Separateness and National Identity

CEU eTD Collection Supervisor Second Reader Second – the Case of Upper Silesia in Interwar Poland SilesiainInterwar – theCaseofUpper In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of degree forthe the requirements of fulfilment In partial : Professor Maciej Janowski Maciej : Professor Separateness and National Identity National Separateness and : Professor Balázs Trencsényi Central European University European Central History Department History Budapest, Hungary Budapest, Marcin Jarz Marcin Master ofArts Master Submitted to Submitted 2009 By ą bek CEU eTD Collection the Author accordance with suchinstructions maynotbe madewithout the written permission of librarian. This pagemustform apart of anysuch copies made. Further copies madein Author andlodged in theCentralEuropean Library. Details maybeobtained fromthe eitherin full or partmaybemadeonly in withaccordance theinstructions given bythe Copyright in thetext of this thesis rests with theAuthor. Copies by any process, . CEU eTD Collection identity by ordepreciated identity have been rejected them. Silesian Upper of elements important that out turned it when only nationalisms, German itself in the opposition define to and started became perceived Silesian separateness that Imaintain Upper Silesians to the of Defence of existing Union the of investigation the of basis the On Silesianness. the national about discourses states’ framesalso Interwar some Polish reconstruct I Church. Catholic of the androle modernization, as a project againstspecificity Polish with its legal and social preconditions and of political autonomy, minority rights, on some manifestations of the former phenomenon. I confront problem of the Upper Silesian identity. As primary sources I usenewspapers, archival andmaterials,books brochures. and nationalism of theories of selected elements it applies perspective a historical From In the thesis I distinguish I thesis the In Period. inInterwar identity Silesian Upper the of problem the examines dissertation My separateness Abstract from political from separatism and I focus my interest andIfocus CEU eTD Collection my thesis as well as its structure. asits as well my thesis emergency. andcomments improved significantly Their quality corrections languagethe of of Dobrochna, Ljubica,always inspiring theoretical and historical remarks. and grateful Professor Balázsto Trencsényi forfriendliness, his of words encouragementand particularly Ialso appreciatesuggestions. bibliographical his especially hospitality and warmth. Iam very my to real which hehisnumerous his interestcare and project, hasdevoted patience, to my friends Asia and Micha I am to toAndreaI am Kirchknopf Centre, from Academic indebted the Writing deeply I would like to offer my warm thanks to Professor Maciej Janowski for the time and Acknowledgements á for their help in CEU eTD Collection C BIBLIOGRAPHY:...... 87 C C C C I NTRODUCTION ONCLUSION HAPTER HAPTER HAPTER HAPTER 4. Silesian identity and/or Polish ...... 79 identity 3. Nationalistic genesis of the Silesian „separatism”...... 75 2. Polish nationalism of the Upper Silesians...... 72 1. Roots of the Union of Defence of Upper Silesians...... 67 7. Separateness reflected: Upper Silesian corner...... 62 6. Inside the antagonism...... 56 5. Janus-headed ...... 52 Polishness 4. Legal framework in use: minority rights...... 47 3. Silesia without ...... 44 autonomy 2. Legal framework: political autonomy...... 37 1. Division...... 34 5. Separatism and nationalism...... 29 4. Upper Silesian “war of dwarfs” (1918-21)...... 25 3. Silesia and Slovakia – asymmetrical comparison...... 22 2. Separateness in between two nationalisms (before 1914)...... 15 1. Prehistory of separateness...... 13 4. Why separateness not separatism...... 10 3. Upper Silesian identity 8 or/and nationalism...... 2. Peripheries of Europe and peripheries 3 of the theory...... 1. Identity and national 1 identity...... ito als...... i List of tables:...... IV: III: II: I: T ...... 85 U F HEORIES OF NATIONALISM FACING WITH FACING NATIONALISM OF HEORIES T PPER RAMING ...... O D EFEND S ILESIA BEFORE ILESIA U PPER U PPER S ILESIAN S ILESIANS 1922: Table of content: of Table “ SEPARATENESS S ’ SEPARATENESS EPARATENESS OF IDENTITY AND OF IDENTITY EPARATENESS U PPER ” WITHIN THE ...... 67 S ILESIAN IDENTITY ILESIAN P OLISH STATE S EPARATISM THAT FAILED THAT EPARATISM ...... 1 ...... 34 .13 II CEU eTD Collection Table 2. Table 1. List of tables: Results of theplebisciteof20 March 1921 Cultural valence andnational identification i : : Page 28 Page 7 CEU eTD Collection source in the quoted footnote.is original Incase in of quotation text The from me. by the sources done are Ileave mentioned always not is that version atranslator of of spelling name the whichif was English usedinto the in German or some by supported revisionistorganisation or separatist electoral any rally Silesian meetingof or were during political which some sentences, been shouted particular not above,have quoted those However, to. belong to happened region their state the towards ill-disposed significantly inalways Germany, Franceetc.Therewas Brittany dissatisfied almost group and with some history borderlandmany of with astrong regional provinces European in identity: Bavaria aimed attheunifying politics of nationthe This isstate. the wecanattitude findin modernthe and fora regional with of differences demand respect the consequently connected centre(s), the Separatism Krakowa.”.Arka Bo Poland unjust andPoland unjust problematic and by themselvesleft Silesians not-understood strangers. years apart after of his homeland toPoland was attached in found in 1922, position Silesia’s 1 „Tutaj na camehere.” Kraków havethat changed[in Silesia from 1922]:those after butBerlin Warszawa- these left,from hostile German money hostile German That attitudeThat in historical the scholarship aboutSilesia used tobelabelled as “The Silesian people were sorely disappointed. […] Hence, there were only lords only the were Hence, there […] sorely disappointed. were people “The Silesian was understood there usually as complaint about exploitation and a disregard from adisregard and exploitation about complaint as usually there was understood ĝOą sku zmienili si Ī ek, Pami 1 This bitter sentence was the opinion of an Upper Silesian, who just afew an who Upper Silesian, of opinion sentence wasthe This bitter Ċ tniki Ċ tylko panowie – odeszli ci z Berlina, ale za to przyszli ci z Warszawy- in the interwar or present-day by present-day interwar or inthe wasnoted Poland. Theopinion (Memoirs), Katowice: Introduction ii ĝOą sk, 1957, pp. 81-82.. All the translations from Polish separatism : CEU eTD Collection a justifiable assumption, that we shall give some thought to the question for how long and under a into nationalism of theories is latter usually put the If that trouble? cases outstanding and borderlands other in also happens phenomenon that maybe Or a principle? national identity intensified coexistence ofnon-national principlewith pressure of regional the of differenteventherefore or made in unique UpperSilesia that the possiblethisstrange Silesians had legalat least and framework defend institutional to theirWhat specificity. was government, Polish the of policy national whole the Despite lawetc. local treasury, parliament, during the authoritarian regime of Józef Pi inautonomous Europe.Silesianregion thewhole interwarin Central Voivodeship Poland even really only the was which Voivodeship, Silesian Polish the in situation the about complaint his to do it? disappointment with the situation inWhat UpperSilesians of the his Poland. motivations were it. any even he Polish However the state or negative revealed his feelings towards non-democratic government.governor Nobody therefore couldoccupieda Silesian vice- onenon-communist Voivodeship figleaf the only as position a of accuse him of any kind of disloyalty to Polish substitute forPolish s in substitute parliament London.on Finally,fiveyearsexile for 1945Bro after the National Council of thePolish PolishSilesian Uprisings Republic and during the Second(Rada World laterMilitary Union in (POW)participated inthe Poles Organisation the of Germany; who and WarNarodowa became one of the Rzeczpospolitejtwenty MPs of Polskiej) – the the Silesian Pole, Arka Silesianthe Pole, Bo The question becomes more striking when you take into accountArka you into that Bo when take becomes moreThe question striking in communistthe Poland, assuming that hehas toworkfor Poland eveninspite ofits Ī ek (1899-1954), who was an important member who wasanimportant Polish of ek (1899-1954), the á sudski 1926hadsudski after its ownsemi-constitution, iii Ī ek wrote Ī ek CEU eTD Collection I may use this chemical metaphor here). I may metaphor chemical use this of a identity (if development “separate” the for “inhibitor” on as an“accelerator” work might historical contextand,last butnotleast, with a social, political andcultural background which Silesian Upper inthe identity the about discourses some with identity, the of specificity can constitute of that culture components some meaningful of theissues here with preoccupied question, visible especially mixed on ethnicthe and areasofborderland. cultural be Iwill 3 2009 from http://www.wallandbinkley.com/rcb/book/ch01s03.html 2 Bro with easily formsother like of national connected and loyalties, in political cited Arka the existence of any the about judgement astrong imply automatically not did attitude That ethnicity/nationality. other or their one despite all Silesians between some community of existence sametime the members means of at from a nation other separateness Furthermore, of Silesians. identity the usually indemanding political resulted some consequences of veryfact of differentthe the for separateness Advocating differences. these to significance level political of some assigning moreover, and, Germans Silesian Upper then other Germans from and Poland) of Kingdom the differences from the others, especially from Poles from the rest of Poland (former thesis on the idea of find possible justifiable and these answer to historical research focusproblems I will in my what kind of conditions could we observe these phenomena in the “era of the nationalism”? the Modern Age See: A. Bro Robert C.Binkley called time before 1939 “era of nationalism”. See: R. C.Binkley, Ī ek case who was convinced that Silesians are justa people. of are PolishSilesians part was convinced that ek casewho By separateness Ī ek, op. cit., p. 22. (Part IIIof Chapter I)in: idem, Silesian nation Silesian separateness in case this I understand putting astrong emphasis on Upper Silesia’s orevensuch ethnicity.On onehand,itthe could been have as an important but complex component of the whole identity whole the of component complex but important an as A Sense of History: Europe SinceNapoleon iv The EraofNationalism and , 3 acessed on 5 onMay, acessed On the other it other Onthe Galicia and 2 To CEU eTD Collection autonomous Silesian in Voivodeship 1920s the at and beginningthe of 1930s.ZOGthe andits Defence of of UpperUnion the of movement vivid but small Silesiansrelatively a on focus will I Finally man. ordinary [Zwi the as well as intellectuals Silesian some and authorities Polish the by formulated was Silesia separateness may be more probably neutral.even it. So rather in this “soft”, non-irredentist sense non-irredentist “soft”, in this rather So it. it became for never if akey noticeable, andeven it point was sometimes Silesian separateness in notmodernnecessarilyhistory such ideaof biggest partof a disloyalty the present was Groups and Trends Upperin Silesia and in the Teschenland, 1918-39),Warszawa-Kraków: 1972. PWN, the for equivalent is asan why Poland. That interwar in the identity Silesian ofthe features or components state. national the to disloyalty of level high relatively definition by has strong political connotation and meaning (close to the term meaning tothe politicalhas strong (close connotation and – movements political Silesian some describe literature to in the used often notion quite – the Ugrupowania i kierunki separatystyczne na GórnymseparatystycznekierunkiUgrupowaniana i 6 identity. from the term 5 1922“ that failed. 4 period). national rules (like the project of the might have resultin political projects about constructing local realities according to some non- See forexample the mainPolish monograph of Upper Silesian “separatist movements”: Piotr Dobrowolski, Concept of the Described more detailed here in Chapter II: Chapter in here detailed more Described Zeitschrift für Ostmitteleuropa Forschung To demonstrate this I will use some of the most interesting cases of that kind of 4 . That is why insistI on using the term See also: Andrea Schmidt-Rösler, „Autonomie und Separatismusbestrebungen in Oberschlesien 1918- Oberschlesien in Separatismusbestrebungen und „Autonomie Schmidt-Rösler, Andrea Seealso: in the Polish early-20th-century history. I will investigate how specificity of specificity how investigate will I history. early-20th-century Polish inthe separatism separateness separateness is described further in Chapter I: , its connections with the ethnicity and identity problems as well asits difference I will also use sometimes the terms Silesian terms the sometimes use also will I ą zek Obrony Górno Freistaat Oberschlesien Freistaat Upper Silesia before 1922: Separateness ofidentity andSeparatism 48,No. 1 (1999): 1-49. ĝOą v separateness sku i sku w Cieszy separateness Theories of nationalism facing with Upper Silesian ĞOą zaków, ZOG] which existed in Polish instead of Ĕ which existed in whichexisted 1918–1921 the skiem w latach 1918-1939skiemw latach seems to be one of the crucial irredentism 6 I will clarify that for the for that clarify will I separatism ) suggesting almost specificity . 5 Separatism (Separatism which CEU eTD Collection ĝOą Zabrze: 9 Vergemeinschaftung inDeutschland Hölscher, Lucian Idem, National Indifference in a Central European Borderland confrontational national movements before 1922: James Bjork, See especially a brand new study on mediating the position of the SilesianCatholic Church between the two Groups, 1848-1918 8 Katowice: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu (Regionalism and Separatism – the History and the Present Day: Silesiacomparison in to other territories), .Wntwc (ed.), W. Wanatowicz Wiesbaden1987; A.Schmidt-Rösler, can (or cannot) re-define itself/themselves within a frame of a national state. For that reasons itreasons For that a state. within framea national itself/themselves re-define of cannot) can (or identity or nationalism studies, although it can serve as an example how regional identifications much Upper Silesianyet history is investigated notthat from of perspective on studies the in 1922-39 time. the Thus period could atthat emerge statehood(s) Silesia concerning possible national states were yet not finally established in Silesia and therefore plenty of ideasmuch. and plans Silesian tothe perspective findmore distanced to now tries which topic of that literature Polish also and German 7 a as literature historical German and Polish the in both qualified traditionally was Silesians Upper of Defence of Union century. 20th the in identity Silesian of dilemmas important most the at the point of ethnic and political separateness. In that movement arefocused, like in alens, all Democrats, National to (close Silesia in movement an interesting through and evolution attitudes from ideas: startingof a part of Polish national (1893-1932)inleader Kustos Jan course relatively of short the their activity See: Dariusz Jerczy Dariusz See: See: Tomasz Kamusella, Tomasz See: See: Georg Doose, Georg See: separatist ska Oficyna Wydawnicza, 2006. Industrial Piety: The Puzzling Resilience of Religious Practise in Upper Silesia 9 ĝOą However, most of the historians’ works focus rather on the period before 1922 when ska Oficyna Wydawnicza, 2005; Idem, group and –what group follows –criticized and stigmatized. , West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 2006. DieGegenwart Gottes in dermodernen Gesellschaft: Transzendenz und religiöse Ĕ Die separatistische Bewegung in Oberschlesien nach dem Ersten Weltkrieg (1918-1922) ski, Regionalizm aseparatyzm – historia iwspó Silesia andCentral European Nationalisms: The Emergence ofthe National and Ethnic Or Ċ separatism downicy niepodleg , Göttingen: WallsteinVerlag, 2006, pp. 144-176. ĝOą Autonomieund… skiego, 1995. or sometimes even sympathize with it a little a it with sympathize even sometimes or áRĞ ĝOą ci ski ruchnarodowy vi ĝOą , Ann Arbor: University Michiganof the Press, 2008; ; P.Dobrowolski, ska Endecja (The Champions of the Independence of Silesia), Independence of the Champions (The Neither German norPole: Catholicism and á of Roman Dmowski) andfinishing czesno (SilesianNational Movement), Zabrze, Ğü Ugrupowaniai kierunki… : 7 ĝOą It is only sk natleinnych obszarów , in: Michael Geyer and Geyer Michael in: , managed to pass to managed recent English, recent 8 oreven too ; Maria , CEU eTD Collection is also certainly significantly promising area for historical for historical research. area promising significantly is certainly also analysis of my my thesis). of analysis accompany out Readerthrough the whole herethe both (understood story as theplotand the backgroundnot obviouslyin theidea thatUpperSilesiavacuum and ahistoricexist should did comparative here,butthe comparativeis chapter separate striking. there no Therefore, or todeepen order beand it it contextualize useful,seems to interestingjustifiable, properly when my and “longitudes” “latitudes” both However, ( etc. Galicia Eastern Prussia, Eastern Croatia, Transylvania, Slovakia, with other interesting European examples of different forms of of different examples European interesting with other parallels significant and actual some indicate also shall I hand other the On here). be told to it call (let’s history of period same the at identification Silesian issue discourses of with struggling the different ifitthe meaningful is asoneof presented (Uniongroup of Defence of itsUpper Silesians) attitude Silesianness and towards can onlybe tried to incorporate them. before had that by nationalisms depreciated the or been have identity rejected Silesian Upper important elements of it that nationalisms, out turned when against Polish German and only frames) asaproject states’ national existing the to itself define opposition (in the to started and perceived became separateness Silesian words: other In nationalism. German and Polish conditions, historical memory and traditions findwhich incould not place theframes of the language,regional interpretation inthe those social of culture, and national differences within a Silesian identity with its ethnic and political meanings developed mostly as the In the thesis I argue that Upper Silesian argue that I thesis In the To fulfil my task properly my To fulfil story the properly that particular however,one political task I decided, of vii separateness here are winding around the whole story in story the whole around hereare winding as a strong and asastrong unambiguousidea vertical dimension separateness horizontal dimension like the cases of cases the like of the story ). CEU eTD Collection with Silesian with defineto and “govern” to Silesianness itswithin national ideology by framing their problem attempted Republic Second Polish how indicate to is there goal My part. Polish Eastern, its on separatism. Silesian further of development the for precondition among some of Upper Silesians. Such phenomenon was inmy importantopinion an indifference national accidental or deliberate the of option “neither/nor” the emphasise I rather but identity Silesian existing already the with (dis)connection their and nationalisms German expression form consequent of was probably most opinions.of ConceptRepublicthe UpperSilesia the of Oberschlesien Freistaat the Upper idea of the especially the stress I and Poland. mindsGermany between theirand lines, people Silesiantram land, finally dividing reality: interwar Silesian whole the for cornerstone the laid period plebiscite in 1921 which was decidesupposed to about political the of future Silesia. That the during dilemma identification the describe I missions. military international of presence in the and clash German-Polish in the formulated stormily was order social and political Warwhen mostly in yearsdedicated the World First justafter the new the to (1918-22), Silesia German Part of the South-East inidentity that question of the overview with general deals chapter second The few inmyfield crucial of research. of a Readerwith a brief works the review Italso etc. provides separateness cultural assimilation, identity, identification, national work: The first chapter of my dissertation discusses few theoretical concepts crucial for my for crucial concepts fewtheoretical of my discusses dissertation The firstchapter Reich Third chapter draws chapter a pictureThird of finally the Upperdivided mostly focusing Silesia separateness before 1922. In its first part Ifocus mostly noton the development of Polish and which was later a point of reference for the further events and further events for later the apoint of whichwas reference into a national discourse and looking for proper a way to achieve in separateness viii in languageofpoliticalthe andethnic separateness . Second part of that chapter is CEU eTD Collection Silesia as a Sociological Issue), Katowice: Towarzystwo Przyjació „Miracles of Poland” series), Warszawa, 1933; Emil Emil Szramek, 1933; Warszawa, series), Poland” of „Miracles Study),Sp. Akc. Warszawa: Dom Ksi Socjologiczne 11 national identity in the German culture), Olsztyn: Borussia, 2007. Szramek or Gustaw Morcinek). Gustaw or Szramek Wschodnioprusko 10 somehad presented interpretationsidentity of (especially of that works Józef Cha third Ifocusedthe myinterestmovies) chapter (books,some articles, on texts which brochures, in Silesianness of “vertical dimension” write to about form.order In in thebroadest explained Silesian 1932 inKatowice.was It a periodic of Jan Kustos and the ZOG,in which all ideas of the national Silesia “fully-developed consciousness”. “The Voice of “The Silesia” Voice of (“G Upper another? or option one choose desperately despite their national belonging? maybeOr you once finally have tocut Gordian andknot compatriots homeland’s your in with much common same have andatthe nation time one what does it actually mean to be identification: of the their Ipresent dilemmas Silesiannessand separateness. its towards attitude a Silesian and how you can be simultaneously general of ZOG’s reconstruction the on another in thesecond of ZOG and fate formed the that a actors member political and attitudes political the on of rather focusing part first in its itself: [ZOG] policy. against toor that reacted themselves Silesians Józef Cha Here I partially follow the approach presented in the study on East-Prussia by Robert Traba. See: R. Traba, The core source to find answers to those questions source tofind isThe core chapter tothose in tothelast answers regard here Silesians Upper of of Union Defence story the tothe of isdevoted chapter last The separateness á (Polish-German Antagonism in the Industrial Settlement „Mine” in UpperSilesia: Sociological asinski, Ğü : To Antagonizm polsko-niemiecki w osadzie fabrycznej "Kopalnia" naGórnym Ī samo (as well as other political or social opinions) where expressed and Ğü regionalna inarodowaw Niemiec kulturze ąĪ 11 ki Polskiej,Gustaw 1935; Morcinek, As somehow auxiliary, yet still fruitful sources I used also Iused sources fruitful still yet auxiliary, As somehow á os Górnego os ix ĝOą 10 ska”), newspaper edited between ska”),newspaper between 1922 and edited In the same chapter I describe also how Górny á Nauk na ĝOą sk jako problem socjologiczny ĝOą ĝOą sku, 1934. sk: (Eastprussianness: Regionaland Z serii „Cuda Polski” „Cuda Z serii á ĝOą asi sku: Studium Ĕ ski, Emil (Silesia: (Upper CEU eTD Collection Silesia andthe Eastern Border, 1918-1922 especially to the UpperSilesian plebiscite. See: T. Hunt Tooley, from the point of view of German political history and history of the international relations, devoting attention 13 separateness. its and identity Silesian Upper the of dilemmas history. All these elementsa mybut is everything probably however, thesis Overall half 20th. ofthe piece political of shouldfirst inthe history social and political allowPolish and German European, of elements meaccount into to find a proper context and the explanation for conceptualization for theebb Silesian flow of conceptualization and Upper and explanations proper find to Finally, smoothness. identity of phenomenon the examine 12 sociologistAntonina K by identity matrix and proposed valence cultural the Polish (idea national (assimilation) of concepts sociological and historical some here. Also is examined which case for the suitable national failures on of their whichcould borderlands, the different be and successes, projects identity itsand subjective find components) to anexplanatory description for development the national complex the of ideas identity, borderland nationalism, political and nationalism identity nationalismmethods ethnic on of debates studiesand theories some (notions the of an and concepts I refer to in chapter. second the approach with descriptive rather chapter) fourth inand the third strategies history intellectual (close-reading of approaches methodological narrowing the perspective and–consequently – limiting the outcomes), butcombine the in Katowice. and Office Acts of of Silesian Court Voivodeship Acts the Regional Katowice of Council City the of Acts Katowice: in Archive State from materials archival some Thatwas forexample perspective of Hunt TooleyT. who periodanalyzed the 1918-22 UpperinSilesia mostly Antonina K My thesis tries not to follow one strict methodological approach (which maylead methodological to follow(which approach one strict My notto tries thesis á oskowska, The NationalCultures on the Grass-Root Level á oskowska) 12 , Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1997. Press, of Nebraska University London: and , Lincoln especially on borderland must not be omitted in not be to borderland mustomitted especially order on x National National Identity and Weimar Germany: Upper separateness , Budapest, New York: CEU Press,2001. 13 I partially take also CEU eTD Collection Press, 2005,Press, p. 205. and caseof a Inthe identity, a group. example of group/national Ko beginning (orientation toward the future), 14 Hre’ “okgit fr a for “Volksgeist”(Herder’s group/nation), as same are:“I”meaningthe it components time. how can endurepassing These components thatare crucial for understandingindividual what as well identity as isgroup and identity seems tobeindividual –understands group significant five enlists one and through the “can “can itsretain identity over time, regardless changesthe itundergoes”. Identity” putaquestion of importanceprimary for history:how abeing of a group beingsof Leszekpsychological Ko components. a and without social commence can historical, its and identity about consideration Leszek Ko á akowski interchangeably: the nation seems to be for him the most clear and evident and clear most the him for be to seems nation the interchangeably: akowski anticipation None of discussions on the human condition in history and especially on nationalism on especially and history in condition human the on discussions of None 1. Identity identity 1. Identity and national Theories of nationalism facing with Upper Silesian identity Silesian Upper with facing ofnationalism Theories (“exordium temporis”). It is noticing(“exordium “national” areused“group” temporis”). It worth or that by á akowski, (orientation to the future) are for the philosopher of arefor the future) philosopher and, the importance to of crucial (orientation On Collective Identity body (territory or some natural particularities) and , in: á akowski in akowski but his short dense essay “On Collective Chapter I: Chapter My Correct Views on Everything 1 memory (historical memory), (historical memory . SouthBend: St. Augustine’s (orientation to the past), 14 Ko á akowski – what anticipation identifiable substance CEU eTD Collection have navels?” (as Ernest Gellner nicely put it) put Gellner nicely (asErnest navels?” have imagined identity; question of their roots and origins etc. These are debates mostly mostly on the and These debates origins their are identity; roots etc. of question national of elements the of nature essential rather or constructional of question the is usually scholars the by debated being is and is debatable What nationality. and nationalism of theories are always present. a group/nation is identity “a (it identity),mostforobviously not check-list”but agroup of them consciousness thatman can possess, at least in the 20th century, together on the other hand with and 16 European University History Department Yearbook 2001-2002 Janowski, Maciej See: before. years hundred eleven State “Slovak” Moravia Great the existscontinuity an “ethnic” such in spite Hussites, the as nation of same the allwere they Josef that sure were Pekacentury 19th from Czechs 15 memory it. Ko invented just has or past heroic and long has nation a whether difference, serious any make not does consciousness.” collective in it any is past nation’spresent was at the the point memory. “It is worth addinga group/nation in pastisless important the than such inconviction about existence group the that what decides whetherpast a nation is thethat same in ofevents the course herethe havehistorical before(meaning reality aprimacy moreover, the nation nowis as it reconstructed and presented by some critical historian). Real existence of 17 New York: Verso, 2006[1983]. Benedict Anderson Benedict Ibidem, p. 210: So consequently we should also agree (a little bit inapostmodern style of thinking) that only if Ernest Gellner, Ernest primordialists Generally, such a point of Generally,of identity suchapoint view for isgroup on taken grantedbymost of the However, what almost always used to stand behind that discussion stand behindalmost that between alwaysHowever, usedto what and ?” 16 identifiable beginning identifiable , “was a nation nationalism anation , “was old“how or first?”, the arenations?” and“donations Nationalism á akowski admits also that not all these features are necessary to constitute to necessary are features all these not alsothat admits akowski was the shared conviction that national identity is the crucial form of a group Imagined Communities: Reflection on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism Ĝ , London: London: Weindenfeld and Nicolson, 1997. Nicolson, and Weindenfeld London: London: , ’s arguments against that thesis. The same refers to Slovaks from 20th century and (if we use terminology of Ko 17 2 and what are these navels for? andare thesenavels what , Budapest: CEU,2002, pp. 199-232. á akowski): “are nations real or Three historians Three 15 Therefore it Therefore . London and modernists substance , in: Central in: , , CEU eTD Collection of nationalism in the last one-two centuries. EvenAdrian Hastings has admitted that: “If nationalism became also in the pre-modern periods of history does not have to exclude automatically opinionon the fundamental role extent would agree with that statement: The fact that national identity – according to him – emerged and existed 21 20 Stanford University Press, 1976. 19 Ennationalizing Policies of Poland and Germany” and ofPoland Policies Ennationalizing already sufficiently functional.See: Kamusella, Tomasz. “Ethnic SilesiaCleansing in 1950-89andthe well as explanatory value forfood providing thought, results with falsificationsome troubles of for same the reason. neighbour declare participation/membership one of to nation-states dieor forto anation killor to his some objective processes his affected life by imposing something onhim: forcing him to the process and works“from a passive that individualisabove”: just object of power an the a nationand agiven territory into a nation/nation-state.” In my opinion, however, the notionof theoretically central theoretically 18 beingmodernhave meant to a identity. national modernization”) connectingnationalism with modernizationthe precisely,processes (or, “unequal people. of the nationalization of the path non-alternative about assumption the nationalization. from “Peasants into Frenchmen”, as Eugen Weber entitled his on Frenchwork 19th-century you observe howpeople achieved“proper” level identification of with communitythat – passed national modern community a an of established from a perspective teleological when approach nationalism Hastings, Adrian [emphasis-MJ]. that” before long places Withsome level of uncertainty wouldI say that evena non-modernist theoretician of nationalism to some E. Gellner, E. See: Eugen Weber, Eugen See: Tomasz Kamusella uses here the term the here uses Kamusella Tomasz That scheme of “classic” nationalism theories, although it possesses a great scholarly as scholarly a great possesses it although theories, nationalism “classic” of scheme That ofthetheory 2. PeripheriesofEuropeandperipheries , Cambridge: Cambridge University 1997,Press, p. 4. Nations and Nationalism 19 20 to the western political thinking in nineteenth century nineteenth in thinking political western the to For and linking national consciousness with the modern identity. In this sense this In identity. modern the with consciousness national linking and Peasants into Frenchmen: The modernization of Rural France,1870-1914 modernists , Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988, pp. 59-60. it was at the same time strong Gellnerian way of thinking, ennationalization Patterns of Patterns 3 21 Thenationhood: construction of ethnicity,religion, and That perspective presents also nationalism as defined “makingby as a him givenpopulationinto Prejudice 33, , itexisted as a powerful reality in No. 2(1999):51-73. 18 It is somehow is It nationalization , Stanford: some is CEU eTD Collection appropriated the national cause for their own purposes, contesting and reshaping what itmeant contesting what and reshaping the forpurposes, their national own appropriated cause of answers.“Peoplepossible provinces, wehavebeenhave in the usefully reminded, field andthe perspective the canbroader cases outstanding however, At sametime, the theories. region Serdanya nationalization from ethnicity to nationality ceases to work. Such untypical cases as Pyrenean way of straight regional. the or There is yet asethnic considered what consciousness, national as defined be should what clear always not is it scholars for Moreover, belonging. contending one Borderlands can borders.identity You areneglectingestablished find national identities there with another may and example framingbe agood national of within the Macedonian discourses that. different levels mixed division the unclear.Serbian anditsare Greek, Bulgarian, and or Macedonia of regional, of criteria the even and borderland on the groups different between establish clear-cut cannot local or you because universalusually from especially national perspective, the There thegetcomplicated things feelingsSouth-Eastern of Europe if we agree to a religion. for use time the came vernacular and allculture folk intellectuals, these terms which are as fluid as borders there. about 23 University Press, 2003; A. Hastings, op. cit. 22 after of is them andits religion obviously processes buildingrole is identity.of national That why when itis being applied tosome historical reality or factors werenotthat includedit. One into California Press, 1991. See: Peter Sahlins, Peter See: See forexample: Antony Smith, cultural turn religious turn Another is the problem of all kinds of borderlands, especially in the Central, Eastern and 23 of Benedict Anderson in the studies on nationalism speaknowalso in on theone can Anderson of studies Benedict or as a lot of Central European Boundaries: The MakingofFrance and Spain in the Pyrenees . 22 After noticing the role of a state and its institutions, schooling system, Chosen People: Sacred Sources of National Identity 4 Rurytianias show clearly limitation of such , Berkeley: University of , Oxford, Oxford Oxford, , CEU eTD Collection consequences. ideological as well as methodological different to lead can they but justifiable, somehow are answers both Probably one. “higher” and “lower” identities: group complementary between should be mentioned – Ossowski’s division can be understood either as the contradiction Ferdinand pair: Tönnies 27 a isbasically local a community a or region whereas fatherland, ideological the as serves sense proposed by a Polish sociologist Stanis sociologist by a Polish proposed 26 25 Borderland 24 Spanish.” or German or French be to fatherland (homeland, happen a historian has at least a few theoretical tools. One of them is division between the national distinctions.” of for thearticulation sites regions“frontier areprivileged that sentence Sahlins’ agree with inis whichI That sense, the expect. onecould from than there higher among people would identifications isusually group betweenpossible distinctions and differences the awareness of between differentcyclesidentitiesbe of seems somethingnatural.to Consequently the movement the borderlands people For the from component. interactive hadbut strong above, from given identity some of acceptation reluctant a passive just not was nationalization usually little See: Ferdinand Tönnies, Ferdinand See: See:Stanis P. Sahlins, op. cit., 271. James E. Bjork, one. That dichotomy – itseems probably quite clear –has much in common with the old To clarify how such interplays between national and other kinds of consciousness can consciousness of kinds other and national between interplays such how clarify To . Ann Harbor: The University of MichiganPress, 2008, p. 5. community á aw aw Ossowski, NeitherGermanPole:Catholicism nor Indifference andNationala in Central European and ideology-based 25 ma Community and O Ojczy Gemeinschaft á a ojczyzna Ĩ nie i Narodzie nie i Society, New York: Harper & Row, 1963. ) and the and ) – 24 á aw Ossowski. Gesellschaft Historians and social scientists started to see that to started scientists social and Historians (On the Fatherland and the Nation). Warszawa: PWN, 1984. society 5 ideological , or rather as the hierarchy of the two ( 26 community A nation (and/or nation-state) in this in nation-state) (and/or A nation fatherland ( fatherland and society ojczyznaideologiczna ), 27 although –it little ) CEU eTD Collection just questionthe about relationshiplevels between two types or cautiously than term nature quite problem and rarely. wasof differentUpper Silesia with The discourse of nationalism, and it easily can “smell of nationalism.” of the two homelands. The meaning hierarchical that to closer wasrather Ossowski of intention my In opinion coherence. rather but them, between contradiction no is there nevertheless but bit, a reshaped be even can fatherland. the of sense Accordingly: andone (“big”) it.“proper” is for fatherland a a natural and fulfillment complementation 1948, Ithaca and London: Cornell Univeristy Press, 2008, p. 8. 30 foundationsufficient identity.of group self- natural and isthe homeland to thesmall dedication that cansay a bit, one Ossowski 29 Heimat ceased to be a part of of Germany. be apart ceased to land just that after Silesia 1945,so after partof heconductedUpper intheOpole fieldwork that 28 that the concept of the shaken byanyideology there social mentioningsome beings. constructed Itis of worth here sympathy to the homeland as to the place where a man can really feel “at home” and is not Tara Zahra, That is why I will interchangeably use these German equivalents: German these use interchangeably will why is I That S.Ossowski, (with its roots in the word The latter interpretation goes on the on contrary: goes interpretation The latter The former interpretation (two homelands as a contradiction) gives priority and priority gives homelands asacontradiction) (two interpretation The former Obviously Kidnapped Souls:National Indifference andthe Battle forChildren inthe Bohemian Lands Zagadnienia wi Vaterland small Ċ small ma zi regionalnej iwi fatherland was based and entrenched empirically on Ossowski’s on empirically entrenched and based was fatherland á a ojczyzna identity identity mediated can beby and through 28 one is meaningful only with a connection to the So the parallel between the between parallel the So Heim especially in especially canbea Polish language part of the and Ċ zi narodowej ) looks almost evident. self 6 , in: idem, in: , Heimat Heimat of national identity. national of O ojczy identity is only really the really isonly identity and 30 small Vaterland Thatis why I am using this Ĩ nie i narodzie… fatherland and German 29 . Heimat Over-interpreting , pp. 81-134. identity, it identity, ideological , 1900- small CEU eTD Collection 2001. pp. 102-122. sources), that it can be successfully applied to the cases of individuals,but it should notbe used .á .á of concept the However, combinations. their all with column “Polivalence” or “Bivalence” identity: for theresearchon the tool culturestwo in or any them.of Allthiscombinedcan together provide aninterestingheuristic can also orcosmopolitanidentityhome presentuncertain feel –sometimes inmoreor at that They identity. national one than more time same the at and culture assimilated one than more 31 .á Antonina by proposed (assimilation)” valence cultural and self-identification national “between nation Ifind especially which useful inmyfield is of research “matrix” the the relationship of Antonina K oskowska based her idea mostly on the empirical qualitative research personal on the research idea qualitative empirical mostly her on the based oskowska bringsme for oskowska twoproblems thelimitation show which itsof usage. First,(since oskowska. Table 1. Cultural valence and national identification. In my opinion some Upper Silesian will well suit to this “matrix” somewhere in the somewhere “matrix” this to suit well will Silesian Upper some my opinion In Source * = “probably empty categories” Another interesting theoretical contribution of the Polish contemporary sociology of the Cosmopolitan Uncertain Dual Integral identification National : A. K á 31 oskowka, K á á oskowska, oskowska noticed especially individuals, that oskowska on borderland,the can possess The National CulturesontheGrass-Root Level The National Cultures Cultural valence (assimilation) Univalence * * …, p. 118. Bivalence 7 Ambivalence * . Budapest and New York: CEU Press, Polyvalence CEU eTD Collection for Austrian instance to Germans situationyet but beforeit 1918), needs definitely more some self-identity in national Thisis notterms. the only probably such (comparablea casein Europe to nationalism and reluctance resistanceto “Eastern” the modernity with “Western” industrial noticed: recently historian AsoneAmerican strange placeEarth. on suitable tothat not are approaches Gellnerian view, of point buton otherhandthe alsosome“Eastern backwardness”European The modern nationalization did not run there as smoothly as it should according to classic notandfunctional, solve whole the do to UpperSilesian problem, especially case. regard with 32 becould very person’s certain attitude. puttingcategory “uncertain”. them sometimes into such“uncertainty” Iwouldall arguethat include thanidentification(s) national,not meaning other consequently or excluding their matrix the does that problem, least Second cautiously. very atidentity used or for acollective J. Bjork, op. cit., pp. 4-5. Upper Silesia therefore presents an embarrassing and strange combination of of the anembarrassingandstrange combination presents Upper Silesia therefore to eschew national labels and declare themselves simply “local” as late peasants as the leading with 1920s. credited been has immaturity” “political where Poland, interwar eastern in Polesie as areas isolated rural, such with in loomed be easily not could political mobilization and association culture of the Wilhelmine Germany, the region early nineteen century, withsomething of anembarrassment for such a [Gellnerian]model. Industrialized since the almost universal literacy, and long familiar with the mass According to my view of point According to nationalism or/and 3. UpperSilesianidentity Upper Silesians’ persisted national ambivalence and national indifference is indifference national and ambivalence national persisted Silesians’ Upper typologies of Ossowski or K 8 á oskowska, although handy 32 CEU eTD Collection consciousness group Silesian of features specific in the lies scheme) Hroch the of implementation mechanical than (better specificity Silesian the underlined which movements historical especially Silesia in Prussian and inAustrian both existed nationalism” “Silesian like something just afterI Obviously, others. the to incomparison nationalism all)(after denyinghere that not am the First weak Silesian the behind Silesianness the with amorphous more and non-linear World something War. I just believe that possible explanation for the A/B to a B phase seems to me slightly artificial and non-historical approach. non-historical a and to artificial A/B me slightly to seems phase B Kamuselladivision – whether from what did –and wondering, whenthey a and went phases- of frames teleological the into movements political Silesian some Pushing Hroch. of concept the of “schematic” understanding his strict quite sureabout not am I Silesia. However, in nationalisms of history field inthe breakthrough a are that discoveries his for thankful ethnicity. and 1918 may serve as the example for the latte approach of studies on nationalism and Ibidem, p. 275. of the Szlonzakian homeland, made this movement retreat into the gray zone between phases A and B of afterphase C 1921.”in the 1919 but the lack of international recognitionfor this national cause, combined with the division 35 Groups, 1848-1918 34 Cambridge University Press, 1985,pp. 22-30. Social Composition ofPatriotic Groups among Smaller European Nations. 33 Miroslav Hroch’s “ABC” scheme studies nationalism fromon scholaras well.Silesian Kamusella Opole Tomasz the who applied traditional and historiography of frames national traditional of those than approach sensitive “The Szlonzokian nationalism dashed from phase A to phase B 1918/19.in It attempted to cross the threshold Tomasz Kamusella, See: Miroslav Hroch, Miroslav See: 34 I agree with almost all conclusions of his broad study on the ethnicities and I am .West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 2006. Silesia andCentral European Nationalisms: TheEmergencethe National of andEthnic Social PreconditionsSocial National of Revivalin Europe 33 to the development of nationalism in Silesia between 1948 9 Cambridge, London, New York: : A ComparativeA Analysisofthe 35 Thereis grey zone CEU eTD Collection hand Europe”) hand nationalism (or maybe itis better to say: theories open to the historical reality of the “second- a Kashubian etc.) Macedonian, wellasSlovakian,history identity Transylvanian, (as UpperSilesian the of can be also told as a story of some attempts (successful or not) to create hrytsak-en.html Bodermaking „Eurozine“ in: why identitiessome group become should bealwaystakenhistorically and in a historical context. Silesiayou unless consciously. Thisis obviously aroughheuristic first division that of all wholedevote yourlife for Germany and its you boarderbuteastern willitjust not do for Upper how muchidentity that be normallycan andstressed underlined. you Inother words: can including even andidentity heroic, for courageous extraordinary. the you yourlife: Only can strong devote group identity. In the mobilization’s powerof appliesthe my “self-evident” to weakness one.In understanding the name of the identity is themost visible, the most underlined, the most every-day or the most “essential” and 37 “the lack of international recognition”. See: J. Bjork, op. cit. SilesianCatholicism before 1922 convinces me more than just athesis about nationalism that failed because of 36 strong Notion invented by Yaroslav Hrytsak. See: Yaroslav Hrytsak, of Upper indifference” “national the approach whose Bjork ofJames study source-based really the in Like From the perspective of group identity approach and non-deterministic theories of theories non-deterministic identity and approach group of From perspective the 4. Why These two features are: features These two identity from a from identity 37 pro patriamori , it seems quite clear, why I try to avoid the term separatism. term avoid the to Itry why clear, quite seems , it separateness weak . Accessed. 10 March,on 2009 form: http://www.eurozine.com/articles/2005-01-10- one. . In the name of the of name the In . weakness notseparatism strong strong and and some remain some and identity people can be mobilized to do something 10 separateness weak The borders ofEurope-seenfromtheoutside one nobody would do it, no matter . Weakness not in the sense which in sense not the Weakness . 36 weak Moreover, I possess no answer possess I Moreover, . However I think that the that think I However . Separateness is , CEU eTD Collection 39 PWN, 1990, p 300. rozdzielnychuk understanding of the history, than that one of the political science for which separatism is: in the approach and anthropological follow sociological the “separateness” I rather case of podmiot ludzki jako obcy zawsze wtedy i tylko wtedy, gdy zachodzi mi 38 be might WarWorld First the after State Free UpperSilesian create to attempts If the more. a findnot anything I couldbut autonomy,the strengthening demandeven for and preserving is there consequences; their and specificity or otherness “separateness”, Silesian the on norejection autonomy noof independence.callingandfor practically the is There a discourse isin nobulletuse, ZOG)there Silesians, Union of (the of Defence Upper “separatists” called are inis which(1922-39) generalfarfrom usually the Evenamong group description. that separate. are that identities of group parts) their of some (of value systems strong political connotation. has mostly context, whereas separatism of of one features itsand identity the complicated the takes place between them is based on the separate value systems” („Przedmiot ludzki do ludzki („Przedmiot systems” value separate the on based is them between place takes “Human object is experienced by human subject as an alien always then and only then if a social contact Separatism, I insist in my thesis that the phenomena distinctive for distinctive phenomena the that my thesis in insist I bullet, not the ballot. reject autonomy or semi-autonomy as withdrawal national have from the bodyofwhich weakthey oncebeen a (…) part. They halfway measures. They are adamantdissidents and activists whodemand separatism call for complete independence and – the completely from acentralizednation-state up a and setnew national government. Those In respect of “separateness” I would repeat after Florian Znaniecki that there are the are there that Znaniecki after Florian would repeat I “separateness” of In respect in: L. L. Synder, á adów warto [T]he character, act, principle or practice designed by its adherents to withdraw to adherents its by designed practice or principle act, character, [T]he Ğ ci”). Florian Znaniecki, 39 Encyclopedia ofNationalism, Wspó 11 á czesne Narody Chicago and London: St James Press, p. 364. Ċ dzy nimi styczno the interwar Silesian Voivodeship interwar the (Contemporary Nations), Warszawa: Nations), (Contemporary Ğü 38 Ğ spo wiadczany jest przez jest wiadczany It means that in á eczna na pod áRĪ that u CEU eTD Collection not follow the approach of Dobrowolski. does “separatism”, theterm of sense tothe inregard –especially thesources of interpretation pp. 57-74, 88-99. PWN, 1972. To see about1918-1939 German financing in Upper Silesia during the plebiscite period: T. H. Tooley, op. cit., the “separatists” in Silesia (both in Prussian and in Austrian in Austrian part). in and inSilesia Prussian (both “separatists” the formistaken,statements are Germanfor inspirationrather exampleandfinancialsupport about typical for the time and context, in whichalthough based on wide archival research, contains some valuejudgments thatareunfortunately the book was written. Also some his argumentsand their attitudes are of significantly and different nature. Moreover, them between Dobrowolski’s time in continuity work, important see cannot One basket. same the into them put to something in common (all referred strongly to the Silesian identity), it is for me quite dubious have my of is Although all groups chapter these inthe fourth Silesia described thesis. that orphan of Black-Yellow Flag Monarchy, and (3) the Jan Kustos’ ZOG from the interwar itself a in existingPolish 1918foundafter as 1907 and started Austrian that Silesia Teschen typical multiethnic the of movement ethnic the (2) here), chapter second in the that mention (I it 40 the of idea the (1) century; 20th the of decades first the in operating movements political Silesian different early 1970s by Piotr scientist Dobrowolski,political into authorput the one category three tradition. monograph onlyone the in Polish In Silesianthe separatism(s)existing of written the not call in the same way even the most “Silesian” voices and actions that took place after 1922. I could separate Silesia from and Poland), Germany actions to (meaning: called“separatism” See: PiotrDobrowolski, In this respect I am in a way consciously separating myself from In thisrespectIaminresearch myself from previous the separating awayconsciously (Separatist Groups Trends and Upper inSilesia Teschenland,and the in 1918-39),Warszawa-Kraków: Freistaat Oberslesien Freistaat Ugrupowaniai kierunki separatystyczne naGórnym from from 1918-22 with all humanisticSwiss, for andcatholic roots 12 40 ĝOą Needless to say, that my sku i w Cieszy Ĕ skiem w latach CEU eTD Collection Przyjació 41 Glatz add to their titles the Schlesien asthe others among was addressed that), of because maybe (Opawa) remained undercountry. Onlysomescraps southern aroundUpper Silesia of Teschen (Cieszyn) andTroppau the rule of the majority of that hisconquest vast of the defended conqueredandsuccessfully Empress, Vienna King of Jerusalemdynasty. In the 18thwho, century, despite Frederickbecame a Roman Empireof from part oftheHoly theHabsburg control 1526 wasunder which ofGreat, that insubordinate (or vassal of the Emperor and the Szramek, „Ks. JanKapica. Jan Kapica, „Zur Lage in Oberschlesien,” in Lage „Zur Kapica, Jan . From the 14th century Silesia belonged to the Bohemian Lands and thanks to that it that to thanks and Lands Bohemian the to belonged Silesia century 14th the From 1. Prehistory of separateness á Nauk na until until 1918. The restbecame ashare of Prussianthe andkingdom Prussiankings could Separateness of identity and Separatism that failed that andSeparatism identity of Separateness ĝOą sku 3 (1930): 31. Souveräner undobersterHerzog vonSchlesienwie auch der Grafschaft ĩ yciorys a zarazem fragment z Historji Górnego Upper Silesia before 1922: before UpperSilesia Schlesiesche Volkszeitung [Jan Kapica,[Jan 1906] perhaps, evenjust an abstract humanbeing? a Prussian,simply Upperan Silesian, or simply Catholica or, Chapter II: Chapter 13 What is an Upper Silesian? Is he a German, a Pole, a German, a he Is Silesian? Upper an is What , nos. 36 and 38(1906),, nos.and quoted 36 inEmil Herzog von Ober- und Nieder- Herzog vonOber-und ĝOą ska,” Roczniki Towarzystwa Roczniki 41 CEU eTD Collection used in church service or by primary-school at the same often the serviceorbyprimary-school used inchurch teachers timewere who Gymnasia higher administration higher before and education 1863there(although wereeven Polish two teaching. all Prussian childrenfrom age the itof six, was Polish thatusually served asalanguage of Great in 1763 butreally developed after compulsory from the decree for1819 about education the byFrederick already wasestablished which system, school in elementary the Therefore, be self-description). usedfor that could noterm waspractically itself there Silesian by inhabitants werewasusually whose outsiders called Slaves, tongue hierarchy a partof Silesianthe Province of Prussia. The majority overwhelming its of secularization. no was effective there modern UpperSilesia modernized and in probably exception: one Literackie, 2001,p. 180. 43 Müller, 2000, p. 135. Upper Silesia. See: Joachim Bahlcke and Joachim Rogall (et al.), (et Rogall Joachim and Bahlcke Joachim See: Silesia. Upper the 17th century 42 by people living in the lower reaches of the Odra River to the language of the rafts men from Prussian Silesian Upper working-class, railway with 19thcentury linesgrewthrough the industrial together UpperSilesian the of andcitiesnetwork linkedbythe first Newsettlements social and spatial consequences. all their bringing there established were iron-mills or zinc- mines, coal the first revolution: industrial faced the 18th century late from that thelatter itwas However Catholic. mostly populated inmajority with Lutherans UpperSilesia: and backward, easternand rural, relatively Andrzej Chwalba, Historians are not sure what the roots of that term are. According to Joachim Bahlcke it was the name given in given name the was it Bahlcke Joachim to According are. term that of roots the what sure not are Historians Upper Silesia, from Upper Silesia, from 1816 the Silesia was divided into Lower Silesia, a more urbanized western country that was that country western urbanized more a Silesia, Lower into divided was Silesia 43 ). Polish was a popular language of workers, peasants, parish priests and lower clerks, German was the language of cities and industry: the language of technical skills, Historia Polski 1795-1918 Regierungsbezirk Oppeln Regierungsbezirk Bürgertum (History of 1795-1918),Poland Kraków: Wydawnictwo 14 and other outcomes of modernization with Schlesien und die Schlesier , was in the administrative in the was , Wasserpolnisch , München: Langen (in 42 CEU eTD Collection identification that united both Polish and German Catholics in Silesia. For next 30 years the also to face that division.also toface that had inhabitants andod identification states twonation between landwasdivided before this War, World First the after nationalism Silesian Upper the andideasof paths important most the religious indicatebackground.Finally, caseasacomparativeand Slovakian dimension using I its on focusing separateness Silesian that of nature the present I them. attract to wanted bestarted to and more dubious andproblematicfor bothforstate nationalisms their which critical distance to the Prussian State and its and State Prussian the distance to critical all level time some of the kept which sincethen CatholicChurch the of resistance and reaction modern nationalismGerman in commenced Upper Silesia in brought 1872.That situation about say that we can system, school control the over state the with and language national of the monopole the imposing of policy state inthe turn linguistic the with starts nationalism modern that If we assume Church. andtheCatholic Prussian State the between clash the and schooling languagein both there exclusively)broughtGerman elementary compulsory almost (and as the Iron Chancellor complimented them, the „always true Upper Silesians”. in andof victories theirKöniggrätz Prussia Sedan.For participation glorious they the were, who could read and – usually – writein Polish and were at the same time loyal Prussians, proud Neither German… 44 church UpperSilesiaorganists. wasinhabited mostly by Catholicthe Otto vonBismarck, Upper Silesia became a filed of national problem together with with together filed the national a Upper Silesia of became problem nationalisms(before 1914) two in between 2. Separateness In this chapter I examine how these Upper Silesians ceased to be “always true” and , p. 22. Gesammelte Werken , Berlin: Otto Stolberg, 1929, vol.11, p.242, quoted in: J. Bjork, Hakatist 15 policy. The Catholicism was a form of form a was Catholicism The policy. Wasserpolnisch Kulturkampf 44 -speakers which CEU eTD Collection Katowickiej, 1933, p. 189 (translated in J.Bjork,op. cit, p. 25). Church in Beuthen, where majority of parishioners was already German-speaking, who wrote who German-speaking, already was parishioners of majority where Beuthen, in Church consciously NorbertBontzek/Bonczyk cultivated. (1837-1893), aPastor of Virginthe Marry bivalence cultural leaders,notions they Catholic bilingualism were aperfect and which Silesian limitedwas often language 1872) even toseveral after forspheres oflife. only the However, written Polish (which was possible thanks tothe religious instructions in conducted that (Homilies – Speeches – Appeals), ed. EmilSzramek, Katowice: Kó Schlachtgesang lautete: Ichbin katolisch, ichwill katolischsein!” JanKapica, Geborene Führer, dasVolk wareinder unvergleichlichwar treues Heer: deutschPriester undDer polnisch, daswarenstand. Brüder. Der gegenüber Feinde dem Phalanx unüberwindliche eine wie geschlossen und eining 45 ( just wasentitled etc. Polish to culture, schools, defended rights people’s that most popular newspaper Polish that possessed almost amonopole among newspapers all and “Silesian” ( “Silesian” World Warless wasmore bilingual, although hismother tongue was usually spoken Slavic First years the in before last50 Silesian the An Upper average identity. Silesian Catholic and demanded harmonious obviously balance between Polishness and inside Germanness the Upper of figuresone for emblematic inthe thatgroup,describedperiod such away: and activist Catholic a popular preacher, Kapica (1866-1930), Jan Father Oneof them, leaders. Catholic with the connected A Catholic „Früher, da war es eine helle Freude Priester, Katholik, Zentrumsmann in Oberschlesien zu sein, wo das Volk wo das sein, zu Oberschlesien in Zentrumsmann Katholik, Priester, Freude helle es eine war da „Früher, That position of the leader of the “army” in which “German and Pole were brothers” were Pole and “German in which “army” the of leader the of position That brothers. The battle song rang: I am a Catholic and I wantwere to remainthey Catholic! Pole, and German army; loyal incomparably an formed people the leader, stood unified theenemyagainst like an phalanx.unconquerable The waspriest theborn [I]t was pure joy to be a priest, a Catholic, a Centrist in Upper Silesia, where the people ). Consequently, there were usually local pastors or lay Catholic intellectuals Catholic lay or pastors local usually were there Consequently, ). Wasserpolnisch ), whereas his expertise in written German and sometimes also in Zentrumpartei who played the roles of political and spiritual 16 á ko Homielityczne Kap Kazania –Mowy –Odezwy 45 á anów Diecezji Katolik CEU eTD Collection Quoted in: ibidem, title page. 47 In nationalisms. Polish and German with simultaneously even time a long for possible, was it formajority of forms of modern Upper Silesian separateness. reasons important most the of one became rejection of sense such my opinion, In (Germans?). feeling andStrangers Fellow byboth the ofbeing(Poles?) adeep also People rejected On hand, one the hymnis this some allusion Polish identity,to it on while other the expressed melody of the from Tworkau, who Josef Gregor priest, voiced another what compatriots, the of acceptance meet with always could at the peak of the hadbetween both of groups be by accepted to these restof the Such groups. a position not culturestwo and divideownidentity identificationaccordingly. group position Double or formulated his catchphrase, itwas notsoeasy to standin positionthat andbelong equally to ĝOą two. on but leg, one on not because firmly, stands languages two with person “A openly: position significantly influenced by Mickiewicz’s style), on the on style), Mickiewicz’s by influenced significantly problem socjologiczny concordes.” Norbert BonczykonKatolikentag inBeuthen1888;in quoted in:EmilSzramek, 46 ( poems Polish-Silesian popular most the „D „Cz sku, 1934, p. 18. á Bilingues sumus, sedconcordes ugo á owiek o dwu j Confessional identity lastedandgroup indifference national in longUpper Silesia as as [Obcy]. Strangers the by Despised Neglected by the Fellow People, [Swoi] Was without any defence Our beloved Silesia for along time ĝOą sk nasz ukochany, |Bezwszelkiej obrony, |Zosta 'ą browski Mazurka Ċ (UpperSilesia as anSociological Issue), Katowice: Towarzystwo Przyjació zykach pewniejzykach stoi,bo nie na jednej lecz nadwu nogach. […] Bilingues sumus, sed : 47 .” 46 Kulturkampf But even at that time when the Beuthen the when time that at even But Stary Ko Stary 17 á od swych zaniedbany, | Od obcych wzgardzony.” in 1880 wrote a popular poem apopularfor in the poem 1880wrote Ğ ció Katholikentag á Miechowski , 1888 expressed that 1888 expressed Góra Che Góra Górny á á ĝOą Nauk na Pharrer mska sk jako – CEU eTD Collection more and more of moremore from and of andexperiencedmigration some technical them possessed skills in lived. which they fact Duetothe thatmore andmore in people Silesian worked industry,the newspapers, announcements, instructions, etc., although notin nationalthe language of state the Upper Silesians Prussianwent tothe schools,Polish-language sothey couldalready read a few 1872, Before of nationalizations. generations Upper Silesia themodernity preceded In society. leastthe faceway,in half-modernized beginning with, a at from hadto very the Polish “came” nationalism in avirgin not did Silesia illiterate“locals”, asinto landwith but etc. associations of Church network wide organizations, attitude were spread that German and Polish between navigate Silesia for to Upper and social the space framework ideological both the orientations.”and German nationalism],Silesian it was Catholic a different elitessuch inposition betweennationalisms from and distance keeping both of them, for the was kind a ofdeliberate identification Catholicism, Silesian Upper on book his in convincingly argues and Bjork James As complex. more intended – religion strategy. – that provided„In this deadlock [between Polish 48 ( identification provincial and confessional Early-Modern existing still with combined backwardhistoricalincorner of various and reasons the remainedthe God-forgotten attitude of„archaic” some of peasantsreminiscence a as phenomenon that classify can one eye, an of blink the that wanted to be just „local” or „[the subjects] of Lord XY”, which for Landespatriotismus J. Bjork, op.cit., p. 18. Regarding that issue of“modernity”, oneshouldalso bearin mind that German and ). It might be partly the truth however in my opinion the picture is much is picture the opinion my in however truth the partly be might It ). par excellence 48 Moreover, I would add, the tools used to promote and usedto tools would Moreover, I add,the modern as well: popularmass press, political 18 Reich , CEU eTD Collection stated that position clearly: position that stated Kapica German”. “national or Pole” be wasthe“national to expected hewasnot only thing According to Kapica, A he parishionershould be a couldpious be a CatholicGerman,underliningits Upper dimension Silesian seemed be to the only solution.reasonable a Pole, and, none with of nothem doubt,“Masonic liberalism”) tocalm both sides by putting the Catholic identity over the nationalor and just a a loyalSilesian. citizen. It does by also“tranquil” attracted souls his socialism” “godless the or parishioners (which of were Thenot matter. in his whonationalismshadFrom parish ofapastor perspective the two competing over the Upper “ancient” Silesianness, itwould not preserve toolong. conditions. After all, however, without modern and intentional usage and re-definition of that historical of many by complicated affected scope the self-identification, local and regional national activist. ( „Great-Pole” term Silesians Upper Silesian separateness in German separateness the Silesian Upper identity. a not national was Prussianness all, after yet, Prussians more feel them made service in Prussian Army,but evenif ithad imposed some identification on them,it could have modern nationalism ( agitation. At the same time that term could referto Greater-Poland ( Industrial Regioncame from other rural parts of the 49 a or town. settlement industrial an to a village 51 50 a Modern Labor Force: Upper Silesia 1865-1914 According to the research of Lawrence Schofer almost 85 per cent of industrial workers in the Upper Silesian Upper the in workers of industrial cent per 85 almost Schofer of Lawrence research the to According Term „Great-Polish” referred to a Polish national movement of the „Die katolische Priester muss in dem nationalen Kampfe unparteiisch sein!” J. Kapica, op. cit., p. 194. “The Catholic priest must be impartial in the national war!” national the in impartial be must priest Catholic “The We declare ourselves as opponents of Germanization as well as of the Great- Polishness 51 Wszechpolski [ Grosspolonismus ) usually came from, so that coincidence of meanings was even useful. Among Wielki Polok ; emphasis-MJ]. by However, Germanization wedonot Kaiserreich , Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975. ) was attributed oftenwith pejoration to a local SilesianPolish Regiernugsbezirk Oppeln 19 49 Male half of Silesians was also proud of the wasgroundedpartially on the Endecja Wielkopolska . See: L. Schofer, L. See: . ( Wszechpolski 50 , , advisedFather Kapica. Wielkopolski ) and its nationalistic The Formation of ), where Polish where ), longe durée CEU eTD Collection 1996, p. 227-228. XIX i XIX wiekuXX the other hand, in my opinion, in this particular time of in time in hand,particular other this my the opinion, bright, humanistic national the asa 20thcentury, cleansings On clashes inexception. and the national identities by education, notby confrontation sounds today, after all dark experiences of of development free and coexistence peaceful bilingualism, of policy The Silesia. Wlihelmine public activity, on which Catholic elites insisted so much.public so whichCatholic insisted professional By activity,elites on educational or well. The Polish nationalism could develop on the foundations of mass Polish literacymeant andmass authors their although intentions, the to contrary side-effects some bring to had strategy which becameUpperSilesian 53 ausschliessenund jede Pflege Mutterschpracheder unmöglich machen.” J. Kapica, op. cit., p. 193. und Verhältnisse,welche diepolnische Sprache aus der Schule, insbesondere aus dem Religionsunterricht, Kulturarbeit. Wie verurteilenalle Ausnahmgesetze gegendas polnische Volk, namentlichverurteilen wir Zustände jedochnicht die Erlernung der deutschen Sprache, oder die gemeinsame Beteiligung mitden Deustschen ander 52 books prayer twin the andpublisherof editor the also andfatigue”) andlived his out days in in Ziegenhals resort German Skowronek was Silesia. for(because of“illhealth retirementwhen hisof became askedhis bishop Poland, parish part later,years whotwenty sameperson, wasthe Skowronek literary also but Polish. only German, not parents ought toteach thattheir nearfrom children Kattowitz parishBogutschütz people Thus persuaded LudwigFather (1859-1934) atthebeginning Skowronek of century 20th the his Ibidem,122,Mieczys pp. 263; „Bekennen wiruns als Gegner Germanisation, wie des Grosspolonismus. UnterGermanisation verstehen wir I shall admit that somewhat I have a liking for that attitude of Catholic elites in the mother tongue especially from religiousthe instruction ormade impossible any cultivation of the particularwe condemn conditions andregulationswhich exclude Poles from the school, [Kulturarbeit]with Germans. Wecondemn all special laws against the Polish people,in understand teaching languagethe German or in participation the workcultural (Biography Dictionary of the Catholic Silesian Clergy), Katowice: Ksi . 52 á aw Pater (ed.),aw Pater bestsellers for the next fifty years. fifty next the for 6á ownikBiograficzny Katolickiego Duchowie 20 fin-de-siècle Weg zumHimmel 53 Wilhelmine Germany, that and Ċ gania Droga donieba ĝ Ĕ wi stwa Ċ tego Jacka, ĝOą skiego CEU eTD Collection Pole” own world.Kapica’s Important assumption from 1906 “theGreat-Polethat identical isnot with identity mutual nationalwilly-nilly and preconditionsthe respect forcreated dissolution their of Catholic Silesian the of basis the on reconciliation national built who those words, other In and more difficultbeto equally loyal Germanness to and Polishness in their radicalized forms. outcomes of the Catholic indifferent policy turned out to be mutually contradictory: it was more long-range The nationalism. German of goal main the actually was which nation German of the Centre Polish-language newspaper “Kuryer Górnoszl Centrethe Polish-languagenewspaper“Kuryer ( Silesians” for „Silesia demanded somebody if even nationalism. Even though Upper Silesianness itself was strongly andhighlighted emphasized, Silesian Upper of kind some Catholicism of face Silesian Upper this in discern to a mistake Itwould supportand be alsohadown nationalismsin roots, dynamism too. their Silesia own German and Polish other, the on while face, parochial just or anti-Semitic aggressive, own its sometimes had Catholicism political that hand one the On life). peaceful destroyed others (and there community of with people neither national parish nor social noraversion clashes, towards were only others who came startedwith here in Silesia with Polish-German clash, such a sentence was lesstheir and less truthful. nationalismspossiblein worlds, but finished worldthe trenches thatthe in of Firstthe World War and re- and antagonisms that 55 54 the of assimilation to the German state and civilization which was unintentionally implied by the ideas Andrea Schmidt-Rösler, Andrea „Autonomie und Separatismusbestrebungen inOberschlesien1918-1922,“ "Grosspole ist nicht identisch mit Pole!" Ibidem, p. 193. 54 Zentrum My intention here is also far from drawing an idyllic picture of a tranquil Catholic a tranquil of picture idyllic an drawing from far is also here intention My (which may allow us understand clearly his policy) could have been true in some other , an Upper Silesian was becoming a part of German culture and, in consequence, in German and, culture of apart becoming was Silesian Upper , an 21 Schlagwort ą ski” in 1893) for the first time expressed in firsttime expressed the for 55 , there was always was there , Zeitschrift CEU eTD Collection [sic!-MJ] we will not be against.” See: P. Dobrowolski, op. cit., pp. 44 passim. EveninAutumn 1918 Ko Austrian1906 inthe Silesiawith itsloyalpro-Habsburg face,anti-Galician and anti-Czech nationalism attitude. 57 century both in Slovakia and Upper Silesia those opposition movements won for the first time first the for won movements opposition those Silesia Upper and in Slovakia both century mass beginningthe 20th of the of phenomenon at politics emergenceof Also the tothe thanks formation of political representations of the Slovak or Polish nationality-based oppositions. policy successful, however only itmoreover, causedpartially was the counter-reactions: even consequently pressure, 1918,that state formsbutnot educationall time.Before the andother of a conducted strictrather policy nationalizationof of their Slavic citizens by means of public mostly were cities whereas the workers), industrial also case Silesian both entity, mostly Slavic-speaking (in werepopulated of population with Catholic the peasants insurprisingly similartothat lands bigger wereparts non-Slavic Both Slovakia. of political Dziedzictwo? Kresy Wschodnie? language andits national GermanBoth the culture. Magyaraized 56 für Ostmitteleuropa Forschung 1918. happen before itnot in leastdid case AtSilesian nationalism. of with)another creation equate combined with religiousthe universalism strong and competing nationalisms attitude two moderate towards UpperSilesian This nation. the idea behindit stood sensethan the that of etc.) Polish…, economic, (social, religious, another Because of a different context and significance I lay aside Silesian nationalism of Józef Ko of Józef nationalism Silesian aside lay I significance and context different a of Because This is in a way a bit similar to the Hungarian “transyllvanism.” See: GáborLagzi, 57 Before 1918, the situation of Before situation 1918, the of Prussian comparison 3. SilesiaandSlovakia–asymmetrical (ed.) Jacek Pulchra, Kraków: Mi , i.e.inhabitedlow-middle, bybourgeoisie and state classassimilated tothe (DoesHungary ownhave its Eastern Edges?), in: Ī donsaid: “We are loyal to Austria till the end, but if Silesia comes to anotherfatherland 48, No. 1 (1999): 3. Ċ dzynarodowe Centrum Kultury, 2006. 22 Regierungsbezirk Oppeln Regierungsbezirk Kaiserreich Landesparitismus Dziedzicto Kresów: NaszeWspólne and Hungarian the Kingdom 56 was to some extent didresultin not (or Czy W Ī don that emerged in emerged that don Germanized Ċ gry maj ą swoje or CEU eTD Collection p. 14. historia iwspó W. Wanatowicz, W. 60 Cambridge University Press, 1998,pp. 198-214. before 1914. See: OttoUrban, 59 Press, p. 45. separatism”. with “asaturated is as struggle) and Polish speaks who Prussian aSilesian of character in Polish Polish-German latersix yearsthe option JanKapica supported Prelate (who described inform a “Great-Polishness”, journalistPosen, of the and personification way a representative for the majority of Silesians stillthere role. As important quite I emphasized, the andhistorical identity religious remained and Slovaks more importantunits, betweenSlovakia andBohemianLandsbetween andPoland,Upper Silesia played than the ethnic aonestate within one.nationalities two of coexistence In 1913 Polish a generally non-violent organization.conflicta national levelexistparallel to could Some of with their ethnic “brothers”uniteit, werestilland their states against ratherthanwillingto authorities loyal quite to then (Czechs resistance some and states or their of Poles) policy national towards reluctance relative or their of spite in to establish their own ethnic-based politicalin Silesia. movement national Polish the embodied One Silesianthe of MPswasWojciech Korfanty from nearly (1873-1939) who timethat 58 two leaders of the Upper Silesian branchmembers of of Polishthe Slovak National National Party were elected Democracyto the Hungarian Parliament in Four parliaments. tothe sendtheir managed representatives to and parliamentary elections the „Typ In that sense the situation may be compared a bit with the German-Czech conflict within the Habsburg Empire Habsburg the within conflict German-Czech the with bit a compared be may situation the sense that In Owen V.Johnson, I wouldhowever assume thatbefore 1914the majority Upper SilesiansandSlovaks,of ĝOą skiego Prusaka mówi 60 á czesno In that respect, “separatism” meant most probably Kapica’s disagreement with disagreement Kapica’s probably most meant “separatism” respect, that In Mi Ċ dzy regionalizmem aseparatyzmem Slovakia 1918-1938: Education adthe Making of a Nation Ğü : ĝOą sk natleinnych obszarów ą Czech1848-1918 Society cego po polsku ido g , Katowice: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu 23 áĊ ĞOą . bi przesi bi 59 , in: M. Teich, skim Differenthistorical pathssimilar of ethnic , in: eadem (ed.), ą kni Ċ tego separatyzmem.” Quoted in: Maria Bohemia inHistory, , New York: Columbia University Regionalizm aseparatyzm – Reichstag 58 ĝOą in 1901 and skiego, 1995, Cambridge: in 1903. CEU eTD Collection i Ska, 1904. Polish. See: J.Baudouin deCourtney, 63 62 p. 27 61 mother of tongue wasusually of dialects Upper Silesian asagroup Polish defined a etc.,whereasthe books, in form prayer publications, languageandwasused separate Czech preconditions for it. achievenot sincedid for available them they not modernwas the consciousness national the Slavic population of Hungary. Unlike with Slovaks, the problem with Silesians wasnot that a highly industrialized and Also country. literacyurbanized the level much higher in was than wasbefore 1914 Eastern its part, especially land, UpperSilesia, whereas rural mountainous Slovakia tookmade theUpperSilesian The case specific. modernization inUpperprocesses Silesia and twoall, after that, differences some different account into take also should one since similarities Silesian paths and had different rates. Slovakia was a relatively with wedlock has notsucceeded; Hungary divorcethem”. we must poorCatholicleader Rev.Andrej Hlinka could seriously said: “[the Slovaks’] thousand-year-old in principle. thesubordination national 1918 Slovak “ethnicPoles” of Only the autumn to all of of nationalism Polish of statement fundamental the the literary Polish was used in Polish Silesian press, books but also in sermons, religious in sermons, also but books press, Silesian in Polish used was Polish literary the in “divorce” in a Polish-German his speech formulated the ideaOffice Foreign for Auslandsdienst), fur Zentralstelle of such Services, (Central propaganda war of office in German a official time high short a for in 1914 became With the exception of Jan Baudouin de Courtney who maintained that Silesian is a different language from language adifferent is Silesian that maintained who Courtney de Baudouin of Jan exception the With Marian Orzechowski, Dorothea El Mallakh, However, it was the Slovakian language that was codified in the 19th century as list about that beOn hand, cautious of Slovakian-Upper howeverquite other the Iwould Wojciech Korfanty. Biografia polityczna The Slovak Autonomy Movement 1935-39 Szkice J Ċ zykoznawcze Reichstag 24 1918. only Octoberon 25, (Linguistic Sketches), Warszawa: P. Laskiewicz P. Warszawa: Sketches), (Linguistic , Wroc , New York: ColumbiaUniversity Press, 1979, Endecja á aw: Ossolineum, 1975, pp. 135-146. about “national about and unity” 61 Wojciech Korfanty, who Korfanty, Wojciech 62 63 and, thus CEU eTD Collection passim; Gregory F. Campbell, „The Struggle forUpper Silesia,1919-1922” 65 64 details whichitcertainly deserves personalities, etc. Here ideas, I will events, of notrichness even interest, attempt international of interms tohistory in describe day its had Silesia them with the level of attention and carriage Armistice in Compiegne wereprobably inNovember 1918 timealso the when Upper emerged andpeoplefind had their to inoneof places them. few These the railway- yearsafter probably seriously about any thought modern SilesianUpper nationalism. 1914 modern Slovak nationalism had whereas really inexisted, Prussian Upper Silesia nobody before however, After all, Silesians. Poland) and Great from those (especially Poles between though feelingthe betweenbrotherhood of Czechs andSlovaks similar was that probably to by Czechoslovakwas shared identity of mostly small group Slovaks, even relatively Lutherans, etc. democracy, party, social of Centre the views political national” of Silesiansdominate the others. According James Bjork to between 1903 and60 40 per cent 1914about to voted for consciousnessnational was already quite common among Upper Silesian people, national althoughGerman or itPolish did not in general, However, option. national Polish the with (Germanconnected or Polish)necessarily not Church) was as I Catholic of the in (especially, sphere case public indicated, partiesactivists published inboth books German as well in Polish. Theusage of languagePolish in while in theUpperthe Silesian whereas books publishedSlovak TheSlovak etc. activists education rest opted for “non- That work was J.Bjork op., cit., pp. 172-173. done by other scholars. For literature in English see: J. Bjork, The First World War has changed everything. All collapsed,states newWorld The First Warhaschangedeverything. empires ofdwarfs” (1918-21) 4. UpperSilesian“war 65 as my aim is only to look for possible explanation for the 25 The Journal ofModern History Neither German… 64 Meanwhile, strong Meanwhile, , pp. 174 , pp. 42, CEU eTD Collection Identity… 67 66 European History area) plebiscite inevery practically noticing that in fightboth sides propagandistthis used languages both happened (what is worth sides. It for one of vote the in of to ways a plenty wereattracted place, Silesians machines. votingorganization and finallyBefore 20March propaganda the 1921, when took structures of their Plebiscite Committees andorganized their networks of support own documents, nineteenth and twentieth centuries No.3 (1970):361-385; TomaszKamusella, and peace. keep order to there came that soldiers Haute Silésie de Plébiscite de Gouverment et by neutralized territory becamegoverned the 1920 Silesia January In Territory. Plebiscite the under control international some established they conflict Polish-German of escalation prevent to order In Allies. the for challenge biggest the time it same was atthe places.Therefore took plebiscites areas where territory among populated Schleswig from interests: political and economic different crossed where zones to grey such ethnic Kärnten and solve to national a solution dilemmasabout of was principle,proposed self-determination the Sopron. decidein The its future aplebiscite statehood. in about plebiscite, consequence away anatural However, Upperterritory of the Silesia was the biggestseparateness. in Silesian roots its and agenda political andseparatist its with nationalism Silesian of fall and rise the most See illustrations in: SarahWambaugh (ed.) G. F. Campbell, op. cit., p. 370. The peace treaty The peace treaty Versailles signedindecidedof June inhabitants thatthe ofthe 1919 ; Idem, „German Political Violence and the Border Plebiscite in Upper Silesia, 1919-1921” Silesia, Upper in Plebiscite Border the and Violence Political „German Idem, ; Washington: Carnegie Endowment forInternational Peace, 1933. 21,No. 1 (1988): 56-98. Regierungsbezirk Oppeln Regierungsbezirk , Prague:ResearchSupport Scheme,2000, pp.279-302; T.H. Tooley, 67 The dynamics of the policies ofethnic cleansing inSilesia during the and both referred often to social and economic issues. In , Plebiscites since the worldwar: with acollection of official (withoutits western and south-western parts) will 26 with up to 10 000 French, andBritish Italian up to with 66 Both Polish and German side built Commission Interalliée de National Central CEU eTD Collection (60 percent voters) all of in aPyrrhicmorerather waschosen victory:1524 communes German often 844of option itwas although for Germany satisfactory more were results The identification. national strong Silesian to choose between forced Upper two clash, in Polish-German used the and arguments rhetoric nationalistic of spite all states, what, at least for some people, did not equate with the Polish. German Polish. German was onlyby chosen 40 percentofUpperSilesians. centof peoplelanguage declared their asPolish, andnext4percent declaredboth German and in per UpperSilesia 53 beforeCensus in 1910 1914.In ofthe last Silesia results with data the Area. On the other hand, Polish defeat looks even more striking when one compares plebiscite there was no card “Górny wasno “Górny there card votingtwo either cards: “Niemcy-Deutschland” or“Polska-Polen”. Unlike in Eastern Prussia 70 69 propaganda. plebiscite the by exactly codified 68 etc. and system”: diligence, religiousness,hard-work family spirit,to the locality, tough attachment value “Silesian of elements to referred both rallies; and propaganda in their tongue Silesian Upper Silesia Wojciechwill Korfanty during electoral rallies promised that every poor family will joinget acow when Poland. Polish leader some arguments: populist usedobviously plebiscite campaigns the Moreover, Both sides live. and to peaceful conditions havewould andpeasant proper in worker used which Silesian religious oforder, andsocial welfare states as werepresented both countries plebiscitepropaganda, the arguments; both made use of the The census territory included also Western parts of Opole Regency which was almost exclusively German and German exclusively almost was which Regency ofOpole parts Western also included territory census The G. F. Campbell, op. cit., p. 372. Itwill be worth studying how such“typical Silesian value system” was in a way forthe first time really 68 On 20 March 1921 every Upper Silesian over 21 could put into a ballot box one out of a ballotintobox out could one 21 over put On Upper Silesian March 1921every 20 69 ĝOą , especially in big the and cities in part of Western the Plebiscite the sk-Oberschlesien” replacing a card “Germany.” The plebiscite, in plebiscite, a card“Germany.” The replacing sk-Oberschlesien” 27 70 It is estimated that up to CEU eTD Collection o g polsku i zosta 72 71 states. In that respect its fate was similar to the cases of Rhineland, Fiume/Rjeka, cases Rhineland, the of to wassimilar fate respect its In that states. intonew yetfullylonger incorporated a no not Empire, oldland-in-between: the of was apart 1921 andin realised June 1922.Beforehappened, that however, Silesia for about years three in another of accepted finally propose division project October was decidedto which Nations the Polish-German local war. After the truce called at the beginning of July 1921, the League of for becamearena an months UpperSilesia two For its force and determination. toshow order in military in uprising trigger off the May 1921decidedacceptance to of which Polish side, their first proposition (leaving the ‘industrial triangle’ for Germany) did not meet the a Catholic way [po katolicku], speak Polish and stay in the German fatherland.” in live to wish they that times many expressed Silesia Upper of population “Polish-speaking forvote in Germany 1920: convinced Silesianssentence to whoRev. Paul Nieborowski of which did not participate in the Plebiscite. See: M.Czapli See: Plebiscite. inthe participate not did which 25 percent of forPolish opted Germany. (Silesian) speakers “Polsko mówi A. Schmidt-Rösler, á osowaniu Source Attendance Together 3 Invalidated 882 Poland Germany The , Wroc, : Commission Interalliée ü Encyklopedia Powsta przy ojczy ą ca ludno á aw: Autonomie ĝOą Number Percentage of people 1 190 846 707 605 479 359 Ĩ Ğü ska Gazeta Ludowa [1920], p. 61. nie nie niemieckiej.” Paul Nieborowski, Górnego …, p.6. ĔĝOą ĝOą skich ska wanted to divide wanted to the territory resultsaccording tothese but Ī , Opole, Instytut yczy sobie, jak wyrazi 100 % 59.6% 97 % 40.4% 28 Ĕ ski (ed.), ski ĝOą Górny ski, 1982, pp. 685-704. Historia á a bardzo cz 71 ĝOą Somehow ironically true was the ĝOą sk: Dobra rada ksi ska… Ċ sto, , p. 285. Ī\ü 9 % po katlicku, mówi 72 Ċ dza katolickiego ü po CEU eTD Collection World Warand that Swiss influenced probably experience his andinspiredviews political some Zwi ( them was keen on socialistic government ora communist revolution. of None state. Prussian the into integrated fully not and discriminated somehow felt time same who grew up in German cultureOberschlesien (often combined with Thomas whowasaCatholic drewupaseparatist priest, (1887-1974), plan the of the Polish culture as well)Ewald ahigh-school Latacz (1885-1953), Jan teacher Reginek andhis(1879-1941) brother who at the Loslau from lawyer Catholic a time that At in Germany. power took government socialist and revolution of the a theatre became Berlin 1918when intheNovember already were born State. Silesian creation FreeUpper of the proposed judgeusually Among them. to isalso them intellectual and movementtend apolitical that there be as andinternational asillusory they some publicrecognition seemednotto we support as gain andmanaged to structure logical and hadideas consistent quite somethese Moreover, of enterprising would plansandpolitical otherwise. never ideaswhich occurred probably etc. Hungarian/Yugoslavian Baranya, Memel/Klaipeda territory, “Central Lithuania” with Vilnius, Zwi ą ą zek.” Jan fourReginek years spent ofhis lifestudyingin Switzerland during the First zek Górno Upper Silesian separatists established organization called the League of Upper Silesians called Leagueof the organization established Upper Silesian separatists UpperSilesia Prussian the unitof out apolitical to create concepts first that We know nationalism 5. Separatism and new, of for emergence the possibilities created in-between position Such uncertain . All of . All them of belonged local Catholic tothe people elites: of origins,Slavic but ĞOą zaków-Bund derOberschlesierzaków-Bund 29 ; ZG-BdO) bilingual with newspaper “Bund- Freiestaat CEU eTD Collection Wydawnicza, 2006; T. Kamusella, T. 2006; Wydawnicza, 75 74 73 automatically raise a question such why andpopular movement strong failed. Estimation less than 1.2 were there million plebiscite whole the in since view of point a common-sense offrom even eligibleunbelievable voters. Moreover, if we agreed with that estimation it would already were (black-white-yellow) chosen. Upper Silesian Republic cities where these universitiescovered alsoerection UpperSilesianthe University of and University Technical and even the should have been built as well Theplan existence. tokeepits peaceful inorder treaties trade by countries neighbour the itsall as the colours of the flag of Besides the protection Leaguethe of of UpperSilesiatheNation, should the havebeen linked with presidentthe together with anda bicameral itsparliament industrial rich thanks to production. included) equally official recognized bilingual languages, schools and offices,governed by be would Silesia in caseCzech even (or three two with Nations of League the control of state of their concepts. According to them, the members at 300-500 thousands of inmembers300-500 thousands people 200local of at organizations ZG-BdO of number the estimate historians issue.Some a debatable is still its popularity of scale fulfil The its goals. to anoccasion had never Silesians Leagueof Upper the Silesians, political for solution UpperSilesianthe DespiteQuestion. its popularity among Upper its its activity ZG-BdOcould Alliesbegan the the re-start Silesia, andoccupy propagate to months in Jan 1919 while escapeReginek had to with a Polish passporttoParis. Evenbefore a fewfor wasarrested Latacz Ewald a treason: ahigh as defined andwere they threat real See: Dariusz Jerczy See:Dariusz Ibidem, p. 13. A. Schmidt-Rösler, For GermanFor politicians such openly separatist ideas expressed in1918and 1919 were Autonomie… Ĕ ski, ĝOą skiruch narodowy Silesia… , pp. 7-11. , p. 297. Freistaat 30 (SilesianNational Movement), Zabrze: Oberschlesien should have been a neutral 74 75 whatsounds ĝOą ska Oficyna 73 CEU eTD Collection ĞOą the in period of Silesian the Uprisings and Plebiscite”),the in: Peoples' Party and its leaderRev. KarlUlitzka in the face of Polish national-liberationmovement inUpper Silesia of of twocompetingthe nationalism and by factthat neutralized somehow and“galvanized”. the of German and autonomy concepts proposed by not succeedin people.For reachingits anaverage goalsand mobilizing Upperall Silesian Poles, Germans and “separatists” couldstate be probably reasons of the one did why Silesian movement Upper the independence were very similar: Polish promise of ruchu narodowowyzwole the language of propaganda. The idea of The ideaof the languageof the propaganda. hesitation and fluid border between autonomy or a withintegrated WeimarRepublicthe would bebetterandmore realistic solution. a that decided it soon but( state republic, independent for Party end the UpperSilesianalso the Centre of the 1918 andbeginningof 1919) opted officials as well as by the British Prime Minister Lloyd George. 79 78 international interest and sympathy expressed by Karel Krama Karel by andexpressed sympathy interest international many inhabitants.” reports suggest that the idea of secession –orat least far reaching autonomy – resonated among impressionistic but campaign, of apetition made subject neverinto the or avote was neverput slogans exactly know by werereceived separatists ideahow since the Upper Silesians, ordinary 77 76 be more reasonable. indicatingmembers, 80-100thousand which is still number enormous quite of people, seems to Marek Cyga A. Schmidt-Rösler, J. Bjork, A. Schmidt-Rösler, skiego, (ed.) Z.Kapa Neither German… Ĕ ski, Autonomie… Autonomie… Chrze 77 á 76 a and W. Ry Ĕ Moreover, for a short time, the separatist propositions got some czego na Górnym I would agree with the conclusion of James Bjork, that “it is difficult to difficult is “it that Bjork, James of conclusion the with agree would I Ğ cija , p. 203. Ĕ ska Partia Ludowa (Centrum) i jej przywódca ks. Karl Ulitzka wobecpolskiego , p. 12. , p. 16. Land Oberschlesien Ī ewski, Bytom:Muzeum Górno ĝOą sku w latach powsta Freistaat 31 did not differentiate that much especially in especially much that differentiate not did Land Nad Odr was in a integrated intoway partly plans ĔĞOą ĞOą within Germany and anindependent Land skie, 1995, pp. 83-100. skich iplebiscytu 1919-1921 ą , Olz , Ĝ 78 and some other Czechoslovak andsome other ) separated from ) separated butPrussia For a short period of time (at ą i Bierawk ą podczasIIIpostania (“Christian 79 That CEU eTD Collection Ī ĝOą I daremnychwysi nasza stanowi MĊ Latacz and Regineks Brother, were on the one hand a political plan and strategy by influenced strategy on oneplan and handapolitical the Brother,were Latacz andRegineks expressed „strong” identity. Even just afew days before the plebiscite Ewald Latacz wrote: fully a time first the for already then became indifference national a just or identification thesis and PolishGerman terms: in contradiction dialectical antithesisin Hegelian somehow existed nation Silesian Upper make together Silesianin mononational-states. bethe lost could which virtue a it was a problem,on contrary: not synthesis. What used to be a weakness of 82 81 80 Einheistvolkes slavo-germanischer Blut languagesbutstill Silesiansunited: are“separate ownblood’s united people” ( mixedethnicities, a were based on They Silesians? kind: a specific of nation a but nation, Upper of League the to according Silesians Upper Whowere the identity. Silesian the ycia. Ewald Latacz, „Dla wolnego, niepodzielnego Górnego Górnego niepodzielnego wolnego, „Dla Latacz, Ewald ycia. zykowe zykowe odziedziczone po przodkach powinnynie nas rozdziela „Jeste A. Schmidt-Rösler, A. Schmidt-Rösler, ska przez Polsk przez ska Upper Silesian separatism and nationalism, if we agree to call like that the ideas of ideas the that like call to agree we if nationalism, and separatism Silesian Upper In spite ofits political hesitation, ZG-BdOpossessed however aclear understanding of Ğ Silesia. Upper of independence the of idea the to life new a gave treaty peace Versailles The Our bondage started in the year999 with subjugation of Upper Silesia byPoland. […] and Poland. Ourhistory is thehistory of bondage and futile attempts to become free. Germany between discord of apple an was fatherland our history the of beginning very that iseager to live and the language differences notdivide should us. […]From the nation strong young, a but nation, amixed are Silesians] [Upper we Americans, Like my my narodem mieszanym, jak Amerykanie, ale narodem m á a ko 82 á ków dooswobodzeniasi Ċ . […] Wersalski traktat pokojowy powo pokojowy traktat Wersalski […] . Ğü niezgody pomi Autonomie… Autonomie… , pp. 10-11. , p. 12. Ċ dzy Polsk Ċ . Niewola. nasza zacz ). 80 ą aNiemcami. Dzieje nasze to dzieje wiekowej niewoli From that point of view, such internal variety was variety internal such view, of point that From 32 áDá ĝOą my ska.” ü . […] Ju Ċá Ğ á l samodzielno l a si odym, silnym, rw Bund-Zwi Ċ w roku 999 przezujarzmienie Górnego Ī od zarania dziejów pisanychojczyzna ą zek Ğ ci Górnego Górnego ci , No. 11, 13 March 1921. ą cym si Ċ do ĝOą eigenbluetigen Ī ska do nowego do ska ycia, aró Ī nice 81 CEU eTD Collection University Press, 2006, p. 146. 84 Zwi „Górno gospodarczo zamordowa something from us. But we want to live!” (“Kto chce kraj nasz po 83 nation” the of territory “living identity, national their construct to trial a and categories in Silesians ethnic Upper the of what are is understanding a clear already there however, hand, other the On important. less became factors these when weaken became socialism Berlinof radical the threat and oppression” “Prussian fromprevious of also remembrances the the sense of a territorial community above ethnicities itsof inhabitants. Separatism that resulted on based nationalism”, “civic of form some in it find can One Silesia. Upper of dilemmas and diverse factors and born in a short period of time as a pragmatic solution of the urgent problems different meaning, anditdifferentbecame Polish had aproblem squareup. that authorities to interwarpeople andin in Polishcontexts appearedalsothe although a Silesia, different with the of unity dialectical the idea of it. That of because exactly but complexity, and variety their profiles.” moral and empirical contrasting clearly with types into parsing neat resists "nationalism “ethnic”nationalism ofthe elements ofmixedinseparably definition are Silesian together. and “Civic” (Slovak, Ukrainian). in Europe nationalisms young various for were typical memorynational group history and about thousand-year-old – archetypes oppression which Rogers Brubaker, “Who wants to cut up our country into pieces, is thinking how to murder us economically in order to inherit ą zek ĞOą , No.13, 27March1921. zacy!! Górny 84 In the eyes of Silesian nationalists, Upper Silesians were not a nation in spite of spite in a nation not were Silesians Upper nationalists, Silesian of eyes the In “Civic” and “Ethnic” Nationalism ĝOą ü , w zamiarze odziedziczenia czego sk zostaje niepodzielny”Silesians!! Upper (Upper Silesia remains undivided), 33 , in: idem, Ğ Ethnicity without Groups po nas. Ale my ü wiartowa ü , ten my Ī\ü . Cambridge: Harvard . Cambridge: chcemy”) Latacz, Ğ li o tym, aby nas Bund- 83 , CEU eTD Collection 86 Carnegie Endowmentfor InternationalPeace, 1933, p. 270. Stra Musi si Musi Silesian the the Silesian Institute founded by 1934 by in Silesianthe GovernorMicha key figures Polishin cultural policy Silesia:in he became first directorof theSilesianLibrary Katowicein of and 85 corner populated by 46 per cent of corner by populated inhabitants with per centof industrial 46 nine majority the of plants: steel- south-east and east the on land that of cent per 29 obtained latter The Poland. and Germany 1921 Council October, of Ambassadors of Leagueof the decidedtodividebetween Nations it Sarah Wambaugh(ed.). RomanLutman (1897-1973) was Polish historian andpolitician: bornin Lwów, 1922 after washe of one the Ī nica Zachodnia: Kwartalnik Polskiego Zwi Framing Upper Silesian Upper Framing Ċ Sanacja After three years1. Division of the uncertainty about the lot of Prussian Upper Silesia on 20 mu w ca w mu politician – he became a part of the new regime. „Na regime. new ofthe part a became – he politician áRĞ ci po ci Ğ Plebiscites since the worldwar: with a collection of official documents wi Ċ ci ü albo go porzuci go albo yourself to it totally or abandon or totally it to yourself [Sarah Wamboughon UpperSilesia, 1933] of sovereignty change inhabitants of bothsides, if let alone, would not be preoccupied with any frontier to belong trueto the that, other however state, greatthe mass may of bethe the German desire and of Polishthose on either[RomanLutman, 1937] side of the “ separateness ą Chapter III: Chapter zku Zachodniego In SilesiaIn you cannot do by things halves. You mustdevote In spite of the recent increase in minority complaints it remains ü .” Roman Lutman, „Oblicze „Oblicze Lutman, Roman .” 34 . 86 17, No.1 (1937): 34. ” within the Polish state Polish the within . 85 ĝOą á Gra sku nie mo nie sku Ī\Ĕ ski. After 1945 – like many other ĝOą ska” (The Face of Silesia), of Face (The ska” Ī na pracowa na ü , Washington: po á owicznie. CEU eTD Collection 89 i miejscach 88 armies of the lines, nine railway narrow-gauge lines and fifteen normal-gauge railway lines. seventram anddensely living crossing altogether populated that organism area of urbanized March 1921for majority the voted Germany.the theirof citizens wentthrough borderline The in in Plebiscite the fact that the despite Polish, became Myslowitz or Königs-Hütte Kattowitz, whereas German, remained Beuthen like Hindenburg/Zabrze, PlacesGleiwitz, border. Industrial Region (Oberschlesiesche Industriebezirk) wascutin half by newly the established 87 100 (85 to thousand)live wanted to in rather in than Germany Poland. them of majority border; the of because a living of place their changed voluntarily) (more-less hundredafterthousand people 1921 in one circa thirty is that 1920s the of It estimated Silesia. their andplaces’ own statehood consequently atadecision another movingarrived about part to of in terms them acceptable for is not in Silesia verdict Allies’ the of resultthe that decided people of bulk the Moreover, parts. German and Polish into be divided to had Silesia in places had inIndustrial owned the property afew complicationsconcerns inpublicthat transport. without stopping. line was a transitone, goingfrom PolandPoland to Germany through vice(and versa), although casestram andintwo experience alocal was anevery-day in a tram or train control passport mills out of fourteen; sixty-three coal mines out of eighty-two etc. S. Wambaugh, op.cit., p. 265. Dawid Smolorz (ed.), Smolorz Dawid Marek Czapli Actual Actual and real division Upper Silesiaof took place inJune 1922,when Allied the However there were also more serious consequences of the border than just than border the of consequences serious more also were there However , Gliwice: Dom Wspó Ĕ Commission Interalliée etdePlébiscite deHauteSilésie deGouverment ski (ed.), Grenzgänger: Erzälte Zeiten, Menschen,Orte/Na granicy: Rzecz oczasach, ludziach Historia Historia á pracy Polsko-Niemieckiej, 2008, p. 73. ĝOą ska …, p. 256. 35 87 The whole Upper Silesian Upper whole The 89 88 Going through left that left CEU eTD Collection 1922, (reproduction owned by author).the uroczysto uczetników przez które w my stwierdzenia jej woli co do przynale samostanowienia narodów, postanowi 92 side. German some episode of involvement with the Upper Silesian separatism, but in 1922 both of them already took Polish or 2:38. In Katowice it was famous Prelate Jan Kapica, in Ratibor– Prelate Carl Ulitzka. Both of them previously had 91 Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press,1997, p. 258. signed on16July in1922 Kattowitz (at that time alreadyKatowice) said: was the that captivity” 700-year after the“return itwas inthe Polish Fatherland, the whereas dedication to 90 Germany. inof Poland wellboth and unavoidablethem Catholicthe as thanksgivingservice was part Obviously Fatherland”. with the of “unity the acts official signed special organized ceremonies, pass in built them) every over local or bigger were village, leaders almost town and regional entrances both –on sides –took places due ceremony: with triumphal (forthesoldiersgates to on onesidethe Army andthe another stepbycould Those Polish on entertheir own parts. behind UpperSilesias them two where they had found one”. land.As T. HuntTooley put it nicely:“In Alliedthe June forces finally leavingwithdrew, “Traktat pokoju […]podpisany w w Wersalu dniu 28 czerwcaoparty 1919r. u na See: [n.a.],1922, T. Hunt Tooley, voiced will of people unify again with the Mother Country Mother the with again unify people of will voiced commemoration of ofcelebration the embrace ofthe thatland which according to the belonging. This document was prepared by participantsthe of theceremony in Population ofUpper Silesiain order to stipulate discoverand its will as regards statehood principle of self-determinationthe of nations, in Articlethe 88 decided to appeal to the Peace Treaty […] signed in Versailleson the of28th June 1928, based on the sacred Ğ 91 l wyra In Germanthe all part underlined rituals that of theSilesians’’ faithfulness and Leitmotiv Ī onej woli ludno National IdentityNational and Weimar Germany: UpperSilesia and the EasternBorder, 1918-1922 Polish Army Entering Upper Silesia., Upper Entering Army Polish of ceremonies. The Polish Act of Commemoration of the incorporation the of Commemoration of Act Polish The ceremonies. of Ğ ci.” Act ofCommemoration oftheIncorporation Silesia to Poland Ğ ci Ī no á áą w Artykule 88 odwo Ğ cz ci pa ą si Ĕ Ċ stwowej. Ku […] upami z powrotem z Macierz 36 Archiwum Wytwórni Filmów Dokumentalnych, 1:57- á anie si [z Macierz ą 90 Ċ dokument niniejszy sporz Ċ tnieniu uroczysto Finally the German do ludno ą ; emphasis-MJ]. Ğ ci Górnego Ğ ci obj , Katowice, 16 June Ğ wi Ċ Ċ conej zasadzie cia tych ziem, Reichswehr ą dzony zosta ĝOą 92 skacelem á , CEU eTD Collection the 88th article of the Versailles Treaty Germany”. with Treaty Versailles of the article 88th the include from Poland all beaward underterritory will that Silesian to either Cieszyn or Silesia will which Voivodeship “Silesian for autonomy a broad warranted parliament Polish the Voivodeship the lawcalled newautonomous the Army, Polish of the entrance wasusedaswell as self-reflected. how their “separateness” themselves: andby reshaped Silesians adapted actions were understood, state how those indicate modernization,minority ethnicity fluctuation.national rights, andconflict Ialso national and Silesians and identificationstheir group important regardingissues the most of autonomy, I Upper background the to comparative andsome state thePolish of attitude examine the 1939. Voivodeship]. z 1920 r.Nr 73,poz.497) [Constitutional Law from 15thJuly1920 including theOrganicStatuteofSilesian 93 sense that In would. it that guarantee no was there and Silesia) Teschen concerned territory which did not belong to the Polish state (apart from small part of Austrian these of Both home. isof return Second underline message Motherland’schildren the actually thisone of that to agreements. international with the together agency Silesians’ the was the of outcome statehood thatPolish toshow messages. First, two had sidetherefore Polish onthe Such ceremonies UstawaKonstytucyjna z15lipca 1920 r.zawieraj In the Polish political autonomy 2. Legalframework: Silesian Voivodeship with Katowice as its capital city, just after the analysisevents of partly descriptive strategies, close-reading usingIn this chapter partly http://www.law.uj.edu.pl/users/khpp/fontesu/1920.htm was introduced. introduced. lawThat was which two years before on 15 July, 1920waspassed by topoi remained crucial for the Polish national discourse in Silesia until in Silesia discourse national Polish the for crucial remained 37 ą ca StatutOrganiczny Województwa 93 So at that time (in 1920) that act Organic StatuteofSilesian Organic Statute ĝOą skiego" skiego" (Dz. U. before CEU eTD Collection Treasury Treasury.shouldto the State and go Treasury that Treasury (Skarb Silesian the was autonomy Silesian of attribute important Another etc. policy municipal policy, religious policy, energy policy, educational policy, language policy, economic Sejm: Silesian of competence the were within activity fields political of the restof The government. central Polish the for restricted legally were issues jurisdiction and policy military policy, duty policy, foreign Only Parliament. Silesian by the elected were Council Voivodeship the of members the of rest whereas authorities, Polish central bythe were nominated andhis deputy The Governor Voivodeship Wojewódzka) Council (Rada with Governor's members. Deputy the and other five Europe that possessed real relative independence from from possessed central the independence power that Europe real relative have. used to Silesian Parliament (Sejm (Sejm Parliament Silesian the with it on8 officially Nazi annulled the interwar until 1939 and wholeunited the period October, autonomous part of Finland and two Polish Autonomous Districts - so-called 95 was not an island and Poland was not Soviet Union. Union in 1920s. To my view both of those cases should be analysed in their very specific context. Upper Silesia Regierungsbezirk 19October,the 1919 which changed the administrative position of from Upper Silesia 94 Polish this that historians agree respect this unit. In political anon-existing of 1922 wasaconstitution Unless we count the tiny Åland Islands, withtheir 16 municipalities, that also in1920/21 became an Kazimierz Popio Organic Statute According to the Reich 94 . Nevertheless, the Silesian Voivodeship was the only one territory in the Central á ek, ĝOą to ĝOą ski) and strictly ski)and strictly ofmoneydefined share in stay should that the Silesian Provinz skie dzieje was also a propagandist response to the Prussian the to response a propagandist also was Organic Statute Organic ĝOą (Province of so givingitPrussia) self-government broader it than ski) and its Executive – the Governor (Wojewoda (Wojewoda Governor the – Executive its and ski) (Silesian History),Wroc Silesian Voivodeship had Legislative Voivodeship its Silesian own –the 38 Organic Statute á aw: Ossolineum, 1976, p. 357. Polrainons ensured even that: even ensured 95 Landtag which lasted through which existed in Soviet in existed which decision from ĝOą ski) and ski) CEU eTD Collection – according to the memoirs of elderly UpperSilesians – it was already well-knownin the 1930s. urz 97 Art. 33a: równychkwalifikacjach pierwsze ĝOą political discourse. Obviously, behind the cultural between really existed that Obviously,difference behind cultural the political discourse. on Silesians became a figurekey in the Silesian popularimagination and a official- educated Poorly 96 Silesians by called were Galicia) and German minorityinby topics Voivodeship.Itwasconstantlyusedone ofthehot the opposition Silesian Polish to servants, teachers, and policemen from (usually) Galicia orfrom Kingdom of criticizePolandbecame thenew civil feeling towards coming among Such insufficient. UpperSilesians of antipathy a Polishin servants Polish domestic of number the authority.where inSilesia, necessary are Poland of parts PeopleSilesian separateness and their who thatexperienced underlined opponents officials from other outside Silesia (especially from Silesia said: Silesia (Another, Alien, Strangers). One of the popular church-fair songs from the interwar Polish „Na „Urz Ċ skiego. Przy obsadzaniu urz dniki.” Unfortunately, the couldexact find not author place and I of of popular-song.publishing that However ĝOą Ċ Later especially that paragraph became a bone of contention between defenders of the of between defenders contention bone of a became paragraph that especially Later coming from the territory of Silesian Voivodeship. officials to given be should priority the qualifications equal of case in Voivodeship Voivodeship. While filling posts in public administration on territorythe of Silesian Civil servants in Voivodeship the Silesian should generally come from Silesian First they carved toy-horses, and now both are “great” officials. “great” are both now and toy-horses, carved they First Two dnicy pa sk przyjechali Gorole, we dwóchna jednym kole. |Najpierw strugali koniki, a terozki wielkie Gorol Ĕ stwowi, urz s came to Silesia, both on one bike. Gorol Ċ duj Ċ dów administracji pa Ĕ ą stwo urz cy w Województwie in Silesia whodoesunderstand not that country looks down and Gorol Ċ dnicy, pochodz s in– designation than Silesian has meaninga negative Ĕ 39 stwowej obszarzena Województwa ĝOą ą skiem, powinni w zasadzie pochodzi cy w Województwa 96 97 ĝOą skiego.” topos Statut Organiczny…, Statut ĝOą ü skiego maj zWojewództwa used in the ą przy CEU eTD Collection zewn zupe 100 ĝOą 39 populism, noted words of one local Polish Silesian activist: Silesian Polish local one of words noted populism, vivid among Silesians. Even Józef Cha Józef Even Silesians. among vivid EĊ policy. law about priority of Silesians officials,the whereas obeying thenot oppositionfor excuses stronglyand criticizedjustifications of them for plenty found that power into were who politicians came from (like Stanis from cameGalicia 1965), some1965), anti- Wojciech Korfanty who strongly opposed Polish also some populist, ideological and political meaning. political and ideological populist, some also 99 was based on reality and how far it was just a superficial populism. many inSilesia after1922 and its proportionin relation to the general numberof officials. We actually do not know how 98 such non-Silesians etc.), Silesians customs anti- and (language, clothes, dzie Galilejadzie –|Austryjacki huf”. E.Szramek, : „Oj, came that teachers and of clerks number real the on estimation historical serious no is there enough, Strangely sk, 1983, p. 210. ÄĝOą Zarys dziejów politycznych á Ċ nie kotaktu mi kotaktu nie Gorol trzny.co Ci tu przyjad á sk traktuje si akome t Nevertheless, the feeling that feeling the Nevertheless, of café and cabaret, and [by that] they destroy our family life. family and distribute jobs among them. They propagate different ofway living, fondness Poland [Ma schools.and offices in Wepeople our have to want want we And office. the to to[go] not will] have[you then a place for our talentedexternal. Those who come here consider ushalf-Polish. If [you Upperare] an Silesian men. The worst peopleare andthose the clerks. from Teachers Little are Silesiaalso mostly strangers;is treated their attitude as a colony.towards Silesia Officials is are all strangers; there is no contact between the s took positions in Silesianthe Voivodeship. Therefore is hard to argue to whichextend that discourse á uste k Ċ Gorol Ċ dzy ludem, a urz dzy ludem, á jakgdyby kolonj opolanie]. Whenoneof comes he them then will soon in wholebring the ą ski | Te posadki górno and the same time anti- time same the and ą , uwa (Silesian Ī á aj aw Stopicki, born in Wadowice secretary Korfanty). of secretary inWadowice born aw Stopicki, ą Ċ za pó nas Ċ dnikami; nauczycielstwo te nauczycielstwo dnikami; . –mówi miejscowy dzia Sanacja Gorols ĞOą á skie, |Dalej wi Górny asi : Overview of the Political History). Katowice: Wydawnictwo á -Polaków. Górno Ĕ tend to dominate in the Polish Silesia was quite ski, who cannot be accused of political Silesian political of be accused cannot who ski, 40 ĝOą Sanacja sk… Sanacja , p.44; Edward D Ċ c na verses were written by editors who also á ĞOą Ī acz polski. Urz 98 á przewa Governor Micha ów! |Precz Ociepka, Malik, zak –toju In “Polonia”, the newspaper of 100 Ī nie obce, stosunek do do stosunek obce, nie á Ī ugajczyk, nie do nie urz Ċ dnicy dnicy wszystko obcy,brak Gorol á Gra Sanacja Ċ du. Amy chcemy discourse had discourse Ī\Ĕ ĝ mieja, |Bo tu ĝOą ski ski (1890- ĝOą 99 ska 1926- Those ska jest ska CEU eTD Collection Andrzej Bro ĝOą ze 164posiedzenia Sejmu Ustawodawczego,15 VII 1920, okazuje? 102 z wy 101 Akc. Dom Ksi GermanAntagonism inthe Industrial Settlement „Mine” inUpper Silesia: Sociological Study). Warszawa: Sp. Antagonizm polsko-niemiecki w osadziefabrycznej"Kopalnia" na Górnym sposób While passing the Ma the that significant is following quite of It ThirdRepublic. French the state pattern the unitary centralized and of Polandspeaking autonomy Voivodeshipof especially quite Silesian the broad, was the Republic within which,autonomy, autonomy the although limited was not definitely onlytoit. Ingeneral,legally according to its fully loaded lorries.” with escaping are they but suitcase, small a with came They us! leaving are they How away. Voivodeship in thelast days before 1939:“Scrutinize, 1September, howthey are running Silesian the from evacuation officials’ Polish on commenting disappointment and satisfaction mie That is why in Arka1939 Bo ska (1922-1939) á “Porównajmy t “Przypatrzcie si ü opolanie. Jak jedenprzyjdzie, to za sob á swoich naurz adowanymi do ostatnich granic autami ci Ī The ycia, zami than what the Prussian law gives. law Prussian the what than by the Prussian law. What mayLet turnus compare out? Thatthis what competences we give is withat least that, fifty which times is given more to the Provincial Parliament ĩ e to, co my dajemy, jest co najmniej 50 razy wi Ī ek, Teresa Kulak. Wroc ąĪ Gorol ki Polskiej, 1935, p. 102. á Ċ (SilesianAutonomy 1922-1939), in: owanie do kawiarni ikabaretu i rozbijaj Ċ dach iw szkole. Chcemy miejsca dla naszych uzdolnionych ludzi. –Najgorsi z przybyszów s Ċ kompetencj s-clerk problem had an placeimportant in publicthe discourse on Silesian jak uciekaj Organic Statute 101 March Constitution Ċ zt ą . Jak nas zostawiaj Ī á aw: PAN, 1996, p. 165. ek –Polish Silesian Leftist and withPopulist –wrote a bitter ą , jak in Polishthe Sejmin 1920one of deputiesthe noticed: ą ą 102 ca nadaje Sejmowiprowincjonalnemu ĊĪ March Constitution arowymi”. A. Bro áą did not mention the mention not did rodzin 41 Podzia Ċ Ċ sprowadzi i posadami obdziela. Wnosz ą á am CLXIV/14 cej ni ! Z walizeczk ą nasze rodzinne áĝOą Ī Ī to, co daje ustawa pruska”. ek, ka w 1922 roku; okoliczno Pami form 1921, was rather strongly , quoted after: Józef Ciagwa, ĝOą ą Ċ Organic Statute na tniki Ī sku: Studium Socjologiczne ycie na …, p. 199. ĝOą ĞOą ska ustawa pruska. Có sk przyjechali auciekaj ĝOą sku.” Józef Cha Ğ Sprawozdanie sten. ci i nast a single time. a single ą ze sob Ċ Autonomia pstwa (Polish- á asi ą inny Ī Ĕ , ed. si ski, ą ą Ċ CEU eTD Collection tarnopolskiego i stanis 105 104 each Wojewódzkie) (Sejmiki Assemblies Regional three establishing by there living Ukrainians came into being. That law was designed to solve the problem of the former Eastern Galiciaby Polish in Sejm September 1922,butduetoreluctance of and Polishthe never authorities actually government, especially forLwów, Tarnopol nadStanis issues. ethnic historical happenedwith Thesame the or just arelatively dry legalshort The authors text. of lawthe avoided makingany to reference form November 1938,hadnono preamble, ideological for justification autonomy; the it was marketfor outsiders. was labour the closed there: could work Voivodeship Silesian of citizens only 1926 from economics: the was policy central Polish form Sejm. by Silesian the were accepted 1935, interesting phenomenon to explain. The explain. to phenomenon interesting especially in the public investmentor housing policy. policy, economic intensive very lead authority Silesian in Katowice power the possessed that Uniwersytetu (ed.), Serafin Franciszek See: teacher. 103 -Ċ objection from strong German minority. Almost all Polish educational reforms (including joined Poland) established Polishasthealmost unexceptional language despite thevoices of Act “constitution”: Silesian to according possible itwas theoretically how drzejewicz reforms drzejewicz M. W. Wanatowicz, op. cit., p. 25. Althoughwithsome exceptions:Silesia in1920s in and 1930s only womenunmarried could beaschool- of the Silesian Voivodeship already in 1923 (so just one year after the Silesian Voivodeship Silesian the after year one just (so 1923 in already Voivodeship Silesian the of Ustawa ozasadach powszechnego samorz That nature of that moderate self-imposed practice of autonomy seems to be quite seemsto autonomy of self-imposed practice moderate of that That nature However in practice Silesian political separateness from Polish state did go farnot from that state Polish political separateness in Silesian practice However ĝOą skiego, 1996 (Prace Naukowe Uniwersytetu á awowskiego z dnia 26 wrze from from electoral 1932) or laws, including the anti-democratic onefrom Województwo ą Organic Statute du wojewódzkiego, aw szczególno Ğ 103 nia 1922 roku The sphere that was really separated and different ĝOą 42 skie ĝOą (Silesian Voivodeship), Katowice: Wydawnictwo skiego w Katowicach nr 1555), p. 176. (Dz. Ust, RP 1922, nr 90, poz. 829) á , Law Law about common self- Voivodeships’ awów awów Voivodeships unlike theSlovak law autonomy about 104 Despite the political option Ğ ci województwaci lwowskiego, The Official Language The Official 105 that was passed that CEU eTD Collection “separateness”, struggling with the Silesian Sejm and trying subordinateto it, nonetheless at the Gdów in Western Galicia, left-wing in Galicia, Gdów Western Governor (Wojewoda (Wojewoda Governor 1930s in politicians Polish among saying popular a was There autonomy. Silesian the time same the at strengthening not position, political own his strengthen to Governor a as him to given integration within thehe wasevena muchautonomy.very keenonthe 1926 Before immediate believerinfast and Mother Country (Macierz), but after 1926 he used his power that was 1926 till 1939 that position 1926 till1939 by held position that was From autonomy. regional of means by even policy, Polish inimposing atool was autonomy Silesian whom for somebody, of hands the in always was function Governor's that natural Governor was chosen by nominated by it Minister Prime Polish was and President, the quite nationalities assubjecttreat of publiclaw. the meaning thatis basing onhistorical-institutional categories. All designed in that not order to non-national) (non-ideological, political purely only have to had laws autonomy or government 106 the nor about Ukrainians political demands of for suchalaw: reason about any neither ethnic other) (or anything about the of in thetext however, Nowhere, etc. budgeting policy, building religion, education, Silesia: Polish in the that to similar text). The scopewith and“Ruthenian”Polish Chamber (even namethe was “Ukrainian” in absolutely absent the of competences of those Assemblies and their Executives was somehow M. W. Wanatowicz, op. cit., 20. Moreover, despite even that legal approach and thanks to the fact that the Silesian the that fact the to thanks and legal approach that even despite Moreover, that Silesian Voivodeship (Województwo Silesian Voivodeship (Województwo that ĝOą ski) has much broader one. much broader has ski) Small VersaillesTreaty Sanacja Law about Voivodeships’ about self-government… Law Sanacja’s politician) firmly rejected any idea of the Silesian the of idea any rejected firmly politician) 43 . In my view formy view Polish suchself-In authorities . politician Micha politician ĝOą 106 skie) has a broad autonomy, but itsbut autonomy, has abroad skie) Gra Ī\Ĕ ski (himself a á Gra Ī\Ĕ ski, who was not was who ski, Gorol from town was said was CEU eTD Collection Toronto: Toronto University Press, 2000, pp.13-23. exaggeration exaggeration Gra the within the German Republic or itinwithin Republicremain some the German or self-government of the Province with Prussia becomeit a land: theireither legal form of the (Land) about decided state which Silesians in1922 tofulfilorder the givenpromises,previously Berlin held authorities areferendum in legal onewith that no Silesia, autonomy. Upper another on amoment for look when we more convincing become will statement That slightly paradoxical hadregime, surprisingly small supportfor Silesian “separateness”in identity. terms of group cultural autonomy. Inmyview Silesian autonomous Voivodeship, especially under the 107 Stanis Kocur, Adam Grzesik, (Karol gathermanaged himself around same group of aimportant heto time Polish Silesian politicians autonomous institutions in the interest of of Magyarisation in interest the institutions autonomous the like Khuen-Héderváry use 1883 and1903) pro-Hungarian(between Kárloy Ban Silesia interwar the in than broader even was autonomy Croatian the speaking legally thus and (Sabor) Diet the before was responsible Ban andSejm, the Governor in Silesian of unlike case the Dualistthe Periodafter Hungarian-Croatian (1868-1918). Compromise comparable example in history of autonomous the another find We can state. Czechoslovak the in Slovakia autonomous the of government the of minister the wouldbecome prime evencentralists) biggest the Beneš Ivan DérerEdvard (so: or Mark Biondich, Mark , In the German part of In of Germanpartthe wasneverUpper Silesiaautonomy applied. On 3 September, autonomy 3. Silesiawithout Hungarian authorities managed to control the parliamentary elections and thus have the have thus and elections parliamentary the control to managed authorities Hungarian Stjepan Radi Ī\Ĕ ski's position in Silesia could be compared to the situation in which situation inbe tothe could Silesia compared ski's position ü , the CroatPeasantPolitics Party, andthe ofMass Mobilization, 1904-1928 á aw Ligo aw 44 Ĕ , Józef Londzin). With only a With only Londzin). Józef , littleof Croatia within Kingdom the of Hungary in . 107 Political autonomy did not spell not did autonomy Political Even though in Croatia, in though Even Sanacja , CEU eTD Collection dzi moje ipomy Geschichte der Beziehungen zwischen Schlesien undBerlin-Brandenburg von 1740bis heute/“Przebud among other things for opposing the Nazi and conducting Church amongin Naziandconducting thingsfor opposing –was services also the Polish other Church Silesia and degraded form Silesia degraded and 1918, wasobviously In1938 finishedUpper Silesia and uprooted. Lower again unitedwas with before indifference national of policy Catholic that of reminiscence and continuation a German the1920s throughout and early 1930s. the same time number of votes for Polish parties diminished gradually but constantly KVP got 35 CommunistsKVPper cent votes, got of 16.6 andNSDAP (KPD) only 9.5 percent. called “the uncrowned king of kingSilesia”. of “theUpper called uncrowned the deputy to 1933 enjoyedand real non-threatened power popularity Ulitzkaand Prelate (1873-1953), represented socially oriented and republican Catholicism, inrepresented socially andrepublicanCatholicism, the oriented 111 110 Verlag, 2002, p. 417. Silesia did not want to lose wantnot Silesia theposition inthe Prussian did influence to and of division final the after Germany), of asaLand or independent (either state Silesian Upper its charismatic leader Rev. Carl Ulitzka. Carl Rev. leader its charismatic 109 108 Katholische Volkspartei (KVP; regional autonomous branch of the Catholic for being50.389) opted mostly aPrussianProvince, becauseof standpointthe of the majorityinvestments,regard of (517.760 schooling, Vast religion to voters policy etc. of Ğ Jan Goczo Jan Ibidem, p. 507. Guido Hitze, T. H. Tooley, op. cit., p. 261. , Berlin and Opole: Stowarszyenie Instytut When Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany, that in Germany, power to came Hitler Adolf When Ğ l“: Przyczynek do historii stosunków mi á , Reichstag Przynale Carl Ulitzka (1873-1953) oder Oberschlesien zwischen den Weltkriegen Ī no , parish priest in the Ratibor-Altdorf next to the Polish border, was even was border, Polish the to next Ratibor-Altdorf in the priest parish , Ğü narodowa aj Provinz to Ċ 111 zyk naGórnym ĝOą Regierungsbezirk 108 ski, 1995, pp. 96-104. KVP, although previously supported ideas previously KVP,although supported about Ċ dzy 109 45 ĝOą Even in the election to the to election in the Even ĝOą skiem a Berlinem-Brandenburgi sku , in: whereas Father Ulitzka himself – „Wach auf,meinHerz, unddenke”: Zur mild Provinz Oberschlesien Provinz Catholic policy, somehow policy, Catholic Landtag Zentrumpartei Reichstag Düsseldorf: Droste ą od 1740 rokudo . KVP that Ĩ si in 1930 110 Ċ until ) and serce At CEU eTD Collection 114 Katowice: Towarzystwo Przyjació quoted in:Emil Szramek, niemieckim”.Helmut Nicolai, trzeba si trzeba niemczyzny domaga almost always through German culture ( culture German through always almost inSilesian the Weimar social evenbefore) Republic (and and professional went promotion of the privilegedmake could ause always authorities were not German thesame. arguments although and tools positionIn thisof sensethe theirGerman goals Germanwere culturecitizens almost and convince the them sameof the Germanas as cultureaimstheHowever, before 1933German politicians in even tomakeOppeln wanted Upper loyal Silesians ifof they thehighwere of PolishSlavic origins. oneauthorities in Silesia. in Katowice, For an Upper 113 112 minority existingisolated but from others: element”. Polish rotten attitude assimilationto the policy complaining “mixing about bloodthe and of racewith more different significantly ideology presented Nazi timethat At racial Germanness”. of the “bastion Polish mild itsin and nationalization thatspoke landtolerant 1920s with relatively policy (Germans expelled from his parish and forced to live in Berlin. Ibidem, p. 11. „Gdyby na Górnym Górnym na „Gdyby G. Hitze, as to allow to as too late and now in our position we have to take into account that there is noother choice Germanness one claim itsshould preservation and seclusion. Unfortunately,it is already If in Upper Silesia the Polish minority would still really exist, in order to protect in by anotheryet Germanculture), became Nazi step to the assimilated 1930s Ċ liczy Carl Ulitzka… ü , nie pozostaje nic innego, jak pozwoli jak innego, nic pozostaje nie , ü Wasserpolack si Ċ jej utrzymania i odosobnienia. Niestety jest ju 113 ĝOą , p. 651. Górny Oberschlesien im Ringer der Volker, sku rzeczywi sku From that (racist) point of view it would be better to keep the Polish á Naukna ĝOą s to melt in the German nation. sk jako problem socjologiczny ĝOą Ğ cie istnia cie sku, 1934, p.10. cultural univalence 46 á a jeszcze mniejszo jeszcze a ü Wasseroplakom na rozp na Wasseroplakom 112 Oppeln: Kampfbund für deutsche Kultur, German Upper Silesia from a Catholic from Silesia Upper German 114 Ī zapó (Upper Silesia as a as Silesia(Upper SociologicalIssue). ) and usually integral led to Ğü Ĩ polska, nale polska, no, a w takiem po á yni ĪDá Ċ cie si cie oby dla ochrony oby dla áRĪ eniu, z którem Ċ w narodzie 1930, CEU eTD Collection 1922), Katowice: Wydawnictwo Urz r./Die Genfer Konvention über Oberschlesien,1922 15Mai 116 2001, pp. 102passim. countries under control and acceptance of the of acceptance and control under countries legislation and policy potentiallyand protect groups. underprivileged nation-state’s level particular of abovethe exist temporary least)could (at that framework institutional and legal create to was system the of aim The Convention). Silesian Upper the 115 Polish or Czechoslovakia Yugoslavia, in of (like country case the the League and between bilaterally signed wereeither treaties for inrights Such minority nation-states. “unsteady groups new-emerged the and uncertain” establishedby Leaguethe of inNation Central the and inEurope Southern ensureorder to system protection minority ofthe elements asonethelater be can treated Convention theissueregulated minority the of (Polish in rights and inGermany German Poland). 1922 May, 15 from Convention Geneva Silesian Upper the them of both in states, their minorities. national of protection international the was it on impact an had that factors the of One combination. different created authorities of the policy andthe identities the cultures, the between relationship was friendlyUpper Silesian specificity as inconsistent– unless understood with Germanness 1933 – before identification. national Silesian) Slavic-Upper and tolerated (German uncertain least at or (German) if not supported. However on the Polish side of the borderline See: Stanis Antonina K Despite the difference in minority rights 4. Legalframeworkinuse: the legal status of Polish and German part of Silesia within á á oskowska, aw (ed.),Komar The National CulturesGrass-Root on the Level Górno Ċ du Wojewódzkiego, 1937. ĞOą ska Konwencja Genewska mi Small Treaty of Versailles of Small Treaty 47 Entente (Genevaabout Convention UpperSilesia, 15May (like the Treaty (like in1923or Lausanne of the Treaty Ċ dzy Polsk . Budapest and New York: CEU Press, from from betweentwo 1919) or ą aNiemcami z15maja 1922 116 That 115 CEU eTD Collection (1929): 238. 118 Silesia 1922-1937),Opole: Instytut possible and Germans in the Eastern Silesia strongly opposed and possible opposed strongly that Silesia often tothe andGermans inthe Eastern appealed betweenarea conflict and issue controversial most the Poland probably were schools minority years fifteen andnext the For Convention. Germany.Geneva the by accepted and chosen was option schools’ minority Polish authority triedgradually and possibly forpainlessly people andidentity. their to limit thenationalfeeling nonethelessbelongingof should of both culture, to bereached them German schoolsUlitzka's KVP in the German Silesia: still the goal was “developed”national consciousness and as muchpolicy to of idea comparable sense that was In some bridge. pass that time to andsome culture as Polish the to German the from “bridge” a them giving by Silesians, indifferent of Polonization as functionalsomething for borderland the community,butalso asa tool for softthe separated education for education minorities. the separated for thebilingualNapieralski) ( opted speaking those previous Catholicmostlyof that bilingual connected Adam option, with members during someof of Convention that representation the(roughly negotiation Polish issuesminorities. Itshouldconflict between benoticedPoland regarding and Germany that Mixed inCommission Katowice and Arbitrary inTribunal Beuthen were established dissolve to 117 plenty of minorin detail described also but nationalization, economicthe from enterprises minority the for protection issues. minorities, of life political and cultural the of protection system, schooling minority guaranteed Emil Szramek, „Wspomnienie o See: Stanis Finally in the resultof negotiationthe bilingual that option was rejected and the Upper Silesian Convention wasin that force for fifteen years between 1922 and 1937 á aw Rogowski, Komisja mieszanadlaGórnego ĝOą Ğ .p. Adamie Napieralskim”, ski, 1977, pp. 16-18. 117 Two international institutions of the League of international Nations: Two institutions of of League the utraquistic 118 Bilingualism was for them a positive value not only not value a positive them for was Bilingualism 48 ) school in whole Upper Silesia rather than for Zeszyty ĝOą ska 1922-1937 Towarzystwa Przyjació (Mixed ComissionforUpper á Nauk na ĝOą sku 2 CEU eTD Collection (Common Schooling for theNational Minorities Poland,in 1918-39).Wroc Stanis nad Skarg znowu dziecko do szko mniejszo 120 Study), Warszawa: Sp. Akc. Dom Ksi Socjologiczne send some language experts in order to examine children that were sent to minority schools if schools minority to sent were that children examine to in order experts language some send hadto Nations Leagueof interwar period. whole the out through Voivodeshipin theSilesian German. the to another on their German employer and local Polish authorities,near Katowice) send complained that someone people from childMine, usually lower officialsto the dependent both Polish school and of the Silesian towns that he called “Mine” (“Kopalnia”; in reality it was Murcki settlement 119 Sociologist Józef Cha identity. national German the for option strong than authorities Polish the for problematic more even wasobviously position, which necessarily either-or was not Sometimes that nationalisms. competitive between two battlefield the on themselves situate could Silesians etc. German school, by belonging to the Polish or German associations, choirs, sport clubs, banks Silesians’ free choice of the national belongingness. By subscribing children to Polish or to for Upper the a opportunity the became alternative systems schooling two the coexistence of hand institutions other such Arbitrary ofNations. of On or League the other the Tribunal „Robotnik skazany przez s Józef Cha á aw Mauserberg, aw That minority schooling Polish-German was apple of discord between Germans and Poles dismissed from the German company, he again took childhis to the Polish school. him, sohe sent achild to minoritythe [German-MJ] school. Butwhen oversightby he was sentenced court Polish when authorities, Polish onthe arevenge take to wanted Worker Ğ ciowej, kiedy za ą Rz (Polish-German Antagonism in the Industrial Settlement „Mine” in UpperSilesia: Sociological á asi ą du Niemieckiego wniesion Ĕ ski, Antagonizm polsko-niemiecki w osadziefabrycznej"Kopalnia" na Górnym á y polskiej”. Szkolnictwo Powszechne dla Mniejszo á Ğ asi przez przeoczenie zosta 119 Ĕ In another case a Polish official noted that: noted official Polish a case another In ski who in conductedanthropological the early ski who 1930s research in one ą d polski, chc Uwagi Wydzia ąĪ ki Polskiej, 1935, p. 84. ą doSta ą c zem á á zwolniony z pracy w przedsi u O á Ğ ego Trybuna 49 ci Ğ wiecenia Publicznego ü si Ċ na w Ğ ci Narodowychw w Polsce 1918-39latach á á u Sprawiedliwo adzachpolskich, zg á aw: Ossolineum-PAN, 1968, p.132. ĝOą Ċ biorstwie niemieckim, przeniós skiego Urz Ğ ci w ci Hadze á osi á Ċ dziecko do szko du Wojewódzkiego 120 ĝOą , quoted after: sku: Studium á y á CEU eTD Collection powszechne… niemieckim poczuciem narodowym, którego przecie którego narodowym, poczuciem niemieckim skar 123 1948 wanted. For authorities it was an obstacle for the proper adjustment itwanted. Forauthorities the was of proper to Upper Silesians an the for obstacle they as much as school German the for opting from Silesians stop not could 1937 before their German sense of national belonging, which alter all none is allowed to check.” appealed decisionsthose against Supreme tothe Administrative byjustifying Tribunal it with schools, German the to admitted not were that children the of “Parents identity. national some aboutjustify a further. decision To step one’s one declare forchildren, couldone school even national identity strongerwas definitely than before, in interwar Silesia things could goeven 122 121 nationality. own their of behalf school fordecisions their opposed bycommissionschildren taken and institutions on working choose a to theirrights by of parents underlining nationality one late HabsburgMoravia: the place took forexampleschoolingbetween and similar in parents about authorities that struggles noticeis worthy to Justice inHague.It Court of includingInternational courts, thePermanent another supreme andreferred thosedecisions to by organizations) Minority opposed German use German language.to altogether 1686children, half whom pass of not (811) didit because of insufficientthe ability Walter participated Maurer councillor bySwiss one conducted theexaminations case of Polish authorities back Polish tothe school. Onlybetween 1927 and1928in bestknown the failedthey by language German enough. examweretaken children whothe knew that Those „ Rodzice uczniów nie przyj nie uczniów „Rodzice Tara Zahra, Tara S. Mauserberg, op. cit., pp. 134-137; S. Rogowski, pp.60-61. Ī . Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2008. yli si That phenomenonThat was highly for problematic Polishthe authorities in Katowice, which Ċ niejednokrotnie do Najwy , p. 136. Kidnapped Souls: National Indifference and the Battle forChildren inthe Bohemian Lands, 1900- 121 However, in However, many parentsof supported cases children(often the Ċ tych do szkó do tych 122 Ī Since after 1918 the pressure on having and manifesting having 1918the Since after andpressure on szego Trybuna á niemieckich z powodu s powodu z niemieckich 50 Ī sprawdzi á u Administracyjnego, uzasadniaj ü nie wolno.” S. Mauserberg, S. wolno.” nie á abej znajomo abej Ğ ci j ci Ċ ą zyka niemieckiego zyka c swoj 123 Szkolnictwo ą spotaw Ċ CEU eTD Collection 126 125 znaczenia i si Obn [do polsko declaration. All these “problematic” cases of Polish-speakers in a German school, siblings school, inaGerman Polish-speakers casesof “problematic” All declaration.these national the than important more be even might which sense pragmatic non-national other, had a declaration for one or another national identification, butfor people themselves it quite often words:inother Silesia inandUpper sending 1920s 1930sdecision about school children to was such a national division and they rather tried to make some use of them in their normal life. In reproducing”. self- considerable extend is this world to probabilities and […], contact structures in the formation and reproduction of the national division. “Since the school shapes opportunity Romanian schooling. to next existing system school Hungarian-language the with Transylvania nowadays of bit little a reminds situation That – German. school minority the to if Polish, are you school Polish forcedexisting peoplenational inparallel ifyou into sendcategories: clear-cut your children to 124 protection. Józef Cha right minority a such have to not better been have would it Consequently State. Polish Ibidem, p. 26. See: Rogers Brubaker, “Mi Ī\á a bowiem autorytet gospodarczy kraju i gospodarzy miejscowo Ċ Therefore, on one hand, German minority school system and Polish state school system school state Polish and system school minority German hand, one on Therefore, important that itis actually possible. more and stronger ofbeing illusion an created it minority the for whereas town; the of and antagonism and postponed its solution. Itdecreases economic the ofauthority state the Polish-German population,butquite oppositethe magnified it conflicts, deepened the International protection of the minorities in Silesiadoes not facilitate adjustment of the dzynarodowa ochrona mniejszo Ğ ci –MJ],lecz spot przeciwnie á y wi 126 Ċ kszej, ni On the other hand, Silesians were sometimes smart enough to omit traps of á 125 asi Ethnicity without Groups Ī faktycznie posiadaj By a decision where your child should learn you willy-nilly parttook Ĕ ski expressed that opinionski expressedthat lucidly: Ğ ci na Ċ gowa ĝOą 124 ą á i zdoby a konflikty,pog sku nie u , Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006, p. 26-27. 51 ü sobie potafi á atwia przystosowania si áĊ bi á a antagonizm iodsun ą .“ J. Cha Ğ ci, adlamniejszo á asi Ĕ Ċ ski, op. cit., pp. 85-86. ludno Ğ Ğ Ċá ci polsko-niemieckiej ci stworzy a jego rozwi á a pozory ą zanie. CEU eTD Collection was definitely and objectively Polish, but because of was butbecause from Polish,definitely and objectively of Poland through ages separation the a struggle between andidentity German Polish of anUpperSilesian whobyhis ethnicroots Republic. difficult to erase and subordinate – more Germanthat legal its culture was status Voivodeship unique to – especially thanks than in other parts of the Silesian Andin the German one. –the highculture faceformer another hadand to popular culture Prussian part of the Polish Western a (Kresy PolishZachodnie), was inusually here, Borderlands culture called the so as the dominatinghigh can members culture that attract of otherthe national whereas groups, identification. However, in the Eastern Poland it could be done through Polish culture presented national Polish and Polishness ofthe of promoters role the minorities' took issueand national face to had they Wschodnie) (Kresy Poland of Borderlands Eastern the in Like elsewhere. administration Polish than position a different in themselves found – Convention policy in the AuthoritiesSilesian in Katowice because– also of autonomy the and Geneva in Poland. Silesians strengthenautonomy gave “separateness”among to about Upper possibilities Silesian that the than minorities about Convention Geneva the rather was it Paradoxically, nationalisms. two the between identification their negotiate to wanted who Silesians Convention gave not only rights for the national minorities but also some useful tools for of Geneva the legal framework showsthat etc. schools national different two attending So what could be seen in the Silesian Voivodeship according to thePolish was side to accordingin Voivodeship whatcould be theSilesian So seen Minority andrights schooling question part was important an of Polish broader the 5. Janus-headedPolishness 52 Organic Statute CEU eTD Collection Hüttenbetrieb in ihmherforgerufenden eigenthümilchern Arbeiter- und Gemeinde-Verhältnisse Hugo Solger, ethnic ethos. See for example: Richard Holtze, Richard example: See for ethos. ethnic 129 Katowice. ACultural-Historical Study), I. transl. T. S 128 Urz Katowice: Celebrations), of Silesia: on the 10th Anniversary of 3rd Uprisingthe 1921. 2nd/3rd of May.Journal 1931: Edited by Committeethe dziesi wspomnie zamkni pie ziemi tej zagin tej ziemi culture in the most attractive way, displacing and driving out the German one, in order to attract institutions in1922 task defined presentPolish state clear: Katowice bythe quite wasalso to Kulturträger expressed that view puttingin it a nutshell: in the in mission on behalf on the a state as work their and treated which the in Silesia nation. authorities Polish the Needlessfor justification a somehow to say that German clerks and teachers 127 “revaluation of the two cultures”: replacing the Germanbranch with of the Polish. and pressureof the he Germanization his truthful Michaidentity Governor was lost. Ğ German or Polish official means here obviously also an ethnic Upper Silesian – it was rather occupational than „Przewarto “Lud “Lud ni ni ludowej nie zachowa Ċ ciolecie IIIpowstania 1921. 2/3. V. 1931:Pami Ċ ty w archaicznych formach j formach w ty archaicznych Therefore situation in Silesia in the eyes of Polish politicians (especially from the local the from (especially politicians Polish of eyes in the Silesia in situation Therefore reminiscences of the time of knights waned on that land, so much so that even in the folk the in even that so much so land, that on waned knights of time the of reminiscences the of rest the nation.Polish even With time the tradition of the Piast princes and with contact the from off cut totally almost were ages many through people Silesian The language of the local people song did not remain its trace. Regierungsbezirk Oppeln Regierungsbezirk Ĕ ĝOą sierpie Sanacja ski by ski Ċá : tocivilized Borderlands andmodernized German (Ostmark). Eastern Ğ Der Kreis Beuthen inOberschelsien mit besonderer Berücktischtigung derduch Bergbau ciowanie dwóchkultur.” a z czasem tradycja ksi tradycja czasem z a Ĕ á 1920 czerwiec 1921 przez wiele wieków odci wieków wiele przez ) was perceived ) was as“Polish-German antagonism”, which took form the of the á si ą Ċ d Wojewódzki d Wojewódzki jej Ğ lad. Jedynym widocznym znakiem polsko ąĪą [emphasis-MJ]: beautiful, closed in archaic forms. Ċ before 1918actedwith before similarmotivationthe the of zyk tutejszego ludu.” Micha ludu.” zyk tutejszego Roczniki Towarzystwa Przyjació t piastowskich i wspomnienia rycerskich czasów tak dalece, dalece, tak czasów rycerskich wspomnienia i piastowskich t The single visible sign of the Polishnesswas there the (Fight for Silesia: Pieces of Memois) in: Ċ ĝOą ty niemal od wszelkiej odwszelkiej niemal ty Miasto Katowice.Studium kulturowo- ski, 1931, p. 7. 1931, ski, á awi Ċ 53 tnik wydanyprzez Komitet Uroczysto Ĕ ska, Katowice: Muzeum Miasta Katowic, 2005[1871]; á Gra áą á Nauk na czno Ī\Ĕ Ğ ci z reszt ci ski, Ğ ci na tym terenie by ĝOą Walka o 128 sku historyczne (The City of City (The historyczne ą 3 (1930): 338. O wolno narodu polskiego. Na polskiego. narodu The latter ideaThe latter was Ğ , Breslau, 1860. ci 127 ĝOą (ForFreedom of sk: fragmenty ü ĝOą Ğü á Gra Ī 129 e nawet w e nawet á pi Ī\Ĕ After ska: w Ċ kny, ski CEU eTD Collection ĞOą pog i dymizapomniana,Boga jakoby przez czarnego, sk czarnego, potworne kot potworne pi owiane wspomnieniem minionychwieków, wro formie ko ĝOą 132 131 Polskie (R. Wegner), [1933]. translated into English. See: Gustaw Morcinek, described by some well-known Polish writer. It is worth to notice that Morcinek book was almost immediately 130 order. authorities’ Kammer a Austrian born inthe (1891-1963; Morcinek Gustaw local writer Silesian Polish by faces)German culturewas modern clearly with position struggling the expressed the of state. Polish the to attachment and identity national Polish their strengthen to and Silesians Upper Pozna gives the full and right sense about what is Upper Silesia about: form. a oversensitive a in languagealthough in atypical expressed nationalism ethnic facethe of typical,usual as and memory be may tradition treated These common antique ethnicity, the of places Ċ skiej i tre kna jest sama ziemia; z drugiej strony spi sk i przedziwny jest cz i sk jest przedziwny á InPolish original it also sounds beautifully itsin Young Polish„Modernist” style: “Przedziwn G.Morcinek, That book was a part of the series called “Miracles of Poland” (Cuda Polski), where each Polish region was owia ludzkiego, rudekoszarowe obokdomy iksi magnackich Ĕ Silesia is a remarkable land and remarkable are its inhabitants. On the one hand antiquated indissoluble from it, and beautiful as the earth itself. soil in the rooted ages, of past memory the by hallowed all art; and dances forms Polish : R. : idem, Wegner,[1932]; That Janus-headed nature of the official version of its of ofancientand nature version Polishness (with official That Janus-headed the Ğ , not in Prussia), who in the 1932 wrote an illustrated guide-book about Silesia guide-book about ininan illustrated the not to 1932wrote the Prussia), who , cio Ğü ą á á pego chleba, dymy, czelu dymy, chleba, pego jej cz owisko, spieniony war wyt war spieniony owisko, ów drewnianych,w starpolskiej mowie, legendach, podaniach,pie Silesia…, á owieka.”Idem, Slask…, pp. 179-180. inherwooden churches,in her OldPolish speech,legends, tradition, song, 130 Morcinek inhis poetic style general presented vision of country:that 132 á owiek, co na niej mieszka. Z jednej strony zakrzep strony Z jednej mieszka. niej na co owiek, p. 106. But only the second part of the same paragraph together with the first ĝOą sk Ğ cie hut rzygaj hut cie ĊĪ ą (Silesia). Preface by Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski. Pozna ce ha ce onego onego Ċ trzony i zestokrotniony rytm pracy mi á Silesia dy i czasrne zbiorowiskakopalfabryk,czasrne dy i Ğ Ī ni ycia, jego zawrotne gor jego zawrotne ycia, Ċ te wziemi ą 54 , preface by Gustaw Orlicz-Dreszer, transl. Z. M. Arend, cych po cych 131 Ī Ċ arami, przew arami, do ostatka, nierozdzielone z ni ąĪĊ cychpa ą czkowe tempo, zawzi tempo, czkowe á aców […] –towszystko tre á óczona ziemia do g do ziemia óczona Ğ niach, ta á a polsko a ĊĞ ni ludzkichi stalowych, Ĕ [emphasis-MJ], cach isztuce, wszystko Ğü Ĕ , kominów, i szarego w swej archaicznej w swej Ĕ : Wydawnictwo Ċ ta walka o walka k ta ą áĊ i pi ą Teschener bi, rozorana bi, ziemi Ċ Ğü kne jak ziemi ą jest Ċ s CEU eTD Collection 133 Gra of photography Governor the the that by accident not was It successes. own his and land his of development civilisation the for bewhom heshould thankful to message, the grasp easily could Morcinek of Silesian reader modernity. of benefits the in participate to Silesians allowed that Poland is only vision that to struggle a black for bread of niggardly piece better had theformerthan timeGerman “the from rule which of brought relentless only the is development Polish that emphasise to Moreover, development. modern the with equates state Polish the that them convince to had Silesians Upper nationalize to in order nationalism Polish words, In other strong. and attractive energetic,but developed, longer archaic, beno had to timethat at Polishness Polishness. with the is closely-connected modern world present that to was Polishperspective the from task difficult The most modernity. Silesian Upper of understanding German the rejected he obviously same the time at but of Silesia, Idem, Morcinek was deeply fascinated with that “feverish tempo” of modern of countenance the “feverish tempo” with that fascinated deeply Morcinek was of Silesian earth and Silesian humanity Silesian and earth of Silesian tenements side barrack-like bydreary sideheads, human of mass withshabby a and the chimneys, and mines palaces factories, of princes and magnates – all thisploughed upand God-forgotten, smoking cinder-mounds andblackcongregations of is the meaning maws of furnaces vomiting conflagrations, theearth turned inside out to itsdepths, tempo, the relentless struggleniggardly for a ofpiece blackbread,cloudsof smoke,the a monstrouswitches’ foamingof cauldron, floodlife,its intensified the giddy,feverish On otherthe thepiled-up manifold ofrhythm work of human and muscles,steel transformed. From the Beskidy Mountains to Lubliniec run new black roads, new roads, black new run Lubliniec to Mountains Beskidy the From transformed. Just within a few years Silesian land, man, their souls and hearts were totally Silesia… , p. 106. Ī\Ĕ ski ski situated between exactly was such verses: . 133 ” or “ 55 black congregations of Accordingfactories”? CEU eTD Collection polskiego nawskro ksi swojego spo swojego w fizycznej, robotnicze,wartkie aruchliwe, skrz wszystkichwiaduktów polskich, wype szko Lubliniec porozbiega Lubliniec 134 policy of policy indifference national the of in the 19thcentury together with the “objective” clear-cut division between thePolishness and Germanness. Catholic Conscious and relatively culture German the of position strong the following problem another face to had elites weakPolish starting point for the Polish one. In Upper Silesia there forms”. Polish “antiquated present those to was dedicated that collection was almost no and plenty of technical innovations inside, butit was dedicated primarily for ethnographic the form food after Nazi The there. the soon Museum hadvery modern dismantledset architectural Silesian Museum been hadthat building in inKatowicefinished 1930s: almost in1939it was á ąĪ awachszkolnych i czytelniach, przyswaja zuporem izawzi “W ci á ki uczonej, lecz wed y-pa To fulfil intentions about presenting those two inseparable faces of Polishness in Silesia, Polishness of faces inseparable two those presenting about intentions fulfil To 6. Insidetheantagonism Somehow symbolic combination of these two faces of Polisness was the building of the workers inhabited became with agile, built, new detached houses and tenementhouses filled up with hubbub, new districts for bridges andviaductin Beskidy (the biggest viaduct among all Polish viaducts) were churches met sky offull smoke,new schools-palaces swarmed with new children, right through democratic and with a discerning democratized culture. democratized discerning a with and democratic through right educateshimself his and children. […] isThere arising a new oftype citizen: Polish who to knowonly used the of rush work,physicalthe nowis ofhurry in a learning, he á ace mnogim ludkiem dzieci Ğ ą pieszy si gu niewielu lat przeistoczy á ecze Ĕ Ğ stwa coraz liczniejsze kadry inteligencji, umiej inteligencji, kadry liczniejsze coraz stwa demokratycznego o zdemokratyzowanej kulturze Ċ á teraz w zdobywaniu nauki dla siebie i swoichdzieci, kszta y si Ċ nowe czarne drogi, powynosi drogi, czarne nowe á ug wymogów szarego dnia roboczego a twórczego. Powstaje nowy obywatelatyp Ċ tne izapobiegliwe.tne […] á a si Ċ á ni cym, powsta á Ċ y gwarem nowe domki ikamienice, zaludni ziemia industrious industrious peopleand foresighted ĞOą á y nowe mosty wiadukti w Beskidach, najwi 56 ska i jej cz á y si Ċ pod zadymione niebo nowe ko nowe niebo zadymione pod ĝOą Ċ to zakco dotychczas zna Ğ á owiek, ich dusza i serce. Od Beskidów a ci ą Ğ cej ustosunkowa ą wiat wszystk á ej.” G. Morcinek, ą wiedz á 134 ci si ü Ċ si wspó á Ċ tylkopo , mozoli nad ksi longe durée Ċ á do do . A . Silesian, y si ĝOą Ğ á cio czesn Ċ Ī sk… nowe dzielnice ycia nie wed nie ycia á y, zaroi y, Ğ piech w piech pracy ą , pp. 14-15. , wy factors Ċ kszy ze á á y nowe ania ze ąĪ kami Ī po á ug CEU eTD Collection 137 136 przewagi”. J. Cha warto by spo „niemiecko connected with looking for the appropriate place for a for place appropriate the for looking with connected Poland”. in Silesian regain inidentity.nation to“Polish-German order and their state right antagonism […]is Polish souls – arePolishaccording that but byethnicity Germanized lost to through ages they their partly many of UpperSilesiansthe and their regional particular, feeling of belonging. Silesians – identification which was a consequence of the “cultural bivalence” or“ambivalence” bivalence” “cultural the of aconsequence which identification was Polish side and inthe 1930s 1920s between was aclash German and national Polish Silesia was ethnically WhatinPolish). be could seen Silesianthe accordingVoivodeship the to eyes Polish in the (since ethnicity mixed about little very was problem the particularly Silesia in Nonetheless, nation-state. with another compete hadit to where territory, mixed ethnic faced nation-state when a situations like all inwas Silesia situation Upper To some extent again in expressed openly: 135 Cha Józef regions. other than nationalism for difficult more case Silesian made [emphasis in original-MJ]. J. Cha á o w á “ Antagonizm polsko-niemiecki w osadzie wi Iamusing here again concept the of Antonina K “Antagonizm polsko-niemiecki w osadzie kszta ecznie wyra Ğ ci, które le które ci, ą tpliwo is a Pole. a is religion, language, customsculture; and ifthere no doubt,was whois a German and who regarding demarcated clearly are that groups social the formed Germans and Poles was really exact borderline between the Germanness andthe Polishness; inother words: if Polish-German antagonism in the settlement would develop absolutely different if there Ğ ci ą Ğ . Consequently is. Consequently Polish now task to(re)incorporate them within Polish the culture, ” istnia ci, co do tego, kto jest Polakiem, a kto Niemcem. […] Strefa antagonizmu, to strefa sporna, strefa Ĩ nie nie rozgraniczone pod wzgl Īą á asi 135 na pograniczu na grupnarodowych do którychi wstosunku Ĕ ski, op.cit., p. 83. á a faktycznie wyra á asi Ĕ ski, op.cit., p. 101. Ĩ na granica, inaczej mówi Ċ dem religijnym, j ąĪ e si á towa á oskowska. See:Eadem, Ċ wi 57 á by si Ċ c szukaniemz nale Ċ Ċ zupe zykowym, obyczajowym ikulturalnym; gdyby nie ą á nie inaczej,nie gdyby pomi c, gdyby Niemcy i Polacy stanowili grupy The NationalCultures… Ī Ī nego adna z tych ustali adna z nie grup ĝOą zakowi miejscaw Polsce Ċ dzy dzy „polsko á asi 137 , pp. 118ff. Ĕ Polish ski one ski 136 Ğ á a swej ci ą of ”, a ”, ” CEU eTD Collection Ekspansja narodowa bardziej aktywnego i ekspansywnego poczucia narodowego ni narodowego poczucia ekspansywnego i aktywnego bardziej ze znacznie bli znacznie ĝOą 139 of tradition nationalism Polish the in well-known formula that position. According to him Silesia is a filed of the tough “national work” (to recall the principle in the policy of Polish authorities. Micha authorities. Polish of policy in the principle However on the other there is the specific nature of the national rivalry theborderland: on national of nature rivalry the specific isthe there on other the However one hand henoticed again strong regionalthe ties: 138 own, and secondly by insisting onthe promotion of its own national high culture. “high the “de-nationalised”local by firstly nationalism:the as itsculture” population claiming with conflict in a nationalism” “peasant the of position a took way in a Silesia in nationalism bivalence and uncertain national identification led Cha led identification national uncertain and bivalence Ğ rodkowuj sku, gdzie obecna polsko-niemiecka granica jest niedawna. “Z jednej strony ludno See: Józef Chlebowczyk, Józef See: That last sentence could be a justification and explanation for the consistent national consistent for the explanation and justification bea could sentence lastThat Assumption about Polish-German Assumption UpperSilesian cultural about antagonism grounded on the national feeling than from the inhabitants of the central parts [of the state]. National whole national group demands from the moreborderland active and expansionistic All expansionistic national actions are especiallyfocused on the borderland and the Poland. or of Germany parts central the for people than other each to closer themselves feel Silesia, where thePeople on presentthe both sides of the political political borderline feel close to one another boundary especially in is very recent. Silesians on the both sides expansion Ī ą si, ni si, si Ċ ekspansywne d Ī mieszka is on the borderland everybody’s duty jest na pograniczu na jest Ğü poobydwupolitycznej stronach granicy czuje si Ĕ On Small Nations in Europe cy centralnych cz cy centralnych ąĪ enia narodowo-pa obowi ą zkiem ka zkiem ĊĞ ci Niemiec a Polski. Z drugiej strony w strony Z drugiej Polski. a Niemiec ci Ĕ 58 Ī stowowe ica dego . Wroc. á Gra .” J. Cha [underlined in original-MJ]. in [underlined á aw:Ossolineum, 1988. á Ī\Ĕ asi ĝOą Ī odmieszka Ĕ á zacy zacy obydwupo stronach czuj ski may be again the best speaker for speaker best the again be may ski á a grupa narodowa wymaga odpogranicza asi ski to interesting conclusion. On the On conclusion. interesting to ski Endecja Ĕ ski, op. cit., p. 78. Ċ sobiebliscy, zw Ĕ ). Because of the German ców centralnych cz ców centralnych áDĞ 139 á nie na pograniczu na nie aszcza na Górnym 138 ą si ĊĞ ci. […] ci. Ċ sobie CEU eTD Collection ‘Opcje’ Back to the Settlement „Mine” in UpperSilesia: Following Józef Cha 142 141 1926-1936” (Cultural Life of Silesia, 1926-36), narodowychi kulturalnych..” Micha polskiego patrzy narodu istniej national competition, likein caseof schooling. the competition, national of their cultural (am)bivalence (Polishbecause exactly and German)Moreover, they principle. could national the on sometimesantagonism build to not make and a usageidentifications of that clear national position towards reluctant remain their to tired averagepeople opposite: divided between these two nationalities. two between these divided local elites and between regional rivalry itthe exaggerated atleast or incorrect generally was Silesia inthe interwar andPolishness Germanness between the antagonism traditional historians agreethat generally the thesis Cha of from Peter Sahlins book on the Pyrenean borderland. Pyrenean the on book Sahlins Peter from 140 national: is truthfully it when valuable isonly nationalism Polish in the framed contribution cultural Silesian nation.” Polish the of threat Polish culture and nationality has beto better and stronger in Silesia than among “the rest TomnaszNawrocki,„Powrót osady do ‚Kopalnia’ Górnym na P. Sahlins, op. cit., pp. 110 passim. Jamam ambicj ą ce ju 37, No.2 (2001): 30. On hand Cha other the huge reservoir of the national and cultural forces cultural and national of the reservoir huge on us, here in notSilesia, only as toughworkersmines of and mills,steel butalso as the contribution will be a creative element, so as sothe rest of thePolish nation would look assists to the general oeuvre of achievements of the Polish culture and that the Silesian I have an ambition that Silesiawill contribute as soon as possible its already existing Ī walory swej kultury, by w i tym zakresie by Ċ […]by [ á a nie tylkoa nie jako twardychna pracowników kopal i hut ĝOą á sk] jak najrychlej do ogólnego dorobku kultury polskiej wniós asi á Gra Ĕ ski’s conclusion is similar to that which that cangrasptoday isski’s conclusion to one similar Ī\Ĕ ski quoted in: RomanLutman, “ Zaranie 142 What we can actually observe was something 59 ĝOą skie á elementem twórczym, by na nas, tu na [underline-MJ]. 13, No.3 (1936): 150. á asi ĝOą Ĕ á ski about existingski about andlong-lasting si 141 sku: Ĕ ski’s Tracks). Contemporary sociologists and sociologists Contemporary ĝ ladamiJózefa Cha 140 ĩ ycie kulturalne Ĕ , ale iwielki, ale rezerwuarsi Dwumiesi á asi Ċ cznik Kulturalny ĝOą Ĕ skiego” (Come ĝOą ska w latach á wszystkie sku reszta á CEU eTD Collection language. 145 Kat, pp. 2-3. EĊ 144 Pa Archwium Kat), national national attitude: which is not an insult against the Polish nation. Polish the against insult an not is which used he “Polishwords: hadnot or“Polish Pig” he bum” but only him:“Duperstein”,called yet Mika, insulted he were drunk both when they that admitted accused case the that In serious. moremuch was harassment possible and, consequently, act asan anti-national classified been could have one butthat case, as a small personal-offence would been treated have be here soon” calling him also: “Polish bum, Polish rascal!” Polish bum, “Polish also: him calling soon” here be will Hitler [be]cause ready, also be I’ll pig, Polish you, with and away, went already pig Polish Schygullaand 4 A.M.Schygulla him: neighbourRobert “A thatat said to pig.One Polish practice: identity national in used inwhichUpperSilesians sense the and of character antagonisms these about tells them on overview a brief just even However Silsieans. of identification national on “anti- andone act” even “Anti-State or act” “Anti-Nation either were called that cases legal 40 than 143 whenCha time same 1930s (soatthe early in the Katowice from Court Regional of the files archival Inthe sense. national have a dzie tu hnet “ and “Polski chacharze, polski lumpie.” . lumpie.” polski chacharze, “Polski “ and hnet tu dzie Rather minor abuse inSilesian: Polish-Germancontamination which is absolutely untranslatable to any other “Polska Czyn antysanacyjny Sanacja In August 1933 Jan Mika, a steel-mill worker from Katowice-Dab accused his accused fromKatowice-Dab colleague In August worker 1933 JanMika, asteel-mill Obviously there were antagonisms in the Silesian Voivodeship and they in andoften Voivodeship they Obviouslycould the were antagonisms Silesian there Czyn antynarodowy Ğ winia, jedna polska act” (sic!). act” Ĕ stwowe w Katowicach stwowe (Anti- (Anti-Nation act) 1234, SO Kat, AP Kat, p. 7. 143 Sanacja All of inaway All andreflected antagonism national them presented of Ğ winia ju act) 1228, S (State Archive in Katowice; AP Kat). Ī á si asi Ċ Ĕ wynios ski did his research in Kopalnia/Mine) I found morefound I his researchinKopalnia/Mine) ski did ą d Okr 60 Czyn antynarodowy á a”,a z tob Ċ 145 gowy w Katowicach (Regional Court in Katowice; SO Schygulla alsoexplained his extensively ą polska 144 (Anti-Nation act) (Anti-Nation1234, SO Kat, AP Ğ winio b Normally such an incident an such Normally ĊGĊ ju Ī gotowy,bo Hitler CEU eTD Collection 149 148 pp. 7-9. si EĊGą oskra albowiem ja osobi Jan góruje przeciwko mnie li tylko z zemsty w oskar again UpperSilesiansthat make could of a nationalthe usage overlapping andnational silly quarrel to the contempt of the nation or the state. However, these is from andhow near a life with every-day contaminated the nation practices and about state crimes and nation the of understanding how a tragicomedy: of nature have cases other of most niemieckiem zwirzchnikom [sic!-MJ] tej she carried. pay that her things some a duty on to Poland she shopping to andthe was coming from inBeuthen back Christmas policeman wanted Poland”) “anti-State because she act” “Piero said “anti-State forthe inprison weeks for two wassentenced Lubosowa lady Magorzata young casea another 147 was obviously withcontrasted the proper andtruthful Pole. from the communal elections in November 1919 when Polish candidates got themajority of votes. November Pole 146 Ċ zazwyczaj równie u tych The word “Pieron” (Thunder) is the most popular swear-word in the Silesian, but also relatively weak one. weak relatively also but Silesian, the in swear-word popular most the is (Thunder) “Pieron” word The “Znany by „NovemberPole” (Novemberpolack) –contemptuous name a young-dateconvertfor Pole. That camename Czyn antypa c Polakiem listopadowem usi Ī enia. Ten enia. Finally Schygulla was acquitted of the crime of the “anti-Nation act”. However in in thisway make a good impression on his superiors. father of the children five – andhe [Mika]himself who is a‘November Pole’ accusation. [Mika] He is aggressively meaccusing [Schygulla] – the unemployed revenge,in only and groundlessly because informer the as accusation this in I participates have Mika Jan and never spoken aboutGerman bosses in the steel-mill. Againstthe mewas brought an action about the eviction Polish Nation asI was known myas well as parents asgood Poles objectingit constant intrigues ofthe says in the act of 148 to a border policeman on the Polish-German border when December,1933 borderon when 22 a border policeman Polish-German onthe to Ī á Ĕ em, jak równie e za stwowy Ğ cie nigdy cie nigdy w podobny wyrazisposób nie Ğ wyst (Anti-State act) 1328, SO Kat, AP Kat, pp. 1-20. Ċ Ī puje przeciwko mnie jako bezrobotnego (ojca pi (ojca bezrobotnego jako mnie przeciwko puje Polaków praktykuje).” Ī á moi rodzice jako dobrzy Polacy, sprzeciwiaj uje w sposóbtyn wyrobi Ī e huty. Przeciwko wystosowano mnie skarg Ĕ ska Polska” (what literally means: “Thunderous means:literally (what ska Polska” Czyn antynarodowy 61 Ī eniu niniejszem jako donosiciel ito bez podstawnie, ü sobie przed jego zwierzchnikami dobr á 149 em si From nowadays perspective these and these perspective From nowadays 147 Ċ przeciwko Narodu Polskiemu jak w akcie (Anti-Nation act) 1234, SO Kat, AP Kat, Ċ ciorga dzieci) agresywnie, a sam a agresywnie, dzieci) ciorga ą legal tragicomedies show cy si Ċ o eksmisj Ċ ustawicznem intryg 146 Ċ wants i ą Ğ opinj wiadek Mika Ċ (jak to ą CEU eTD Collection 5 May, 2009 from: http://www.slonsk.de/Slonsk/Apsc/pozycje/KsiadzEmilSzramek.htm Górno Emil Szramek awspó went to study theology at the University in Breslau (Wroc in Breslau University studythe at theology wentto in Silesia: intellectual Polish time Voivodeship with,however, quite typical biography an of Upper Silesian priest and atthe same identities. national existing within “separateness” the framing of limits the shows time same the at which identity Silesian the of interpretation significant most the it considering jako problemsocjologiczny Katowice publishedin 1934 andentitled from (1887-1942) Emil Szramek of Prelate Catholic book thatwas of example outstanding reflection of some Upper Silesians themselves. dominatingthe national identity)discourse wasalso objectin-deepen interwar the of self- Probably to comparison in the (strange bestidentity and known position strange its with Silesia and as well. at thenationalism(s) same time unreflectively implied by in UpperSilesians the their every-day strategies makingof useof who wanted to frame it somehow in the national discourse and its problems; it was not only 151 performance. solicitor’s a on mostly however opinion had really something incommon with apolitical treason. Final results of the legal proceedings depended Nation by 150 the over-zealous officials or cunning accusers for their particular reasons. Only a few cases to my neighbour. “small”,competition like particular evil)for denouncing their (even private, also purposes This short biographic sketch is based mostly on: Rudolf Brom and Józef anti- the as defined often cases, personal-offend as be treated can majority the cases 40 more-less Among ĞOą Szramek himself was definitely an outstanding figure in the interwar Silesian interwar in the figure outstanding an definitely was himself Szramek Upper Silesian separateness was not only defined by outsiders and state representatives state and by outsiders only defined not was separateness Upper Silesian corner Silesian reflected: Upper 7. Separateness skiego Towarzystwa Przyjació 150 In this respectpeople from borderlands á czesno Ğü (Blessed Rev. Emil Szramek and the Contempororay Life), Katowice: Wszechnica Katowice: Life), Contempororay the and Szramek Emil Rev. (Blessed ). I consciously devote publicationthis I consciously devote that sub-chapteronly ). to á 151 Nauk, 2004; DamianZimo born in a village Tworkau near Ratiborin a peasantfamily Upper Silesia as Upper Silesia a SociologicalQuestion 62 are also somehow privileged. Ĕ , Ks. Emil Szramek jako duszpastrz. jako Szramek Ks. Emil á aw), were he could master his master hecould aw), were ĝ liwiok (ed.), %á ogos ( á Górny awionyksi Acessed ĝOą the ą sk dz CEU eTD Collection position of that land: that of position understandhis concept of he FirstUpper Silesia. definedhalf-metaphorically half-spatially, the better wecan identification personal Szramek of point starting complex that From authorities. Polish to loyal absolutely is he and Polish as himself declares consciously he least not but last and religiousness) and piety diligence, of values” Silesian „Upper to referred or homilies identification community, inhis (heUpper Silesian shows strong tongue used Silesian often in Polish belonging German and culture, whopossess theuniversalof deep sense to (Catholic) German out through wholethe 1920sand 1930s. independent position anintellectual as and asapriest, conducting Churchservices in and Polish Dissertation in history entitled Polish side inthe national 1918. after Beforeconflict in that hishe1916 wrote Doctoral 152 the with extent “Society of the Friends of Studies in Silesia” and editor of its Yearbook. Reconciled to some Silesia: in pastor parish downtown the Marry Church of inKatowice, historian, headof the in Upper intellectuals productive and important most the of one he became Silesia Polish andautonomism”, “clerical Kapica in andTichau from hishe superior inherited somehow thatCatholic national tolerance literally Polish. After he entered the priesthood for four years he was a vicar under Rev. Jan T. H. Tooley, op. cit., p. 265. Emil Szramek is therefore a clear example of a person that feels perfectly both homefeels at that perfectly of a person aclear example istherefore Emil Szramek ages it shares the Upper Silesian from geographicalthe fortuneperspective is kind some of acorner many and for of the all corners, that is: you trip over it and hit at it. And Sanacja regime of regimeGovernor Gra of 152 although although all like Kapica totake after Szramek –alsodecided – Das Kollegiatstift zum Das Kollegiatstift heiligen Kreuz inOppeln 63 Ī\Ĕ ski hecould his still preserved quite . In the interwar the . In CEU eTD Collection religijne.” Ibidem, p. 8 w jednostkachprzejawia si w grupachpewnychjednostek. samo […] Tak poj 155 Sciences in Tychy (Wy Tychy in Sciences Paradoxally, M. S. Szczepa M. Paradoxally, on22 May, 2009 from http://live.us.edu.pl/files/pliki/konferencje/1997/socjologia/tekst/trib.html globalnym 154 Górny czyli zmian Ī priests before 1922–shapedhisidentity. much very is opinion worth about It noticing that such thought, onecan probably hissee here pastoral and political– similarly experiencethat the to Szramek on personalism Christian early the of influence noticeable possible some from Apart two real beings, butit goes on the level of a person: are choosing identity. national Thatcompetition howeveris happening not between two groups, they andthat there compete can more) nationalities (or two fact that of the features despite of 153 hisof would commentators say today. understandinghave be does not as understood to identical with term the “borderland”, asmost geographical position and “Corner”, its non-geographic however, inhis consequences. e si „Polski ‘duchnarodu’ jakiniemiecka ‘Volksseele’ s See for example: Marek S. Szczepa S. Marek example: for See “ Ċ ĝOą mianowicie o nie zawadza i w nie uderza. Ka uderza. w nie i zawadza onie mianowicie ĝOą sk stanowi podwzgl According to the Katowice priest Upper Silesian specificity originates from its specific its from originates specificity Silesian Upper priest Katowice the to According manifests itself more or less perfectly only in the individuals. inthe only perfectly less or more itself manifests an abstract term. Family, national,is patriotic – conscience’ and always – religious‘national conscience so-called Also […] people. of groups some within only exist that Polish inside which is generating a heat. And that heat either ties up or bursts.” every hit causes andpressure motion,either aoutside, change ofa the so position,or sk… (Upper Silesian Regionalism: Between Tribalism and the Global System), Katowice, 1997. Accessed 1997. Katowice, System), Global the and Tribalism Between Regionalism: Silesian (Upper Ċ po , p. 7. áRĪ spirit ofthenation enia, b Ī sza Szko sza ąGĨ Ċ Ĕ mniej lub wi Ċ ski is the vice-chancellor of the Emil Szramek College of Management and Social and ofManagement College Szramek of theEmil vice-chancellor the ski is to wewn dem geograficznym rodzaj naro á a Zarz a [ Ċ trzny, wytwarzaj duch narodu ą dzania i Nauk Spo Nauk i dzania Ċ cej doskonale sumienie familijne, narodowej,patrjotyczne – a zawsze Ĕ ski, 154 For Szramek that corner had its own distinguished set Regionalizm Górno Ī de za de ] and German Ċ 64 ą ciem oderwanem jestzw. t. narodu. sumienie Tylko cy ciep Ğ ą zderzenie ici zderzenie poj á ecznych im. ks. Emila Szramka). ks. Emila im. ecznych Ī nika iodwieków dzieli los wszystkich naro Ċ ciami oderwanemi,ciami które konkretnie istniej á o, które albo wi Volksseele ĞOą Ğ ski: mi nienie powoduje ruch, b ruch, powoduje nienie 155 Ċ are the abstract terms ąĪ dzy plemienno e albo rozsadza.” E.Szramek, 153 Ğ ąGĨ ci ą asystemem to zewn to Ī ą ników, tylko Ċ trzy, CEU eTD Collection Towarzystwa Przyjació zarówno s zarówno the problemsthe in metaphor:one all combine is to dilemma, that solve to does Szramek therefore What nationalism. Silesian the yet of manifesto ita clear same is atthe not but time is internally contradictory, such sentence Schlesier “like H he that argued in inKatowice Among1935 Poles convincedGermans. Silesians whothose are justify to and bonds supra-national and “separateness” Silesian preserve to he wants time same the at but Pole, convinced is he identity: own his advocating and voicing is he other the On “Upperphenomenon Question”:of Silesian distanced, objective andwith clearly defined terms. create is ofthea sociological analytical to description position. onehand hisattempt On understanding of understandingthe of identities in Silesia and Szramek’s awarenessa person, what he called the process of about the historicalon a person’s reality will, of thaton contrary process). eager tothat land not rather he was andto thehis outside pressure that wants to impose some identity on national of the processes accepted sametimehe the but at of Silesia, roots Polish ethnic believed inthe 157 156 that was convinced Szramek obviously interwar period. in identity national of understandings collective dominating the to contrary on went that a voices few of be one to seems identity national the to approach free-will way a in personal, “Jak o H Ibidem, pp. 15-16. 2 Such personal approach combined with the conviction about the reality of national reality the of about conviction the with combined approach Such personal O can be referred as beO can referred absorption á denote the same person”. thesame denote owa 2 O mo ĝOą zak Ī emy powiedzie emy á Nauk na of theif Germanness absorption itwas (although an to even Upper Silesian of jak i absorption Schlesier ĝOą Wasser sku ü and woda 5 (1936): 283. odnosz 157 or b derivation For the bivalent logic of Polish or German nationalism German or Polish of logic bivalent the For derivation ąGĨ woda ą Absorption si Wasser Ċ do tej samej jednostki.” “O naturze “O naturze jednostki.” tejsamej do but itis the same substance, that both 65 leads his interpretation into a little bit puzzled bit a little into interpretation his leads , lecz b lecz , . 156 is a natural is anatural and afteritprocess all depends Ċ dzie to ca to dzie spiritthe nation of á y czas ta sama substrancja, tak te tak substrancja, sama ta y czas exists and hestill ĝOą zaka”, ĝOą zak Roczniki and Ī CEU eTD Collection Ibidem, pp. 19-20. dzieciom zaoszcz wyrzuca po jednym zlokatorów parteru i pierwszego pi jej parterze ipierwszymna pi narodowo painlessly. are never run such eviction in clear that chapter, example which next the are described the Union of the Defence ofinterpretation fromwith a householder secondthe floor asSuperego). understood Problems of Upper Silesians and personalusually recurs evenif arelonger tenants old no (although there is this Freudian rather dilemmas of its leader thingone memory mistaken – the Szramek in wasprobably formerthe arguments of a house Jan Kustos, soul sooner or later had tohave either Polish or German tenants. Separateness will disappear. In Sl from the perspective of Silesian happenedin Upper Silesia during hislifetime. If my interpretation is ajustified solution, than 158 ą “Sl zak ą and I would assume that we can read Szramek idea historically as his reflection on what has what on his reflection as idea historically read Szramek we can that assume I would dilemma he conceals that former argument in house and he never mentions it. mentions never he and house in argument former that conceals he dilemma that time he has to do only with the another one. Inorder to spare his children similar second floor,throws tenants outoneof ground from the the and first floorthe and since and first floor going on. So for the calmness in the house a householder, who lives on the reasons thatare independent individual fromthe isoften there a quarrel on its ground on the first floor nationality and on the second – (intellectual) culture. Because of the race(ness), has he floor ground the On floors. three into divided way a in is Silesian The zak jest podzielony poni Ğü , a na drugimpi na , a Schlesier Ċ dzi ü podobnej rozterki, tai przed niemi dawn denote the same person with one soul, that three-floor house of his or her Ċ trze kulturtrze Ċ trze; dlaspokoju trze; w domu wyrzuca mieszkaj ĊNą d na parter i dwa pi Ċ umys separateness á ow ą . Zpowodów odjednostki niezale Ċ 66 tra i odt conclusion may be pessimistic: even though even pessimistic: be may conclusion Ċ tra. Na parterze ma rasowo ą ą k d ma ju á ótni Ċ Ī w domu i o niej nic ju tylko z jednym do czynienia. By swoim ą cy drugiemna pi Ī nychjest cz Ğü , na pierwszym pi 158 Ī nie wspomina.” Ċ trze gospodarz Ċ sto sto k á ótnia na ótnia Ċ trze CEU eTD Collection mniejszo elementu urz Silesian elites and newcomers from other parts from Poland. All that took place society inthe took from that All Poland. parts from other andnewcomers Silesian elites autonomji Governor Micha Governor and Korfanty Wojciech leader Silesian Polish between clash personal the in emanation Katowice, the between Conflict Polishness. its and Silesia of andvisions consequentlyhave been even fiercer due to some personal animosities, ideologicalcould differences disputes political and differentinternal in Polish The rivalry. Polish–German other the from apart themselves towns with andcompetition inanatural were life.parties Polish political violent even sometimes communes of the Polish Silesia, its own 159 „Wyra Silesian Voivodeship in the 1920s was the arena of vigorous, vivid, impulsive vivid, and ofvigorous, in arena was the Silesian the Voivodeship 1920s Silesians of Upper ofDefence 1. RootsoftheUnion Ğ ci.” J. Cha ci.” ĝOą Ĩ nie separatystyczny charakter posiada charakter separatystyczny nie Ċ ska w ramachPa dniczegod […], á á Gra asi To Defend Upper Silesians’ separateness Silesians’ Upper ToDefend Ĕ ski, Ī\Ĕ Antagonizm… ski. Moreover, there was yet another axis of conflict between local between axisof yetanother conflict was there ski. Moreover, Ĕ ąĪ\á stwa Polskiego, doobrony interesów dostworzeniaszkó [Józef Cha schools. minority the them with Kustos, had a clearly separatist character separatist clearly a had Kustos, The Unionof ofUpperDefense Silesians [ZOG], founded by Mr. urz Silesian interest combating invasionof the incoming officials [ the autonomy of Silesia within the Polish State , p. 103. Ċ dniczy Chapter IV: Chapter á a ZOG za a ]. Itstrove to create bilingual schools inSilesia and to replace á asi 67 Ĕ á ski, 1935] utrakwistycznych na áRĪ ony przez p. Kustosa. Zwi Kustosa. p. przez ony ĞOą Sanacja 159 skich, zwalczaj ĝOą and its opponents had in had opponents its and . The Unionstrove to maintain sku i zast , [emphasis-MJ] to defend ą ą c inwazj zek d zek ą pienia niemi szkó ąĪ\á Ċ do utrzymania do nap á ywowego element á CEU eTD Collection express attitudes shared bymany isa large extentpeople, to astory Kustos. of one person – Jan different. radically are consequences and political roots their both because attitudes, two these demarcate should and a historian importance is of primary and“separatism” “separateness” the between one’s own Silesianness. a community openly created from national for so Polish demand underlining and strengthening Last but not political reality and ideology. national Inmyview, only least, feeling the beingof somehow alienated I show that andespecially explain the inway that inpresent like to Iwould of that, andmembership. Instead its structure organizational construct whichcase itthe tried difference to situateMy aim thein thisUpper chapter Silesian andis to neithersomeidentity extent tragic to withindescribeexample of thethe dilemmas thePolish ofwhole Upper Silesians political in the interwar activity Poland. of ZOG, nor to re- “GG edited and published by Kustos, called “The Voice of Upper Silesia” [“G called ofSilesia” “The Upper Voice Kustos, andpublishededited by Mostpolitician Jan Kustosofits (1893-1932). basednewspaper activity was thatwas on the Górno Polaków] and from Polaków] andfrom Union 1925, the of Defence of Upper Silesians [Zwi party called at the beginning the Union of [Zwi Silesians-Poles of beginning Union Upper the atthe party called understanding.of in Voivodeship 1922andexisted apolitical that Silesian the 1932, Between significant becauseshift understandingits separatenessandSilesian of dueto evolution of and and in uprisings.the which was intensely and politicized politically activeinvolvement duetorecent in plebiscitethe ĝ l”], which was a core source for this chapter. ZOG and Kustos himself area himself borderline Kustos ZOG and chapter. for this source core a was l”], which ĞOą The story The Unionstory about of Defence of Upper Silesians andits newspaper, it although can From among wide range of Polish political groups one deserves here a special interest hereaspecial deserves one groups political of range Polish From wide among zaków; ZOG]. That grouping was lead by the by the lead was grouping That ZOG]. zaków; and journalist charismaticyoung 68 ą á zek Górno os Górnego Górnego os ą zek Obrony ĞOą ĝOą zaków- ska”; CEU eTD Collection 163 (in Upper Silesia)? A thesis.). Racibórz: Zak Racibórz: Athesis.). Silesia)? Upper (in was strongly convinced that “Upper Silesia is a Polish land and an Upper Silesian is the same the is Silesian Upper an and land is aPolish Silesia “Upper that convinced strongly was 162 http://www.amu.edu.pl/dzialalnosc/o-uam/doktoraty-honoris-causa for the world culture and for the strengthening of the religion of Christ.” eventsother from “our nation” history him the of to which were–according “services– Polish few and May of 3rd the of Constitution the Vienna, of battle the Grunwald, of battle the text 161 Silesian parents to teach their children proper Polish literary language. literary Polish proper toteach children their Silesian parents schools in Upper Silesia(both primary high and and schools) convince tried to the Upper brochureshomeland.hisand of he proving the Polishness Polish demanded them,one of In doctorate of the Pozna the of doctorate patriotyzmw Gie was not economically dependent from the state. “Polish patriotism inGie withDmowski, together Maria Sk a privilege independent ofthe andcomfortably well-of peasantry kings”/“Polskie “Polish (called kr attitude. Great Poland was at that time a bastion of Polish nationalism of the Probably his stay inand Pozna studies Pozna to however, 1919 hemoved, a inBreslau. In University the then studies at philosophical Gymnasium and inUpperSilesia 160 identification. national Polish family strong of peasant well-of in a comfortably nearRatibor Syrynia village inwas born the Kustos political programme. their “The Voice” ZOGformulating He gave faceand both for his „zas Kustos, J[an]. Kustos, As Stanis Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewiczaw Poznaniu –Doktoratyhonoris causa á ugi oko á aw Ossowski noticed active Polishness the in rural part of Silesia betweenRatibor and Oppeln was á á o kultury czynie mia Jak nas uczono w szko Ğ Ĕ wiata i wzmacniania religii Chrystusa”.Ibidem, pp. 6-9. á University. charakter luksusowy”).S. Ossowski, 160 á á His career started in a way similar to Korfanty’s: odowska-Curie, wasin first1922 the holderodowska-Curie, honorary of an ach (naGórnym 161 á ad Wydawnictw Katolickich Reinharda Meyera, 1919. Meyera, Reinharda Katolickich Wydawnictw ad Ĕ During hisstudies published Kustos there first articles to study university. Polish study at the newlyestablished to Ĕ strengthened and radicalized his strengthenednational radicalized and Polish 69 ĝOą sku)? Rozprawa. Zagadnienia wi á czyn had a luxurious character” (“Polski (How we were thought at schools .Accesedon30 May, 2009from Ċ zi… 162 163 , p. 100. He mentioned in his in mentioned He At that time, Kustos Endecja Ĥ le”), whichle”), . Roman CEU eTD Collection 167 that time less than 5000 inhabitants) and 100 copies in Knurów.Doborowolski, P. 166 passim. 165 page of introduction. etc. craftsmen, policemen, officials, andlower workers railway lower clerks, to mostly addressed election in 1926 when ZOG somegot significant popularity in many communes, itwas from local apart As Silesians. the we know, influencelimited hadUpper on this periodical a Voice” raised to a Voice” to raised surprisingly number of high copies. times bigger, to ten a eight circulation 1500 copies themostwhile popular Polish newspapersand German in had Polish Silesia and itbecame from around Circulation “The 1928 aweekly.usually the of Voice” oscillated At beginningthe in 1922and1923“G 164 Pole ashis brother from behind the Prussian cordon” Chrze [ Party Democratic-Progressive Christian Silesian called party like groups, political ephemerous other Silesians)Union of Upper unionsor (the Trade less trade numerous and Union the Upper Silesians Defence of of and ran: whichheestablished of organizations all years and supporters gatheredtime). nextmembersthe For ten Kustos that it was thenewspaper Kustos became its chef editor and publisher (the latter position he shared with his wife for some Upper Silesia”. “The of Voice he newspaper established, that the on andforemost first focused Kingdom of Poland).It wasa P. Doborowolski, In November In 1925 the circulation of „Voice” reached 250copiesRybnik, in 250copies in „Górny „Górny 167 Nak Ğ cija When Kustos at the beginning of 1922 came back to the Upper Silesia, his the UpperSilesia, back activity to beginningthe at1922 came Kustos of When á ad Czasopism (CirculationNewspapers) of ĝOą Ĕ skie Stronnictwo Demokratyczno-Post skie Stronnictwo sk to ziemia polska, [a]Górno Ugrupowania… credo , pp. 137-138. of an average Polish nationalist. Polish average an of 165 ĞOą á os” waspublished a times threeweek, then os” times two zak, to zak, to Polak taki jakjego kordonubrak zza pruskiego.” Ibidem, although from time to time locally popularity of “The 629, Urz 629, 70 Ċ powe] that never really started to function. to never started that really powe] ą d Wojewódzki 166 164 Therefore all opinions presented in presented opinions all Therefore (from the former Galicia and the and Galicia former the (from Ugrupowania… ĝOą ski (UW ĝ ĩ l), APKat., p.APKat., 12 l), ory ory at (townhad , p. 135. ĝOą skie CEU eTD Collection political parties providing also some comments: some also providing parties political “Who one should not vote for?” [“Na kogo nie nale published in“G published entrepreneurs. Jewish with andcollaboration thriftlessness the of him accusing a cathedral, of construction Silesians. native not were of Bishops Katowice fact two keen that the on he was not language, political coup d’etat Wincenty Witos; had Maythe abadopinion about form also Coup hecriticised after of any He Party. Socialist Polish the of leader a Silesian Biniszkiewicz, Józef especially socialists, and 170 169 Micha his criticism. For somein December time1922, his followers thereon the position of Governor waswere also on theonly receiving end of as of PolishAfter first governor the Józef Silesian Rymer’s sudden Rymer. Voivodeship death one surprising exception aswell in in Silesia) places some in yetpower formally were (who Germans criticized Kustos in case of… Governor Kustos consequently politiciansdisliked thatwere actually inAtthebeginning of power. 1922 years ten whole the be Through be against”. would“to adequate most seems the one that the 168 Przybudowie katedry, Novum Habemus Episcoporum Cui bono, czyli dla czyjego dobra? á Gra If one would like findto the most general description for the political attitude of “G Biniszkiewicz – a list of a socialist, enemynose; of the the Catholic by Church; people Silesian Upper the leading is he – Korfanty 169 . Ī\Ĕ 168 He could also criticize Prelate Emil Szramek, at that time responsible for the responsible time at that Szramek, Emil Prelate criticize Hecould also 170 Even though he Even though wasalaw-abiding religion and Catholic inhis to often referred ski. Kustos disliked any form of socialism (including Pi (including socialism of form any disliked Kustos ski. á os” before the elections to the Silesian in wasentitled article 1930. The Silesian Sejm before tothe elections the os” To illustrate that generally critical attitude I attitude was generallycan article, critical which one illustratequote that To GG ĝ l, Nos. 4-5, 24-31 January 1929. , GG , , GG ĝ l, No.37, 17-23 September1930. ĝ l,No. 27, 26-28 May 1926. 71 Ī y g á osowa ü ?”] and enlisted almost all á sudski’s “socialism”) sudski’s á os”, CEU eTD Collection 174 173 172 zast okrojenia, je Lista nr 12 Lista– jest nr tofaktycznie lista narodowychdemokratów, najwi Sanacja –g one could read in pagesof could that: one the “The read Voice” Polish. even insteadof inKatowice fact that the speakGerman workers about German!” complaining or a or by Germans” exploited “Polandheadline Dmowski Roman biography of the to dedicated of articles series find a there reader could Its 171 option was clearly declared: it was a local emanation of the Polish GG „Korfanty – wodzi ludno Ċ Przesta Wyzysk Polski przez Niemców pcy, którem dobro robotnika na sercu le sercu na robotnika dobro którem pcy, ĝ 174 Already enough dayshave passed after theincorporation of of thepart Upper Silesia to Surprisingly enough, at the beginning of the activity of Surprisingly beginning enough,atthe its“Voice” activity in of of the political 1922 Silesians of theUpper 2. Polishnationalism zaborem pruskiem streets and conditions inour city still look as if the city was underHowever the Prussian nation. rule [ Polish the of blood and sacrifices the with paid was which Poland, candidates which have workers’ interest at heart. National Workers’ Partychauvinists who want to cut down,(NPR) if not to abolish, the Silesian autonomy;– you could Listno. 12–this isactuallyeventually thelistof thenational democrats, the biggestPolish vote evangelicals; also are there for list that on and Silesia, it, if there were someSanacja l, Nos. 33-37, 6-20 May 1922. á Ĕ Just two-three weeks after the capital city of Silesian Voivodeship became Polish, became Voivodeship Silesian of city capital the after weeks two-three Just osi, Ğ my mówi li nie do zniesienia autonomji Ī e „nie sejmy, aledyktatura winna Polsk –theyclaim dictatorshipthat“no parliamentsbut the should Poland rule and ü po niemiecku! ]. The city streets are called still “Wilhelmplatz”, “Friedrichplatz”, Ğü górno , GG , GG ĞOą ĝ l, No. 6, 1 February 1922. sk ĝ ą l, No. 1, 2 January 1923. ĞOą Ī za nos; Biniszkiewicz –lista socjality,wroga ko y.” skiej; NPR mo – Na kogo nie nale 72 173 ą i or notes entitled “Let’s stop speaking in ĝOą 171 Ī skiem rz naby ewentualnie g Ī y g Ċ kszychszowinistów polskich, zd á osowa ą dzi ü ü ? ”, ana li , GG ĝ á os odda l, No. 19, 23-28 May 1930. Ğ Endecja cie tej stoj ü , gdyby niejna stali Ğ cio nationalism. á ą a Katolickiego; iewangelicy; ąĪ pod aj ą cychdo 172 CEU eTD Collection 178 i porz 177 Ibidem, GG w przeci niemieckie nazwy ulic i placów, niemieckie napisy na kawiarniach isklepach zmieniono bez wzywania 176 ofiary i przela i ofiary publicznychlokalachi nasklepchwidniej pod zaborem pruskiem. Ulice miasta nadal nosz narodu polskiego,wygl a Korfanty is saving a situation.” Mr.precipice… into going “Wearestill for example which were entitled his candidature supporting of aseries articles published newspaper the minister, becomehave aPolishprime before Wojciechby theelection, when Korfanty, supported Polish could parties, right-wing 175 Jews who are rife, if youEndecja want to have law and order – vote for list no. 8.” better: have been asolution would suggested which theauthor in Moreover, of Silesia. Germanness Polishreminiscencesgentle authorities werecriticised in for too this article regardto policy „[Je „Tak np. w Czerniowcachpo wkroczeniu wojska rumu „Ju Idziemy dalej w przepa ą dek w Polsce -lista nr 8.” GG Ī Ğ ą In the parliamentary election in November 1922 “The Voice” strongly supported the supported “The strongly in Voice” November 1922 election In parliamentary the dosy preoccupied with usury were thrown away behind the border of the Romanian State. changed within 24hours without calling anybody; allhostile elements: the profiteers all German names of streetsFor example in Czerniowce after the andentrance of the Romanian Army in January 1919 squares, German inscriptions on cafés and shops were in German. […] Did Polish nation sacrifice itself and shed its blood for that? “Bismarckstrasse” and on the public establishments and shops there are still inscriptions li] chcesz, gu 24godzin,wrogie elementa:lichwiarzy paskarzy i granicwyrzucono za and advised the reader: “if you want to have no and nocommunists, youinstrikes, wanttono reader:“if advised the Poland ĝ l, No. 50, 5 July 1922. á krew?” ü dni up dni Ī eby w Polsce nie by Nadu á yn ą d istosunki w naszem mie Ċá Ğü Ī o od przy ywaniepolskiej tolerancji … p. Korfant ratuje sytuacj ĝ l,No. 89, 12 November 1922. áą czenia cz á o strejków, komunistów, nie panoszy ą 178 dotychczas niemieckie napisy. […] Czy polski to naród poniósna Kustos himself wrote a doggerel-poem a “Vivat, doggerel-poem himself wrote Kustos ą nazwy „Wilhelmplatz”, :Friedrichplatz”, „Bismarckstrasse”, ana ĊĞ Ğ ci Górnego cie przedstawiaj , GG 73 Ċ , GG , ĝ l, No. 50, 5 July 1922. ĝ Ĕ l,No. 54, 29 July 1922. skiego do miasta w styczniu 1919 wszystkier. ĝOą ska do Polski,okupionego ofiarami ikrwi ą si Ċ , jakgdyby miasto nadal pozostawato á si ĊĪ yd, rz Ċ Pa ą dzi 175 Ĕ stwa rumu 177 á o prawo, mie Few months Few 176 Ĕ skiego.” üá ad á o ą á CEU eTD Collection 185 184 183 182 181 180 blaguje i chcia Jewish hatred could indirectly urge readers rather to choose the former option: Korfanty: a parvenu, a yarn-spinner etc. and address him as especially in the social and economical life, economical and in social the especially subversive organizations.” subversive Protocols Elders ofthe Zion of references to the Talmud and “Talmudic mentality”, it even published some pieces from openly against Jews itand criticisedmigration their UpperSilesia. used to typical It anti-Judaic itself of “Voice” whichThe newspaperdeclared theanti-Semitism. agenda nationalistic was Silesia.” in Upper arrives Haller dyletanty | Wiwat Korfanty!” “G heroes, the of one right-wing Haller, Józef by also visited Upper Silesia.” youngused in respectto and hisvisit thearticle children) in“ about entitled Silesia was 179 Korfanty!” „Nieomal wsz „Gdy nawa pa ĩ Czemu Protko Genera Józio na Górnym ydzi w ydzi Polsce In earlythe you could1920s find one more especially element outspoken of the always dissatisfied! You will never see a ray of happiness on their grim faces. their huddled, timid posture eyesand shining from profits’the desire.Alwaysgreedy, caftans orhats. […] Jews [ bearded with swaying side locks andcrooked or shallow noses, who dressedare with red- or dark- figures, grim dirty, these numerous: are they Poland in everywhere Almost á Ī y m á Haller przybywaGórny na ydzi przoduj 179 á Ċ by omami drców syjonu Consequently, “The Voice” addressed Józef “The Józef Pi Consequently, addressed Voice” 180 Ĕ Ċ , GG dzie w Polsce ichpe stwa jest nape ĝOą When six weeks after Pi after weeks six When ĝ ą ü sku l, No. 6, 1 January 1922. w organizacjach wywrotowych? ludno , GG , GG Wiwat Korfanty 183 Ğü ĝ á ĝ górno l, No. 65, 26 September 1922. nym morzu, | Gdy sam jej sternik jest ju Although Kustos advised Although„bit Kustos notto but„fightJew”,with Jew”, l, Nos. 2-6, 5-17 Janary 1924. 182 181 Ī ĝOą á ĞOą ydki] are scrambling out of theirdark holes likeratswith no no tychbrudnych, ponurychpostaci, zczernemi lub rudemi, kiwaj or articlesor explaining „why Jews are leading the way in the sk sk , GG ą kratoflami od Niemców , GG ĝ l, No.78, 9 October1922. ĝ 184 á l, No. 57, 29 July 1922. Two years later „G sudski’s visitation the Silesian Voivodeship was Voivodeship Silesian the visitation sudski’s 74 some voices in his newspaper by evoking anti- evoking by newspaper his in voices some , GG Wojtek ĝ l, No. 29, 22 April 1922. . See: . , GG , Ja Ī ĝ na bezdro Ğ á ne Weilmo l,No. 82, 11-14 October1924. sudski sudski as á os” announced that “General that announced os” Ī u, | Nam nie pomog Ī ny PanMinister Korfanty Józio 185 (a diminutive (a á os” will call Józio ą ą nic te cymi The in CEU eTD Collection 186 XĞ posuwaj szczury w skurczonej, boja w skurczonej, szczury Silesia who occupied „a separatist.” the positions called was Katowice in which activity political his of beginning the from Kustos wereevidence. left by German clerksunambiguously. However, when one adds to it another featuresafter and colours, itmay lose its self- the division. The with be one another. closely seem knitted to explanations these Both Jews. is the and/that strangers towards reluctance Silesian „inherited” Pozna among Bürgertum into mostits and of memberslivedinGerman the wasfullyassimilated cities integrated the representin Silesia. Before 1922 there was only a small Jewish community in Upper Silesia and popularthe for dislike strangers and outsiders Jewsfrom whom poor Poland could perfectly is one first ZOG. The anti-Semitic faceof may that explain which reasons hereunderline two among UpperSilesiansmy (although, to lessview, than in elsewhere wouldPoland), I present partly before even were which notions anti-Jewish old popular of usage the Besides si professors’ „old” the of anti-Semitism economical yet was it much how anti-Judaism, folk clerical, fashioned Ċ miechu ich ponurych twarzy.” brodami lub pejsami, p See: „CygonGórno ą By now, the picture of political attitudes of Kustos andhis quite circle looks clearly and Silesian „separatism” 3. Nationalisticgenesisofthe It is hard to judge to what extent such anti-Semitic attitude was still some piece of of old- some piece wasstill attitude whatsuch anti-Semitic extent is judge to It hardto si Ċ . The second reason is that the strong anti-Semitic mood and language present and mood anti-Semitic is strong the that second reason . The szybko przez ulice. Wiecznie chciwi, niezodowoleni! Nigdy nie o nie Nigdy niezodowoleni! chciwi, Wiecznie ulice. przez szybko 186 Ĕ Endecja Indeed, the rhetoric of „Voice” was addressed against the newcomers in newcomers the against addressed „Voice” was of rhetoric the Indeed, Endecja ĞOą á ski” [1922] ytkimi lub krzywymi nosami, ubranychw kaftany lub czapki. […] Tu Ĩ liwej postawie z b z postawie liwej could influence Kustos during hisstudies strengthening thushis , or whether it could be already the „new” racial anti-Semitism. racial it „new” bethe couldwhether already , or ĩ ydostwo polskie á yszcz , GG ą cemi od ch cemi ĝ 75 l, No. 49, 2 July 1922. Ċ ci zysku oczyma ze swych ciemnych nór, tam nór, ciemnych swych ze oczyma zysku ci Ğ wietli promie wietli Ī ydki wy Ĕ serdecznego áDĪą jak CEU eTD Collection praktyk 190 GG polskiego, traktowali ludno 189 188 same newspaper which wanted to defence Silesians against the strangers from from strangers againstthe Galicia: wanted todefencesame newspaper Silesians which a man from O from a man of funnyread anadvertisement me forto itwas somehow Thus of newcomers. the opponent constructing the position of biggestthe defender of Upper Silesians’ rights and the biggest off.” them brushed they and here from people Polish the of psychology the and conditions know was shared bymany of „PeopleUpper Silesians. brought [who are] here from Poland donot which despised being and discrimination of feeling same the on rhetoric its based ZOG Silesia). in political by also parties „Voice”other asweknow, of after, (soon inquestion the pages kwalifikacyj, aje towards strangers (the towards will not get a position, because there is overcrowding [in office].” [in the is overcrowding a position, there get because not will also you then diploma the possess if you but qualifications, have not do you because Silesian 187 that if you do not have a high-school diploma [ Silesiansthat werein discriminated respect by that „Itis authorities.Polish in rumoured Silesia newspaperUpper Silesians complained that werenotinto admitted office positions. Itclaimed ĝ „M „Do tego przysz Even if – it is worth noticing –you canhardly findever the name „A przecie l, No.l, 24/25, 8 April 1922. 189 ą ĊĪ biurow permanent remuneration. proper a with office the in or man store a as officer, custom a of position a away right yearoffice-work experience, asufficient command of German language,will take up A 38 yearold man married,energetic, well-acquainted with the customs clearance, 14- Cultural differences between the officials from Galicia and the locals were used in used locals were from the and Galicia officials between the Cultural differences czyzna lat 38, 38, lat czyzna Ī idzie fama po G. Ğ ą Ī wi , w eli si Ċ á á cim (former Galicia) who looked for a job in the Silesian Voivodeship in the Voivodeship Silesian the in a job for looked who Galicia) (former cim o, adaj Ċ j Ī Ī ą onaty energiczny, obznajomiony, bardzo dobrze z odpraw z dobrze bardzo obznajomiony, onaty energiczny, e ludzie sprowadzeni tutaj z Polski, nie znaj posiada, to te ą cy dostatecznie j Gorols Ğü tutejsz ĝOą ) 190 188 sku, ą po macoszemu.” Ī who occupied Silesian positions was the most often raised nie otrzyma posady, bo jest przepe Ī e o ile si Ċ zykiem niemieckim, obejmie zaraz posad Ċ niema mautr 76 matura Przyczyny niezadowolenia w ], then there is no position for an Upper an for position no is there then ], Ċ , to dla Górno Gorol ą tutaj stosunków oraz psychologji ludu in thepages of the Kustos newspaper. á nione.” GG ĞOą ą zaka niema posady,bo nie ma celn Ğ ĝ ród Polaków na l, No 14, 1 March 1922. ą 187 Ċ ikolejow : deklarenta c That reluctance That ą , z 14-letni , á owego, ĝOą sku ą , CEU eTD Collection 1918-1930 191 Great Poland together with the modern Polish nationalism. Kustos explained to his explained that: to readers Kustos nationalism. modern with Polish the PolandGreat together by from Kustos wasimported kind. that („separatism”) regionalism In a waysuch political my view, „separatism” and the in Jan Kustos of hissupporters 1920s the exactly early was of inmodernized andmore totherestof advanced superior their the nation (more Boil Romul (like Transylvania was nothing new surprisingly it in was Europe: also afeature of some Romanians from combination superiority. hisSuch about hisown conviction because of a way„separatists” 2Ğ government. central the of policy unification the by discriminated time same the at and a „normal” ethno-nationalism. Almost every supporter of every supporter Almost a ethno-nationalism. „normal” regionalismincase marks) whichin (or„separatism”linked quotation wasstrongly that with Russian or Austrian Part.demand wasjustified exactly by higherlevel the inof development former comparison to I would not call sucha justification conduct for its demand of special position of the Great Poland in the Polish state. That magazyniera lub biorow Pozna in the formulated clearly was reason Such Poland. superiority of Prussian Poles over the „Galician” Poles and over the Poles from the Kingdom of former SecondRepublic: the Prussian shareof was thefeeling of the cultural of superiority Silesians Poles againstthe from parts other hadof ideologicalPoland astrong which reason wi See: Irina Livezeanu, Irina See: Ċ cim, Dworzec.” However, apart from However, apart from inconsistency,such unexpected idea the of defending the Upper itself. However there is deeply rooted mistrust of other regions [ Contrary to the claim of leftists, in Pozna , Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press,1995, pp. 129-187. Og á ą oszenie Cultural Politics inGreater Romania: regionalism, nationbuilding,struggle, & ethnic zaodpowiedniem sta , GG ĝ ă ) who in the Greater Romania found themselves culturally themselves found Romania Greater in the who ) l, No. 50, 5 July 1922. á ym wnagrodzeniem. Ĕ 77 Region there is no separatism for separatism Endecja separatism à askawe zg Ĕ context by by the context from Pozna from but rather some form of dzielnice á oszenia: Karol Wojwoda, Ĕ Region was in was Region ] due to cultural work Endecja 191 as To ) CEU eTD Collection autonomii dla Wilna.” dla autonomii stanowczo zatrzymania autonomji dlaGórnego kto mówi, 193 April 1922. Pozna dzielnice mia tutaj g Poland: 192 criticize Pi Vilniusthe incase 1922(elections in it Central the Lithuania), useditopportunity asan to on commented When„The Voice” identity wasdistinguishable. or which separateness ethnic any in nothing formulated therewas(almost) of about kind early the Upper Silesian 1920s should In be Polishlong-lastedthisIntegration the process. State demand within acareful and opportunity its protect own and possibility to „positive values”and superiority. civilization exactly those reasons: Silesians’ cultural superiority and their legitimate demand for proper demand legitimate and their superiority cultural Silesians’ reasons: exactly those Organic Statute In most of the cases when “G when cases the of most In „[F]akt z Wilnem Wilnem z „[F]akt „Wbrew twierdzeniu lewicowców wPozna lewicowców twierdzeniu „Wbrew Ĕ áĊ czycy byliby pierwszymi unifikatorami. Tymczasem tak nie jest…” boko zakorzeniona nieufno For ZOG therefore, Upper Silesia, unlike Great Poland, thanks to the autonomy got an demand retaining autonomy forUpper of justbecause purely Silesia the and social centralized. Would nowsomebody „separatists”, say weare that when wefirmly The case of Vilnius proves something different than the fact that the Polish state is regions] have nothing [to offer]… Pozna with share and conditions there. Ifthese hadregions some positive not(and negative) values to offer cultural reasons autonomy for Vilnius for clearly personal purposes. Ī e jeste á á sudski and present own view on the centralization of the Second Republic of y do wymiany i przeniesienia na grunt pozna , especially the paragraph about Silesians’ priority in the recruitment, iscited in the recruitment, priority Silesians’ about paragraph the , especially Ğ my my „separatystami”, je Wilno Ğ wiadczy oczem wiadczy [emphasis-MJ], whereas Mr. Governor of the State requests the , GG Ĕ ĝ , the Poznanians would be the first unificators. Meanwhile [these Meanwhile unificators. first the be would Poznanians the , l,No. 17, 11 March 1922. Ğü á os” opposed any contravention or an attempt to contravene the contravene to attempt an or contravention any opposed os” do innychdzielnicwzgl za Ğ innem jak o scentralizowaniu pa o scentralizowaniu jak innem Ī eli z powodów czysto spo 192 ĝOą Ĕ skiem niema separatyzmu dla separatyzmu. Natomiast panuje Natomiast separatyzmu. dla separatyzmu niema skiem ska, za 78 Ğ p. Naczelnik Pa Ĕ ski jakie 193 Ċ du na stosunki wpanuj nich Ğ warto á ecznychi kulturalnychdomagamy si Ĕ Ĕ stwa polskiego, a potem niech jeszcze niech potem a polskiego, stwa stwa Ku przestrodze Ğ ci dodatnie, a nie same ujemne, Īą da dla celów czysto osobistych , GG ĝ ą l, No. 31, 29 ce.Gdyby te Ċ CEU eTD Collection piecz Górno Vá new situation: should graduallybeintroduced give in to order sometime sothatthe people could adjust tothe his language Polish According opinion to in EasternSilesia. lifelanguage the publicthe of LanguageAct Official became the goal for the Kustos movement. That is why he did notwelcome with open arms he of deservesaspecial because andtreatment. that Silesia is not only a Pole or even, as we know, a better Pole, but he is also aspecial kind of Pole three times took uparms timesthree blood.” with his took andsealed Polishness he when be Polish to wants and is he that shown practically has Silesian “Upper the addition, In songs.” and carols Polish “ancient the with together Poland” of regions in other hear cannot answer was: yes, he is. He preserved the “ancient language of Rej and Kochanowski, which you 195 only only in mid the afew 1920safter yearsof Poznathe with disconnection came autonomy Silesian of preservation the for reasons and motivation another emphasising 194 positions which legally was by guaranteed Polishthe Sejmin the yszy si „…zachowanie prastarego j Czy Górno Ċ tuj ĞOą That Silesian specificity was a positively valuated feature of ZOG and its of preservation valuatedfeature ZOG and was apositively specificity That Silesian In 1922, “The Voice” asked in one of “TheinIn one“is Voice”asked 1922, of UpperSilesianPolish?” articles the the identity and/orPolish 4. Silesianidentity ą Ċ zak pratycznie pokaza w innych dzielnicach zupe c swoj ĞOą ą polsko zak jestPolakiem? Ğü ” Ibidem, GG from from 1923, whichestablished unexceptional asthe Polish almost á a, Ċ zyka Reja i Kochanowskiego tutaj na Górnym Ī , GG e jest i chce by á nie; nast ĝ ĝ l, No. 74, 23September1922. l, No. 74, 23 September 1922. Ċ pnie zachowanie tutej prastarychkol ü Polakiem, chwyciwszy a 79 195 Organic Statue However the inhabitant of Ī trzy razy za bro ĝOą Ĕ sku, którego to j Endecja Ċ d i pie d i Ğ ni Polskich.ni […] . The time. The for circle. Ĕ i to krwi Ċ 194 zyka nie The The ą CEU eTD Collection nam.” 197 urz (jak to robili niemcy [sic!-MJ] zj the one hand and between Galicia and the “civilization” on the other: Abendlandes due to inspiredimmorality.theirKustos, by probably lecture the of rights for us.” for rights all estates, as on all 15th the [when June of 1920 estates, Constitution and the framework of “ThePolishness. Voice”made on3 May 1925 a parallel between the Polish May the within still yet ways, various in explained was etc., specificity, Silesian understand not could who Galicia from teachers and officials with Silesia, in policy nationalization Polish with disappointment increasing His them. contradict not did and Silesianness hisownchoice. re-confirm had to heconsequently that and after culture Polish German and consciously national identification the Polish young as a felt student who athome in equally something,do to capable are Germans if policy: economical or national of in regards role stimulating some why theirwe, deeds, alsoPoles quite often with insome senseUpper of admiration. However,Silesia, all of them had rather cannot do the same? Kustos had chosen 196 “G noticing. is worth example German the to reference This Ċ „Jak nada Dlatego nie nale dowego naPolskim Górnym W rocznic In 1920sJanKustos the often mutual underlinedloyalty the his Polishnessto and introduce it, not the other way round. way other the not it, introduce that language(just the as Germans didwith the German language) only and after Therefore you should not be a chauvinist, butgive others time and possibility to learn á a Polska 3-maja 1791 wolnor. by 197 Ċ konstytucji 3-go Maja1791 r. Oswald Spengler, made a parallel between Upper Silesia and the “culture” on the and Silesia between Upper made aparallel Spengler, Oswald Polish teachers from Galicia are not criticized because of their Polishness, but Polishness, becauseof their arenotcriticized from Galicia Polishteachers Ī y by Organic Statute ü szowinist ĝOą Ċ zykiem niemieckim) a potem go zaprowadza sku ą , lecz da , GG ĝ : “As Poland on the 3rd of May 1791 grated freedom for freedom grated May “As 3rdof 1791 the on : Poland l,No. 5, 17 January 1923. Ğü , GG wszechstanom, tak w dniu 15-go lipca 1920 da r. ü drugim czas i mo 196 ĝ l,No. 35, 5May 1925. 80 Organic Statute Ī liwo á os” often cited German policy and policy German cited often os” Ğü dok á adnego nauczenia si ü , a nie inaczej. was passed-MJ] granted Der Untergangdes á a Polska prawa Kwestia j Ċ tego j Ċ Ċ zyka zyka CEU eTD Collection GG Vą […] To co Pan nazywa separatyzmem, jest niczem innem, jak zdrowem odruchem spo odruchem zdrowem jak innem, niczem jest separatyzmem, nazywa coPan To […] o te prawa, które Rz 199 dalej szczyci cywilizacj wiele cywilizowany! za to lud spokojny, moralny, religijny, awi disappointment, claims, sense of rejection, stillborn plans and ambitions. The language of the of language The ambitions. and plans stillborn rejection, of sense claims, disappointment, indyferentyzm religijny, niemoralno their author: of desperation growing the lines the between read can one letters these In Kustos). of adherents other about articles of the rhetoric theaggressive them to onecompares when (especially open letters about the Silesian autonomy to Governor Gra Governor to autonomy Silesian the about letters open a fewhe wrote Polish and identity. 1927 remain In1926and Polish same State loyal to to time the at and specificity Silesian Upper the defend and enhance to order in concepts and tools 198 dzi i s ĝ „Otó „Wynikiem prawdziwej kultury jestbogobojno l, No.l, 36, 8-10 May 1927. Articles in “The Voice” and actions of ZOG in the late 1920s were a mixture of After a few years of After afew his yearsof Kustoshadin Katowice intellectual activity touse different ą Ī and will be thinking that the guaranteed rights ought to be preserved. be to ought rights guaranteed the that thinking be will and “separatism” isnothing else, butahealthy reflexof the whichsociety thought, thinks local people in the ideological fight forthese whichrights the Polish Governmenthad guaranteed to the WhatGovernor, you,Mr. call “separatism” isnothingelse but the aspiration and Galicia, and everything that stand behind it, can still be proud of its “civilization.” Silesia notyet [is] civilized, butthe people [is] peaceful,moral, and piousthuscultural. the civilization are: religious indifference,immorality, nonsensical modernism.Upper The outcome of the real culture is godliness, piety, morality! Whereas theoutcomes of dzi co Pan, Panie Wojewodo, nazywa separatyzmem, nie jest niczem innem jak d ü b Ċ dzie, ą d Polski ludno Ī ą e prawa raz zagwarantowane winny by .” Kultura czy cywilizacja? Organic Statute Ğ Ğü ci tubylczej zagwarantowa , sk á onny do wszelkiej niedorzeczno and in the in and Ğü , GG , religijno 81 ĝ l, No.40, 14-16 July 1926. Geneva Convention á Ğü w Statucie Organicznym iKonwencji Genewskiej. , moralno ü dotrzymane.” Ċ c kulturalny. Galicja i co za ni Ī\Ĕ ski – critical, but extremely polite extremely but critical, – ski Ğ Ğü ci modernizm. Górny ! Wynikiem cywilizacji natomiast jest Separatyzm nale . […] What you call 199 á ecze ąĪ eniem iwalk Ĕ stwa, które s które stwa, ĝOą 198 Ī ą y wypleni stoi niech si sk jeszcze nie ą ideow ą dzi ü !?! á o, ą Ċ , CEU eTD Collection w nich Ojczyzn 201 1929. Ī zaostrzenia sytuacji mi jako pa Mniejszo szczególnie zRosj jednego przeciwkonarodu drugiemu. DlaPa the Silesian hearts, he destroys the Fatherland inside of them.” of inside Fatherland the he destroys hearts, Silesian the dreamin and ourPolish he […] replaced its destroys of aGerman, “Our Brother versessaid: Ignacy Mo Polishness was rejected, at least according totheir own views. In the open letter to the President of rejectionitwas thefeeling say that Iwould a confession. such have neverpublished would “The Voice” that put ZOG into the under-privileged position of the minority group. Their beginning of 1930s,the “The Voice” formulated for firstthe timeits idea of “Upperthe Silesian voices. OnChristmas 1928 Kustos presented his vision peacefulof proper Polish politics: 200 in“G texts e iPolska nie zamierza utzyma „A za Zamilkn Ĕ stwo,winna d Thatsurprising shiftof political attitudes uneasy explain.seems Fewbefore,to years Ğ an impression that Poland is not going to preserved peace. international relationships. Spendinghuge moneyofamounts on mustthe army evoke provide neighboursour with conjectures that itwants the aggravation of the national minorities inside whichthe state they deserve.fully Poland state as a should not the to rights the give should We Wilno. about Lithuania with argument the all for especially with Russia [sic!-MJ] and Germany. In addition, we shall also finish once and one nation against another.isnecessary It for thePolish State to sign the trade treaties, Loud yells of thehyper-patriots should All off.break demagogues should cease to incite ciom narodowym wewn narodowym ciom Ğ najgorsz Ğ ąü á os” became surprisingly less anti-Semitic, more often one can find there pacifistic there find can one often more anti-Semitic, less surprisingly became os” cicki Kustos quoted (or wrote himself) quoted (or wrote cicki Kustos apoem: powinny g Ċ .” List otwarty do Pana Prezydenta Ignacego Mo ą [sic!-MJ]Niemcami. i Równie ą sercom tym! | ąĪ\ü Ċ dzynarodowej. Wydawania olbrzymichsum na wojsko musi wywo áRĞ równocze ne krzykine ihas ü sta ą trz pa trz á Ğ ĝOą ego stanu pokojowego.” nie do nie tego, Ĕ skim zadaje blizn stwa nale stwa Ĕ á stwa Polskiego koniecznem b a hiperpatrjotów.Usta Ī Ī eby jak namniej da y da Ī nale 82 ü te prawa, które im przys im które prawa, te Ċ | Ī y jak zawsze na zako ĩ O pokój naziemi e niszczy w nich – nasz polski sen.| Ğ cickiego ü powinny powinny pod á We were Poland! going toyou, a powodu unaszychs 200 , GG Ċ 201 dzie, ĝ At the end of 1920sandthe At endof the l, No. 18, 6 May 1931. , GG Ī á eby zawrze uguj Ī Ĕ egania ze stronyegania ze demagogów czy ĝ l, No. 52, 21-29 December ą . […] Polska ale, pozatem ale, Polska […] . ü spór z Litw spór áDü zagranic ą ü siadów, traktaty traktaty handlowe, ĩ e krzywdz ą ą Ī wra o Wilno. e d ąĪ Ī One enie, y do ą CEU eTD Collection May 1932. którego wy mnie obecnie robicie, czym niejestem.” tam dostan broni. […] Je 205 204 203 appeal to the League of Nations citing the regulation of the of regulation the citing Nations Leagueof tothe appeal could also Kustos minority, of As arepresentative unclear. and fluid was terms these between “N” inoriginal-MJ]. [capital Nationality” Nation Silesian and death, hepublisheddeath, adramatic announcement: his before months two place took which incidents violent those of one After batteries. and of assaults as him as on well attracts verbal of inspite Poland to his loyalty timestressed the “Gpages of “folk (“mniejszo minority” term Spain, Flemish the (sic!) inBelgium and people Ukrainians inPoland Heusedthe andRussia. in in Silesians areinthesameposition Poland Catalonians Slovaks as Czechoslovakia, the identity. Polish-Silesian contradictory mutually their of knot 202 [ minority” “folk and nationality” „O Prze O Naród Ludno Ğ wiadczam, wiadczam, At theand of 1920sand until his sudden death in claimedKustos 1932 Upper that á somebody whom I am not, butyou are depicting me like that Volksbund World Court in Hague]. But if even therea gun. […] If I do notthey get it, I declare dothat I will notappeal to [thedo League meof Nations justice, and the then I declareI will that next time I willjoin administer justicethe on my own. I will ask for a right to carry omowy czyn w Ğ Ċ ci Górno sprawiedliwo Ī ĞOą eli go nie dostan á os” in 1931 or 1932 one could read one or two articles“for in 1932one couldortwo Silesian calling the readone 1931 or os” ski i Narodowo Ī ĞOą , I will remove my children from the Polish school. After that I will become e za przysz e za ska! Poka Ī yciu yciu Górno Ğ ci, towst Ċ Ğü to o á Ī [sic!-MJ] y napad wymierz y napad , Ī ą e ĞOą Ğ pi wiadczam, Ī yjesz i yjesz Ċ zaków Ğü mniejszo do Volksbundu, odmelduj ludowa”), never the “national minority”. However, in However, the neverminority”. the“national ludowa”), ĞOą , GG Ī e sk Ī\ü ą Ī e zwróc , GG , ĝ Ğ chcesz!, c ludowa l, No. 44, 30 October- 5 November 1929. Ċ Ku uwadze opinjipublicznejca sobie sprawiedliwo sobie ĝ 83 l, No 20, 20May 1932. Ċ si GG Ċ ]. do [Trybuna ĝ 202 l, No.l, 8, 20-26 February 1929. Ċ That was the solution for the Gordian dzieci zpolskiej szko Geneva Convention Geneva Ğü . sam. Poprosz sam. á 205 u w Hadze i Ligii Narodów]. A je 203 Definition and borderline á ego Ğ wiata Ċ á o prawo donoszenia oprawo y,b , GG ĊGĊ . 204 potem tym, za ĝ l, No. 21, 27 Yet he all Ī eli CEU eTD Collection Wydawnictwo ĝOą highlighted attribute of his/her own identity. hermaphrodite” wholived in borderlandthe could finally become a strong, distinctive and from the “spiritual nationalism, the of of perspective perspective the from hermaphroditism” identity,group became inhiseyesisWhat slightedandrejected.labelled “spiritual as the Upper Silesian bivalence, which he understood asapositive value and distinctive feature of the of specificity the before happen not did it However self-identification. Silesian Upper final level for his became casea grass-root in itreally Kustos we may see that the (am)bivalence, Kustos. Jan of dilemma identity for the explanation and interpretation deeper possible some contained If we for a moment promoted sloganthe the“Upperabout Silesianness.” getaware that he was nota German but he could notget rid of ridthe German influences. Therefore he was He Germanization. of policy the and education the by ofinstilled [sic!-MJ] hermaphroditism that pejorative his draggedacurseof spiritual “Jan Kustos instead of that obituary Zachodnia”) wrote understanding of the cultural 206 The after. soon disintegrated circle political ska 1926-39 Zgon Jana Kustosa Paradoxically, nationalistic this valuejudgement of “Polska Zachodnia” subconsciously When Kustos When Kustos diedhis inJuly newspaper1932 exist immediately andhis ceased to ĝOą : Zarys dziejów politycznych sk, 1983, p.231. , „Polska Zachodnia”, No. 211, 30 July 1932, quoted in:Edward D (Silesian 84 Sanacja Sanacja 206 : Overview of the Political History), Katowice: journal “Western Poland” (“Polska á ugajczyk, Sanacja CEU eTD Collection confessional identity confessional identity nationaland Polish indifference deliberate towards German and a itselfland. strong the through define could that history modern Silesianness inof rule the between Silesianunity Moreover, faces manifestations. and different assume could separateness Upper Silesian separateness and Silesian separatism seems to be rather an exception that irony of history after the Second World War the daughter of Bro the dueto Probably latter. the former reject and the canhonour state Polish why explains That interpretation of own Silesian identification decided to reject his strong consistent his of Polish point some national at Kustos identity. contrary On identification. national Polish strong fact that Bro policy about in Polishthe of state Silesian the Voivodeship. differin probably Their cases the some extent both of them, Kustos and Bro to However, deedswerestrongly criticized. his ideas and by local scholars sometimes recalled Jan Kustos was obviously totally absent in the Polish public sphere and even if he was commemorated Polish Upper Silesians: there were Bro were there Silesians: Polish Upper commemorated The example of similarities between Kustos andBro Kustos between similarities of The example Arka Bo Ī ek till his last days could integrate his strong feeling of Silesian Ī ek, quoted here few times, even during the Communism herewas oneof Communism few even the times, ek, quoted during Conclusion Ī ek expressed Silesian 85 Ī ek streets, squares etc. Unlike Bo Unlike squaresetc. ek streets, Ī ek is one of the evidences that is evidences the ek of one Ī ek married the son of Kustos. separateness separateness and complained with Ī ek, CEU eTD Collection useful important and than any regulation. autonomous political more was which autonomy the possessed identification national the of face the in personality borderland in identification history various ways. own The pressure of frame a could the identity was a personalAfter all, understanding paradoxically,decision the the about UpperSilesianthe of group decision.directions. different into them steered On conditions the historical the background, basis ethnic and social of the same preconditions a person under the not totally cut out from the Polish frames for it. still was ethnicity of difference the emphasised which minority”, “folk a as Silesians Upper the unification policy be incould deeply rooted Polishthe nationalism. concept Even Kustos the of Polish the to resistance and Silesia for treatment aspecial of demand the Finally State. Polish Poland prevent didnot from Silesia ofnational policy the andintegration cultural with the nationalism after 1918.Political and foreconomic autonomy Silesia in SecondRepublicthe of Silesian were germandfoundationpeople the for UpperSilesian separatism andpolitical ethnic the of same characteristics handthe other War.On the World First the before nationalism Even though these various forms of the Silesian identification ripened on identification on similar the ripened forms of Silesian the Even though various these 86 CEU eTD Collection Gra Cha Newespapers/periodicals/movies Bo Movies „Stra „Roczniki Towarzystwa Przyjació„Roczniki Towarzystwa Akt Upami Archwium Pa sources: Archival BIBLIOGRAPHY: “Cygon Górno “Bund-Zwi “G Published primary sources: Published primary Ireneusz, 1935, Plater-Zyberk, min. 8 Dokumentalnych. Filmów Wytwórni Archiwum in UpperSilesia]. of [no Polish Army title: 1922, the entrance the [n.a.], á Fight for Silesia. memoirs: Pieces of August 1920–July Katowice, 1931. 1921), 1935. „Mine” in Upper Silesia: Sociological Study). Warszawa: Sp. Akc. Dom Ksi Dom Akc. Sp. Warszawa: Study). Sociological Silesia: in Upper „Mine” ĝOą Ī Incorporation toPoland),Silesia Katowice, 16 June1922. os Górnego os Ī\Ĕ á ek, Arka. asinski, Jozef. Ī sku: StudiumSocjologiczne nica Zachodnia: Kwartalnik Zwi Polskiego ski, Micha 35 S 27 Urz 27 81 Akta miasta Katowice (Acts of the City AmK) of (Acts City Katowice the Katowice; miasta 81 Akta : Ċ ą ą tniaj zek”, Nos. 11-14 11-14 (1921). zek”, Nos. d Okr Pami ą Ĕ protocols of City the Council’s Sessions 1927-20) 84 Protoko Council’s Sessions1924-30) 83 Protoko 1228 Czyn antysanacyjny (Anti- antysanacyjny Czyn 1228 629 Nak 1325 Czyn antypa act) (Anti-Nation antynarodowy Czyn 1234 650 „G ĞOą d Województwa Województwa d stwowe w Katowicach ĝOą ą ski”, two numbers from [1922]). á cy Przy . Ċ ska” (GG Ċ Walka o Antagonizm polsko-niemiecki w "Kopalnia"osadzie fabrycznej naGórnym gowy w Ktowicach (Regional Court in Katowice; SO Kat) tniki á os Górnego Górnego os á ad Czasopism (Circulation of of Newspapers) ad Czasopism (Circulation (Memoirs). Katowice: Wydawnictwo á á áą y stenograficzne posiedze y posiedze czenie Górnego ĝ ĝOą l) (1922-32). Salve Regina sk. 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Morcinek, Machray, Robert. Mach, Alojzy. Mach, Mach, Alojzy. Mach, à J[an]. Kustos, Korfanty, Wojciech. Komisja mieszana dla Górnego Komisjadla Górnego mieszana Kapica, Jan. Kapica, akomy,Ludwik (ed.) Korfanty's “Dreams and Katowice: Events”). documents from: http://www.law.uj.edu.pl/users/khpp/fontesu/1920.htm Accessed 2009, 15 November, on including OrganicStatute of Voivodeship). the Silesian ĝOą Question). Katowice:Question). Towarzystwo Przyjació [Königs-Hütte, 1920]. [Königs-Hütte, Urz Katowice: ofCelebrations). 1921. 2nd/3rdofMay.Journal bytheCommittee Edited 1931: Uroczysto Komitet Kingdom Kingdom of Poland andthe Catholic Faith). Katowice: Bracia Wenske,1919. of a Catholic Priest How to Vote). Wroc Polskie (R. Wegner), [1933]. Wegner, [1932]. Katowice: Zwi Katowice: 1935. Korfany(Wojciech in A Independent the Kraków, Poland: Study)Psychological-Political 1936. A Merkur, Drukarnia Katowice: Anniversary). 15th the in Publication Commemorative w 15-letni Reinharda Meyera,1919. Zak Racibórz: thesis.). A Silesia)? Upper (in schools at thought Korfanty Silesianthe to Katowice: People). nak for Upper Silesia: The Office Collection of the President of Mixed Commission for Upper Silesia for Regarding MinorityCommission Mixed Rights).of Cieszyn, 1937. President the of Collection Office The Silesia: Upper for Mieszanej dlaGórnego Katowice: Kó Ĕ ski, W ski, skiego" ą d Wojewódzki d Wojewódzki ĞüĝOą Kazania– Odezwy –Mowy (Dz. U. z 1920 r. Nr 73, (Dz.U.z1920r.Nr poz.497)(Constitutional Law from 15 . Washington: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1933. á ą adys ska: w ska: dziesi Jak nas w uczono szko rocznic Wojciech w Korfanty Polsce niepodleg Wspomnienia kolejarza á Górny ko Homielityczne Kap ą The Problem ofUpper Silesia zek Urz á Die Oberschlesiesche zu Frage.EinBeitrag ihrer Geschichte undLösung aw (ed.). aw Silesia Górny ĝOą Górny Odezwa Wojciecha Korfantego doLudu WojciechaOdezwa Korfantego Ğ ci . Plebiscyt Górno ĝOą sk Ċ ĝOą (For Freedom of Freedom (For onthe10thSilesia: of Anniversary of 3rdUprisingthe (Silesia). Preface by Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski. Pozna Kwiatkowski. by Preface Eugeniusz (Silesia). ski, 1931. . Prefaceby Gustaw Orlicz-Dreszer. Transl.Z. M.Arend. Pozna Ċ ĝOą ĝOą Ċ (Upper Silesian 20th (Upper Plebiscite 1921– of March –1936: Plebiscites since theworld war: with acollection of official dników Kolejowych (1925). Katowicach, dników w sk jako problem socjologiczny sk jako ĝOą ciolecie III powstania 1921. 2/3.V.1931:Pami 1921. powstania ciolecie III Wojciecha Korfantego “Marzenia izdarzenia” ska z dziedziny praw ska zdziedziny praw miniejszo sk, Dobra radaksi sk, Królestwowiara Polskie, a katolicka ĝOą ska: Zbiórurz á á ĞOą ach (naGórnym anów Diecezji Katowickiej, 1933. (Homilies – Speeches – Appeals). Ed. Emil Szramek. Emil Ed. Appeals). – Speeches – (Homilies ĞOą ski 1921 – 20 III –1936;ski 1921–20III Wydawnictwo pami á aw: skiego 88 . London: GeorgeAllen and Unwin 1945. Ltd., ĝOą ĝOą á Nauk na Nauk Ċ dza katolickiego og á ska Gazeta Ludowa, [1920]. adem [1927]. adem autora, : ski Instytut Naukowy,ski Instytut 1984. Szkice historyczne Ċ ą á dowy pogl ej: studium psychologiczno-polityczne ca StatutOrganiczny Województwa ĝOą ĝOą Ğ (Upper Silesia as a Sociological ciowych sku)? Rozprawa. sku, 1934. ĝOą á skiego ad Wydawnictw Katolickich Wydawnictw ad ą dów Prezydentadów Komisji á (The Mixed Commission Mixed (The osowaniu . t.I, Warszawa and (Appeal of Wojciech (Appeal of (Upper Silesia,the Ċ tnik wydany przez tnik Ĕ (How we were : Wydawnictwo : (Good Advice th (Wojciech July July 1920 ą tkowe Ĕ : R. . CEU eTD Collection Ossowski, Stanis Lagzi, Gábor. Mauserberg, Stanis Mauserberg, Ko Case Sonderweg”. The of German Comparison: the Jürgen.Historical Kocka, “Asymmetrical .á King, Jeremy. Kamusella, Tomasz. Kamusella, Johnson, OwenV. Miroslav. Hroch, Hastings, Adrian. Gellner, Ernest. Gellner, Gellner, Ernest. 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Princeton and University Oxford: Princeton Press, 2002. . Toronto: Toronto. Toronto: University 2000. Press, Czy W . London and New York: Verso, 2006. Ċ Budweisers intoCzechs HistoryPolitics,Budweisers ofBohemian andGermans:ALocal dzynarodowe Centrum dzynarodowe Kultury, 2006. Nations and Nationalism. Nationalism Stjepan Radi á aw. Social Preconditions inEurope ofNationalRevival (Kashubs – a Nation, Minority, a Dialectal Group), Ethnicity without Groups Historia Polski1795-1918 The construction of nationhood: ethnicity,religion,andnationalism The constructionofnationhood: á Slovakia 1918-1938:Education adtheMakingofa Nation aw. (Common for Schooling Nationalthe in Minorities Poland, 1918-39). Ċ On SmallNationsin Europe On CollectiveIdentity The Politics of Language andNationalisminModernCentralThe Politics of Europe Dziedzicto Kresów: Nasze Wspólne Dziedzictwo? Wspólne Nasze Kresów: Dziedzicto O Ojczy gry maj 38, No. 1 38, (1999): 40-50. Imagined Communities: Reflection onthe Imagined Communities:Origin and Reflection Spread of At the Price of the Republic’: Hlinka’s SlovakPeople’sthe Republic’: At thePrice Partyof 1929- The NationalCultures theGrass-Rooton Level The SlovakAutonomy 1935-39 Movement, Szkolnictwo Powszechne dlaMniejszo . London: Weindenfeld and Niolson,1997. ü ą Ĩ , theCroat Peasant Party, andthePolitics of MassMobilization, swoje Kresy Wschodnie? swoje nie i Narodzie i nie Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988. . Cambridge: Harvard . Cambridge: University Press, 2006. . In: . . Kraków:WydawnictwoLiterackie, 2001. (On the Fatherland and the Nation). Warszawa: Nation). andthe Fatherland the (On 89 My Correct onEverything Views . Wroc Ğü , Grupa Pos , Grupa á aw: Ossolineum,1988. (Does Hungary have its own its own Eastern have Hungary (Does Ğ ci Narodowych w Polsce : . New York: Columbia á A Comparative Analysis uguj (ed.) Jacek Pulchra. (ed.) . Budapest and New . Budapest ą Humanistic Review ca si . South Bend: South . . NewYork: Ċ J Ċ zykiem . , CEU eTD Collection Cyga Cybula, Adrian and Tatiana Majcherkiewicz. “Wielokulturowo Ciagwa, Józef. Ciagwa, Upper Silesia: Upper Buttin, Felix. “The Polish-Czechoslovak Conflict over Teschen Silesia: a case study”. a case Silesia: Teschen over Conflict Polish-Czechoslovak “The Felix. Buttin, ĩ Znaniecki, Florian. Znaniecki, Brom, Rudlof Brom, Rudlof and Józef Zahra, Tara. Zahra, “CzechUrban, Otto. Society 1848-1918”. In: Bjork, James E. Bjork, James. Bjork, Traba, Robert. Traba, Ther, Philipp. „Beyond the Nation: The RelationalSynder, LouisBasis Leo. of a Comparative History of Germany Bahlcke, Joachim and Joachim Rogall (et al.). Joachim Rogall (et and Bahlcke, Joachim Walser. Helmut Smith, Sahlins, Peter. Sahlins, yndul, Joanna. ĞOą wobec polskiego ruchu narodowowyzwole Nations andNations Nation-States). of Crossroads Atthe Region. European A Central in Silesia. 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Politics, 1870-1914 rodkowoeuropejskiego a narody anarody rodkowoeuropejskiego i pa rodkowowschdniej w XX wieku w rodkowowschdniej XX skich iplebiscytu1919-1921 Ĕ ka w roku; okoliczno ka 1922 ski, Marek. ski, ĞOą skiego Towarzystwa Przyjació Kidnapped Souls: Children NationalIndifference for inthe andtheBattle Industrial Piety: ThePuzzling Resilience ofReligious Practise in Upper Silesia Wschodnioprusko Boundaries: The Making of Francethe Boundaries: TheMakingof andSpainin Pirenees Autonomia Neither andNationalGerman norPole: Indifference Catholicism ina Central Central EuropeanHistory Encyclopaedia ofNationalism Pa Chrze Wspó Ĕ . Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995. stwo w Pa . Ann Harbor: The University of Michigan Press, 2008. ĝ Ğ German Nationalismand Religious Conflict. Culture, Ideology, á cija liwiok (ed.). czesne Narody ĝOą Ĕ Sprawy Narodowosciowe ska, 1922-1939 . Ithaca and London:Cornell University 2008. Press, ska Partia Ludowa (Centrum)ska Partia Ludowa ijejprzywódca ks.KarlUlitzka Ğ ci inast Ğü (Christian Peoples' Party and its leader Rev. Karl Ulitzka in its Karl Ulitzka leaderRev. and Party Peoples' (Christian : To (State in a State? National-Cultural Autonomy in the Ĕ stwie? Autonomianarodowo-kulturalna w Europie Ī %á samo Ċ á 36, No. 36, 1 45-73.(2003): pstwa Nauk, 2004. Nauk, ogos (Contemporary Panstwowe Warszawa: Nations), (Contemporary Bohemia inHistory Ĕ 90 Ğü Ĕ stwa narodowe. Przykstwa narodowe. (Silesian Autonomy (SilesianIn: 1922-1939). á Schlesien unddieSchlesier czego naGórnym czego awiony ksi , ed. Andrzej Andrzej Bro , ed. regionalnainarodowa w Niemiec kulturze . Die Gegenwart Gottes in der modernen Die Gegenwart Gottesinder Chicago andLondon: StJames Press, 1990. 26 (2005): 135-156. 26(2005): ą dz EmilSzramek wspóa , (ed.) Mikulaš Teich, pp. 198- Ī ek, Teresa Kulak. Wroc Kulak. ek, Teresa ĝOą 25(2005):63-78. sku w latach powsta á ad Górnego . München: Langen München: . Ğü . Göttingen: regionu . Berkeley: . á czesno Podzia ĝOą ska” á aw: Ğü Ĕ á . CEU eTD Collection Nordblom, Pia. Nordblom, Nordblom, Pia. Nordblom, Nawrocki, Tomasz. „Powrót do osady ‚Kopalnia’ na Górnym naGórnym doosady „Powrót ‚Kopalnia’ Nawrocki, Tomasz. Tomasz. Kamusella, Kamusella, Tomasz.“Ethnic Cleansing inSilesia 1950-89and the Ennationalizing Policies of Jerczy Jerczy Hitze, Guido. Goczo Fikus, Sebastian. Fikus, Encyklopedia Powsta Günther. Doose, Dobrowolski, Piotr. 'á Czapli ugajczyk, Edward. ugajczyk, Forschung; pp. 111-126.19), andits 2003 (Tagungen memory). Marburg: Verlag Herder-Institut, zurOstmitteleuropa- seiner Erinnerung (ed.). Polen" (1934-1939) inder Auseinandersetzung mitdemNationalsozialismus Cha Cha National andEthnicGroups, 1848-1918 Poland and Germany.” Oficyna Wydawnicza, 2006. of of Silesia). Zabrze: Düsseldorf: Verlag, Droste 2002. Stowarszyenie Instytut mi von 1740bisheute/“Przebud und denke”:ZurGeschichteder Beziehungen zwischenSchlesienundBerlin-Brandenburg Niemieckiej, 2003.pp.58-68. materials after the 7th Silesian Seminary) Gliwice and Opole: Dom Wspó and Dom Opole: Gliwice 7th Seminary) Silesian the after materials (VII Seminarium Silesia in 1921),in: ĝOą ĝOą 1972. Naukowe, Wydawnictwo Panstwowe Kraków: Warszawa and Teschenland,1918-39). the (1918-1922). i w Cieszy Overview of the Political History). Katowice: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wroc (ed.) Z.Kapa the face of Polish national-liberation movement in Upper Silesia in the period of the Silesian the Uprisings of and the period Plebiscite).in the In: Silesia in Upper movement national-liberation Polish of face the Ċ ski, 1982. sku Ĕ Ĕ Ĕ dzy á á á , Jan. ski, Dariusz. ski, ski, Dariusz. ski, si asi ski, Marek (ed.). ski, Oberschlesien nachdemErstenStudien zu Weltkrieg: einem nationalen Konfliktund Ĕ (Attitudes of (Attitudes and Polish German Church theperiod of during plebiscitethe inUpper Ĕ ski’s Tracks). ski’s ĝOą skiego” (Come Back to the Settlement „Mine” in Upper Silesia: Following Józef Following inUpperSilesia: „Mine” Settlement the Back to (Come skiego” Ĕ Przynale skiem w latach 1918-1939 skiem skiem a Berlinem-Brandenburgi skiem a Die Lage der Deutschen in Polnisch-Oberschlesien nach1922 Die LagederDeutscheninPolnisch-Oberschlesien Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1987. Carl Ulitzka(1873-1953) oderOberschlesien zwischendenWeltkriegen á Für Glaube und Volkstum: die katholische WochenzeitungFür GlaubeundVolkstum: diekatholische Deutschein "Der a andW. Ry Die separatistische Bewegung inOberschlesien nach demErsten Weltkrieg Postawa polskiego iniemieckiego Ko Or ĝOą (Upper Silesia after the First World War, Studies on the national War, WorldStudies onthenational conflict First Silesia afterthe (Upper ĝOą Ĕ ĝOą Ī Sanacja ĝOą á Silesia andCentral EuropeanNationalisms: TheEmergence ofthe ĝOą awskiego, 2002. awskiego, no Ċ Ugrupowania separatystyczne naGórnym ikierunki Dwumiesi skie) downicy downicy niepodleg ski ruchnarodowy ska Oficyna Wydawnicza, 2005. Ğü Patterns of sk ĝOą skich narodowa aj narodowa Historia Ī Ī ski,pp. 96-104. 1995, (Silesia Europe: yesterday – today – tomorrow. Conference yj ewski. Bytom: Muzeum Górno ĝOą ą Ĩ cy Europ si (Encyclopaedia of the Silesian Uprisings), Opole, Instytut Opole, Uprisings), Silesian the of (Encyclopaedia ska 1926-39 Ċ cznik Kulturalny‘Opcje’ Ċ Nad Odr sercemojeipomy Prejudice ĝOą ska (Separatist Groups and(Separatist Groups Trends in UpperSilesia in and ą Ċ . West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 2006. : wczoraj: –dzi zyk na Górnym zyk na áRĞ (History of Silesia). Wroc Silesia). of (History ą , Olz 91 (Silesian National Movement). Zabrze: Zabrze: Movement). National (Silesian ci : ą 33, Zarys dziejów politycznych Zarys dziejów od 1740 roku do dzi 1740 rokudo od ĝOą ą No. 2(1999):51-73. i Bierawk ska Ğ cio Ğ (The Champions of of (The Independence the Champions l“: Przyczynek dohistorii stosunków Ğ –jutro. Publikacja pokonferencyjna á ĝOą 33,No.2 (2001): 23-30. a w a okresie plebiscytu naGórnym ĞOą ą sku. podczas IIIpostania podczas skie, 1995,pp.83-100. ĝOą In: sk, 1983. ĝOą „Wach auf, meinHerz, auf, „Wach Ğ sku: . Berlin and Opole: and Berlin . á aw: Wydawnictwo aw: (Silesian . In: Struven, Kai ĝ á ladami Józefa pracy Polsko- pracy . Paderborn: ĞOą Sanacja skiego, ĝOą ĝOą ska sku : . CEU eTD Collection Zieli Wanatowicz , Maria W. (ed.). , Maria Wanatowicz Tooley, T. Hunt. Struven, Kai (ed.). Szczepa Smolorz, Dawid (ed.). Serafin, Franciszek (ed.). Franciszek Serafin, Schmidt-Rösler, Andrea.„Autonomie undSeparatismusbestrebungen in Oberschlesien 1918- Rogowski, Stanis Orzechowski, Marian. Orzechowski, 1972. and German Plebiscite Propaganda in Katowice: and Propaganda Upper Silesia). Plebiscite German in Comparison toOther Territories). Katowice: Wyd.Uniwersytetu tle innychobszarów Border, 1918-1922 http://live.us.edu.pl/files/pliki/konferencje/1997/socjologia/tekst/trib.html Katowice, 1997.Accessed on 22 May,from: 2009 globalnym Ostmitteleuropa-Forschung 19). (Tagungen 2003 zur Marburg: Herder-Institut, national andits memory). Verlag conflict undseiner ErinnerungKonflikt o czasach,ludziachimiejscach ĝOą Wyd. The Katowice: Monographic Overview). 1922-39: Uniwersytetu Voivodeship, 1922“. for UpperSilesiaOpole: 1922-1937). Instytut Biography).Wroc Forschungen 87). F. B.: Reihe Zeitgeschichte, fürKommission der (Veröffentlichungen 2000 Schöningh, Ĕ ski, W ski, skiego, 1996 (Prace Naukowe Uniwersytetu 1996(Prace skiego, Ĕ ski, Marek Stanis Marek ski, Zeitschrift fürOstmitteleuropaForschungZeitschrift á adys (Upper Silesian Regionalism: Between Tribalism and the Global System). Global the and Tribalism Between Regionalism: Silesian (Upper á á aw. aw. National IdentityandWeimar SilesiaGermany. andtheEastern Upper Oberschlesien Weltkrieg:nach dem Ersten Studienzueinem nationalen á aw: Ossolineum, 1975. . Lincoln and London:University of Nebraska Press, 1997. Komisja mieszana dlaGórnego Polska i niemiecka propaganda plebiscytowa na Górnym plebiscytowa na propaganda Polska iniemiecka Wojciech polityczna Biografia Korfanty: (Regionalism and Separatism – the History and the Present Day. Silesia Grenzgänger: Erzälte Zeiten, Menschen, Orte/Nagranicy:Rzecz Zeiten, Grenzgänger: Erzälte á Województwo aw. Regionalizm aseparatyzmwspó –historiai Regionalizm Górno , Gliwice: Dom , Gliwice: Dom Wspó (Upper Silesia First the WorldWar,after Studies on the ĝOą skie (1922-39). Zarysmonograficzny skie 92 ĝOą ĝOą 48, No.1 (1999): 1-49. ski, 1977. ĞOą skiego w Katowicachskiego nr1555). ski: mi ĝOą á pracy pracy Polsko-Niemieckiej, 2008. ska 1922-1937 Ċ dzy plemienno dzy (Wojciech Korfanty: Political Korfanty: (Wojciech ĝOą ĝOą ski Instytut Naukowy, ski Instytut skiego, 1995 (Mixed Commission (Mixed á czesno Ğ ci ĝOą ą a systemem a Ğü sku . (Silesian ĝOą (Polish sk na