Tri Cultures of New Mexico

Item Type text; Article

Authors Elson, Jerry W.

Citation Elson, J. W. (1992). Tri cultures of New Mexico. Rangelands, 14(5), 261-264.

Publisher Society for Range Management

Journal Rangelands

Rights Copyright © Society for Range Management.

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Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/638900 RANGELANDS 14(5), October 1992 261

Tn Cultures of New Mexico

Jerry W. Elson

New Mexico is a rich mixtureof Indian, Spanish, and NomadicApachean or SouthernAthapascan, linguisti- Anglo cultures.This combinationof cultures has greatly cally tied to Athapascans of interior Alaska and the influenced the growth of range management and live- NorthwestCanada arrived in the southwestearly in the stock dependency for a livelihood. Domestic livestock 16th century.The descendants are the Navajos, Jicarilla grazing along the Rio Grandeis one of the oldestuses of Apache and Mescalero Apache. rangeland forage in the West. Rural New Mexico, which During this time period, grazing by large herbivorous consistsof all three cultures, still utilizes rangelands for consistedofonlywildgameanimals.Buffalowereessen- subsistence. tially confined to the eastern plains of New Mexico. Elk, deer, big hornsheep, and antelopegrazed the mountains Indian Occupation and basins of centraland western New Mexico. Archeologists have found evidence of man in the Spanish Occupation southwestearlier than 10,000B.C. Theseearly southwes- In 1528, Estevan, a member of a terners originated as nomadic hunters of big game, but Spanish exploration to small and the of when party from Florida, traveled across western U.S. and adapted game gathering plants southern New Mexico and writes his stat- the large game animals disappeared. As early as 3,000 up exøeriences B.C., Indian corn was ing he had heard there were cities to the north being used extensively. Indian corn (SevenCities of Cibola— probablyde- which was veloped from Tesosinte, misinterpreted Euch/aena mexicana, a as seven cities of gold). Coronadotraveled to New tall annual grass. By 1,000 B.C. and Mexico in 1540 search- squash for theseven citiesof beans were addedto the ing diet. Permanent habita- gold. He never realized that the was the tions and pottery did not gold color in occur until 300 B.C. of the pueblos the afternoonsun. Coro- TheAnasazi, asubcul- ture ofSouthwestern Ind- nado brought with him the first domestic live- ians, was dominant in northwest New Mexico stock, horse and churro These between 1,100 to 1,300 A.D. Having achieved cultural sheep. large range florescence in thefourteenth Anasazi communi- animals provided subsis- century, tence forthe and ties were suddenlyabandoned. The populationhad relo- Spanish cated into a much smaller area at the time of materially changed the Spanish of life forthe Indians. entry into the Southwest. This relocation and retraction way Conclusionsdrawn from Coro- nado's and othersthat followedwere that the was apparentlydue to drought and climatic or exploration change, of crown and crossshould be extendedto the possible harassment from nomadic enemy peoples. The blessings term Pueblo was the to Indians area, and not incidentally,the search for gold should go applied by Spaniards on even the illusion of riches to fade. living in compact who subsistedon a though quick began villages predomi- In 1598,Onate became thefirst ofthe nant agricultural economy. Most Pueblos were located governor Spanish 3,000 head of and estab- along the middle Rio Grande. The major villages along colony, bringing along sheep the Rio Grandewere no morethan 200 old lished the capital at San Juan, near present-dayEspan- perhaps years ola. In Governor Peralta relocatedthe to when the Spaniards entered the Southwest. 1610, capital Santa Fe. Peralta and others brought additionalChurro Author is Range, Wildlife and WatershedStaff, Santa Fe National Forest, sheep from Mexico. In 1634, Ceballos drove a large Forest Service, USDA. numberof livestockfrom the Rio Grandevalley to Santa Barbara, California,this first recorded livestockexporta- 262 RANGELANDS 14(5), October 1992

tion, which will not given Four Square League, as measured from a cross in effectthe economy or frontof the Church. Spanish Colonists must not infringe life style for another upon Indian lands and the land must be cleared and 30 years. For the per- farmed by irrigation for four years. Hills were common iod of 1620 to 1670, lands available for grazing and firewood. Homes were both Pueblo Indians established on small parcels adjacent to farm lands. Land and the Spanish were Grants were given by the Governor, not by the King of subsistence farmers Spain. These could not be sold. If abandoned, the land with some livestock. was reassigned by the Governor. Native Indians had After the return of the Spanish following the Pueblo grown accustom to u- Revolt, the buffalo and elk hide trade with Chihuahua tilizing livestock for resumed, with many hidescoming from trade with Corn- meat, wool and trans- manches, Utes, and Apaches at fairs in Taos and Pecos. portation. With the de- Laterthe Spaniards, without permission of the Governor, velopment of markets for churro sheep, elk hides and ventured into Coloradoto tradefor hidesand slaves with pinyon nuts in northern Mexico, the Camino Real was the Utes. The initial threatto Spain's monopoly over New established linking Mexicowith Santa Fe. Mexico's commerce came from France, whose great In 1680, the famousPueblo Revolt occurred as a result North Americanempire was based heavily on trade with of Spanish religious suppression and taxation of the Indian tribes for fine furs like beaver. New Mexico was Pueblos. After the Revolt, many Pueblo Indians feared prohibitedfrom allowing French intrusion or trade. Still, retribution by the Spaniardsand escaped into the Jemez illegal trapping and trade of the French and Americans Mountainsto live with the Navajo. The Navajo were dis- occurred between 1800 and 1821. tinguished from other Apaches as the "Apaches de In 1785, the Spanish established an uneasy peace with Nabahu" or "Strangersof the Cultivated Fields". They did the Commanches and allied with them to fight the a little farming, but mainly hunted and gathered, and Apaches. This forced the Apaches into increasingly tradedwith the Pueblos. The close contact resulted in the remoteareas. The Comanche peace permittedexpansion Navajo acquiring weaving, pottery,and pasturation skills of sheep raising. The Churro breed of sheep introduced from the PuebloIndians. The additionof pasturalism into by the Spaniards could withstanddrought and were very the farming base allowedexpansion of the Navajo popu- good formeat. Theirwool, a long-staplefleece, was easily lation and theoccupied area. Horses and sheep had been hand processed. Rams with four horns characterize this acquiredearlier through raidingthe Spaniard herds. The breed. A booming marketoccurred in Northern Mexico, Navajo gradually shiftedtheir area ofoccupancy from the causingsheep numbers on the rangelands outside of the valleys north and west ofthe Jemez Mountainsto the Four RioGrande Valley to expand. This marketbegan tosoften Corners area, probably responding to needs of their in the 1830'sand collapsedduring theWar with Mexicoin herds of sheep and in response to raiding by the Ute 1846. The market shifted from Mexico to California in Indiansfrom along the Colorado border. supportof theGold Rush of 1849.This west coastmarket DeVargas returned in 1692to re-colonizefollowing the lasted only until the beginningof the Civil War. Pueblo Revolt. He brought along 900 head of livestock Anglo Occupation and found that some still existed in the Pueblos. sheep When arriveda third, distinctivecul- Indiansand the Spanish became accustomed to livestock Anglo-Americans tural component and their byproducts.In the early 1700'san embargo was livestockbecause of its detrimen- was introduced placed upon exporting intoNew Mexico. tal effects on local needs. Grazing of livestock was con- fined to the Rio Grande most of the 1700's In1821, two ma- Valley during events took and of to In an jor problems overgrazing began appear. 1705, Mex- Order the Governor was made to exclude livestock place: first, by ico's from La and to hold it for In 1730 similar Independ- Cienega haying. ence from attemptswere made to exclude livestockfrom Taos and Spain; and second, es- Isleta.By 1736 therewas a general shortageof grassnear the Rio Grandesince livestockcould not be herded into tablishment of Fe the mountainsdue tofear of losses to non-Pueblo the Santa nearby Trail. An inde- Indians. Hostile Commancheto the east and Apache to the west raidedthe Pueblos and live- pendentMexican frequently Spanish Government en- stock. However, records indicatethat by 1757 therewere cattle and Therewere couraged trade 7,000 horses, 16,000 112,000sheep. with the United onlythree ranches of record. The establisheda new of land States, whichhad Spanish system disposal been with the reign of DeVargas in 1692. Indian Pueblos were previously prohibited.Trade RANGELANDS 14(5), October 1992 263

flourished as Anglo traders coming in on the Santa Fe might be made driving sheep and cattlewestward to Cali- Trail dealt with Mexican silver coins and brought inex- fornia,where the demand formeat seemed limitless. Trail- pensive, higher quality manufactured goods. Santa Fe ing peaked in 1854 and tapered off during the Civil War. becamea distribution point to Chihuahuaand California. The fact that New Mexico was a territory of the United News rapidly spread of New Mexico'sabundant, virgin States was of little consequence until afterthe Civil War. It beaver steams. Within a few years, trappers from Taos was not until the last four decades of the 19th Centurythat and Santa Fe had trappedmost of New Mexicoand Ariz- New Mexico finally felt the influenceof being part of the ona. Some of the most noted trappers during this era— United States. Peg-leg Smith, Old Bill Williams, and KitCarson—trapped Followingthe Civil War, western stockmen began their in New Mexico during this period. Trapping soon deci- final conquest of the West. In 1866, Charles Goodnight mated the beaver population and it has been suggested and Oliver Lovingtook theirTexas herd up the Pecos no that deteriorationof riparian areas began as abandoned farther than Fort Sumner in the Bosque Redondo. Here beaver works deteriorated. they found aready market with the military,which needed Early military field notes provided by Lts. Abert and to feed troops and the thousands of Navajo they were Peck and Capt. Cooke provided the best sources of detaining. Obstacles to further expansion of the livestock informationon rangeconditions at the close ofthe Mexi- industrywere hostile Indiansand lack of markets. By the can era. According to their ledgers of 1846, the plains early 1870s, General George Crook had driven the re- south and east of Santa Fe and the Rio Grande Valley maining hostile Apaches to cover with a force of 6,000 from Santo Domingo northward almost all the way to soldiers and numerous forts. Geronimo, the famous Taos were virtually barren of grass. The Rio Puerco Apache warrior, surrendered in 1886 after a long, well- watershed was also noted for its poor forage condition. fought campaign against overwhelming odds and tech- Poor forage conditions higher up the Rio Puerco drain- nology. With Indians, soldiers, and settlers to feed, the age was attributed to the thousands of head of Navajo western grasslands began to fill with livestock. Drought, sheep. Thus, prior to the Anglo occupation,only areas overgrazing, and taxes forced many Texas ranchers to along major drainagesnear settlements and Navajo land seek new ranges in New Mexico. By 1880, the State was in the north centralNew Mexico had been overgrazed. It supporting 3—4 million sheep, as well as upwards of can be assumed that most of the remainderof New Mex- 130,000 head of cattle. An Army surveyordeclared New ico was relatively unaffected by grazing due to the shor- Mexicothe superior livestockproducing area west of the tage of permanent water and Comanche and Apache Mississippi and the "par excellence future great wool resistance to Spanish and Mexican expansion. producingcenter of the west". Present-day New Mexico became propertyof the Uni- John Chishum,a Texan, was a prominent figure in the ted Statesfollowing the MexicanWar by the 1848Treaty Lincoln County War that brewed through the 1870s. The of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Lincoln County War centered around government beef In 1849, in responseto the "Gold Rush", many stock- contractsto supply the forts. The war made a legend out men in New Mexico and Texas realized that fortunes of "Billy the Kid". The Santa Fe Railroad reached Albuquerquein 1880. 264 RANGELANDS 14(5), October 1992

Now a livestock market to the East could be reached, lands and the original stands of trees become more enabling the livestock enterprises toexpand rapidly. Dur- dense. Similar changes also occurred with other woody ing this period, investment in New Mexico ranches plant and brush species suchas mesquite, sagebrush and became fashionable for doctors, lawyers, and corpora- creosote bush. Early in Aldo Leopold's career, while tions. English investors, hearingglowing reports, rapidly working in New Mexicoand eastern Arizona, he recorded got into the ranchingbusiness and builtlarge ranch oper- some of the first observations of brush encroachmentas ationsthroughout the State. By 1885, a spur railroad was seedlings/saplings. As a result, plant diversityand forage builtto Magdalena. A 'Hoof Highway"brought sheep and productionwere further reduced by thesewoody species. cattle into theMagdalena railhead from asfar as 125 miles Arroyos, which now dominate the New Mexico land- away. The Highwaywas 5-10miles wide and covered200 scape, are a result of down cutting of drainages, and are square miles. In 1908 an observer noted one herd was believed to be the result of a combination of factors, being loaded at the Magdalena railroad, one being held including grazing, associated primarily with the Anglo out on nearby hills, and eight herds trailing across the development period. adjacentSan Augustin Plains. Reacting to these political and environmental con- By 1884, over-crowdingon rangelands was occurring. cerns, Forest Reserves were established and homestead The need for livestockassociations and public land leas- laws were phased out. The Jornada Range reserve was ing laws were being discussed. In the late 1880's, cattle established in 1910 for range research. The end of the prices began to fall and in 1891 the drought began. As a open range period, "tragedy of the commons", was result ofthe drought and inadequate foragethousands of marked by the creationof the BLM. Land allocationsand cattle died or wereshipped out of the State in 1892.At the market conditions contributed to a drastic reduction in turn of the centurythere were still 5 million sheep and 1 the sheep industry.Today both cattleand sheep numbers million head of cattle. have stabilized, with cattle being the dominantlivestock The grizzly bear and other predatorswere pursued as industry in New Mexico. Few flocks of Churro sheep still the livestockassociations grew strongerpolitically. Gov- exist. ernment hunterswere hired to reduce predators for the New Mexico rangelands have made a dramaticcome- sole purposeof improvinglivestock production. Ben Lilly backfrom the depletedconditions that occurred nearthe becamethe most famous hunter in theSouthwest. Lilly's turn of the century.New Mexico has emphasized its con- stories of tracking grizzliesfor days on foot and fighting cern for improving rangelands through active programs bearswith aknife have become legends. The last recorded in the New MexicoState Agricultural Department, univer- grizzly bearin NewMexico was just north ofAlbuquerque sities,and extension programs. NumerousNew Mexicoranches in the Jemez Mountainsduring the 1940's; it apparently are now standards of excellence. New Mexico has had a died of naturalcauses. The lobo wolfand thecoyote were substantialnumber of residents becomepresidents ofthe also the subject of concentrated control efforts, with Societyfor Range Management, an internationalorgan i- coyote control continuing through the mid-1900s. Dis- zation for responsible sustained range use. cussions on reintroduction of the wolf are now being References hotly debated in NewMexico. Baker,R.D., R.S. Maxwell,V.H. Treat, andH.C. Dethloff. 1988.Time- New Mexico includes some unique landownership less Heritage: A History of the Forest Service in the Southwest. Indian Pueblos were lands to lntaglio, Inc., College Station, Texas. patterns: (1) granted peace- Baxter,J.L 1987.Las Carneradas-Sheep Trade inNew Mexico, 1700-1860. ful Pueblo Indians by the Spanish and Mexican Govern- PubI. in cooperation with the Historical Society of New Mexico. mentsand honoredby the UnitedStates; (2) reservations univ. New Mexico Press, Albuquerque. were established USA Treaties with and deBuys,William. 1985. Enchantmentand Exploitation—The Life and by Apaches Hard Times of a New Mexico Mountain Univ. New Mexico Land Range. Navajos; (3) Grants were the result of land titles Press, Albuquerque. made during theSpanish and Mexican periods; (4) private deBuys, WillIam. 1979. History and Environmental Effects of the lands are the result of homestead laws and railroad Open Range in Arizona and New Mexico.Unpubi. MS. the U.S. Forest Service and Bureau Land Dobie,J.F. 1950. The Ben Lilly legend. Univ. Texas Press, Austin. grants; (5) of Dozier,E.P. 1983. PuebloIndians of NorthAmerica. Waveland Press, Management-administeredlands are public lands to Inc., ProspectHeights, ill. resolve the"tragedy of the commons";and (6) other pub- Mullin, R.N. 1969. History of the Lincoln County War. Univ.Arizona lic landswere created as military reservations. Press, Tucson. Jenkins, ME., and A.H. Schroeder. 1974. A Brief History of New New Mexico's grazing history starts earlier than any- Mexico. Univ. New Mexico Press, Albuquerque. where else in the West. However, only a few areas were Johnston,L.R. 1983. Old Magdalena Cow Town. CottonwoodPrint- detrimentallyimpacted by grazing prior to Angloentry in ing Co., Albuquerque,New Mexico. the mid-1880s. Stocking, H.E. 1971. The Road to Santa Fe. HastingsHouse, PubI. Technological development, railroads, New York. and improved markets all contributed to overstocking Tucker,E.A., and G. Fitzpatrick. 1972. Men Who Matchedthe Moun- and stress on the ecosystems. With low average annual tains. USDA, Forest Serv., SW Reg., Gov. Printing Off.,Washing- rainfalland frequent droughts, disaster was in the making. ton, D.C. wildfires in Weber, D.J. 1971. The Taos Trappers—The Fur Trade in the Far Frequent the period before overgrazing in Southwest, 1540-1846. Univ. Oklahoma Press, Norman. the 1870s and 1880s permitted grasses to survive and White, R. 1983. The Roots of Dependency—Subsistence, Environ- even flourish while significantlyreducing the competition ment, and Social Change Among the Coctows, Pawnees, and Univ. Nebraska Lincoln. ofwoody plants. In theabsence of grass competitionand Navajos. Press, fire, pinyon and juniper trees encroached on the grass-