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AUTHOR Clankie, Shawn M. TITLE Approaching in and the . INSTITUTION Univ., Sapporo (Japan). Institute of and Culture Studies. PUB DATE 2000-00-00 21p.; In the theme issue "Five Societies: Similarities and Differences with Japan." PUB TYPE Journal Articles (080) -- Reports Descriptive (141) JOURNAL CIT Language and Culture Studies Series; 42 p15-33 2000 EDRS PRICE MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Acculturation; Chinese; English (Second Language); Foreign Countries; Japanese; Korean; Language Maintenance; Language Minorities; *Language Patterns; *Language Planning; Language Role; *Multilingualism; Okinawan; Persian; Polish; Portuguese; Public Policy; Regional ; Second Language Instruction; Second Language Learning; Sociocultural yatterns; Spanish; Tagalog; Uncommonly Taught IDENTIFIERS Ainu; *Japan; United States

ABSTRACT This paper considers how multilingualism is approached in both Japan and the United States by considering the position and roles of the government, schools, and public. There exists the perception in countries where monolingualism is considered the norm that bilingualism, and certainly multilingualism, are problematic. Multilingualism in a monolingual country is frequently seen as a threat to the established monolingual and monocultural way of life. While Japan and the United States are typical of monolinguistically-dominated societies, and some similar attitudes prevail in both countries, their approaches to dealing with multilingualism are vastly different. In Japan and the United States, there are prevailing attitudes that for speakers of the dominant languages--Japanese and English respectively--there is no need to learn another language, and that all others living in the countries should learn to speak the primary language. Yet both countries are far more linguistically diverse than the typical lay person or government official in either country realizes. This is a more recent phenomenon in Japan, but in America, significant multilingualism goes back to the founding of the first colonies. Multilingualism has been unavoidable in a country comprised of immigrants from across the world. It is concluded that in both countries multilingualism is not a threat, but that narrow-mindedness and the failure to look beyond ones own borders are far greater problems. (Contains 17 references.)(KFT)

Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. Language and Culture Studies Series 42 .

Approaching Multilingualism in Japan and the United States

Shawn M. Clankie

The Institute of Language and Culture Studies Hokkaido University

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2 Five Societies

Approaching Multilingualism in Japan and the United States

Shawn M. Clankie

There exists a perception in many places where monolingualism is considered the norm that bilingualism, and certainly multilingualism,are problematic. Some of these perceptions are based on fact (e.g. that economicconcerns are a considerable factor in multilingualism), yet others are groundless (e.g. the idea that children will become confused if learning twoor more languages). Similarly, multilingualism in a monolinguistic community is frequentlyseen as a threat to the monolingual, and frequently monocultural,way of life.Japan and

the United States are typical of monolinguistically-dominated societies'.Yet, while some of the attitudes towards multilingualism in Japan and the U.S.are indeed similar, the approaches in dealing with multilingualismare vastly different.This paper considers how multilingualism is approached in both countries by considering the position of the government, schools, and the public.

It is important first to come to some definition of multilingualismas it will be used for the purposes of this paper.By multilingualism I am not simply referring to the ability of a speaker to speak more thanone language (individual

This is not to say that the U.S. is not a multilingual country. Simply, those who hold the majority of power in the United Statesare monolingual speakers of English. This is what is meant by monolinguistically-dominated.

15 3

BEST COPY AVAILABLE Five Societies Five Societies multilingualismindigenousthatmultilingualism), follows. or (Romaine,transplanted, although 1994:34) that thriving in itself within or is endangered) spbsumed a linguistic in wherethe community broader more definition than(either one Multilingualism for our purposes here will mean societal speakerteaching.themselvescommunicative of There a are, second isorapproach, also consider language. a stigma and themselves This isprevalent hampered is evident to in be, Japan inin weak manythe towards case in cases the of beinglanguagechildren by teachers returning they who an articulate are contactlanguage with isother in use communities. on a regular basis by members of that community or through Theostracized,from Ministry overseas bullied,of Education who orhave forced forincreased its to parthide competency holdstheir fluencya hypocritical in for the the foreign position.sake oflanguage fitting in. as being OnPerceptions the surface of it Language may appear Learning that Japan has embraced bilingualism. Students are suggestionandinvolved society, with of yet asuch movewe conceptsrarely to elementary hear as theKokusaika term school anymore. (`internationalization') English and has involved in the itself schools with It is also responsible for the It has been Ministeritandgiven is thereon six a Keizosolelyyearsare proposals of Obuchivoluntary compulsory to has extend basis). even English that recommended to courses the elementary in thejunior dramatic schools and senior stepas well high of making(thusfar school A recent advisory panel to former Prime studyingimportanceconservativeimplementation a ofsecond ofthe Ministries ofmastery languagethe JET of has JapaneseProgram. thereby sent mixed by suggesting elementary signals. that school both students can't be first learned before Yet, at the same time this most It recently stressed the Englishis no shortage theor another second of language foreignofficial language'schools'language. toof caterJapan to (Nakatsu, those desiring 2000). extra Similarly, practice there in However, surface appearances such as oflanguages;refusedsimultaneously passing to address thenamely, university (Panel more the warns learningserious entrance against concerns of examsEnglish early stifling ratherEnglish (and theotherthan study, adequate subjects) 2000). learning onlySimilarly, of foreign it has as a means Japanesethatpersuadedthose some represented returnees formto believe of abovebilingualism who that spentJapanare just timeis (through that.a paradise abroad) A visitor second for is tacitly languagejust language arriving accepted. learners, learning in Japan However, and or mighttherefore through it beis Inunderstanding public, the reluctance beyond Japan's by many own to borders. use a in occasions where as a tool for learning and sixadditionalappropriate years oflanguage to compulsory probe use. beyond English, the appearances the time spentto the actuallyattitudes learningtoward foreign English or While it is indeed true that Japanese students are given learnersmisguidedappropriate and and hence antiquated inhibits perceptions widespread that bi/multilingualism. Japanese aren't good foreign language (e.g. assisting visitors to this country) contributes further to amounts to little beyond a few hours a week, taught4 rarely through a 16 BEST COPY AVAILABLE 17 5 Finally, there is an undeniable view by some in the community that this is Japan, Five Societies University of Hawai'i 25-30 languages are scheduled per semester. (cf. Hokudai Five Societies leastTurningwe the speak nowCaucasian Japanese. to the U.S.,sector Why a ofcountry do its we population, need notorious to learn thefor aviewsit's foreign monolingualism towards language? multilingualism amongst at Thewhich overriding averages similarity8-10)). between the perception of language learning in Japan English,predominantare different, the world viewbut oftenlanguage. by those result Aswho in such, the advocate similarthere is monolingualism noeffect need of to monolingualism. learn anotheris that welanguage. speak The countries.apprehensionand that in the and United misunderstanding States is "Who towards needs foreign it?" languagesand contributes found into both the languagebyThese the viewseconomic is required, are basedand politicalstudents on a perceived powergenerally of linguistic theenroll United in superiority, two States. years In ofand schools, a arelanguage compounded if a foreignin high Japan andHow the many U.S. languages as Multilingual are there Countries in Japan? How many are there in the United populationSpanishintroductoryschool, (because andfrom levelperhaps of courses). bothAmerica) another America's The and two foreign French.proximity languages to Mexico of preference and its high are immigrant generally in college (often repeating the same manymultilingualismStates? languages The answers harboredare spoken to inthese in each Japan, questions country. the answers offerIn asking a generally view my of Japanese the run perceptions from students 1-3. Those towardhow Thereform of is communicative no overriding competencegovernment from body this (such level as of the a foreignMinistry language. of Education) Very few individuals gain any languageswhoJapaneseanswering answer is spoken the'one' 'two' only argue in orlanguage Japan. 'three' that My Japanese spokenwould students here. suggest is are theThe often official Ainumore astounded liberal-orientedand language Okinawan to learn of Japanof thatas students other there and traditionalcurriculaJapan.dictating theissues assumption number and moreof has years onbeen issuesof thatforeign suchcollege-bound language as budgetary education high concerns. school as rigorouslystudents should as inThere is the Department of Education but it involves itself far less in Rather the givenEthnologueare at area,least cites15 (13th languages the ed.), 15 languages the in primaryuse in listed Japan. linguistic below. Barbara resource Grimes for (1996: language 685f1) use in in the a foreignWhenhave two students language years enter of classesforeign a university, aslanguage they education then generally as a prerequisite take two more for college.years of part of the general education requirements. Amami-OshimaAinu (Southern)(Northern) Oki-no-ErabuCentralMiyako Okinawan Generally, the selection of languages at this level is far greater (e.g. at the 6 18 Japanese 19 Toku-no-shima Japanese Five Societies Five Societies KunigamiKoreanKikai YoronYonaguniYaeyama establishedJapaneseappearance betweenof Tojo's two pioneering languages, work it is on a dialectmoot point divisions whether of (Tojo 1927). Once a genetic relationship is HowGenerally, many the of thesefirst question are actual asked languages after being and notpresented dialects? with In athe list introduction such as this to is, Perhaps Shibatani was attempting to address the on-going debates over languageto regard (191)." them as two languages or as two dialects of one the we find the answer. developingTo those of usableus interested literature in cross-cultural for speakers ofcommunication many languages, and versusthey`mootof one language, are issue'language indeed by or many dialects,towas another simply in Japan then alone. considering whythat theseis there the languages issuesuch inan terms areattempt in of serious the to relationshipassimilate trouble. the But, it is precisely because it is seen as a If beunderstandhowhowever, considered well it eachseems in distinguishing other. clear Marginal that one 'language' ofintelligibility the main from factors does 'dialect' notthat allow must is two linguistically close speech communities languageofKagoshimaRyuukyuan the dialects planning, dialect, culture on thefor and it example,mainis its views 'dialects' part disappearingsuch of theinto as Japanese theseJapanese? despite which archipelago. Thereit arebeing most is the no mostdangerousdanger divergent of the to In terms of Thus, is the primary criteria used to distinguish languages baretheir essentialsspeakers to (Grimes, engage 1996,in meaningful vii). communication beyond fromsuggestattempts language that to stabilize intelligibility (and endangered even should Shibatani languages. be a (191) criterion acknowledges for differentiating that most dialectof the Applying Grimes criteria would beenfrom thatdialects. these are dialects. Shibatani (1990) notes the following, It is worth noting, that the perception among many Japanese has JapanusuallyRyuukyuantrue is that follow essentially these dialects up languagesby a are suggestingmonolingual mutually have that a unintelligible). society.small these number languages ofThe speakershave skeptical, very that few however, does speakers, not will mean so While, in many cases, it is indeed "Japanese dialectologists have generally linguisticwhythat the these language policy, minority andoes languagesarea not that exist, will are or be inthat exploredtrouble it is not and in in the these use. next Therego section. directly are greater to the reasons crux of It is certainly 8 regarded Ryuukyuan as a group of since the 20 true that the majority of Japan's population speaks Japanese, and as I have 21 argued the majority are monolingual speakers, yet stopping there without Five Societies Five Societies monolingualsimplyexamination argue speakers. thatof the Japan other is languages in use simply skirts the issue. a multilingual society comprised mainly of I woulda fuller ofusethen Similarly,Wakkanai at we Otaru must and ifmany argue Japan Wakkanai, of thatconsiders the Russian directional two the ports is northern a signs languagefrequented are islands in of both by Japan.off Russian JapaneseHokkaido sailors and to beRussian). (in its the territory, case It is also certainly in there(i.e.Letlanguages usfrom others? assume, parents and then, which to children). that may there or The may are question not 15 belanguages being which transmitted which intergenerationally now must be asked is, Are are -tongue currentlyThecommunityCertainly, most living recentMandarin in Yokohama in governmentJapan Chinese (Japan and manymust estimatesTimes, permanentbe considered.5/31/00). are that Chinese there living are 294,000 throughout Chinese Japan. There is a long-standing transplanted,I would like which to argue remain that in there daily areuse, indeed are transmitted several intergenerationally,other languages, many and JapaneseBrazilian descentPortuguese, must as also a result be included. of the repatriation There is aof large many community inof Gunmaethnic- credenceoneEnglish.therefore Japanese The to add this numberparent to point. the and of multilingual families one , which fabric have British, of Japan.been Australian, created by marriage First, there must certainly be or Canadian lends between mustplaceprefecture be this given groupand to in Spanish,at many 224,000 of through Japan's (Japan repatriation major Times cities. 5/31/00). from Peru. Recent government estimates The same consideration expatriatehere.bilingually. We and can Therelong-term also is turn also residents), to a thesignificant media many forpopulation of support. whom willworking The spend Japan in their this Times Many of these children in Japan are brought country (both entire lives has been up contributeJapaneseIn the 1980'ssaw to Japaneseas aundesirable. significant society. Manynumber Many of theseofhave Iranians maintainedworkers came have theirto married Japan linguistic to Japanese work heritage in and jobs productofficialpublished openingwithout under someto various the English-based West). names In advertising,in English expression sinceit is difficult 1865 (two on the label2. to pick up a domestic years before the consideredPersian).through Persian Their a language presence or other present isIranian most and widelyminority used onknown languagesa daily in Tokyo.basis (let here? usShould Persian assume most speak not be thereforelexical2 haveitems been and groupedborrowings together from forEnglish. the purposes Both have of English Clankie (1999) differentiates in advertising between English-inspired10 22 a rooting in English and use in this paper. ChapterFor a 7).broader discussion of the motivations for such use, see Clankie (1999, 23 Five Societies Five Societies manyinFinally, Japan. who Tagaloghave dotted must the be countryside considered. asTtiere brides is to Japanese farmers (as have These include workers in entertainment, a significant Filipino population company employees, and theseTheresociety, viewsmay andbe are fear that based in Japanese Japan on little that will actual the begin influx fact. to of Those decline. foreigners who comewill somehow to Japan destabilizefrom other I would like to suggest that marriagesJapanesemany Chinese society. a year women). betweenA recent Japanesearticle in theand Asahi Filipinos, Evening noting News that points Filipino Many of these people are permanent members of to the 6,000 families partcountries of a communitygenerally strive and for a desiremany ofto thecontribute same goals to thatas Japanese; community. a desire to be and linguistic heritage, While future.Thisaverage suggests three childrenthat the use to Japan'sof Tagalog one inand Japan a half is (Horwichonly likely and Turk, 5/7/00). to increase in the Japanesethiscommunitiespreserving happening is becoming will already). also less seek The and to assumption contributeless true, and through that the most goal learning non-Japanese of bilingualism Japanese cannot (weis the can speaknorm see their own cultural the non-Japanese Japanese)orientedThe point far believe.of morethe above multilinguistically explanation is thanto suggest that Japan many people (Japanese and non- is a society that is pluralism.communitiesamong many seeknon-Japanese a middle ground,living in between Japan. absolute assimilation and complete It is absolute pluralism (which leads to balkanization) and absolute The fact is that most immigrant equatingforeignfamilies population to becomewell over already smaller, 1.55 standsmillion and (asthe non-Japanese ofneed 1999) for atforeign 1.23and this It will only increase in the future as Japan's population workers% grows. (Japan Times 6/1/00), too will continue to Japan's ages, Turninglashattempts out at atnow one forced toanother. multilingualism assimilation (leading in the to United repression) States which the situation forces groups is quite to byIfgrow.3 the the currentend This of is 2007.4trend a 32% continues increase the number of non-Japanese over the estimate for 1989 (Japan Times 5/31/00). will top two million tribes,arrivaldifferent. andof European in most cases, settlers, each the tribe U.S. had had a literally different hundreds language. of So,American in a very Indian real Historically, the U.S. has always been multilingual. Prior to the 3 Many people view Japanese as a monolingual society on the basis of languagessettlerssense, what who flourished becamecame in theforsuccessive Unitedgenerations. Stateswaves Remnants has created always communitiesof thesebeen multilingual.languages where persist theii European native in the 4percentageJapanese, Japan ofterms population is is thus small, monolingual. alone, 1.55 millionsuggesting Yet, itself whilethat is becausenot 1.23% a small Japanof thenumber. is This estimate was calculated by subtracting the current population population in over 98% ethnic from festivals,French),place names and Cinco forin festivals deexample, Mayo, (there (e.g.and aresoEau forth).many Claire annualMany and Fond ofFesta these du Italianas, Laccommunities in WisconsinFrench maintain heritage from (Japan2,000,000 Times, then 6/1/00).diving the The result result by is the 8.87 years, 1w mean of the most recent 10 year24 increase or the year 2007. their linguistic heritage to this day. Chicago has the largest Polish community 25 13 Five Societies Indianoutside (Amerind) of Poland. languagesFrench Creole are still still being exists taught. in Louisiana, In all, the and Ethnologue (130) many American monolinguisticshould be assimilated one). into the broader linguistic community (most often a The goal is to purge out the minority languages and Five ,Societies fact,Americanshavecites English 213no mother-tonguelanguages recognize is not even inthat total; the Englishspeakers national 176 isof notleft,which language the and onlyare 35 ofstill language whichAmerica. living are in languages, Theuse extinct. inUnited America. 2 Stateswhich In Many byminoritycultures. the speakers languageThe ofopposite that use ethnic isof more assimilation group. or lessWhere left is pluralism. doalone Japan to flourishand Under the U.S.orthis die formfit as in determined termsof policy, of communities.respect,has no official or Attempts at language. the very by This aleast minority is important to make because English it suggeststhe official a nominal language level of of tolerance, for the rights of other language policyInassimilation the caseis assimilationist. of and Japan, pluralism? it is Japan not difficult has one to national understand language, that the Japanese. official The language long- declaringthediversification Unitednation official hasStates in no languages.the haveofficial future generally thenational situation failed. language, will likely the remain states unchanged. have the option Whereas of In the case of Hawai'i, for example, English and As a result of increased ethnic guidedcommunitiesstanding by policy Nihonjinron into has using been theorists Japanese. to assimilate holding the mistakenAinu and assumption Ryuukyuan that indigenous Japan is a These policies are longstanding, and are andEnglish).Hawaiian state governments have official atstatus present. (although the language of the government remains In essence, however, English is the de facto language of the federal thatseveralhomogeneous1986 there occasionsthat are Japan no monolingual linguistic theis a Japanese"mono-ethnic minorities society govermnent wherenation"present Japanese (1996,inhas Japan gone Brochure is(Maher, so the far only ason 1997, tothelanguage5. state Ainu116) in andPeople). 1980 On in languages,In the above and figures the many on U.S. more multilingualism which are moribund it is important (on the toverge note of the extinction). 35 extinct EducationtheIn the Education case forof AinuFormerof Former several Native Aborigines' laws Children were Children,enacted: both of including whichthe 1911 set theRevisedout 1901to destroy RegulationsRegulation the Ainu for of LanguageThis brings Policy: us back Assimilation to language policy. and Pluralism memorandalanguage and on culture. special education policy dealing with the use of Japanese Sign Even recent government memoranda such as a 1993 pluralism.Generally recognized are two forms of language policy: assimilation Assimilation is based on the principle that all minority languages and Amason5 and Sugimoto (1995). A detailed and up to date discussion of Nihonjinron can be found in 14 26 BEST COPY AVAILABLE 27 15 Five Societies Five Societies thepoliciesLanguage Ryuukyuan have (JSL) succeeded. languages has set out Ainuhave to assimilate.veryas a languagefew native JSL is speakersuse6. in serious left trouble, (most ofand whom many are of For the most part, these particularlyLinguisticallyviewed evident the result in the has Korean been communitylong-term language where there maintenance. are Korean schools them as non-permanent fixtures on the Japanese landscape. This is oneelderly).monolingual must - ask Most the Japanese of real the cost younger speakers. of such speakers a decision. from these ethnic groups are now While the government has nearly succeeded, Eliminating a language also manyreinforcementmaintaining linguistic the that communitieslanguage. they are 7not to Japanese, maintain hastheir only native increased language the use.resiliency So in aof very the Being pushed away by the Japanese, and the ineliminates the world. important Crystal parts(1997:44) of a culture writes asthe well following: as an identity and a history unique notbereal Japanese, Japanese. sense, Japan but isinadvertently practicing assimilation allowing pluralism amongst inthose those it considersit see as transient, or wants toor Toownsharedcondition. lose narrative a bylanguage noEach other. style, language is to its lose own presents a proverbs,unique a insightview its ownof into the oral theworld or written that is Each has its own figures of speech, its practicesThe situation a hands-off in the United approach. States But is quitethis has different. not always been the case. Many The U.S., in most cases, ofinheritedliterature...Moreover, years. knowledge thatthe lossextends of a languageover hundreds means or a thousandsloss of the Edwardsassimilationist1960's 1994: that the policies177ff). U.S. havetruly beenbegan practiced to move in towards the past aand form it was of pluralismnot until the (see Many of the Amerind and immigrant languages have Crystal concludes, "Language loss is knowledge loss, and it is irretrievable." affairs.changetobecome mould We asextinct America ethnic can fromfile groups inour the "a taxes past meltingseek policiesand greater getpot". mostof self-determination the government U.S. Government, information in their and thecommunity in Spanish,attempts Yet, there is a continuing process of Thehadhas course beenfar less direct.taken success. by the In Japanese part, this government is because the regarding speakers indigenous of these languages languages are Yet, in the case of transplanted languages the government has (Spanish,useand Englishit is not Korean, orunusual Spanish. Tagalog, to beThe given Chineserecent a choice census and Vietnamese), in was telephoning printed within a5 government additionallanguage assistancelanguages office to 6considered foreigners (i.e. In the case of JSL (which is markedly different of standard Japanese), not Japanese) meaning that the government has guides similar to the census produced in an additional 50 languages (U.S. Census standardthe government Japanese. sought to assimilate JSL to be more of a representation of 16 28 BEST COPY AVAILABLE where7 the language of instruction is not Japanese. (Maher, 1997, 116) It is worth noting that the govenunent refuses to accredit any school 29 17 Five Societies openlyBureau, practices 2000). The assimilation primary area, is in however,the schools. where one can truly say America Bilingual education programs A Note on the "We live here. We don't need a foreign language" Five Societies mediumcurricula.have suffered classes. The vastserious majority attacks of inchildren recent in years America by proponents are taught throughof English-only English- Part of the reason for this is diversity and simple economics. toAnPhenomenon learn assumption another made language by many because residents we live of here.both countriesImplicit behind is that thisthere statement is no need is Therestudentshis/her is far mother of too 10 much tongueor more linguistic until mother they diversity tongues become to inbilingual. beschool able together.toMany educate school How every districts can child they have in do unfortunatelycertainlythat (a) we one'sspeak rightthe majority whether language, to choose and (b)to that all others should too. there are devastating consequences learn another language, but that result from It is the justicechildrenrightly to each has points fueledstudent's out, significant thelinguistic failure criticism needs? to provide that the bilingual U.S. is in education violation ofto individual immigrant Yet, as Skutnabb-Kangas (1999:7) "JapanThisassumptions is evidentwas a above.closed in areas countryIn beyondJapan, and it language isan a island failure use, nation, to and look resonatesso beyond we are in notone's statements prepared own borders. suchto play as thelinguisticSimilarly, Education human thereRights rights, has of beenNational as set a outbacklash Minorities in The againstHague (1996). Recommendationsimmigrants who cannot Regarding speak here,whaton an othersand equal a reluctance arefooting doing with hasto new others".resulted ideas Thein from domestic failure outside toproblems Japan.look beyond A far recent too one's numerous editorial confines in to the listto thebilingualismEnglish Unz law continue(fighting to bilingual spread quickly education) in the and United the debates States. Thisover is Ebonics evident inin by monolingual English speakers. Misunderstandings about Japan'snewHeitaAsahi age Kawakatsu,Shimbun "international that gives (6/1/2000, one priority contribution"". can find9) to recognized internal statements governance", this such fact. as Citing"(Japan) and "wea speech is rarelymoving by here Professor toward about a andbothCalifornia, many,education students throughand and found the teachers debateconcerted throughout overin Hawai'i. efforts the the use U.S.,and Despite of Pidginthe minority continuing the (Hawaiian problems languages influx Creolein languageare of immigrants,stillEnglish) present policy by assumptionIn the U.S., ratherof linguistic than insolationism superiority, (awhere problem "We the can U.S. go rarelyanywhere faces) an it speak is an will persist as long as the speakers of the language see a need for the language. valueEnglish"Yet,greatly of many minority isentwined the still motto insist languages.in everyof that the other monolingualismtourist. That aspect the This useof in life ofitself, is shouldone best. leadslanguage come to aas debasementover a surprise another to of nois the soone. It is those people who most 30 need to be confronted with what multilingualism really means. 31 Conclusions Five Societies Foreigners at record high. (2000; May 31) Japan Times (On-line). Available: Five Societies thosesolelyThe idea countries. on that the Japanperceived Both and countries the linguistic U.S. are, are abilitieshowever, monolingual of far the more countries majority linguistically is linguistic diverse than a stereotype based group in .Grimes,http://www.japantimes.The Hague B. (1996). Recommendations Ethnologue co.jp/cgi-bin/getarticle. (13th Regarding Ed.). Dallas, p15?nn20000531a4. the Education TX: Summer Rights htm Institute of National of language(s)theMonolingualism layworld. person Childrenof their or is government anparents, oftenaberration. a grow trade official Multilingualism language,up in inmultilingual either one or countryis two the societies nationalnorm will in acknowledge. languages,most learning places andthe in MinoritiesEveningHorwich,Organization News & . ExplanatoryAndfor (May Security Turk, 7). G. and Note (2000). Cooperation Headlines in Europe. from 'the other Japan'. Asahi (1966). The Hague, The Netherlands: Multilingualismcountries,a world language Papua is withnot New a little threat. Guinea problem. Narrowmindedness and This other is placesthe case and ofa failure India, tomany look African beyond throughout the world. Nakatsu,Maher,115-127. J. Y.(1997). (2000), Linguistic Survey bringsminorities to light in Japan. ambivalence Educational for English. Review, Yomiuri 49(2), one's own borders are far greater problems facing monolinguistic cultures. bin/getarticle.Available:PanelShimbun. warns http://www.j against p15?nn20000502a4. early apantimes. English co htm study..j p/cgi (2000;- May 2) Japan Times (on-line). Postmodernity.Amason,References : Kegan Paul International. J. P. and Y. Sugimoto (1995). Japanese Encounters with Shibatani,Romaine, S. M. (1994). (1990). Language The Languages in society. Oxford:of Japan. Oxford University Press. Cambridge: Cambridge BreakingBrochure Japanon the 's Ainu bad habitPeople of (c1996). turning inward.Sapporo: (2000; The AinuJune 1)Association Asahi Shimbun, of Japan. 9. TESOLSkutnabb-Kangas,University Journal, Press. (4), T. 6-11. (1999). Linguistic human rights--Are you naive or what? Crystal,DoctoralClankie, D. Dissertation, (1997; S. (1999). February/March). University On Brand of Name Hawai'i'Languages. Change: at Manoa. Civilization, A Theory DAI #9940612. 40-45. of Genericization. Tojo, M. (1927). Wagakuni no hougen-kukaku. Tokyo: Ikueishoin. Edwards, J. (1994). Multilingualism. London: Penguin. 20 32 33 id-O 3a--()

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