many such voyages of women to America for this purpose. (Smith, 2007)

109

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues

On November 21, 1620, the Mayflower arrived in America (specifically in what is today Provincetown, Massachusetts), bringing the Pilgrims. There were 102 people aboard – 18 married women traveling with their husbands, seven unmarried women traveling with their parents, three young unmarried women, one girl, and 73 men. No women died during the Mayflower's voyage; however, 78% of the women died during their first winter in America, a far higher percentage than for men or children. The extremely high mortality rate among women is probably explainable by the fact the men were out in the fresh air, felling trees, building structures and drinking fresh New England water, while the women were confined to the damp and crowded quarters of the Mayflower, where disease would have spread much more quickly. Only five women survived their first winter in America. There were two notable firsts for American women in the 1600s. In 1648 Margaret Brent, an English immigrant to the Colony of Maryland, was the first woman in the English North American colonies to appear before a court of the Common Law. Appointed as Lord Baltimore's representative, on January 21, 1648, Brent attended the Provincial Court's assembly to request a voice in the council; she also asked for two votes in its proceedings (one as an independent landowner and the other as Lord Baltimore's attorney.) Governor Thomas Greene refused her request, as the assembly at the time considered such privileges for women to be reserved for queens. Brent left but said that she "Protested against all proceedings ... unless she may be present and have vote as aforesaid." In 1650 Anne Dudley Bradstreet became America's first published poet, with the publication of her book of poetry entitled The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung up in America. It was also published in London that same year, making Bradstreet the first female poet ever published in both England and the New World. In 1655 Elizabeth Key Grinstead, who was a slave in Virginia, won her freedom in a lawsuit based on her father's status as a free Englishman (her mother was a slave and her father was her mother's owner), helped by the fact that her father had baptized her as Christian in the Church of England. However, in 1662 the Virginia House of Burgesses passed a law stating that any child born in the colony would follow the status of its mother, slave or free. This was an overturn of a longheld principle of English Common Law, whereby a child's status followed that of the father;

110

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues it enabled white men who raped slave women to hide the mixed-race children born as a result and removed their responsibility to acknowledge, support, or emancipate those children.

1700–1800 The typical woman in colonial America (that is, America before the Revolutionary War) was expected to spin, sew, preserve food, cook, and clean while caring for her children and perhaps raising chickens and geese. Families tended to be large, and childbearing was dangerous to health in those days; so many women died from that and other causes that the term "now-wife" was coined to refer to a man's present wife as compared to those that he had previously lost. Often women were taught to read so that they could read the Bible, but few learned to write as it was thought that there was no reason a woman should know how to write. Furthermore, a colonial woman was expected to be subservient to her father until she married and then to her husband. Ministers often told their congregations that women were inferior to men and more inclined to sin and error. However, several colonial American women had notable accomplishments that are known to this day. (Larkin (2011)) The earliest known work of literature by an African American and by a slave, Lucy Terry's poem "Bars Fight," was composed in 1746 and was first published in 1855 in Josiah Holland's "History of Western Massachusetts ".The poem describes a violent incident that occurred between settlers and Native Americans in Deerfield, Massachusetts in 1746.This was the first published book by an African American. In 1756 Lydia Chapin Taft became the first woman in American history to vote, casting a vote in the local town hall meeting in place of her deceased husband. She voted that her town of Uxbridge (in Massachusetts colony) should increase the amount of money sent to help fight the French and Indian war. Women had the right to vote in some states in early American history, but soon lost it. In 1777 women lost the right to vote in New York, in 1780 women lost the right to vote in Massachusetts, and in 1784 women lost the right to vote in New Hampshire. Furthermore, women in all states except New Jersey lost the right to vote in 1787 when the Constitutional Convention placed voting qualifications in the hands of the states. From 1775 until 1807, the state constitution in New Jersey permitted all persons worth over fifty pounds to

111

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues vote; free black people and single women therefore had the vote until 1807, but not married women, who could have no independent claim to ownership of fifty pounds (anything they owned or earned belonged to their husbands by law). Deborah Sampson was the only woman who fought in the Revolutionary War (1775–1783). Women were not allowed to join the army, but in 1782 Deborah disguised herself as a man and joined the 4th Massachusetts Regiment, going by the name of Robert Shurtliff of Uxbridge and soon saw action in the front lines against the British. When shot in the thigh she removed the musket ball herself, fearful of having her identity discovered. However, her leg never healed properly, and her gender was finally revealed when she was hospitalized for a wound-related infection in 1783. But despite her deception, she was given an honorable discharge in recognition of her fine service. Furthermore, in the American Revolution women served on the battlefield as nurses and under many other jobs. In 1776 at the battle of Fort Washington, Margaret Corbin fired her husband's cannon after he was killed, and was herself severely wounded in the battle, later receiving a pension from Congress in recognition of her service, making her the first American woman ever to receive a government pension. During the Revolutionary War in March 1776, Abigail Adams wrote to her husband John Adams, who was one of the revisers and signers of the Declaration of Independence, stating, "And, by the way, in the new code of laws which I suppose it will be necessary for you to make, I desire you would remember the ladies and be more generous and favorable to them than your ancestors. Do not put such unlimited power into the hands of the husbands." However, John Adams replied in April 1776, "As to your extraordinary code of laws, I cannot but laugh...Depend upon it, we know better than to repeal our masculine systems." Whether John Adams said this in irony, expressing frustration with his male colleagues or in sincerity is unknown. The Declaration of Independence (written beginning in June 1776) and directed at the British monarch George III, who was asserting sovereignty through the Divine right of kings stated "All men are created equal" and did not mention women's rights. The Constitution, however, which was drafted after the King's claim of sovereignty, was defeated in the Revolutionary War, during a pre-government period of more than a decade, which was adopted

112

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues by a Ratification process, and which is the governing document in the United States, does not mention the term "Man" but refers to "Persons" or "People". (http://www.thelizlibrary.org/suffrage/abigail.htm) Two notable books published in the late 1700s by American women were American Cookery and The Gleaner. American Cookery, written in 1796 by Amelia Simmons, was the first known cookbook written by an American. It was popular and was published in many editions, but only four copies of the original 1796 edition are known to have survived The Gleaner, a three-volume book of political essays and plays published in 1798 by Judith Sergeant Murray, was the first self-published book by a woman in America. It became a minor classic, and was read by George Washington and John Adams.

1800–1900 During the Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804–1806), which was the first overland expedition undertaken by Americans to the Pacific coast and back, the Shoshone woman Sacagawea was the only woman to accompany the 33 members of the permanent party to the Pacific Ocean and back. She joined the expedition in November 1804, after the explorers made winter camp at Fort Mandan in present-day North Dakota. The two captains hired her husband, as an interpreter, with the understanding that she would come along to interpret the Shoshone language, which she did. Sacagawea was only about 16 and was pregnant at the time. The Cult of Domesticity, a new ideal of womanhood was also created at this time. This ideal rose from the reality that a 19th century middle-class family did not have to make what it needed in order to survive, as previous families had to, and therefore men could now work in jobs that produced goods or services while their wives and children stayed at home. The ideal woman became one who stayed at home and taught children how to be proper citizens. Nevertheless, many women of the time did work outside the home; for example, in the War of 1812 (1812– 1815) Mary Marshall and Mary Allen worked as nurses aboard American commodore Stephen Decatur's ship United States. Many women in the 19th century were involved in reform movements, particularly abolitionism. In 1831, Maria Stewart (who was African-American) began to write essays and

113

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues make speeches against slavery, promoting educational and economic self-sufficiency for African Americans. The first woman of any color to speak on political issues in public, Stewart gave her last public speech in 1833 before retiring from public speaking to work in women's organizations. Although her career was short, it set the stage for the African-American women speakers who followed; Frances Ellen Watkins Harper, Sojourner Truth, and Harriet Tubman, among others. Since more direct participation in the public arena was fraught with difficulties and danger many women assisted the movement by boycotting slave-produced goods and organizing fairs and food sales to raise money for the cause. For example, the Grimke sisters from South Carolina (Angelina and Sarah Grimke), received much abuse and ridicule for their abolitionist activity, which consisted of traveling throughout the North, lecturing about their first-hand experiences with slavery on their family plantation. Even so, many women's antislavery societies were active before the Civil War, the first one having been created in 1832 by free black women from Salem, Massachusetts Fiery abolitionist, Abby Kelley Foster, was an ultra-abolitionist, who also led Lucy Stone and Susan B. Anthony into the anti-slavery movement. Another important reform movement was the struggle of American women for education. In 1821, Emma Willard founded the Troy Female Seminary in Troy, New York, which was the first American educational institution to offer young women a college education equal to that given to young men. The first three women in the United States to earn and receive their bachelor's degrees – Mary Hosford, Elizabeth Smith Prall, and Mary Caroline Rudd – received them from Oberlin College in 1841; Oberlin College had become the first coeducational college in the United States in 1833. Furthermore, Oberlin was also the first college to grant a degree to an African-American woman, Mary Jane Patterson, in 1862. The first wave of feminism began with the Seneca Falls Convention, the first women's rights convention, held at the Wesleyan Chapel in Seneca Falls, New York, on July 19 and 20, 1848. This Convention was inspired by the fact that in 1840, when Elizabeth Cady Stanton met Lucretia Mott at the World Anti-Slavery Convention in London, the conference refused to seat Mott and other women delegates from America because of their gender. Stanton, the young bride of an antislavery agent, and Mott, a Quaker preacher and veteran of reform, talked then of calling

114

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues a convention to address the condition of women. An estimated three hundred women and men attended the Convention, including notables Lucretia Mott and Frederick Douglass. At the conclusion, 68 women and 32 men signed the "Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions", which was written by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and the M'Clintock family. It went on to specify female grievances in regard to the laws denying married women ownership of wages, money, and property, women's lack of access to education and professional careers, and the lowly status accorded women in most churches. Furthermore, the Declaration declared that women should have the right to vote. Two weeks later a Woman's Rights Convention was held in Rochester, New York on August 2.It was followed by state and local conventions in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York. The first National Woman's Rights Convention was held in Worcester, Massachusetts in 1850.Women's rights conventions were held regularly from 1850 until the start of the Civil War. Women continued to be active in reform movements in the second half of the 19th century. In 1851 former slave Sojourner Truth gave a famous speech, called "Ain't I a Woman?" at the Women's Convention in Akron, Ohio. In this speech she condemned the attitude that women were too weak to have equal rights with men, noting the hardships she herself had endured as a slave. In 1866, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony formed the American Equal Rights Association, an organization for white and black women and men dedicated to the goal of suffrage for all. In 1868 the Fourteenth Amendment was passed, this was the first Amendment to ever specify the voting population as "male". In 1869 the women's rights movement split into two factions as a result of disagreements over the Fourteenth and soon-to-be-passed Fifteenth Amendments, with the two factions not reuniting until 1890. Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony formed the more radical, New York-based National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA). Lucy Stone, Henry Blackwell, and Julia Ward Howe organized the more conservative American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA), which was centered in Boston. In 1870 the Fifteenth Amendment enfranchised black men. NWSA refused to work for its ratification, arguing, instead, that it be "scrapped" in favor of a Sixteenth Amendment providing universal suffrage. Frederick Douglass broke with Stanton and Anthony over NWSA's position.

115

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues

In 1872 Susan B. Anthony was arrested and brought to trial in Rochester, New York, for attempting to vote for Ulysses S. Grant in the presidential election; she was convicted and fined $100 and the costs of her prosecution but refused to pay. At the same time, Sojourner Truth appeared at a polling booth in Battle Creek, Michigan, demanding a ballot; she was turned away. Also in 1872, Victoria Woodhull became the first woman to run for President, although she could not vote and only received a few votes, losing to Ulysses S. Grant. She was nominated to run by the Equal Rights Party, and advocated the 8-hour work day, graduated income tax, social welfare programs, and profit sharing, among other positions. In 1874 The Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) was founded by Annie Wittenmyer to work for the prohibition of alcohol; with Frances Willard at its head (starting in 1876), the WCTU also became an important force in the fight for women's suffrage. In 1878 a woman suffrage amendment was first introduced in the United States Congress, but it did not pass. American women achieved several firsts in the professions in the second half of the 1800s. In 1866 Lucy Hobbs Taylor became the first American woman to receive a dentistry degree. In 1878 Mary L. Page became the first woman in America to earn a degree in architecture when she graduated from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. In 1879 Belva Lockwood became the first woman allowed to argue before the Supreme Court; the first case in which she did so was the 1880 case "Kaiser v. Stickney". Arabella Mansfield had previously become America's first female lawyer when she was admitted to the bar in 1869. In 1891 Marie Owens, born in Canada, was hired in Chicago as America's first female police officer. Due to women's greater involvement in law and law enforcement, in 1871 the first state laws specifically making wife beating illegal were passed, though proliferation of laws to all states and adequate enforcement of those laws lagged very far behind. During the Spanish-American War (1898) thousands of US soldiers sick with typhoid, malaria, and yellow fever overwhelmed the capabilities of the Army Medical Department, so Dr. Anita Newcomb McGee suggested to the Army Surgeon General that the Daughters of the American Revolution (DAR) be appointed to select professionally qualified nurses to serve under contract to the US Army. Before the war ended, 1,500 civilian contract nurses were

116

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues assigned to Army hospitals in the US, Hawaii (not a state at that time), Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines, as well as to the hospital ship Relief. Twenty nurses died. The Army appointed Dr. McGee as Acting Assistant Surgeon General, making her the first woman ever to hold the position. The Army was impressed by the performance of its contract nurses and had Dr. McGee write legislation creating a permanent corps of Army nurses. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_States)

1900–2000 There were various firsts achieved by American women in the early 1900s. In July 1900 Marion Jones won 3rd place in Women's Singles Tennis and 3rd in Mixed Doubles Tennis with her male partner from the United Kingdom at the second modern Summer Olympics in Paris, France. In October, Margaret Ives Abbott, Pauline Whittier, and Daria Pratt won the Women's 9 Hole Golf 1st, 2nd, and 3rd places, respectively. These were the only women's events (there were none at the first Olympics, and medals debuted later). In 1902, Martha Washington became the first woman to be honored on a U.S. postage stamp. In 1911 Harriet Quimby became the first American woman to earn a pilot's license. In the spring of 1912, she became the first woman to fly a plane over the English channel; it was a 50 hp monoplane. In 1917 Jeannette Rankin, a Republican from Montana, became the first woman elected to the House of Representatives. Margaret Sanger was an influential campaigner for birth control rights in the 1910s. She originally worked as a visiting nurse in the New York City's tenements and wrote about sex education and women's health. In 1914, Sanger's articles in "The Woman Radical" brought her a federal indictment for violating the Comstock Act (which since 1873 had banned birth control devices and information on birth control devices, sexually transmitted diseases, human sexuality, and abortion), prompting her to flee to England. As soon as the ship left U.S. waters, she cabled a radical publisher in New Jersey to tell them to distribute 100,000 copies of her birth control pamphlet, "Family Limitation". Sanger remained exiled in Europe until late 1915; William Sanger had been arrested and jailed for distributing one copy of "Family Limitation", and Margaret Sanger returned to face the charges against her. Personal tragedy intervened when the Sanger's five-year-old daughter died suddenly from pneumonia; public sentiments resulted in

117

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues dismissal of the charges against Margaret Sanger. Rather than backing away from controversy, Sanger and her sister Ethel Byrne, also a nurse, opened the first birth control clinic in the United States on October 16, 1916, modeled after those Sanger had seen in Holland. Nine days later police closed the clinic and arrested Sanger, Byrne, and the clinic's interpreter. Byrne was tried and convicted first, and went on a hunger strike; Sanger was convicted and served 30 days in jail. However, the publicity surrounding Sanger's activities had made birth control a matter of public debate. (http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm4847bx.htm) World War I (which America entered in 1917, and which ended November 11, 1918) was the first American war in which women were officially allowed to serve in the military (although some had served in previous wars by disguising themselves as men.) The Army Nurse Corps (all female until 1955) was founded in 1901, and the Navy Nurse Corps (all female until 1964) was founded in 1908, and nurses in both served overseas at military hospitals during the war. During the course of the war, 21,480 Army nurses served in military hospitals in the United States and overseas and eighteen African-American Army nurses served stateside caring for German prisoners of war (POWs) and African-American soldiers. More than 1,476 Navy nurses served in military hospitals stateside and overseas. More than 400 military nurses died in the line of duty during World War I; the vast majority of these women died from a highly contagious form of influenza known as the "Spanish Flu," which swept through crowded military camps and hospitals and ports of embarkation. In 1917 women were first able to join the Navy for jobs other than nurse; they were able to become yeomen, electricians (radio operators), and any other ratings necessary to the naval district operations. 13,000 women enlisted, and the majorities became yeomen and were designated as yeoman (F) for female yeoman. (Goldstein, 2001) The 19th amendment to the Constitution, giving all American women the right to vote, passed in 1920. It came up before the House of Representatives in 1918 with the two-thirds votes needed for passage barely within reach; Representative Frederick Hicks of New York had been at the bedside of his dying wife but left at her urging to support the cause. He provided the final, crucial vote, and then returned home for her funeral. However, the Senate failed to pass the amendment that year. The amendment was approved by Congress next year on June 4, 1919, and

118

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues the states started ratifying. In 1920, Tennessee was the 36th to do so, meeting the 3/4s (of then 48 states) required for enactment; the remaining states ratified later. The first wave of feminism is generally considered to have ended in 1920 when American women won the right to vote. On August 31, 1920, five days after the 19th amendment was signed into law, Hannibal, Missouri, held a special election to fill the seat of an alderman who had resigned. At 7 a.m., despite pouring rain, Mrs. Marie Ruoff Byrum, wife of Morris Byrum and daughter-in-law of Democratic committeeman Lacy Byrum, cast her ballot in the first ward. She thus became the first woman to vote in the United States under the 19th amendment, as well as the first woman to vote in the state of Missouri. The "new woman" was in fashion throughout the twenties; this meant a woman who rejected the pieties of the older generation, smoked and drank in public, had casual sex, and embraced consumer culture. Also called "flappers", (Pickford, 1927) these women wore short skirts and bobbed hair in a short cut – like a boy's, but longer. Just as the flapper rejected the long hair popular in earlier years, she also discarded Victorian fashions, especially the corset, which accentuated women's curves. Cultivating a flapper image and adhering to modern beauty standards also involved purchasing and applying cosmetics, which had not often been done previously by women other than prostitutes. These women further pushed the boundaries of what was considered proper for a woman by their public activities; swearing, smoking cigarettes, drinking alcohol, dancing, and dating. Women achieved many groundbreaking firsts in the 1920s and 1930s. In 1921 Edith Wharton became the first woman to win the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction, due to her novel "The Age of Innocence". In 1922, Rebecca Felton of Georgia became the first woman appointed to the U.S. Senate; however, she served for only two days. Also in 1923, Margaret Sanger opened the first birth control clinic in America.In 1925, Nellie Tayloe Ross became the first woman elected as a governor in the United States, for the state of Wyoming.In 1926 Gertrude Ederle, born in New York, became the first woman to swim across the English channel, arriving in almost two hours less time than any of the men who had swum across before her. However, women also faced many challenges during this time. A National Education Association survey showed that between 1930 and 1931, 63% of cities dismissed female teachers

119

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues as soon as they became married, and 77% did not hire married women as teachers. Also, a survey of 1,500 cities from 1930 to 1931 found that three-quarters of those cities did not employ married women for any jobs. In January 1932, Congress passed the Federal Economy Act which stipulated that no two persons in the family could be working in government service at the same time; three-fourths of employees discharged as a result of this Act were women. However, during the Great Depression white women's unemployment rate was actually lower than that for men, because women were paid less and because men would not take what they considered to be "women's jobs" such as clerical work or domestic service. Yet as a result of rising unemployment, white women's movement into professional and technical work slowed. Birth control activism was an important cause in the 1930s.Birth control did not become legal for married couples throughout the United States until the 1965, and it did not become legal for unmarried couples throughout the United States until the 1972.In 1937 The American Medical Association officially recognized birth control as an integral part of medical practice and education, and North Carolina became the first state to recognize birth control as a public health measure and to provide contraceptive services to indigent mothers through its public health program. When the United States entered World War II in 1941, 12 million women were already working, and by the end of the war, the number was up to 18 million. However, while eventually 3 million women worked in war plants, the majority of women who worked during World War II worked in traditionally female occupations, like the service sector. Furthermore, during World War II 350,000 women served in the military. More than 60,000 Army nurses served stateside and overseas during World War II; 67 Army nurses were captured by the Japanese in the Philippines in 1942.More than 14,000 Navy nurses served stateside, overseas on hospital ships, and as flight nurses during the war. The Marine Corps created a Women's Reserve in 1943; women served as Marines during the war in over 225 different specialties, filling 85% of the enlisted jobs at Headquarters Marine Corps and comprising one-half to two-thirds of the permanent personnel at major Marine Corps posts. Marine women served stateside as clerks, cooks, mechanics, drivers, and in a variety of other positions. (Dubofsy and Burwood, 1990)

120

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues

The Korean War was fought from 1950 until 1953. Many servicewomen who had joined the Reserves following World War II were involuntarily recalled to active duty during the Korean War. 540 Army nurses served in the combat zone and many more were assigned to large hospitals in Japan during the war. One Army nurse died in a plane crash en route to Korea on July 27, 1950, shortly after hostilities began. Women were heavily involved in lesbian rights and civil rights throughout the 1950s. In 1955 the first national lesbian political and social organization in the United States, called Daughters of Bilitis, was founded by four lesbian couples in San Francisco. On December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks, a seamstress and volunteer secretary for the NAACP, was arrested in Montgomery, Alabama for refusing to give up her seat on a bus to a white man, as required by law at the time; shortly after this a bus boycott began, inspired by her actions, advocating for an end to all segregated busing. Yet women still occupied a lower position than men in many sectors of American life. In 1957, the National Manpower Council (NMC) at Columbia University published its study, "Womanpower, A Statement by the National Manpower Council with Chapters by the Council Staff". It was a comprehensive look at the experience of women in the labor force, their employment needs. This NMC analysis called women "essential" and "distinctive" workers. In 1959, three landmark books on women were published: "A Century of Struggle" by Eleanor Flexner, the first professional history of the 19th century women's movement, which contained an implicit call to arms; "A Century of Higher Education for American Women" by Mabel Newcomer, which disclosed that the relative position of women in the academic world was in decline; and "Women and Work In America" by Robert Smuts, which drew attention to the fact that "the picture of women's occupations outside the home between 1890 and 1950 had changed in only a few essentials. (Allen, 2011) In reaction to such findings, by 1961, President John F. Kennedy was under pressure to establish a President's Commission on the Status of Women. Women's organizations, notably the American Association of University Women and Business and Professional Women, had been proposing a women's rights commission for many years. The establishment of the Commission may also have been regarded by Kennedy as an expedient way to pay off his political debts to the

121

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues women who had supported his campaign but were disappointed with his poor record of appointments of women to his administration. The Commission's Report called "The American Woman" and issued in 1963, noted discrimination against women in the areas of education, home and community services, employment, social insurance and taxation, and legal, civil and political rights. President Kennedy implemented two Commission recommendations that established an Interdepartmental Committee on the Status of Women and a Citizens' Advisory Council on the Status of Women, composed of twenty private citizens appointed by the President. These two groups co-sponsored four national conferences of state commissions on the status of women. Another important event of 1963 was the publication of Betty Friedan's influential book "The Feminine Mystique", which is often cited as the founding moment of second-wave feminism. This book highlighted Friedan's view of a coercive and pervasive post-World War-II ideology of female domesticity that stifled middle-class women's opportunities to be anything but homemakers. Friedan's book is credited with sparking second-wave feminism by directing women's attention to the broad social basis of their problems, stirring many to political and social activism. Also in 1963, President Kennedy signed the Equal Pay Act into law, which amended the Fair Labor Standards Act to prohibit pay discrimination because of sex. It requires the employer to pay equal wages to men and women doing equal work on jobs requiring equal skill, effort, and responsibility, which are performed under similar working conditions. One of the most important advances for women's rights in this decade was not begun by a feminist. On Saturday, February 8, 1964, while the Civil Rights Act was being debated on the House floor, Howard W. Smith of Virginia, Chairman of the Rules Committee and staunch opponent of all civil rights legislation, rose up and offered a one word amendment to Title VII, which prohibited employment discrimination. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, in charge of the enforcement of Title VII, ignored sex discrimination complaints, and the prohibition against sex discrimination in employment went unenforced for the next few years. Employment discrimination against women began to be taken more seriously in the late 1960s. In 1967, President Lyndon Johnson issued Executive Order 11375, which declared that federal employers must take affirmative action to ensure that employees receive equal treatment

122

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues and opportunities regardless of gender, race, color, or religion. In 1968 the EEOC, following two years of protests by NOW, banned all help wanted ads which specified which sex a job applicant should be, except those jobs for which being a certain sex was a bona fide occupational requirement (such as actress), opening many hitherto unattainable jobs to women. The Supreme Court ruled the ban legal in Pittsburgh Press Co. v Pittsburgh Commission on Human Relations, 413 U.S. 376 (1973). (Walter, 2010) There were several other feminist advances in the late 1960s, in both conservative and liberal circles. In 1968 conservative women separated from NOW and organized Women's Equity Action League (WEAL) to campaign for equal opportunities for women in education, economics, and employment, while avoiding issues such as abortion, sexuality, and the Equal Rights Amendment. Also in 1968, liberal activist Robin Morgan led a protest of the Miss America pageant in Atlantic City; at the protest a group of about one hundred women tossed items that they considered symbolic of women’s oppression into a Freedom Trash Can, including copies of Playboy, high-heeled shoes, corsets, and girdles. They also crowned a sheep as Miss America. Litigation for women's rights now began to have a serious impact on American life. In 1969 California adopted the nation’s first no-fault divorce law, which was intended to promote equality between men and women. By 2010, all 50 states had legalized no-fault divorce, with New York being the last state to do so. In addition to litigation, feminist activists also began to form their own institutions to propagate their ideals. In 1971 Rep. Bella Abzug, Betty Friedan, and Gloria Steinem founded the National Women's Political Caucus to advocate for more women and feminists in elective office. Also in 1971, Gloria Steinem and others began publishing Ms. Magazine, the first national feminist magazine The first three hundred thousand copies of Ms. sold out in eight days; the magazine name comes from the fact that the title Ms. was originally popularized by feminists in the 1970s to replace Miss and Mrs. and provide a parallel term to Mr., in that both Ms. and Mr. designate gender without indicating marital status. One of the most important feminist successes of the early 1970s was when Nixon signed into law the Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972 and Title IX of the Education Amendments

123

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues of 1972. The Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972 gives the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) authority to sue in federal courts when it finds reasonable cause to believe that there has been employment discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 requires gender equity in every educational program that receives federal funding including but not limited to sports. However, the feminist movement did have some notable setbacks around this time. In 1972 President Nixon vetoed the Comprehensive Child Development Bill of 1972, which many feminists advocated and which would have established both early-education programs and after- school care across the country, with tuition on a sliding scale based on a family’s income bracket, and the program available to everyone but participation required of no one. The Equal Rights Amendment passed the Senate and then the House of Representatives in 1972, and on March 22, 1972, it was sent to the states for ratification. However, it was not ratified before the deadline for ratification passed, and therefore never became law. The most influential ERA opponent was Phyllis Schlafly, right-wing leader of the Eagle Forum/STOP ERA, who claimed that the ERA would deny a woman’s right to be supported by her husband, privacy rights would be overturned, women would be sent into combat, and abortion rights and same-sex marriages would be upheld. Furthermore, some states'-rights advocates thought the ERA was a federal power grab, and business interests such as the insurance industry opposed a measure they believed would cost them money. Opposition to the ERA was also organized by fundamentalist religious groups. Pro-ERA advocacy was led by the National Organization for Women (NOW) and ER America, a coalition of nearly 80 other organizations. There were a few important legal gains for women in the mid-1970s. The Women's Educational Equity Act, enacted in 1974, provides federal funds for projects designed to promote gender equity in the curriculum, in counseling and guidance, in physical education, and in the development of classroom materials. The Equal Credit Opportunity Act, enacted in 1974, illegalizes credit discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, national origin, sex, marital status, age, or because someone receives public assistance. In 1978, the Pregnancy Discrimination Act was passed, making employment discrimination on the basis of pregnancy, childbirth, or related medical conditions illegal.

124

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues

Another important event around this time was the Vietnam War. Approximately 7,000 American military women served in Vietnam during the Vietnam War (1965–1975), the majority of them as nurses. An important gain for military women occurred when in 1976; the five federal United States Service academies were required to admit women as a result of Public Law 94-106 signed by President Gerald Ford on Oct. 7, 1975. The law passed the House by a vote of 303 to 96 and the Senate by voice vote after divisive argument within Congress, resistance from the Department of Defense and legal action initiated by women to challenge their exclusion. More than 300 women enrolled in the academies in 1976. (Burwood, 1990) The 1980s brought more firsts for American women. 1980was the first year that a higher percentage of women than men voted in a Presidential election and a higher percentage of women than men have voted in every Presidential election since. In 1981 Sandra Day O'Connor was confirmed unanimously by the Senate and became the first female Supreme Court Justice. In 1983 Sally Ride became the first female American astronaut. In 1984, Geraldine Ferraro became the first woman nominated for Vice President by a major party (the Democratic Party), although she was not elected. Also, in 1984 Katherine Sullivan became the first American woman to walk in space. Younger women now began to be more involved in feminism. In the early 1990s, third wave feminism began as a response to the second wave's perceived inadequacies and shortcomings. Third wave feminism, which continues today, is most often associated with a younger generation of feminist activism, an interest in popular culture and sexual agency, and an acceptance of pluralism and contradiction. The concerns of military women again came to the fore as the Persian Gulf War (1990–1991) utilized an unprecedented proportion of women from the active forces (7%) as well as the Reserve and National Guard (17%). Over 40,000 US military women served in combat support positions throughout the war. Sixteen women died during the war and two were held prisoner. The 1990s brought more firsts for women in politics and the military. 1992 was known as the "Year of the Woman" because more women than ever before were elected to political office that year (women gained 19 House and 3 Senate seats for a total of 47 seats in the House and seven seats in the Senate) including Carol Moseley Braun, the first black female senator. In 1993 Ruth

125

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues

Bader Ginsburg was confirmed by Congress as a Supreme Court Justice, becoming the second woman on the court.

2000 – Present From 2003 until 2011 American women soldiers served in the Iraq War. This time included several firsts for women in the military. In 2008 Ann Dunwoody became the first female four- star general in the United States military. In 2011 Sandra Stosz assumed command of the U.S. Coast Guard Academy, becoming the first woman superintendent of that institution, and the first woman to command any U.S. service academy. Also in 2011, Patricia Horoho became the first female U.S. Army surgeon general. In 2004, Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon became the first same-sex couples to be legally married in the United States, since San Francisco mayor Gavin Newsom allowed city hall to grant marriage licenses to same-sex couples. However, all same-sex marriages done in 2004 in California were annulled. But after the California Supreme Court decision in 2008 that granted same-sex couples in California the right to marry, Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon remarried, and were again the first same-sex couples in the state to marry. Later in 2008 Prop 8 illegalized same-sex marriage in California, but the marriages that occurred between the California Supreme Court decision legalizing same-sex marriage and the approval of Prop 8 illegalizing it are still considered valid, including the marriage of Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon.(Glassman, 2008) American women achieved many political firsts in the 2000s. In 2007 Nancy Pelosi became the first female Speaker of the House of Representatives; she held the position for just under four years. In 2008 Democratic presidential candidate Hillary Clinton became the first woman to win a presidential primary, winning the New Hampshire Democratic primary although polls had predicted she would lose. She eventually lost the Democratic nomination for President to Barack Obama, who went on to become President; however, Hillary Clinton did receive 18 million votes. In 2008 Alaska governor Sarah Palin became the first woman nominated for Vice President by the Republican Party, although she was not elected. In conclusion, after a lot of difficulties, women gain their goals and there are a lot of successful women in today’s America. Among them are: Madeleine Albright, who was the first

126

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues woman to become the United States Secretary of State; Nancy Pelosi, who is the Minority Leader of the United States House of Representatives and served as the 60th Speaker of the United States House of Representatives from 2007 to 2011; Sarah Palin, who is an American politician, commentator and author. As the Republican Party nominee for Vice President in the 2008 presidential election, she was the first Alaskan on the national ticket of a major party and first Republican woman nominated for the vice presidency; Hillary Clinton, who is the 67th United States Secretary of State. She was a United States Senator for New York from 2001 to 2009. As the wife of the 42nd President of the United States, Bill Clinton, she was the First Lady of the United States from 1993 to 2001. In the 2008 election, Clinton was a leading candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination; etc.

References: 1. S. Pearl Sharp, Virginia Schomp: The Slave Trade And the Middle Passage (2008).

2. http://www.timepage.org/spl/13colony.html

3. Clint Johnson: Colonial America And The American Revolution: The 25 Best Sites (2006).

4. Nancy Egloft: Pocahontas and the Powhatans of Virginia (2011)

5. Frank E. Grizzard, Daniel Boyd Smith: The Jamestown Colony: An Encyclopedia (2007)

6. Jack Larkin: The reshaping of everyday life (2007)

7. http://www.thelizlibrary.org/suffrage/abigail.htm

8. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_States

9. http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm4847bx.htm

10. Joshua S. Goldstein: War and Gender: How Gender Shapes the War System and Vice Versa (2001)

11. Mary Pickford: “Why I Have Not Bobbed Mine,” (1927)

12. Dubofsy and Burwood: Women and Minorities During the Great Depression (1990).

127

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues

13. Martha Allen: The Development of Communication Networks Among Women, 1963- 1983

14. Lynn Walter: Women's Rights: A Global View

15. Anthony Glassman: First couple in California's 2004 marriages will say vows again on Monday (2008)

16. MayflowerHistory.com

128

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues

Role of Women in the US and Georgian Politics (comparative analyses)

ELENE MEDZMARIASHVILI

While the world has made significant strides in expanding opportunity for women and girls, continued inequalities remain, particularly in the areas of women's political participation and economic opportunity. Everyone knows that society can’t be democratic if there is not equality between nations, or genders in the country, and if women are not active in politics, if there is not enough number of women – decision-makers in the country and if they are subordinate in family. The United States and Georgia are multicultural, multiethnic countries, and there is a patriarchal society in both of them. It is especially evident when we research women issues. In spite of different level of economic and social development and other important differences between the United States and Georgia, patriarchal ideas and similar gender stereotypes exist in our countries’ societies, and we can draw some parallels in these questions. Correspondingly, some issues, connected with women are the same and it’s possible to speak about similar strategies to overcome them. This, in turn, will make women more active in politics. The US has already succeeded in solving similar problems. Hence, it’s extremely significant for Georgia to know this. This paper discusses the role of women in the United States and Georgian politics. Grounded in statistical data, the paper answers the questions of how an American and Georgian women participate in political and social life of their countries. It also discusses the US and Georgia attitudes toward women in politics, reveal who vote for women and why, and seek the reasons for why Georgia is filling behind the US in terms of having a big number of women decision- makers.

Professor, Director of American Studies MA and PhD programs, Institute of American Studies, Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University; Vice-president of Georgian Association for American Studies, Tbilisi, Georgia.

129

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues

Women played a great role in Georgian history. The Renaissance period of Georgia is connected with the Queen Tamar who was acknowledged as the Saint by Georgian Orthodox church. There are quite a huge number of women who were acknowledged as the Saints in Georgia, as there were some famous Queens in Georgian history. Many Georgian symbols and main words are also connected with women. For example, Mother of Georgia, World (dedamiwa), Capital (dedaqalaqi), native language (dedaena) and many other words too. We know that Soviet Georgia as a part of the Soviet Union was not democratic country and women didn’t play any role in political life. After it has regained its independence Georgia tries to build open democratic society. Despite the accomplishments achieved during the last years, Georgia cannot really claim gender equality. Women’s progress is slow in the United States also, because “women of every political stripe… are letting down their own sexual side by not demanding more female candidates and by not supporting them when they run.” [1] The suffrage movement, by the 1910s, involved hundreds of thousands of women and won for them the fundamental right of citizenship, the right to vote. But this right didn’t guarantee women’s participation in the political life. Only the second wave of feminism (1960-1970s) has created the base for the success in this field in the last three decades of twentieth and beginning of twenty first century. In spite the fact that much progress was made, women must still fight hard in order to achieve full equality. Success will be impossible without women’s solidarity, which, on the other hand, is sustained by differences in their race, social class, nationality, religion, region, ideology. The relatively minor role that women play in politics reflects their still subordinate status in society. Evidence of this is that a feminization of elite takes place where the ideal of equality between the sexes in being achieved. Women with the right qualifications to run for office live (those qualifications include a good education, professional experience, and high-level skills). The problem of evolution of relations between the sexes stands in any country of the world despite its level of development. This problem exists in Georgia also. As Georgian women are not widely involved in feminist movements, achievements of the few do not seem as impressive as it is in the United States. We can list only few examples of

130

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues feminist women having success. Women in Georgia could not find common grounds for unification, and unlike the US and other countries, they failed to create a strong women organizations or parties, although I think that similar political parties are usually destined to lose. Georgian legislation defends gender equality; however, having real guarantees for this equality is more open to question. In spite of that there are possibilities for women’s activism in Georgia, as women’s educational level does not lag behind that of men’s. What is more, their income has increased family budgets. However, in Georgia special bodies that aim to promote the social and political roles of women, together with special laws or programs serving the same aims nonsexist in Georgia as in the States does. We can draw some other parallels in women issues between the US and Georgia. For example, American and Georgian women got the right to vote in the same time – in 1920-1921. But unfortunately our women could not use this right because Georgia lost its independence in 1921. Like all Soviet citizens they got only the formal right to vote by the first Soviet Constitution in 1924. Concerning to political activity of Georgian women, it has never been less than men’s activity (I mean lower level). Preconditions of this situation have always existed in our country. First of all I mean that Georgian women and men always had the same level of education. Furthermore, during the last decades women’ part in family budget increased and their political activity increased simultaneously. They were more active in the last presidential and parliamentary elections than men did. We see this tendency very well in the United States especially during the last decades [2]. There were women-voters more than men-voters in the last 2012 presidential elections as well as in 2008: 52% - female voters and 48% - male voters [3] or more (see, Figure 1);

131

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues

Source: [4] http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/women/report/2012/12/12/47916/how- women-changed-the-outcome-of-the-election/ After 1980s most of women vote for democrats [5], also, figure 1b], but they don’t always vote for women candidates. As researchers J. Zipp and E. Plutzer mentioned,”there is no direct connection between the gender of a candidate and voters' behaviour. Female voters support female candidates only if the latter share their position (liberal or conservative). Most women vote for the female candidates, who do not have more prominent political opponents [6]. Also, there is no major difference between men and women voting for female candidates; Female voters, who find so-called "female problems" important, often vote for female candidates; A candidate's political platform is of decisive important in establishing a connection between gender and voting (if the political culture is at a high level in the specific country); The gender of a candidate has a decisive impact on the results of an election only if the candidate's belonging to a party is not essential for voters. This is first and foremost true of "independent" candidates, who are sometimes quite numerous. Even in such cases, women vote for women, while men are against only if there are no other factors or the candidate does not have a clear election platform [7]. "Strong" female candidates, i.e. those who have well-founded political platforms, can win support from both men and women, and those candidates, who do not have such a platform, lose support of both irrespective of gender [8].

132

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues

There is a good example of Hillary Clinton’ nomination in presidential elections of 2008 when most women voters from Democratic Party supported Obama rather than Hillary from the start; and trusted that he would attend well to feminist concerns. Americans had that trust in part because of the way they saw Michelle Obama: as his full partner, a well-trained, well- employed lawyer and a feisty, confident woman. Her grounding and sense of self made him look good in ways they valued. It's also true that he belongs to a generation of educated men who do not take their women for granted; and to a generation with wives who have taken their professional lives/opportunities for granted in the best sense, as entitlements, due to their talent, and not favors. I'd add that Hillary's vote on the War cost her hugely. It revealed her to be a certain kind of politician American voters didn't want: too focused on the military-might way of defining America. When Hillary lost the nomination, many women vowed not to vote for Obama. “Their "personalist" loyalties seemed like a mockery of feminism, their willingness to support McCain, the Real Enemy of women's rights forced some of them to wonder what kind of pseudo-feminist monsters we had created”, says my colleague Doris Friedenshon, professor emerita of women's studies at New Jersey City University [see, also, 9, 10, 11, 12]. Who should be first: Hillary Clinton or Barack Obama? Some feminists argue that sexism and racism are often intertwined and differently deployed, so weighing them against each other serves no purpose. It makes clear that affinity born from personal identity matters. It was a significant component, if not a determinant, of how feminists decided whom to support. As Robin Morgan puts it, "Me, I'm voting for Hillary not because she's a woman, but because I am." [13] As Rebecca Traister writes, the American people were "like babies first encountering a new object: a potential president that had breasts and hips and a high voice, who was once pregnant and whose female skin had changed as it aged". [14] The experience transformed them. As Clinton waged her campaign, says Traister, "Political breakthrough begat cultural breakthrough begat comedy breakthroughs begat political breakthroughs." Something else broke through, too: an ugly, raw misogyny that hadn't emerged into plain sight for years. [15] When Traister puts out a call to colleagues and friends asking whether they know of women who feel pressured by the men in their byes to vote for Obama, she receives in return a raft of anecdotes. Smart, liberal

133

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues

young men "starry-eyed about Obama ... [and] puffed with outsized antipathy about Clinton" believe it is their job to talk sense to any woman who might be voting for her. It was, says Traister, "the contemporary iteration of Betty Friedan's problem that had no name" [Friedan's term, in The Feminine Mystique (1963), for the oppression of middle-class housewives by their husbands and the women's consequent depression]. The outpouring of misogyny forced women who, by virtue of their age or station in life, hadn't before perceived much sexism to consider how relevant their femaleness was, if not to them, then to Clinton's detractors. [16] Clinton was dogged by intractable dilemmas: if she was frank about her ambition, she was no longer feminine. If she was feminine, she was no longer competent. In the US and elsewhere, the female politicians who have gained office have often succeeded either as widows who are vessels for their husbands' legacies or as "moms" who must do what they are doing to protect their children… Clinton is no widow and she didn't claim she was running to protect daughter Chelsea. Openly ambitious, she said, "I'm in it to win it." [17] Hillary Clinton is often criticized from the opposite perspective as being too strong, too power hungry. Political pundits used derogatory titles such as “the Iron Lady” [18], and bumper stickers proclaim “I didn’t vote for President Hillary” or “Impeach Clinton (and Her Husband, Too).”[19] While Obama's candidacy was seen … as an opportunity for America to gain absolution for its past sins of racism, Clinton's candidacy was not seen as a similar opportunity to rectify its history of sexism. Feminism didn't crash in 2008, Traister says; in that year, "what was once called the women's liberation movement found thrilling new life." [20] That is known that the most “female” administration in the US history was Clinton administration [21]. There were some special women’ agencies and departments created in that period. The main goal of these agencies was stirring up women in politics and social sphere. There were also special laws and programs initiated by this administration for protecting women’ rights [22]. Unfortunately there are not any similar agencies in Georgia still today, as there is no law or program that has the same goal. We have no state policy in Women issues. I think that Clinton’s administration’ policy in Women issues could be the model for such countries like Georgia.

134

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues

Only one group has been created in the previous Parliament to prepare suggestions in women issues for executive branch. Today there are just some women in Georgian political elite: the first deputy chief of our Parliament and three women-ministers. Still, what factors promote positive changes in women issues in all countries, and particularly in the US and Georgia? I’ll point out only few of them:

 Making women more active in social life (this process is going on in the States and in Georgia as well);  The strong women’s movement from the “bottom” that can change patriarchal stereotypes of women’ place and role in society (unlike the States there is no such movement in Georgia);  Democratic tradition that gives women opportunity to occupy high elected posts (there is a better situation in the States than it is in Georgia. Our democratic traditions are poor);  Development of women’ international movement that is an impulse for women’ national movement (but as I mentioned above I don’t see this movement in Georgia)

Unlike the United States these factors in Georgia are weak or non-existed.

At the same time obviously there is a positive attitude of Georgian society toward women in politics. The arguments of this attitude are the same as they are in the States or in any other democratic country. Everyone knows, women are more peaceful, more diplomatic, and more able to compromise - these are some arguments. We often repeat that man and woman are equal both legal and in practice, but unfortunately there is different data in our country. The principle of equality is impracticable because it was not realized by society till today. We should realize that it’s necessary to participate in public and political life and to struggle for career on all levels of government. We know also that our influence on decision-making process will be possible when more than 30% of important posts are occupied by women. This is the reason why we need more special courses for preparing

135

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues women-leaders, who would renovate Georgian political elite. So we should make the basis for future women leaders in Georgia. This is a quite complicated goal because some social and economic reasons. But the main goal is democratization of country and achievement of social justice like in Scandinavian countries. I think that women’s problems are the same in the US and Georgia. I also presume that the number of women in elected positions will increase in the future in the both countries if women have substantial professional experience.

References:

1. Witt, L., Paget, K. M., & Matthews, G. (1994). Running as a woman: Gender and power in American politics. New York: Free Press, p.ix

2. Social Science Data Analysis Network, SSDAN, www.ssdan.net/content/voter-turnout

3. www.gallup.com/poll/158399/2012-electorate-looks-like-2008.aspx

4. www.americanprogress.org/issues/women/report/2012/12/12/47916/how-women- changed-the-outcome-of-the-election/)

5. E.Medzmariashvili, Some Problems of Women’s Political Activity in the United States, European Countries and Georgia (Comparative Analysis), American Studies Periodical, 4th Edition, Tbilisi, 2011, pp.120-127. p.122 , also E.Medzmariashvili, Some Questions of the Political Activity of Women in the USA, European Countries and Georgia (Comparative Analysis), e-journal “Tselidtsleuli”, 2011.

6. Zipp, E.Plutzer. Gender Differences in Voting for Female Candidates: Evidence from the 1984 Election. Public Opinion Quarterly. Vol.49. N2 (New York, 1985), p.182.

7. Ibid., p.p.181,182.

8. E.Medzmariashvili, Some Problems…, p.125.

9. Emily Douglas, Sexism, Racism and Hillary, Old City Publishing, Inc., 2011 http://www.wcwonline.org/womensreview 10. Rebecca Traister, Big Girls Don't Cry: The Election That Changed Everything for American Women, New York, Free Press, 2010, 336 pp.

136

SECTION II: Literature and Women’s Issues

11. Who Should Be First? Feminists Speak Out on the 2008 Presidential Campaign , Albany: State University of New York Press, 2010, 345 pp.

12. Regina G. Lawrence and Melody Rose, Hillary Clinton's Race for the White House: Gender Politics and the Media on the Campaign Trail, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2010, 277 pp.

13. Who Should Be First? ..., p.??

14. Rebecca Traister, Big Girls Don't Cry…, p.??

15. Ibid.

16. The Women’s Review Books, 28.2, March-April, 2011, p.5. http://www.wcwonline.org/womensreview

17. Ibid.

18. M.Margaret Conway, Gertrude A. Steuernagel, David W. Ahern, Woman and Political Participation. Cultural Change in the Political Arena, A division of Congressional Quarterly Inc. Washington, D.C., 2004, Chapter 7

19. Ibid, p.100.

20. Rebecca Traister, Big Girls Don't Cry…, p.??

21. Lissa Muscatine, Giving Voice to the Clinton Campaign and Presidency Changed the Political Landscape, www.clintonpresidentialcenter.org/20years/turningpoint/essay_voicetowomen_lmuscatin e.php.

22. The Clinton Presidency: Timeline of Major Actions, http://clinton5.nara.gov/WH/Accomplishments/eightyears-02.html

137

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics

The USA World Superpower: Theoretical Discourse

KETEVAN ROSTIASHVILI

Introduction Since the collapse of the Soviet Union function and mission of the United States in the contemporary world system is one of the most debatable problems of academic literature. This article is an attempt to analyze most recent trends in the US academic literature for better understanding ongoing theoretical debates. In the article are analyzed three main directions, three main academic schools: Primacy, Isolationism, and Selective Engagement. This study argues that, although the US primacy in the world is significantly challenged and shaken by external and internal factors, the USA still preserves its traditional function of a superpower.

X X X X X X X Since the collapse of the Soviet Union among diversity of problems central for American Studies and International Relations scholars and experts remains questions: Is the world system unocentric or polycentric? What’s the US new role and mission in the new millennium? With appearance new economic powers is America able to preserve its leading positions in the world? But central in this discourse remains the question: How powerful, reliable and effective is the US internal political, economic and social system for further burdening the role of the superpower and hegemonic positions in the world? American historiography tries to give answers on these quite complicated questions through numerous of researches and analysis. Academic literature is quite diverse and contradictory over the role of the USA in the changing world. Through analysis of the vast literature might be outlined three major schools of thought: primacy, isolationism and selective engagement (Christopher Layne and Bradley A. Thayer, 2007, p. 3), which give quite different and even contradictory estimations of the US status in the world. If Primacy school is oriented on

 Visiting Professor, Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

138

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics exceptional role of the USA as a sole superpower in the world, Isolationists sharply criticize primacy school. In the country’s drawbacks they see the end of American hegemony. Selective Engagement school might be characterized as a compromise between primacy and isolationism schools, which submits that the USA should possess only sufficient strength to defend the centers of economic might in the world, principally Europe and northeast Asia. (Christopher Layne and Bradley A. Thayer, 2007, p. 3) Position of Primacy school is closer to right and centrists wing of the Republican Party, while isolationists are more identified with the Democratic Party. Advocates of Primacy school assent that the USA is the major power in international politics and keeps its preponderant position by maintaining and expanding its military and economic strength. (Ibid) In 1999 Samuel P. Huntington estimated the USA as “the sole state with preeminence in every domain of power - economic, military, diplomatic, ideological, technological, and cultural - with the reach and capabilities to promote its interests in virtually every part of the world.” (Huntington, Samuel P., Mar/Apr 1999,) Scholars today continue to estimate the USA as a global superpower, which has “no equal”. (Barbara A. Bardes et atl, American Government and Politics Today: The Essentials 2011-2012,) The main argument is that U.S. capabilities are so overwhelming that other states cannot realistically hope to balance against it, nor do they have reason to because U.S. hegemony is benevolent, (Stephen Brooks and William C. 2002, pp. 20–33) and it can maintain its preeminence into the deep of the 21 century. The US persistent hegemony is explained by necessity to defend world order, especially its trade and economic stability. Proponents of isolationism give just opposite vision of problems. They argue that the United States should devote more resources to domestic social problems and withdraw from involvement in international politics, as the American Empire has very high economic costs and weakens democracy at home. (Christopher Layne and Bradley A. Thayer, 2007, p. 3) Isolationists believe that attempts to provide democracy abroad (especially in the Middle East) rests on dubious assumptions, leading to unnecessary American military interventions abroad, a geopolitical backlash and to the decline of the USA. (Christopher Layne, 1993, p. 8)

139

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics Critics of U.S. primacy or “imperialism” assumed that the pursuit of geopolitical militarism and further consolidation of the war system reinforces a crisis of empire, bringing “devastation of an imperial policy in an era of waning hegemony”. (Carl Boggs, 2005, pp. 207, 11, 14) American scholar J. Rufus Fears, in his lecture on “The Lessons of the Roman Empire for America Today” compares Rome of the first and second centuries A.D. and the United States today “as the only two absolute superpowers that have existed in history”. (Ibid) By an absolute superpower he means “a nation that is dominant militarily, politically, economically, and culturally”. He warns that pouring treasure into the civil wars (in Judea and Egypt); stretching the limits of the army and other commitments, ended by the Persian and the Germanic tribe’s new federations swept through the fairest provinces of the Roman East, and the Roman West, significantly weakened the empire. “Rome recovered from this crisis, but in a form that left it utterly different than before. It had once rested upon the back of a strong and vigorous and loyal middle class. Now every aspect of Roman society became rigid, and formalized. The army became ever larger, ever more inefficient; the bureaucracy became ever larger to collect ever more taxes; and the very spirit and, ultimately, the loyalty of the middle class was destroyed.” (Rufus Fears , Lecture #917) J. Rufus Fears’ speculates, “that is a crossroads that we will come to just as the Romans did”. (Ibid) Fears warnings actually are in accordance with Samuel P. Huntington’s predictions. As Huntington indicated in 1990s, there is “the fundamental disharmony between the reality of government in America and the ideals on which the American nation was founded. The tension between ideals and institutions is likely to increase in this country in the future”. (Samuel P. Huntington, 1999) In early 1990s Waltzian balance of power realists believed that the days of U.S. primacy were numbered.( Kenneth N. Waltz, Vol. 25, No. 1) Kenneth N. Waltz and Christopher Layne predicted that unipolarity would quickly give way to multipolarity by stimulating the rise of new great powers. (Christopher Layne, 1993, pp. 5–51) In 1989 Yale historian Paul Kennedy predicted inevitable decline of the Soviet Union (but not so soon) as well as the USA and the rise of China, Japan and Europe (European Economic Community). He saw the cause of the general decline of any Great Power in sustaining military

140

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics expenditures on expanse of continued deficit spending. He proposed that the U.S. growing military expenditures, coincided with its military commitment to every continent, would outsource the domestic spending, provoking heavier taxes, limited options and “the downward spiral of slower growth” of the country. (Kennedy, Paul, 1987, p. XV, 533-535, 432, 245) Carl Boggs argues that militarism with its extravagant expenditures “has become so endemic to American society that it will be very difficult to reverse.”(Carl Boggs, 2005, p.207) Professor Francis Shor concludes that US efforts to retain global dominance and hegemony through the pursuit of war and its attendant geopolitical military strategies is “foolish and lethal”. (Francis Shor, 2010, pp. 65-81,) Andy Hoffman in 2009 named even exact dates and events, when America has lost its premise: “the U.S. has lost essentially ALL of its superpower status in 2009. The first of the two events was the Vietnam War in 1965 (and the consequential end of the gold standard in 1971), and the second was September 11th, 2001”. (Andy Hoffman, U.S. Global Hegemony, 19 April, 2009) Hoffman holds that the U.S. hegemony was significant and real, but “for just a very brief period in the annals of history. It is nearly gone”. (Andy Hoffman, U.S. Global Hegemony, 19 April, 2009) More balanced position on the US world hegemony is expressed in the National Intelligence Council’s Global Trends 2025, where is indicated: “Although the United States is likely to remain the single most powerful actor, the United States’ relative strength—even in the military realm—will decline and US leverage will become more constrained.” (National Intelligence Council, November 2008) Although the USA experiences sharp intellectual debates on future development of the country, it is obvious, that it still preserves leading positions in the world, maintaining positions of the superpower.

141

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics

References:

1. Christopher Layne and Bradley A. Thayer, American Empire, A Debate, New York: Rutledge, 2007, p. 3, http://www.amazon.com/American-Empire-Debate-Christopher- Layne/dp/0415952042 (Accessed 8 March 2012).

2. Ibid.

3. Huntington, Samuel P., “The Lonely Superpower, The New Dimension of Power”, Foreign Affairs, Mar/Apr 1999, Vol. 78, Issue 2, http://homepages.stmartin.edu/Fac_Staff/rlangill/PLS%20300/The%20Lonely%20Superp ower.htm (Accessed 3 October 2011).

4. Barbara A. Bardes et atl, American Government and Politics Today: The Essentials 2011- 2012, Boston: Wadsworth, 2012, p. 513; Gary Dorrien, Imperial Designs: Neoconservatism and the New Pax Americana, NewYork, Routledge, 2004. p.1.

5. Stephen Brooks and William C. “Wohlforth, American Primacy in Perspective”, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 81, No. 4 (July/August), 2002, pp. 20–33; Gary Dorrien, Imperial Designs: Neoconservatism and the New Pax Americana, NewYork, Routledge, 2004. Jhon Ikenberry, “Liberalism and empire: logics of order in the American Unipolar Age”, Review of International Studies, 30(4), 2004 (a), pp.609–630; G. Jhon Ikenberry, “Liberal hegemony or empire? American Power in the Age of Unipolarity” in D. Held and M. Koenig-Archibugi (eds), American Power in the 21st Century, Cambridge: Polity Press, 2004 (b), pp. 83–113; Jhon Ikenberry, “Power and liberal order: America’s Postwar World Order in Transition”, International Relations of the Asia-Pacific Volume 5, 2005, pp. 133–152; Christopher Layne and Bradley A. Thayer, American Empire, A Debate, New York: Rutledge, 2007, p. 3, http://www.amazon.com/American-Empire-Debate- Christopher-Layne/dp/0415952042 (Accessed 8 March 2012).

6. Christopher Layne and Bradley A. Thayer, American Empire, A Debate, New York: Rutledge, 2007, p. 3, http://www.amazon.com/American-Empire-Debate-Christopher- Layne/dp/0415952042 (Accessed 8 March 2012); The Stephen Delos Wilson, The Bankruptcy of America. How the boom of the 80’s became the Bust of the 90’s. From Superpower to Besieged Global Power, Ridge Mills Press, Germantown, 1992.

7. Christopher Layne, “The Unipolar Illusion: Why New Great Powers Will Rise,” International Security, Vol. 17, No. 4 (Spring), 1993, p.8.

8. Carl Boggs, Imperial Delusions: American Militarism and Endless War, Lanham, Rowman & Littlefield , 2005, pp. 207, 11, 14.

9. Ibid.

142

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics

10. Rufus Fears , Lecture #917 , “The Lessons of the Roman Empire for America Today”, Published on December 19, 2005 by The heritage foundation, leadership for America, http://www.heritage.org/Research/Lecture/The-Lessons-of-the-Roman-Empire-for- America-Today (Accessed 9 March 2012).

11. Ibid.

12. Samuel P. Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony, R.E. Dalton, 1991.

13. Kenneth N. Waltz, “Structural Realism after the Cold War,” International Security, Vol. 25, 14. No. 1

15. Christopher Layne, “The Unipolar Illusion: Why New Great Powers Will Rise,” International Security, Vol. 17, No. 4 (Spring), 1993, pp. 5–51; Kenneth N. Waltz, “The Emerging Structure of International Politics,” International Security, Vol. 18, No. 2, (Fall), 1994, pp. 44–79.

16. Kennedy, Paul, the Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict From 1500 to 2000, New York: Vintage Books, 1987, p. XV, 533-535, 432, 245. Stephen Delos Wilson, the Bankruptcy of America. How the boom of the 80’s became the Bust of the 90’s. Ridge Mills Press, Germantown, 1992; From Carl Boggs, Imperial Delusions: American Militarism and Endless War, Lanham, Rowman & Littlefield, 2005, p.207.

17. Francis Shor, “War in the Era of Declining U.S. Global Hegemony”, Journal of Critical Globalization Studies, Issue 2, 2010, pp. 65-81, http://www.criticalglobalisation.com/Issue2/JCGS_Issue2_War_and_Declining_US_Heg emony.html (Accessed 8 March 2012).

18. Andy Hoffman, U.S. Global Hegemony – The Beginning … And the End, 19 April, 2009, Goldseek.com, http://news.goldseek.com/GoldSeek/1240158180. php (Accessed 8 March 2012).

19. Andy Hoffman, U.S. Global Hegemony – The Beginning … And the End, 19 April, 2009, Goldseek.com, http://news.goldseek.com/GoldSeek/1240158180.php (Accessed 8 March 2012).

20. National Intelligence Council, (2008). Global Trends 2025: A Transformed World, November 2008, National Intelligence Council, p. 6, www.dni.gov/nic/NIC_2025_project.html

143

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics

Ronald Reagan – The Man who Defeated Communism

Abstract

TEA CHUMBURIDZE

Ronald Reagan was a man of contradictions. However, he was single-minded about the evils of communism. My article deals with a master politician who was on the correct side of the epic struggle against World Communism. In his foreign policy, Ronald Reagan turned out to be one of the most effective American presidents of the 20th century. The research tries to answer the questions: what was Ronald Reagan’s defining worldview principle? How did he achieve the final triumph over communism?

 M.A. student, Faculty of Humanities, Direction of U.S. Foreign Affairs, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

144

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics

Ronald Reagan – The Man who Defeated Communism

TEA CHUMBURIDZE

Ronald Reagan’s Values Reagan knew and believed in the power and value of human freedom. This was his defining worldview principle. It guided what he thought about domestic politics and was central to his vision for the world. For more than 30 years, Reagan embraced a vision for dealing with the Soviet Union and ending the Cold War that was remarkably consistent and proved to be decisive. Some people were critical of Reagan’s apparent lack of interest in the details of diplomacy and international law. They failed to see his larger strategic vision. (Schweizer, 2002, p. 1) At 68, he was the oldest person ever elected president for a first term, however his political approach seemed fresh and new. He was called, “The Great Communicator”. From the start, President Reagan set a clear direction for the country. That was to roll back communism where possible, strengthen national defense, cut taxes, and stop or slow the growth of government. Even though many disagreed with the specifics of his policies, they accepted the direction he was setting and liked his brand of sunny, decisive leadership. (Walsh, 2008. p. 3) It is impossible to understand Ronald Reagan outside of his 40-year battle against communism. It was a struggle that consumed more of his attention than any other issue. It touched the very center of his life. Many people believe that this devotion to fighting communism everywhere cost Reagan personal loss. He suffered death threats while waging his campaign against this evil. Ultimately, it brought him three assassination attempts. When a fourth deranged assassin named John Hinckley almost killed him, Reagan came to believe that his life had been spared by God for a divine purpose, defeating communism. (Schweizer, 2002, p. 2)

 M.A. student, Faculty of Humanities, Direction of U.S. Foreign Affairs, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

145

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics

If it is impossible to understand Reagan separate from understanding him through his “worldview”, it is likewise not possible to understand the collapse of the Soviet Union separate from Ronald Reagan, the two are intertwined.

Walking a Difficult Path Ronald Reagan admired courage and character. These two virtues were exactly what his nearly half-century battle against communism required most. Beginning in Hollywood and throughout his presidency, Reagan was always willing to speak the truth about communism. He believed that communism was the evil root that destroyed family, country, and individualism. Communism suffocated people and did not give people the choices necessary to choose for themselves. Reagan was a master politician. He understood the value of symbols and images in winning votes. But he was about more than his personal ambitions. He believed in ideas larger than himself, and his ideas did not shift over the course of his public life, nor did he ever attempt to camouflage them. When they seemed unpopular, he clung to them stubbornly. When established opinion called them simpleminded, he smiled and pressed ahead. Reagan cared deeply about these ideas. He would not discard them simply for more votes. When Reagan thought about the world, he did not do it in an abstract way of most academics. If ideas did have consequences, Reagan believed that embracing and advocating the right ideas was the best way to be a leader of consequence. He had not only his views about policies but a worldview, and he had a strong sense of his place and America’s in the currents of history. When he spoke about the Cold War, his words were charged with a sense of personal conviction. Some, no doubt will challenge or disagree with his view of the world, but few if any would question his sincerity. It is clear that Reagan’s assessment of communism turned out to be correct and his critics were wrong. Soviet communism was the threat that he claimed it was and was vulnerable in the way he said it would be. He was on the correct side of the great battles of the struggle against communism. Moscow and its supporters did try to gain a level of control in Hollywood during the 1940’s and 50’s. The peace movement of the 1970s and 1980s was being influenced by the

146

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics

Soviet Union as well, and Moscow and Havana did have plans to overthrow Central America. Archives in the former Soviet bloc settle these debates. Reagan's admirers should not claim that without him the collapse of communism would never have happened. It would have collapsed anyway, in the end. A system which believes that a small group of self-selected possessors of the truth knows how to run everything is sooner or later going to run into the wall. But Reagan brought the wall closer. He got the American economy growing again which made more Russians realize that their own system of governing was incompetent. Russia realized that Reagan could spend much more money on America's military power. The Reagan Doctrine provided overt and covert aid to developing nations to fight the spread of communism and it was becoming more and more successful. Reagan proposed a Strategic Defense Initiative in 1983. This was aimed at developing a space-based weapons missile program to protect America from Soviet nuclear attacks and he put those new missiles into Europe. The result is 20 years less Marxist-Leninist ideological arrogance, and Cold War's dangers. (“Ronald Reagan – The man who beat communism”, 2004) I want to emphasize that many of Reagan’s most critical initiatives were launched alone. “In my opinion, to share your goals clearly and select the appropriate people who will fulfill these goals is a cornerstone of a good leadership. During the debates I listened carefully to the opinions of each member of the Cabinet. But after the end of the discussion, everyone knew - the final decision was made only by me.” (Reagan, R., 1990, p. 101) He approved massive defense increases in 1981, even though a majority of his cabinet was opposed and former presidents Nixon and Ford were advising him to cut spending. He launched the Strategic Defense Initiative almost entirely by himself, informing his Secretary of State and most other advisers’ only hours before he announced his plans to the public. When he took a hard line over the declaration of martial law in Poland in an effort to keep Solidarity alive, he did so with scant support from any major ally save Great Britain’s Margaret Thatcher. All the while, he was ridiculed for failing to grasp the intricacies of the global situation. (Schweizer, 2002, p.2)

147

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics

Conclusion

Today we live in a world very different from the one of only a quarter-century ago. There is no longer talk of a large-scale war in Europe, no fear of a massive nuclear strike. Understanding Reagan’s struggle and final triumph over communism involves more than debating the past or deciding who gets the credit. It provides us wisdom and hope for the struggles of today and tomorrow. Reagan’s hope that we be guided not by fear but by courage and moral clarity is as apt today as it was during the height of the Cold War. By defeating communism, Ronald Reagan ended one of history's most violent centuries and opened the door to the possibility that for at least a few decades war would be averted. Though it can never be abolished it is a smaller horror than in the past. Democracy might become an alternative for more people. In his foreign policy, Ronald Reagan stood by his core values and principles and never wavered in the face of adversary. In the final analysis, Reagan lifted America's spirits and he changed our world as well. He was instrumental in advancing the death of communism and speeding the peoples of Russia and Eastern Europe to liberty.

References: 1. Clive, C. “Reagan Defeated Communism. Washington was More of a Challenge”, (2004), EBSCO Host

2. Reagan, R., An American Life: The Autobiography, (1990). New York: Simon & Schuster, p. 101

3. “Ronald Reagan – The Man Who Beat Communism”, (2004). The Economist, from the print edition

4. Schweizer, P. “Ronald Reagan’s One Big Thing”. (2002). Hoover Institution, Stanford University

5. Walsh, T.K. “The Most Consequential Elections in History: Ronald Reagan and the Election of 1980”, (2008). U.S. News, Available At: http://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2008/09/25/the-most-consequential-elections-in- history-ronald-reagan-and-the-election-of-1980

148

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics

Basic Aspects of Online Communication in Public Relations

LELA VANISHVILI

Introduction Nowadays communication is a key contributor to organizational success. An organization is concerned with its ability to influence various publics through communication. It is in every organisation’s interest to ensure that its important stakeholders hold certain beliefs or feelings about an organization. Organizations want employees to believe that the organization is the best place to work in. They want customers to believe that the organization is a great place to buy products or services. They want communities to believe that the organization is a good corporate citizen. And they want the general public to believe that the organization is honest, reliable, and responsible. Thus, for reaching these publics around the world in the most effective and fast way, internet plays a vital role. This new channel of communication enables organizations successfully communicate with people and reach as much audience as possible, to deliver their messages what is more important get an immediate feedback from them. In the internet the audience becomes active participant of communication and can form a clear view of the organizations. Communication is essential to PR. The purpose of PR is to establish a two-way positive communication to resolve conflicts of interest by finding out common areas of mutual interest. Simply by carrying out its day to day operations, an organization necessarily communicates certain messages to their publics, who, for some reason interact with the company or organization and will then form an opinion about it and its activities. The need for PR is to orchestrate the behavior of the organization and the messages that the organization wants to deliver to its publics, in order to help develop a corporate identity or personality and, of course,

 M.A. student, Faculty of Humanities, Direction of U.S. Foreign Affairs, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

149

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics to inform its public. PR is an important and flexible marketing communications ‘tool’. It forms an essential part of the integrated marketing communications mix. PR plays a vital role and makes contribution to the creation of an effective internal marketing culture within an organization and creating, fostering, developing and maintaining mutually beneficial long term relationships with customers and other key groups of people. In this point PR is seen as to have a dramatic increase in prominence as both a strategic internal and external marketing communications tool. The role of PR is to help build an understanding a company has with its publics. This has the effect of increasing the source credibility of marketing messages from other elements in the communications mix by improving the image and reputation of the company and its product and services. An organization is judged by its behavior and its actions. PR is about goodwill and reputation. At its best, public relations can be the discipline that really determines the content of the messages companies send to their customers and other target audiences.

Elements of the Communication Model The point of communication suggests that sending a message is the same as communicating a message. PR practitioners are using the classical communication model introduced by information scientists Shannon and Weaver, based on their work for Bell Telephone Laboratories in the late 1940s.

noise

Sender Receiver

Message Channel Message

Feedback

Figure 1. (Shannon-Weaver Model of communication with feedback)

150

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics

As it is widely known and you can see from the Figure 1.1 that Shannon and Weaver's model consists of an information source, message or signal, channel, receiver or destination and sometimes there can be noise. Sometimes the communication process produces relatively few and simple problems which are known in the model as noise. Technical problems arise when the signal or channel limits or distorts the message being transmitted from the source to the sender. It refers to external interference in the communication process. The message doesn't make it through as sent. Semantic problems occur when the receiver's perception of the message and meaning are not the same as those intended by the sender. When semantic noise occurs, the message gets through as sent but you don't understand what it means. In the psychological noise we refer to internal factors that lead to misunderstanding; in the communication process as psychological noise. People try to protect themselves from information that they might find offensive in three ways: selective exposure, selective perception and selective retention. The concept of psychological noise comes from the theory that found that people usually prefer to seek out information and ideas that are consistent with their beliefs, attitudes and behavior and tend to avoid information that is inconsistent. Influence problems indicate that the sender's message did not produce the desired result on the part of the receiver. Public relations practitioners explain that communication with target publics is much more complicated. As Wilbur Schramm pointed out- communication is complicated by people: “Communication is something people do. It has no life of its own. There is no magic about it except what people in the communication relationship put into it. There is no meaning in a message except what the people put into it. (Wilbur Schramm 2009). The process of informing involves four steps: attracting attention to the communication; achieving acceptance of the message; having it interpreted as intended, and getting the message stored for later use. The more demanding process of instruction adds a fifth step: stimulating active learning and practice. Unfortunately, the communication process is not as simple as it seems for ordinary people. Early communication researchers studied the individual elements in the communication process model to determine the effect of each on the effectiveness of the process. Effective communication plays a vital role in the success of every professional and personal relationship.

151

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics

Becoming a skilled communicator requires you to learn the roles of every element of communication.

Internet - new channel for communication in PR The computer network started in 1969 as a way for scientists working with the U.S. Department of Defense to communicate with one another about research projects. In short order, the scientists adapted the system to send electronic mail to one another, and the first online discussion group began about science fiction, not scientific projects. Today almost every second person in the United States uses the Internet either at home, at work, or through a library. Today it is impossible to imagine any company without a computer or internet, and not only the companies, but any home, school, university, governmental institutions, organizations and any other places. The Internet offers several advantages when compared to the other media such as speed of communication, almost immediate product delivery, interactivity, customization and personalization; it can improve productivity, efficiency and issues management. The Internet also provides an ideal forum for group communication and interaction on interested issues. It has definitely changed the way public relations practitioners distribute information, interact with key publics, deal with crises, manage issues and deliver their ideas. The 21st century is witnessing an explosion of internet-based messages transmitted through these new media. They influence various aspects of consumer behavior including awareness, information perception, opinions, attitudes, purchase behavior, communication and evaluation. From the attitude of PR internet-based communication helps to distinguish information better, to send different messages to target publics. Organizations may choose how they are planning to pursue their public relations actions and which actions may bring benefits. Business relationships have become based on the way people interact with each other via electronic communications. Electronic communication began with the telephone, typewriter, fax machine, television, and computer. Each of these communications brought about a new form of communicating. The Internet is actually a combination of thousands of computer networks sending and receiving data from all over the world- competing interests joined together by a

152

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics common purpose, but no common owner. In its global size and absence of central control, the Internet is completely different from traditional media. So the computer and internet brought new media communication technologies to reach public. The most popular nowadays, which are used by people and organizations all over the world are: e-mail, World Wide Web, web blogs, social networks, RSS feeds, podcasts, internet calling and many others.

E-mail The first sign of the expansion of the internet to consumer and educational users in the early 1990s was the adoption by businesses and private users of electronic mail or e-mail, technology. With a computer, a modem and a telephone line, just about anyone could learn how to communicate electronically on-line. The Internet has become a tool that allows users to economize time that is really very important for people busy with their works. Virtually all of the leading Internet applications allow users to accomplish tasks more quickly than they can through other alternative means. Just as telephone answering machines changed voice communication by allowing people to send and receive messages on their own time schedule, e-mail allows people to communicate and receive information at their convenience. People who are on-line at home today are most likely to use the technology to gather news and information or to send and receive e-mail. E-mail at school, work or at home is the way most people first experience communicating in an electronic environment. E-mail is easy to use and convenient, and it is a text-based system. Familiarity and convenience are very important in the adoption of new technologies because people's fear of something they don't understand, and misunderstandings about how new technologies work, can keep them from changing their current habits. Organizations are very much using the e-mail system, especially in communication with their internal publics, or employees. E-mails are used to send information about the company, or just to inform employees about news and changes in the organization. Coworkers are using e-mails to exchange their information and get suggestions about work done, or just sent already done projects to the directors. E-mail is really helpful tool for delivering and getting the information, in the communication process. Email is a very popular form of electronic communication today.

153

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics

World Wide Web Exchanging text through e-mail is a simple electronic operation, but several more developments were necessary for people to be able to share text, graphics, audio and video online. These developments made the creation of the World Wide Web possible. The person most responsible for creating the World Wide Web is Tim Berners-Lee, a British native with an Oxford degree in physics. Working in 1989 in Geneva, Switzerland, at the CERN physics laboratory, Berners-Lee created several new programming languages. These new programming language HTML (hypertext markup language) and HTTP (hyper text transfer protocol) that allowed people to create and send text, graphics and video information electronically and also to set up connections (called "links") from one source of information to another. (These developments were very important in the Web's early days, but today, just a few years later, people can create their own Web pages without knowing HTML and HTTP.) After he had invented the language and mechanisms that would allow people to share all kinds of information electronically Berners-Lee gave his invention its name—the World Wide Web. The original goal was working together with others. Berners-Lee also created the first browser which allows people to search electronically among many documents what they want. Another level of help for Web access is the search engine. This is a tool used to locate information in a computer database. Some familiar search engines Bing, Lycos, Google and Yahoo! These devices turn your typed request for information into digital bits that then go and search for what you want and return the information to you. The process of putting documents on the Web drew its terminology from print, the original mass medium. Placing something on the Web is called publishing, and begins with a home page, which is like the front door to the site, the place that welcomes the user and explains how the site works. Nobody ever designed the Web. There are no rules, no laws. The Web also exists without national boundaries. Any type of Information—pictures, voice, graphics and text—can travel virtually instantly to and from anyone with a computer and access to the Internet anywhere in the world.

154

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics

Today every strong and serious organizations, as well as governmental and educational institutions have their own websites. They create this websites to show and explain their services, give detailed information about the company; you can find contact information as well as detailed information about the company itself. Websites are very useful for communication with the public, organizations often publish their news and events of the days to leave their employees and customers aware and informed. One of the greatest advantages of the Internet is its ability to react quickly. That is especially important in crises. Companies can prepare crisis-ready web sites that enable them a quick response. Reacting quickly to the crises situations is available through communications on the websites of particular organizations that helps them in saving their reputation through rapid respond to the problems.

Web Blogs Another means of electronic communications are web blogs. A blog is a website where entries are written in chronological order and commonly displayed in reverse chronological order. "Blog" can also be used as a verb that means to maintain or add content to a log. Blogs provide commentary or news on a particular subject such as food, politics, or local news; some function as more personal online diaries. A typical blog combines text, images, and links to other blogs, web pages, and other media related to its topic. The ability for readers to leave comments in an interactive format is an important part of many blogs. Most blogs are primarily textual, although some focus on art (artlog), photographs (photoblog), sketchblog, videos (vlog), music (MP3 blog), audio (podcasting) or sexual in nature (Adult blog), and are part of a wider network of social media. There are also corporative blogs, where content is written by an individual, CEO, manager or a group of employees. The purpose of a corporate blog is to spark informal conversation about the organization and its products and services among its publics. The corporative blogs are already used by a range of companies from various industries. In a research performed by PR Week among the U.S. CEOs, it was discovered that 7% of the U.S. CEOs have their own blog. The key advantage of blogs is a quick communication of new ideas, greater informality, quick internal response and a place for innovation and good leadership. Corporations are using blogs to

155

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics directly communicate with their publics. PR practitioners are taking part in the blog conversations, to understand their publics better and find out what it is interested in, the most. General Motors and its Fastlane Blog is a great example of corporate blogging because GM has clearly realized the power and usefulness of blogs. GM talks a lot on their blog about their cars and trucks and the design choices they make while creating them, but they also throw in interesting treatises on current hot-button issues, such as alternative energy. It also means that GM puts the topic on the blog and then also watches the feedbacks of their employees and customers, so that they can find out what the majority of public is thinking about the issues.

Social networking A social networking service is an online service, platform, or site that focuses on building of social networks or social relations among people who share interests and activities. A social network service essentially consists of a representation of each user (often a profile), his/her social links, and a variety of additional services. The most popular nowadays can be considered Facebook, Twitter, and Myspace. LinkedIn is another site, which in contrast to MySpace and Facebook is used almost exclusively for professional networking. Users understand members sign up to promote themselves for career development and their companies. The quality of the network you create lies in the quality of the contacts, not the quantity. Once you've established a list of contacts, be judicious how you use it. You can send notes to your contacts but if you send too many, those notes are not as likely to get read or you might even be dropped as a contact. You can use the list for small announcements: events, job openings, or vendor recommendations. You can also put your CV there and recommendations. There are also groups on LinkedIn. Currently there are more than 150,000 groups, including business forums, alumni groups, fan clubs, and conferences. When you choose the group the group owner approves your membership to ensure validity. The groups are differentiated by industries in which the company operates. What is interesting that you can find almost any CEO of big corporations on LinkedIn. You can see their profiles and send them messages concerning your issues. There are thousands of companies represented on the LinkedIn and it is very useful

156

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics site especially for business communications. Organizations communicate with each other from different parts of the world and thus exchanging the information, experience, news and problems. The growing acceptance of the Internet and social networking as a way to communicate information has high-tech PR pros predicting that the Net will reshape media relations over the next few years. They realize, of course, the Net will never replace the importance of one-on-one personal contact with reporters, a relationship that is the hallmark of good press relations. PR people do believe, however, that the use of cyberspace will enable them to cast a wider net when looking for placements as more reporters log onto the Internet.

Larry Weber, CEO of The Weber Group, is among those who believes that the cyberspace to be a powerful PR and media relations tool. The Web, he said, "will change PR forever during the next ten years and will serve as the core of media relations." Weber's confident that Web-based media relations will enable PR firms to better serve their clients. Senior people attached to the smartest desktops will handle media relations in a Web- based PR environment. There's a convergence among entertainment, consumer marketing and technology that bodes well for the future of Web-based communications.

Conclusion The convenience and speed of technology make it an alluring communication medium, but it needs to be used wisely. Once awareness has been created, preferably by face-to-face communication where possible, technology (e-mail, Internet, and intranet sites) is useful for reinforcing the message. The advantages of technology include a quick way to give and get feedback, which shortens the communication cycle time, convenient information storage and retrieval, reduced communication costs, a flatter corporate hierarchy when an employee with an idea or concern can share it directly with an individual without having the message reviewed and filtered by others, and the ability to collaborate with others. It allows people on different floors, different time zones, and different continents to have immediate access to working documents and data. On the negative side it's impersonal and increases the risk of dehumanizing relationships; it's generally done quickly, even impulsively, and thus increases the likelihood for

157

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics misunderstanding; it's a pull medium, which means the receiver must want it and seek it; information security is still a big concern for many; and often it is not easy understood and read the information itself is not detailed that leads to misunderstandings. The success depends on the arrangements of organizations to pursue communication in blogs, forums, social networking sites and etc. These internet technologies are widely used by people around the world and organizations can be involved in those technologies to effectively communicate with their publics. The success of organizations begins with identification right audiences, in right time and of sending right message and abilities to take the advantages of internet-based communication and willingness to eliminate disadvantages. Only the properly selected media can strengthen organization positions, improve opinion about the institutions and build strong communication relations. Communication is essential to PR, it is one of the most important parts in PR. Public relations is a distinctive management function which helps to establish and maintain mutual lines of communication, understanding, acceptance and co-operation between organization and its publics. It involves the management of problems and issues, helps management to keep informed on and responsive to public opinion, emphasizes the responsibility of management to serve public interest and uses communication techniques as its principal tools.

References:

1. Grunig, James E. and Hunt, Todd. (1984)” Managing Public Relations.” Orlando, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

2. Erica Swallow, Mashable. (2010). "The Future of Public Relations and Social Media."

3. Amanda Forman (2001) “Georgiana Duchess of Devonshire” New York. USA. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pa.412/abstract

4. Stuart Elliot (2012). "Public Relations Defined, After an Energetic Public Discussion". New York Times.

5. Shannon-Weaver (1940). “Model of Communication”.

158

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics

Quanah Parker and Satanta - Last War Chiefs of Comanche and Kiowa Tribes

MIKHEIL BARNOVI

Our greetings to great nation of Comanches and Great nation of Kiowas

It’s a great honor for us that we have possibilities to write about great and brilliant nations of Comanche tribe and Kiowa tribe, to write about great history of those tribes and Great War chiefs of Comanches and Kiowas. The main aim of this article is to gain respect of the Comanche nation and the Kiowa nation and to show brilliant persons from the history of those tribes-Quanah Parker the Comanche war chief one hand and Satanta Kiowa war chief on other hand. The problem of Indian wars during last frontier period (1865-1890) is one of the most interesting themes of the history of the US. Since 1890-ies of XIX century and during XX century various scientific papers, articles, books, conferences were dedicate to this problem in US. So, this theme is well studied in American historiography. Even the list of the scientific papers on native American studies during just first half of the XXth century is so impressive that we can see how deeply was scrutinized different topics of the history of Native Americans (Frederick J. Dockstader, 1957). After 50-ies of XX th century the publications and research papers practically doubled and more and more new parts of native American history were studied by different researchers from scientific circles of the U.S.

 New and Modern History of Europe and America PhD program, III term, Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Faculty of Humanities, Tbilisi, Georgia.

159

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics Modest aim of this article is to just fill the gap that we have in Native American studies in Georgian scientific circles and share our opinions about several issues concerning Native Americans’ history. Based on various American scientific papers we hope that our article will be a little brick in the developing of the Native American studies in Georgia. Our main aim is to show an importance and role of Quanah Parker and Satanta for their tribes when frontier reached the Southern Plains of the U.S. Also we are trying to represent the influence of these persons on their tribes, and generally on the westward moving of the frontier. In conclusion we want to state our own view about the importance of the war chiefs during last American frontier period. First of all we can make small discourse through the history of last American frontier on the southern plains: in Texas, Oklahoma and Kansas. After civil war we can observe fast westward movement of frontier on the southern plains of the U.S. Pioneers, cattlemen, miners, railroads were pushing deeper and deeper in to the Kansas, Texas and Oklahoma. Everything this disrupted the native lifestyle of the Comanche and Kiowa tribes who were the lords of those plains, for whom this area was motherland. More and more settlers wee occupying the pristine plains of Comanches and Kiowas (Frederic L. Paxson, 1922). The Comanches and Kiowas in American history are known as the one of the great warriors, skilled buffalo hunters and amazing horse riders. So, in second part of 1860-ies and during 1870- ies Comanches and Kiowas tried to push back the frontier and protect their traditional lifestyle (Carl Waldman, 2009). Generally we can say that as Comanche as so Kiowas were representing the classical nomadic Indian culture based on horse herds and Buffalo hunting. Buffalo gave them everything: shelter, clothes, war weapons, food in a word everything. But of course still they were and are absolutely distinguished tribes with original and unique culture (Bruce E. Johansen, Barry M. Pritzker, 2008). So, in 1865-875 Comanches and Kiowas were fighting against pioneers, newcomers, American buffalo hunters, federal troops-cavalry. The famous Indian war on the southern plains took place in 1874-1875. The main aim of government in this war was to remove the Comanche, Kiowa, Southern Cheyenne, and Arapaho Native American tribes from the Southern Plains and forcibly relocate them to reservations in Indian Territory. Though the last

160

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics

significantly sized group-Quahadi Comanches under war chief Quanah Parker wouldn't surrender until mid-1875. The war marked the end of free roaming Indian populations on the Southern Plains. Beside Comanches and Quanah, Satanta war chief of Kiowas was also the last who was raiding American settlements and wagon trains in Kansas and Texas (David. J. Wishart, 2007) One of the main questions for us is to determine the role and place of Quanah and Satanta for their tribes. Both were war chiefs of different tribes, both have more or less similar life. They were last and principal war chiefs of their tribes. They were last representatives of the persons in their tribe who had status – war chief. With their surrender of Comanches and Kiowas lost the war chief institute of their tribe. From our point of view it was dramatic and very serious change. In such nomadic tribes as Comanches and Kiowas, were the tribe was focused on: roaming, war parties, war campaigns, warfare such change mean that absolutely new reality has come. When in the tribe which is focused on warfare war chief status is abolished it means that tribe is on its way of serious transformation of its native traditions. So was in case of Comanches and Kiowas. For example if we compare nomadic Indians without war chief it’s the same that monarchy without king, presidential republic without president. So, Quanah and Satanta had huge importance in their tribes. They were last representatives of old and original war chief tradition of their tribes. With the surrender of Quanah and Satanta the great spirit of Native American warrior finally pass to history and the epoch of Indian wars in American west became the part of history. How can we evaluate those chiefs-Quanah Parker and Satanta for other focus? For example we can remember the history of Quanah Parker and his last war campaign against the U.S. We must remember that after civil war, as a result of the great migration to the west, settlers and buffalo hunters began to occupy the Indian territories on the Southern plains. It’s very interesting that exactly Quanah Parker‘s life spanned this dramatic conflict and its historical resolution. This brilliant man was son of a Comanche chief and a white woman. Quanah led last of the Comanche raids on forts and settlements of the Northern Texas. It was last and desperate attempt to preserve

161

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics the Comanche’s traditional ancestral way of Life. The last of the great Comanche warriors and generally one of the last greatest Indian warriors of American old west-Quanah Parker was the symbol of his people and its great honor for us and we are happy to write about this legendary person in order to gain respect of his descendants and the Comanche tribe. So, the legendary Comanche war chief Quanah in early 1875 was leading the last free Comanche warriors in the northern Texas. It was the last trail of legendary Comanche warriors. Cavalry was pursuing them, Indians were outnumbered, it was difficult to find safety place for the camp, their buffalo gone, they were hungry, but Quanah was with them, he was war chief of his people and Indians follow him. At last when situation was critical it was time to make decision by Quanah-will they continue fighting or they will surrender and go to the reservation? And in this moment we can see the most important feature of Indian war chief. Quanah went for some time away from his camp in wilderness alone for vision; he wanted to receive signs from Great Spirit how Comanches must act? He chanted, prayed and called on the Great Spirit and on his medicine. In this historical and sacred moment we can feel the tragedy and pain of Comanche people. Quanah, who was representing the last free Comanches living with traditional lifestyle, he wanted only just the freedom to live with the old life, to live as Comanches were living so many years before him, but plainly the old times gone, the old life was disappearing, buffaloes also gone and the unique Comanche traditional lifeways finally gone and would never be again. Finally Quanah receives this signs, Great Spirit show him and his tribe the direction to the Fort Sill reservation in Oklahoma. Last free Comanche band surrendered. Quanah led his people to Fort sill, their horse was sold on auction, warriors were disarmed. The great nomadic culture of southern plains goes to history (Len Hilts, 1987). So, what is important for us we can see that Quanah’s as war chief‘s decisions were determined not according pragmatic military analysis, strategic ideas or something else, but the traditional, ancestral religion is the main coordinator of his decisions. So, from our point of view, to grow such persons as Quanah, it was necessary to have traditional and original cultural space, only in such environment it was possible to grow up such persons. As we know the traditional Indian life disappeared so tribes couldn’t grow up such

162

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics persons anymore, so, Quanah and Satanta were last representatives of unique historical tradition of Comanches and Kiowas. In conclusion we must also compare the traditionalist and modernist positions in tribes during the last American frontier. As we know during settling of American West Indian chiefs split in two groups- first, the traditionalist thought that they must fight and protect their traditional lifestyle to the end. Other part of chiefs, modernists, thought that it was impossible to stop frontier, so it will be appropriate step to surrender and try to adopt American culture. What is the difference between those chiefs? Can we say that traditionalists loved their original life way more than modernist, of course no. The chiefs who decide to surrender and signed different treaties with government also loved their ancestor's life way very much and it was tragedy for them to lose this precious life. Where is the difference then? In our opinion the only difference is that the traditionalist chiefs of old West, such as Quanah Parker of Comanches, Satanta of Kiowas, Geronimo of Apaches, Red Cloud of Oglala Sioux, Joseph of Nez Perce- they just didn’t lost the hope and they believed that even outnumbered they can fight and defend their homeland and native lifestyle, they still believed that it was possible to preserve traditional lifestyle and to stop frontier. What about modernist chiefs they just lost this hope. They analyze the huge power coming from the east, huge force that was moving the frontier from the east and they understand that if they will not surrender the industrialization, urbanization and material-technological progress will whipped them. Once more we want underlined that it was great honor for us that we have possibilities to talk about great Tribes of Comanches and Kiowas and the great times when war chiefs Quanah and Satanta were living.

References: 1. Frederick J. Dockstader (1957). The American Indian in Graduate Studies, a Bibliography of Thesis and Dissertations. New York: Museum of American Indian, Heye Foundation.

2. Frederic L. Paxson (1922). The Last American Frontier, New York: The Macmillan Company.

163

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics

3. Carl Waldman (2009). Atlas of the North American Indian, New York: Facts on File.

4. Bruce E. Johansen, Barry M. Pritzker (2008). Encyclopedia of American Indian History, Santa Barbara: ABC Clio.

5. David J. Wishart (2009). Encyclopedia of the Great Plains Indians, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

6. Len Hilts, (1987). Quanah Parke, Warrior for Freedom, Ambassador for Peace, San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers.

164

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics

Portal to the Land of Dreams – Ellis Island

Abstract

KETEVAN DOLAKIDZE

Immigration, perhaps more than any other social, political, or economic process, has shaped the United States as a nation. Everybody has a dream to be happy, to find a place - where they can start over and leave all sorrow and failure in past – their Land of Hope. From its earliest days, America has been a nation of immigrants and the exact place they are looking for - “place, where streets are paved with gold.” Most immigrant groups to America came full of hopes and dreams of the "Promised Land". No name is more closely linked with massive American immigration than Ellis Island. Immigrants sailed to America in hopes of carving out new destinies for themselves. More than seventeen million immigrants entered the United States through the portal of Ellis Island, a small island in New York Harbor. Ellis Island showcased some of the best aspects of the United States, but also some of the worst. But this small island – Golden Door to new life, with its developing history, significantly shaped the immigration tradition and led it and transformed to the formation of contemporary immigration legislation of the United States.

 PhD Candidate, Lecturer, Faculty of Social Sciences, Direction of International Relations and Politics, Lawyer, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia

165

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics

Portal to the Land of Dreams – Ellis Island

KETEVAN DOLAKIDZE “To this day, the imprint made by our immigrant ancestors anchors many of us to this beautiful valley while at the same time their lofty and inspiring dreams continue to give us our wings.” Cookie Curci – Writer, granddaughter of Italian Immigrants

Introduction Everybody has a dream to be happy, to find a place - where they can start over and leave all sorrow and failure in past – their Land of Hope. For many of fortune seekers the United States feels to be the exact place they are looking for - “land of milk and honey, where streets are paved with gold.”

Prehistory From its earliest days, America has been a nation of immigrants, starting with its original inhabitants, who crossed the land bridge connecting Asia and North America tens of thousands of years ago. Discoveries made by various anthropologists of human remains over the past few decades provide evidence that long before Ellis Island opened its doors to welcome those seeking political and religious freedom as well as the "adventurer, the wanderer, the persecuted, the fortune seekers, and others" America was a kaleidoscope of ethnic and cultural groups! Thus, the history of US immigration spans a long period of migration of many different peoples from various parts of the world. One common belief is that America was originally peopled by wanderers from Northeast Asia about 20,000 years ago. These wanderers were believed by some to be the founding population (and ancestors!) of today's Native Americans. Others believe that the first Americans came from Polynesia, South Asia or even Europe, but then the very first Americans were killed by later arrivals and that they left no descendants. The debate rages on!

 PhD Candidate, Lecturer, Faculty of Social Sciences, Direction of International Relations and Politics, Lawyer, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia

166

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics

However, not to be lost in this debate is the fact that whether 20,000, 10,000 or 1,000 years ago, most immigrant groups to America came full of hopes and dreams of the "Promised Land". Around the year 1000, a small number of Vikings arrived and five hundred years later, by the 1500s, the great European migration began. Many settlers from Europe and Asia came to seek their fortune in a new country which was thought to have unlimited resources (Rapid Immigration.com). The settling of America began with an idea. The idea was that people can join together and agree to govern themselves by making laws for the common good. With that idea in mind, 102 English colonists later referred to as the "Pilgrims" set sail in 1620 on the Mayflower and arrived at present-day Plymouth, Massachusetts, where they established a colony. They were soon followed by a large group seeking religious freedom, the Puritans, who established the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Pilgrims and Puritans came to America to practice religion in a manner they believed correct. Many also came to escape economic problems. The combination of motives was powerful, and more than 20,000 people came to Massachusetts and the spin-off colonies of Connecticut, Rhode Island and New Hampshire between the 1630 and 1640 (Archdeacon & Fuchs). This is generally considered by many to be the "start" of planned European migration. In 1638, just 18 years after the Mayflower, the Swedes began their migration to America. Unlike the Pilgrim Fathers, the Swedes were not religious dissenters - they were an organized group of colonizers sent by the Swedish Government to establish a colony in Delaware. In 1655, the colony was lost to the Dutch. In the mid-1840s, a wave of Swedish migration began with the landing of a group of migrant farmers in New York and continued up to World War I. During the colonial era most of the immigrants to the U.S. came from Northern Europe. Their numbers declined during the 1770s, but picked up during the mid 1800s. New arrivals came from several countries, but mostly from Germany and Ireland where crop failures caused many to leave their homelands. Other groups also arrived from the Netherlands, Spain, Italy, the Scandinavian countries, and Eastern Europe (Rapid Immigration.com). A large share of immigrants came to America seeking economic opportunities. However, because the price of passage was steep, an estimated one-half or more of the white Europeans

167

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics who made the voyage did so by becoming indentured servants. Others were kidnapped in European cities and forced into servitude in America. Another group of immigrants who arrived against their will during the colonial period were the black slaves from West Africa. By 1680, there were some 7 000 African slaves in the American colonies. Congress outlawed the importation of slaves to the United States as of 1808, but unfortunately the practice continued. Although the exact numbers will never be known, it is believed that 500 000 to 650 000 Africans were brought to America and sold into slavery between the 17th and 19th centuries. The United States experienced major waves of immigration during the colonial era, the first part of 19th century and from the 1880s to 1920. The majority of these newcomers hailed from Northern and Western Europe. Approximately one-third came from Ireland and in the 1840s almost half of American immigrants were from Ireland only. Also in the 19th century, the United States received nearly 5 million German immigrants and during the mid-1800s, a significant number of Asians settled in the United States. The influx of newcomers resulted in anti-immigrant sentiment among certain factions of America’s native-born, predominantly Anglo-Saxon Protestant population. The first significant federal legislation restricting immigration was the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act, which banned Chinese laborers from coming to America. The federal government had left immigration policy to individual states. However, by the final decade of the century, the government decided it needed to step in to handle the ever-increasing influx of newcomers. In 1890, the 23rd President of the U.S. Benjamin Harrison designated Ellis Island, located in New York Harbor near the Statue of Liberty, as a federal immigration station.

Ellis Island Ellis Island was the main immigration station for the United States from 1892 to 1954. more than seventeen million immigrants entered the United States through the portal of Ellis Island, a small island in New York Harbor (Ellis Island - History). Ellis Island’s history journeys much farther back than most think; back before opening of Ellis’s immigration screening station, and even before the first documented immigrants entered

168

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics the country. In the 1600s, Ellis Island, at the time known as “Kioshk” (Ellis Island - History) or Gull Island by the Mohegan tribe, was a mere two to three acres and during high tide, the island could scarcely been seen above the rising waters. After being discovered for its rich oyster beds in 1628, Dutch settlers renamed it Oyster Island. Following the hanging of Anderson the Pirate in 1765, the island was again renamed, this time known as Gibbet Island after the instrument used to hang him. At the time, it was hardly possible to believe that place of the end of one’s life could ever become the place of new life beginning. Finally, on January 20, 1785, Samuel Ellis who purchased the property in the 1770’s, gave it his name, which remains the name of the island till today (Projects by Students For Students - Immigration: The Living Mosaic of People, Culture and Hope - The History of Ellis Island). By the time Samuel Ellis became the island's private owner, the island had been called Kioshk, Oyster, Dyre, Bucking and Anderson's Island. In this way, Ellis Island developed from a sandy island that barely rose above the high tide mark, into a hanging site for pirates, a harbor fort, ammunition and ordinance depot named Fort Gibson, and finally into an immigration station (Ellis Island - History). After passing through a few generations of Ellis’s descendents, the island was bought by the state of New York and then sold to the federal government in 1808 for ten thousand dollars. In 1890 the House Committee of Immigration chose Ellis Island as the site for a new immigrant screening station. The original station, Castle Garden at the Battery in lower Manhattan, could not longer handle the flow of immigrants. To accommodate the size of the new facility, the island was increased to 3.3 acres by means of landfill and a ferry slip was built. In the following two years, Ellis was enlarged to fourteen acres in order to contain immigration depot and support buildings. By January 1st of 1892, Ellis's first immigration station, a two-story-high structure of Georgia pine, was open ready for business. On opening day, January 1 (some sources refer to January 2), 1892, Annie Moore, a 15 year-old Irish girl from County Cork, accompanied by her two brothers entered history and a new country as she was the very first immigrant to be processed at Ellis Island. Col. John B. Weber, the new commissioner for the post of New York, presented a ten dollar gold piece to Annie Moore, as to the first immigrant to pass through the gates of the new station. Response to the gift of teenager immigrant was that “she will never part

169

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics with it, but will always keep is as a pleasant momento of the occasion.” (Projects by Students For Students - Immigration: The Living Mosaic of People, Culture and Hope - The History of Ellis Island). While there were many reasons to immigrate to America, no reason could be found for what would occur only five years after the Ellis Island Immigration Station opened. During the evening of June 14, 1897, a fire on Ellis Island burned the immigration station completely to the ground. Although no lives were lost, many years of Federal and State immigration records dating back to 1855 burned along with the pine buildings that failed to protect them. The United States Treasury quickly ordered the immigration facility be replaced under one very important condition. All future structures built on Ellis Island had to be fireproof. On December 17, 1900, the new Main Building was opened and 2,251 immigrants were received that day. To many people Ellis Island represented the golden door to America because once immigrants met all of the requirements of the immigration process at the island; they were escorted to the mainland to begin a new life. In the early years of Ellis Island, Americans eagerly welcomed these new friends who came from all over Europe and the Middle East. What was it like for people to come to a new country, to leave loved ones behind, to place themselves in an uncertain environment without understanding the procedure of immigration checks and not knowing English? Most people were frightened. They did not know how the immigration officials would treat them, how they would be examined for diseases, if they would be separated from their families, if they would have enough food, or if they would be rejected and returned to their countries. A close look at the process that immigrants passed through at Ellis Island shows how people were either selected to enter the United States or sent back to their countries.

The Arrival Ellis Island showcased some of the best aspects of the United States, but also some of the worst. Its very existence was testimony to a class system. When the transatlantic steamships carrying immigrants anchored off Ellis Island, the quarantine officers boarded and began their initial medical inspections. First and Second class passengers were inspected and, if free of disease, were allowed to go ashore immediately. Steerage class passengers, those who paid the

170

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics lowest fares and had the poorest places on the ship to sleep and rest, were taken to Ellis Island for processing. These steerage passengers did not always received a warm welcome. But arrivals of all classes were equally greeted by the Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor. Only the poor were required to undergo an inspection at Ellis Island, and the poor comprised, by far, the majority of immigrants. Sometimes new arrivals had to wait aboard their ships for days before they could go on to Ellis Island. Finally, barges, smaller boats, ferried the steerage passengers from the big ship to the island. Often the barges were overcrowded and passengers went for hours without food and water, and the barges were freezing cold in the winter and unbearably hot in the summer. Under the Statue of Liberty's gaze, the masses from crowded Europe — manual laborers, domestic servants, peasants, blacksmiths, artisans and families — trooped off barges and into the Main Building. They were received into the ground floor baggage room where they deposited their worldly belongings before climbing the flights of stairs to the Great Hall for medical and legal examinations (Zitko, 2002). The most impressive room in the building, though, was the Registry Room. It measured 200 feet by 100 feet, and had an impressive fifty-six foot vaulted ceiling. Twelve narrow aisles, divided by iron bars, channeled new arrivals to be examined by doctors at the front of the room as they entered the main building on Ellis Island. The 700 employees at immigration station examined an average of 5000 people passing through this room in a single day. This was the place where the complex processing experience and the three-to-five hours standing in line began.

Medical Inspection As the immigrants progressed through the lines in the Registry Room and climbed stairs carrying their luggage, the United States Public Health Inspectors watched the people for symptoms of disease. Doctors were waiting at the top of the steps, watching the immigrants as they climbed. Was the immigrant breathing heavily? Was he limping? Did he have any type of a physical deformity that would hinder him from finding a job here in the United States, or as a result of which he could become a public charge in need of welfare? If someone huffed and puffed while carrying a load, he might be inspected of having heart problems. If someone scratched his head while waiting in line, he might have head lice. When the immigrant reached

171

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics

the top of the stairs, he would walk in a circle in front of the doctor. The doctor would examine the immigrants’ hair and face. The inspector was also looking for any type of contagious disease, whether it was curable or incurable. If the inspector suspected that the immigrant had a medical problem, whatever the symptom, the observing doctors would take the immigrant out of line and marked the clothing of suspiciously ill immigrants with chalk symbols: “L” stood for lameness, “SC” for scalp fungus, “E” for eye problems, etc. Marked immigrants were taken to an examination room for closer inspection. Some of the people were admitted to the Ellis Island hospital (Ellis Island Historical Overview: the Golden Door). If the medical problem was curable, the immigrant would be cared for in the hospital building across from the ferry until he was well enough to go on to the United States. If someone had a contagious incurable disease, he or she would not be admitted to the U.S. These immigrants would be cared for in the contagious disease wards on the far side of the island, until a steamship could take them back to Europe – to the country they had left. All immigrants had to carry medical inspection cards. If the immigrant was in good health at the final health examination, his card was stamped “passed”.

Mental Testing As immigrants were in line for their examinations, about 9 out of 100 of them were chalk- marked with the “X” to indicate suspected mental deficiency. These people were sent to the mental examination room. During the testing, people were asked questions about themselves and given math problems to solve and puzzles to work. Sometimes they were even asked to count backwards. Another mental test was to draw diamonds. If a person did not know how to write or was not used to handling a pencil, he could not draw a diamond. In addition to using well-known mental exams, the doctors at Ellis Island made up their own tests. Puzzles and mimicry were favorite kinds of tests, as instruction for taking them did not require a translator.

Literacy Test Immigrants had to pass a literacy test. Everyone 16 years old or older had to read a 40 word passage in their native language. Dual language cards were sometimes used for this examination.

172

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics Legal Inspection After the completion of medical inspection, each immigrant faced a legal examination. United States laws stated that people with criminal backgrounds or people who might become a public charge could not enter the country. A public charge was considered a person who could not support himself/herself financially and would become a burden to society. The United States required steamship companies to fill out manifest sheets for all immigrants. Legal inspectors had the ships' manifest sheets — lists of all the passengers who had arrived on the steamship that day. These documents contained much of the information about an individual that the inspector at Ellis Island needed to know: nationality, marital status, occupation, and destination after entering the United States. The inspector at Ellis Island would ask the immigrant the same questions. Each immigrant was tagged with the number on the manifest page that had his name. There were approximately 30 questions asked in about two minutes. They were asked in English, but the immigrant would have an interpreter as needed. Typical questions asked at the legal inspection included: "What is your name?" "Where were you born?" "Where are you coming from?" "Where are you going?" "Have you ever been to the United States before?" "Do you have any relatives here?" "Where do they live?" "Is there anyone who came out to meet you on Ellis Island?" "Who paid for your passage?" "Do you have any money? — Let me see it." "Do you have any skills?" "Do you have a trade?" "Do you have a job waiting for you here in the United States?" "Do you have a criminal record?" If the immigrant answered any of these questions improperly, he or she would be taken out of line. Then he would receive an "SI" (Special Inquiry) on his clothing in chalk. He would be detained until he could appear before the Board of Special Inquiry — the legal examiners on Ellis Island (Zitko, 2002).

Detention For various reasons, some of the immigrants were kept on Ellis Island for several days or even several weeks. During the peak years of immigration, 20% of the people were detained at Ellis Island (Ellis Island Historical Overview: the Golden Door). Some of these people were waiting for a relative to pick them up, while others waited for family members in the Ellis Island hospital to get well. Occasionally people had to wait for someone in Washington D.C. to look at their papers and decide if they were legal.

173

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics

Women and children were not allowed to leave Ellis Island until their safety was assured. Relatives living in the United States needed to send a train ticket or a letter stating that these unescorted people would be living with them. Single women were not permitted to leave the island with a man who was not related to them, and if a man came to Ellis Island to pick up his fiancée, they had to be married on the island before let to leave ashore.

Free to Land After all of the inspections were completed and all of the connections with relatives in the U.S. had been made, the immigrants at Ellis Island were free to leave. Immigrants pinned tags on their clothing to indicate their final destination. Only about one-third of the immigrants stayed in New York after leaving the Ellis Island. The remaining two-thirds bought railroad tickets on Ellis Island and awaited ferries that took them to New Jersey and on to major terminals where they caught trains to destinations throughout the United States.

Close of Ellis Island Due to harsher and harsher legislation, immigration through Ellis Island began to decrease. Finally, In November of 1954 the last detainee, a Norwegian merchant seaman named Arne Petersen was released, and Ellis Island officially closed. In 1965, President Lyndon Johnson declared Ellis Island part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument. Ellis Island was opened to the public on a limited basis between 1976 and 1984. The Main Building was reopened to the public on September 10, 1990 as the Ellis Island Immigration Museum. Today, the museum receives almost 2 million visitors annually.

Conclusion No name is more closely linked with massive American immigration than Ellis Island. Immigrants sailed to America in hopes of carving out new destinies for themselves. Immigration, perhaps more than any other social, political, or economic process, has shaped the United States as a nation. From its opening in 1892 to its closing in 1954, more than 17 million newcomers arrived at Ellis Island. Today, almost half of all living Americans can trace their heritage to one

174

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics

or more family members who first stepped onto American soil at Ellis Island and were newly born to experience a better life they dreamed and hoped for.

References:

1. Archdeacon, T. J., & Fuchs, L. H. (n.d.). EUROPEAN IMMIGRATION FROM THE COLONIAL ERA TO THE 1920s. Retrieved November 1, 2012, from Americans All: http://www.americansall.com/resources/ethnic-and- cultural/7.9_European_Immigration_from_the_Colonial_Era_to_the_1920s.pdf

2. Ellis Island - History. (n.d.). Retrieved October 20, 2012, from The Statue of Liberty - Ellis Island Foundation, Inc.: http://www.ellisisland.org/genealogy/ellis_island_history.asp

3. Ellis Island Historical Overview: the Golden Door. (n.d.). Retrieved October 22, 2012, from i-channel: http://www.i-channel.com/features/ellis/dino.html

4. Projects by Students For Students - Immigration: The Living Mosaic of People, Culture and Hope - The History of Ellis Island. (n.d.). Retrieved October 20, 2012, from ThinkQuest:Think.com, Oracle Education Foundation: http://library.thinkquest.org/20619/

5. Rapid Immigration.com. (n.d.). US Immigration history. Retrieved October 25, 2012, from Rapid Immigration - U.S. Immigration Information in your own language: http://www.rapidimmigration.com/1_eng_immigration_history.html

6. Zitko, P. (2002, May). Isle of Hope. (V. R. Debbie Pizzato, Ed.) Retrieved October 20, 2012, from The Livermore Roots Tracer Volume XXII Number 2: http://www.l- ags.org/tracer/vol_xxii2.htm#Isle_of_Hope

175

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics

Gender Discrimination at Workplace in the U.S.

MARIAM TSETSKHLADZE

Introduction Discrimination against women violates the principles of equality and respect for human dignity, prevents the male equivalent of women's participation in the political, social, economic and cultural life of society and hinders the growth and prosperity of the family makes it difficult for women to fully reveal the capabilities of the country and for the benefit of mankind.

Gender Discrimination Relying on traditional gender roles and child care responsibilities, some employers assume that female employees are less dependable than male employees, even if the female worker is not pregnant and has not suggested that she will become pregnant. Most entrepreneurs believe that being a mother is incompatible with a fast-paced business environment. Fear of such stereotyping most times prompt married female job applicants to remove their wedding rings before going into an interview. When two equally qualified people, one a woman and the other a man compete for a job, statistically, the man will get the job most times. Once female workers have children, they may be perceived by employers as being less capable and less skilled than their childless female counterparts or their male counterparts, regardless of whether the male employees have children. These gender based stereotypes may even place some working mothers in a position in which they are simultaneously viewed by their employers as “bad mothers” for investing time and resources into their careers and “bad workers” for devoting time and attention to their families. Discrimination is the prejudicial treatment of an individual based on their membership of a certain group or category. It involves excluding or restricting members of one group from opportunities that are available to another group. The United Nations position on discrimination

 Senior Student, Faculty of Humanities, Direction of American Studies, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

176

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics includes among others a statement that: “Discriminatory behaviors take many forms, but they all involve some form of exclusion or rejection.” The person being discriminated just needs to be treated worse than others for some arbitrary reason. Gender discrimination in the workplace happens when an employee is treated differently because of his or her gender. Whenever gender discrimination in the workplace adversely affects the terms and conditions of employment, it is against the law.

Sexual Discrimination What constitutes sexual discrimination varies between countries. Only recently have social movements and laws in the industrialized countries recognize the right of women to have equal opportunities in the work place. Yet in many parts of the world, discrimination based on gender is still deeply entrenched. Worldwide, women tend to have less access to education, training and opportunities for employment than men; and women are often given no meaningful protections against such discriminatory acts. Socially, sexual differences have been used to justify different roles for men and women, in some cases giving rise to claims of primary and secondary roles. The United Nations had concluded that women often experience a “glass ceiling” and that there are no societies in which women enjoy the same opportunities as men. The term “glass ceiling” is used to describe a perceived barrier to advancement in employment based on discrimination. In the United States in 1995, the Glass Ceiling Commission, a government funded group, stated:”over half of all masters degrees are now awarded to women, yet 95% of senior level managers of the top fortune 1000 industrial and 500 service companies are men. Women are being discriminated against both with respect to level of occupation and salary’’. Sexual discrimination, now more commonly referred to as gender discrimination in the workplace can occur in many ways. It may happen during the hiring process when men are hired instead of women with equal abilities and experience. It can be in form of sexual harassment when a woman or man is not taken seriously and is regarded as a sex object. Or it can come in employment benefits such as the amount of training or vacation a male or female employee receives. It is discriminatory practice when job advertisements deny women a chance to apply

177

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics for a job. The employer refuses to hire women who have children while hiring men with children. Female employees are asked to resign when they get married but there is no similar requirement for males. The employer makes a separate policy of compulsory retirement for female employees, with a lower retirement age than for male employees. Protection against gender based discrimination extends to all aspects of employment, including hiring, firing, pay, pensions, conditions of employment and promotions. The law specifically mandates that each sex receive equal pay for equal work, which is defined as work requiring substantially the same skill, effort or degree of responsibility. To help assess whether workers of different sex are paid equally for work of equal value, the European Commission has issued a ‘code of practice on the implementation of equal pay for work of equal value for women and men’. The code which is not binding aims to provide concrete advice for employers and collective bargaining partners to ensure that the principle of equality between women and men performing work of equal value is applied to all aspects of pay. In particular, it aims to eliminate sexual discrimination whenever pay structures are based on job classification and evaluation systems. The right to equal pay for equal work applies both to the public and private sectors, whether the pay has been decided by collective agreements, wage scales, wage agreements or individual contracts. In some countries, these rights are institutionalized or supported by law, local custom and behavior; whereas in others they may be ignored or suppressed. This is based on an inherent historical and traditional bias against the exercise of rights by women and girls in favor of men and boys. It has been widely reported that women have a harder time getting higher positions of authority at work. In many countries women are still regarded as the property of men and are prohibited from working with men.

CEDAW Many countries have subscribed to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1979. Article 2 of the Convention provides that States agree to pursue a policy of eliminating

178

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics discrimination against women and take appropriate measures, including legislation, to modify or abolish existing laws, regulations, customs and practices that constitute discrimination against women. Yet in subscribing to the Convention, many countries note that they will not adhere to Article 2’s direction. In 2011, almost all had ratified the CEDAW Agreement - 187 out of 193 countries have ratified. Only six have not rarified, including the United States, Sudan, Somalia, Iran and two small pacific island nations (Palau and Tonga). In the United States, even without ratification of the CEDAW, a number of statutes and decisions since World War II have provided women with protections against various forms of discrimination particularly in the workplace. It was also common for States to legislatively limit the kinds of work that women could do. The usual justification for such laws was the protection of women, yet the prohibited jobs typically paid considerably more. (Concerned Women for America.org, 5 September 2000.)

Acts Some of the laws include: · Equal Pay Act of 1963 - prohibits wage discrimination based on sex. · Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 - broadly prohibits discrimination in the workplace including hiring, firing, workforce reduction, benefits and sexually harassing conduct. The EEOC (Equal Employment Opportunity Commission) is an administrative agency set up in the US to enforce the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Title VII prohibitions on sexual discrimination have given significant help to women seeking equality in the workplace. Yet after years of passage of Title VII, nearly 80% of female workers were in “women’s work”, as secretaries, administrative support workers and salesclerks. They still suffered from job discrimination and unequal pay. ·Pregnancy Discrimination Act, which amended Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 - covers discrimination based on pregnancy in the workplace. While in the United Kingdom, laws against sexual discrimination include: ·UK Equal Pay Act 1970 - provides for equal pay for comparable work. ·Sex Discrimination Act 1975 - makes discrimination against women or men including discrimination on the grounds of marital status illegal in the workplace.

179

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics

·Human Rights Act 1998 - provides more scope for redressing all forms of discriminatory imbalances. ·Equality Act 2010 – provides that it is unlawful for an employer to discriminate against you because of your sex. (Debopriya Bose, 2011) The relief or remedies available for employment discrimination, whether caused by intentional acts or by practices that have a discriminatory effect may include; back pay, hiring, promotion, reinstatement, front pay. Remedies also may include payment of attorney’s fees, expert witness fees and court costs. Under most EEOC enforced laws, compensatory and punitive damages also may be available where intentional discrimination is found. Damages may be available to compensate for actual monetary losses, for future monetary losses, for mental anguish and inconvenience. Punitive damages also may be available if an employer acted with malice or reckless indifference. Most of these remedies are aimed at putting the claimant in approximately the same economic position she would have been in, had the discrimination not occurred. An exception to the non discrimination rule is that, if it is objectively proven that only workers of one sex can perform all the tasks related to the job, then the employer is allowed to recruit only men or women for the job. Men and women doing the same job have the right to receive the same training and educational opportunities. Employers should not discriminate when deciding which employee to promote. They must consider their skills, education, performance, seniority and not gender. Employers should not apply different working conditions to men and women doing the same job. Though gender discrimination and sexism could be a belief and attitude in relation to the gender of a person, such beliefs and attitudes are of a social nature and if not acted upon do not carry any legal consequences. While an employer is entitled to his or her beliefs, it should not affect employment decisions. If an employer is influenced by his or her beliefs in hiring decisions, that is against gender discrimination law. Pregnancy and maternity represent a period during which women are particularly vulnerable in terms of their health. Women are therefore protected by domestic and international laws against specific risks linked to their condition. These rights aim to protect women’s health in the

180

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics workplace by granting them a minimum period of leave; while preventing this from being used as an excuse for discrimination against them in the workplace.

Economic Condition Income from women’s employment is important to the economic security of many families particularly among lower paid workers and accounts for over one-third of the income in families where both parents work. Although women actually do assume the bulk of the caretaking responsibilities in most families and many women do curtail their work responsibilities when they become caregivers, this should not be used as an avenue for employers to treat female workers less favorably merely on the gender based assumption that a female worker’s caretaking responsibilities will interfere with her work performance. That female employees will not or cannot be committed to their jobs are sex based employment biases. Rather, positive measures could be taken such as trying to achieve a better balance between family and work responsibilities, e.g. development of child care infrastructures or the introduction of career break in the workplace. Every society must seek to empower women and protect them against gender based discrimination. This is important because in most societies, women constitute more than 50% of the population. This makes the development of women very crucial and integral to the development of any society. Any society that neglects to protect women faces the imminent danger of slipping into gross underdevelopment. As a matter of fact, it has been shown that most developed societies have very progressive laws towards women; this means that there is a strong connection between the development of women and the development of any society.

Types of Gender Discrimination There are several ways in which gender discrimination takes place at work, here’s looking into four such instances:  Direct Discrimination Some workplaces have a gender preference, mostly out of one being dominant over the other like say a woman not earning as much as a man even though they both hold similar position in the company and carry equally commendable qualifications. Sometimes

181

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics bonuses are higher for men than women and there is an air of indifference toward either sex depending on the gender that is in charge.  Indirect Discrimination Instances where people are indirectly discriminated against include examples where a certain set of rules or laws are made which indirectly imply that people of a certain gender cannot qualify for certain company offerings.  Harassment at Work This type of discrimination is perhaps the worst of the lot since it only discriminates but causes emotional as well as psychological trauma to the employee who is the subject of such acts. Sexual or verbal harassment or inferior treatment owing to his/her gender is included under the category. Men and women who are gay are put in the spotlight for who they are, where they can face harsh treatment because of their sexual preferences.  Victimization Unfair or biased treatment based on the employee’s gender translates into victimization at work. This is also a form of employee discrimination based on gender. Some people take it too far by disrupting their personal as well or setting them up for trouble at the workplace. (Uttara Manohar, 2012)

Conclusion For centuries, women were in traditional societies, where men dominated, obtain the same rights and freedoms that men have. 21th century recognized that all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights intact. Universal human rights and freedoms are granted to all and any of their limitations, including on grounds of sex is illegal. Today, gender equality, equality between men and women, of human rights is an integral part. It includes women's and men's equal presentation, entitled, responsibility and participation in all spheres of personal and social life. Discrimination is on the basis of sex in violation of gender equality. Discrimination against women means: Any distinction on grounds of sex, separation or restriction which has the aim or the possible consequences on women's political, economic, social, cultural, and civil or any other field of human rights or the use of an obstacle or a full retraction.

182

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics

References:

1. http://www.buzzle.com/articles/gender-discrimination-at-workplace.html

2. http://www.lawfirms.com/resources/civil-rights/discrimination-law/gender-

discrimination-overview.htm

3. http://www.ehow.com/about_4602454_gender-discrimination-workplace.html

4. http://psychcentral.com/news/2009/10/09/gender-discrimination-in-the-

workplace/8868.html

5. http://www.unifem.org/cedaw30/about_cedaw/

6. http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/

7. http://www.eeoc.gov/laws/types/sex.cfm

183

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics

Basic Specifics of Strategic Management in PR Practice

(US Based)

Abstract

NICKOLAS GEORGE MAKHARASHVILI

Public relations it about reputation—the result of what you do, what you say and what others say about you. Public Relations Practice is the discipline which looks after reputation with the aim of earning understanding and support, and influencing opinion and behavior. Public Relations is Strategic mobilization of the society.

Keywords: Pursuing, challenge, reputation, publicity, promotion, merchandising, facilitate, vibrant process, multidisciplinary, mutual benefit, performance.

 Full Professor of the Faculty of Humanities, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

184

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics

Basic Specifics of Strategic Management in PR Practice

(US Based)

NICKOLAS GEORGE MAKHARASHVILI

1. Some Principles of Organizational Role and Function of PR As the definitions suggest, the result of public relations efforts must be the real behavior of the organization and perceptions of that behavior by its publics. Therefore, among the various titles now being used for the role of the public relations function are communications management (or sometimes strategic communications management), reputation management and relationship management. In delineating these, all are managerial roles. I want to describe the function and role of public relations practice by stating from some basic principles: Public relations deals with reality, not false fronts. Conscientiously planned programs that put the public interest in the forefront are the basis of sound public relations policy. (Translation: PR deals with facts, not fiction.) Public relations is a service-oriented occupation in which public interest, not personal reward, should be the primary consideration. (PR is a public, not personal, service.) Since the public relations practitioner must go to the public to seek support for programs and policies, public interest is the central criterion by which he or she should select these programs and policies. (PR practitioners must have the guts to say "no" to a client or to refuse a deceptive program.) Because the public relations practitioner reaches many publics through mass media, which are the public channels of communication, the integrity of these channels must be preserved. (PR practitioners should never lie to the news media, either outright or by implication.)

 Full Professor of the Faculty of Humanities, International Black Sea University, Tbilisi, Georgia.

185

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics

Because PR practitioners are in the middle between an organization and its publics, they must be effective communicators—conveying information back and forth until understanding and ideally consensus are reached. (The PR practitioner probably was the original ombudsman/ woman.) To expedite two-way communication and to be responsible communicators, public relations practitioners must use scientific public opinion research extensively (PR cannot afford to be a guessing game.) To understand what their publics are saying and to reach them effectively, public relations practitioners must employ the social sciences—psychology, sociology social psychology—and the literature of public opinion, communication and semantics. (Intuition is not enough.) Public relations practitioners are obligated to explain problems to the public before these problems become crises. (PR practitioners should alert and advise, so people won't be taken by surprise.) A public relations practitioner should be measured by only one standard: ethical performance. Because of complexity PR professional must adapt the work of other related disciplines, including learning theory and other psychology theories, sociology, political science, economics and history. (The PR held requires multidisciplinary applications.) PR and related activities. Public relations involve many activities. People's participation in the activities of public relations and their subsequent assertion that, therefore, they are "in public relations" often cause confusion in others' understanding of what public relations is. The activities of PR practice include: press agency, promotion, publicity, public affairs, research (primary and secondary), graphics, and advertising, marketing, integrated marketing communications .and merchandising support. ■ Press agency involves planning activities staging events—sometimes just stunts —that will at tract attention to a person, institution, idea or product ■ Promotion goes beyond press agency into opinion making. Promotion tries, to garner support and endorsement for a person, product, institution or idea. ■ Publicity is placing information into a news medium. Publicity is not always good news. A PR writer may be crafting a response to an unpleasant situation. Publicists are primarily

186

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics writers, one of the technical support team for public relations. Publicists working for government are often called information officers. ■ Public affairs, when the term is used by government, means the same thing as public relations, with external publics. However, in companies or nonprofit organizations, it usually means the person responsible for that organizations relationship with all branches of government. Most of the activity is with the legislative and regulatory branches. ■ Research is the foundation of all good public relations strategy. Much research involves publics and public opinion, although other research may involve the marketplace and the social, economic and legal climate in which a public relations activity is centered. ■ Graphics are important because all public relations readers and viewers are "volunteers" who will reject any presentation that is visually unappealing and not user-friendly ■ Advertising is usually commercial time or space bought in specific media to control the time, place and message. However when nonprofits use advertising, the time or space may be donated by a medium, but what is lost is control over use and timing. ■ Marketing is directed toward consumers of a service or product In 2004, the American Marketing Association (AMA) defined marketing as "an organizational function and a set of processes for creating, communicating and delivering value to customers and for managing customer relationships in ways that benefit the organization and its stakeholders."1The AM A includes in that definition activities (ideas and services) of nonprofit organizations, as well as those sold for profit. ■ Integrated marketing communications (IMC) began developing in the 1990s and emerged from what had been called Marketing/PR. Then IMC began to focus on branding to give instant recognition for a product or company. IMC, talked about "relationship building," which sounded a lot like what PR was doing. Although some PR people accepted the development as IMC other PR people agreed only that organizations should unify all communications to "speak with one voice": what they called IC or integrated communication. As a result IC and IMC terms began showing up in name changes for firms and in curriculum changes in some colleges and universities.

187

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics

■ Merchandising is concerned with presentation. Its focus is the packaging for a product, idea or perhaps even a political candidate. Technology has changed merchandising in the diversity of de livery: compact disc (CD) or fax, in addition to audiocassette or print, plus the direct response of online purchasing and cable-television shopping channels. Merchandising experts are strong in the application of graphics, color, tactile responses and emotional reactions to physical imagery. All of these are important elements in the "toolbox" of solutions to reaching publics. But public relations is something greater than just this collection of activities. Changes in the environment for public relations can shift the emphasis from one activity to another over time. Recently, advances in technology—such as significant differences in the way the news media operate—have driven many of these shifts. Another result of these advances has been increased globalization, affecting both internal and external communication and significantly altering the way crises are handled. All crises now get global attention, which creates considerable urgency for appropriate organizational responses that are destined to be weighed in the world court of public opinion.

2. The importance of the public relations function and practical strategy recommendations. (Georgian based)

The importance of the public relations function as an integral part of the effective activity of any organization is still relatively unknown in Georgia, although there are some fledgling attempts to establish commercial PR agencies in the country. To date, however, there is a deficit of skilled public relations professionals in the country. The PR strategy for local government that will be undertaken as a result of US-based research on PR strategy for government is aimed at establishing effective Public Relations Departments in the offices of city assemblies throughout Georgia. A successful PR function in local governments will facilitate active involvement of society in the process of decision-making by government structures and raise transparency of the reform activities undertaken by local government authorities. At this stage in the democratization process in Georgia, there is a critical need for society to understand the roles, responsibilities and functions of local government, and the rights and responsibilities of citizens in relation to it. Active engagement

188

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics by the citizenry and civil society organizations in local government is essential in building a democratic society. The policy and functioning of local government in Georgia is still in the early stages of development and the strength of local governments’ capacity is far from ideal. Local governments are in need of a great deal of assistance to prepare them to undertake their responsibilities in an effective manner. Objectives and overall purpose of the PR strategy and subsequent research is establishment of the principles of transparency and accountability in elected governmental structures, through strengthened capacity within those structures for public education, communication and engagement. The focus of this capacity building effort will be establishment of effective public relations functions within city assemblies and other local government bodies.

The strategy and subsequent research activity in Georgia is expected to verify the following working hypotheses:

1. Use of Public Relations strategy in governmental institutions, such as city assemblies, will establish a body considered to be the “facilitators of democracy” between local and national administrative bodies and the public. The legislative system governing formation and function of local government is not yet fully established in Georgia, and public participation in governance is a new phenomena. There is no tradition of public engagement in governmental administration and decision-making, and the population currently has very little access to information about the reform agenda of the government and the role of their local government – either appointed or elected – in carrying out the reforms. The lack of transparency in development of an agenda for change and poor communication of goals, strategy and poor communication has resulted in growing mistrust in the motives and capacity of the new government and their local representatives. This is a timely issue for Georgia right now, as legislation for local self-governance is being formulated. 2. The practical need for city assemblies to establish open, productive partnerships with civil society (non-governmental organizations (NGOs)) communities has created an imperative for the establishment of capacity for effective public relations within local government structures. PR, as a vital part of institutions that function for and in

189

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics

3. relationship with the public, is recognized as an important tool of local government in countries throughout the world. There is a critical need to build this function within governmental offices as democracy evolves in Georgia, in order to facilitate constructive engagement between communities, civil society and local administrations. 4. Deficiency in the information that flows to the public often results in tensions between central government and regional bodies. Development of the public relations sector, encompassing a wide range of mechanisms for communication and public participation, will facilitate resolution of these tensions. Establishment of effective partnerships between government and non-governmental groups and exchanges of information between appointed and elected officials, civil society organizations and the public will be greatly assisted by development of the PR sector in government. The proposed effort to build local governments’ capacities for effective interchange with the public will actively involve both governmental institutions and civil society organizations. Strategy and methodology will be implemented in two stages: (a) research, study and practical experience in government sector public relations and (b) implementation of PR training and ongoing support to selected city assemblies in Georgia..

Research: In association with an appropriate academic institution, I will undertake a combination of individual study and will endeavor to arrange short practical appointments (internships) in the PR department of one or more local government offices. The outcome of this theoretical and practical experience will be a package of PR training materials for use by local governments in Georgia. It is anticipated that this training package will consist of a combination of:

 Short practical seminars for members of city assemblies and other local government offices, supported by appropriate written resource materials; seminar topics will tentatively include:  Democratic evolution and social, political and economic sector reforms in Georgia; the current state of legislation and reforms related to local self-governance.  The main principles of Public Relations and the potential for PR to enhance the effectiveness of local government.

190

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics

 Media relations (preparation of press releases, informational bulletins, advertisements, and public service messages).  Establishing effective partnerships with NGOs; the role of NGOs and civil society in building democracy.  Formation of public opinion; organization and management of public opinion (alternatives for overcoming negative opinions and dealing constructively with opposing views, and public communication in times of crisis.  Strategic management of PR.  On-the-job coaching and mentoring of city assembly staff responsible for PR; and  Placement of Public Relations interns from Tbilisi Technical University , where I am currently a Lecturer in Public Relations, in local government offices.

The practical and concrete tasks for PR strategy implementation include:

 Establishment full and strong of Public Relations Departments within selected city assemblies and local government institutions in Georgia;  Undertaking training and ongoing capacity strengthening with these local government offices and, in particular, with the staff responsible for public relations;  Engaging the media and government in joint efforts to popularize mass media in the rural areas of Georgia (known as “the regions”);  Supporting local government to planning and implement PR campaigns to raise awareness among the public of their role in supporting and engaging in democratic processes;  Assisting government to establish transparent mechanisms for routine citizen engagement in decision-making, governance and public administration; and  Supporting establishment of effective partnerships between local government and networks of civil society organizations/NGOs. The proposed PR strategy research will be evaluated on two levels. The package (seminar session plans, proposed methodology, support materials and individual coaching strategy)

191

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics will be evaluated for excellence of professional standards, practicality of approach, use of current best practice in the field and soundness of learning methodologies. The second level of evaluation will focus on the ultimate outcomes of application of the PR training package on a practical level, with selected local government offices in Georgia. Expected outcomes include: (a) establishment of functioning PR Departments in local government offices; (b) establishment of fruitful partnerships between local government and non-governmental structures; (c) greater transparency of and public participation in the activities undertaken by local governments; (d) greater understanding of and support for ongoing national and local reforms among constituent populations; (e) active participation by the society and non- governmental organizations in democratic processes, and in articulating problems and resolving them with local resources and input; and finally, (f) firm establishment of the academic discipline and practice of PR for governmental institutions in Georgia, resulting in the development of a cadre of qualified PR professionals working in the service of future democratic reforms in the country.

Conclusion The approach to public relations that I have pursued in my PR strategy recommendations is one that focuses on establishment of effective, two-way communications, with the aim of creating common ground and identifying areas of mutual benefit. This very approach will lend itself quite well to the needs and priorities of formed local government structures in Georgia. It will be the basis for development of the PR training package for local government. The strategy project is important in several ways. First and foremost, development of a cadre of effective public relations professionals within government offices in Georgia is critically important to the success of current efforts to build public support for reform and engage Georgians in the process of democracy building. The Georgian government is currently facing a monumental tasks related to the evolution of democracy in the country – building public trust and confidence, establishing transparent and participatory mechanisms for local self-governance and successfully engaging civil society and the citizenry in democratic processes.

192

SECTION III: History, Art, Economics

The proposed research is focus on the role of public relations function in relation to local government, and the resulting training package will be designed to assist local government offices to communicate government priorities, options, challenges and courses of action to constituents. An enhanced PR function will help to overcome current low levels of confidence and mistrust in government and build understanding of the reforms being undertaken by the government, and facilitate the establishment of productive and lasting partnerships between communities and their local governments. Bottom Line. Finally this research work will result in positive outcomes for the democratic process in Georgia; it will yield great benefits as well for PR practitioners’ own professional pursuits.

References:

1. White J., Mazur L. Strategic Communications Management. Wokingham. 1995.

2. Sampson E. The Image Factor. London 1994.

3. Allen Center (2008) “Public relations Practices” USA. Pearson Education.

4. Ralph Tench (2006) “Exploring Public Relation”s. UK. Pearson Education.

5. Doug Newsom (2004) “This is PR. The Realities of Public Relations”. USA. Thomson.

6. Green P.S. Winning PR Tactics. London 1994.

193

194