1 Lost Tribes of Nation Branding?

CEU eTD Collection

LOST TRIBES LOST OF BRANDING? NATION OFRUSSIAN REPRESENTATION MINORITY IN ESTONIA’S NATION BRANDING EFFORTS In fulfillmentof the partial Advisor: Professor Pogonyi Szabolcs Nationalism Studies ProgramNationalism Studies Central European University Stanislav Budnitskiy Stanislav Budapest, Hungary Master of Arts Submitted to Submitted 2012 By requirements for thedegree of 1

CEU eTD Collection attitudesEstonia’s andpolitical policieselites ofi findings, onthe whole, brandingfollowbroader suggest narratives thatthe nation doindeed narrativeanalysis Estonia’s ofthenation examplesbranding threespecific of efforts. The informs day. tothis these relations up relations isprovidedtobetter illustrate the historicallythese nature relations, of traumatic which in interethnic themodel conflicts; ofethnic and democrac representation; multiculturalism; modesof majority framework focuses onmajority relations withnationalidentity/nationhoodthe The theoret second construction. of part attitudesEstonia’s andregime policies ofethnic democracy. of branding followthe general,narratives for inquestion part themost mono Union.Thus,theexpectation,Soviet based preliminary onthelimited isthatthe nation research, dominates the nature ofth problem connected along ofdivision theresearch whichstill is toEstonia’sethnic lines, nationalism andrepresentationportrayal country’s minority. ofthe ethnicThe Russian nation its thesis examines branding nar Iexamine Estonia’s strategic documents integration onminority c and then IInfirst theoretical thesection concept ofnationcomplex describe branding its the and The focus following ofthe branding research nation isEstonia’s Inparticular, efforts. the Abstract

e society’s interethnic relations twenty yearse society’s twenty interethnic relations after the breakup of the - minority relations inpolyethnic relations minority employing societies, on theories

ratives with regardsratives ofethno with tomanifestations 2

n their mono - minority coexistence; the role coexistence; ofminority narratives y.Background theRussian on -

ethnic ofthe view ideal society. - ethnic andethnic orrelate with it

- exclusive, exclusive, ical ical - Estonian

CEU eTD Collection year.course ofthe providingearsand thoughts their thesis discussions duringthenumerous grateful Matveyprocess.I to amLomonosov also painfulmost

Iwould like tothank mysupervisor Pogonyi Szabolc for helping me A cknowledgements stage

of formulating andguiding consequently theresearchof through focus, theentire

and all mycolleagues departmental for

we have had in

the initial and initial the

over the CEU eTD Collection Estonia’s Nation Branding Introduction Contents Estonia’s Nation Branding Narratives Brand Estonia IntegrationEstonia’s Strategy Russification of Estonia Psychocultural Narratives The Nation branding An IntroductionAn Where Modern toEstonia: Medieval Meets I AncientLove Modern Estonia: Nation The Most Brand Positively 2008: EstoniaSurprising since Brand Estonia 2001 Conclusion Strategyfor of theintegration Estonian society 2008 Integration Society inEstonian (2000 The integration of non Estonian Society (1998) stateThe integration bases Estonian policyfor ofthe theintegration of non Russification Soviet Human lossesinthe inEstonia 1940s Estonia pre in Russians Ethnic Democracy Integration models ofrecognitionPolitics Core ethnies and majority Narratives peacemakers asreflectors,exacerbators/inhibiters, and Characteristics and ofnarratives features Nation branding andEasternEurope inCentral Nation branding and nationhood concept ofnation branding

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1940 ...... - minority relations minority

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80 72 70 66 63 63 63 59 57 56 55 53 50 48 46 43 42 39 37 35 31 27 24 22 19 16 11 11

CEU eTD Collection Bibliography Conclusion Conclusion Estonia.eu

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93 91 90 86

CEU eTD Collection granting structurally relations dominant majorities withthe state. privileged m the Russian country’s popu yearsincreased fourfold Soviet the presence of over and representatives minority of all ethnic with the issue rather quickly andgranting by tothe swiftly automatically citizenship linguistic Russification. incorporation inthe 1940sand theUSSR following into decades ofimposed The tensionswere especially inthedue high Baltics, oftheir tothe traumatic nature f freedom dictate themetropolitan almost immediately from engendered tensions yearsfree weretheir toruleover Russia. broaderframework Soviet of the republicsSoviet ofliterally outside RSFSR overnight being wenta majority from titular inthe anddivided nation inEurope one inthewo ofthe largest ones ethnic of division by Russians establishedthemthelargest thenewly state making borders, levels: political, economic, social, many and demographic such One effects others. of was the orms andmagnitudes

Lithuania, smallest havingpercentageof thethree the Baltic dealt ofminorities states, After ofbeing decades The Introduction b reakup of the Soviet Union in 1991produced a Unionin reakup myriad of theSoviet of inority threatas a andregimes andliability, established democracy ofethnic by lation in 1991, did not 1991,didnot lation in

–

betweenethnic majorities thedominant

instructed by Moscow,instructed local

countries Union

groups. whose population ethnically Estonia, Russian follow

to national minorities scatteredto nationalminorities the states nearby across

as they desired.as newly they Unfortunately,acquired the its

neighbor’s example. Instead,neighbor’sexample. local elites viewed 6

constituted almostconstituted of athird the

republican rld. EthnicRussiansresiding in

and ethnic Russian minorities.

elites forfirst in time the consequences

– cultural and

of various

on all

CEU eTD Collection constriction influence formulation and theshaping in the countries undergoing enter thebroadercan transitional period, public and discourse characteristics branding of thenation discourse.narratives, brandingespecially Moreover, nation thecountry’s into looks perceived andits traits toarticulate past k national the equallyRepublicCoca appliedofEstonia and be tothe enterprises increasi parcelglobalized, the neoliberal, mediated of age, where postmodern, and countries commercial resources international tocompete inthe arena. and newer countriesdon’treceive possess adequateattentionlimited that and media otherwise international prestige state. thought Nation ofthe is branding be to particularly for useful smaller order investors,hu toattract tourists, marketingemployed promote governmentstheir various techniques country’s assets by to in community byemerging was nation thebranding enhanced field of ethnic democrac to minorityrights.then Since asNATO. European This,turn,imposeds Union andcertain in normative One thereturn ofthe join was key for tactics as a newly independent state Thebrandingfact ispart dichotomynationit and from the that, of onthe stems one hand, Inearly ofinstruments the 2000sthe palette In madeearly cleargoalsprimary it from their bothEstonia themeantime, onthatone of .

and the need legaland normsregarding the toadhereminorities. tointernational ngly take on each other’s roles oneachngly take other’s

, was toleave

Estonia man talent, and ingeneralman talent, and theofawareness level raise and

has of

national i national

the Communist past behindand ‘ the Communist tried to balancetried thedesire topreserveto between ing

7 European and international organizations, such European and international

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. CEU eTD Collection anessayrecognition": 2 University Press 1 and onlyaggravates existingconflicts Taylor’s theory importanceadequate, intermsexplained of is respectful,Charles ofrepresentation and inclusive whether disc minorityifso,howitis Russian thereand, is represented My explore focuses to onEstonia’s research,nationbranding inanattempt then, narratives t Ross’ general,efforts, conflicts asshownby influenceonthecourse alsoits ofinterethnic in but Marc understandings identity ofnational inthe societies and thatengage nationhood innationbranding people’s and opinions concrete policies. state they still speeches co bytoppoliticians ground,especially delicate relations. insuch issuesas interethnic marketing criticallyandany scrupulously otheras offi narrative beviewed must anyan it governmental officialstamponit, kindhas of analyzed and as their citiz and

See See private enterprises Taylor, Charles, and AmyTaylor, and Charles, Gutmann.1992. MarcRoss, 2007. Howard. heory Thus, IThus, a ofdepart point as take Despite ofthe themajor theincreasing samedifferencecountries use methods, between tell us a abouttell us lot the official views ens and inprofitability. risk muchmore thana meredrop

techniques 1

on the role ofon therole psychocultural ethnichostile inrelationsgroups. between narratives 2

. of recognition, the lacktraumatizesof whichthe non recognition,

. Narratives that follow the marketfollow the. Narratives logiccan influencereality that still theon . Princeton, N.J.: Princeton. Princeton, University N.J.: Press.

remains in thefact in remains aspoliticalbear entities, that states, responsibility for

uld beconsidered merepublic relations, and but windowdressing

Cultural contestationCultural ethnic in conflict .

ure nationonly branding’sure toinfluence power not cial narrative, if even , enter public discourse,eventually and, enter influence

Multiculturalism and "The of politics Multiculturalism

it employs it Similarly, Therefore,

- ursively portrayed. The

or misrecognized groupsor . Cambridge: Cambridge

for example, b randingand I thata assert once

public CEU eTD Collection 2005. Europe 3 incorporation and theUSSR decades into forced Current Russificationthatfollowed. of countryan especiallybackgroundtothe eventsdramatic due have surrounding Estonia’s on theEstonian case.Firstly,as earlier, was themajority mentioned majoritiestitular and there minorities, Russian were metofocus several reasonsthat prompted beenexamined inthe literature extensively subject. onthe documents, leaving such asorlinguistic important aside issues citizenship policies, asthey have issue. nation be brandingwith thecountry’s will inline narratives Accordingly, can sinceethnic as be Estonia democracy an described the country’s regime specificIn case. o the ethnic or cultural diversity inthe respective they include narratives discourse. and solidifiedmessage a state. of The onenation ofthebranding, a topromote main tasksofaccording theory, unified tothe field’s is problematic interms of adequately representingcountry’s diversity, aand ethnic cultural since Iinterconnected for explanations this. assert very thatconceptual the design or misrepresentedI inEstonia’s nation brandingare narratives. argue thatthere two

See

Järve, Priit. I bewill analyzingat Estonia’s general integration strategic cohesion and social . Edited by and Budapest,Institute,Smooha Järve. Sammy Priit Society Open Hungary: Apart fro These turn,are in majority decisions, onthenature based of Preliminary thattheRussiancommunity researchtobe excluded showed tends inEstonia m personal interest in th in interest m personal

Re ther words, my hypothesis is that nation mybranding words, that ther hypothesis is arereflective narratives of - Independent Estonia –

public discourse, aspect,etc. normative public

refore, nation brandingto beselective designers nation refore, have about e region andparticularly inthe .

The Fate Democracy Post ofEthnic in 9

broader official

–

with regards to minorities. minorities. to with regards - - minority relations ineach relations minority 3 minority r minority , my expectation relations between the

approach to of nation branding is elations in the in elations -

Communist Communist

is thatthe

the CEU eTD Collection over all multiculturalism the world, onlygain the issue will topicality. its in resear deeper in engaged have fewer the Even relations. interethnic and to identities national of relation construction phenomenon’s the regarding questions raised have scholars branding nation majority and discourses, public policies, governmental of framework broader the within narratives branding nation situate and scrupulous critical through Rather, conflict. the in involved groups the various nation branding scholars. engage innationbranding effor population Latvia, largestgroups world’s one ofthe has ethnic intermsthe minority ofpercentagetotal of relations are thus ch on the topic. Yet, with the growing nation branding industry and the advancement of of advancement the and industry branding nation growing the with Yet, topic. the on ch it thesis, the of aim The – –

over a quarter.Thirdly, first Estonia was ofthe post the examination of the case, I hope to shed some light onto this fairly unexplored issue unexplored fairly this onto light some shed to hope I case, the of examination informed by informed

the pastexperience. traumaticthe - ts and is considered a successfulandts andis exemplary even case by should min

ority dynamics in polyethnic states. So far, only a handful of of handful a only far, So states. polyethnic in dynamics ority

be emphasized, is not to assign blame or victimize any of of any victimize or blame assign to not is emphasized, be 10

Secondly, Estonia, alongSecondly, Estonia, with

–

so metimes intentionally overly overly intentionally metimes - Soviet states toheavilySoviet

CEU eTD Collection Europe Democracy 7 democracy, identity 6 nationalism 5 Research. 4 logic, val nationadds branding defensive can from international reputation identities” national identity and ofnationalisms promulgating and branded forms nationalist whereby take onancommercial increasingly institutions important roleinframing issues of also reconstituting throughbranding nationhood andparadigms” marketing management,competitive identity) or“ isa

See See ol i , and ndreala, Mark evic. . 2011. Nadia. Kaneva,

also been of commercial referred anddescribed terms nationalism “ toin as a the politics ofthe politics power Kaneva, Nadia. Ham, 2001. Peter van. . Edited byKaneva.NadiaNew Routledge ,2012. York: Nation branding Nation branding branding conceptThe nation of Nation branding

be viewed mechanism 5 . .

. International. ofCommunication. Journal (1): 598

Branding Post International Journal of Communication of Journal International , among other things, . London: Routledge..

Nation Branding in Post Branding in Nation that nations can nations that

in theneoliberal world andischaracteristic ofthein mediated broader serves (interchangeably referred

to the postmoder Communist Nations: Nations: Communist I Marketizing National

European integration and the postmodern condition governance,European andthe integration postmodern condition Nation Branding: Towards an Agenda for Critical Critical for Agenda an Towards Branding: Nation

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to as management, reputation image national to Simultaneously,followinggeneral market the since images and influence countries

branding ingeneraladdsbranding the to . (5): 117 (5): . - 618, p.612.

globalmediation and a

to managetheir 4 . dentities inthe "New" Nation brandingNation has - 141, p. 118. p. 141,

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CEU eTD Collection roles others' 9 Edited by New Kaneva. Nadia York: p.24. Routledge, 2012, Europe 8 the country’s First War. enemy World the during CoburgSaxe itself when the Gotha theHouse House as became ofWindsor, of Germany became even byLater, substituted British Godwas Being. theruling theSupreme dynasty rebran Republic changed theanthem, flag, oldweights its andmeasures, a introduced new and calendar symbols cer is such as investorsorhuman tourists, talent.with imagery However, the states concern and of asengaged for countries thescarceof world increasinglycompetition infierce resources, pool consumerist world economy: OlympCups, marketing sites, competitive beauty tenders, and parades, presentations creating aidentitya lifestyle loyaltyamongand customers exchange value of

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Kaneva,Nadia. Bolin, Goran,and Per Stahlberg. -

symbolic . Edited byKaneva.NadiaNew Routledge ,2012,p.11. York: The muchdebated notionof and national contested identityused in t isextensively While and Nation branding nationhood nderson’s theory nderson’s . Branding Post Edited by Anna Roosvall and Inka andEdited byRoosvall Anna Salovaara

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Communist Europe:Communist Identities, Markets, and 16 11

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CEU eTD Collection Europe Democracy 15 Public Diplomacy. between national and andcultural place nationhood, identity, branding". 14 Heinemann, p.111. 13 exchange, whileconcealing for alternative narrating possibilities thenation” boundaries claims aboutIt nationalidentity. ofpossible truth logic privileges the of value viewed as discursi andall aboveuseful identity withnationbrand. nholt,goauthors, suchSimon as as faras nationbranding’s scholar equating leading nati identity ofthe isalsoinextricably place, which linked withthe nation’s culturalidentity brandableentity cultural product,any it resources ofbrand,service, otherbe corporateany than type or other essence themselves

Kaneva,Nadia. Skinner, Heather, and Kubacki. Krzysztof Dinnie, Keith. 2008. . Edited byKaneva.NadiaNew Routledge ,2012,p.12. York: Skinner and Kubacki arguethat Despite growing inthe ways similarities and countriescompanies embody the widest sense not only alsocountry’scompanies but fromculture from its the inthe and brands developing nation understanding features ofthe core ofnational isaprerequisite identity

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See Dinnie, Keith. 2008. Aronczyk, Melissa. . Edited by Craig Calhoun and Richard Sennett. London:Calhoun. Edited andRichard by Craig 2007. Sennett. Routledge, In words,circumstances other the dictatedmarket by the compelcreators nationbrand to brandingcampaign” elements ofnationalcan identity constructinga nation country’s andkey culture history, people.a in Therefore,ofthose engaged task not going to drew upon every a strand country’s of audiences identity. national are External The practically nature ofnational bottomless when identity, into translated notion

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Anholt, Simon. 2007. Anholt, Simon. Gerland.Sussman, eputation made region situation the thecountries for perfect engaging of candidates in . . The third In world,ifthey today’s allcountries, want succeedadvantageous to anand insecuring CentralNation branding in Eastern Europe and Thus, internal diversity fallseffort often preyof into consolidating tothe theinformation Branding post Basingstoke [England]: Palgrave p.118. Macmillan, ing - tech Japan, efficient Germany, spiritual India, efficient Japan, Germany,andtech spiritual cold Russia.

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Kaneva,Nadia. 2007. Anholt, Simon. ake public relations efforts,akerelations publicand based on . Edited byKaneva.NadiaNew Routledge ,2012,p.7. York: . Basingstoke [England]: Palgrave p.118. Macmillan, In ofthe word, region one thenations phase entered theoftransition: their and identities, it benign states ofthese ha are Most nowworking rule. European brands nation from regime Soviet travelling abroad, effectively the theold,distinctive deleted The Easternovernight states and ofCentral experienceddramatic Europe this almost Nation branding isparticularly su . Branding Post “By of theexport their stopping

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Kaneva,Nadia. See Sussman, Gerland.Sussman, . . Edited byKaneva.NadiaNew Routledge ,2012,p.9. York: pressures and ofdifferentiation integration” identity could, construction atleast that superficially,accommodate the conflict brandingprov Inrenegotiatedeconomic,cultural inpolitical,and nation terms. context, this integration inthe coexist post In the toenterEuropean themeantime, desire broader context all spheres in Due tothe dramatic ofsociety, branding role transition thesocial ofnation Branding post 22 .

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. CEU eTD Collection 25 CambridgeUniversity Press. presented in 24 a number ofreasons n the fact that expressed through rituals andsymbolism, dramatic buttheir true significance powerand l underlining differenc togetherness, exclusionary andsameness, onthe contrary, narratives, can intensify conflictinggroups. While of and sharedbelonging, reinforce emphasize narratives thesentiment future actions” eventsto makeand terms sense toexplain in oftheir ofitsexperiencesinterpretationspast and narratives inethnically intergro based conceptualization of psychocultural narratives totheorizethesignificance typology and of discourse, helps and articulate shapeI understandings.am Ross’ these using Marc brandingnot only understanding theexisting reflects understanding of a oftheisbeing country nationhood same nation thatpromoted. time, Atthe arratives

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25 . Different accounts. Different reflect thus di .

es and gapsand groups. opposingmayes between narratives The notbe ormay

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in CEU eTD Collection University p.31. Press, 26 development ofnew directly thatdonot narratives challenge reformulate ones, older but them in describingconflict” thesame hard issometimes that it toanaïve observer protagonists torecognize thatthe narratives are metaphors,distinct emphasize d controversialconflicting narratives, thecase draw and “opponents whichisoften when on that the other certaingroupsas from awhole one thedominant oftheisindicating narrative, parties view of its importance bothwhat narratives include indirectly

Ross, MarcRoss, 2007. Howard. 4. 3. 2. 1. stand

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exclude. Byexclude. certain excluding 23 –

be of an outcome sometimes definitivelyand sometimes sometimes

communicating purposefullycommunicating . Cambridge: Cambridge the way and/or individuals shared or events us . shedding

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is the CEU eTD Collection interpretations of significance and thepointsofview events allotment of tovarious from specificallysense ofengender b the inindividuals tailored to and thepresent claim the discursively characterizedanachronisms by ascending ordescending opportunistically emotionally meaningful shared memories todrawwisdom contemporary, uponfor especially rooted asnarratives political, needs, in exclusive intergroup conflicts interpretedexperiences projections. and best understood as existinggenerality, atlevels different of selectivelyrememberedand canadded, deemphasized, be rearranged,emphasized, removed, and as narratives and more inclusive theshared outto point goals. experiences and more deemphasize inclusive termsemotional importancebetweengroups that and ofdifference time time Narratives ascollectivememories. Past events andlessons metaphors as The presents followingof types anumber popular of description Characteristics narratives features and of The reframi distance isalmost –

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CEU eTD Collection Press. Marc 2007. Howard. 27 identity. whoisleft outsideimplies group’s the might threaten and boundary thus to shared culture” ethnic c theyare future.facing,and providing aforcommon “These theirnarratives vision articulate an a people,exactly spelling outwhat pastshared, intheir imagined is challenges and what dangers and emotional significance over time. is shaped bychallenges and specificevents needs, elaboration, present change their importance, opponent general in receiv accountevents noefforttocomprehend theother ofthatmakes side’s Third perspective. Second and thecentrality itsrole isdictated by fo of narrative’s the u have notbeen celebrated officially even decades until or centuries they after took place bindingmany memory. Thus,holidayscommemorating national victories battlesof and thepast to learn ab the historical truth contemporaryand historiography differ. might narratives former’s The somuch ective isnot ob ntil theyntil byelites were of recognized thetime as the additionalresources nation for

Smith, AnthonySmith, D.1991.

ly Fears toidentity. andthreats Selectivity. onception of the nation and pastthatemphasizes ofthegroup’s its the onception communi , the narratives, althoughaim tocomerealistic, acrossas, thenarratives, theyand objective offer an

27 . Thus,byinagroup, definingwho isincluded a narratives simultaneously

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National identity National out anevent, way in advantageous group it topresent as but a

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. Reno: University Nevada citedinRoss, Press of 25

play a central role in articulating who constitutes rolea inarticulating central play

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CEU eTD Collection University p.39. Press, 28 and their significance. Alongsideevolution ofconflicts,seecultural the onetheshiftincontested also can expressi process, ofthe for past group asinterpretations have identity directimplications inthe present. greatereven demands” is viewed withsuspicion,h relative peaceandmovetoward harmonyotherswhom any group, peace for withtheir own each“Within group, thereareother whoviewof thecommunity livingcapable some in as events of culture theexistence implies narratives ofmultiple eachgroup,certainly andminoritywithin a ofdissent degree views around. viewed familiar as safeand harbors wherehidefromcan thestresstaking one oftransition place especially durin high threat thewell to from the mainstream seen isthus notsimply ofexpression narrative aspluralism,a but an room for any narratives dissent, asthe beco conformity ontheir members,reinforce pressure narratives in

Ross, MarcRoss, 2007. Howard. . The can diversity ofviews case insome Evolution of narratives.Evolution of Multiple within In

- group conformity and externalization ofresponsibility. group conformity and - being or evenbeing or conformity verygroup. existence The ofthe pressure is g crises the and high O - 28

group narratives. ne relevant such thisresearch, case,istheemergence particularly for of .

eightened insecurity, and is perceivedeightened is and as firststep insecurity,toward apotential

Cultural c Cultural

Contestations overContestations theframing ongoing ofnarrativesare an ontestation inethnicconflict

- Somewhat contrary tothe previous featu stress situations, when more narratives thanever arestress situations, me self me 26 s engender signif

- perpetuating.of diverging Any opinion kind

to deal event thesame with or - group leavingconsensus, less icant debates and disagreements:icant debates

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CEU eTD Collection abroad 29 even iftheyapproach resonate are, thatsuch will with the public agreea counterpart forconstructive dialogue a inanat rootedIf intheir understanding of and it. an perception as viewed opponent not alegitimate is theymotives and individual group shape ethnocentric ofclaims pattern such moral and valuesrationalecla presented thatare emphasized as for superiority whengroup a possesse obstacles throug experiences light, inafavorable thatallowed toovercome underliningall thequalities it tone, wordingInstead, ormessage ingeneral. group’s they backgroundtend toportraya and narrativesgroup intergroup coulda alsogive rise conflictcontestation. thatunify to and identityemotional significance and the narratives.group’s the very Naturally, ofthe same national other holidays, ritual objects events and that various and accountscould of inaugural bemanifestedintheflags, andsites, form memorial ceremonies, that wereyears literally topredict b difficult several language thein1991 issuesrepublics inthe former Soviet collapse Union after of the

See ble solution to a to conflict, ble solution Laitin, David D.1998. . Ithaca:. University Cornell Press. Significance comes fromby ofnarratives the fact that events framing and peacemakersNarratives exacerbators/inhibiters,reflectors, and as Ethnocentrism andmoral superiority Enactment narratives. of hout history, including threats to its existence. Ithout history,existence. its threatsto including case often even is the that, s

sufficient resources to cope withthecope obstacles, resourcesisparticularlysufficient it to the

Identity the information: Russian

it ismuchlesslikelyit that

Powerful necessarily narratives toverbal are not limited

naturally

behavior. People’s actions regardsbehavior. with toa conflict

fosters in fosters claims. tempt toovercome differencestempt a mutually and find 27

efore that

Group narrativesGroup are neutral in usually not - groupout solidarity and peacemaking steps will bepeacemaking will made and, steps 29 . -

speaking pupulations in thenear in speaking pupulations .

reinforceandgroup strengthen

ims. Theims. - group hostility.

attributing –

issues

are

CEU eTD Collection University p.45. Press, 30 have tomove thesettlement newly space proces opened other acan side,people future theintense envision from political apart conflicts, leaders and particular isthenotionthat “when begin thenarratives includenuanced to views more of the representation ofminoritygroups nation branding in and resea narrativesthecurrent understanding ofthe ofpeacefulcoexistence. benefits Of importancestudy for special the of significantchange i potential moderation and de commonalities among parties that the understanding oftheir demands opponents’ intervention, often becauseparties quite accommodate of thebarriers andopportunitiesconflict for of identification strategic the process addressingeachprimaryconcernsfears. involves party’s anddditionally, narratives outcomeare since can achieved, settlement efforts be unlikelytosu the conflictingmediators a understand logic. This party’s helpspotentialconstructive how balan mayon theissueand dissenting imply from position that this consequences for dire have societal membersgroup, of the narrativesarticulate thesupposedly group andconsensual signify stance

Ross, MarcRoss, 2007. Howard. ce. Force.insights narratives notdirectlyconflict, each into parties involved inthe of provide As exacerbators inhibiters or ofconflicts, emphasize differences or narratives As reflectors, narratives for conflict - escalation. n how the call sidesview, each treat,and n how other, emergence witheventual of

- escalation.

Cultural Cultural

Due totheir constantly possess evolving great nature, narratives show

In a long

us either contestation inethnicconflict in the conflict have an incomplete or have inaccurateconflict an in theincomplete how

and support continuing escalationsupport hostility and or - term conflictcould theregradual, beaterm but the parties 28

needs

. s for

involved ina conflict For it. involved understand

ward” 30 cceed, unless theresolutioncceed, unless . . Cambridge: Cambridge

rch in CEU eTD Collection 32 31 cooperation develops” and acknowledgement, a thatemphasizesbenefits possible politics and arising respect from and threatening, overlapping and partially can listening narrativesidentities mutual from and arise acknowledged and mo acknowledgement respectfully “When accepted. occurs, their world contrary, butrather notbeignored, views. On should the differences these to experience,and emotionalofnew connectedness, elements or intergroup revised parties alter must the exi reconciliation.In develop ofthe reconciliation to narratives strategy, order aspart theconflicting could of facilitate new ofpeaceful narratives the development and coexistence possibly parteffort of thecauses anconflicts” address of to that give power, “a them more suchsocial todevelop strategy inclusive narratives needs be to

Ibid. 47. P. Ibid. 46. P. foster understanding the groupsnotbealarmed should threatenedby that or thedifferences of narratives,On topof that,thegoal help iftheyconflict of to areresolve meant the factsSince isnot it

32 . sting exclusive paradigm and substitute it with narrativessting itwith and paradigm exclusive substitute ofcommon

as theyare,as of narratives and but rather theimages organization 29

31 . In. clusion of previously disputingclusion of previouslygroups re inclusive, less linkag s , should be, should es.

CEU eTD Collection

CEU eTD Collection 34 minorities groups anddominant 33 resources through the ethnicity and federalism for including conflict minority management, arbitration, autonomy rights, consociation, even and ethnies and,ontheother and ethnichand, minorities; higher plausibility contemporary more relentless goalgroundandrevived ethnic aspirations of and inequalities, particularly the evidenceglobalizing suggeststhat trends, massmigration, including identity and accommodation minoritycomposition, groups arevocal demanding becoming in recognitionoftheir more

See Ibid. . Smith, Anthony.Smith,

Besides Infact, t As modernincreasingly societies become multicultural andpolyethnic intheir majorityCore and ethnies Majority T he 34

of conflictof between theethnic and themarginalized powerholders outcome .

produce world , it isactually, it

nationalist ideologiesnationalist he - minority relations minority contestation

ord has been has

state interplay between dominant and peripheral betweeninterplay dominant ethnies competing for

Ethnic andDominant Cores Ethnies er. er.

institutions. institutions. In thecases w

of their cultural peculiarities. with regards toethnicity a byproduct

, ontheone hand,

between only dominant andperipheralethniesisnot becoming . Edited by Kauffman. Eric P. - minority relations ,

modern c modern

As long as t

here states remainhere states of the cultural and political pluralism ofthe andpoliticalcultural pluralism of the 33 . 31

entralized the intensification between ofthe conflicts domi

he cultur , and where nationalism is invoked is where nationalism , and a

range measures and of

states F . ar fromar for the part most for al and political pluralism that al andpolitical Rethinking Ethnicity: Majority

London :Routledge, 2004. tend toreinforcethe role of erasing emphasize

ethnic differences,

sovereign, the ethnies is proposed

cleavages

much solutions solutions as the

nant CEU eTD Collection and dominantminorities 36 Kauffman.London: Routledge, 2004, p.1. foreground. 35 theirwithin borders. These demotic indeed dominant nations into becoming owndominant ethniesin into houses, transmuted national intheir masters states,or Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Romania 20 minority beco ethnic and/or group exercisingastate. dominancewithin nation populations, andnotethnic became Russians, ethnicities, whicha implies particular dominant independent republics topublicwas debates. limited instances fo tookonviolent it interethnicbetweenmajority conflict ethnic ethnic arise thelocal minority andRussian post attendant ofideological loss havea discipline fracturing ledtoofma peripheral ones willcontinue. underpins theinter

Smith, Antho Smith, Kaufmann, P. Eric th

- centuries invarious parts ofEurope CentralEastern and colonial regimes along ethnic lines Upon the breakup of the Soviet Union,themajorityUpon theSoviet breakup of the Such isthecase inthe post

Rethinking Ethnicity: minorities Majority groupsanddominant mes anot historically majority literallymes overnight the unique.Over is course ofthe ny. -

Ethnic Cores andDominantCores Ethnies Ethnic state o state

Introduction. Dominant ethnicity: frombackground to

have undergone an almost 180 degrees as undergonean theindigenous almost have turn, . EditedbyLondon Kauffman. P. Eric 2004. :Routledge,

rder remains intact, the r

–

ms, in othersms, in discriminatoryand thetension sometimes policies,

with or without smallwith orwithout and ethnicminorities peripheral

Soviet spaceSoviet andWar where aftermaththe “the oftheCold

ethnies ” 35

. Virtuallyevery post

arrived at th arrived 32 – contestation

“the long . e dominant Rethinking Ethnicity: Majority groups - minority dynamicsminority - – resident ‘peripheral’resident

between ethniesand dominant for

- The phenomenon whereaThe phenomenon Soviet independent state saw an independent statesawSoviet example, inHungary,example, - ethnie ny fragile ex ny fragile

national end . Edited by P. Eric

in the newly in the -

communist andcommunist e thnies ethnies - – point”

, on in some

36 .

CEU eTD Collection UniversityOxford Press. 38 Kauffman.London: Routledge, 2004 foreground. 37 recognition and laws identity oftheiralteration ethnic theinstitutions or ofof themainstream legitimization for self newdemands territories.Here, tend thetobeless radical, strong asthere his isno independence. majoritygroup.a re As politicalIn entity. case,become a this people tothe invading a involuntarily inrelation minority territory could whereresides and beconquered a subsequently nation incorporated intoalarger the mode, they either constitute a natio camegenerally intobeing. There area groupfor minority depending twowaysformed: on to be post inthe Russia preceding EmpireRussian Soviet and then centuries,ethnic elites of the thenew endogamy external influences and imperial construct. doingcontent may tolet be dominant restrictive

See See - Soviet spaceSoviet tothe restrictive adhered once strategies they became domin Kymlicka, Will. 1995. Kymlicka, Will. Kaufmann, Eric P. In case, thelatter a existence mightmigration minority into come throughinto voluntary The modeof majority Majorities can theirdominance primary manifest and through strategies:expansive two 37

and refinement. cultural .

Rethinking Expansive dominanExpansive

Restrictive Restrictive - governancegreater strive for claims. Rather,groups such orindependence sult, a minority often demandgroupsult, would self usually Ethnicity: Majority groupsanddominantminorities

Introduction. Dominant ethnicity:Introduction. frombackground to

- Multicultural citizenship:Multicultural aliberal theory of rights minority

minority relations depends greatly dependsgroup relations minority onhowthe minority strategies

employ ce

seek Having been subjected to the expansive strategiesHaving totheexpansive of subjected the been

ethnic particularity broader a infavor lapse of or national nal minority or an ethnalor minority

instruments likeimmigration deportation, restriction, instruments s center on

to project dominance lands, and inso outward to project new 33

purif yingethnic corefrom thedominant nic groupnic 38 - governance even or . In. theformercase, the . Edited by P. Eric ant majorities. torical .

CEU eTD Collection and dominantminorities 39 felt disproportionately ethnie, due totheir overwhelming numerical majorityorpolitical receive dominance, preferably thatthey are ancestrally related,however members ofethnie thecorethatthey arecommon devotion, peopleand historical of one nation, oneethnic need ties, linked toacoregroup,ethnic since to discriminatory towards practices minority po majorities and tobeprivileged, thestate and tend producing thus structuralinequalities geographicalInlong location. whethercertain territory a hadbeen ahas populationthat had histor virtuallynumbers, isstill haveit extremely all places onEarth, populated relevant andsignificant can be that made on thenature population. withregardsofits a an society While argument of tothecomposition question rather thantrying tone which prompttoanalyticallyeach case viewas falling ona continuum between thetwomodes in primarycases. theretherule, ofthe to modesencompassingmost known are Still, exceptions society themmore tomake accommodatingcultu toward

Smith, Anthony.Smith,

by members of ethnies members peripheral This, again,structural may lead uponethnic discrimination to bas Therefore, building long process in nation In thewayaddition to minority amodeof was depends interethnic the formed, relations

there are nostrictlyinrelatively since albeit people, immigrant societies, small

high economic high Ethnic Cores andDominantCores Ethnies Ethnic . EditedbyLondon Kauffman. P. Eric 2004. :Routledge,

which ne underpin can the -

resident national states thesuch relationshistorical nationalstates betweenresident cessarily fit them into oneofcessarily thetwocategories. fittheminto

advantages . Bureaucratic interference and. and economic social neglect

mobilize people tomakemobilize the pulations. pulations. ,

e 34 ngender -

resident nationalstates islikelyresident tobeclosely

fictively w national ‘construct’ andw national showthe ‘construct’ . ing

ral differences. are These thetwo Rethinking Ethnicity: Majority groups

a feeling of alienation and exclusion feeling andalienation exclusion a of 39 .

required ically connected with this ically is, as the dominant is, asthe

sacrifices for the

CEU eTD Collection University p.13. Press, 41 groups anddomin 40 ofoppression,inflict harm, can imprisoning a anddistorted, false, someone form be reduced ina normalizing majority behind process. the normalization majority, greater real much possessing resources, andsymbolic drivingforce be should the goalrespectand creation.Ideally, common be should a it two privilegedstate,relation orthe take the minority to thefirstthismutual should steptoward minorityof cogroups. There, staterecognition evidently andrespectnational thedistinct manifests existence for ofethnic cohabit” unless thevarious groupsan national allegiance have tothe rationale these to tofindissues lieinthe fact solution states thatcannot “multination survive discrimination by against ofthe peripher theelites dominant ethnie alienation influence often has onthemajority more the vitalrole and of sentimentininterethnic perception relations, thenotionofbias and sense of of the highlight thenational within ethnic stateand divisions the theoften

Kymlicka, 1995. Will. See

authorities Smith, Anthony.Smith, One ofthe strategies of foundational majority of onthe the part inthe direction Politics recognition of Thesuch danger presentedintergroup byand/or confrontationandcontestation the 41 . Atthesame very time, this allegiance totheonly larger occurs larger when state the

toward the needstoward members ethnie.Consideri of of and thedominant interests ant minorities - minority relations is recognition, as “nonrecognition isrecognition, or misrecognition relations minority can

Ethnic andDominant Cores Ethnies

Multicultural citizenship:Multicultural aliberal theory of rights minority urse,bethe majority, varying may as opinions towhether withits

. Edited by Kauffman.London Eric:Routledge, P. 2004.

- minority

larger political communitylarger political they .

dynamics than explicit explicit dynamics than Rethinking Ethnicity: Majority - way process.way al ethnies unintentional Iassert that 40 .

bias onthe part . Oxford . Oxford

the

ng CEU eTD Collection 43 an essay 42 dominant ormajority identity. perceived is assimilation as Thisvery a that, with the distinction according hasbeen proponents, and/or toits ignored assimilated a into speak, soto into, first regardlesscitizens, groupaffiliation oftheir oridentity,and eradication strive for of thedivision of recognitio recognition the ormisrecognition, dialogical relation orthe relationthis intentionally others, significantby with other corrupts non groupsand thelargerIf society. theprocess lacks ofidentityarticulation formation and collectivegroup suchascultural ethnicort identities, minorities, with significant thewayand In they others these perceive information. identities case of the wholly inte and inflict grievous Itworse a feeling consequences than could offended. ofbeing potentiallyengender self mo

Taylor, Charles,Amy and Gutmann. 1992. Ibid. 36. P. d e ofbeing” At thesame time, thereare twocontradictory concepts ofthe andunderstandings politics recognition ofoppression” can a form be oppress, thattheimage theextent to The withholding isinternalized. of projectionor of demeaning an inferiora image on democraticIts refusalonthoseThe society. can whoareit. inflict damage denied The importance recognition of . Princeton, N.J.: Princeton. Princeton, University N.J.: Press. rnal process that develops in isolation. Rather, developsrnal isolation. requiresa in it process that dialogue, a often struggle, n. On the one hand, the politics of universalism emphasize the equality hand,the n. Ontheofemphasize all thepolitics one universalism of

“Equal recognition is not ust theappropriate“Equal ust not is for recognition mode a healthy 42 .

Recognition is not simplyRecognition not is about respect, because misrecognition

psychological - class andsecondclass

wounds. identity likely most itselfwill be negativelyaffected: is related to - class Another citizens. approac

Multiculturalism and Multiculturalism 36 43

the logic ofwhich a formation, isnot identity

nother and actually can distort he dialogue is between these "The politics of recognition": politics ofrecognition": "The threat to theideals to of threat h isconcerned precisely can bearfar -

hatred - CEU eTD Collection 45 University Press. 44 integration thelarger into society:ghettoization, or assimilation recognition, the authorities can onethree pursue ofthe tominority policies withregards constitutional measures,beyond t some forms through ofculturalcan legalaccommodated differenceor be only special rights collectivegoals can liberal frameworkgovernance of andto finda individual balancecollective rights, between p still while various ethnicculturalgeneral and groups, authorities in inparticular societies and shouldstrive that inmodern group iscautious ofcollective it couldbelonging. goalsgeneral. it Secondly, beargued in Yet, onequalregardlessdifference. individual rulesFirstly, and application rights, of of insists it communitarian li group takeThe rights issue. on the and thereforegiven equal beand should voicerecognition authenticity diversity, since and it

uibernauBerdMontserrat. in, M. Kymlicka, 1995. Will.

for members its Dependingof majority onthenature modelIntegration The twoapproachesarenot necessarilyinpractice:exclusive mutually a The two approachesreflect the debate adherents liberal more between ofmore and

multinational are and multicultural states,thecomposed populationsofwhich of

still .

Consequently, acknowledge isincreasingly it

be liberal,

Multicultural citizenship:Multicultural aliberal theory of rights minority s

. he common rights ofcitizenship common rights he

is presumed that all culturesis presumed that have say important something to if it respectsif it - . and inparticular themode of relations on minority The identity ofnations 37 diversity

beral totheidea view of isless hospitable

andable is toprovide .

multiculturalism 44 . . Cambridge: Polity.

reserving theoverarching all over the world that

fundamental

society with society 45 .

. Oxford . Oxford

CEU eTD Collection identity politics 46 theyIntegration all undergo theseconsidered is struggles toadapt. “lighter” tobea of version to the minoritygroups, since notlikely they are still to be allegiance society. host totheirisconsidered new Thisstrategy tobepsychologically damaging and mainstream byculture fullytheir giving societyown cultures, and up languages and identities margins the society,socialalmost parallel forming reality. of an economica life country ofand producers consumers,in the roleremains of butculturally ont racismblunt of onthepart themajority.populationsomewhat inthe participates socio Minority problems notbeviewedshould an acceptable asand long old ways, isghettoization always asymptomofunhealthy majority technological developments to one’s rootsmight ethnicor even cultural life, even iflivin technologies make and especiallythese logistics it daysfamiliar easy toadhereways tothe of lifestyleorigin or noeffort oflittle adapt country with to its thenew of to society. Modern membersits constitute almost theentirety p oflocal and oftengroup physically. may Aactuallyresiding community, inaneighborhood be or where

Anderson, BenedictAnderson, O'G. R. 1992. replacing Assimilation understood terms instrict Assimilation groups assumes thatminority the adapt to ofminorityAlthough, communiti some members impliesGhettoization isolation ofthe minority the mainstream from society: existentially . Most likely,. Most these r

them with those ofthe with symbolically dominant thus majorityculture, them pledging full . Amsterdam: Centre Amsterdam. for Asian Studies g ofmiles away thehistorical thousands from sense homeland. The ofbelonging

in communications elations arecharacterized byelations non

Long -

distance nationalism: world capitalism andthe rise of capitalism world nationalism: distance become strongerforeign inabecome land - 38 46 term solution to majority to solution term .

opulation. Thus,aminority might a preserve es might behappy about preserving the accep - recognition, discrimination or recognition, ted as -

minority relations minority

indigenous people even if indigenous - minorityrelational

due to

and thus he - CEU eTD Collection SocietyInstitute, 2005. Europe Communist 49 48 47 regimegovernance of Canada, and others. political, social, andeconomic reality,Israel,Ireland, Northern asBelgium, such Cyprus, f translategovernanceform a into particularof calledethnic democracy of val Multiculturalism can succeed that culture the seen isnot under condition only asa sacred set and nation equalequal dignity and rightsfor indiv ma ority characterized expected. Multiculturalismis keyisstill by“tolerance values ofdiversity, spheres the expectation without ofthemtheirconformity givingdiversity,certain up butwhen to adaptation process. the local lifestyle immediate societygradualas a and long uibernau’s in assimilation theory ound in some societies, where societies,ethnicound insome majority

Smooha, Sammy.Smooha, See Ibid. 68. P. ues whichbedictated must and traditions bythe state. - uibernau i Berd n, M.Montserrat. uibernau iBerdn, . state” The majority DemocracyEthnic Lastly, aregime is multiculturalism rights equal thatimplies ofnon 48

. Multiculturalism . Edited by Priit and Järve. Budapest, Smooha Sammy Hungary: Open

The m The - The Model of Ethnic Democracy of Model The minority dynamics, if the nature of these relations is rather hostile, can rather is ifthenature relations these dynamics, minority hostile, of .

ini

ly - term process, thus not putting pressure toadhereterm not process, thus onminorities to

model of ethnic democracy three outlines , allowing for a much moreallowing relaxedfor lesstraumatizing and a, much much

also implies full recognitionalso implies 47 . Unlikeassimilation, integration a to new adaptation sees iduals belonging to different groupslivingiduals belonginga todifferent within single - 39 minoritygreat play relations a role indefining

The identity ofnations

The Fate Democracy ofEthnic inPost

of by minorities thestate. 49

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- CEU eTD Collection 54 53 of nationalism 52 “stretchingputs it, overgigantic tight ofthe theof theshort, skin nation theempire” body territories accumulated theM since naturalization and topreserve an attempt power,vast dynasticmultilingual particularly over first The wave phenom ofofficial nationalisms. termed as nationalism official populations. and lesslikely antiquity,and weretofindacceptanceadmiration less andamong their articulated ofsacrality (for instance, legitimaciesGreat notions Romanovsas basedon Russians), identity century,a tendency therewasvisible among an monarchies enticing national the toturn towards regime.Communist officers,Russian aristocrats, priests, Russ 1940 happened cameafterBolsheviks inthe topower early ofWhite 1920s,as thousands Believers ended today ofRussian is upinwhat lastmajorinflux Estonia. The Church Orthodox the Russian inmid large hispoliticalofRussia. Another opponentsout numbers instancefollowed of thereform of

Anderson, BenedictAnderson, O'G. R. 2006. Ibid. 87. P. Ibid.

The of ‘naturalizations’ Europe’seventually dynasties ledtosomethingthathas been Dueprestige tothe rapidlyof all overthenational rising Europe mid idea by the 52 . Atthesame time, inthe age andgrowing skepticism, science, capitalism, of these

. London:Verso.

. Tsaristprobabl is Russification iddle Ages. Or, asOr, Andersoniddle Ages. metaphorically and poetically

- Imagined communities: reflections on the origin andspread theorigin communities: reflectionsImagined on XVIIcentury, when ian - speaking Jews and fled intelligentsia Jews thespeaking 44 enon

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Rywkin, Michael. 1994. BenedictAnderson, O'G. R. 2006. The Tsarist policy Russification cultural trends: hadandadministrative twomajor acquiredRussia Livland,Estland peasantseorgian and peasants asprotagonists” wasnon infact in bitter most against autocracy. revolts connected: The were thesocial ofcourse two revolution Russification aswasrevolution it ofworkers, peasants, a andradical intellectual The responses bycould two possible ruling tothenew dynasties born sentiments national

into theregioninto he reforms. he liberalization of thecultural thecontrary,liberalization on forced regime homogenization. cultural or, erate Russification campaign by designed take didnot metropolitanauthorities . London:Verso, p.88. “Revolution as of95was muchaofnon revolution ;

i t simply accompanied cultural andt simplycultural administrative accompanied intheform initiatives of F ederal authoritiesdidnot

as as

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- Imagined Russian regions, with Polish workers,Latvian regions,Russian with Polish

, and other ofThe territoriesintheregiona result as separate and explicit part andbroader ofseparate explicit the official

communities: reflections on the origin andspread theorigin communities: reflections on 45 see . Armonk, N.Y.:M.E.Sharpe.

relocation 55 .

loyal and culturallyloyalclose and

decades laterdecades thisdichotomy - Russians againstRussians

s - 56 .

CEU eTD Collection Press. 58 57 historically ofEstoniaund which only territories, Russian became part in1920 8,%constituted ofEstonia’s population, although a large those lived percentageon the of became oftheSoviet regime occupation victims during thefirst of Brothersagainst theSoviet regime thatlasted upuntil partisan warfare; military losses westwardsmostly live under regime.restored ratheraSoviet than in1944and1945, what expect to from asecondoccupationand ataquarter least HavingNazi, norStalinist. year of endured a Sovietization politically ofpeople motivatedlive flight under a notwilling regime to totalitarian ci duringII War World higher theother. than oneto establish: setof numbers presented i rule of afterwards. The concreteis politicized, sothe question realfigures numbers are difficult

tizens Clemens, C.1991. Walter O'Connor, 2003. Kevin.

Not only also but ethnic ethnicliving Russians Estonians, inthethe time country at O T greatEstonia suffered human losses during WWII Human losses i 58 he d ther factors .

rastic decrease in ,

as were population thelocal toeither arm Nazi drafted orSoviet

Soviet massdeportationsSoviet and executions 57 include

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The history ofThe the history BalticStates

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populace resettlementBa of

the

can be attributed toseveral becan factors 1940s n theliteraturebe ontheissuemayseveral times

ltic Germansltic and Swedes in1939 the . Westport, Conn: Conn: . Westport, Greenwood Press. ; mid and

in 1940 guerilla by warfare Forest the - - the first 1950s. million people chosemillion to flee,

- 1940 41, most Balts knew just . New York: Martin's. New St.

several years ofStalinist several - 41. In 41. 1934Russians . One of them is of . One er y killed in or the Estonian –

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1940 ;

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CEU eTD Collection Press. 60 Edited by Robert Conquest. 59 Party June in 1940at memberships partyCommunist remained tiny,and sectarian,clandestine: evenput Communist data Soviet evils.that saw However, itasaoverall the support two lesser was andthe of marginal local ideascommunist gain did moretheleft a popularity among going totherule back Russian and was absurd offensive. historyenjoying was independencefr Forand theUSSR. into eventual Estonian society,which incorporation first forinits time the agricultural parties Secondly, openly andpatriarchal. Communist local advocated Sovietization several forexplanations that interwar theBaltic independence states in always was any by and minimal standards therewer yearsvocal inthe regime.and opponentsofthe popularity new influence communism of The of all problems: predominantlyFollowinga famous political. quoteattributed chilling toStali extinct. authorities. Byprewar of Russian communities 1945 theregionalmost completely were the Soviet rule inthe 1920s,werealien as social perceived new elements Soviet the by PeaceSoviet

Clemens, C.1991. Walter Shtromas, Alexander.

fter comingpower Hitler’s ermany,frighteningly in933and ofNazi fast tothe rise The rationa

Treaty ofTartu no man,problem” le behind the political terror the le behind inthe immediate aftermathWWII ofthe was

The BalticStates

Stanford, California: HooverInstitution Press, 1986. . Most ofthes. Most Baltic independence and Russian empireBaltic independence Russian and . Firstly, the

– only 133inEstonia

om any major Europeanom any idea major the ofvoluntarily power, authoritiesaimedthe new tophysically Soviet liq .

e being Russians, descent ofaristocraticfled orhaving Baltic Baltic The Last andthe Empire: Soviet Nationality Future 47 countries countries

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“Death solves

uidate e . CEU eTD Collection 61 Russian Estonian Ethnicity would reinforce over the control Soviet Baltic remained,Russification, of course,still fora thepresencelargeRussian of infrastructure and theSoviet authoritiesfacedgenuinechallenge reviving the economy, local of the Germans 1944),damage (throughout to objective. Asa res solely by political rationale settlement ofRussians population. Thus,afterreoccupationthe Baltic Soviet a of policy the landssteady 1944, in of a ofmoresize loss than100,000people wasterms in ofthepercentage significant ofoverall in the societyas awhole. vocalmost opponentsofthe new sphere regimefrom public and

O'Connor, 2003. Kevin. Table of 1.Population Estonia by ethnic origin 1935 D Estonia was heavily towards depopulated the Soviet Russification

uring first the 61 .

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occupation

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of 1940 the

republics. Baltic infrastructureBaltic 48 - 335 (24.7%) 925 (68.2%) 1970

1941

end of the1940s,andenda for country ofits

the resettlementthe

. Westport, Conn: Conn: . Westport, Greenwood Press.

- 89.

established 409 (27.9%) 948 (64.7%) 1979

in general was devastatingin

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CEU eTD Collection 63 InstituteInternationalAffairs. of 62 subgroups Russia, 1991 be easily themost transportable for theavailabilityof Russian and oflabor, labor inthe form enterprises, todefense, regardwere connected little intheBalticrepublics constructed with often planning furtherLarge ministry,tothe immigration region. brought all the 1960s im Thirdly, other newcomers categories moveintoareas of by to were war. sent depopulated the families. Secondly, comprised severalgroup groups.was distinct and first The officials militarypersonnel their with Affairs). Beyond Identity ofNational Russia: The Politics German Jewish

Rywkin, Michael. 1994. Melvin, Ne migration theseveral continued next for although decades, lessintensively thanin1945 .

After hundreds of yearsAfter historical complex andpolitical of hundreds of relations between Estonia and The ofRussian peak influx Russian Adapted Census Data from:Soviet (1995) and (citedR. inMelvin, Estonia as oftoday,

- 63 1970s the economicdevelopmentrepublics, ofthe envisagedstate Soviet by the .

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came workers bydefense thenewly hired and established industries. heavy the Russian communitythe Russian Baltic inthis ofseveral state iscomprised major

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Moscow's lost empire lost Moscow's

of all resources

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49 62 . InternationalLondon:Instituteof Royal . Armonk, N.Y.:M.E.Sharpe. . 8 (0.7%) 5 (0.4%)

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CEU eTD Collection Estonian state documents are,the majority by inturn,informed minorityrepresentation a 4. 3. 2. 1.

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CEU eTD Collection New York: 2009. Rodopi, Europe:Diversity Between andEquality Ethnic Constitutionalized Hegemony andFictive Pluralism 67 society ethnic attitude homogenous onEstonian ethnicity, societyculture, based language, espousin members ofwas thesociety through be Estonian. The werewhose Russians framed onlychanceas legitimate theOther, tobecome document. thatoftwosocieties: Yet, was E logic ofthe the underlying text improvedcitizenship, language among skills non integration, political participation society, inEstonian ofminorities access improved to homogenous society. simply,goalof measuresgeneral thedocument thewas creati for tooutline the integration policyintegrationfor of the non addressin regaining independence,Estonian authorities forfirst adopted time a explicitly the document into Estonian SocietyEstonians (1998) of the document. these oneexample groups ofthe just fromEstonia. Thisis disturbing the territoryof obsoleteness

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adoption of the Law of the yearsadoption onCultural Autonomy and after seven coming

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Laitin, David D. 1998. . Ithaca:. University Cornell Press. Overall, of thedocument thelogic and designersand mindset theEstonian inparticular Thehegemo strugglecultural for ate Thiswas inthecontestation. –

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CEU eTD Collection 70 New York: 2009. Rodopi, Europe:Diversity Between andEquality Ethnic Constituti 69 does allow for not discourse multiculturalist a truly toflourish. become multicultural, the state isands culture withregards aposition isin privileged state. Assuch, tothe core culture, its creating Estonian ethnicitythus and inwhichEstonian cultures, a of hierarchy core time. Yet,quite specific is about over the document centrality fundamentality and ofthe and inclusive, soas thedo toleave be ofas evolving, lessquestionablenotion Estonian culture flexible, if the wouldbe understood clearly core thatthis implies be around isto built ethnically EstonianThe culture. would strategy on paper nature in multiculturalist orwhether toadhere attempt isanother it tothediscourse international interpretation by ofthe leaves term w designers the document as questions to ofnotion multiculturalism was formallythedocument. into introduced However, the expanded onandpolicies some advanced ofthe and notions creationa mono of normative expecta requirements and

Malloy,H. Tove Ibid.

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remain Estonian 55 . Edited by. Edited andAgarin Timofey MalteBrosig.

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Malloy,H. Tove Ibid. - Estonians

The current of document integrationmajority (SIES) informing officialand policies Estonian society 2008Strategy of the for integration Inend, the ’ lture opi, 2009. referred populationliving, which toRussian in IES

- - Social Cohesion Estonian Style:Cohesion Minority Estonian Integration Through Social culturalIn approach tothe issue. thedefinition logic, of line withthis the 71 identif .

essentially provides minorities with onlyessentiallychoiceprovides one minoritieswith

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Minority Intergration in Central Eastern IntergrationMinority inCentral tly are suggests thattheelites notwilling to

normative while standards risking 72 .

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n’s antiquity,n’s independence, ntity, which alsontity, can be CEU eTD Collection University Press. 93 passion for the“The faith,for country. rooted loveand Estonia onthe are said to be hope” branding ideaeffort. The isthatthe messageserves toexpress their main a for way as Estonians rhetoric. Smith’s the page and theconnection betweenthefollowing stresses ancestors ge peopleyears”. Nordic hostile have climate inthe stayed “for thousands of lastparagraph The on Estonia, expressed inthemessageparticular, and issaid thesignin t likelyas seen Estonian theethnically majority The theRepublic inhabiting ofEstonia. lovefor br that ascountry”. time Estonians agroup thefirst Thisis arementioned inthe pronouncedly messageconnection through issupposedto“strengthentheemotional between Estonians [the] as avisual representation ethnic Estonians andareto the Russian, clearlyidentity group. ofthe pointing former antiquity are, and roots Nordic due todif country“anas heart”. havingNordic ancient earlier,was isdescribed references mentioned s to terms our independence strengthroots”. and ofour the and rootsreiterated: oldest are knowthe stories” “weworld’s haveandprice ofthe “we one of

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/ Soviet heritage/ Soviet The brochurereinforces The

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not asRussian onlyas Estonians, but citizens, Russian

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national and identities national homelands

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Representations national symbols ofvarious Symbols perio “Some [water are ultra centers] Tsars.” (p. 4) attracted theworldaround fromwhoappreciate visitors themudbath, Russian including “The firstclin mud forcommissioned Katherine the Second.” (p. 5) Considering framingnarrative and theharsh wording of Interestingly, the ofare threereferences Empire tothetimes theRussian twoof related to “ the palace isit alley) which Tsarthe inKadriorg(Katherine’s Peter reat the horrors of the past Soviet the horrors of d.” (p. 4)

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CEU eTD Collection Press. 98 technology, ofinformational that abookshelfwith hundreds would fill links iftrans Estonian government, commerce, culture, trade,education,history, and information science, country’s primary v (Hanseatic) origins articulated. is pronounced celebrated. and past gloriouslife and ancient/Medieval area times, way a betweento draw link ratherethnic acivic and thesymbol’s toansentiment not in perception. kindofsimilar places.

Smith, AnthonySmith, D.1999.   98

. Theyeventsofthe gloriousand are thedayswhere thespirit

Estonia.eu website Estonia.eu colourful Tallinn, are a take“Old Town place at Days, the beginninginthe oldHanseatic which ofJune city of Traditional festivities,alongside representationsromanticized ofthe and theidyllic rural Traditional arts /craftsfestivals 3) themorning’s“With sunrise

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. New University York: Oxford

past exaggeratedly is

“a virtual“a encyclopedia of

the present andthe lated the into CEU eTD Collection http://estonia.eu. 100 Kaneva.New Routledge ,2012. York: Marketizing Nations: Communist Identities Europe National inthe"New" 99 reiterated.several The the following talk paragraphs about culture ofancient Estonians”. TheEstonian nation’s antiquity popular most notion isthus understanding identity ofEstonian by then sharedculture. language and Further of paragraphs assumption ethnic clarify theinitial falls under Kymlicka’sdefinition of aamong otherincludes nation, which, a characteristics, one saidtoconstitute language, is ofthewith Estonian twopilla it ofwith, the notion culture here Moreover, notastatecountry. along toa ora islinked nation, culture i rubrics relevancewebsite,most presented onthe which argument. thework’s have for the 7 into Society,IT,&Culture Economy & History. Science, andturn,isfurther Eachofthem, split in retro

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Estonian Culture

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- CEU eTD Collection CambridgeUniversity Press. 101 basednational a understanding culture and of thosecultures thedesire toprotect against it hinting atundesire the foreignand national movement, whilethetermed period Russification is Soviet withits “Russian tutelage”, the XIXcommonwith Estonians; national epicscentury isdiscursively culture linked tothe all cultureRussian at seemingly mentionit had notto noinfluencewould onEstonia, it make sense framegovernmental forced interms itsolely of efforts, show felt necessary it tospecifically Russian influence outthe lack culture point of onEstonia’s and ve according toRoss of thescopethisresearch of credibility toanalyze thefactual However, statement. ofthe been barring relativelycoup a small, a influence. positive mentioned cultures tohave seems broughtclearly somethingis and toEstonia valuable as viewed SwedesTallinn” and “built theUniversity city in63”. ofTartu “foundedEac the of Occidentfurther “theirof specifically and Baltic sub own branderman developed situated nearcoast the Teutonic Orderinthe 13 the territoryconsecutively was and/orconquered ruledforeign invaded, by majorThe powers. ryand tellingnolessimportant iscompared of afact tocontent message.The that the authors

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century of“small the country tarred heritage with left churches spires,

of additionally theethnically this d influence.emphasizes All Cultural contestationCultural ethnic in conflict le of waves of Russification byItwavesle of theauthorities”. falls of out 88

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centuries, theone since the was that element united it people, nomatter culture, thesecond isperceived as founding pillar ofEstonian

89 portrayed

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e CEU eTD Collection University Press. 102 influencehow little culture Russian country. had onthe seenbest, influence at isspecifically Russian others however, times as it exotic, is emphasized equated tobeing ethnically excluding Estonian, thus all other population andplaysrole inthelifeany ofthe society. narratives totellthat the group issimply a impossible constitutes it quarterof thecountry’s longas as isviewed sacred culture and with anyth Moreover,at theculturallyand times mono isolationist and, uponenteringdiscourse, toinfluence thepower have ontheground. public thesituation logic, nationalism. in terms of ethno

Ross, MarcRoss, 2007. Howard.  

- following Ross’ theory following Ross’ nationalistic approachauthors. ofthe As per the ofthe representation minority Russian inparticular, theanalyzed from The general often tone, and particular logic, phrasinganalyzed ofthe materialsreflect the Conclusion authorities by “secret” oftheir means language”. “Estonians theattention could of distract boththe Balt people were probable”. authorities Germans,and and Germanisationthe theBaltic Russification Estonian both of “Themovement hadtosailskillfully Estonian nationalof thereefsRussian between ing else. And, as Guibernau has pointed out, multiculturalism is is as out,multiculturalism difficult else.achieveing Guibernau to And,as pointed has either Billig’seither theory theory banalorSmith’s nationalism of ofethno While sometimesWhile the

102

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manifests itselfinlegalpolicies, discourse,and public manifests documents,everyday state to ‘return toEurope’‘return

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