The Texas Revolution

Teacher’s Edition Readings + Lesson Plans SAMPLE

FOR REVIEWAmy Headley ONLY Victoria Smith Cover design by Joseph Diaz Illustrations by Victoria J. Smith

Printed in the United States of America

Nystrom Education 10200 Jefferson Boulevard, P.O. Box 802 Culver City, CA 90232-0802 United States of America

(310) 839-2436 (800) 421-4246 SAMPLE www.NystromEducation.com [email protected]

This edition replaces the second edition published by Splash! Publications in 2012. Alterations to the original include minor modifications to style, illustration, and content.

Only those pages intended for student use as handouts may be reproduced by the teacher who has purchased this volume. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means—electronic, mechanical, photo- copying, recording—without prior written permission from the publisher.

Links to online sources are provided in the teacher pages and text. Please note that these links were valid atFOR the time of production, REVIEW but the websites may have since been discontinued.ONLY ISBN: 978-0-7825-2366-9 Product Code: NYS3162

Teacher’s Guide

Welcome!...... v

Lesson Plans Geography ...... vii Wildlife ...... xv History ...... xxii Government and Economy ...... xxx

Geography Lesson One: Northeast Region...... 1 Lesson Two: Middle West Region ...... 3 Lesson Three: Southeast Region ...... 5 Lesson Four: Southwest Region...... 7 Lesson Five: West Region ...... 9 Lesson Six: Regions of Texas ...... 11 Lesson Seven: Water Resources...... 14 Lesson Eight: PointsSAMPLE of Interest ...... 18

Wildlife Lesson One: The Animal Kingdom ...... 27 Lesson Two: Vertebrates...... 30 Lesson Three: Invertebrates...... 33 Lesson Four: Large Mammals ...... 36 Lesson Five: Small Mammals ...... 41 Lesson Six: Birds ...... 46 Lesson Seven: Fish and Reptiles ...... 52 Lesson Eight: Amphibians ...... 55 LessonFOR Nine: Arthropods ...... REVIEW ONLY58

iii History Lesson One: First People ...... 63 Lesson Two: Explorers in Texas ...... 68 Lesson Three: Spanish Missions...... 74 Lesson Four: Americans in Texas...... 77 Lesson Five: The Texas Revolution...... 81 Lesson Six: The Republic of Texas ...... 84 Lesson Seven: Statehood ...... 89 Lesson Eight: The Civil War ...... 93

Government and Economy Lesson One: The United States Constitution ...... 97 Lesson Two: The Bill of Rights...... 100 Lesson Three: Government...... 102 Lesson Four: Citizenship...... 106 Lesson Five: Tribal Governments ...... 108 Lesson Six: People in Texas ...... 111 Lesson Seven: Economy ...... 115 Lesson Eight: Texas’s Early Economy...... 118 Lesson Nine: The Great Depression...... 122 Lesson Ten: World War II ...... 125 Lesson Eleven: Texas Today...... 131

Glossary...... 135 Bibliography...... SAMPLE 148

FOR REVIEW ONLY

iv Welcome to Texas Studies! Because this curriculum was designed by teachers, we are posi- tive that you will find it to be a very comprehensive program for teaching students about Texas. We would like to take a few moments to familiarize you with the program.

The Format

Texas Studies, Teacher’s Edition is a two-book set consisting of a Teacher’s Guide and an Activities and Handouts volume. The Teacher’s Guide contains all of the student information pages that also appears in the Student Edition, which may be purchased in class sets. The Activities and Handouts volume includes all of the activities and student handouts for the curriculum. Our goal is a curriculum that you can use the very first day you receive our materials. There is no need to plan lessons, write comprehension questions, create activities, or define vocabulary words. Simply open the book and start teaching.

Texas Studies is divided into four sections. The first section covers United States and Texas Geography, followed by sections on Texas’s Wildlife, Texas’s History, and Texas’s Govern- ment and Economy. Each of the 36 lessons requires students to complete vocabulary cards, read about a Texas topic, and complete a comprehension and language skills activity that will expose them to various standardized test formats. In addition, each lesson includes a balanced mix of lower- and higher-level activities for students to complete. Vocabulary quizzes, mapping, graphing, puzzles, research, writing, time lines, and following directions are the types of activities that will help students learn more about Texas. Whether they’re designing a travel brochure, constructing a Native American dwelling, graphing the egg-laying habits of Texas’s birds, or writing about their adventures as a soldier in the Mexican War, your studentsSAMPLE will marvel at the rich heritage, beauty, and constant activity that Texas has to offer them.

The Lesson Plans

On the next several pages, you will find the Lesson Plans for the entire curriculum. To help you make copies of the student information pages within this volume, we have listed the page number. These pages correspond exactly to the same pages in the Student Edition. Likewise, to help you refer to or make copies of the activities and handouts, we have listed those page numbers with the initials A&H, for the Activities and Handouts volume (such as A&H:23). The only exception is the Vocabulary Card page, which is A&H:1, and is referenced in many lessons. The answers and grading rubrics for all activities, quizzes, and comprehensionFOR questions are located REVIEW in the back of the Activities and HandoutsONLY book.

v Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills in Social Studies

Texas Studies was designed in alignment with the Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills in Social Studies (TEKS) standards. These standards serve as a framework for Texas’s social studies curricula by providing student performance expectations in the areas of History; Geography; Economics; Government; Citizenship; Culture; Science, Technology and Society; and Social Studies Skills. The lesson plans on the following pages clearly list the TEKS standards and how they correlate with each lesson and activity.

Other Content Areas

Texas Studies integrates social studies content and other areas of the elementary curriculum. You will find that most of the activities in the Activities and Handouts volume focus not only on Social Studies content but also on Reading, Math, Language, Science, and Art.

The Vocabulary

Many of the student information pages in the Teacher’s Guide feature words in bold-faced type.

We have included a Glossary on pages 135–147 of your Teacher’s Guide to help students pronounce and define the words. Unlike a dictionary, the definitions in the Glossary are concise and written in context at a fourth-grade level. Remember, we’re teachers! Students will be exposed to these vocabulary words in the comprehension activities. They will also be tested on the vocabulary words within each of the four sections.

Students will be responsible for filling out and studying the vocabulary cards. You may want to have students bring in a small box for storing their vocabulary cards. We don’t have to tell you that incorporating these words into your Reading, Language, and Spelling programs will save timeSAMPLE and make the words more meaningful for students.

FOR REVIEW ONLY

vi Geography Lesson One: Northeast Region

Before reading the “Northeast Region,” have students complete Vocabulary Cards for

borders capital capitol colonists constitution

economy exhibits factories granite Great Britain

historians independence invented manufacturing pilgrims

preserve refuge regions resort resources

Revolutionary War technology wilderness

After reading the “Northeast Region” (pp. 1-2), have students

• Answer “The Northeast Region” reading comprehension questions (A&H:2) • Complete “Let’s Talk About It: The Northeast Region” discussion questions (A&H:3) • Follow the activitySAMPLE directions in “Mapping: New England States”; use cardinal and intermediate directions to plot points of interest on a New England states map (A&H:4-7) • Follow “Mapping: Middle Atlantic States” directions; use latitude/longitude to plot points of interest on the Middle Atlantic States map (A&H:8-12)

The Northeast Region Lesson Is Aligned with These TEKS: Geography: 4.6A, 4.7A Economics: 4.13A, 4.13C Government:FOR 4.15C REVIEW ONLY Social Studies Skills: 4.21B, 4.21C, 4.21E, 4.22A, 4.22C

vii Geography (continued) Lesson Two: Middle West Region

Before reading the “Middle West Region,” have students complete Vocabulary Cards for

aviation canals minerals petroglyphs

After reading the “Middle West Region” (pp. 3-4), have students

• Answer “The Middle West Region” reading comprehension questions (A&H:13) • Complete “Let’s Talk About It: The Middle West Region” discussion questions (A&H:14) • Follow the activity directions in “Mapping: Great Lakes States”; use number/letter pairs to plot historic sites on the Great Lakes States map (A&H:15-17) • Follow “Mapping: Great Plains States” directions; use the grid system to locate state parks on the Great Plains States map (A&H:18-20) •Take the “VocabularySAMPLE Quiz: Texas Geography Part I” (A&H:21-22)

The Middle West Region Lesson Is Aligned with These TEKS: Geography: 4.6A, 4.7A Economics: 4.12A, 4.13A, 4.13C Social StudiesFOR Skills: 4.21B, 4.21C, REVIEW 4.21E, 4.22A, 4.22C ONLY

viii

Geography (continued) Lesson Three: Southeast Region

Before reading the “Southeast Region,” have students complete Vocabulary Cards for

Civil War climate destructive industries island

limestone military monument North America prehistoric

profitable straits tourism variety vertical

After reading the “Southeast Region” (pp. 5-6), have students

• Answer “The Southeast Region” reading comprehension questions (A&H:23) • Complete “Let’s Talk About It: The Southeast Region” discussion questions (A&H:24) • Follow the activity directions in “Mapping: Southeast Region”; use cardinal and intermediate directions to plot points of interest on the Southeast Region States map (A&H:25-28)SAMPLE

The Southeast Region Lesson Is Aligned with These TEKS: Geography: 4.6A, 4.7A Economics: 4.13A, 4.13C Social StudiesFOR Skills: 4.21B, 4.21C, REVIEW 4.22A, 4.22C ONLY

ix Geography (continued) Lesson Four: Southwest Region

Before reading the “Southwest Region,” have students complete Vocabulary Cards for

annual arid boundary endangered founders

gorge humid inhabited livestock nuclear

precipitation pueblo rodeo sagebrush species

After reading the “Southwest Region” (pp. 7-8), have students

• Answer “The Southwest Region” reading comprehension questions (A&H:29) • Complete “Let’s Talk About It: The Southwest Region” discussion questions (A&H:30) • Follow the activity directions in “Mapping: Southwest Region”; use latitude/ longitude to plot points of interest on the Southwest Region States map (A&H:31-35) • Take the “VocabularySAMPLE Quiz: Texas Geography Part II” (A&H:36-37)

The Southwest Region Lesson Is Aligned with These TEKS: Geography: 4.6A, 4.7A Economics: 4.12A, 4.13A, 4.13B Social StudiesFOR Skills: 4.21B, 4.21C, REVIEW 4.21E, 4.22A, 4.22C ONLY

x Geography (continued) Lesson Five: West Region

Before reading the “West Region,” have students complete Vocabulary Cards for

autobiography biographies completion culture dwellings

erupt extends fertile formations fossil

geysers glacier inlet legend mammals

mountainous reptiles saloons theory transcontinental

treaty unique volcanic weary

After reading the “West Region” (pp. 9-10), have students

• Answer “The West Region” reading comprehension questions (A&H:38) • Complete “Let’s Talk About It: The West Region” discussion questions (A&H:39) • Follow the activity directions in “Mapping: Mountain States”; use cardinal and intermediate directions to plot points of interest on the Mountain States map (A&H:40-44)SAMPLE • Follow “Mapping: Pacific States” directions; use number coordinates to plot national parks and monuments on the Pacific States map (A&H:45-47) • Differentiate between primary and secondary sources in “Consider the Source” (A&H:48) • Take the “Vocabulary Quiz: Texas Geography Part III” (A&H:49-50)

The West Region Lesson Is Aligned with These TEKS: Geography: 4.6A, 4.7A Economics:FOR 4.13A, 4.13C REVIEW ONLY Social Studies Skills: 4.21A, 4.21B, 4.21C, 4.21E, 4.22A, 4.22C

xi Geography (continued) Lesson Six: Regions of Texas

Before reading “Regions of Texas,” have students complete Vocabulary Cards for

balconies barren basin elevations erosion

escarpment faulting harvested irrigation lagoons

mimic mohair panhandle petroleum populated

prairie reservoir salt marshes sand bars sorghum

terrains tumbleweeds

After reading “Regions of Texas” (pp. 11-13), have students

• Answer “Regions of Texas” reading comprehension questions (A&H:51) • Complete the “Regions of Texas” language skills activity (A&H:52) • Label and describe each of Texas’s four regions on the Mapping: Texas’s Regions map (A&H:53-55)SAMPLE • Follow the activity directions in “Texas Regions Organizer” and create an organizer comparing the geographic regions of Texas with regions of the United States and other parts of the world (A&H:56-58)

The Regions of Texas Lesson Is Aligned with These TEKS: Geography: 4.6B, 4.7A, 4.7B, 4.7C, 4.8B, 4.8C, 4.9B Economics: 4.12A, 4.12B, 4.13B Social StudiesFOR Skills: 4.21B, 4.21C, REVIEW 4.22A, 4.22E ONLY

xii

Geography (continued) Lesson Seven: Water Resources

Before reading “Water Resources,” have students complete Vocabulary Cards for

bays channels environmental recreation shallow

After reading “Water Resources” (pp. 14-17), have students

• Answer “Water Resources” reading comprehension questions (A&H:59) • Complete the “Water Resources” language skills activity (A&H:60) • Label Texas’s water resources on the two Texas maps (A&H:61-63) • Take the “Vocabulary Quiz: Texas Geography Part IV” (A&H:64-65) SAMPLE

The Water Resources Lesson Is Aligned with These TEKS: Geography: 4.6B, 4.8B, 4.8C, 4.9A, 4.9B Economics: 4.12B, 4.13A Social StudiesFOR Skills: 4.21C, 4.22A, REVIEW 4.22E ONLY

xiii Geography (continued) Lesson Eight: Points of Interest

Before reading “Points of Interest,” have students complete Vocabulary Cards for

aeronautics ancient artifacts barrier island cultural dissolved domed dunes established evidence

expositions federal government flint frontier gondola

Ice Age missionaries missions mounds native

outlaw pioneer quarries theme urban worshipped

After reading “Points of Interest” (pp. 18-26), have students

• Answer “Points of Interest” reading comprehension questions (A&H:66) • Complete the “Points of Interest” language skills activity (A&H:67) • Follow written directions to design a “Texas Travel Brochure” (A&H:68-77) • Differentiate betweenSAMPLE primary and secondary sources in “Consider the Source” (A&H:78) • Take the “Vocabulary Quiz: Texas Geography Part V” (A&H:79-80)

The Points of Interest Lesson Is Aligned with These TEKS: Geography: 4.8B, 4.9A, 4.9B, 4.9C Economics: 4.12B Citizenship: 4.16A, 4.17D Social StudiesFOR Skills: 4.21A, 4.21B, REVIEW 4.21C, 4.22A, 4.22E ONLY

xiv Wildlife Lesson One: The Animal Kingdom

Before reading “The Animal Kingdom,” have students complete Vocabulary Cards for

burrowing exoskeletons flexible internal

perch predators squid

After reading “The Animal Kingdom” (pp. 27-29), have students

• Answer “The Animal Kingdom” reading comprehension questions (A&H:81) • Create and play the game “Adaptation Match-Up” (A&H:82-90)

SAMPLE

The Animal Kingdom Lesson Is Aligned with These TEKS: Social Studies Skills: 4.21B, 4.22A FOR REVIEW ONLY

xv Wildlife (continued) Lesson Two: Vertebrates

Before reading “Vertebrates,” have students complete Vocabulary Cards for

continent marsupials prey rodents snouts venomous

After reading “Vertebrates” (pp. 30-32), have students

• Answer “Vertebrates” reading comprehension questions (A&H:91) • Follow directions and research to create the game “Find the Fib” (A&H:92-94)

Note: You will need to make four copies of A&H:94 for each student.

Lesson Three: Invertebrates

Before reading “Invertebrates,” have students complete Vocabulary Cards for

recyclers tentacles SAMPLE After reading “Invertebrates” (pp. 33-35), have students

• Answer “Invertebrates” reading comprehension questions (A&H:95) • Research to find answers to questions in “The Riddler” (A&H:96-97)

The Vertebrates Lesson Is Aligned with These TEKS: Social Studies Skills: 4.21A, 4.21B, 4.21C, 4.22A, 4.22E

The Invertebrates Lesson Is Aligned with These TEKS: Social StudiesFOR Skills: 4.21B, 4.22A REVIEW ONLY

xvi

Wildlife (continued) Lesson Four: Large Mammals

Before reading “Large Mammals,” have students complete Vocabulary Cards for

captivity coast digest dorsal

illegal inactive yucca

After reading “Large Mammals” (pp. 36-40), have students

• Answer “Large Mammals” reading comprehension questions (A&H:98) • Follow the activity directions in “Mammal Expert’s Journal: Part I”; use a graphic organizer to research and complete their “Mammal Expert’s Journal: Part I” (A&H:99-108) SAMPLE

The Large Mammals Lesson Is Aligned with These TEKS: Geography: 4.9C Social StudiesFOR Skills: 4.21B, 4.21C, REVIEW 4.22A, 4.22D, 4.22E ONLY

xvii Wildlife (continued) Lesson Five: Small Mammals

Before reading “Small Mammals,” have students complete Vocabulary Cards for

canine grubs

After reading “Small Mammals” (pp. 41-45), have students

• Answer “Small Mammals” reading comprehension questions (A&H:109) • Follow the activity directions in “Mammal Expert’s Journal: Part II”; use a graphic organizer to research and complete their “Mammal Expert’s Journal: Part II” (A&H:110-120) • Take the “Vocabulary Quiz: Texas Wildlife Part I” (A&H:121-122) SAMPLE

The Small Mammals Lesson Is Aligned with These TEKS: Geography: 4.9C Social StudiesFOR Skills: 4.21C, 4.22A, REVIEW 4.22D, 4.22E ONLY

xviii Wildlife (continued) Lesson Six: Birds

Before reading “Birds,” have students complete Vocabulary Cards for

aggressive crests foothills habitat incubating migrate nectar talons tame

After reading “Birds” (pp. 46-51), have students

• Answer “Birds” reading comprehension questions (A&H:123) • Follow the activity directions in “Mapping: Texas’s Birds”; place birds in their proper regions on the “Texas Bird Map” (A&H:124-125) • Follow “Graphing: Texas’s Birds” directions; complete the “Texas Bird Chart” (A&H:126-127) • Use the “Texas Bird Chart” to create a bar graph (A&H:128) SAMPLE

The Birds Lesson Is Aligned with These TEKS: Geography: 4.6B, 4.9B Social StudiesFOR Skills: 4.21B, 4.21C, REVIEW 4.21E, 4.22A, 4.22D ONLY

xix Wildlife (continued) Lesson Seven: Fish and Reptiles

Before reading “Fish and Reptiles,” have students complete Vocabulary Cards for

fatal fisheries

After reading “Fish and Reptiles” (pp. 52-54), have students

• Answer “Fish and Reptiles” reading comprehension questions (A&H:129) • Follow “Fish and Reptile Flip Book” directions; research Texas’s fish and reptiles to create a “Fish and Reptile Circle Chart and Flip Book” (A&H:130-134) • Follow the activity directions in “Mimicry: Coral Snakes and Milk Snakes”; use color to complete the activity (A&H:135-136) SAMPLE

The Fish and Reptiles Lesson Is Aligned with These TEKS: Geography: 4.9B, 4.9C Social StudiesFOR Skills: 4.21B, 4.21C, REVIEW 4.22A, 4.22D, 4.22E ONLY

xx Wildlife (continued) Lesson Eight: Amphibians After reading “Amphibians” (pp. 55-57), have students

• Answer “Amphibians” reading comprehension questions (A&H:137) • Follow the activity directions in “Grid Math”; use number coordinates to complete “Life Cycles of Frogs and Toads” grid (A&H:138-140)

Lesson Nine: Arthropods Before reading “Arthropods,” have students complete Vocabulary Cards for

circular cocoons metamorphosis

paralyze regenerate reproduce

After reading “Arthropods” (pp. 58-62), have students

• Answer “Arthropods” reading comprehension questions (A&H:141) • Follow the activitySAMPLE directions in “Classification”; create a classification system for Texas’s animals (A&H:142-144) • Take the “Vocabulary Quiz: Texas Wildlife Part II” (A&H:145)

The Amphibians Lesson Is Aligned with These TEKS:

Social Studies Skills: 4.21B, 4.21E, 4.22A

The Arthropods Lesson Is Aligned with These TEKS: Geography:FOR 4.9B REVIEW ONLY Social Studies Skills: 4.21B, 4.22A

xxi History Lesson One: First People

Before reading “First People,” have students complete Vocabulary Cards for

adobe archaeologists Asia bison carbon dating ceremonies customs descendants drought elected fasting herds intruders mammoths wigwams

After reading “First People” (pp. 63-67), have students

• Answer “First People” reading comprehension questions (A&H:146) • Complete the “First People” language skills activity (A&H:147) • Follow written directions to draw a buffalo (A&H:148-149) • Follow written directions to construct miniature Pueblo dwellings (A&H:150-153) • Take the “Vocabulary Quiz: Texas History Part I” (A&H:154)

SAMPLE

The First People Lesson Is Aligned with These TEKS: History: 4.1A, 4.1B, 4.1C Geography: 4.8C, 4.9A, 4.9B Economics: 4.10A Government: 4.14A Social StudiesFOR Skills: 4.21B, 4.21C, REVIEW 4.22A ONLY

xxii History (continued) Lesson Two: Explorers in Texas

Before reading “Explorers in Texas,” have students complete Vocabulary Cards for

agriculture attaining blockade captive conquered convinced defeating emperor empire expand expedition fertilized governor hoax priests province ransom recruit sacrificed sculptures

After reading “Explorers in Texas” (pp. 68-73), have students

• Answer “Explorers in Texas” reading comprehension questions (A&H:155) • Complete “Explorers in Texas” language skills activity (A&H:156) • Differentiate between primary and secondary sources in “Consider the Source” (A&H:157) • Create a time line for Spanish explorers in “Time Travel Part I” (A&H:158) • Create a personal time line in “Time Travel Part II” (A&H:159) • Follow the activitySAMPLE directions in “Grid Math”; use number pairs to complete an explorer grid (A&H:160-162) • Take the “Vocabulary Quiz: Texas History Part II” (A&H:163-164)

The Explorers in Texas Lesson Is Aligned with These TEKS: History: 4.2A, 4.2B Geography: 4.8B, 4.9A Social StudiesFOR Skills: 4.21A, 4.21C, REVIEW 4.21E, 4.22A ONLY

xxiii History (continued) Lesson Three: Spanish Missions

Before reading “Spanish Missions,” have students complete Vocabulary Cards for

allies blacksmithing carpentry Catholic Christianity citizen confederacy construction donated epidemic founded hostile kidnapped masonry nomadic orchards revolt small pox tanning Texas Revolution

After reading “Spanish Missions” (pp. 74-76), have students

• Answer “Spanish Missions” reading comprehension questions (A&H:165) • Complete “Spanish Missions” language skills activity (A&H:166) • Complete “Let’s Talk About It: Spanish Missions” discussion questions (A&H:167) • Follow the activity directions in “Mapping: Spanish Missions in Texas”; use number coordinates to create a map of Texas’s Spanish missions (A&H:168-172) • Follow directionsSAMPLE and research Texas’s Spanish missions to create and play the game “Find the Fib” (A&H:173-177)

Note: You will need to make four copies of page 174, 175, 176, or 177 for each student.

The Spanish Missions Lesson Is Aligned with These TEKS: History: 4.2C, 4.2D Geography: 4.6A, 4.8B Economics: 4.12A, 4.12C, 4.12D Government:FOR 4.14B REVIEW ONLY Citizenship: 4.16A, 4.17A, 4.18B Social Studies Skills: 4.21A, 4.21B, 4.21C, 4.21D, 4.21E, 4.22A, 4.22C, 4.22E

xxiv History (continued) Lesson Four: Americans in Texas

Before reading “Americans in Texas,” have students complete Vocabulary Cards for

Africa Europe incisor legislature plantations prospectors

After reading “Americans in Texas” (pp. 77-80), have students

• Answer “Americans in Texas” reading comprehension questions (A&H:178) • Complete “Americans in Texas” language skills activity (A&H:179) • Follow the activity directions in “Mountain Man Story”; use a graphic organizer to write a story (A&H:180-183) • Follow written directions to draw a beaver (A&H:184-185) • Take the “Vocabulary Quiz: Texas History Part III” (A&H:186-187)

SAMPLE

The Americans in Texas Lesson Is Aligned with These TEKS: History: 4.2E Geography: 4.8A, 4.8B, 4.8C, 4.9B Economics: 4.12B, 4.12C, 4.12D Culture: 4.19C Social StudiesFOR Skills: 4.21C, 4.21D, REVIEW 4.22A, 4.22B, 4.22C, 4.22E ONLY

xxv History (continued) Lesson Five: The Texas Revolution

Before reading “The Texas Revolution,” have students complete Vocabulary Cards for

adopted appointed cavalry commander convention drover enforced execution loyal outnumbered outraged panicked rebelled republic resigned surrendered withdraw

• Complete part I of “The Texas Revolution K•W•L•H Chart” (A&H:188-190)

After reading “The Texas Revolution” (pp. 81-83), have students

• Answer “The Texas Revolution” reading comprehension questions (A&H:191) • Complete the “Davy Crockett” language skills activity (A&H:192) • Complete parts II and III of “The Texas Revolution K•W•L•H Chart” (A&H:193-194) • Follow directionsSAMPLE for “Famous People: The Texas Revolution”; choose and research a famous person from the Texas Revolution (A&H:195-196) • Follow the activity directions in “Famous Person Cube”; use the information from research to create a famous-person cube (A&H:197-199)

The Texas Revolution Lesson Is Aligned with These TEKS: History: 4.2E, 4.3A, 4.3B, 4.3C Geography: 4.8B Economics: 4.15A Citizenship: 4.17D Social StudiesFOR Skills: 4.21A, 4.21B, REVIEW 4.21C, 4.22A, 4.22D, 4.22E ONLY

xxvi History (continued) Lesson Six: The Republic of Texas

Before reading “The Republic of Texas,” have students complete Vocabulary Cards for

congress delegation financial patrol raids reservations veterans

After reading “The Republic of Texas” (pp. 84-88), have students

• Answer “The Republic of Texas” reading comprehension questions (A&H:200) • Complete “The Republic of Texas” language skills activity (A&H:201) • Follow directions for “Pioneer Journal”; write about events while traveling along the Santa Fe Trail to complete their journal (A&H:202-207) Note: You will need to make six copies of A&H:204 for each student. • Take the “VocabularySAMPLE Quiz: Texas History Part IV” (A&H:208-209)

The Republic of Texas Lesson Is Aligned with These TEKS: History: 4.2E, 4.3C, 4.3D Geography: 4.8A, 4.8B, 4.9C Economics: 4.12B, 4.12C, 4.12E, 4.12F Citizenship: 4.16A, 4.17D, 4.18B Social StudiesFOR Skills: 4.21B, 4.21C, REVIEW 4.21D, 4.22A, 4.22B, 4.22D, 4.22E ONLY

xxvii History (continued) Lesson Seven: Statehood

Before reading “Statehood,” have students complete Vocabulary Cards for

abolish allegiance annexing anthem Confederate debts destiny dispute emblem former Hispanic indivisible motto official outlaw radiance reduce salute Senate tyrant

After reading “Statehood” (pp. 89-92), have students

• Answer “Texas: The 28th State” reading comprehension questions (A&H:210) • Complete “Texas: The 28th State” language skills activity (A&H:211) • Complete “Famous Symbols: State Song” activity (A&H:212-213) • Follow the activity directions in “Grid Math”; use number and letter pairs to complete the statehood grid math page (A&H:214-216) • Follow “The MexicanSAMPLE War” directions; use a graphic organizer to write a Mexican War letter (A&H:217-226) • Differentiate between primary and secondary sources in “Consider the Source” (A&H:227)

The Statehood Lesson Is Aligned with These TEKS: History: 4.3C, 4.3E Economics: 4.12D, 4.12F Government: 4.15A Citizenship: 4.16A, 4.16B, 4.16C, 4.17D, 4.18B Social StudiesFOR Skills: 4.21A, 4.21B, REVIEW 4.21C, 4.21D, 4.21E, 4.22A, 4.22B, 4.22C, 4.22E ONLY

xxviii History (continued) Lesson Eight: The Civil War

Before reading “The Civil War,” have students complete Vocabulary Cards for

abolish abolitionists antislavery secede

After reading “The Civil War” (pp. 93-96), have students

• Answer “The Civil War” reading comprehension questions (A&H:228) • Complete “The Civil War” language skills activity (A&H:229) • Following the “Venn Diagram Organizer” directions, create a Venn diagram organizer comparing the Union and the Confederacy during the Civil War (A&H:230-234) • Take the “Vocabulary Quiz: Texas History Part V” (A&H:235-236) SAMPLE

The Civil War Lesson Is Aligned with These TEKS: History: 4.4A, 4.4D Geography: 4.8A, 4.9C Economics: 4.12D Government: 4.15A Citizenship: 4.16D, 4.17D Social StudiesFOR Skills: 4.21B, 4.21C, REVIEW 4.22A, 4.22D, 4.22E ONLY

xxix Government and Economy Lesson One: The United States Constitution

Before reading “The United States Constitution,” have students complete Vocabulary Cards for

Constitutional abused defending delegates interfere Convention

justice ratify Supreme Court uniting veto

After reading “The United States Constitution” (pp. 97-99), have students

• Answer “The United States Constitution” reading comprehension questions (A&H:237) • Complete “Let’s Talk About It: The United States Constitution” discussion questions (A&H:238) SAMPLE

The United States Constitution Lesson Is Aligned with These TEKS: Government: 4.15C Citizenship: 4.18B Social Studies Skills: 4.21B, 4.22A, 4.22C

FOR REVIEW ONLY

xxx Government and Economy (continued) Lesson Two: The Bill of Rights

Before reading “The Bill of Rights,” have students complete Vocabulary Cards for

amendments bail deriving endowed innocent press sued testify unalienable warrant

After reading “The Bill of Rights” (pp. 100-101), have students

• Answer the “Bill of Rights” reading comprehension questions (A&H:239) • Complete “Let’s Talk About It: The Bill of Rights” discussion questions (A&H:240)

SAMPLE

The Bill of Rights Lesson Is Aligned with These TEKS: Government: 4.15C Social Studies Skills: 4.21A, 4.21B, 4.22A, 4.22C FOR REVIEW ONLY

xxxi Government and Economy (continued) Lesson Three: Government

Before reading “Government,” have students complete Vocabulary Cards for

accused appeals assassinated attorney general

civil rights commissioners comptroller juveniles

liberty lieutenant governor majority secretary of state

After reading “Government” (pp. 102-105), have students

• Answer “Texas’s Government” reading comprehension questions (A&H:241) • Complete “Texas’s Government” language skills activity (A&H:242) • Complete “Are You Puzzled?” (A&H:243-244) • Take the “Vocabulary Quiz: Texas Government and Economy Part I” (A&H:245-246) SAMPLE

The Government Lesson Is Aligned with These TEKS: History: 4.2E Geography: 4.8B Government: 4.15B Citizenship: 4.17D, 4.17E, 4.18A, 4.18B Social StudiesFOR Skills: 4.22A REVIEW ONLY

xxxii Government and Economy (continued) Lesson Four: Citizenship

Before reading “Citizenship,” have students complete Vocabulary Cards for

conserve disabled elderly jury landfill

After reading “Citizenship” (pp. 106-107), have students

• Answer “Citizenship” reading comprehension questions (A&H:247) • Complete “Let’s Talk About It: Citizenship” discussion questions (A&H:248) • Follow the activity directions for “Letter Writing: Be Persuasive!”; use a graphic organizer to write a formal persuasive letter to a Texas legislator (A&H:249-261) SAMPLE

The Citizenship Lesson Is Aligned with These TEKS: Citizenship: 4.17B, 4.17C, 4.17E, 4.18A Social Studies Skills: 4.21B, 4.21C, 4.21D, 4.22A, 4.22B, 4.22C, 4.22E FOR REVIEW ONLY

xxxiii Government and Economy (continued) Lesson Five: Tribal Governments

Before reading “Tribal Governments,” have students complete a Vocabulary Card for

influenza

After reading “Tribal Governments” (pp. 108-110), have students

• Answer “Tribal Governments” reading comprehension questions (A&H:262) • Complete “Let’s Talk About It: Tribal Governments” discussion questions (A&H:263)

SAMPLE

The Tribal Governments Lesson Is Aligned with These TEKS: History: 4.1B, 4.1C Geography: 4.8A, 4.8C, 4.9A, 4.9B, 4.9C Economics: 4.10A, 4.12A, 4.12C, 4.12F Government: 4.14B Social Studies Skills: 4.22A, 4.22C

FOR REVIEW ONLY

xxxiv Government and Economy (continued) Lesson Six: People in Texas

Before reading “People in Texas,” have students complete Vocabulary Cards for

aerospace Anglos barricaded brand cultural

decades discrimination ethnic executives forbidden

immigrants investors Latinos poverty protest

Pulitzer Prize refugees traditional

After reading “People in Texas” (pp. 111-114), have students

• Answer the “People in Texas” reading comprehension questions (A&H:264) • Complete the “People in Texas” language skills activity (A&H:265) • Read about Lizzie Johnson and answer thought-provoking discussion questions (A&H:266-268) • Differentiate between primary and secondary sources in “Consider the Source” (A&H:269) • Research one ofSAMPLE Texas’s cultures to create and play the game “Find the Fib” (A&H:270-277) Note: You will need to make four copies of A&H:272, 273, 274, 275, 276, or 277 for each student. • Take the “Vocabulary Quiz: Texas Government and Economy Part II” (A&H:278-279)

The People in Texas Lesson Is Aligned with These TEKS: History: 4.1C, 4.4B, 4.4C, 4.5C Geography: 4.8A, 4.8C, 4.9A Economics: 4.10B, 4.12C Government: 4.14B Citizenship: 4.17A, 4.17D, 4.18B Culture:FOR 4.19A, 4.19B, 4.19C REVIEW ONLY Social Studies Skills: 4.21A, 4.21B, 4.21C, 4.22A, 4.22E

xxxv Government and Economy (continued) Lesson Seven: Economy

Before reading “Economy,” have students complete Vocabulary Cards for

condense dehydrated income promote wage

After reading “Economy” (pp. 115-117), have students

• Answer the “Economy” reading comprehension questions (A&H:280) • Complete the “Economy” language skills activity (A&H:281) • Follow the activity directions in “Economy Learning Wheel”; create an Economy Learning Wheel (A&H:282-287) • Read “Famous Texan Entrepreneurs” and answer thought-provoking discussion questions (A&H:288-290) SAMPLE

The Economy Lesson Is Aligned with These TEKS: History: 4.5B Economics: 4.11A, 4.11B, 4.11C, 4.12B, 4.12F Science, Tech, Society: 4.20A, 4.20B Social StudiesFOR Skills: 4.21B, 4.21C, REVIEW 4.22A, 4.22D, 4.22E ONLY

xxxvi Government and Economy (continued) Lesson Eight: Texas’s Early Economy

Before reading “Texas’s Early Economy,” have students complete Vocabulary Cards for

bales declined Great Depression ports

refineries tilling transport

After reading “Texas’s Early Economy” (pp. 118-121), have students

• Answer “Texas’s Early Economy” reading comprehension questions (A&H:291) • Read “Texas’s Economy: Cotton,” and create a Cotton Fact Card (A&H:292-295) • Follow written directions to create a model of a covered wagon (A&H:296-301) • Follow the activity directions in “Mapping: Texas’s Oil Fields”; use cardinal and intermediate directions to plot oil fields on the Texas’s Oil Fields map (A&H:302-305)SAMPLE

Texas’s Early Economy Lesson Is Aligned with These TEKS: History: 4.2C, 4.2E, 4.4B, 4.4C, 4.5A, 4.5B Geography: 4.6A, 4.8A, 4.8B, 4.8C, 4.9A, 4.9B Economics: 4.10A, 4.10B, 4.12B, 4.12C, 4.12D, 4.12E, 4.12F Science, Tech, Society: 4.20B SocialFOR Studies Skills: 4.21A, 4.21C,REVIEW 4.22A, 4.22D, 4.22E ONLY

xxxvii Government and Economy (continued) Lesson Nine: The Great Depression

Before reading “The Great Depression,” have students complete Vocabulary Cards for

admired armored campaign cargo charity

civilians disability inspected minimum polio

processing restoring retired secure suffocation

textile tutors unemployed

After reading “The Great Depression” (pp. 122-124), have students

• Answer “The Great Depression” reading comprehension questions (A&H:306) • Complete “Let’s Talk About It: The Great Depression” discussion questions (A&H:307) • Read “Famous People: Franklin D. Roosevelt” and answer thought-provoking discussion questions (A&H:308-310) • Read about World War I weapons and create a World War I Weapons Chart (A&H:311-314) • Follow the activitySAMPLE directions in “Essay: World War I Weapons”; use information from the World War I Weapons Chart to write a World War I weapons essay (A&H:315-335) • Take the “Vocabulary Quiz: Texas Government and Economy Part III” (A&H:336-337)

The Great Depression Lesson Is Aligned with These TEKS: History: 4.5A, 4.5B Geography: 4.8A Economics: 4.12D Citizenship:FOR 4.18A REVIEW ONLY Social Studies Skills: 4.21A, 4.21B, 4.21C, 4.21D, 4.22A, 4.22B, 4.22C, 4.22D, 4.22E

xxxviii Government and Economy (continued) Lesson Ten: World War II

Before reading “World War II,” have students complete Vocabulary Cards for

ancestors atomic dictators marksmen migrant

relocation sawmill smuggled timber vessels

After reading “World War II” (pp. 125-130), have students

• Answer “World War II” reading comprehension questions (A&H:338) • Complete “Let’s Talk About It: Japanese Relocation Centers” discussion questions (A&H:339) • Follow the activity directions in “Mapping: Japanese Relocation Centers”; use cardinal and intermediate directions to plot relocation centers on the Japanese Relocation map (A&H:340-343) • Follow writtenSAMPLE directions to construct a P-47 Thunderbolt (A&H:344-350)

The World War II Lesson Is Aligned with These TEKS: History: 4.5A, 4.5C Geography: 4.6A, 4.8A, 4.8B, 4.8C Economics: 4.10B, 4.12B, 4.12C, 4.12E, 4.12F Citizenship: 4.17D Culture: 4.19C Social StudiesFOR Skills: 4.21B, 4.21C, REVIEW 4.21D, 4.22A, 4.22C ONLY

xxxix Government and Economy (continued) Lesson Eleven: Texas Today

Before reading “Texas Today,” have students complete Vocabulary Cards for

cavern exporter extracted gypsum

headquarters helium magnesium planetarium

prosper slogan souvenirs

After reading “Texas Today” (pp. 131-134), have students

• Answer “Texas Today” reading comprehension questions (A&H:351) • Complete “Texas Today” language skills activity (A&H:352) • Participate in a discussion group to talk about the future of Texas, “Let’s Talk About It: The Future of Texas” (A&H:353-355) • Follow the activity directions in “Mapping: Texas’s Points of Interest”; use number coordinates to locate Texas’s points of interest on Texas’s Points of Interest map (A&H:356-358)SAMPLE • Take the “Vocabulary Quiz: Texas Government and Economy Part IV” (A&H:359-360)

The Texas Today Lesson Is Aligned with These TEKS: History: 4.4C, 4.5B, 4.5C Geography: 4.6A, 4.9A, 4.9B, 4.9C Economics: 4.12A, 4.12B, 4.12D, 4.12E, 4.12F, 4.13A, 4.13B Citizenship: 4.16A Culture: 4.19C Science, FORTech, Society: 4.20A, 4.20B, REVIEW 4.20C ONLY Social Studies Skills: 4.21B, 4.22A, 4.22B, 4.22C, 4.22E

xl Geography...... 1–18 SAMPLE Wildlife ...... 27–58

History ...... 63–93

Government and Economy...... 97–131

FOR REVIEW ONLY SAMPLE

FOR REVIEW ONLY Texas Geography Lesson One

The United States is a large area of land that is divided into five areas or regions. Each region has its own special characteristics, setting it apart from the other four regions. eatherW patterns, naturalresources , and economy are some of the things that make one region different from another region. The five regions of the United States are the Northeast region, the Middle West region, the Southeast region, the Southwest region, and the West region. Learning about each region of the United States will help you on your journey through Texas. The Northeast Region The Northeast region is divided into two sections. The northernmost part of the Northeast region is known as New England. There are six New England states in the Northeast region. To the southwest of the New England states are the five Middle Atlantic states. The New England States The New England states include Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont. SAMPLE People who live in New England enjoy natural resources not found in some of the other regions of the United States. The land in New England is rocky and most of the New England states are covered with thick forests. The trees provide wood for making paper and lumber for building houses. The rocky land produces granite and marble. A thin layer of soil and long cold winters make New England a poor place for farming. As a result, many people in New England work in factories that make computers, airplane parts, shoes, and brass items that are sold to companies in Texas and all over the world. Of course, New England’s location on the Atlantic Ocean has always made it a perfect place for fishing. Today’sFOR technology and transportation REVIEW advancements connect the NewONLY England states to Texas and the rest of the world. It is possible to order Maine’s lobster on the Web today and have it shipped overnight to restaurants and homes throughout Texas and the United States.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 1 The Middle Atlantic States The Middle Atlantic states include Delaware, Maryland, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. The Middle Atlantic states stretch out along the Atlantic Coastal Plain. A coastal plain borders the sea on one side and hills on the other side. The Appalachian (ap•uh•LAY•shun) Mountains are also part of the Middle Atlantic states. The Piedmont (PEED•mont) lies between the Atlantic Coastal Plain and the Appalachian Mountains. In Italian, Piedmont means “foot of the mountain.” The Middle Atlantic states S have so many factories that IN TA N U they are known as the country’s O M

Manufacturing Belt. The factories

N in the Middle Atlantic states make IA H C A things out of iron, glass, and steel L A P that are used throughout P A the world. MONT The Middle Atlantic PIED states have historically been the NEW ENGLAND STATES center of government activity in MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES the United States. Our nation’s capital is located in the Middle Atlantic. Important documents like the Declaration of Independence and the United States Constitution were written in the Middle Atlantic states. The Declaration of Independence The Declaration of Independence was written in 1776, by the firstcolonists from Great Britain. These colonistsSAMPLE had traveled to America in search of freedom, but they were still forced to live by Great Britain’s rules and laws. The colonists grew tired of Great Britain’s control. They decided to declare their independence from Great Britain. The colonists went to war against Great Britain. They wrote the Declaration of Independence and formed the United States of America. After winning the war, the colonists were finally free to make their own rules and laws. The Declaration of Independence is still important to us today. Without it, we might never have become the United States of America. The Constitution The Constitution outlines the rights and responsibilities of every person who lives in the United States. It describes our government and how rules and laws will be made. The Constitution also describes what will happen to people who break those laws. In a country as large as theFOR United States, the ConstitutionREVIEW is important. It guarantees ourONLY freedom and protects us from people who might want to hurt us.

The Middle West region is a large area of land that is divided into two sections. The six Great Plains states stretch out along the western edge of the Middle West region. The six Great Lakes states are located in the northeast corner of the Middle West region. The Great Plains States The Great Plains states include Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, and South Dakota. People who live in the Great Plains enjoy large open areas with few trees. These open areas make the Great Plains a perfect place for farming. In fact, so much corn, wheat, and soybeans are grown in the Great Plains, the area is known as America’s breadbasket. Crops grown on these farms are used to make enough flour, cereal, pasta, and other bread products to feed the United States and people in other countries. Grass covers huge areas of the Great Plains. Cattle and sheep ranchers use the large grassy areas for their animals to graze. Some ranches in the Great Plains are 100,000 acres or larger in size. SAMPLE Violent weather is also a big part of the Great Plains. Tornadoes, hail, and thunderstorms destroy houses and farms every year. Fortunately, the economy of the Great Plains also depends on minerals that include oil, coal, gold, and iron.

• In late 1811 and early 1812, three of the strongest earthquakes ever to hit the Fast Facts United States struck the Great Plains state of Missouri. Scientists believe that it was more powerful than the great San Francisco earthquake of 1906. FOR REVIEW Fortunately, very few people lived in ONLY that region of Missouri at the time.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 3 The Great Lakes States The Great Lakes states are Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, and Wisconsin. They are called the Great Lakes states because each state touches at least one of the five Great Lakes. The five Great Lakes are Lake Erie, Lake Huron, Lake Michigan, Lake Ontario, and Lake Superior. The Great Lakes are so large that they hold one fourth of all the fresh water in the world. This is enough water to completely cover the United States with 12 feet of water. Canals The Great Lakes are very important to Texas and the rest of the United States. Through a system of canals, *5($7/$.(6 the Great Lakes provide a *5($73/$,16 waterway for ships to carry products from the Great Lakes states to any location in the world. The Dairy Belt The Great Lakes states are located in an area of the United States known as the Dairy Belt. Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, and Wisconsin raise most of the nation’s cattle. Cows are raised on large farms. They produce important dairy products that we eat and drink every day. Corn is an important crop grown in the Great Lakes states area. If you ate popcorn at the movies, there’s a very SAMPLEgood chance that it came from a farm in the Great Lakes area. Manufacturing is also important to the Great Lakes states. Iron from Minnesota and Wisconsin is shipped by boat to factories in Ohio and Indiana. The iron is mixed with coal to produce steel. The steel is used in factories throughout the Great Lakes area to make cars. Ask your parents where their cars were manufactured. You might be surprised to find out that they were shipped from a factory in the Great Lakes area to a car dealership right in your town.

• In 1825 the Erie Canal was completed in the Middle Atlantic state of New Fast Facts York. The Erie Canal eventually connected many cities in the Great Lakes state of Ohio to Lake Erie. The canal even joined Ohio with New York City and FOR REVIEW New Orleans. This made shipping ONLY products to other cities and states much easier and a lot cheaper.

The Southeast region is a large area of land that includes 12 states. Natural beauty and a warm climate make the Southeast a great place to live and visit. Cotton was once the most important crop grown in the Southeast. Today, the Southeast region is known for a variety of industries. Plenty of summer rain helps farmers in the Southeast grow many of the fruits and vegetables that we eat every day. Manufacturing and tourism are also important to the Southeast region’s economy.

The Southeast States The 12 states in the Southeast region are Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia. By looking at the map above, you can easily see that these states are called Southeast states because they are located in the southeast corner of the United States. The Southeast states offer many things not found in other regions of the United States. Besides the warm climateSAMPLE and plenty of rain for growing crops, the Southeast region’s location on the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico provides a way for important products to be received from and shipped to other countries. The economies of the United States and the rest of the world are dependent on the Southeast region’s transportation routes.

Fast Facts •The Straits of Florida border the state of Florida on the south. The Straits of Florida are narrow waterways that connect the Gulf of Mexico with the Atlantic Ocean and FOR REVIEW separate Florida from the island of Cuba. ONLY

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 5 The Coastal Plains Water is very important to the Southeast region. The Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico border many of the Southeast states. The flat land surrounded by these bodies of aterw forms part of the Atlantic and Gulf coastal plains. Remember, coastal plains are bordered by the sea on one side and hills on the other side. The Gulf and Atlantic coastal plains slope gently toward the sea. Many kinds of fruits and vegetables grow well in these areas. The Mississippi River The Mississippi River is another important body of water ATLANTIC in the Southeast region. The OCEAN river flows between the Southeast states of Tennessee, Mississippi, Arkansas, and Louisiana. GULF OF MEXICO The Mississippi River provides another way for important products to reach other states and countries. Land in the Mississippi River Valley is wide and flat where the river empties into the Gulf of Mexico. Rice, cotton, and sugarcane grow well in the swampy soil along the banks of the Mississippi River.

The Appalachian (ap•uh•LAY•shun) Mountains In the northern part of the Southeast region, the Appalachian Mountains rise up and provide an area for raising dairy cattle. Believe it or not, crops of peaches, apples, corn, and tobacco grow very wellSAMPLE along the steep slopes of the Appalachian Mountains. Rich coal deposits found in the Appalachian Mountains make coal mining a very profitable industry in the Southeast region. The coal is mixed with iron and limestone to make steel for manufacturing important products that we use every day.

Fast Facts • The Appalachian Mountains were formed over 250 million years ago. They stretch from Newfoundland in Canada to the Southeast region state of FOR REVIEW Alabama in the United States. ONLY

The Southwest region is made up of four states: Arizona, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas. Other regions you have studied were inhabited first by colonists from Great Britain and then American settlers. The Southwest region wasn’t even explored by Americans until the 1800s. The first American explorers who entered the Southwest region saw wide open spaces and beautiful scenery. Still, the population of the Southwest grew slowly. Those seeking adventure were the only people brave enough to travel through the Southwest. Fear of Native American attacks, blistering heat, and control by Spain and Mexico kept most Americans from visiting or settling in the Southwest region. The Climate of the Southwest Most of the Southwest region lies in an area known as arid America. Less than 20 inches of precipitation falls in this part of the United States each year. The soil is sandy and rocky, making it a difficultSAMPLE place to farm. Other regions are covered with trees and grass. This part of the Southwest region is covered with cactus and sagebrush. The eastern edge of the Southwest region is part of humid America. More than 20 inches of precipitation falls in humid America each year. The grass grows high in this area of the Southwest region. This makes it a perfect place for farmers and ranchers to raise livestock.

Fast Facts •The southeastern boundary of the state of Texas is formed by the Gulf of Mexico. FOR REVIEW• The Gulf of Mexico borders Texas for ONLY 367 miles.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 7 The Colorado River The dry climate once made it impossible for large numbers of people to live in some areas of the Southwest region. Oklahoma and Texas have many rivers and lakes. New Mexico and Arizona have plenty of high mountains and deep canyons, but few water resources. The Colorado River flows along Arizona’s western border. As people started settling in the Southwest region, it was important to find a way to bring the water from the Colorado River to other places in Arizona and New Mexico. Canals and pipelines were built to carry water from the Colorado River to the driest areas of the Southwest region. This made it possible for more people to move to the region.

UTAH COLORADO NEVADA

VER I R DO ORA COL

NEW CALIFORNIA MEXICO

G ULF

C ALIFORNIA SAMPLEMEXICO

The Southwest Today Today, the Southwest region is one of the fastest growing regions in the United States. Every day, thousands of people leave the cold weather and crowded cities in the East to move to the Southwest region. During the summer months, the temperature in many areas of the Southwest region still soars above 100° Fahrenheit. Water continues to be a valuable resource that people in the Southwest must use wisely. Oil is an important industry in Texas and Oklahoma. New Mexico is rich in minerals that nuclear (NOO•clee•ur) power plants turn into energy. Other minerals like copper, lead, and zinc areFOR also mined in Arizona REVIEWand New Mexico. Not long ago, only theONLY most brave and daring visited the Southwest region. Today, so many people visit this beautiful region that tourism has become one of the most important industries in the Southwest.

The West is a dry and mountainous region that is divided into two sections. The Mountain states are located in the northwest part of the United States. The Pacific states create the western border of the United States. The Mountain States The Mountain states are Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, Utah, and Wyoming. Most of these states are home to the largest section of the Rocky Mountains. The Rocky Mountains are the tallest mountains in the United States. They begin in the Pacific state of Alaska and stretch south through the Mountain and Southwest states before ending in the country of Mexico. The beauty of the Rocky Mountains attracts millions of visitors to the Mountain states each year. The Mountain states cover a large SAMPLEarea of land, but fewer people live in the Mountain states than in any other part of the United States. Wide open spaces with snow covered mountains in the background make the Mountain states a perfect place for people who seek peace and quiet. The Economy of the Mountain States Very little rain falls in the Mountain states. For this reason, few crops are grown. Instead, sheep and cattle are raised on large ranches that cover thousands of acres. There are plenty of minerals in the Mountain states. The world’s largest copper deposit is located in Butte, Montana. Gold, silver, lead, and other important minerals are mined in the Mountain states as well. The Mountain states are also rich in coal, oil, and natural gas. The next time you eat a hamburger or light a fire in your fireplace, you can thank the ranchers and miners in the Mountain statesFOR for providing these REVIEW natural resources. ONLY

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 9 The Pacific States The Pacific states include Alaska, California, Hawaii, Oregon, and Washington. Just as this area’s name suggests, each of the Pacific states borders the Pacific Ocean. Every day in the Pacific states of California, Oregon, and Washington, hundreds of large shipping containers are shipped and arrive from all over the world containing everything from automobiles to frozen foods. Through improvements in transportation and updated communication, trains, airplanes, and trucks are waiting to deliver these goods to families, restaurants, and companies throughout Texas and the United States. California is home to Hollywood and the movie-making industry. Think about the last movie that you saw. It was probably filmed, edited, or produced in California. Once the movie gets released to a theater, the money earned helps the economy of that area. The Pacific states areunique . Two of the states, Alaska and Hawaii, do not border any other states. Alaska, our largest and most northern state, is separated from the United States by the country of Canada. Hawaii, our most southern state, is actually a chain of islands in the Pacific Ocean. High and Low Points of the Pacific States Like the Mountain states, the Pacific states have many mountains. The Coast Ranges are low hills next to the Pacific Ocean. The Cascade Range extends from northern California to British Columbia in Canada. The Klamath Mountains riseSAMPLE up between the Pacific states of California and Oregon. Volcanoes form the mountainous areas of Hawaii. Volcanoes are holes in the Earth that erupt with melted rock, ash, and gas. As these materials cool and harden, they form mountains. The islands of Hawaii are actually the tops of volcanoes that were built up from the floor of the Pacific Ocean. Between the mountain ranges are low points known as valleys. Valleys in the Pacific states are fertile areas perfect for growing crops. Oregon’s Willamette Valley and California’s Central Valley are two of the richest farming areas in the world.

Fast Facts • The Pacific state of Hawaii is home to more than 2,500 plants that aren’t found anywhere else in the world. • According to legend, no one is allowed to remove a piece of FOR volcanicREVIEW rock from the Big Island of Hawaii unless ONLY a small

gift is left behind. It is believed that people who break this

rule will have terrible things happen to them.

Texas, the second largest and second most populated state, is one of four states located in the Southwest region of the United States. You have already read that Arizona, New Mexico, and Oklahoma are the other states that make up the Southwest Region. Texas is so big that the states of Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, and West Virginia could all fit inside of its boundaries at the same time. Like the rest of the United States, Texas is divided into regions. The four major land regions of Texas are the Coastal Plains, the Central Plains, the Great Plains, and the Mountains and Basins regions. You will soon learn that each region has its own unique features, climate, natural resources, and economy, making it an important piece of the great state of Texas.SAMPLE

Fast Facts •The northern mockingbird is Texas’s state bird. This noisy songbird can be found throughout Texas, but the largest population lives in the Central Plains region. • Mockingbirds are so talented, they can mimic the songs of 50 other birds. They also “mock” or imitate other sounds they hear, such as rusty FOR REVIEW hinges, whistling, sirens, and barking dogs. ONLY

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 11 The Coastal Plains Region The Coastal Plains region in the eastern part of Texas covers about one-third of the state. This region has a variety of climates and terrains. The Coastal Plains region borders the Gulf of Mexico. The area closest to the Gulf waters is made up of natural resources that include salt marshes, sand bars, lagoons, and islands. Padre Island, the largest sand bar, is a popular place for tourists and visitors. The coastal area has warm summers and mild winters. Many species of birds and insects make their homes in this wet, warm climate. The same warm, moist weather that allows a long growing season throughout the entire region also causes hurricanes and other types of storms. The Rio Grande, one of the main rivers of Texas, borders the southernmost part of the Coastal Plains region. The Rio Grande Valley is one of the most fertile farming areas in Texas. North of the Rio Grande Valley is the Middle Nueces (noo•AY•sis) Valley. The weather here is a little drier than along the coast. Farmers use the fertile soil of the Rio Grande and Nueces valleys to grow vegetables, fruits, and grains that we eat every day. Cotton is our state’s most valuable crop. Texas is responsible for producing almost 30 percent of the nation’s cotton. The western edge of the Coastal Plains region is mostly prairie with few trees. Ranchers use this land to graze their large herds of cattle, providing meat for families all over the world. The northeastern part of this region, often called the Piney Woods, is heavily forested with oak, pine, sweet gum, and other trees. The Piney Woods is home to lumber companies that cut down the trees in the forest and turn them into wood for houses and paper for writing. All four of Texas’s national forests are found in the Piney Woods area. The Central Plains Region The Central Plains SAMPLEregion lies west of the Coastal Plains. This region is sometimes called the Interior Plains. The landscape of the Central Plains region is a mix of prairies and low rolling hills with some areas of rugged cliffs, peaks, and valleys. The Balcones (bal•COH•nays) Escarpment, formed by faulting and erosion, marks the southern boundary between the Central and Coastal Plains regions. It received the Spanish word balcones because Spanish explorers thought it looked like balconies. These cliffs and hills stretch from the Rio Grande to the Colorado River. Several important Texas cities are close to the dividing line between the Coastal Plains and the Central Plains regions. They includeFOR Dallas, Waco, and the REVIEW state’s capital city of Austin. ONLY The higher elevations and hot, dry climate of the Central Plains region support an economy that meets the needs of Texans and people throughout the United States, with oil, cattle, farm crops, and oodw from forests. ©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 12 The Great Plains Region The Great Plains region lies to the north and west of the Central Plains region. This area stretches westward to the border of New Mexico and northward into the Texas Panhandle. The terrain of the Panhandle is mostly flatland, but changes to higher elevations as we move eastward. Another escarpment, known as the Cap Rock Escarpment, borders the eastern edge of the Great Plains region. The Cap Rock Escarpment is 200 miles long with cliffs that reach almost 1,000 feet high. Though the Great Plains region is drier, hotter, and morebarren than the other regions, farmers have located water underground. With the help of irrigation, wheat, cotton, andsorghum grown and harvested in the Great Plains region can be enjoyed by people everywhere. The southern part of the Great Plains region lies above an area called the Permian (PER•mee•on) Basin. This basin is the state’s largest natural reservoir (REH•zeh•vwar) for petroleum and natural gas. Oil wells are used to pump the oil from the ground. Trains, trucks, and ships take Texas’s oil all over the world. Many people raise sheep and goats in the Great Plains region. The Great Plains city of San Angelo (AN•juh•low) is called the Wool and Mohair Capital. Texas’s Angora goats provide about half of the world’s mohair. This fact gives a whole new meaning to “wild and wooly” West. The Mountains and Basins Region The Mountains and Basins region, also known as the Trans-Pecos region, is SAMPLElocated in the southwestern part of Texas. Trans-Pecos means “across the Pecos River.” The mountain ranges here rise as high as 8,000 feet. The Davis, Chisos (CHEE•sos), and Guadalupe (gwah•duh•LUH•pay) mountains stretch from north to south. These mountains are part of the Rocky Mountains. The climate in the Mountains and Basins region is hot and dry. High winds often kick up large dust storms causing tumbleweeds to roll wildly across the land like runaway marbles. Ranchers use the flat grassy sections of the Mountains and Basins region for grazing.FOR Texas raises 20 REVIEWpercent of the nation’s beef cattle. Water ONLY from the Rio Grande irrigates crops in the Mountains and Basins region. Cactus, shrubs, rattlesnakes, and horned lizards are at home in this barren region.

Have you ever been rafting down the Rio Grande or sailing in the Gulf of Mexico? The rivers, lakes, and bays of Texas provide fun and recreation for many of the state’s families and their visitors. They also supply much needed water to Texas and other states. The Texas Commission on Environmental Quality is a government agency in Texas that keeps the water safe for drinking, swimming, bathing, farm use, and running businesses. This agency regularly takes samples of the water from Texas’s rivers, lakes, and streams and tests it to make sure that the water supply is safe for everyone drinking and using it. Texas’s largest and most important rivers are the Rio Grande, Red, Brazos (BRAH•zos), and Colorado rivers. Each of these rivers is more than 600 miles long. The Rio Grande The Rio Grande is the longest river in Texas. In Spanish, Rio Grande means “big river.” It is 1,900 miles long and forms the boundary between Texas and the country of Mexico. The Rio Grande starts in the mountains of Colorado and empties into the Gulf of Mexico. The land in this part of Texas is very good for growing fruits and vegetables. Farmers use water from the Rio Grande to irrigate their crops. The Red River The Red River flows eastward across the Texas Panhandle. The Red River forms most of the Texas-Oklahoma boundarySAMPLE and continues into the states of Arkansas and Louisiana before emptying into the Mississippi River. The Red River received its name because it picks up bits of iron from the soil. The iron turns the river a rust color. The Red River is used to ship many important products from Texas to states along the Mississippi River. The economies of these states are dependent on Texas’s ability to ship products quickly and safely.

Fast Facts •Bald eagles are found in areas with plenty of water. This is why the largest population of bald eagles in Texas can be seen plucking fish from the Rio Grande and Red rivers. • Bald eagles have white heads and upper necks, white tails, dark brown bodies, and yellow bills. Their wingspans are almost three times the FOR REVIEW lengths of their bodies. Adult bald eagles areONLY 32 inches long, but their wingspans measure 80 inches.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 14 The Colorado River The Colorado River begins in central Texas and flows southeastward for about 600 miles before emptying into the Gulf of Mexico. Don’t confuse the Colorado River in Texas with the Colorado River that you read about in the Southwest region. Texas’s Colorado River begins and ends in the state of Texas. The Brazos River The Brazos River is 870 miles long and flows almost all the way across Texas before it empties into the Gulf of Mexico. During the spring rains, the Brazos River fills with water. This makes the river deep and wide enough for large ships from the Gulf of Mexico to travel almost 300 miles up the Brazos. The Brazos River supplies water, power, and flood control to many towns and cities across Texas. The largest town on the Brazos River is Waco. Use the map below to trace the routes of the Rio Grande, Red, Colorado, and Brazos rivers in Texas.

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©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 15 Texas’s Smaller Rivers You know about the longest river in Texas, but did you know that the shortest river in the entire United States is also in Texas? The Comal River begins and ends in the city of New Braunfels and is just over two miles long. The Comal River is a favorite swimming spot for people who live in the area. The Trinity and Sabine (suh•BEEN) are the main rivers of eastern Texas. The Sabine River forms part of Texas’s boundary with Louisiana. The rivers in the eastern part of Texas have a lot of water in them all year long because it rains more in the eastern part of the state. The Canadian River flows through the Texas Panhandle in the northern part of the state. Historians believe that early explorers gave the Canadian River its name because they mistakenly thought it flowed into Canada. The western part of Texas is drier than the east. Most of the rivers and streams in this part of Texas have water in them only after a heavy rainfall. The Pecos River begins in New Mexico and flows through southwestern Texas on its way to the Rio Grande. Water from the Pecos RiverSAMPLE supplies much needed water to farmland along its route, but during the hot summer months, most of the Pecos River remains dry. The Guadalupe (gwah•duh•LUH•pay), Neches (NECH•iz), Nueces (noo•AY•sis), and San Antonio are some of Texas’s smaller rivers in the southern part of the state. Like Texas’s larger rivers, these small bodies of water are natural resources that provide beauty, recreation, irrigation, and a place for many species of fish and birds. The map above traces the routes of Texas’s smaller rivers. Texas’s Islands You have already learned that the Gulf of Mexico forms the southeastern border of Texas. Along the coast, the water is too shallow for ships to sail close to land. Channels have been dug in FORrivers and bays so ships REVIEW can come into cities like Houston and CorpusONLY Christi. Narrow islands of sand lie off the coast of Texas. Padre Island, San Jose (ho•ZAY) Island, Matagorda Island, and Galveston Island protect the coastline from storms and strong winds. Use the map above to locate these four islands.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. 16 Reproducible for classroom use only. Texas’s Lakes, Dams, and Reservoirs (REH•zeh•vwarz) Texas has many large and small lakes. One of the state’s largest natural lakes is Sabine Lake on the Texas-Louisiana border. Sabine Lake is fourteen miles long and seven miles wide. It is formed as the Neches and Sabine rivers come together. During the 1800s, Sabine Lake was used to secretly bring slaves into Louisiana and Texas. Many of Texas’s most popular lakes are artificial or human-made. This means that a dam was built on a river. The dam acts as a wall and creates a reservoir that can be used for recreation, irrigation, and storing fresh water for nearby towns and cities. Because rivers are constantly flowing, dams are also useful for flood control. In addition, dams help turn water power from a river into electric power. Some of Texas’s most popular dams include Sanford Dam on the Canadian River, Possum Kingdom Dam on the Brazos River, Denison Dam on the Red River, Toledo Bend Dam on the SabineSAMPLE River, Livingston Dam on the Trinity River, Buchanan Dam on the Colorado River, Falcon Dam on the Rio Grande, and Amistad Dam on the Pecos River. Building dams has created more than 200 reservoirs and lakes in Texas. The largest reservoir in Texas is Toledo Bend. Toledo Bend Reservoir is on the Texas-Louisiana border. Other popular lakes and reservoirs in Texas include Lake Meredith, Lake Texoma, Possum Kingdom Lake, Lake Livingston, Lake Buchanan, Falcon Reservoir, and Amistad Reservoir. Texas’s Bays The Galveston Bay system is a group of bays located along the same inlet of the Gulf of Mexico. Some of the bays in the Galveston Bay system include Galveston Bay, Matagorda Bay, Corpus Christi Bay, and Baffin Bay. The entire Galveston Bay system covers 600 square miles. Texas’s total FORshoreline, including baysREVIEW and lagoons, is 3,359 miles long. Use ONLYthe map above to locate some of Texas’s lakes, dams, reservoirs, and bays.

Texas is full of beautiful sights and wonderful activities. With a variety of climates and natural resources available in all four regions, there is plenty to keep everyone busy all year round. Texas offers deep-sea fishing and scuba diving in the Gulf of Mexico, camping and boating at one of the national or state parks, hiking and hunting in the woods, and so much more. Texas has everything from dude ranches on the prairie to museums in the cities. Sports fans enjoy watching their favorite major or minor league baseball, football, basketball, and hockey teams in many cities throughout Texas. Since the state is so large, Texas has one or two teams for every professional sport! Reliant Park in Houston features a domed stadium that draws millions of people each year for sporting events and concerts. Rodeo is a popular sport enjoyed in Texas all year long. The most exciting rodeo events are bull riding, bareback riding, and saddle bronc riding. In 1883, the town of Pecos was the home of the world’s first rodeo. These early rodeos were a fun way for working cowboys on ranches to show off their roping and riding skills with horses. Cowboys and cowgirls still use skills like these every day on ranches all over the state. Texas has more than 500 fairs, festivals, and expositions every year. One of Texas’s largest events is the State Fair, which is held every fall in the city of Dallas. About three million people visit the fair, making it the largest annual fair in the United States. Texas also has several theme parks. Texans and their visitors enjoy Six Flags theme parks located in the cities of Arlington and San Antonio. Those who enjoy thrilling roller coaster rides, waterslides, bumper boats, musical shows, and learning about the history of Texas can have great fun atSAMPLE these theme parks. Many popular resort areas are located on the Gulf Coast. The mild weather in this area of Texas allows visitors to enjoy sandy beaches, deep-sea fishing, sailing, and other water sports all year long. Visitors to Sea Rim State Park, near Sabine (suh•BEEN) Pass, can take an airboat ride into the marshes and come face to face with an alligator. Other parts of Texas offer natural resources that include mountains, canyons, rivers, and trails for hiking and biking. Texas has many types of terrain where nature can be seen and enjoyed. There are national and state parks all over the state of Texas. The land in these parks was set aside by the government to protect and preserve Texas’s land, wildlife, and history. About 40 million people visit Texas each year. There is something fun and interesting for everyone to enjoy. Study the descriptions and maps of Texas’s points of interest on the next few pages so you can helpFOR plan your next family REVIEW vacation through the great state of Texas. ONLY No matter what you like to do, Texas offers the biggest and the best of everything to those who live in or visit the second largest state in the nation.

Big Bend National Park is located along the Rio Grande in southwestern Texas. This park is one the largest but least visited of America’s national parks. There are over 801,000 acres of canyons, mountains, and deserts to explore when visiting Big Bend National Park. The park borders the Rio Grande for 118 twisting miles. The river flows to the southeast before making a sudden change to the northeast, forming the “big bend” of the Rio Grande.

Guadalupe Mountains National Park is located in western Texas near the New Mexico border. The Guadalupe Mountains were once home to Native Americans of the Apache tribe. The Apache built their homes along the steepest cliffs of the Guadalupe Mountains. Rising from the desert is Guadalupe Peak. At 8,749 feet, Guadalupe Peak is the highest point in Texas. The most popular features of Guadalupe Mountains National Park are a huge earth fault, high peaks, and unusual plants and animals. Backpacking, camping, and watching the wildlife are just some of the things that visitors to Guadalupe Mountains National Park enjoy.

Angelina National Forest is one of four national forests tucked in the heart of East Texas. The forest lies in the Neches (NECH•iz) River Basin and on the north and south shores of Sam Rayburn Reservoir (REH•zeh•vwar). The lakes and rivers in the Angelina National Forest are very popular places for fishing, boating, and water skiing.

Davy Crockett National Forest is named after Davy Crockett, the famouspioneer . This forest, located in East Texas, contains more than 160,000 acres of woodland, streams, recreation areas, and many varieties of wildlife. The Piney Creek Horse Trail, located within the Davy Crockett National Forest, offers visitors more than 45 miles of horse trails.

Sabine (suh•BEEN) NationalSAMPLE Forest is the easternmost of the four national forests in Texas. This forest is located on the western slope of the Sabine River and forms part of the boundary between Texas and Louisiana. This area was once the site of logging companies that cut down the forest’s trees to build homes and other buildings. The state’s forests were nearly destroyed. In 1934, government leaders in Texas asked the federal government to take control of the forestland in Texas and create the state’s four national forests to protect the remaining trees.

Sam Houston National Forest is located 50 miles north of Houston in the Piney Woods of East Texas. There is evidence that hunters and farmers lived in this area more than 12,000 years ago. Today’s visitors might even findartifacts of ancient settlers while hiking, canoeing, or exploring the Sam Houston National Forest, named in honor of Sam Houston, the president of the RepublicFOR of Texas. REVIEW ONLY

Sabine National Forest Davy Crockett National Forest Guadalupe Mountains National Park Angelina National Forest Sam Houston National Forest Big Bend SAMPLE National Park

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Fort Davis National Historic Site is located in West Texas in the Davis Mountains. After gold was discovered in California in 1848, West Texas became an important route to California. Fort Davis was built to protect travelers, mail coaches, and freight wagons from attacks by the Apache and Comanche (kuh•MAN•chee) tribes. There are 24 historic buildings and over 100 ruins for visitors to explore at Fort Davis. Fort Davis National Historic Site is considered the best example of a southwestern frontier military post.

Lyndon B. Johnson National Historical Park, located in the Hill Country near Austin, tells the story of our 36th president in a special way. Visitors to the park learn about a Texas boy who grew up to be president. A tour of the Lyndon B. Johnson National Historical Park includes a visit to a working cattle ranch, the LBJ Ranch. Having a picnic, seeing cowboys at work, or just watching the deer and buffalo roam are some of the activities that visitors enjoy at Lyndon B. Johnson National Historical Park.

San Antonio Missions National Historical Park, located in the south-central city of San Antonio, is a group of four missions built by Spanish missionaries and Native Americans during the 1700s. The four missions, along with the famous Alamo Mission and other nearby villages and forts, came together to form the city of San Antonio.

Big Thicket National Preserve is located in East Texas, near the Louisiana border and the city of Beaumont (BOH•mahnt). Big Thicket, established by Congress in 1974, was the first preserve in the National ParkSAMPLE system. Big Thicket National Preserve is special because it has so many different species of plants and animals. Visitors see swamps, forests, plains, and deserts while exploring Big Thicket National Preserve. Nearly 300 kinds of birds and 1,000 species of flowering plants are protected here. Alligators, frogs, and toads call this preserve home. Popular activities in the Big Thicket National Preserve include hiking, camping, bicycling, horseback riding, canoeing, and fishing.

Alibates (al•ih•BAH•teez) Flint Quarries, located in the Texas Panhandle, is the only national monument in Texas. For thousands of years, people came to the red cliffs of the quarries in search of flint. The rainbow-colored stones found at the Alibates Flint Quarries were used to make fire, tools, and weapons such as arrowheads. The Native Americans could make almost any kind of tool or weapon with flint. Flint is so hard, it can scratch metal. Alibates FlintFOR Quarries is part of theREVIEW Lake Meredith National Recreation Area. ONLY

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Big Thicket Fort Davis National Preserve National Historic Site Lyndon B. Johnson SAMPLENational Historical Park

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Caddoan (KAH•doe•un ) Mounds State Historic Site, located in East Texas near the town of Alto, is one of the best known Native American sites in Texas. The Caddo (KAH•doe) people settled in this area over 1,000 years ago. They were very good farmers who made beautiful pottery that they traded for other goods. The beehive-shaped dwellings of the Caddo Indians were very unique. This historic site is named for the mounds that the Caddoans built. Some of the mounds were burial sites for important members of the Caddo community. Other mounds were built as foundations for buildings in the center of the village where the Caddo people worshipped and socialized. Tours of the mounds and village are offered to visitors of the Caddoan Mounds State Historic Site.

Dinosaur Valley State Park, located in central Texas, contains some of the best preserved dinosaur tracks in the world. In addition to exploring the giant footprints, which are located in a riverbed, visitors to Dinosaur Valley State Park enjoy camping, hiking, swimming, and mountain biking.

Franklin Mountains State Park, located in West Texas, was created in 1979 to protect the Franklin Mountains from urban development. Activities at the park include a ride on the Wyler Aerial Tramway. Visitors ride a gondola to the top of Ranger Peak, where, on a clear day, they might enjoy a view of 7,000 square miles stretching across three states and two nations. SAMPLE

Longhorn Cavern State Park is located in south-central Texas in the heart of rugged Hill Country. Longhorn Cavern is one of the most unique caves in the world. It was formed when water cut into the limestone and dissolved the rock. Scientists have found fossils that prove many Ice Age animals once lived in the cave. Native Americans of the Comanche tribe also used the cavern for shelter. During the Civil War, the cavern was used as a secret hiding place for making and storing gunpowder. One legend about Longhorn Cavern is that Texas outlaw Sam Bass hid two million dollars of stolen money inside. Visitors to Longhorn Cavern State Park tour the cave and learn more about its history and legends. FOR REVIEW ONLY

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Fair Park, located two miles east of downtown Dallas, is a cultural entertainment center. The 277-acre park is home to nine museums and six performance facilities, including the Music Hall, Smirnoff Music Center, Band Shell, and the Cotton Bowl Stadium. Over seven million people attend events at Fair Park each year. More than three million visit Fair Park each fall to attend the State Fair of Texas.

Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, located in Houston, is the headquarters for all astronaut flights of NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration). American astronauts and many space explorers from other countries train at Johnson Space Center before going into space. Visitors to Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center can see spacecraft from past missions, touch a moon rock, and even learn how astronauts eat and sleep in space.

Padre Island National Seashore is located off the southeastern coast of Texas near Corpus Christi. Padre Island is 113 miles long with over 70 miles of white sand dunes, grasslands, and marshes. This barrier island, one of the longest in the United States, helps protect the shores of Texas from wind and strong storms. Visitors to Padre Island National Seashore enjoy fishing, swimming, camping, hiking, boating, and discovering some of the 350 species of birds native to Padre Island. From late March through July, employees and volunteers search the beaches of Padre Island for nesting sea turtles and their eggs. One of the goals of Padre Island National Seashore is to protect five species of endangered sea turtles.

Texas Memorial Museum, located in the central Texas city of Austin, is a great place to learn about the plants, animals, rocks, and forests of Texas. This museum has many things to share about the history of Texas. Visitors to the Texas Memorial Museum learn about dinosaurs, gemstones, and rare species of animals. Many historical records and documents about early Texas are stored here for everyoneSAMPLE to enjoy.

Texas Ranger Hall of Fame and Museum is located in the city of Waco. The Texas Rangers, the oldest “police force,” has been around for 150 years. Texas Rangers solve crimes and keep Texas safe every day. When you visit the Texas Ranger Hall of Fame and Museum, you will learn about how the rangers live and help make Texas a safe place for everyone.

West of the Pecos Museum and Rodeo Hall of Fame is located in the West Texas city of Pecos. Pecos was the home of the world’s first rodeo in 1883. Since then, there have been more than 120 annual rodeos held in the town of Pecos. The West of the Pecos Museum features more than 50 rooms and several outdoor exhibits packed with artifacts and Texas history. The Texas Rodeo Hall of Fame honors past and present rodeo cowboys who helped make the sport of rodeo what itFOR is today. REVIEW ONLY

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There are many different types of animals in the world. Animals come in all shapes, sizes, and colors. They eat many types of food, live in different places, sleep in strange positions, and develop at different rates. Animals also move around in various ways. Some creep and crawl on the ground, while others swim through the world’s oceans or soar high in the sky. All of these creatures are part of more than one billion animals in Earth’s animal kingdom. Vertebrates and Invertebrates The animal kingdom can be divided into vertebrates and invertebrates. Vertebrates are animals with backbones. They have skeletons inside of their bodies made of bone. Some of the most common vertebrates are mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish. Humans are also vertebrates. We have a skeleton that’s strong enough to help us stand up straight, yet flexible enough so we can move. Invertebrates are animals without backbones. Invertebrates don’t have internal skeletons made of bone. They may have fluid-filled skeletons like jellyfish and worms, or hard outer exoskeletons like crabs and lobsters. Other common invertebrates include spiders, insects, and ocean animals like starfish, oysters,squid , and octopus. Warm-Blooded Animals All animals in the animalSAMPLE kingdom are either warm-blooded or cold-blooded. The temperature of an animal’s blood depends on its body temperature. Unless they are sick, warm-blooded animals, like mammals and birds, are able to keep the inside of their bodies at a constant temperature. They do this by making heat for themselves when they are in a cold place and cooling themselves down when the temperature outside gets hot. To make heat for themselves, warm-blooded animals turn the food they eat into energy. Warm-blooded animals also use layers of fat, feathers, hair, or fur to help them stay warm. Human Beings Are Warm-Blooded To stayFOR cool, warm-blooded REVIEWanimals sweat ONLY or pant. They can also cool off by moving to a shaded area or by gettinget. w Do you ever wonder why birds fly south for the winter? They are smart enough to move from the cold winter weather to a place where they can use less energy to stay warm.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 27 Cold-Blooded Animals Reptiles, amphibians, fish, insects, and spiders are examples of cold-blooded animals. Cold-blooded animals cannot make their own body heat. Their body temperatures depend on the temperatures around them. If the air is cold, the body temperatures of cold-blooded animals become cold. When it is sunny and hot, cold-blooded animals become hot. To raise their body temperatures on a cool day, cold-blooded animals lay in the sun, hide underground, or crowd together to keep warm. When it’s hot, cold-blooded animals lower their body temperatures by searching for shade, opening their mouths wide, or burrowing into cool soil. Animal Adaptations Adaptations help animals survive in the world around them. There are two types of adaptations in the animal kingdom: structural adaptations and behavioral adaptations. Structural Adaptations Structural adaptations are body parts or body coverings that help animals survive. Whales have blubber to help keep them warm in the ocean. Giraffes have long necks so they can stretch for leaves in tall trees that other animals can’t reach. Birds have claws and muscles that are designed to lock and hold onto a perch, even when they are sleeping. Behavioral Adaptations Behavioral adaptations are things that animals do to survive.SAMPLE Lizards play dead so their enemies will not attack them. Squirrels store nuts for the winter. Birds fly south to escape the cold northern winters. Masked crabs bury themselves in sand to avoid the water of high tide.

•American wigeons are ducks that have learned to steal food right out of the bills of other birds when they can’t find enough food to eat. Fast Facts • Snowy egrets are small white birds that live and hunt near water. They can stretch out their wings to create shade and fool the fish below. When the fish swim for the shade, snowy egrets are able to snatch them up with their long beaks. • Whiskers are structural adaptations that help animals feel their way FOR around REVIEW tight spots. Whiskers also sense movement of enemiesONLY or other animals they may be interested in eating.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 28 Mimicry Have you ever been tricked by something that was fake? Sometimes we think shiny jewels are diamonds, but they are really just pieces of glass. Maybe that prized baseball card you think was signed by your favorite player is really a fake. Some copies look so real, we don’t even know they are fakes. Animals play tricks too. If insects or other less powerful animals can trick predators into thinking they are different animals just by the way they look or act, they just might live a little longer. Mimicry is an adaptation that fools other animals with sounds, behaviors, or colors. Monarch butterflies, for example, are beautiful, but not very tasty for other animals to eat. Viceroy butterflies, on the other hand, are beautiful and yummy. Fortunately, viceroy butterflies are able to “mimic” monarch butterflies with their body colors. Their enemies tcan’ tell the two butterflies apart. Predators won’t even take the chance of biting into a viceroy butterfly for fear of being tricked into eating a bitter tasting monarch. Mimicry helps viceroy butterflies stay alive. Caterpillars are cute and fuzzy, but not very scary, right? Through mimicry, hawk moth caterpillars are able to use hidden suits of armor to protect themselves. When afraid, hawk moth caterpillars are able to mimic snakes. Animals that are afraid of snakes stay as far away from hawk moth caterpillars as possible. Camouflage Camouflage is a structural adaptation that helps animals survive just by using their appearance or color. Animals that use camouflage look like things in their environment. Grasshopper Through camouflage, some animals can look like leaves, twigs, rocks, orSAMPLE even the background. Grasshoppers are able to blend into rocks or leaves they are standing on. A well camouflaged grasshopper is very difficult to spot. Polar bears have white fur to hide themselves from enemies in the white snow. Even better, chameleons (kuh•MEAL•yuns) can change their colors to blend in with their surroundings. Katydids can take on the appearance of leaves they are standing on or sticks they are walking across.

• For protection, some flies can mimic bees. Birds know that if they attack bees, they will be stung. Looking like bees keeps these flies from being eaten. Fast Facts • Jumping spiders are favorite snacks for many animals. They are able to protect themselves by mimicking ants. This allows jumping spiders to get “lost in the crowd” and avoid being eaten. FOR• Stick insectsREVIEW are the masters of camouflage. Their bodies ONLY are the color and shape of plants. During the day, stick insects stay completely still, putting their front legs in front of their heads to make themselves look like part of the plants they are hanging onto.

Animals with backbones are known as vertebrates. Of the millions of animals in the animal kingdom, only about two percent are vertebrates. The rest are invertebrates, or animals without backbones. Even though the group of vertebrates is small, it is mighty. Their size and ability to move from place to place make vertebrates the most powerful animals in the kingdom. Vertebrates can be warm-blooded or cold-blooded. They include mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish. Mammals Mammals are warm-blooded vertebrates with special characteristics that set them apart from others in the animal kingdom. Most mammals have hair or fur covering their bodies. Instead of laying eggs like other species in the animal kingdom, mammals give birth to live babies. Females produce milk to feed their young. While humans are mammals that walk on two legs, most mammals walk on four legs. Mammals that spend their lives in water have structural adaptations like flippers or fins for swimming. Besides humans, some of the most common mammals includeSAMPLE monkeys, rodents, whales, dolphins, seals, and marsupials like kangaroos and koalas. Birds There are more than 8,000 species of birds in the animal kingdom. Like mammals, birds are warm-blooded vertebrates that are able to keep their bodies at a constant temperature no matter what the temperature around them might be. Birds are different from other ertebratesv because they have wings for flying, feathers to keep them warm, and beaks instead of teeth. Birds build nests where females lay eggs. After hatching, young birds are cared for until they are old enough to leave their nests and take care of themselves. WhileFOR mammals have strong REVIEW skeletons, birds have thin bones and skulls.ONLY This makes their bodies very light for flying. Birds are also able to breathe even when they are high in the sky, where the air is much thinner.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 30 Reptiles The word “reptile” means “to creep.” Reptiles are vertebrates that are covered with scales, breathe air into their lungs, and usually lay eggs with hard shells. Reptiles are cold-blooded. Their body temperatures depend on the temperature of the air around them. Lizards and snakes are the largest groups of reptiles. Lizards have four legs and long tails. Many lizards can lose their tails to keep from being caught by predators. Don’t worry, because these lizards can grow new tails! Snakes Snakes don’t have arms and legs. They move by slithering along the ground. Some snakes are venomous. Rattlesnakes, cobras, and eastern green mambas have fangs for biting and putting venom into their victims. Other snakes, like boa constrictors and pythons, kill their prey by squeezing them to death. Most snakes are able to open their mouths wide enough to swallow animals much larger than themselves. Crocodiles and Alligators Crocodiles and alligators are amphibious reptiles. This means that they can live on land and in the water. Amphibious reptiles walk on land using their webbed feet and use their long tails to swim in water. It’s easy to tell alligators and crocodiles apart, but don’t get too close. They love to snack on mammals. Alligators have very wide snouts. Crocodiles have narrow snouts and jaws. Crocodiles also have a lower tooth that sticks out. Turtles and Tortoises Turtles are reptilesSAMPLE that can live in freshwater, the ocean, or in swampy areas on land. They have good eyesight, an excellent sense of smell, and hard or soft shells connected to their skeletons. Turtles range in size from four inches to ten feet long. Leathery turtles can weigh up to 1,500 pounds. Turtles lay their eggs on land or underwater. When baby turtles are ready to hatch, they use an egg tooth at the end of their beaks to break open the egg. Tortoises are types of turtles that live only on land. They enter shallow water to clean themselves or drink. Instead of the webbed toes or fins found on turtles, tortoises have hard, scaly feet for crawling across sharp rocks and sand.

•African crocodiles and blackbird plovers have a very special Fast Facts relationship known as symbiosis. Symbiosis takes place when two different species of animals help each other survive. Blackbird FOR plovers REVIEW are small birds that help African crocodiles by ONLY picking tiny pieces of food from their teeth. The African crocodiles get their teeth flossed, and the blackbird plovers get to eat whatever they find.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 31 Amphibians There are many species of amphibians in the animal kingdom. Amphibians are cold-blooded vertebrates. The word “amphibian” comes from two Greek words that mean “two lives.” Amphibians spend the first parts of their lives in fresh water breathing through gills. As adults, they begin the second part of their lives on land, breathing air through their lungs. Amphibians return to the water when it is time to lay their eggs. The most popular amphibians are frogs, toads, salamanders, and newts. Frogs have smooth slimy skin, short bodies, long back Newt legs for hopping, and webbed toes. Toads have short back legs and leathery skin that is usually dry and looks like it’s covered with warts. Newborn frogs and toads, or tadpoles, use their tails to swim like fish. As they grow into adults, frogs and toads lose their tails, develop lungs, and grow legs for moving on land. Salamanders and newts have long tails like lizards and skin like frogs and toads. Like other amphibians, salamanders and newts start their young lives in water. As adults, salamanders seek out dark places near water where they feed on insects, worms, and snails. Newts spend most of their adult lives on land. Fish Almost three-fourths of the Earth’s surface is covered with water. This water is home to thousands of small and large fish species. Fish are cold-blooded ertebratesv that live in water and breathe through gills. Most fish have skeletons made of bone. Some fish have skeletons made of cartilage (CART•lij). Unlike bone, cartilage is a very strong tissueSAMPLE that bends easily. Reach up and bend the outside of your ear. Barracuda You can do this because the outside of your ear is made of flexible cartilage. Most fish use a tail fin to swim. Muscles in the tail fin help fishe mov from side to side. Other fins help fish change direction and stop. Fish live in both fresh and salt water. They can be found all over the world except in the Dead Sea. The Dead Sea is too salty for fish to survive.

• Frogs and toads are found all over the world except on the continent of Antarctica, Fast Facts where the temperatures are too cold. They cannot live in any type of salty water. • There are about 25 species of barracudas in the world’s oceans. They are known as FOR “tigers of the sea”REVIEW because they have large mouths with teeth thatONLY look like tiny daggers. • Barracudas lazily drift through the water and then suddenly shoot out at speeds of up to 25 miles per hour to catch their next meal. They will attack anything that moves.

There are more than a million species of animals in the animal kingdom. Most of them are invertebrates. Invertebrates are cold-blooded animals without backbones. They live in the oceans and in freshwater, above and below the ground. Some of the most popular invertebrates include arthropods, mollusks, annelids, and echinoderms. Arthropods More than seventy five percent of the animals in the animal kingdom are arthropods. Arthropods are invertebrates with exoskeletons. This means that they wear their skeletons on the outsides of their bodies. Insects, spiders, and sea creatures like crabs and lobsters are arthropods. These invertebrates have joints that allow them to move.

Crustaceans (crew•STAY•shuns) Crustaceans are arthropods that live mostly in water. The most common crustaceans are crabs and lobsters. Their hard exoskeletons protect their bodies. Crustaceans have legs for swimming and claws for eating and crawling.SAMPLE Crab Insects Insects, the largest group of arthropods, have exoskeletons that cover their entire bodies. Because exoskeletons are hard and don’t grow, it is difficult for insects to grow and get larger. Many insects must molt in order to grow. Molting is a process that allows insects to shed their outer skeletons. Insects molt out of their old skeletons and grow into larger exoskeletons. Arachnids Arachnids are arthropods that include spiders, scorpions, ticks, and mites. Just like insects, arachnids have hard exoskeletons and joints that allow them to move. Spiders have eight legs. Most also have eight eyes. Scorpions are the largest arachnids, reaching over eight inches in length.FOR Scorpions have sixREVIEW to eight legs and sharp stingers at the endsONLY of their tails for killing insects and small animals. Ticks and mites are the smallest arachnids. Ticks and mites survive by sucking the blood and fluid of other animals.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 33 Mollusks Mollusks are invertebrates that have soft, skin-like organs covered by hard outside shells. Oysters, mussels, clams, squid, and octopuses are common ocean-dwelling mollusks. Some mollusks that live in the ocean move by squirting water from their bodies. Octopuses swim headfirst with their eight arms trailing behind them. They use their long tentacles and powerful suckers to grab and choke their prey very quickly. Other ocean mollusks attach themselves to rocks or other surfaces that don’t move. Oysters, for example, stay in one place their entire lives. As water flows through them, oysters are able to swallow enough food to survive. Snails and slugs are mollusks that live on land. The biggest difference between these two creatures is that snails have an external shell. Both snails and slugs move by gliding along a slimy substance that they produce from a muscle. In order to survive, snails and slugs Octopus must stay moist. On sunny days, they can be found hiding in wet, shady places. On cloudy days, they spend time in gardens, chewing holes in the leaves of fruits and vegetables. Adult slugs and snails each lay about 100 eggs, six times a year. The tiny eggs hatch when they get wet. SAMPLE

• Octopuses belong to a group of mollusks known as cephalopods. The word “cephalopod” means “head to foot.” Octopuses are cephalopods because their feet are attached to their heads. Fast Facts • Octopuses don’t have any bones. They have excellent eyesight, highly developed brains, and use camouflage to instantly change the color of their skin to match the area around them. • Octopuses have three hearts. Two of their hearts pump blood to their gills. The third heart pumps blood throughout the rest of their bodies. • To escape from predators, octopuses are able to lose one of their arms. A new arm will grow back in six to eight weeks. • Female octopuses die shortly after their eggs hatch. FOR REVIEW ONLY

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 34 Annelids Annelids are cold-blooded invertebrates that have bodies divided into segments. There are about 9,000 species of annelids in the animal kingdom. These include worms and leeches. Some annelids live quietly in holes while others enjoy more active lives. Most annelids have a head, a long and thin segmented body, and a small tail. Their soft bodies make annelids the perfect protein-rich snack for many mammals and birds.

Earthworms Earthworms are the most common annelids. There are more than 2,000 different kinds of earthworms. They are found almost anywhere there is soil. Worms are the world’s best recyclers. They eat dead trees, leaves, fruits, nuts, and dead animals. Then they tunnel deep into the soil and deposit slime. The slime contains nitrogen. Nitrogen is important for growing plants. Earthworms can regrow lost segments, depending on which segments are damaged. It may be easy for an earthworm to replace a lost tail, for example, but very difficult to regrow a head. Leeches Leeches are annelids with suckers on each end of their bodies. They are brown or black in color and can be one to ten inches long. Leeches live just about any place that water can be found. Most leeches eat small invertebrates like earthworms, which they are able to swallow whole. Some leeches feed on dying plants. Others use their three mouths and millions of tiny teeth to bite into the skin of animals and suck their blood. Echinoderms Echinoderms are invertebrates that live in the ocean. They have arms or spines that grow from the center of their bodies. Starfish and sea urchins are popular SAMPLEechinoderms. Starfish are found in oceans all over the world. They have five or more spiky arms attached to their bodies. A lost arm can be regrown. On the underside of their bodies, starfish have tube feet. These tube feet help starfish move around the ocean floor. They also use their feet to open and eat scallops or clams. Sea urchins are echinoderms with movable spines all over their bodies. These spines are Starfish long and sharp, protecting sea urchins from predators. Stepping on a sea urchin is painful, but not dangerous to humans. Like starfish,FOR sea urchins areREVIEW found in most of the world’s oceans. TheyONLY also move across the ocean floor using hundreds of tiny tubed feet. Sea urchins are a favorite food of sea otters and wolf eels.

Texas is full of wildlife. Nearly 150 species of mammals roam through Texas’s four major land regions or live in the Gulf of Mexico. Many of the land and sea mammals native to Texas are rare or extinct, which means they are few in number or no longer living. Sometimes, our progress as humans affects wildlife. As early pioneers moved into Texas, they cleared forests of trees, destroying the homes and food supply of the area’s animals. Hunting the same animals over and over again resulted in the loss of some species. Today, the Department of Texas Parks and Wildlife works to protect animals by studying their eating and sleeping habits, issuing permits to hunt certain animals to avoid overcrowding, and making it illegal to bother animals that are rare or in danger of extinction. As you read about Texas’s large mammals, pay special attention to what they eat and the structural and behavioral adaptations that help them survive.

Black Bears Black bears are some of the largest mammals in North America. They used to roam throughout the state of Texas, but today they can mostly be found in the mountains of the Trans-Pecos region. Like other mammals, black bears are covered with a layer of thick fur to keep them warm. The fur color of black bears can actually be black, tan, brown, or yellow. Beginning in late summer and fall, black bears search for acorns and other high protein foods. They build fat layers for added SAMPLEwarmth. During the colder months, black bears find a quiet place at the base of a tree or under the ledge of a large rock and remain inactive for part of the winter. Building fat layers and resting during the winter are behavioral adaptations that help black Black Bear bears survive when food is difficult to find. Female black bears give birth to one or two cubs every other year. Black bear cubs are blind at birth and only weigh about eight ounces. They stay with their mothers for about a year. Black bears grow very quickly. Full grown females can weigh as much as 600 pounds. Males can weigh up to 1,200 pounds! Black bears are omnivores, which means they eat plants and meat. Their favorite foods are green plants, insects, and fruit. When food is hard to find, bears will eat small animals, young deer, FORand even garbage. REVIEW ONLY Black bears have sharp claws that make them good tree climbers and have strong legs for running. They can reach speeds of up to 25 miles per hour. Humans are the only enemies of black bears, so don’t try to feed or approach them.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. 36 Reproducible for classroom use only. Pronghorns Pronghorns are some of the fastest animals in the world. They can run up to 50 miles per hour. This speed helps pronghorns run from predators that include mountain lions, wolves, and bobcats. When in danger, pronghorns act quickly by flaring out the white hairs on their back sides to warn other members of their herd. They have amazing eyesight and can sense movement up to three miles away. Their eyes are located far back on their heads so they can keep watch even when they are eating with their heads down. Pronghorns are white and tan in color. They weigh up to 125 pounds and stand about three feet high. The name “pronghorn” comes from the shape of the horns found on both males and females. Most people mistakenly call pronghorns “antelopes.” Pronghorns are not true antelopes because they shed their horns every year. True Pronghorn antelopes do not shed their horns. Female pronghorns usually have twins at the end of winter. Baby pronghorns, or fawns, weigh between five and seven pounds at birth. They can walk in less than an hour and outrun a human being at just four days old. Fawns give off almost no odor. This structural adaptation helps protect them from coyotes and golden eagles, their biggest enemies. Pronghorns can survive in very hot and very cold temperatures. They are herbivores, which means they only eat plants. They eat shrubs, grasses, and even cacti. In Texas, pronghorns were once common over the western two-thirds of the state. Today, the largest numbers are found in the Trans-Pecos region. Pronghorns are protected by strict laws. Only a few hunting permits are issued each year to hunt this natural resource. Mountain Lions Mountain lions are the largest wildcats in the United States. They are also known as cougars, pumas, and panthers.SAMPLE Their rounded black-tipped ears and wide noses give mountain lions an excellent sense of hearing and smell. Long legs and unusually large paws make them good climbers and jumpers. Mountain lions use their long black-tipped tails to balance themselves as they jump and walk along steep ledges. Female mountain lions usually give birth to two or three cubs. The cubs are blind at birth and unable to defend themselves. Mountain lions have brownish-orange coats, grow to Mountain Lion seven or eight feet long, and weigh 150 to 300 pounds. They roam throughout the Trans-Pecos region, especially in Big Bend National Park. They can also be found in the brushlands of south Texas and parts of the Hill Country in central Texas. Mountain lions are shy animals. They are carnivores, which means they eat meat. Mountain lionsFOR are most active at night,REVIEW hunting for deer, porcupines, and rabbits.ONLY

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 37 Elk Elk are large, deer-like herbivores. They have long necks for stretching and reaching plants in difficult places. Strong teeth help them bite and chew plants. Elk have special four-part stomachs so they can digest grasses, shrubs, tree limbs, and even bark. Elk have large bodies and huge horns. Male elk have large, six-pointed antlers that grow from the bony bumps on their heads. Their antlers are light and easily damaged until late summer, when they turn into bone. Antlers grow for another six or seven months before falling off in early spring. A set of antlers can grow four feet long and weigh up to 40 pounds. Antlers act as a cooling system during the summer. Warm blood flowing through the antlers is cooled by the outside Elk air. Antlers also help protect males when they fight with other elk. Both male and female elk have body colors that can range from light tan to dark brown. Their thick fur protects them from cold temperatures. Female elk usually give birth to one calf each spring. Calves weigh about 35 pounds and can gain up to two pounds a day during their first few weeks of life. Elk are social animals. They live in herds that are led by female elk. Female elk lead the rest of the herd to water and feeding grounds. During the spring, elk travel to higher places where they find cooler temperatures and plenty of food. In Texas, elk were once found only in the Guadalupe Mountains. Today, five small herds of wild elk roam through the Guadalupe, Wylie, Davis, and Eagle mountains in West Texas.

Bighorn Sheep Bighorn sheep, or mountain sheep, live in the protected areas of the Trans-Pecos region. They have extremely good eyesight, very short tails, and pointed ears. The horns of male bighorn sheep are larger and curlier than the horns of female bighorn sheep. Male bighorn sheep are known as rams. Female bighorn sheep are ewes. Ewes deliver one or two lambs each spring. Bighorn sheep have a special kind of “nurserySAMPLE system.” Two ewes stay with all of the lambs in a protected area while the other ewes move into the open areas to find food. Unlike most other types of sheep, bighorns are covered with an outer layer of brown hair instead of wool. The underparts of bighorn sheep are gray. Their tails, backs of their legs, and areas around their jaws and noses are white. These colors help bighorn sheep blend in with the steep rocky slopes where they rest at night. Their eyes are located on the sides of their heads, allowing bighorn sheep to see predators approaching from all directions. Bighorn sheep have sharp-edged hooves that are split Bighorn Sheep down the middle. These hooves help them climb and escape from predators that are unable to move as quickly through the rocky areas where bighorn sheep hide. BighornFOR sheep are herbivores. REVIEW Their diets include yucca, prickly pear ONLY cactus, green leafy plants, and wild onions. Since water is difficult to find in the desert, bighorn sheep are able to get most of the water they need from the foods they eat.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 38 Mule Deer Texas has a large number of mule deer. Mule deer can usually be spotted on the edges of forests where they hide themselves in leaves and tall grasses. Mule deer can be identified by the way they jump and bounce while running. They can reach speeds of 45 miles per hour. When frightened, mule deer move in a series of stiff-legged jumps, with all four feet hitting the ground at the same time. This behavior alerts other mule deer to danger in the area. Mule deer have wide antlers, long ears, and black tips on their tails. During the summer, their coats can be yellow or reddish brown. In the winter, their coats turn gray. Their throats, inside ears, and inside legs are white. These colors are structural adaptations that help hide mule deer in the desert from predators like mountain lions, bobcats, and coyotes. Bucks, or male mule deer, are larger than females. Female mule deer, known as does, deliver their babies in late spring or early summer. Mule Deer Does usually give birth to one fawn the first year and twins the next year. At birth, the fawns weigh about six pounds and are reddish colored with white spots. The white spots help camouflage fawns from eagles that like to swoop down and grab them. Mule deer have good senses of sight, smell, and hearing. Their large feet help them dig for water that can be as deep as two feet underground. Mule deer are herbivores that eat mostly leaves and shrubs. They eat so carefully, mule deer can even pick the fruit off of prickly cactus. Short-Finned Pilot Whales Short-finned pilot whales are members of the dolphin family. They are second in size only to killer whales. Pilot whales are found all over the world. Many have been spotted in the warm waters along the Texas coast in the Gulf of Mexico. SAMPLE Short-finned pilot whales do well in captivity and are very smart. One captive pilot whale was trained by Navy scientists to fetch objects from the ocean floor at depths of over 1,600 feet. Short-finned pilot whales are usually black or coal gray in color, measure up to 20 feet in length, and weigh as much as three tons. That’s a lot of whale! Short-Finned Pilot Whale Pilot whales are carnivores that feed mostly on squid and fish. They eat as much as 40 pounds of fish each day. Unlike other dolphins in their family, short-finned pilot whales have very few teeth. This structural adaptation allows them to easily swallow many squid at one time. They are very social and usually travel in groups of 10 to 50 whales. Pilot whales use squealing, whistling, and groaning sounds to communicate with one another and to locate food. FemaleFOR short-finned pilot whalesREVIEW give birth to one calf every five to ONLYeight years. Calves weigh about 220 pounds at birth and depend upon their mother’s milk for at least two years. Living to 60 years of age is not unusual for female pilot whales. Fishing gear and nets used by commercial fishermen are the biggest enemies of short-finned pilot whales.

Bottlenose Dolphins Bottlenose dolphins are strong mammals with short beaks anddorsal fins that stick out of the water. Dorsal fins are structural adaptations that help bottlenose dolphins steer and balance in the water. Bottlenose dolphins have pale gray sides, white bellies, and purplish-gray upperparts. Adults can grow to about ten feet. These dolphins live alone or in small groups called pods. Like all dolphins, bottlenose dolphins can hold their breath to dive below the surface of the water. They open their blowholes and blow out air just before reaching the surface of the water. Bottlenose dolphins are carnivores Bottlenose Dolphin that eat a wide variety of fish, including tarpon, sailfish, sharks, and catfish. Using 120 teeth, they eat between 36 and 72 pounds of food each day. Like pilot whales, bottlenose dolphins use groans, whistles, and barks to find food. These sound waves bounce off their prey and allow other dolphins in their pods to locate the fish. All dolphins, including bottlenose dolphins, are protected by strict laws. It isillegal to hunt bottlenose dolphins. Sperm Whales Sperm whales are found in all of the world’s oceans. They are the most numerous of the great whales in the Gulf of Mexico. It’s very common to see sperm whales near the Texas coast. Sperm whales are large, blackish-brown whales with huge heads and short snouts. Their heads can be one third the lengths of their bodies. They have 20 to 26 pairs of cone-shaped teeth in their lower jaws. Sperm whales can weigh up to 40 tons. This makes them the largest toothed animals in the world. Their throats are large enough to swallow a human being. Sperm whales are great divers and hunters. They are carnivores that regularly dive to depths of 6,000 feet to feast on squid, octopus, lobster, crab, and jellyfish. A single sperm whale eats more than a ton of squid and fish every day. Sperm whales experience extreme pressure when they dive. To help them survive under water for so long, their rib cages are flexible and their hearts canSAMPLE slow down to preserve their supply of oxygen. Female sperm whales give birth to one calf every four to six years. Within ten seconds of birth, newborn sperm whales swim to the surface of the water for their first breath. Baby sperm whales are 13 feet long and weigh about a ton. They depend on their mother’s milk for their first two or three years of life. Sperm whales communicate with other whales by whistling, squeaking, and groaning. They also click several times when they meet other whales. Sperm whales usually travel very slowly, but can swim 20 miles per hour when disturbed or frightened. Both of these behavioral adaptations protect sperm whales from predators that include killer whales and large sharks. FOR REVIEW ONLY

Sperm Whale

Thousands of small mammals roam Texas’s four major land regions and swim in the state’s rivers and coastal waters. Just like the large mammals you have learned about, many of Texas’s small mammals have been affected by human activities. Ocelots, for example, are beautifully spotted cats that once roamed in large numbers throughout south Texas. The fertile soil in the Lower Rio Grande Valley grows the grasslands and thick shrubs that ocelots need for survival. This fertile soil is also the best for growing crops of vegetables, citrus, sugarcane, and cotton. Most of the land in the Lower Rio Grande Valley has been cleared for farmers, leaving little area for ocelots to live. The Texas Parks and Wildlife Division works to protect the remaining ocelots by replanting trees and shrubs. As you learn about Texas’s small mammals, pay close attention to the structural and behavioral adaptations that help each of them survive in areas with limited food and water, but plenty of enemies waiting to make a tasty meal out of them.

Badgers Badgers are very strong mammals with short, bushy tails. They are found throughout the state of Texas, though rarely in the extreme eastern part of the state. Some of their features include shaggy grayish-brown coats, bushy yellow tails, and white stripes running from their noses to the tops of their backs. Even though they may look cute, badgers are fierce fighters. They have very SAMPLEsharp claws and teeth to stand up to bullies when necessary. Badgers will growl, snarl, and give off a strong and stinky odor, much like a skunk, to defend themselves. Badgers love to burrow underground, using their long Badger front claws to break fresh ground and their strong back legs to kick out the dirt. They are known to dig faster than any other mammal, including a person with a shovel. Badgers can dig a hole to safety in less than a minute. Their biggest enemies are humans, who kill badgers for their thick fur. Female badgers, known as sows, give birth to two or three badger cubs in underground holes. The cubs are born blind and helpless, with soft silky hair. Their eyes open within six weeks, and the cubs leave their mother’s care after about five months. BadgersFOR are carnivores. They REVIEW eat small mammals that include ground ONLY squirrels, gophers, prairie dogs, and cottontail rabbits. Badgers don’t see very well, but they can smell other animals even through thick snow. Because rattlesnake venom doesn’t bother badgers, they often make a tasty snack of the slithering reptiles.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 41 Coyotes Coyotes can be found all over the state of Texas. Their name means “barking dog,” and you will know when coyotes are near by their howls and yelps. Coyotes are omnivores that eat meat and plants. They sleep during the day and hunt at night for smaller animals, insects, plants, and even garbage. Coyotes are able to change their hunting styles based on the food that is available. When hunting alone, coyotes keep their black-tipped tails down low so they can sneak up on their prey. For larger animals, they will hunt in small packs and work together to kill their prey. Coyotes will also attack larger animals that have been weakened by age, injury, or illness. All of these behavioral adaptations help coyotes survive in areas where food is not always available. Coyotes live underground in dens, beneath the roots of large Coyote trees, or in hills of dirt. Their dens have long tunnels, with many connecting rooms. Coyotes are smart animals. Instead of digging their own dens, they often take over dens left by badgers. Coyotes have thick brown fur and white bellies. Their fur is lighter in the summer and darker in the winter. This structural adaptation helps them blend in with their surroundings. Coyotes can hear very well with their wide pointy ears. They use their long pointed noses to smell approaching predators like bears, wolves, and mountain lions. Female coyotes deliver one litter of three to nine pups each year. Pup eyes open after about 14 days. Coyote pups need their mother’s milk for five to seven weeks. Male coyotes bring food to the den, but mother coyotes will not let them come near the pups. Mother coyotes begin teaching their pups to hunt when they are ten weeks old. A year later, the young coyotes are on their own. Ringtails Ringtails are small mammals weighing only two pounds. They can be found in most parts of Texas. Ringtails needSAMPLE plenty of water. They are smart to build their dens in rock piles, stone fences, and canyon walls near river valleys or springs where water can always be found. The most striking feature of ringtails are their tails. Their tails are as long as their grayish-brown bodies and striped with black and white rings. Ringtails are very good climbers. They use their tails to help them balance. Their ankles can rotate, allowing them to go head first down a cliff or tree. Ringtails are nocturnal, which means they sleep most of the day and hunt at night. They are omnivores that eat mice, birds, insects, snakes, fruits, and berries. Ringtails Ringtail have excellent hearing and eyesight, important structural adaptations for nocturnal animals. Predators of ringtails include greatFOR horned owls, bobcats, REVIEW and coyotes. ONLY In the spring, female ringtails give birth to a litter of two to four cubs. While females wait to deliver the cubs, male ringtails bring them food. The cubs open their eyes after a month and begin hunting for themselves when they are just four months old.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 42 Javelina (hae•vuh•LEE•nuh) Javelina are pig-like animals with dark gray coats and bands of white and black hairs around their shoulders and necks. They have very poor eyesight and hearing. To make up for this, javelina have an excellent sense of smell. They also have very straight, self-sharpening, upper and lower canine teeth that they use to defend themselves and scare off predators. Javelina can be found in western Texas and the brush country south of San Antonio. They live in caves and under ledges during the summer and winter. Javelina run in herds of 20 or more for protection and to make it easier to find food. They are omnivores that eat cactus fruit, roots, insects, mesquite (meh•SKEET) beans, and reptiles, including snakes. Javelina have special digestive Javelina systems that even allow them to eat prickly pear cactus, spines and all. Many female javelina give birth to two litters of piglets each year. Young piglets eighw about one pound at birth and begin following their mothers around when they are just a few hours old. It is difficult, however, for parents to protect their piglets from coyotes and bobcats. Many piglets are taken by these predators within the first few months of life. Gray Fox Gray fox, or tree fox, can be found in all four regions of Texas. They can be easily identified by the black stripe on top of their tails and the black tip on the end of their tails. Their bodies are gray with reddish-brown legs, white throats, and brown tails. These colors are important structural adaptations that help camouflage gray fox in forests so they can hide from predators and surprise their prey. Gray fox stand about 16 inches tall and can weigh up to 16 pounds. They sleep in underground burrows, under rocks, or in hollow logs and trees. These small omnivores are very shy and hunt mainly at night. They use their short legs and SAMPLElong claws to climb trees and jump from branch to branch eating small rodents, birds, squirrels, leaves, and insects. Predators of gray fox include wolves, coyotes, and bobcats. Male gray fox are known as dogs. Females, or Gray Fox vixens, give birth to cubs that weigh just three ounces and are covered with black fur. The family stays together in a den for five months, with the male bringing food for the vixen and her cubs. During this time, mothers teach their cubs to hunt. As soon as they leave their dens, young gray fox set out to find hunting territories and begin raising families of their own. FOR REVIEW ONLY

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 43 Striped Skunks Striped skunks can be found almost everywhere in Texas. They live along the edges of forests, in bushy areas, and on the grassy prairies. Sometimes striped skunks will use their strong front legs and sharp claws to dig their own dens. Other times, they will move into another mammal’s den. Skunks also live under old buildings, rock piles, or in hollow tree stumps. Striped skunks are small mammals with black backs and white stripes that extend up over their heads and down the sides of their bushy tails. The stripes are warnings for other animals to stay away. Skunks have few natural enemies, but if bothered, they will stand up on their back legs, jump forward, stamp both front feet, and click their teeth. To defend themselves, skunks spray a foul smelling “perfume.” Striped Skunk Striped skunks have small eyes and ears. They can’t see very well, but they have excellent hearing and a good sense of smell. Strong senses are structural adaptations that help these omnivores hunt for insects, reptiles, squirrels, gophers, birds, and plants during the night. In the morning, striped skunks return to their dens and sleep all day. Female striped skunks have four to eight babies, or kits, in late April. The kits are born skinny, blind, hairless, and without teeth. After two months of surviving on their mother’s milk, kits are taught to hunt at night. Striped skunks prepare themselves for winter by eating a lot and growing a thick coat of fur. During the cold winter months, they snuggle together in their dens, where they sleep more and eat less. They are able to live off their stored body fat, leaving their dens once in a while to search for berries, seeds, or small animals. Nine-Banded Armadillos Nine-banded armadillos are the state small mammals of Texas. These odd little creatures look like miniature armored cars on legs. Nine- banded armadillos are about the size of small dogs. They have thick, brownish-colored bony shieldsSAMPLE on their shoulders and rumps, with nine bands of shell in between. The shields help protect them from attacks by predators. Nine-Banded Armadillo Armadillos are excellent diggers. Each of their feet has very strong claws for digging and burrowing. Armadillos like to be near water and often dig their underground dens next to streams and ponds where the soil is soft. They take mud baths to protect their nearly hairless bodies from the sun. Armadillos are omnivores. They use their long pointed snouts to dig for insects and grubs. They will also eat fruit, berries, and vegetable crops. Nine-banded armadillos have special behavioral adaptations for protecting themselves. When chased by predators, armadillos squeeze themselves into burrows with their backs to the outside. Once wedged inside, it is almost impossible for predators to attack armadillos. Female nine-banded armadillos give birth to four identical babies. The babies are born with their eyesFOR open and are able toREVIEW walk within a few hours after birth. TheyONLY begin following their mother to search for food in just a few weeks. The skin of newborn armadillos is soft, but hardens into a shell as they grow older.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 44 Bobcats Bobcats are the smaller cousins of mountain lions. They can be found wandering through all four regions of Texas in swamps, forests, desert areas, and mountain ranges. Bobcats are big cats, weighing about 20 pounds and standing almost two feet tall. They have beautiful yellowish-orange coats and white tips on their stubby black tails. Bobcats are carnivores. They are important to Texas because they kill harmful rodents like mice and rats. Bobcats hunt mainly at night and travel as many as 20 miles searching for small mammals, reptiles, fish, and birds. They walk on the pads of their feet to sneak up on other animals. They use their sharp claws and teeth to catch and eat their prey. With their long legs, bobcats can run up to 30 miles per Bobcat hour. They are expert climbers that are smart to seek safety in trees whenever possible. Extra hair on their ears and cheek areas helps bobcats sense movement from approaching danger. Female bobcats give birth to kittens that are born with their eyes closed. The kittens depend upon their mother’s milk for about two months before they are given meat to eat. To teach their kittens to hunt, mother bobcats begin bringing live mice back to the den. When they are about five months old, mother bobcats take the kittens away from their dens on hunting trips. River Otters River Otters, also known as weasels, are long mammals with glossy, dark brown fur, grayish lips and cheeks, and pale gray underparts. They have webbed feet, short necks and legs, and slender bodies made for life in the water. Their thick fur helps river otters stay warm, even when swimming in cold water. River otters use all four legs and their tails to “dog paddle” through the water. In Texas, river otters are found in the eastern part of the state SAMPLEnear larger lakes, rivers, and streams. They are expert swimmers and divers that can remain underwater for several minutes. River otters also travel on land. They can reach speeds of 30 miles per hour. By running and sliding, river otters can travel easily over ice River Otter and snow. River otters are not picky eaters. They are carnivores that require large amounts of meat to help maintain their body temperatures. To do this, they must eat about 20 percent of their total body weight each day. River otters eat a variety of fish, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Their favorite meal is crayfish. River otters are very playful and have been known to use steep river banks as sliding boards. The otters play “follow the leader,” sliding down into the water on their bellies, face first with their front legs folded back. River otters usually have litters of one to three babies, called pups. Pups are born on land, blind andFOR toothless, weighing REVIEW less than five ounces. During their first ONLY few weeks of life, pups do nothing but sleep and drink their mother’s milk. River otter pups grow quickly. At one month old they open their eyes. They begin swimming a month later, and by the time they are four months old, they are diving and catching their own food.

Texas is home to nearly 600 species of birds. Some of these birds live in Texas all year long. Others migrate to Texas from other states and even other countries during the winter months. Texas is the most popular state in the country for birdwatchers. Three-fourths of all American bird species either live in Texas or visit on their way through the state. The area around Galveston Bay is a favorite spot for hundreds of traveling species. As you read about some of Texas’s most popular birds, you’ll discover the best places to be a birdwatcher in Texas. Pay attention to each bird’s special nest-building and egg-laying habits. Great Horned Owls Great horned owls can be found throughout the United States. In Texas, they are found mostly in the southeastern part of the Coastal Plains region. Great horned owls have yellow eyes, dark bills, and white patches under their throats. Their bodies are streaked with colors of brown, black, and gray. Great horned owls are only 20 inches long, but they have wingspans of 55 inches. If you stretched out your arms and measured the length from the longest finger on your left hand to the longest finger on your right hand, you would get a pretty good idea of a great hornedSAMPLE owl’s wingspan. Great horned owls build their nests high in trees or steal the nests of hawks, eagles, and crows. Females lay two or three Great Horned Owl grayish-white eggs that hatch 30 days later. Young great-horned owls leave their nests 60 days after birth. Like most owls, great horned owls eat mostly small mammals. They are also able to turn their heads almost completely around without moving their bodies.

Fast Facts • Great horned owls are able to fly without making any noise. By what is known as “silent flight,” their fringed flight-feathers allow them to land without alerting their prey that they are coming. • Both great-horned owl parents take turns sitting on the eggs to keep FOR them warm.REVIEW The young owlets have their adult flight-feathers ONLY just six months after being born.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 46 Bald Eagles Bald eagles can be found living near areas with plenty of water. This is why the largest population of bald eagles in Texas spends its winters and springs near the large rivers and lakes in the eastern section of the Coastal Plains region. Bald eagles eat fish, plucked from the water with their sharp talons. They also eat ducks, small mammals, and turtles. Bald eagles have white heads and upper necks, white tails, dark brown bodies, and yellow bills. The nests of bald eagles can be seven to eight feet across. They are usually built in tall trees, high above the ground. Females lay one to three eggs. Both parents take turns keeping the eggs warm for 35 days. About 84 days after hatching, young bald eagles are ready to Bald Eagle leave their nests. Like great horned owls, bald eagles have wingspans almost three times the lengths of their bodies. Adult bald eagles are 32 inches long, but their wingspans measure 80 inches. Northern Mockingbirds Northern mockingbirds, Texas’s state birds, are one of the few birds found in every kind of habitat, from desert to forest to city. Northern mockingbirds are found throughout Texas, but the largest population lives in the Central Plains region. Northern mockingbirds are songbirds. They are dull gray on top with pale gray underparts. The white, outer, tail feathers of their long tails and white wing patches will catch your eye when these noisy, but talented birds take flight. Mockingbirds mimic the songs SAMPLEof 50 other birds. They have also been known to “mock” or imitate other sounds they hear, such as rusty Northern Mockingbird hinges, whistling, sirens, and barking dogs. They eat mostly insects and fruit. Female northern mockingbirds lay between three to five eggs that hatch in about 14 days. Both parents care for the baby birds until they leave their nests just 13 days after birth.

• The largest bald eagle nest ever found was 20 feet deep and 10 feet Fast Facts wide, and weighed two tons. • A bald eagle’s eyesight is five to six times sharper than a human’s eyesight. FOR• Northern REVIEW mockingbirds sing constantly, even at night. ONLYWhen other birds enter their territory, northern mockingbirds fly around them with their legs stretched out, showing off their white wing patches.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 47 Peregrine Falcons Peregrine falcons have been spotted in the mountain ranges of Big Bend National Park in the Mountains and Basins region. Adult peregrine falcons have dark bluish-gray upperparts and wings. Their underparts are whitish-tan in color. Peregrine falcons usually choose to build their nests on cliffs and rock ledges that are close to water and prey. The high peaks of the Chisos (CHEE•sos) Peregrine Falcon Mountains and the deep canyons of the Rio Grande provide safety and good hunting grounds for falcons. They hunt for smaller birds and even bats that they are able to catch in midair. In April, peregrine falcons lay eggs that hatch in about 35 days. Young peregrine falcons remain in the nest for another 45 days. They stay close to their parents for another four months after they are born. Violet-Green Swallows Violet-green swallows are found throughout the foothills, mountains, and mountain parks of Texas’s Mountains and Basins region. They are very small birds that measure only about five inches from beak to tail. Violet-green swallows have white breasts with patches of green Violet-Green Swallow on the sides. Their bodies are greenish-brown. Males have a white patch over their eyes. They usually build nests of grass and feathers in hollow trees or cliffs. SAMPLEFemales lay four to five white eggs that hatch 14 days later. Young violet-green swallows leave their nests 21 days after hatching. These tiny birds only eat flying insects. Brown Creepers Brown creepers are very small birds that weigh less than an ounce. These tiny birds are about six inches long. A large population of brown creepers lives in the northeastern part of Texas’s Great Plains region. Brown creepers have brown and tan stripes on their backs and wings. Their breasts and a small area over their eyes are white. Brown creepers received their names Brown Creeper FORbecause they REVIEW creep up the sides of trees. They ONLY build nests by cramming twigs, bark strips, feathers, and moss behind dead tree trunks. Female brown creepers lay four to eight creamy-white speckled eggs that hatch after 14 days. Young brown creepers leave their nests 14 days after they are born.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 48 Ruby-Throated Hummingbirds Ruby-throated hummingbirds are found throughout the eastern part of Texas in the Coastal Plains region. The males have shiny green backs, black chins and faces, ruby red throats, and white underparts. Female ruby-throated hummingbirds are a little less colorful, but just as beautiful. Females build tiny walnut-sized nests made of moss and spider webs. Two pea-sized eggs are laid and hatch about 14 days later. The young hummingbirds are fed by their mother for about 28 days before leaving the nest. Ruby-throated hummingbirds gather on the Gulf of Mexico before migrating to Mexico and Central America for the winter. They have simple diets that include small insects and the nectar found in flowers. Did you know that hummingbirds Ruby-Throated Hummingbird are the only birds that can fly backwards and straight up? Hummingbirds are attracted to the color red. If you would like to see one up close, fill a hummingbird feeder with red-colored sugar water and wait for a curious hummingbird to come and take a sip. Roadrunners Roadrunners live year-round in most sections of Texas, but the largest population is found in the center of the Great Plains region. These long-legged birds can be seen dashing across the desert or plains and may even be spotted in the Piney Woods area. Roadrunners are not like mostSAMPLE other birds because they eat insects, lizards, and snakes. They are Roadrunner quick enough to catch and eat small rattlesnakes. Roadrunners would also rather run than fly! Roadrunners have dark heads and black and gray spotted feathers. They have long, dark, white-tipped tails that they raise and lower. They also have strong bills that they use to peck at almost everything. Roadrunners lay about five yellowish-gray eggs. The baby roadrunners hatch after 20 days and are ready to leave their nests 18 days later.

Fast Facts • In the fall, ruby-throated hummingbirds head for warmer weather in Mexico and Central America. They fatten up before the trip, and most make the 500-mile flight across the Gulf of Mexico FOR without REVIEW stopping. ONLY • Roadrunners can run up to 17 miles per hour. They are able to snatch hummingbirds and dragonflies right out of the air.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 49 Mourning Doves Mourning Doves are the most common doves found in Texas. They are also the most hunted. Although found all over Texas, the largest groups of mourning doves have been spotted living in the southwestern section of the Central Plains region. Male mourning doves are slightly larger than females, but both have brown bodies, tan breasts, and yellowish colored heads. They have black spots behind their eyes, black bills, pink legs, and white-tipped tail feathers. Mourning doves build simple nests of twigs and grass where females lay two eggs. Both parents Mourning Dove take turns keeping the eggs warm for 14 days. Baby mourning doves are born without feathers. They can survive on their own within 21 days. Mourning doves will travel up to eight miles a day in search of seeds, grains, insects, and water. Double-Crested Cormorants Double-crested cormorants are found in many areas of Texas, but the largest population lives along the waters of the Coastal Plains region. There they can dive up to 25 feet below the water’s surface in search of fish. Double-crested cormorants have long, thin necks and large, rounded throat patches that are orange in color. Adults are black with gray tipped wings and Double-Crested Cormorant SAMPLEstraight yellow bills that are hooked at the end. Both parents work together to build a nest. They take turns sitting on three or four eggs that hatch 25 days after being laid. Baby double-crested cormorants anderw from their nests about 42 days later to begin finding their own food.

• You probably already know that oil and water don’t mix. If you filled a jar with oil and water and shook it up, the oil would soon separate Fast Facts from the water. This is a very helpful adaptation for most birds. They waterproof their feathers with oil from a gland located on their lower backs. Their feathers stay dry even when it is raining. • Because they dive for food, cormorants spread very little oil on their feathers. This helps their feathers get heavy with water so they can stay FOR below theREVIEW surface of the water and search for fish. ONLY • After diving for food, double-crested cormorants dry their feathers by perching on a pole or tree limb and stretching out their wings.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 50 Golden-Cheeked Warblers Golden-cheeked warblers are special birds because they can’t be found in any other state but Texas. As their names suggest, golden-cheeked warblers have bright yellow cheeks outlined in black. Their upper breasts and throats are black. Their lower breasts and bellies are white with black streaks. Golden-cheeked warblers build their nests in the juniper and oak trees found in the woodlands and Golden-Cheeked Warbler canyons of the Central Plains region. Golden-cheeked warblers use long strips of cedar bark and spider webs to build nests, where females lay three or four white and brown speckled eggs. The eggs hatch in about 12 days. Baby golden-cheeked warblers will leave their nests in about nine days, but will be carefully watched by their parents until they learn to catch insects, their only source of food, on their own. Blue Jays Blue jays can be found throughout the United States and Canada. In Texas, they are found mostly in the eastern part of the state in the Coastal Plains region. Blue jays are tame around humans and are commonly found living in towns and cities. They are bright blue birds about ten inches long with black bills, blue crests, and black necklaces. They have long blue tails and bright blue wings with black bars and white patches. Their throats and underparts are grayish-white in color. Blue jays are noisy and aggressive SAMPLEwhen it comes to eating. Their arrival at a bird feeder usually clears the area of Blue Jay smaller birds. Blue jays sometimes eat the eggs of other birds and often frighten the adults from their nests by imitating the call of a hawk. The rest of their diets include insects, acorns, fruits, and seeds. Female blue jays rarely leave their nests while incubating their eggs for 18 days. Males bring them food during this time. Baby blue jays are ready to leave their nests 21 days after hatching. FOR REVIEW ONLY

Texas is home to many species of freshwater and saltwater fish. Many of the fish swimming in Texas’s rivers, lakes, streams, and Gulf waters are non-native fish. This means that they came to Texas from other states. Striped bass and redbreasted sunfish are examples of non-native fish. Others, like blue catfish, black crappie (CRAW•pee), largemouth bass, and American eel are native to Texas. Guadalupe Bass Guadalupe bass, found in the fast flowing waters of the Guadalupe and Colorado rivers, are Texas’s state fish. Guadalupe bass are unique because they are only found in the state of Texas. These small but very active fish are favorites among sport fishermen. In fact, bass fishing is so popular in Texas that many clubs have been formed for the purpose of talking Guadalupe Bass about and fishing for this natural resource. Other Popular Game Fish Other popular game fish found in Texas’s warmer waters are channel catfish, blue catfish, striped bass, and several varieties of crappie. Largemouth and smallmouth bass are also favorites among Texas’s fishermen.SAMPLE As their names suggest, largemouth and smallmouth bass can be identified by the size of their mouths. It is legal to fish for all of these freshwater species as long Largemouth Bass as you have the proper fishing license and follow the Texas Parks and Wildlife’s rules for catching fish. Endangered Species Other species of fish are less plentiful and are listed as protected or endangered. ouY should remember that this means they are in danger of becoming extinct. The food supply of the Clear Creek gambusia (gam•BOO•zuh), for example, was nearly destroyed when dams were built on Clear Creek to provide irrigation for nearby farms. In 1979,FOR one of the dams was REVIEW rebuilt to provide a suitable habitat for theONLY Clear Creek gambusia. If caught, Clear Creek gambusia and Texas’s other endangered species must be returned to the water immediately.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. 52 Reproducible for classroom use only. Saltwater Species Texas’s Gulf waters offer saltwater species of all shapes and sizes. Popular saltwater game fish are marlin, sailfish, and tarpon. Red snapper, flounder, and pompano are also found in the Gulf and are very good to eat. Commercial fishing is an important industry along the coast of Texas. Shrimp, crabs, clams, and oysters make up a large part of what is caught and sold by the fisheries. Fishing is a very popular sport in Texas. The money spent on fishing licenses helps the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department stock the rivers, lakes, and streams with more fish. It also helps pay for the protection of Texas’s endangered species. It is important to contact the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department to find out what type of license you will need, where to buy one, and the rules you will need to follow before casting your fishing line into the water. Texas’s Reptiles You have already learned that the word “reptile” means “to creep.” Remember, reptiles are animals that have scales, breathe air, and usually lay eggs. Reptiles are cold-blooded animals. Cold-blooded animals are not able to keep their body temperatures constant the way warm-blooded animals can. If the air is cold and the sun is not shining, the body temperatures of cold-blooded animals go down. When it is sunny and hot, the body temperatures of cold-blooded animals go up. Snakes Snakes are very common reptiles in Texas. There are 68 species of snakes living in Texas. There are more snakes in Texas than in any other state. Snakes are mostly active at night during warm weather and can either be venomous or be nonvenomous. Texas is home to 15 types of venomous snakes. They include rattlesnakes, copperheads, coralSAMPLE snakes, and cottonmouths. Rattlesnakes are named for the rattling Coral Snake sound they make with their tails. When in danger, rattlesnakes shake their tails to warn predators and humans to stay away. Rattlesnakes are unusual reptiles because they do not lay eggs. Like mammals, their babies are born alive.

Western Diamondback Western Diamondback Rattlesnake Rattlesnakes Western diamondback rattlesnakes are common venomous snakes in Texas. They have a diamond-shaped pattern along the middle of their backs. Western diamondback rattlesnakes have large flatFOR heads shaped like triangles.REVIEW ONLY The bite of a western diamondback rattlesnake is usually notfatal , but the venom can cause painful swelling. The venom can be very harmful to pets and children.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 53 Nonvenomous Snakes Texas is also home to many nonvenomous snakes. Bullsnakes, for example, are harmless to people. They are very valuable to farmers because they kill crop-destroying mice, rats, and gophers. You have already learned that some animals protect themselves by using mimicry to look or act like other animals. Bullsnakes protect themselves by acting like rattlesnakes. Bullsnakes can flatten their heads and puff up their bodies to appear larger. They can even mimic the sounds of rattlesnakes by moving their tails in dry grass, leaves, or Milk Snake loose gravel. Milk snakes won’t hurt people. They kill small mammals and other reptiles, including rattlesnakes, by squeezing them to death. Milk snakes use mimicry to look like venomous coral snakes. Both of these snakes are striped in bands of red, faded yellow, and black. By looking like dangerous coral snakes, milk snakes are protected from predators and people who might want to bother them. It’s important to learn how to tell these two types of snakes apart. It’s also a good idea to avoid all snakes in the wild, and even those found in your own backyard. Alligators and Lizards Alligators are fairly common in the eastern part of Texas. Alligators were nearly hunted to extinction in the 1960s, but the numbers have grown since being placed on the threatened species list. This means that they can be hunted only if you have a special permit and follow all of the rules for hunting alligators. Horned lizards are Texas’s state reptiles. Horned Horned Lizard lizards spend most of the day heating their bodies in the SAMPLEsun, eating ants, and staying away from predators. When frightened, horned lizards puff up their bodies and squirt blood from their eyes. Turtles and Tortoises There are several species of turtles found in Texas. They include sea turtles, snapping turtles, box and pond turtles, soft-shelled turtles, and tortoises. Box turtles are popular because of their colorful domed shells. Unfortunately, scientists fear that box turtles are slowly disappearing from Texas. Keeping box turtles as pets and destroying their habitats by building roads means there are less box turtles in the wild. Texas tortoises are some of the most interesting reptiles found in the state. They have yellowish-orange “horned” plates on their shells and hind legs that look like they belong on an elephant. Texas tortoises are found in the south-central part of the state. Scientists believe they can live to be 100 years old. Texas tortoises are a protected species. It is illegal to own or sell Texas tortoises.FOR REVIEW ONLY Texas’s fish and reptiles help make Texas an exciting and interesting place to live and visit. It is important to learn more about the proper ways to treat them, protect their homes, and do what we can to make Texas a better place forthem to live.

Amphibians are cold-blooded vertebrates. You should remember that the word “amphibian” means “two lives.” Amphibians spend the first parts of their lives in fresh water breathing through gills and using their tails to swim. As adults, they develop lungs and grow legs so they can live on land. Amphibians return to the water when it is time to breed and lay their eggs. The most popular amphibians in Texas are frogs, toads, and salamanders. Most of these amphibians can be found in the wet habitats of the eastern part of Texas. Frogs Frogs are small, slender animals with bulging eyes. They have smooth, wet skin that always looks slimy. Long legs give frogs the ability to leap up to 20 times the lengths of their bodies. There are many different types of frogs in Texas. Aquatic frogs, like bronze frogs, crawfish frogs, and pig frogs, spend most of their time in lakes, swamps, and marshes. Aquatic frogs have long, strong legs with webbed back feet to help them swim. Tree frogs, including Texas’s Mexican, green, Tree Frog squirrel, and gray tree frogs, have large, round toe pads that help them climb treesSAMPLE and cling to branches. Their toe pads work like suction cups so they can hang on to wet leaves and other slippery surfaces.

Frog Adaptations Frogs in Texas range in color from shades of leafy green to muddy brown. This helps them blend in with their surroundings. Frogs eat almost any live prey they can find, including insects, snails, spiders, worms, and small fish. Catching fast moving insects and fish requires good eyesight. Bulging eyes help frogs see in all directions without moving their heads. Having their eyes on top of their heads allow frogs to sit in the water with only their eyes and nose above the surface. Frogs swallow their prey whole because their teeth, if they have any, are used for biting, not chewing. Skin is an important part of survival for frogs. They must keep their skin moist so oxygen can pass through it to help them breathe. Frogs have glands that create a type of slimy liquid that helpsFOR them stay moist. AboutREVIEW once a week, frogs shed their skin. ONLY After twisting, bending, and stretching to loosen their old skin, they pull their skin over their heads like a sweater. Most of the time, frogs eat their old skin.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 55 Toads Toads and frogs belong to the same family. In fact, toads are actually frogs. There are still many differences between toads and frogs. Toads have fat bodies and short hind legs for walking instead of hopping. Their dry, rough skin looks like it’s covered with warts. Picking up a toad won’t give you warts, but toads do have a strange smell and bitter taste. These structural adaptations keep bigger animals from wanting to eat them. Toads have tough, dry skin that doesn’t need as much moisture as a frog’s skin. For this reason, toads can be found farther away from sources of water. Toads are usually nocturnal, which means they come out at night to hunt. They spend most of their days in burrows trying to stay cool, or hiding under leaves and Toad clumps of dirt, staying far away from people and predators. At night, toads hunt for spiders, grub worms, and other insects. American toads, Great Plains toads, green toads, and giant toads are some of the most popular toads found in Texas. Life Cycles of Frogs and Toads Frogs and toads must find water to lay thousands of soft, jelly-covered eggs. They lay many eggs knowing that not all will make it to adulthood. Frogs lay their eggs in clumps, while toads lay their eggs in long chains. When the eggs hatch, they don’t look anything like frogs or toads. They are fish-like tadpoles, with gills for breathing underwater and tails for swimming. Young tadpoles eat plants. They are active animals that swim in schools like fish. At just five weeks old, tadpoles begin to change. They SAMPLEstart to grow front and hind legs. Their bodies grow longer and their heads become bigger. During this stage of life, they begin eating dead insects. Soon, tadpoles start looking like tiny frogs and toads with long tails. Their front legs grow longer and they begin eating insect eggs and other very small animals. During this stage, some tadpoles even eat frog eggs, toad eggs, and other tadpoles. Over time, tadpoles look more and more like frogs and toads. They shed their skin and lips. Their mouths widen, their tails become much smaller, and their legs grow longer. Their lungs develop fully. Frog Eleven weeks after the eggs were laid, fully developed frogs and toads with lungs and legs leave the water. Their tails are completely gone. Soon, they will findFOR mates of their own andREVIEW return to the same ponds where they ONLYerew born to start the life cycle all over again.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 56 Salamanders Salamanders are amphibians with long tails like lizards and smooth, moist skin like frogs. Adult salamanders are found near water or in shady areas, trying to stay cool and moist. They spend most of their time under rocks and logs, up in trees, or in burrows they’ve dug in the ground. Salamanders know that if they get too dry, they could die. Salamanders are carnivores. They move slowly, so they eat slow-moving soft creatures like earthworms, slugs, and snails. Larger salamanders eat fish, crayfish, and even small mammals. Tiger Salamanders Tiger salamanders are found throughout most of central and western Texas. They can grow up to nine inches long, making them the largest land-dwelling salamanders in the world. Tiger salamanders have dark brown or black bodies with yellowish-green stripes and spots that make them look like tigers. Female tiger salamanders lay up to 2,000 eggs in shallow ponds. After the female attaches the clumps of eggs to underwater rocks, twigs, or plants, the eggs are left to take care of themselves. Within five months of hatching, gills have been replaced by lungs. The baby salamanders, or larvae, have grown legs for walking on land. Tiger Salamander Tiger salamanders eat insects, earthworms, small mice, and other amphibians. Snakes, turtles, birds, and fish enjoy snacking on tiger salamanders. Tiger salamanders avoid these predators by coming out only at night and hiding in thick grass during the day. If the ground is soft enough, tiger salamanders will dig their own shelters. Otherwise, they will move into burrows that have been left by small mammals. Texas’s Other SalamandersSAMPLE Other popular salamanders in Texas include marbled salamanders, smallmouth salamanders, and dwarf salamanders. These salamanders are found mostly in the eastern part of the state. Like tiger salamanders, Texas’s other popular salamanders are nocturnal. They protect themselves from predators by staying under cover during the day and coming out at night to eat. Marbled salamanders have dark skin that is striped or marbled with silver. Smallmouth salamanders have small heads and little mouths. They are black or very dark brown with light gray patterns on their sides. At less than two inches long, dwarf salamanders are some of the smallest vertebrates in North America. Dwarf salamanders can be brown or yellow, with dark stripes downFOR their sides. REVIEW ONLY

Arthropods are cold-blooded invertebrates. You should remember that invertebrates are animals that don’t have backbones. Instead, they have exoskeletons that they wear on the outsides of their bodies. Arthropods have segmented bodies and joints that allow them to move. Arthropods in Texas include insects, spiders, ticks, centipedes, crabs, lobsters, and scorpions. Insects Insects are the largest group of arthropods. More than one third of all insect species in the United States can be found in Texas. In fact, Texas has more kinds of insects than any other state. Insects are able to adapt to almost any environment because of their highly developed senses of smell, touch, taste, and hearing. Insects are easily confused with other arthropods. Most people think because they see tiny creatures that crawl, they are looking at insects. Grasshopper Insects have bodies that are pinched together to form three parts that include the head, thorax, and abdomen. The head is the part of the body in charge of getting food and sensing movement. Eyes for seeing, antennae for smelling and tasting, and mouthparts for feeding are all located on the head. The thorax is in charge of movement. Three pairs of jointed legs and two pairs of wings are part of the thoraxSAMPLE of most insects. The abdomen is the largest, fattest section of insects. The abdomen’s job is to digest food and reproduce. Insects Are Important Natural Resources Most people think of insects as pests. They buzz around our heads or fly onto the salad we’ve made for a picnic. Some insects have structural adaptations for protection that allow them to sting and bite. When scared, stinkbeetles stand on their heads and release a foul-smelling odor. Boll weevils use their long snouts to eat the middle out of cotton plants. It’s hard to believe, but insects can be helpful natural resources. When bees fly from flower to flower, pollen from the flowers sticks to them. Without even knowing it, bees carry the pollen to the next flower. The pollen is neededFOR to grow more flowers. REVIEW ONLY Insects are also important food for birds, reptiles, and many mammals. Without insects, these animals would have nothing to eat. Boll Weevil Some insects are garbage collectors. They live by eating dead trees and animals. ©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 58

Insect Metamorphosis Most insects go through metamorphosis. During metamorphosis, insects pass through stages to become adults. A few insects in the animal kingdom go through three stages of metamorphosis. They start as eggs that hatch into nymphs. Nymphs look like miniature adults without wings. Nymphs molt four to eight times before reaching their adult size. Monarch butterflies are not only natural resources that are beautiful to look at, they are Texas’s state insects. Like most insects, monarch butterflies go through four stages, or complete metamorphosis.

The Egg Stage In the first or egg stage, monarch butterflies start out as tiny eggs that are laid on the undersides of milkweed leaves. Three to six days later, the larva or caterpillar stage begins. The eggs hatch into caterpillars that are so small, they can barely be seen. The Larva Stage Caterpillars grow quickly during the larva stage. Eating nothing but milkweed leaves, they are full grown in just two weeks. By the end of the larva stage, caterpillars have shed their skin five times. Full grown caterpillars have eight pairs of legs. The first three pairs of legs will later become the butterfly’s legs.

The Pupa Stage During the pupa or chrysalis (krih•SAL•us) stage, caterpillars leave their milkweed leaves. They shed their skin for the lastSAMPLE time. Under their last layer of skin is a greenish casing called a chrysalis. During the next 14 days, caterpillars live inside the chrysalis, where they go through many changes. They develop straw-like tongues for sipping nectar from flowers, and wings for flying. The Adult Stage During stage four, the adult stage, the Monarch Butterfly Metamorphosis chrysalis cracks open. At first, the monarch butterfly’s wings are tiny, crumpled, and wet. It clings to the empty chrysalis as a blood-like substance is pumped through its body. Within an hour, the butterfly’s wings are full-size, dry, and ready for flying. Four to six days after leaving the chrysalis, the adult monarch butterfly is ready to lay FOReggs so the process of metamorphosisREVIEW can start all over again. ONLY Common insects in Texas include grasshoppers, flies, beetles, ants, bees, and cockroaches. Like monarch butterflies, these insects go through metamorphosis to become adults.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 59 Crustaceans (crew•STAY•shuns) Crustaceans are arthropods that live mostly in water. There are more than 40,000 species of crustaceans on Earth. Like insects, their bodies are usually divided into three parts that include the head, the thorax, and the abdomen. All crustaceans have two pairs of antennae on or around their heads. Most crustaceans also have tails. Like many other arthropods, crustaceans have hard exoskeletons that they must molt in order to grow. In Texas, many different species of crustaceans can be found along the coast and in the Gulf of Mexico. Crabs, lobsters, and shrimp are Texas’s most common crustaceans. They are an important food source enjoyed by people all over Crab the world. Crabs and lobsters are scavengers that crawl along the ocean floor and eat whatever they can find. Shrimp, on the other hand, are swimmers. They use their excellent senses of smell and the feelers on their heads to find and eat small plants and animals that float past them in the water.

Arachnids Arachnids are arthropods that include spiders, scorpions, ticks, and mites. Like other arthropods, arachnids have hard exoskeletons and joints that allow them to move. Arachnids have only two parts to their bodies. The front part contains the head and chest, called the cephalothorax. The cephalothorax is made of very hard material for protection. The rear part of arachnids contains the soft abdomen, or belly. Spiders Spiders are very differentSAMPLE from insects. They have eight legs and most are wingless. The first pair of legs is used for holding and eating prey. The second pair is used for killing prey. The other legs are used for walking. Spiders spend most of their time searching for food. They eat insects and other spiders. Tarantulas will even eat mice. Like all arachnids, spiders have two parts to their bodies. Eight legs, two jaws, and two feelers that taste food are connected to the front part, or cephalothorax. Most spiders have eight eyes, which are on top of their heads. Spiders have spinners and up to seven glands located on their abdomens that produce silken thread. Every gland SpiderFOR producesREVIEW a special kind of thread for a special ONLY purpose. Some of the glands make thread that is sticky for spinning webs and catching prey. Other glands produce thread strong enough for spiders to walk on. Some threads are used for tightly wrapping eggs in cocoons.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 60 Texas’s Spiders There are about 900 species of spiders in Texas. Although spiders are scary, and many can bite, most will not hurt people. All spiders have some amount of venom that they use to paralyze their victims, usually insects. Their fangs are either too short or too weak to break through human skin. Tarantulas, jumping spiders, wolf spiders, and southern house spiders are common spiders in Texas. Orbweavers, also found in Texas, produce the beautiful circular webs that we see most often. Only two groups of spiders in Texas, recluse spiders and widow spiders, are poisonous to humans. It is important to know the differences between Texas’s harmless and dangerous spiders. Recluse Spiders Recluse spiders usually hide in dark places like garages, firewood piles, and basements. They are shy arachnids that are most active at night, when they are searching for insects and other arthropods to eat. Recluse spiders can be orange to dark brown in color. Unlike other spiders that have eight eyes, recluse spiders have three pairs of eyes on the front parts of their heads. There are 11 species of recluse spiders native to the United States. Texas is home to several species, including brown recluse spiders, the most dangerous of all recluse spiders. Brown recluse spiders have a violin-shaped marking on their backs. They spin white or grayish webs, a behavioral adaptation that keeps them hidden from sight. Recluse spiders will bite and leave a poisonous venom in their victims. In humans, the venom can cause fever, chills, and joint pain within 24 hours. The bite also causes a small blister and a large swollen area. The venom eats away at the skin tissue, leaving an open hole in the skin that takes six to eight weeks to completely heal. Sometimes the bite of a recluse spider requires surgery to repair the damaged skin. Widow Spiders SAMPLE There are five species of widow spiders in North America. Three of these species are common in Texas. They include southern black widows, western black widows, and brown widows. Widow spiders, like most spiders, are shy and simply want to be left alone. They hide in dark places, under furniture, in closets, and even in Black Widow Spider vegetable gardens. Female black widow spiders are the most venomous spiders in the United States. Male black widows will bite, but their venom is not powerful enough to do any harm. Female widow spiders are shiny dark black. Two reddish triangles form an hourglass shape on their abdomens. Full grown females are about two inches long with eight eyes in two rows. Male widow spiders are about half this size, with smaller bodies and longer legs. The biteFOR of a female black widowREVIEW spider feels like a pin prick. At first, ONLY two red marks in the area of the bite will appear. An hour later, the victim feels intense pain, vomiting, leg cramps, and loss of strength. The venom can also cause breathing difficulties. Every year, a few people bitten by female black widow spiders die.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 61 Scorpions Scorpions are the largest arachnids. Some scorpions are over eight inches in length. They have four pairs of legs for walking, two arms for pinching, and a sharp stinger at the end of their segmented tails. Their bodies are flat, allowing them to hide in small cracks and under rocks. Like all arachnids, scorpions have two body parts: the cephalothorax, which contains the head, and the abdomen. Scorpions have two eyes on top of their heads. Most species also have two to five pairs of eyes along the front corners of their heads. Even with all of these eyes, scorpions cannot see very well. They use their excellent sense of touch when moving around and hunting. Insects are the favorite meal for most scorpions. Some will eat spiders, centipedes, small reptiles, and even other scorpions. Scorpions use their stingers to paralyze their prey, but if they are able to overpower their victims, they will simply eat them alive. This keeps them from using their venom, which can take up to two weeks to regenerate. During this time, scorpions are defenseless. Scorpion When food can’t be found, scorpions have an amazing ability to slow down their systems, use less oxygen, and live on as little as one single insect per year. Scientists have even frozen scorpions overnight, thawed them out the next day, and watched them walk away!

Striped Bark Scorpions Scorpions like to live in dry places, but they are so adaptable, they can be found throughout most of Texas.SAMPLE The most common scorpions in Texas are striped bark scorpions. As adults, striped bark scorpions are about three inches long. They are yellow or tan in color with two wide black stripes running down the lengths of their backs. Like all scorpions, striped bark scorpions molt, or lose their outer skeletons, shortly after birth. They do this so they can grow. Scorpions molt five or six more times before reaching adulthood. Striped bark scorpions usually live about four years. When disturbed, all scorpions use their tails to sting. The stings from Texas’s scorpions are painful, but not deadly. Ice will usually take away the pain. Small children and pets should be taken to the hospital immediately if stung by a scorpion. FOR REVIEW ONLY

The first humans to live in North America and present-day Texas were hunters. Archaeologists (ar•kee•OL•uh•jists) believe that these hunters were originally from the continent of Asia. They entered North America by walking across the Bering Land Bridge. The Bering Land Bridge was actually a strip of frozen ice that was 1,000 miles wide. It connected northeast Asia to western Alaska thousands of years ago. Wild animals crossed back and forth over the Bering Land Bridge. The Asian people followed the animals into North America. When the ice melted, the frozen bridge disappeared and the water raised the level of the sea. The hunters who followed the animals into North America had no way of getting back to Asia. They continued following the wild animals throughout North America. Some of these people settled in what is now Texas and used the natural resources for survival.

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©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 63 Hunters and Gatherers Texas’s first people arrived about 12,000 years ago. Archaeologists call these prehistoric people Paleo-Indians. We call their descendants Native Americans. The Paleo-Indians in Texas were hunters and gatherers who followed the food supply. They wandered across Texas on foot in search of mammoths and bison. They took advantage of Texas’s natural resources by gathering nuts, berries, grains, and roots along the way. Texas’s first people didn’t have guns or horses. To kill the huge animals, the hunters chased them over the sides of cliffs or into deep sand. Once the animals were trapped, the hunters attacked them with sharp pointed spears. The Paleo-Indians were so busy searching for Bison food, they didn’t have time to build villages with permanent houses. They lived in campsites or slept in caves. Hunters and gatherers had to be ready to move quickly to keep up with the animals they were hunting.

Carbon Dating Texas’s first people left no written records of their lives. Archaeologists have learned about them by digging up pieces of animal bones, sharp spears, pottery, and even garbage. From these items, scientists are able to tell what Texas’s first people ate and how many lived together in one area. Through a scientific method known as carbon dating, scientists are also able to figure out the age of an item. TheSAMPLE Paleo-Indians often drew pictures of the animals they hunted on the walls of the caves. As the climate of Texas became drier and hotter, the large wild animals moved to cooler climates. Just like the animals you have studied about, Texas’s first people learned how to adapt their behaviors so they could survive. Mammoth They made better weapons for hunting smaller animals and gathered more berries and seeds. They also learned how to modify, or change, the land into something they could use. They cleared the area of trees and began planting seeds and growingFOR food. Farming made REVIEWit easier for Texas’s early people to settle ONLYin one place.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 64 The First Farmers in Texas The Caddo (KAH•doe) were the first true farmers and the most advanced group of Native Americans in Texas. They were part of a larger group of 25 tribes who shared the same language, traditions, and homeland around the Red River Valley of southern Oklahoma. In Texas, the Caddo lived along the Neches (NECH•iz) River in the Piney Woods area. The Caddo adapted by making good use of the resources in this part of Texas. They used the fertile soil along the river to grow crops of corn, sunflowers, and pumpkins. They learned to store their crops so they would have plenty of food during the winter or in times of drought. The wooded areas made it easy for the Caddo people to hide so they could hunt deer and other small animals. The Neches River supplied the Caddo with plenty of fish. Unlike the Paleo-Indians who lived before them, a steady supply of food gave the Caddo more time to build permanent villages and houses. The Caddo built large, grass-covered dwellings that looked likeSAMPLE giant beehives. Each house was able to hold several families at one time. The rooms of the houses were separated using curtains made of bison hide.

Caddo Government Both men and women held important leadership roles within the Caddo tribe. The high priest had the most power within the tribe, followed by chiefs and then workers. Religion was very important to the Caddo, who often Caddo Dwelling gathered at the temple in the main village. They worshipped the “Great Spirit Chief” and believed that plants, animals, and other natural objects had power to either helpFOR or hurt the tribe. Special REVIEW ceremonies were held in honor of theONLY wild animals they hunted or to celebrate the planting and harvesting of corn, their main crop.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 65 Texas’s Hunting Tribes Several groups of Native Americans followed herds of buffalo and elk into the Great Plains region of Texas. They included the Apache, Arapaho (uh•RAP•uh•hoe), Comanche (kuh•MAN•chee), Kiowa (KIE•uh•wuh), and Tonkawa (ton•COW•wah) peoples. Unlike the Caddo, who built large houses in permanent villages, these hunters carried their homes, or tepees (TEE•pees), on their backs. Tepees were cone-shaped dwellings made of poles and covered with animal skins. They were light enough to carry and easy to quickly set up and take down when the animals moved. The hunters used all parts of the animals they killed. The meat was eaten immediately or dried for later use. The skins were made into clothing or used to cover their tepees. The hooves were used for drinking cups. Even the rough tongues of the animals could be made into hair brushes. Native American Customs Each Native American group had different lifestyles and customs. The Apache tribe, for example, performed dances to honor the spirits that they believed lived in the hills of the Southwest. Tepee The Arapaho developed a sun dance, which lasted four days and involved fasting and piercing themselves with sharp objects. To fight a battle or perform a ceremony, the Comanche tribe wore colorful costumes and decorated themselves with leather, beads, and metal objects. The Kiowa people spoke a completely different language from the other hunting tribes and developed a type of sign language. Kiowa men cut their hair short on the right side and wore a long braid on the left side. Though they were SAMPLEdifferent in many ways, all of the hunting tribes wanted complete control over the hunting territories in Texas and the rest of the Great Plains. Fighting often broke out between the hunting groups. The Comanche tribe had horses. This gave the Comanche an advantage over other hunting groups. The Comanche people attacked other villages, destroyed homes, stole animals, and burned small farms. By the 1730s, the Comanche were known as the Lords of the Southern Plains.

•The Comanche tribe had both peace chiefs and war chiefs. The head peace-chief was the most powerful. Fast Facts • Leaders in the Comanche tribe were elected by the tribe’s members, much the same as we do in our system of government. Leaders were required to have special abilities and could only remain in power as long as their tribe members agreed that they deserved positions of leadership. FOR• Decisions REVIEW in the Comanche tribe were made by a council ONLY of chiefs, led by a head peace-chief. If the members of the tribe didn’t agree with the council’s decision, they could refuse to accept it.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 66 The Pueblo Tribes The Tigua (TEE•gwah) and Jumano were Native Americans in far west Texas who lived in small villages known as pueblos. In Spanish, the word “pueblos” means “towns.” There were many groups of Pueblo peoples living throughout the Southwest in the present- day states of Arizona and New Mexico. In 1680, a war between the Pueblo peoples and the Spanish colonists living in New Mexico forced the Tigua and Jumano east into Texas. All of the Pueblo tribes in the Southwest shared similar ways of living, even though they spoke different languages and had different customs. The Pueblo tribes were known for Pueblo Village building large apartment-style dwellings with many rooms in them. Some of these buildings were four or five stories high with hundreds of families living together. In large Pueblo villages, several smaller buildings were built around a large plaza or square. The plazas were used for religious ceremonies and other group activities. Homes in the Pueblo villages could be built out of the natural resources available in the area. Adobe bricks or rocks covered with a layer of mud to make them look like adobe bricks were used to build their dwellings. Like the Caddo, the Pueblo peoples were farmers who planted crops of corn, squash, beans, and cotton. The men hunted small mammals while the women and children collected wild berries and roots. Other Native Americans in Texas The Karankawa (cair•an•COW•wah) people lived along the Gulf Coast of Texas from Galveston Bay to Corpus Christi Bay. Living along the coastal waters provided the Karankawa people with plenty of fish, shellfish, and turtles. They also hunted with bows and arrows and gathered wild plants. The Karankawa peopleSAMPLE traveled in canoes that they carved from the trunks of large trees. Each canoe carried an entire family plus baskets, pottery, and wigwams that were large enough to hold seven or eight people. For safety, the Karankawa traveled in groups of 30 or 40 people. Their bodies were painted and they used a system of smoke signals to communicate with other groups about battles and special ceremonies. The Coahuiltecan (kwah•weel•TA•kan) people lived in south-central Texas where the climate was hot and dry. Life in this part of Texas was difficult for the Coahuiltecan people. The soil was too dry for farming, and only small animals like rabbits, birds, and insects could be found. To survive, the Coahuiltecan people lived on seeds, ant eggs, spiders, worms, dirt, and even rotten wood. Spanish Explorers BeginningFOR in the 1500s, life beganREVIEW to change for Texas’s Native Americans. ONLY Spanish explorers arrived and claimed all of the land in Texas for themselves. Disease, warfare, and starvation took the lives of thousands of Native Americans. You will soon learn about the Spanish-speaking intruders who took control and changed the lives of Texas’s first people.

You have just finished reading about Texas’s first Native Americans. Until the early 1500s, Native Americans were the only groups of people living in Texas. In fact, the only people living in all of North America were Native Americans. In the 1500s, things began to change for Texas’s native peoples. They were visited by people they had never seen before. These strange visitors were interested in making changes in the lives of Texas’s Native Americans. Who were these people and what did they want? To answer these questions, we must first travel back in time to the country of Mexico. The Aztec Empire In the 1500s, the Aztec people lived along the Gulf of Mexico, southeast of Texas’s Native Americans. The Aztecs were fearless warriors who created a huge empire that included many cities and towns. They built this empire by defeating other GULF OF MEXICO groups of people. The Aztecs took control of their AZTEC EMPIRE enemy’s land and forced them to pay yearly taxes. Warfare was considered a religious duty by the Aztecs. Prisoners taken during war were sacrificed to the gods. SAMPLE The Aztecs designed their own calendar, built large temples for religious ceremonies, and created beautiful sculptures. Aztec Farmers The Aztecs were farmers who practiced slash-and-burn agriculture. They made changes to the land by chopping down trees and burning a section of forest, then by planting crops in the clearing. The ashes from the burned trees fertilized the soil. Aztec farmers also dug canals to irrigate their crops. They turned shallow lakes into farmland by scooping up mud from the lake bottoms to form islands. TheFOR seeds were planted in REVIEWthe islands and mud was added regularly ONLY to water the crops.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 68 Hernando Cortés In 1519, a Spanish soldier named Hernando Cortés was sent from Cuba to the Gulf of Mexico. Cuba’s rulers wanted Cortés to explore the area known as Mexico, trade with the people found there, and bring slaves back to Cuba. He was given a few weapons, 16 horsemen, and 400 soldiers for his journey. When his ship landed in Mexico, Cortés disobeyed the instructions of Cuba’s rulers. He didn’t plan to explore, trade, or take slaves back to Cuba. Instead, he decided to take control of Mexico and set up an empire for himself. Cortés was able to easily recruit people who had been defeated by the Aztecs and were being forced to pay yearly taxes to them. By 1521, Cortés and his large army of volunteers had reached the capital of the Aztec Empire.

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SOUTH AMERICA Defeating the AztecsSAMPLE Cortés was greeted warmly by the Aztec emperor. He was given expensive gifts and even welcomed into the emperor’s home. The emperor had no idea what Cortés had planned. Cortés immediately took the emperor prisoner and demanded that the Aztecs pay a ransom for their emperor’s safe return. The Aztecs began gathering treasures to pay the ransom. Cortés’s plan fell apart after the emperor was struck in the head with a rock and died. After the death of their emperor, the Aztecs attacked Cortés and his army. Cortés fought back and formed a blockade around the entire city. The Aztecs were unable to get food or water. Thousands of Aztecs starved to death or died from disease. After the defeat, Cortés and his army destroyed the Aztec buildings and built Mexico City right on top of the ruins. Hernando Cortés became a wealthy man. More important, he helped expand the Spanish Empire into America by taking control of Mexico. The Spanish named their empire New Spain. FOR It wouldn’t be long beforeREVIEW the power of New Spain would be feltONLY by the Native Americans in Texas and the rest of the Southwest.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 69 Spanish Explorers in Texas In 1519, the same year that Hernando Cortés sailed to the Gulf of Mexico, Spanish explorer Alonso Alvarez Piñeda (pin•A•thuh) arrived in Texas. Piñeda discovered the Rio Grande and claimed the area for Spain. He made the first maps of the Gulf of Mexico. After Piñeda’s discoveries, New Spain was interested in attaining more wealth. From the Spanish capital in Mexico City, treasure seekers were sent out in every direction. The rulers of New Spain were eager to hear stories of land that could be conquered and treasures that could be found. Spanish explorer Álvar Núñez Cabeza (cah•VAY•thah) de Vaca offered such a story.

Cabeza de Vaca In 1528, Spanish explorer Cabeza de Vaca and a group of about 300 men were exploring the Florida coast when a storm completely destroyed their ship. Cabeza de Vaca and a small group of survivors used the wood from the wrecked ship to make rafts. A few months later, Cabeza de Vaca, an African slave, and two other Spaniards arrived half dead on the Texas coast near the present-day city of Galveston. In Texas, Native Americans of the Karankawa (cair•an•COW•wah) tribe took the four men captive and used them as slaves. After several years, the four men escaped. For the next eight years, Cabeza de Vaca and his men wandered through the American Southwest on foot. In 1535, they traveled through the present-day state of New Mexico. A year later, the group reached Mexico City in New Spain. Cabeza de Vaca Cabeza de Vaca and his men told wild stories about their adventures. They convinced the Spanish rulers and other Spanish explorers that the Seven Cities of Gold were locatedSAMPLE in present-day New Mexico. According to Cabeza de Vaca, even the streets in these cities were paved with gold.

ARIZONA NEW MEXICO

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©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 70 Francisco Coronado Francisco Coronado was born in Spain. By the age of 28, he was a governor in a province of New Spain. Governor Coronado listened anxiously to the stories Cabeza de Vaca told about the Seven Cities of Gold. In 1540, Coronado gathered an army of more than 1,000 people. The large army included Spanish soldiers, Native American slaves, and missionary priests. Coronado and his men traveled north from New Spain, through the Texas Panhandle, to the place in New Mexico that Cabeza de Vaca had described. Upon arrival, Coronado found Native Americans of the Zuni tribe living in the town. Coronado thought that the Zuni people were guarding the town’s golden treasures. Coronado commanded his army to attack. The Zuni people fought to defend their village. After a bloody battle, Coronado and his army defeated the Zuni people and took over the town. Francisco Coronado expected to find treasures of gold inside the Zuni village. He found no such thing. The Seven Cities of Gold turned out to be a hoax. Still, Coronado was sure Francisco Coronado that gold could be found in the Southwest. He set up a camp in northern New MexicoSAMPLE and sent small groups of men in search of gold.

•During his years as a slave, Cabeza de Vaca tricked the Native Americans into believing Fast Facts that he was a medicine man who could heal the sick. He performed minor surgery and claimed to cure the sick with magic. •After a few years, the Native Americans allowed Cabeza de Vaca to visit other tribes so he could perform his healing ceremonies. It was during one of these trips that Cabeza FOR REVIEW de Vaca and his men escaped. ONLY

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 71 Coronado’s Other Expeditions Spanish gold seekers led by Lopez de Cárdenas (CAR•the•nahs) were sent west all the way to the Colorado River on the border between California and Arizona. They were disappointed that they could not get to the Colorado River because it was at the bottom of a very deep canyon. Cárdenas and his group were the first explorers to see Arizona’s Grand Canyon. Hernando de Alverado was sent south and followed the Rio Grande through New Mexico where he saw great herds of buffalo. Coronado himself led anexpedition east through the present-day states of Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas. These explorers found thousands of Native Americans, but no gold. In 1542, Francisco Coronado returned to Mexico City in New Spain. He felt like a complete failure because he had not found any gold. We consider Coronado a success because he explored and made the first maps of the Southwest. He also claimed a large area of land for Spain.

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Robert La Salle While Spanish explorers traveled through Texas and the rest of the Southwest, French explorer Robert La Salle was busy exploring and claiming land for France in present- day Canada.FOR REVIEW ONLY In 1679, King Louis XIV of France gave La Salle permission to claim new land for France. La Salle left his home in Canada and sailed south, down the Mississippi River. He planned to build a French colony at the mouth of the Mississippi River.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 72 La Salle’s Expedition During his expedition, La Salle built forts and claimed all of the land around the Mississippi River for France. On April 6, 1682, La Salle and his men reached the Gulf of Mexico. A cross was planted in the ground. In honor of King Louis XIV, La Salle named the entire region Louisiana. From north to south, Louisiana extended from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico. East to west, it stretched from the Appalachian (ap•uh•LAY•shun) Mountains to the Rocky Mountains. Taking Control of Texas Spain believed that its explorers had claimed Texas, but the Spanish explorers had not built any permanent settlements in Texas. This was the most important part of claiming new land. Permanent settlements had to be built, and the settlers needed to defend their territory against others who might want to take it from them. Spain’s rulers feared that the French would travel to Texas and take control of the land in Texas for themselves. In 1682, Spain established Mission Corpus Christi near the present-day city of El Paso. This was the first permanent settlement in Texas. Mission Corpus Christi was a mission village built among the Tigua (TEE•gwah) people. Three years later, La Salle built a French settlement near the Gulf of Mexico. He named the colony Fort Saint Louis. Fortunately for Spain, the French settlement failed because of illness, poor leadership, and Native American attacks. In 1687, La Salle was killed by one of his own men. After hearing about the French settlement’s failure and La Salle’s death, the Spanish government made plans to take a firmer hold on its control of Texas.

LAKE SUPERIOR QUÉBEC LAKE M ONTREAL IS MICHIGAN M SI SS FORT IP GREEN P AKE FRONTENAC I BAY L R HURON IV FORT E R NIAGARA LAKE ONTARIO

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By the late 1600s, almost 100 years had passed since the first Spanish explorers entered Texas. In 1682, Mission Corpus Christi was established near the present-day city of El Paso. This permanent settlement helped strengthen Spain’s control over Texas. Still, the Spanish government knew that France wanted to claim Texas for itself. Although the first French settlement had failed and its leader Robert La Salle had been killed, it wouldn’t be long before the French government would send other explorers to try again.

Spain’s Plan for Texas Spain decided that the best way to take control of Texas was to build more permanent settlements. In 1690,Catholic priests established the second of Texas’s 26 mission villages near the town of Nacogdoches (nah•kuh•DOE•chiz). Spain’s leaders told the priests to teach Texas’s native peoples about the Catholic religion and prepare them for Spanish control. Spain’s rulers wanted the Native Americans in Texas to give up their native customs and become allies with Spain. The Spanish government hoped that the Native Americans would help fight if Spain ever went to war against another country. Building missions and training an army of Native Americans would give Spain a firm hold on Texas. SAMPLE Mission Villages In an effort to get Native Americans to come to the missions, the Spanish priests gave them gifts of glass beads, clothing, blankets, and food. The priests gained the trust of some of the Native Americans who agreed to move to the mission villages. Native Americans who were not willing to come to the missions were kidnapped by Spanish Priest Spanish soldiers. The soldiers treated the Native Americans badly, often beating them. Once they were inside the mission villages, the Native Americans were not allowed to leave without permission. The Native Americans helped build the mission villages. Each village was surrounded by high wallsFOR protected by one or twoREVIEW gates. The largest building in each villageONLY was the church. Other structures included houses, a school, farm buildings, a fort, and buildings with rooms that were used as workshops, sleeping areas, dining rooms, and kitchens.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 74 Mission Life Native American men were taught how to raise livestock and grow crops of corn, beans, squash, melons, cotton, and sugarcane. Other skills included leathertanning , brickmaking, blacksmithing, and construction. Women learned how to cook Spanish foods, sew, spin wool, and weave. The goal at the mission villages was to teach the Native Americans about Spanish customs and develop them into hardworking Spanish citizens. It was hoped that someday the Native Americans would be able to run the missions by themselves without help from the priests or the Spanish government. Religion classes were taught, and the Native Americans were expected to attend church services several times each day. The Native Americans learned to speak Spanish. They were not permitted to practice their native customs, speak their native languages, or celebrate their religious ceremonies. Native Americans who broke the rules or tried to escape from the missions were severely punished. The San Antonio Missions The most successful of the Spanish mission villages in Texas was a chain of five missions built along the San Antonio River from 1718 to 1731. These missions included San Antonio de Valero, also known as the famous Alamo. The next few lessons will teach you more about the Alamo and the important part it played during the Texas Revolution. The Coahuiltecans (kwah•weel•TA•kans) lived in the San Antonio missions. The Coahuiltecans were nomadic people who followed herds of animals. The men hunted bison and deer while the women and children gathered fruits, nuts, and wild berries. Fighting often brokeSAMPLE out between the Coahuiltecans and other tribes who entered their hunting and gathering territories. The Coahuiltecans were chosen for mission life because the Spanish The Alamo Mission priests felt they would be most willing to learn special skills and exchange hard work for plenty of food and protection. The five San Antonio missions developed into actual working towns with well built houses and irrigated farms. By the late 1700s, the Native American residents of the San Antonio missions were speaking Spanish, practicing the Catholic religion, and even marrying Spanish citizens. FOR REVIEW ONLY

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 75 Mexican Independence In the early 1800s, the Spanish Empire began having problems. The Mexican citizens who lived in New Spain wanted freedom from the Spanish government. They had grown PACIFIC tired of being ruled by a NORTHWEST (SHARED BY U.S. government that was thousands AND GREAT BRITAIN) of miles away. UNITED One by one, Spain’s STATES colonies fought for independence. In 1821, Mexico declared its independence from Spain. The Mexican MEXICO government took control of New Spain and all of its missions. The End of the Missions In 1834, the Mexican government closed the missions in Texas and the present-day states of New Mexico, Arizona, and California. Some of the land in each mission village was used for the town’s buildings and farm animals. Each Native American family was given a small piece of land. Most of the mission land was simply taken by the Mexican government. Many Native American families gave up farming and sold their plots of land to Mexican cattle and sheep ranchers for far less than the land was worth. The money ran out quickly. With no place to live, the Native Americans found themselves hungry, homeless, and unprotected. Many Native Americans wandered the streets begging for food, or they stole for survival. Others returned to work on the sameSAMPLE ranches that they had just sold. The Native Americans were given food and a place to sleep, but they were not paid any money for their hard work. Life had changed forever for Texas’s Native Americans.

• In 1748, José de Escandón founded the colony of Nuevo Santander, which extended from Mexico to the Guadalupe River in Texas. He became the first governor of the colony. Fast Facts • Because he was responsible for founding over 20 towns and several missions in the colony, José de Escandón is sometimes called the father of the lower Rio Grande valley. • Texas native Clara Driscoll was knows as Savior of the Alamo. When she found out that the Alamo was going to be turned into a hotel, she put up most of the money to purchase FOR the REVIEWhistoric landmark. She later donated $70,000 to preserveONLY the Alamo Mission. • When she died, Driscoll left most of her fortune to the Children’s Hospital in Corpus Christi.

You have already read about Spanish explorers in Texas and other areas in the West. Spain only controlled part of the land in America. France controlled the land along the western edge of the Mississippi River. Colonists from Great Britain controlled the land east of the Mississippi River. In 1776, while Spanish priests were busy building mission villages in Texas, the colonists east of the Mississippi River were fighting for freedom from Great Britain. On July 4, 1776, the colonists signed the Declaration of Independence, declaring themselves free of Great Britain’s control. The 13 original colonies renamed themselves the United States of America. The United States was growing very quickly and needed more land. France and Spain controlled the land that the United States needed. The Louisiana Purchase In 1803, France agreed to sell its land, known as the Louisiana Territory, to the United States. The sale of the Louisiana Territory became known as the Louisiana PACIFIC Purchase. The Louisiana Purchase NORTHWEST cost the United States 15 million dollars LOUISIANA and added 800,000 square miles of PURCHASE UNITED land to the United States. This almost SAMPLE STATES doubled the size of the United States and gave the United States control of the Mississippi River. SPANISH TERRITORY At only four cents per acre, the Louisiana Purchase was a good deal for the United States. The map on the left shows what the United States looked like back in the early 1800s. As you can see, Spain still controlled most of the land west of the Louisiana Purchase, including the area we now call Texas. When we look at a map of the United States today, we see that it is divided into 50 sections, or states.FOR If you have a mapREVIEW of the United States in your classroom, ONLY ask your teacher to pull it down for you so you can see that Texas is part of these 50 states. In the early 1800s, Texas was not even listed on the map. Have you ever wondered how Texas finally got to be part of the United States? To find the answer to this question, we need to go back to the 1800s.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. 77 Reproducible for classroom use only. Control of Texas By the early 1800s, Spain had controlled Texas for more than 100 years. Spanish priests and soldiers built 26 missions in Texas where Native Americans lived and worked. You have already read that the Mexican settlers in New Spain grew tired of being controlled by Spain. They weren’t permitted to make any decisions or laws without first getting permission from the king of Spain. Mexico declared its independence from Spain and the two sides went to war. Spain lost the war, and in 1821, the Mexican government took control of Texas. American Mountain Men Beginning in 1790, long before the Louisiana Purchase and Mexican control of Texas, settlers from the United States began traveling west into Spanish-owned territory. They were fur trappers and traders who wanted to explore the Rio Grande and search for valuable beaver to trap and skin. These people became known as mountain men. Beaver skins were very popular natural resources in the United States. The mountain men could earn a lot of money by hunting the beaver and taking the skins back to the United States. The beaver skins were used in the United States and Europe to make expensive beaver hats. The Life of a Mountain Man The life of a mountain man was difficult. To survive in the Beaver wilderness, mountain men had to look like Native Americans. They dressed, walked, and even wore their hair like Native Americans. They traveled through all kinds of weather and fought off wild animals and attacks from unfriendly Native Americans. Everything that a mountain man owned had to be carried with him. He traveled by horse and could only pack supplies that his horse could carry. One hand guided the horse while the other hand held a rifle. Gunpowder, a bullet pouch, an axe, a sharp knife, beaver traps, blankets, food, and cooking supplies were rolled up in a small bundle and strapped to the horse. SAMPLE Most of the beaver furs were taken back to the United States where they were sold and made into hats. A few of the furs were sold at trading posts so the mountain men could buy flour, salt, coffee, tobacco, and more trapping supplies.

• James Ohio Pattie was a trapper who traveled through the Southwest. During his daring journeys, he fought with Native Americans, Fast Facts was thrown into a Mexican jail, and even ate his own dog to keep from starving. • During the 1830s, mountain man Pauline Weaver traveled through the Southwest. He never learned to read or write, but Weaver was an FOR excellent REVIEW guide and scout for soldiers, explorers, and prospectorsONLY. Weaver was responsible for leading a group of gold seekers to the richest gold deposit ever found in Arizona.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 78 The Santa Fe Trail The route traveled by the mountain men became known as the Santa Fe Trail. The Santa Fe Trail was 800 miles long and started in Independence, Missouri. The trail snaked through Kansas and Colorado and ended in Santa Fe, New Mexico. From Santa Fe, the mountain men traveled up and down the Rio Grande and other nearby rivers to search for beaver. They were willing to brave harsh conditions and Native American attacks in order to explore, hunt, trap, and trade.

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SANTA FE TRAIL Stephen Fuller SAMPLEAustin Stephen F. Austin, known as the father of Texas, was born in Virginia on November 3, 1793. In 1798, the Austin family moved to southeastern Missouri. Moses Austin, Stephen’s father, founded the lead-mining town of Potosi. Five years later, 10-year-old Stephen was sent to school in Connecticut and then on to college in Lexington, Kentucky. When he returned to Potosi, Stephen took over the family business, which included a general store and the operation of the lead mine. Stephen also was active in the military and served as a member of the Missouri legislature. In 1820, Stephen moved to Louisiana to study law. At the same time, his father, Moses, was granted permission from the Spanish government to bring 300 Catholic families to Texas. Moses Austin died before he was able to carry out his plans. Stephen Austin made plans to complete his father’s task. A few months after his father’s death, Stephen Austin learned that Mexico had declared its independenceFOR from Spain. At first,REVIEW the Mexican government refused to ONLYhonor Moses Austin’s agreement with the Spanish government to bring Catholic families into Texas. Stephen Austin traveled to Mexico City and convinced the Mexican government to honor the agreement between his father and Spain.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 79 The Colony of Austin In 1822, Stephen Austin arrived in Texas with 300 Catholic families. They founded the Colony of Austin between the Brazos and Colorado rivers. Each Catholic family received 2,300 acres of land, for which it was required to pay twelve and a half cents per acre. Austin’s colony became known as the Old Three Hundred. In all, Stephen Austin was responsible for the settlement of more than 1,200 American families in Mexican-controlled Texas. Slavery in Texas Since the early 1500s, slavery had been a part of America. Huge ships traveled to Africa, where black men, women, and children were captured and taken to America. Once in America, they were sold as slaves to white farmers who forced them to work on their tobacco and cotton plantations. The slaves were the property of their owners, or masters. They were the entire labor force of the South, working in the fields from morning until night. It was because of slave labor that plantation owners became wealthy. Slaves were paid no money, fed little food, and given poor clothing. They were not allowed to go to school or learn to read or write. Their white masters could beat them at any time for any reason. If slaves had any children, they too belonged to their white masters. When Austin arrived in Texas with the first 300 Stephen F. Austin American families, these families brought their black slaves with them. They plannedSAMPLE to use their slaves to help them grow cotton in Texas. As other Americans arrived in Texas, they also brought their slaves. The Mexicans who lived in Texas were against slavery. They were angry with the Americans for bringing their slaves with them.

• Stephen Austin received 67,000 acres of land for every group of 200 families that he brought to Texas. Since he brought 1,200 new families to Texas, he was given Fast Facts more than 400,000 acres of free land from the Mexican government. • The Mexican government required Americans who wanted to settle in Texas to be Catholic and become Mexican citizens. Some Americans pretended to be Catholic just so they could get cheap land in Texas. • In 1824, Martín de León founded the city of Victoria. He brought 41 families to FOR his new colony, REVIEW becoming the only Mexican businessman in historyONLY given permission to establish a colony in Texas.

By the end of the 1820s, news had reached the United States that there was plenty of land and adventure west of the Mississippi River. The United States had become too crowded. Families wanted to own huge areas of land where they could build houses and farms. The stories of brave mountain men and the success of pioneers like Stephen F. Austin made Americans want to travel West.

The Republic of Fredonia (fri•DOHN•ya) By 1830, there were more than 20,000 Americans and 4,000 black slaves living in Mexican-controlled Texas. The Americans were tired of living by Mexico’s rules. Some of the Americans wanted to separate from Mexico and make their own rules and laws. They planned to form their own republic in Fredonia. In 1826, a small group of Americans in Texas rebelled. A gang of 30 American men captured the town of Nacogdoches (nah•kuh•DOE•chiz), declared the independence of the Republic of Fredonia, and threw the town’s mayor in prison. Mexican troops successfully fought back. The Republic of Fredonia failed. New Laws in Texas The Mexicans grew fearful that they were outnumbered by the Americans in Texas. The Mexican government made some new laws. Americans were no longer permitted to enter Texas. Those who alreadySAMPLE lived in Texas were not allowed to bring in any more slaves. In addition, American settlers were required to pay taxes to the Mexican government. In October, 1832, under the leadership of Austin, a group of American colonists in Texas wrote a letter to the Mexican government. They wanted the government to change the new laws. The Mexican government refused. Austin was sent to prison without a trial. Mexico sent General Antonio Lopéz de Santa Anna to Texas. General Santa Anna enforced the laws and made sure the AmericansFOR stayed loyal to REVIEWMexico. ONLY

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 81 The Texas Revolution The Americans in Texas rebelled against General Santa Anna and his rules. In 1835, Austin was released from prison. He returned to Texas and found the Americans ready to fight for freedom. A few months later, the Texas Revolution broke out. Austin took command of the Texas army, but resigned after a few months. He felt his time could be used more wisely by traveling to the United States to borrow money and supplies to fight the war. The Battle at the Alamo Early in the war, the Americans took control of the city of San Antonio. They turned the Alamo Mission into a military fort. The flag of Texas was proudly displayed high above the Alamo’s walls. General Santa Anna quickly sent Mexican troops to capture the Alamo and regain control of San Antonio. On February 23, 1836, more than 3,000 Mexican soldiers surrounded the Alamo. For 13 days, the Mexican troops blasted the Alamo with cannonballs. The thick adobe walls held firm. Inside the fort, 182 Texans were armed with rifles. They promised to Davy Crockett at the Alamo fight until victory or death. On March 6, the Mexicans’ cannon balls finally tore a hole in the side of the Alamo. Before the end of the day, all 182 men inside the old mission were dead. Mexican officers reported that the AmericansSAMPLE fought to the bitter end. Famous pioneer Davy Crockett reportedly died while standing on top of a mountain of dead Mexican soldiers that he had personally killed. He swung his rifle wildly and refused to die. Minutes later, Davy Crockett was dead.

• As General Santa Anna and his Mexican troops entered San Antonio, many Fast Facts Americans who lived in the area panicked and ran. In what became known as the Runaway Scrape, entire towns in Texas were left completely unprotected. • During the Runaway Scrape, Texans escaped to safety in Louisiana and Galveston Island. They took nothing with them and soon found themselves cold, hungry, and sick. Many of the runaways died trying to escape. FOR• When the survivorsREVIEW of the Runaway Scrape returned, they foundONLY that their homes had been completely destroyed in the battles.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 82 Texas’s Declaration of Independence On March 6, 1836, during the Battle at the Alamo, American leaders in Texas held a convention. They adopted a declaration of independence and declared themselves free of Mexico. Their declaration of independence was much like the one the 13 original colonies had written when they declared their independence from Great Britain. The Americans named their new nation the Republic of Texas. David Burnet was appointed president of the Republic of Texas. Sam Houston became the republic’s military commander. March 2, Texas Independence Day, continues to be an important holiday in Texas. Remembering the Alamo Declaring independence from Mexico did not end the war. General Santa Anna was more determined than ever to defeat the Americans and regain control of Texas. On March 27, in the town of Goliad, General Santa Anna ordered the execution of 400 Americans who had surrendered. The Americans were outraged at General Santa Anna’s cruelty. They knew then that they had to completely free themselves from Mexico’s strong hold. “Remember the Alamo” and “Remember Goliad” became the battle cries of Americans. They would never forget what the Mexicans had done to them. The Battle of San Jacinto (hah•SEEN•tow) General Sam Houston gathered a group of 900 men who were ready to fight for independence. He quickly chose strong leaders like future Republic of Texas presidents Maribeau Lamar and Anson Jones. Lamar was put in charge of the cavalry. Jones volunteered to fight on the front lines and later served as a doctor to the wounded soldiers. On April 20, 1836, Houston and his men reached the San Jacinto River, where they set up camp for the night. Just over the hill, General Santa Anna’s army of more than 1,200 Mexican soldiers watched and waited for Houston’s men to attack. When the attack didn’t come, Santa Anna allowedSAMPLE his men and even the soldiers who guarded the camp to sleep. General Houston and his men sprung into action. On the afternoon ofApril 21, 1836, Houston led a surprise attack on Santa Anna’s army. Sleepy Mexican soldiers ran around wildly trying to find their weapons. During the Battle of San Jacinto, 600 Mexican soldiers were killed, while only nine Texans lost their lives. General Santa Anna was captured during the attack and forced to surrender. Today, the San Jacinto Monument, the world’s tallest masonry column, welcomes visitors to the San Jacinto Battleground State Historic Site. The Treaty of Velasco The Texas Revolution ended with the Treaty of Velasco. The treaty was signed by General Santa Anna and Republic of Texas president David Burnet. In the Treaty of Velasco, General Santa Anna agreed to withdraw his troops. General Santa Anna promised never to attack TexasFOR again. He also promised REVIEW to give back everything he and his ONLYarmy had taken from Texas. Both sides agreed to release all prisoners. General Santa Anna was released from prison and permitted to return to Mexico. Texas had finally won its freedom as an independent republic. The Texas Revolution was over.

Texas History Lesson Six

On March 2, 1836, during the Texas Revolution, the American leaders in Texas declared their independence from Mexico and formed the Republic of Texas. On September 5, 1836, Sam Houston was rewarded for his leadership during the Texas Revolution when he was elected president of the Republic of Texas. Mirabeau Lamar was elected as vice president. President Houston and Vice President Lamar disagreed on many things. The two men developed a strong dislike for one another. In October, the First Texas Congress met. President Houston stressed the need for peace treaties with the Native Americans and for raising money for a military force that could defend the new republic against attacks from Mexico. Most important, Houston wanted Texas to become part of the United States. Problems in the Republic of Texas From the beginning, there were many problems in the Republic of Texas. Even though the Treaty of Velasco had been signed, Mexico refused to recognize Texas’s independence. Mexican raids were frequent in the new republic. The small nation also struggled with many financial difficulties. The Republic of Texas had borrowed money from the United States to fight the Texas Revolution.SAMPLE It had difficulty finding ways to pay the money back. REPUBLIC OF The Texas Revolution had destroyed roads, TEXAS communication systems, and homes throughout Texas. There was no regular mail delivery system and no money to fix any of these problems. Texas had plenty of farmland for growing crops and making money, but most of the land was inhabited by Native Americans. The Native Americans weren’t willing to give up their fertile land. Settlers were under constant attack by Native Americans, but the military was too weak to do anything about it.

Fast Facts • The Republic of Texas was so large it FOR REVIEW included the present-day state of Texas andONLY parts of New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming, Oklahoma, and Kansas.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 84 Taking Control of the Republic Over the next few years, many improvements were made in the Republic of Texas. Just like the United States and other countries had done, the Republic of Texas adopted a constitution and designed a flag. Developing a transportation system was important to the economy of the republic. A banking system was established. Money was loaned to companies that wanted to build roads and canals to connect the Rio Grande and Sabine rivers. An army of more than 3,000 men was organized to build trading posts to encourage trade between Texans and the Native Americans. President Houston did not want to anger the Native Americans. He sent leaders to have friendly talks with the Native Americans in an effort to get them to sign treaties and quietly give up their land. Vice President Lamar, on the other hand, believed that the Native Americans should be forced from their land. Land in the Republic of Texas was given to heads of families and single men as long as those men weren’t black or Native American. Veterans of the Texas Revolution were also given large plots of land to reward them for their military service. To raise money and encourage more settlers to live in the republic, land was offered at fifty cents an acre. In 1838, Lamar was elected president of the Republic of Texas. President Lamar wanted to make more economic progress in the republic. A year after he was elected, the capital was moved to the city of Austin, where government buildings, hotels, businesses, and houses were being built. President Lamar decided that the Republic of Texas was strong enough to stand on its own and didn’t need to become part of the United States. The Republic of Texas signed trade agreements with England and France. Native American Treaties All of the progress in the Republic of Texas did not change the fact that Native Americans were inhabiting land that Texans wanted. President Lamar made plans to remove the Native Americans. Some tribes signed treaties peacefully, but tribes who refused were forced fromSAMPLE their land. Soldiers removed the Shawnees, Alabamans, and Coushattas (koo•SHAH•tuhz) from their hunting grounds. The Alabamans and Coushattas were given land in East Texas. The Indian Territory In 1830, the Indian Territory had been created out of land in the present-day states of Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, and the Dakotas. Native Americans in the Southeast region of the United States had already been forced to give up their land and move to the Indian Territory. In Texas,FOR the Cherokee tribe REVIEWhad settled on fertile land along the Sabine ONLY River. The Cherokee tribe was not willing to give up its land without a fight. During the Battle of Neches (NECH•iz), the Cherokees were defeated and their chief was killed. After the battle, the Cherokees were driven from their land and forced to move to the Indian Territory.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 85 The Comanches (kuh•MAN•cheez) The Comanches were fierce warriors whose name means “enemy” or “anyone who wants to fight me all the time.” They rode across the Texas plains on horseback, raiding homes, burning entire settlements, and kidnapping women and children. They stole horses, mules, guns, food, and wagons full of American items being sent to stores. The Texans had tried several times to defeat the Comanches, but the Native Americans traveled in large groups and proved to be too powerful for the small groups of townspeople who came in contact with them. President Houston had tried to establish peace with the Comanches. His plan involved a trade agreement and a boundary line drawn between the Republic of Texas and the Comanche land. The Texas Congress refused to allow the boundary line to be drawn. President Lamar was not interested in a peace treaty with the Comanches. He wanted them out of Texas. Lamar was willing to go to war with them. A Day of Horrors After hearing that the Cherokees had been defeated and forced to move to the Indian Territory, the Comanches became interested in establishing peace with the Texans. On Comanche Warrior March 19, 1840, the Comanches sent a delegation of 65 Native Americans to San Antonio, Texas. The Comanches brought Matilda Lockhart with them. Lockhart was a whiteSAMPLE child who had been kidnapped during a Comanche raid. The Comanches wanted to trade her and 15 other white captives for American items like paint, gunpowder, and blankets. The American leaders not only refused to trade with the Comanches, they also told the delegation that they would hold five Comanche chiefs in jail until the rest of the American captives were safely returned. In what became known as A Day of Horrors, the Comanches immediately drew their arrows and began firing into the crowd. The soldiers returned fire with their rifles, instantly killing several Comanches and a few Americans. The Comanches ran from the building, chased by soldiers and American citizens. During the battle, a few Americans and Mexicans were killed or wounded. The Comanches lost 35 warriors, including 12 chiefs. The other 30 Comanches were taken as prisoners and thrown into the town’s jail. The Americans in Texas still wanted the Comanches to return the 15 people they had kidnapped duringFOR their raids. One REVIEW Comanche woman was sent to give the messageONLY to her tribe. The Texans promised that when she returned with the 15 captives, the Comanche prisoners would be released. When she reached the tribe and told the Comanches of the disaster, the Comanches killed the 15 American captives and made plans to go to war.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 86 The Battle of Plum Creek On August 12, 1840, Captain Matthew Caldwell and a group of 100 American soldiers were camped on the banks of Plum Creek. Earlier that day it had been reported that a large group of Comanches was approaching the area. The Comanches had just passed through the towns of Victoria and Linnville, where they had destroyed more settlements and killed 25 Texans. The Americans split into three groups and set out on horseback to find the Comanches. Along the trail, 100 more American soldiers joined the group. When they reached the Comanches in the open prairie, the Americans saw more than 400 Comanche warriors on horseback. Both sides fired shots. Several Comanche warriors were killed and a few American soldiers were wounded. The Comanches turned and ran, but the American soldiers chased them over the prairies for several miles. During the Battle of Plum Creek, about 40 Comanches were killed. Not one American soldier lost his life. The American soldiers captured horses, mules, and wagons full of American items that had been stolen by the Comanches during their raids on the towns of Victoria and Linnville. Weakened by the Battle of Plum Creek, the Comanches moved beyond the Red River. A few years later, the Comanches moved to two reservations in Texas. Many refused to live on the reservations and continued their raids and violent ways. Finally, in 1859, the Comanches were forced to leave Texas completely and move to the Indian Territory. Large areas of land in the Republic of Texas were opened for white settlers.

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©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 87 The Texas Rangers As the threat of Native American attacks decreased, more people agreed to settle in the Republic of Texas. About 7,000 people each year moved to Texas. In 1841, Sam Houston was once again elected president of the Republic of Texas. By 1847, more than 100,000 white Americans and Mexicans lived in Texas. There were also 40,000 black slaves in Texas. As new towns began to develop, store owners and supplies were needed. Schools and churches were built. Soon, doctors, nurses, lawyers, and teachers filled the towns. The population growth of the Republic of Texas made the need for law enforcement very important. Not everyone who came to the republic was interested in making Texas a safe place to live. Robberies, fights, and Native American raids were frequent. Cattle rustling, or stealing, kept cattle ranchers busy. Ranchers often took the law into their own hands, shooting cattle rustlers before they got the chance to steal. To defend Texas and keep order, Stephen Austin set up a special police force known as the Texas Rangers. The Texas Rangers protected ranchers Texas Ranger from Native American attacks, defended Texas’s borders against Mexican raids, and kept peace in Texas’s growing towns. For their efforts, the Texas Rangers earned $1.25 per day. They provided their own horses, food, and guns. Frank Homer, a Texas Ranger, was responsible for capturing Bonnie and Clyde, two of Texas’s most famous bankSAMPLE robbers. Today, more than 100 Texas Rangers continue to patrol the streets of Texas, solving serious crimes and protecting the governor. Although times have changed and cars have replaced horses, Texas Rangers are still required to carry saddles in their cars and wear a circled star badge just like the one originally carved from a silver dollar.

• The daily diet of a Texas Ranger included anything that could be made from flour, Fast Facts bacon, beef, sugar, salt, pepper, vinegar, potatoes, onions, and rice. • During the summer months, Rangers traveled all day on horseback and then FOR REVIEW slept in tents. During the winter, they built ONLY one-room log cabins large enough for five men to sleep in.

The Republic of Texas lasted nine years, from 1836 to 1845. During that time, it was an independent nation with an organized government, a constitution, and all of the problems that came with defending itself against Native American attacks and outside enemies like Mexico. From the very beginning, Sam Houston, the republic’s first and third president, wanted Texas to become part of the United States. President Houston pointed out that the United States had an army to protect Texas from Mexico and other countries that might want to take control of Texas. Texas’s economy could make more progress by selling and trading its cattle and farm crops with other states and countries.

Slavery in Texas The United States considered annexing Texas, but the republic’s financialdebts and struggles with Mexico made the United States government uncomfortable. In addition, Texas allowed slavery. There were many disagreements in the United States over the issue of slavery. The settlers who lived in the Southern part of the United States, including Texas, argued that they needed free slave labor to work on their cotton plantations. The settlers who lived in the SAMPLENorthern states felt it was wrong to own other human beings and force them to work without pay. The Northern states wanted slavery to end. President Anson Jones In 1844, Anson Jones was elected president of the Republic of Texas. Jones was a smart man who had already proven himself as a good leader. He was a doctor and a former Texas Revolution soldier. By 1845, the population of Texas had grown to more than 200,000 people. While waiting for the United States to offer annexation to Texas, President Jones made plans to sign another peace treaty with Mexico and become allies with Britain and France so Texas could finally become an independent nation. On FebruaryFOR 27, 1845, the UnitedREVIEW States Congress approved Texas’s annexationONLY to the Union. At the same time, Mexico agreed to a peace treaty, paving the way for Texas to become an independent nation. Many Texans did not want to become an independent nation. They wanted to join the United States.

Statehood On December 29, 1845, Texas became the twenty-eighth state to join the Union. Against the wishes of the Northern states, slavery was permitted in the new state of Texas. Before being removed from office, President Jones lowered the flag of the Republic of Texas and raised the flag of the United States. Texas’s Symbols A new state is responsible for designing a flag and choosing symbols to represent itself. Because Texas was once controlled by Spain TE OF and Mexico before becoming an independent nation, A many different seals had already been designed for T T S E Texas. Texas’s current seal has a five-pointed star X surrounded by an olive branch and a live oak branch. E A The olive branch stands for peace and the live oak

S branch represents strength. The state seal T is stamped on all government papers to make them official. Texans chose the mockingbird as their state bird, the bluebonnet as their state flower, and the pecan tree as their state tree. The name “Texas” came from the Caddo (KAH•doe) people. They were Native American farmers in Texas who called their groups of tribes the Tejas Bluebonnet (TAY•has) which means “those who are friends.” As a result, Texas’s motto is Friendship. Like the state seal, Texas has been represented by many different flags. In fact, six different flags have flown over Texas. They include the Spanish flag, French flag, Mexican flag, Republic of Texas flag, American flag,SAMPLE andConfederate flag. As an independent nation, the Texas Republic’s flag had only one “lone” star. This same flag represents Texas today and is the reason Texas has been nicknamed the Lone Star State. The blue stripe on the flag stands for loyalty, the red stripe for bravery, and the white stripe for purity. Texans are proud of their state and pledge allegiance to their flag by saying, “Honor the exasT flag; I pledge allegiance to thee, exas,T one and indivisible.”

• José Antonio Navarro was one of three Mexican signers of the Fast Facts Texas Declaration of Independence. He was in favor of Texas joining the United States. • Navarro went to the Convention of 1845, where Congress approved the annexation of Texas to the Union. He was the only FORHispanic REVIEW delegate at the convention. He helped write ONLY the state’s first constitution and was elected twice to the state senate. • Navarro County is named in honor of José Antonio Navarro.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 90 Conflicts with Mexico Shortly after Texas joined the Union, Mexico and the United States began arguing over boundaries, money, and land. The United States claimed that the border of Texas extended to the Rio Grande. Mexico argued that the boundary was actually 100 miles northeast, at the Nueces (noo•AY•sis) River. The United States government also wanted Mexico to pay for the damage in Texas from the Texas Revolution. In addition, the United States wanted more land. The United States offered to purchase that land, but Mexico refused to sell. It seemed that the only way to gain more land and settle the boundarydispute was to go to war. The Mexican War In 1846, the United States declared war on Mexico. Though Mexico was stronger and better prepared to fight the war, the United States had powerful leaders and better equipment. From 1846 to 1847, the United States won almost every battle fought. American armies, led by famous men like Colonel Stephen Kearney, Kit Carson, John C. Frémont, Captain Philip Cooke, and Pauline Weaver marched in and easily took over Santa Fe, California, Tucson, and other Mexican territories. A Plan for Peace Within a short time, Mexico had lost four times as many men in battle as the United States. In the spring of 1847, U.S. President James Polk sent Nicholas P. Trist Kit Carson and John C. Frémont to discuss a peace treaty withSAMPLE Mexico. President Polk hoped that this would end the war. The president of Mexico refused to talk about peace with the United States. The Mexican War continued. In August, the United States Army marched into Mexico City and captured Mexico’s capital. Mexico’s president stepped down from power and a new government took control in Mexico. The new leaders feared that if they didn’t sign the peace treaty with the United States, the war would continue and more Mexican land and lives would be lost. Fast Facts

U S • On July 1, 1847, the first stamps issued by the United States Post Office went on sale. Two different stamps could be purchased. FOR• For REVIEW letters traveling under 300 miles, the 5¢ stamp picturingONLY Benjamin Franklin was used. For letters traveling over 300 miles, the 10¢ stamp featuring George Washington was used. X X

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 91 The Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo On February 2, 1848, a peace treaty was signed between Mexico and the United States in the Mexican village of Guadalupe-Hidalgo. In this agreement, Mexico accepted the Rio Grande as the southwestern boundary of Texas. Mexico also gave the United States its entire region of New Mexico. This included the western half of Colorado, northern half of Arizona, and the land that one day became the states of California, Nevada, Utah, New Mexico, and Wyoming. In return, the United States paid Mexico 15 million dollars and agreed to settle all disagreements between the two countries. Mexicans who were already living in this area were permitted to remain and become United States citizens. After the Mexican War, Texas agreed toreduce its size. It sold some of its land in the present-day states of New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming, Oklahoma, and Kansas. The United States paid 10 million dollars to Texas for this land. Texas used some of this money to repay the United States for its financial help during the Texas Revolution.

N DE SAMPLE GADSDEN PURCHASE TREATY OF GUADALUPE-HIDALGO

The Gadsden Purchase In 1853, Mexico sold more land to the United States. This was known as the Gadsden Purchase. The United States paid Mexico 10 million dollars for 29,000 square miles of land. It included the southern half of Arizona and part of the present-day state of New Mexico. The boundaries ofFOR the United States were REVIEW complete. ONLY

In 1860, fifteen years after Texas was admitted as a slave state, the United States was ready to split apart over the issue of slavery. The Northern states had hundreds of factories with workers who were paid to make shoes, tools, weapons, and clothing. Northerners did not have any reason to own slaves. Texans and other Southerners owned huge cotton and tobacco plantations. They wanted to protect their profitable farming economy and cheap slave labor. Huge rewards were offered in the Southern states for runaway slaves. Laws were passed to punish abolitionists who helped slaves escape to freedom. Abolitionists did not let the fear of punishment stop them from doing what they felt was right. Books and magazines published articles about the cruel treatment of slaves. Antislavery groups were organized. Everyone feared that the United States was falling apart. Abraham Lincoln Every four years in our country, we elect a new president. In 1860, it was time for the citizens of the United States to choose a new leader. Everyone hoped that choosing the right person for president would hold the nation together. SAMPLEAbraham Lincoln stood out as the country’s favorite. Lincoln was not an abolitionist, but he did want to stop the spread of slavery into new states and territories. He promised to keep the United States from splitting into two pieces. Texas and the other Southern states feared that a vote for Lincoln would end slavery and their Southern way of life. The Southern states promised to secede from the Union if Lincoln was elected as president of the United States. On November 6, 1860, Lincoln became the sixteenth Abraham Lincoln president of the United States. As promised, the Southern states made plans to separate from the Union. They wanted to formFOR their own nation whereREVIEW slavery was legal and states could makeONLY their own decisions.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 93 Joining the Confederacy The Southern states separated from the United States and formed a new nation. They called themselves the Confederate States of America. The Confederacy chose Jefferson Davis from Mississippi to be its president. Delegates from Texas met to discuss how Texas would handle the slavery issue. Governor Sam Houston was against breaking away from the United States. He believed that leaving the United States and setting up a new government would cause war. The delegates did not listen to Governor Houston. On February 1, 1861, Texas voted to secede from the Union and join the Confederacy. The Civil War President Lincoln was outraged that Texas and the other Southern states had split from the United States. He was willing to fight to put the United States back together and outlaw slavery. On April 12, 1861, a few months after Texas seceded from the Union, the first shots of the Civil War were fired. Texans Join the Fight Few battles were fought in Texas during the Civil War, but more than 70,000 of Texas’s men joined the Confederate Army. They left their families at home to struggle with hostile Mexicans and Native Americans who raided farms and towns while the men were off fighting the Civil War. Jefferson Davis Texas also supplied the Confederate Army with beef, farm crops, cotton, and other valuable supplies. Not everyone in Texas was in favor of slavery. About 2,000 men SAMPLEjoined the Union Army and fought to abolish slavery. Reconstruction In 1865, the Civil War ended. Slavery was abolished and the United States began picking up the pieces from the war. This period in history is known as Reconstruction because it involved reconstructing, or putting back together, the United States. During Reconstruction, Texas and the other Southern states had to make changes before they could rejoin the Union. To begin, they had to free their slaves. On June 19, 1865, the black slaves in Texas received news that they were finally free.

Fast Facts • On June 19, 1865, slaves all over the United States were told of their freedom. That day, which became known as

FOR Juneteenth, REVIEW is a celebration of freedom. Although JuneteenthONLY started in Galveston, Texas, the celebration has spread to many other states around the country. In Texas, Juneteenth is a state holiday.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 94 Rejoining the Union Reconstruction also required Texas to grant blacks the same freedoms and protections as whites. Texas wanted to be part of the United States again, but it was not willing to allow its black citizens complete freedom. Union troops were sent to Texas to keep peace. Leaders from the Union took control of the state government in Texas. By 1868, all of the Confederate states except Texas, Mississippi, and Virginia had made the changes required to rejoin the United States. These last three states had waited so long to follow the rules that they were also required to give black men the right to vote in their states before they could become part of the United States again. It took five long years, and three presidents, but Texas finally freed its slaves, granted black citizens the same freedoms and protections as white citizens, and gave black men the right to vote. In 1870, Texas was readmitted to the Union. Native American Conflicts While Civil War battles were raging in the North and South, Native Americans were taking the opportunity to regain control over the southern plains of Texas. Finally, in 1867, the Medicine Lodge Treaty was signed between the United States government and the Comanche, Kiowa, Southern Cheyenne, and Arapaho tribes. In 1869, Ulysses S. Grant became the eighteenth president of the United States. Grant had already proven himself as a leader when he led the Union to victory during the Civil War. Under Grant’s peace policy, the government promised to provide the tribes with housing, food, and guns for hunting. They wereSAMPLE also offered education and training to become farmers. The Native Americans were told that they could hunt buffalo in the Texas Panhandle. In exchange, the Native Americans agreed to live on reservations in Indian Territory and stop their attacks and raids on white settlements. Living on reservations was difficult for the Native Ulysses S. Grant Americans. They were used to roaming the plains. The supplies and food promised by the government didn’t always arrive on time. In addition, progress was being made in the United States that negatively affected the Native Americans. NewlyFOR laid railroad tracks broughtREVIEW American buffalo hunters to the ONLYarea. The buffalo hunters entered the Texas Panhandle. This was the area that the Native Americans believed had been reserved for them. The white hunters killed the animals for their skins and left the meat to rot on the plains. The Native Americans’ main source of food was disappearing.

The Attack at Adobe Walls The Native Americans were starving and saw war as their only option. They made plans to attack and destroy a new settlement of buffalo hunters Adobeat Walls, near the Canadian River. In the early morning hours of June 27, 1874, hundreds of Native Americans, led by Comanche chief Quanah Parker, attacked the settlement at Adobe Walls. Although the 28 hunters at Adobe Walls were greatly outnumbered, they were well armed with long-range rifles. After five days, three white hunters and more than 70 Native Americans were dead. Fearing total defeat, the Native Americans left the area. The Red River War After hearing news of the attack at Adobe Walls, the United States Army sprang into action. Plans were made to permanently remove the Native Americans from the Texas Panhandle and open the region to white settlers. For the next ten months, the United States Army wagedSAMPLE war on the Native Americans, attacking their villages, killing their horses, and burning their houses to the ground. On April 28, 1875, more than 70 Native American chiefs were captured and sent to prison in Florida. One by one, the Native Americans surrendered and returned to their reservations. With the buffalo gone and the Native Americans now living on reservations, the Texas Panhandle was opened to white settlers.

Fast Facts • The Red River War was actually the second battle fought at Adobe Walls. The first was in 1864, when famous mountain man Kit Carson and his troops attacked and burned the village of a Kiowa chief. In the end, Colonel Carson and his men were FOR forcedREVIEW to withdraw from Adobe Walls without a victory.ONLY

Texas became a state on December 29, 1845. Fifty-eight years before Texas’s statehood, delegates from twelve of the thirteen original states attended theConstitutional Convention in Philadelphia. They met to write the United States Constitution. Learning about this plan for state and national governments will help you to better understand how Texas’s government works.

The Constitutional Convention There were 55 men in attendance at the Constitutional Convention. Most of the men were lawyers, bankers, wealthy landowners, or men who already had experience in government. Many of the delegates had fought in the Revolutionary War. They included famous men like Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and George Washington. The oldest delegate, Benjamin Franklin, was 81 years old. George Washington was elected to be in charge of the Constitutional Convention. He established three rules. SAMPLE The first rule was that each of the 12 states present would have one vote. The second rule stated that it would take at least seven states to agree on something before it could be part of the Constitution. Washington’s third rule required that everything at the meeting be kept secret. Benjamin Franklin The Father of the Constitution James Madison came to the Constitutional Convention prepared with a plan for uniting the country. His plan created a strong federal government. He took notes about everything that happened during the Constitutional Convention. Madison is often called the father of the Constitution.FOR It was Madison’s plan REVIEW that guided the writing of the United StatesONLY Constitution.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 97 James Madison’s Plan Madison’s plan divided powers between the federal and state governments. The federal government would be in charge of making and enforcing laws that affected the entire nation. This included printing money, controlling trade, declaring war, and keeping peace. The state governments would have the power to make and enforce laws that affected their states. State laws could not interfere with federal laws. For example, if the federal government declared war and required men to volunteer for the United States Army and Navy, the state governments could not pass laws that permitted men not to volunteer. The states could raise taxes to pay for things needed in the state. The states would also be responsible for building public schools. Three Branches of Government Madison’s plan clearly outlined the rules for state and federal governments. All state and federal governments would be divided into three equal branches, or parts. This would give the United States a powerful federal government, but no part of the government would have all of the power. The three branches of government would be known as the legislative, executive, and judicial (joo•DIH•shul) branches. James MadisonSAMPLE The legislative branch would be the part of the government that would make the laws. Congress would be in charge of the legislative branch. It would be Congress’s job to make the laws for the country and raise money for the federal government. The executive branch would be in charge of carrying out the laws and running the country. The president would be in charge of the executive branch. The judicial branch would make sure the laws were followed. The Supreme Court would be in charge of the judicial branch.

Fast Facts • Only 12 of the 13 original states sent delegates to the FOR ConstitutionalREVIEW Convention. Rhode Island refused ONLYto send delegates because it did not want the federal government to interfere in states’ rights.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 98 A System of Checks and Balances Each of the three branches of the federal government would need to use its powers to check and balance the other two branches. Balance in the three branches of government was important so that one branch didn’t become too powerful. For example, if the executive branch, run by the president, did something wrong, the judicial branch, run by the Supreme Court, could stop the president. If the president abused his power, the judicial branch could even remove the president from office. Another example of this balance required that all laws passed by the legislative branch be approved by the executive branch. This was important if the legislative branch, run by Congress, passed a law that the executive branch disagreed with. In that case, the president could veto the law and refuse to approve it.

The Preamble (pre•AM•bul) The United States Constitution also included the goals of the United States. These goals were listed in the first part, or the preamble, of the United States Constitution. The preamble stated that it was important to establish a strong government that would unite the nation and guarantee peace and justice. Other goals listed in the preamble included defending the nation against enemies, promising the safety and well-being of all people, and making sure that everyone in the nation would always be free. Ratifying the Constitution The representatives of the Constitutional Convention worked the entire summer on the United States Constitution. On September 17, 1787, the United States Constitution was signed by 39 members of the Constitutional Congress. It was then sent to the 13 original states for approval. The rules stated that nine of the thirteen states needed to approve the United States Constitution before it could become law. On December 7, Delaware became the first state to ratify the United States Constitution. Pennsylvania and New Jersey followed a week later. By the second week of January, 1788, Georgia and Connecticut hadSAMPLE joined them. On June 21, 1788, New Hampshire became the ninth state to approve the Constitution. The United States Constitution had enough votes to become law. By the end of the summer, New York and Virginia had ratified the United States Constitution. It took another year before the last two states, North Carolina and Rhode Island, finally approved the Constitution. All 13 original states had accepted the “supreme law of the land.”

•At age 81, Benjamin Franklin was the oldest delegate at the Fast Facts Constitutional Convention. George Washington was the only delegate who did not go to college. • The United States Constitution is four pages long with over FOR 4,000REVIEW hand-written words. There are many spelling ONLY and grammar mistakes in the hand-written copy of the Constitution.

In 1789, George Washington became the first president of the United States. During his presidency, our nation went through many changes. The biggest change involved the newly written Constitution. The United States Constitution had been in effect for less than a eary when Washington became president. There were already changes to be made. The citizens of the United States were afraid that a strong government would take away their rights. The people wanted the United States Constitution to clearly list these rights so that they would be protected from a government that became too powerful. The Bill of Rights On June 8, 1789, the first Congress under President Washington met in New York City. Guided by James Madison, Congress wrote the first tenamendments to the United States Constitution. These amendments are known as the Bill of Rights. The changes to the United States Constitution clearly list certain freedoms that the federal and state governments cannot take away. The FirstSAMPLE Amendment includes freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and freedom for people to gather peacefully and worship as they please. The Second Amendment includes the right to have and carry weapons. Limiting the Government The Bill of Rights also limits the power of the government over people. The Third Amendment guarantees that citizens will not be forced to keep soldiers in their homes during times of peace like they had been forced to do before the Revolutionary War. Under the Fourth Amendment, the police cannot President George Washington search a person’sFOR home or take property REVIEW without a warrant. ONLY A warrant can only be issued by a judge. Before a judge can issue a warrant for a search, the police must present facts to prove that a crime has actually been committed.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 100 Protection for the People The first ten amendments also include rights for people who are accused of a crime. The Fifth Amendment states that a person accused of a crime does not have to testify against himself (or herself). If found innocent of a crime, the Fifth Amendment guarantees that the accused person cannot be tried again for that same crime. The FifthAmendment also stops the government from taking a person’s property and using it for public purposes unless the government pays for the property. The Sixth Amendment states that people who are arrested have the right to be told for what crime they are being blamed. Further, anyone accused of a crime is guaranteed a speedy and public trial with a jury. The accused person also has the right to have a lawyer to help defend him or her. The Seventh Amendment guarantees a jury trial for someone who is being sued for money. The Eighth Amendment states that bail for an accused person has to reasonable. And if found guilty, the punishment for the crime cannot be cruel and unusual. More Room for Change The Ninth and Tenth amendments of the Bill of Rights are especially important. They speak of the biggest fear of all people in the United States. Throughout the entire process of writing and approving the United States Constitution, the people were afraid of a federal government that would become too powerful. They didn’t want to be treated unfairly the way Great Britain had treated them. The Ninth Amendment states that people have other rights than those listed in the United States Constitution. The Tenth Amendment guarantees that powers not granted to the federal government will be given to the state governments or to the people. These two amendments let us know that the United States Constitution is not finished. For this reason, the Constitution is known as a living document. When the Constitution was written, the United States was a new country that would go through many changes. As other rights and freedoms need to be added,SAMPLE Congress will have to write amendments for them.

• The First Amendment is considered to be the most important. It protects our freedom of religion, speech, and the right to gather and ask our government to make changes to laws. • Every year, students who attend public schools in Texas celebrate Freedom Fast Facts Week. During Freedom Week, students study the Declaration of Independence and the United States Constitution. • Students recite this important statement of freedom from the Declaration of Independence:

“We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; FOR thatREVIEW to secure these rights, governments are instituted ONLY among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed....”

It takes many people to make sure that a state runs smoothly and that everyone gets the protection he or she deserves. Imagine what Texas must have been like in the early days. The first American settlers traveled along the Santa Fe Trail, bought cheap land, and started mining, farming, and ranching. The pioneers could do pretty much as they pleased. As more people entered Texas, they also claimed land and built settlements wherever they wanted. There was no weekly trash collection. People threw their garbage into the streets and the rivers. Robberies, fights, and Native American raids were frequent. When arguments broke out, they were settled with fists and guns. The biggest and meanest people usually got what they wanted. There were no rules in place, so people took things that didn’t belong to them. Nobody felt safe. Fortunately, things have changed in the Lone Star State. Just like in all other states, there are people in Texas who make the laws, people who make sure the laws are obeyed, and others who take care of law breakers and punish them. These people are all part of Texas’s government. Texas’s Constitution In 1836, the Republic of Texas wrote and adopted the first of many constitutions used throughout Texas’s history. Texas’s present constitution was written in 1876. Like the other 49 E O states in the Union, the stateSAMPLE constitution outlines AT F the way the state’s government will be run. T T S E Although it has never been completely X rewritten since 1876, the constitution has been E amended, or changed, more than 350 times. Once A

the legislature has approved a constitutional S amendment, it must be voted on by the citizens. T A majority of the voters must approve the amendment before it can take effect. Some of the most important amendments to Texas’s constitution include giving citizens the right to suggest or change laws through the voting process; grantingFOR women, blacks, andREVIEW Native Americans the right to vote; andONLY establishing a public school system that is paid for by the taxes people pay on the property they own.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 102 Texas’s State Government The state government makes laws for the whole state of Texas. The head of the state government is the governor. Texas’s governor is elected by the people once every four years. Because of an amendment passed in 1974, governors in Texas may be elected to serve the people for an unlimited number of four-year terms. The governor has many men and women to help make and enforce the laws of the state. Austin is the capital of Texas. The capital city is the central place of government for the state. The governor and all of the state leaders have their offices in the capital city. Many important decisions for Texas are made in Austin. Texas’s Capitol Texas has the largest capitol building of any state in the Union. It is even taller than the United States Capitol building in Washington, D.C. It took three years to build Texas’s capitol building. It is made of pink Texas granite, stands more than 300 feet tall, and is 566 feet long. On top of the capitol building’s round iron dome stands a statue called the Goddess of Liberty. Inside the capitol are life-size statues of Stephen F. Austin, the father of Texas, and Sam Houston, the Republic of Texas’s first president. Three Branches of Government Texas was the twenty-eighth state to join the United States. Twenty-seven other states had already set the standard for the way Texas’sSAMPLE government would be Stephen F. Austin run. You have already learned that 58 years before Texas became a state, the United States Constitution was written. The United States Constitution clearly outlined the rules for federal and state governments. All state governments in the United States, including Texas’s, are divided into three branches. These branches of government are the legislative, executive, and judicial (joo•DIH•shul) branches.

• Stephen F. Austin is known as the father of Texas. In 1822, Austin brought the first 300 American families and their black slaves to Mexican-controlled Texas. Fast Facts The Colony of Austin was founded between the Brazos and Colorado rivers. In all, Austin was responsible for the settlement of more than 1,200 American families in Texas. FOR• Texas native REVIEWGreg Abbott was sworn in as the governor of exasT ONLY on January 20, 2015. Before running for the office of governor, Abbott had proven he was a strong leader as Texas’s attorney general and a Texas Supreme Court justice.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 103 The Legislative Branch The legislative branch is the part of the government that makes the laws. The legislature in Texas has two parts, the House of Representatives and the Senate. Texans vote for the people in the House of Representatives and the Senate. There are 150 representatives who are elected to serve two-year terms, and 31 senators who are elected to serve four-year terms. These 181 legislators are chosen by the people to make laws for the state of Texas. They meet for about five months every other year to discuss the state’s budget, education, and crime, and how to make Texas a better place to live. Like the governor, Texas’s legislators can be elected to an unlimited number of terms. During their terms in Texas’s state government, the representatives and senators discuss new laws for the state. Citizens can also contact the legislators by phone, mail, e-mail, or in person to suggest new laws. The legislative branch is also responsible for deciding how to pay for schools or build new roads. Legislators create a budget for running all of the programs and services the state of Texas needs. Legislators must be excellent listeners who are able to make good choices for the citizens they represent. All laws start as bills in the legislature. To become a law, a bill must be voted on and win a majority of votes in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. As a final step, the approved bill must be signed into law by the governor. The Executive Branch The executive branch is responsible for carrying out the laws and running the state. In addition, the executive branch discusses the state’s budget to decide how much money the state will spend each year. If, for example, the legislative branch voted to build a new park in your neighborhood, the executive branch would make sure that the money to build the park was in the next budget. The governor is in charge of the executive branch. Having confidence, being a good communicator, and taking responsibility for one’s actions are important leadership skills that a governor must have. Since the governor can’t do everything in a state as large as Texas, he or she must have hundredsSAMPLE of people to help run the state. Some of these people are elected by the people and include the lieutenant governor, the attorney general, and the comptroller. Other members of the executive staff, like thesecretary of state, are chosen by the governor. The governor communicates with the House of Representatives and Senate by telling the legislators the types of laws he or she would like to see passed. The representatives and senators listen to the governor, but they do not have to do everything the governor wants. Their first responsibility is to the citizens of Texas who voted for them.

• In 1966, Barbara Jordan became the first African American woman elected to the Texas Senate. She went on to Fast Facts serve in the United States House of Representatives. When she died in 1996, she was buried at the Texas State Cemetery, an honor reserved only for Texas’s heroes. • Lyndon B. Johnson, born near the city of Stonewall, Texas, FOR becameREVIEW the president of the United States just hours ONLY after President John F. Kennedy was assassinated. President Johnson completed Kennedy’s term and was elected again in 1964.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 104 The Judicial Branch The third branch of Texas’s state government is the judicial branch. The judicial branch makes sure the laws are followed. The judicial branch is responsible for enforcing traffic laws, punishing criminals, operating the state’s jails and prisons, and protecting the civil rights of Texas’s citizens. Remember the park that the legislative branch voted to build in your neighborhood? The land was purchased and the park was built. Visitors to the park are not following the rules. They are fishing in the park’s lakes and staying in the park after dark. The judicial branch would make sure that these lawbreakers are warned, and if necessary, punished. The judicial branch is in charge of the state’s court system. Civil and criminal cases are the two kinds of cases handled in Texas’s court system. A civil case might involve one person suing another person over an auto accident. A divorce is another example of a civil case. A criminal case results when a person is accused of breaking a law. Texas is different from most states because it has two Supreme Courts: the Court of Criminal Appeals and the Supreme Court of Texas. The Court of Criminal Appeals deals with criminal cases. The Supreme Court of Texas deals with civil cases and juveniles. There are nine judges who are in charge of making decisions on each of Texas’s Supreme Courts. The Supreme Courts are the highest and most powerful courts in the judicial branch. If a decision is made in one of Texas’s lower courts that a person feels is unfair, he or she can appeal to a higher court. Some cases go all the way to one of Texas’s Supreme Courts. The decisions of the Supreme Courts are final. A System of Checks and Balances When you read about the United States Constitution, you learned that each of the three branches of the state government uses its powers to check and balance the other two branches. Remember, balance in the three branches of government isSAMPLE important so that one branch doesn’t become too powerful. Let’s talk about that park again. If the legislative branch voted to build the park in your neighborhood, but the executive branch wanted to use that land for something else, the governor could use his or her veto power and refuse to approve the park. The House of Representatives and the Senate could vote on the park again. If two-thirds of the representatives and senators agree, the park could be built without the governor’s signature. Texas’s Counties The governor is the head of the state, but he or she cannot be everywhere. For this reason, Texas has been divided into 254 smaller sections, or counties. Each county is run by a county judge and four commissioners. These people are elected by the citizens of the county. County governments are in charge of running the schools, public hospitals, libraries, jails, and parks withinFOR their counties. County REVIEW sheriffs are responsible for law enforcement. ONLY There are many cities and towns within each of Texas’s counties. Most cities and towns elect a mayor or city manager and a group of people to serve on the city council. These people help make the county’s cities and towns run smoothly.

When was the last time you thought about what it means to live in America and be a citizen of the United States? If you have ever studied about or visited other countries, then you have thought about this question before. You may have seen children who weren’t allowed or were too poor to go to school. Maybe you saw garbage in the streets or roads that were too rough to travel. Perhaps you have read about soldiers in other countries who stand guard with guns to make sure that everyone does as he or she is told.

Freedom Is Never Free In the United States, everyone is guaranteed a free public education through twelfth grade. Your family is free to travel wherever it wants, buy whatever it needs, go to church wherever it pleases, and speak without fear of being put in prison. Many children who live in other countries do not enjoy these same freedoms. The freedoms that we enjoy do not come without a price. Freedom is never free. Many wars have been fought. Thousands of soldiers have died fighting for our rights and freedoms. Great men and women have spent their entire lives to make sure the next generation of children and adults enjoys these same freedoms. It is our responsibilitySAMPLE to be good citizens and treat our freedom like a precious gift. United States Citizens Living in the United States does not automatically make someone a United States citizen. Residents of the United States can be aliens, nationals, or citizens. Aliens are people who enter the United States legally from another country. Aliens have some of the same freedoms and legal rights as United States citizens, but they cannot vote in elections or become leaders in government. Nationals are people who were born in United States territories like the Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, or Guam. Nationals have all of the same freedoms and legal rights as United States citizens. UnitedFOR States citizens are peopleREVIEW who were born in the United States. ONLY If you were born in another country, but your parents are United States citizens, then you are also a United States citizen.

Becoming a Good Citizen As Americans, we have a responsibility to become good citizens. Even though you are young, you can start doing things right now that will help you become a better citizen as an adult. Good citizens volunteer their time to help others. Helping a younger child with homework or lending a hand to someone who is elderly or disabled are good ways to volunteer and show how proud you are to be an American citizen. Good citizens accept others no matter the color of their skin. Our country is made of many different types of people. The United States is great because so many people came together and made it a wonderful place to live. Making good use of our natural resources is another way to practice being a good citizen. Recycling paper saves trees. Recycling also keeps our landfill areas from becoming too full. Water is a very precious resource in Texas. Using water wisely is a characteristic of a good citizen. The next time you leave a room, turn off the lights toconserve energy, another of our limited resources. Walking to school or taking the bus to the mall are great ways to save fuel. Getting Involved in Government Government officials at the national, state, county, and city levels are elected by the people. This means that we have a responsibility to learn about who is running for office and then cast our votes on election day. What would happen if nobody voted? We would be without a president, a governor, a sheriff, and all of the other important people who make sure that our nation and our state run smoothly. Without voters to elect government officials, our country’s borders would not be protected. Laws would not be made or enforced. Criminals would go unpunished. Schools and libraries would close. Parks and streets would be cluttered with garbage. There would be nobody to pay the police officers who keep us safe or the teachers who help us learn. As Americans, it is the responsibility of everyone 18 years and older to get involved in government and vote. The Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution states that anyone accused of committing a crime is SAMPLEguaranteed a speedy trial by ajury . The jury is chosen of regular citizens who are old enough to vote. If you are ever asked to be on a jury, it is your responsibility to get involved and report to jury duty. You can also get involved in government by suggesting new laws to your state legislators. Report people who you see breaking the law. Help someone get elected to a government office or run for office yourself someday.

• People not born in the United States who want to become United States citizens must: Fast Facts – enter the United States legally. – spend five years living as a good citizen in the United States. – study United States history and accept the United States Constitution. – learn to read, write, and speak English. FOR – take a test REVIEWto demonstrate an understanding of our system ofONLY government. • As soon as they are granted citizenship, they may enjoy all rights and freedoms of other United States citizens. They may not, however, become president or vice president of the United States.

If you had visited Texas before the arrival of Spanish and French explorers, you would have found thousands of Native Americans living in Texas’s deserts, mountains, forests, and coastal areas. Native Americans were once the only people living in Texas. The hunters wandered across Texas in search of mammoths and bison. They gathered nuts, berries, grains, and roots along the way. As the climate of Texas became drier and hotter, the large wild animals moved to cooler climates. Texas’s first people adapted by hunting smaller animals and by planting seeds for growing food. Farming made it easier for Texas’s first people to settle in one place. Texas’s Early Native Americans The Caddo were the first farmers and the most advanced group of Native Americans in Texas. The Caddo built large grass-covered dwellings that looked like giant beehives. They used the fertile soil along the Neches (NECH•iz) River to grow crops of corn, sunflowers, and pumpkins. The Tigua (TEE•gwah) and Jumano

lived in far west Texas in small villages known CADDO as pueblos. Pueblo tribes SAMPLEwere known for building large TIGUA AND JUMANO apartment-style dwellings with many rooms in them. Some of KARANKAWA

these buildings were four or five stories high with hundreds of COAHUILTECAN families living together. HUNTING TRIBES The Karankawa (cair•an•COW•wah) people lived along the Gulf Coast of Texas from Galveston Bay to Corpus Christi Bay. The Karankawa traveled in canoes that they carved from the trunks of large trees. They fished for turtles, crabs, and oysters in the coastal waters, hunted deer with bows and arrows, and gathered wild plants. The Coahuiltecan (kwah•weel•TA•kan) lived in south-central Texas where the climate was hot and dry. The soil was too dry for farming. To survive, the Coahuiltecan lived on seeds, ant eggs, spiders, worms, dirt, and even rotten wood. SeveralFOR groups of Native Americans REVIEW followed herds of buffalo and elkONLY into the Great Plains region of Texas. These hunters carried their tepees (TEE•pees) on their backs. Tepees were cone-shaped dwellings made of poles and covered with animal skins. Tepees were light enough to carry and easy to quickly set up and take down when the animals moved.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 108 Spanish Missions In the late 1600s, Spanish priests entered Texas. They built a string of 26 mission villages in Texas to give Spain greater control over the area. Spain’s leaders hoped that the Native Americans would become Spain’s allies and help defend Texas if it was ever attacked by another country. Thousands of Native Americans were captured by Spanish soldiers and forced to live and work at the missions. Mission life was very difficult for many of Texas’s Native Americans. They weren’t permitted to speak their languages or practice their religious customs. They were no longer free to hunt in the forests or take their canoes into Texas’s coastal waters. Instead, the Native Americans were taught to be loyal to Spain and forced to become farmers, ranchers, and blacksmiths. Native Americans were beaten for breaking the rules and severely punished for trying to escape. Disease and starvation took the lives of many Native Americans during this period in Texas’s history. The End of the Missions In 1821, Mexico took control of Spain’s land in America and all of the Spanish missions. By 1834, the Mexican government had closed the missions in Texas and the present-day states of New Mexico, Arizona, and California. Some of the land in each mission village was used for the town’s buildings and farm animals. Each Native American family was given a small piece of land. Most of the mission land was simply taken by the Mexican government. Many Native American families gave up farming and soldSAMPLE their plots of land to Mexican cattle and sheep ranchers for far less than the land was worth. The money ran out quickly. With no place to Spanish Priest live, the Native Americans found themselves hungry, homeless, and unprotected. Many wandered the streets begging for food or stole for survival. Others returned to work on the same ranches that they had just sold. The Native Americans were given food and a place to sleep, but they were paid very little money for their hard work. Life had changed forever for Texas’s Native Americans. Americans in Texas During the 1800s, the first Americans traveled to Texas. The new strangers unknowingly brought diseases like smallpox, measles, and influenza with them. More than half of FORTexas’s Native Americans REVIEW died from these diseases. American settlersONLY trampled through Native American lands, cleared the forests of trees, built homes, and nearly destroyed the hunting, fishing, and gathering areas.

Federally Recognized Tribes On December 29, 1845, Texas became the twenty-eighth state to join the Union. The United States government forced many of Texas’s remaining tribes to sign treaties and give up huge pieces of land. Others were sent to live on reservations in Oklahoma. Today, about 64,000 Native Americans live in Texas. Most of Texas’s Native Americans live in cities and towns, just like everyone else. There are three federally recognized tribes in the state. To repay them for their land and honor the treaties that were signed between the United States government and the Native Americans, most federally recognized tribes receive payments from the government. All federally recognized tribes are permitted to make their own laws and rules. The laws on their reservations can be different from the laws of the state. Gambling casinos, for example, are not permitted in Texas. The federally recognized Kickapoo Traditional Tribe of Texas, however, is permitted to operate a casino on its reservation located along the Rio Grande at Eagle Pass. The Ysleta del Sur Pueblo, known as the Tigua Pueblo, has a reservation near El Paso in west Texas. The Big Thicket National Preserve is home to the Alabama-Coushatta (koo•SHAH•tuh) tribe.

Adapting to a New Life Texas’s Native Americans have had to adapt to living on reservations. The Tigua dug canals to bring water to their farms. They’ve opened a museum on their reservation that sells silver, pottery, and other Native American crafts. When sawmills opened in the Big Thicket, the Alabama- Coushatta became experts in the lumber industry. They modified their reservation and built a souvenir shop, a restaurant, and a campground that hosts more than 200,000 visitors each year. In addition to a casino, the Kickapoo sell pecans, picked fresh from their private pecan farm. SAMPLE Texas’s Tribal Governments Federally recognized tribes also write their own constitutions outlining how decisions will be made within their tribes. Tribes elect leaders and council members to help make decisions about the economy, education, environmental issues, and health care. Federally recognized tribes can enforce laws, collect taxes, and keep unwanted people from entering their land. In addition to participating in their tribal governments, Texas’s Native Americans may also vote in state elections. Non-Native Americans, however, may not vote in tribal elections.

Fast Facts • Federally recognized tribes may make their own rules and laws, but just like state governments, they may not declare war or make FOR their REVIEWown money. ONLY • There are more than 500 federally recognized tribes in the United States.

Texas is the second most populated state in the nation. Texans come from many different cultures. Native Americans, Asians, African Americans, Latinos, and Anglos are part of more than 20 million people who live in Texas’s cities and towns. Each is part of Texas’s colorful past and promising future. Texas’s Native Americans You have already studied about Texas’s Native American cultures. Once the largest group of people living in Texas, Native Americans now make up less than one percent of the state’s population. From the time the first French and Spanish explorers entered Texas, Native Americans have suffered. They were kidnapped by Spanish soldiers and forced to work at the Spanish missions. Thousands died from epidemic diseases brought by French, Spanish, and American settlers. After the Spanish missions closed, Texas’s Native Americans watched helplessly as Mexican and American settlers trampled through their villages and built homes right in the middle of Native American hunting and gathering areas. The United States government forced many of the tribes to sign treaties giving up huge pieces of land. Others were forced out of Texas completelySAMPLE and sent to live on reservations in Oklahoma. Fighting Back During the past 100 years, Native Americans in Texas and all over the United States have fought back in a different way. They hired lawyers and told their stories to judges. They wanted the United States government to treat them fairly. In 1924, citizenship was granted to all Native Americans born in the United States. Even after becoming United States citizens, it took a long time before Native Americans were allowed to vote in all 50 states. Today, the Ysleta del Sur Pueblo, known as the Tigua Pueblo, the Kickapoo Traditional Tribe of Texas, and the Alabama-Coushatta (koo•SHAH•tuh) live on federally recognized reservations. Tribal governments are free to write their own constitutions, elect government leaders, and make their own rules and laws. As United States citizens, Native Americans enjoy the same rights and freedoms as other citizensFOR born in the United States.REVIEW They may vote and become government ONLY leaders at the federal and state levels. At the same time, Native Americans have the freedom to participate in their tribal governments. We might one day see a Native American president or vice president of the United States. ©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. 111 Reproducible for classroom use only. Texas’s Asian Population The Asian culture is the fastest growing population in Texas. Asians include people from China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. In 1862, construction began on a railroad that would stretch across the United States. Thousands of Chinese men poured into Texas to work for low wages in dangerous conditions. Even after working long hours on the railroad for little pay, the Chinese were still not accepted by others in Texas. They were forced to leave town and their businesses were burned to the ground. Others were attacked, beaten, and even killed. Chinese Businesses in Texas Instead of leaving Texas, many Chinese stayed. They created small communities called Chinatowns, where they opened their own shops, restaurants, laundries, theaters, and schools. In San Antonio, Chinese children spent a full eight-hour day at public school and then attended Chinese school for three more hours, six evenings a week. Outside of Chinatown, Chinese men often took the lowest paying jobs chopping wood, cooking, or cleaning. Still, many people were afraid that the Asian men were taking too many jobs.

Discrimination In 1904, the United States government passed a law. The Chinese people were stopped from coming Chinese Railroad Worker into the United States. A short time later, Japanese immigrants were also forbiddenSAMPLE from entering the United States. In 1943, this law was changed. Asian immigrants were once again permitted to live in Texas and the rest of the United States. Moving Back to Texas It took decades for Chinese and Japanese people to move back to Texas. They were still afraid. When they did return, they were joined by people from Korea and Vietnam. Many became United States citizens. Today, Texas’s largest Chinese community is found in Houston. In 1903, Seito Saibara became the first Japanese immigrant to start a rice plantation in Texas. Saibara borrowed money from wealthy investors in Texas and Japan to purchase land just south of Houston. Saibara’s rice plantation quickly became successful and famous. Soon other Japanese colonies were created near Houston. In 1975,FOR after the Vietnam REVIEWWar ended, thousands of Vietnameserefugees ONLY settled in Texas to make a living fishing along the Gulf of Mexico. Today, Asians work as doctors, students, business owners, and scientists in medical research, aerospace, and electronics.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 112 Texas’s African American Population In 1822, the first Americans arrived in Texas with their black slaves. The slaves did not come willingly; they were forced to travel with their white masters who used them to work on huge plantations, planting and harvesting cotton. As more Americans settled in Texas, more black slaves arrived with them. By the end of the 1820s, there were 20,000 Americans and 4,000 African American slaves living in Texas. In 1861, when the Civil War began, there were more than 200,000 black slaves in Texas. When the war ended four years later, slaves all over the United States were set free. African Americans in Texas and the rest of the United States did not automatically enjoy the same freedoms and rights as white citizens. They struggled to find jobs and housing. Black children and white children in Texas were sent to separate schools. Texas’s African Americans worked hard to include equal rights for black citizens in the state’s constitution. Today, about 15 percent of Texas’s population is African American. Unlike the African Americans who were once forced to settle in Texas, today’s African Americans come willingly to open businesses of their own or work in a variety of Texas’s industries, including oil and aerospace. Black Cowboys Most people think that all cowboys were white men. Actually, many of the cowboys who herded longhorn cattle into and through the Old West were black men. Black cowboys have been part of Texas’s history since the 1800s, when they first worked as slaves on ranches throughout the state. After the Civil War, black cowboys found paying jobs on ranches, became rodeo performers, or were hired to keep peace between Texas’s white settlersSAMPLE and Native Americans. During a time when very few African Americans could afford to buy homes of their Black Cowboy own, many black cowboys earned enough money to buy their own farms and ranches. Daniel W. Wallace saved enough money to purchase more than 1,200 acres and 600 head of cattle. He was a member of the Texas and Southwestern Cattle Raisers Association for more than 30 years. Some black cowboys in Texas even became famous. William Pickett was one of the most outstanding Wild West rodeo performers in the country. In 1903, Pickett bit the upper lip of a steer in a trick that became known as “bulldogging.” After that, Pickett became known as the Bull-Dogger. In 1971, Pickett became a member of the National Cowboy Hall of Fame.

Fast Facts • Scott Joplin, born in Texarkana, Texas, was the son of a freed slave. He is FOR credited with REVIEW inventing ragtime music. Joplin wrote more thanONLY 500 music pieces, including a ballet and two operas. Although Joplin died in 1917 in poverty and never knew fame in his lifetime, he was awarded a Pulitzer Prize in 1976 for his contributions to American music.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 113 Texas’s Latino Population Latinos make up the largest ethnic group in Texas. About one out of every four people living in Texas is Latino. Latinos represent Mexican, Central American, South American, Cuban, and Puerto Rican cultures. The largest group of Latinos lives in the southern part of the state near the Mexican border in communities known as barrios or colonias. This is one of the poorest areas of Texas. Good jobs are difficult to find in the barrios, and almost everyone who lives here works in the fields picking cotton. The work is difficult and the pay is very low. As many as half the state’s Latino children are born into poverty and end up dropping out of school to help support their families. Of course, not all Latinos in Texas are poor farmworkers. Most Latinos in Texas speak both English and Spanish. Latino culture is seen throughout the state in Latino food, Spanish names of cities and towns, and Latino celebrations. Latinos also hold important positions in government, business, and the arts. Cinco de Mayo is an important cultural event in Texas and other states in the Southwest that share a border with Mexico. The holiday, celebrated on May 5, honors the 1862 Battle of Pueblo. During the battle, the small army led by General Ignacio Zaragoza stopped the more powerful French soldiers from taking control of Mexico. Cinco de Mayo is a celebration of Mexican culture, food, music, and customs unique to Mexico. Texas’s Anglo Population In 1822, the first of many white settlers were offered land by the Mexican government. They adapted to their new lives in Texas by clearing the land and becoming farmers and ranchers. Twenty-three years later, Texas became part of the United States. Thousands of white immigrants from Germany, Poland, Norway, Sweden, France, and other European countries poured into Texas. They brought along their traditional foods, music, religions, and festivals to begin new lives in Texas. Oktoberfest has been a German festival since 1810, when Crown Prince Ludwig married Princess Therese in a public ceremony. Germans brought their Oktoberfest traditions to Texas, celebrating for almost threeSAMPLE weeks during the month of October. Today, white Texans work side by side in the same industries as Texas’s Native Americans, Asians, African Americans, and Latinos. They work in one of the largest economies in the world as lawyers, executives, miners, and farmers, and in industries that include manufacturing, transportation, and tourism.

• Henry B. Gonzalez was born in San Antonio, Texas. In 1956, he became the first Mexican American elected to the state Senate since 1846. In 1961, Gonzalez became the first Mexican American elected from Texas to the Fast Facts United States House of Representatives. In 1994, at the age of 78, Gonzalez was given the Profile of Courage award, the only Texan to ever win this important award. • Adina de Zavala was the granddaughter of Lorenzo de Zavala, the first vice FOR president of REVIEWthe Republic of Texas. Adina was responsible forONLY saving an important part of the Alamo Mission from being destroyed by the city of San Antonio. In 1908, she even barricaded herself inside the Alamo to protest its destruction.

The word “economy” is used to describe the way people make money. No matter where you live, you must be involved in some activity that provides a way for you and your family to survive. Food, clothing, and shelter are basic needs in your family and every community throughout the world. These things are usually not given away for free. People must trade their time and labor for money. In America, we have a free enterprise system. This means that we are free to choose the type of work we want to do to make the income we need. If we want to work for a company, the owners of the company may require us to be educated about the company’s products or the way the company does business. We may also be required to learn certain skills before working for a company. Some jobs pay more than others. It’s important to learn the skills and get the education for the job you want.

Entrepreneurs (on•trah•pah•NEW•ers) Many people choose to make the money they need by running their own companies. These people are known as entrepreneurs. If you have ever sold lemonade on a hot summer day or cut your neighbor’s lawn and trimmed the bushes, you are an entrepreneur. Entrepreneurs decide how much money to charge for a product or service. They are responsible for runningSAMPLE their companies. They enjoy the freedom of making their own rules. Good entrepreneurs can make a nice profit running their own companies. Of course, there are risks involved in becoming an entrepreneur. If you work for a company that sells lemonade and the weather turns cold, people may stop buying lemonade. The owner of the company will lose money. You, however, will still receive a paycheck because you work for someone else. If you own the company and nobody buys your lemonade, you will not make the money to buy the things you need. Entrepreneurs often risk large amounts of their own money to start their companies. If the product FORor service doesn’t sell, entrepreneursREVIEW could lose everything they ONLY have invested into their companies.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 115 Spending Money We are free to choose how we want to spend the money we make from working. We decide how much money we want to spend on things we need to survive, the amount of money we want to spend on items that give us pleasure, and the amount of money we want to save. The more money we make, the more choices we have about how to spend our money. What happens to the money you spend? Where does it go? Some of the money you spend goes to the business that supplied the product or service that you purchased. Some of it goes to pay the people who work for that business. When you buy lunch in the cafeteria, for example, many people benefit from your purchase. Your money buys you a balanced meal that will give your body the strength to play soccer at recess. Your brain gets the fuel it needs to solve difficult math problems in the afternoon. The farmers who grew the fruits and vegetables on your lunch tray receive money from your purchase to feed their families. They can buy seeds to grow more fruits and vegetables. The cafeteria workers who collect your money and serve your lunch get paid an hourly wage. They use this money to take care of their families and buy the things they need. Money from your lunch purchase also helps keep the cafeteria warm in the winter and cool in the summer. Even the people who clean the cafeteria benefit from your lunch purchase. Supply and Demand Have you ever thought about how items and services are priced? Who decides on the price? Why, for example, do some cars cost more than others? Prices are usually determined by supply and demand. If a car company only made ten cars that many people wanted, there wouldn’t be a very big supply. The car maker could charge a highSAMPLE price for its cars. That’s an example of supply. If, on the other hand, a car company made a thousand cars that weren’t very popular, then the company would have to charge much less for its cars. That’s an example of demand. The smaller the supply or the more in demand an item or a service is, the higher the price. The opposite is also true. The bigger the supply or the less in demand an item or service is, the lower the price. Remember, entrepreneurs decide how much money to charge for a product or service. Good entrepreneurs pay close attention to supply and demand when setting prices or deciding what to sell.FOR They can make a lot ofREVIEW money this way. Entrepreneurs also riskONLY the chance of making or ordering a large supply of a product that they thought would be in great demand, only to be left with items that they can’t even sell for a profit.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 116 Saving and Borrowing Money You may choose to put some of your earnings into a bank. The bank keeps the money safe for you until you need it. If you have ever seen your parents buy something and write a check or use a debit card, they are using the money they have put in the bank. After your parents write a check or use a debit card at the grocery store, for example, the grocery store sends the information to the bank. The store gets paid with the money your parents have put into the bank for safekeeping. This keeps your parents from carrying large amounts of cash in their pockets. Banks will also keep money for you in a savings account. You may already have a savings account at the bank. You might put money into a savings account to save for college, a special trip you are planning to take, or for a big purchase you want to make. Money in a savings account is different from the money you put into your piggy bank. The money kept at the bank earns interest. This means that the bank will add a small amount of money to your savings account each month that you continue to let the bank keep your money. Most of the time, the more money you have in your savings account, and the longer you allow the bank to keep your money, the more interest the bank will pay. Banks will not only keep money safe for people, they will also loan money to people who promise to pay it back. The bank makes money by charging interest to people who borrow the bank’s money. If, for example, a person borrows $1,000 from a bank at ten percent interest, the borrower will have to pay back the $1,000 loan plus ten percent, or an extra $100. Paying Taxes Each time you buy something, an extra amount is added to the price of the item. This extra money is known as a sales tax. The sales tax that you pay goes to the government. In most states, the government also takes money out of the pay your parents receive for working. Texas is one of the few states that doesn’t take money out SAMPLEof workers’ paychecks. Instead, Texas’s government depends on sales taxes and property taxes to build schools, libraries, hospitals, and improve the roads. Taxes are also used to pay workers who provide services to the people who live in the state. These people include police officers, teachers, and firefighters. The economy of each of the 50 states is different. The type of work you do to make money depends a lot on the economy of your state. People who live in the Northeast region of the United States, for example, might work in huge factories making shoes or automobile parts. PeopleFOR who live in the Southeast REVIEW region of the United States might ONLY make their money growing fruits and vegetables. And in Texas, fertile soil, a warm climate, and plenty of open space make the state a perfect place for farming, ranching, mining, tourism, technology, and manufacturing.

Texas’s first settlers were hunters from the continent of Asia. They had an economy that was based almost entirely on hunting. Animals on land and in the water provided everything that a family needed to survive. The meat was eaten, the skins and furs were used for clothing and warmth, and the bones were carved into tools and weapons. Even the teeth of some animals were used to make jewelry. Just like the metal coins and paper money we use to pay for things today, a value was placed on these items, and they could be traded with other families.

Hunters and Gatherers Cultures that didn’t live near water depended upon gathering acorns, seeds, and roots for survival. They made baskets that were so tightly woven they could be used to collect seeds and carry water to their small farms. Unlike those cultures that lived near plenty of water, the gatherers lived in temporary homes and moved from place to place in search of new gathering spots and small animals to hunt. Spanish Missionaries The first Spanish missionaries in Texas brought cattle, sheep, horses, pigs, and goats with them. They taught the Native Americans how to adapt to a life of farming by using the land to raise livestock and grow crops of corn, beans, squash, melons, cotton, SAMPLEand sugarcane. The Spanish priests also introduced taxation to the Native Americans. For the first time, the Native Americans were required to pay taxes to the Spanish government. Items used to pay the taxes included crops, animal skins, and handmade baskets. Trading became even more popular during this time because there were so many different items to trade. One family might trade a cow for another family’s fresh fruits and vegetables. By the time Americans arrived in Texas, gold nuggets and silver coins were also being used to buy the supplies a family needed. FOR REVIEW ONLY

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 118 Texas’s Territorial Economy In 1822, Stephen F. Austin brought the first 300 American families to Texas. Together with their black slaves, they settled between the Colorado and Brazos rivers, where they found fertile soil and a warm climate for growing cotton. Over the next few years, the promise of cheap land brought thousands of American immigrants into Texas. Entire families traveled to Texas in wagon trains to buy property. Spring rains often turned the wagon trails into rivers of mud. During the rest of the year, water along the trail was difficult to find and dust filled the dry air. Still, pioneers continued to pour into Texas. Small towns grew, and the settlers made money by building houses, schools, stores, jails, and post offices. Ranching and farming became the most important industries in Texas, with slave labor being used on huge cotton plantations. By 1830, more than 20,000 Americans had settled in Texas. Cowboys and Longhorn Cattle Hundreds of years before Americans settled in Texas, Spanish explorers brought horses and cattle to the area. Some of the animals escaped and ran into the wild. Over time, they grew into huge herds that spread across the western plains. They belonged to anybody who was brave enough and fast enough to catch them. After the Civil War ended in 1865, all slaves in Texas and the rest of the United States were freed. Cotton plantation owners were suddenly without free labor for planting and picking cotton. The cotton SAMPLEindustry declined. Many farmers had to adapt by finding new opportunities for making a living and feeding their families. They turned their attention to the millions of longhorn cattle running wild in Texas. Ranchers hired white, Mexican, and black cowboys to chase, rope, and brand cattle. This was not an easy task, as the horns of some of these huge animals measured eight feet from point to point. The demand for beef was high in the rest of the Longhorn Cow United States. The ranchers realized that they couldn’t make any money unless they sent their cattle to other states. Since there weren’t any railroads in Texas, the only way to move the cattle north to railroad centersFOR in the Midwest was REVIEW to ride behind them on horseback while ONLY the cattle walked along the dusty trails.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 119 The Goodnight-Loving Trail Charles Goodnight and Oliver Loving became famous for herding thousands of longhorn cattle from Texas to Wyoming. In 1866, the price for cattle in Texas was very low. Goodnight and Loving searched for a place where they could charge a higher price for their longhorn cattle. They WYOMING discovered that by traveling north to CHEYENNE NEBRASKA the army posts and Indian agencies in New Mexico, they could get eight cents a pound for their beef. In the spring of 1866, Goodnight ABILENE and Loving began herding cattle ELLSWORTH north from San Angelo, Texas, along a COLORADO route that later became known as the KANSAS Goodnight-Loving Trail. They hired 18 cowhands, including famous gunfighter INDIAN Clay Allison and One-Armed TERRITORY Bill Wilson. NEW MEXICO TEXAS Goodnight is responsible for TERRITORY building the first chuckwagon, a type of wagon that carried food and cooking supplies. Each chuckwagon formed one piece of a wagon train along the trail. The Goodnight-Loving Trail SAN became one of the Southwest’s most ANGELO heavily used cattle trails. SAN The Chisholm Trail ANTONIO SAMPLEFAMOUS CATTLE TRAILS The Chisholm Trail was one of the most famous routes for driving GOODNIGHT-LOVING CHISHOLM cattle from Texas to Kansas. The Chisholm Trail started in San Antonio and ran through Austin and Fort Worth in Texas before crossing into Indian Territory and ending in Abilene or Ellsworth, Kansas. The cowboys spent weeks on the trail guiding their herds by day and camping under the stars at night. It took three months for a trail boss, ten cowboys, a cook, and a horse wrangler to herd 2,500 cattle along the Chisholm Trail. Each longhorn cow that made the trip successfully was worth sixty to seventy five cents. In 1871,FOR the biggest year for theREVIEW Chisholm Trail, 600,000 longhorn cattle ONLY were herded to Kansas. Once in Kansas, the cattle were loaded onto railroad cars and taken to cities in the eastern part of the United States.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 120 Railroads in Texas In 1872, the Missouri-Kansas-Texas Railroad was completed in Texas. The railroad decreased the need for cattle drives along the dusty Chisholm and Goodnight-Loving trails. During the 1880s, thousands of miles of railroad tracks were laid in Texas. Once completed, the railroads boosted Texas’s economy. Ranchers used the railroads to transport their herds of fattened cattle across the United States. The arrival of railroads in Texas also brought more people to the state. By 1900, there were more than three million people living in Texas. The economy was still based largely on farming and ranching. The Importance of Oil On January 10, 1901, an explosion was heard near the city of Beaumont (BOH•mahnt) that changed Texas’s economy forever. An oil well let loose with a stream of oil that flowed for nine days and sprayed more than 800,000 barrels of oil into the air before workers were able to take control and cap it off. It was the biggest gusher the world had ever seen. Within a year, hundreds of oil companies began building oil towers, hoping to strike it rich by finding gushers of their own. The towers supported the oil derricks that drilled the holes. Just as they had dreamed, oil gushed from the ground all over the state. Oil refineries were built throughout Texas to turn the oil into petroleum. Coal was soon replaced by petroleum for running cars, trains, ships, and machinery in factories. Thousands of people found work in Texas’s refineries. Farmers put down their plows and moved into the cities to work in the refineries. Bigger roads were built, more railroad tracks were laid, and deeper ports were dug so Texas could ship its oil all over the world. Texas’s Changing Economy At the same time thatSAMPLE oil was making Texas a wealthy state, new methods of irrigation were introduced in the farming industry. Irrigation made it possible to plant crops in the driest parts of Texas where farming had never been possible. Within a few years of learning about irrigation, Panhandle farmers in the Great Plains region of Texas Oil Tower began producing over one million bales of cotton each year. This helped Texas become the state that produced the most cotton during the 1920s. As you can see, Texas’s economy had changed greatly since the arrival of the first people. An economy that was once based on hunting and gathering grew into an economy that includedFOR farming, ranching, shipping,REVIEW and oil. ONLY

By the early 1900s, Texas’s economy was booming. Many new businesses had opened in Texas. Improvements in transportation made oil and manufacturing two of the most important industries in Texas. Cities and towns grew as more Texans found jobs in the state’s refineries, foodprocessing plants, and textile factories. There were plenty of jobs for everyone. In 1914, World War I started. It was the biggest war that the world had ever seen. Instead of going to war, the United States sent money and supplies to Europe, where the war was being fought. In 1917, Germany sank several United States cargo ships. The United States declared war on Germany and entered World War I. Unprepared for Battle The United States had not planned NORWAY to enter World War I. Our military troops were not ready for battle. In Texas, Army SCOTLAND SWEDEN

G and Navy bases became important U.S. REAT

B ORTH military training centers. IRELAND RITAIN N SEA DENMARK Afraid that Mexico would help

Germany, soldiers from the Texas WALES ENGLAND National Guard were sent south to BALTIC SEA NETHERLANDS guard the border between Mexico and ATLANTIC SAMPLECEAN O the United States. Others guarded the BELGIUM GERMANY openings to Texas’s important seaports along the Gulf of Mexico. Two hundred thousand Texans FRANCE AUSTRIA SWITZERLAND volunteered to fight during World War I. In addition, 450 Texan women served as nurses. Ranchers slaughtered cows and farmers in Texas planted war ITALY SPAIN gardens to feed the soldiers. In order MEDITERRANEAN SEA to provide enough food for the men and women fighting the war, Texans conserved foodFOR by giving up sugar, REVIEW fat, ONLY wheat, beef, and pork on certain days of the week.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 122 The End of World War I World War I ended in 1918. More than 100,000 Americans had lost their lives. One nurse and more than 5,000 Texan soldiers were among the dead. The United States and its allies had successfully defeated Germany. The economy of Texas and the rest of the United States had been helped by the war. Training soldiers, guarding the borders, and supplying the soldiers with food had all been paid for by the United States government. When World War I ended, so did the need for Texas’s resources. With no soldiers to train and no food to ship to Europe, businesses weren’t making any money. Workers suddenly found themselves unemployed. Without jobs, families couldn’t afford to buy the things they needed. The Great Depression Workers and business owners throughout the United States were experiencing the same problems. Without jobs, people couldn’t afford to buy food or clothing. They couldn’t pay the banks back the money they had borrowed. Texas’s oil industry provided some jobs, but most Texans worked as ranchers and farmers. Food rotted in the fields. The crops could not be sold for enough money to pay the farmers what they had spent to grow the fruits and vegetables. Banks and businesses closed their doors. People who had put money in savings accounts lost everything. This period in history is known as the Great Depression. By 1932, one out of every four workers across the United States had lost his or her job. Thousands of Texans found themselves homeless and hungry. Entire families lived in wooden shacks, tents, and cardboard boxes.

The Dust Bowl Things became worse for farmers in Texas, Oklahoma, and Arkansas during the 1930s. Long periods with no rain killed all of the crops in these states and left the fields dry and bare. Instead of rain, theirSAMPLE farms were hit by dust storms that blackened the skies and covered houses, barns, and fences with piles of sand that were 30 feet high in some places. The Dust Bowl farmers in Texas and other farming states packed up their families and moved west to Arizona, New Mexico, and California in search of work picking peas or cotton. Unfortunately, the Great Depression had affected these states as well. The Dust Bowl settlers were not welcome. Most were forced to turn around and go back to their empty farms. Those who stayed had to live in their broken-down trucks and sneak around to find work for very low wages.

•John Steinbeck wrote about the Dust Bowl farmers in his novel The Fast Facts Grapes of Wrath. Steinbeck gathered information for his book by traveling among California’s Dust Bowl settlers, taking notes on their horrible living conditions. FOR•The Grapes REVIEW of Wrath was published in 1939 and was immediately ONLY a best seller. Although it was banned from public schools and libraries, John Steinbeck won the Pulitzer Prize for The Grapes of Wrath.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 123 The New Deal In 1933, Franklin D. Roosevelt became the thirty-second president of the United States. When Roosevelt’s presidency began, there were 13 million people without jobs, and almost every bank in the United States was closed. President Roosevelt planned to help Texas and the rest of the United States with a program he called the New Deal. Under President Roosevelt’s plan, all banks were shut down until they could be inspected by the government. Banks that were permitted to reopen had to guarantee that Americans would never again lose all of their savings. The New Deal put thousands of people back to work repairing roads, cleaning parks, building dams, and restoring our nation’s forests. Texans were put to work building roads and more than 30 state parks. Farmers in Texas and the rest of the United States who were willing to grow crops and raise animals that the nation needed were given money by the government. The End of the Great Depression The New Deal helped Americans find jobs so they could get their homes back. President Roosevelt’s plan also helped Americans feel more secure by providing money for people who were too old or sick to work. It also aided people who had been injured or lost their jobs. Franklin D. Roosevelt For the first time inSAMPLE America, the government set up a minimum wage. Laws were passed that made it illegal for children under a certain age to work. Native Americans in Texas and the rest of the United States also benefited from President Roosevelt’s New Deal. The Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 stopped the sale of tribal lands and gave land back to the Native American groups. The New Deal brought the United States out of the Great Depression.

Fast Facts •Only two Texas natives, Dwight Eisenhower and Lyndon B. Johnson, have been presidents of the United States. • George Walker Bush, our country’s forty-third president, was the governor of Texas before he became president, but he was born in FOR Connecticut. REVIEW His father, George Herbert Walker Bush, wasONLY a United States senator from Texas before being elected as the forty-first president of the United States.

During the 1930s, Europe was going through a Great Depression much like the United States. Two European countries, Germany and Italy, allowed dictators to take over their governments. Together with Japan, they declared war on their neighbors. Germany, Italy, and Japan were known as the Axis Powers. The Axis Powers planned to take over the world. The Beginning of World War II In 1939, Great Britain and France, two allies of the United States, declared war on the Axis Powers. This started World War II. The United States was not worried at first. President Franklin D. Roosevelt promised that the United States would not get involved in the war. By the summer of 1940, Germany had defeated France. Germany planned to attack Great Britain next. The United States became concerned. It even began to spend money training its soldiers and making weapons. Still, the United States decided not to get involved in the war. Great Britain fought hard against Germany. In January, 1941, President Roosevelt and the leaders of the United States finally met with Great Britain’s leaders. Great Britain really needed the help of the United States to defeat Germany and the Axis Powers. Instead of going to war, the United States gave 50 billion dollars in weapons to Great Britain to use during the war. President Roosevelt hoped that supplying its allies with weapons would keep our country from actually going to war. Attack on PearlSAMPLE Harbor The United States and Japan had not been friendly with each other for quite awhile. The United States did not like the way Japan treated France. To help France, the United States stopped sending important products to Japan. The United States and its allies also stopped Japan from purchasing oil. They hoped that Japan would not be able to fuel its airplanes and ships. By 1941, Germany had taken over most of Europe. Japan made secret plans to take control of Asia. Only the United States stood in Japan’s way. On December 7, 1941, Japan launched a surprise air attack on Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. Pearl Harbor was a United States naval base. The attack lasted less than two hours. More than 2,400 Americans were killed. Japan sank or damaged eight American battleships, 13 other naval vessels, and over 150 airplanes. OnFOR December 8, one day REVIEW after the attack on Pearl Harbor, the UnitedONLY States entered World War II.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 125 Texans Help Win the War At the beginning of World War II, most Texans lived on farms and ranches or in small towns. The population of the entire state of Texas was less than the population of New York City. Only one in five families in Texas owned an automobile, one in ten had a telephone, and one in six Texan families owned a radio. School schedules revolved around the planting and harvesting seasons. Texans sprang into action when the United States entered World War II. More than 750,000 Texans volunteered to help fight the Axis Powers. Texan Audie Leon Murphy became the most decorated combat soldier of World War II. By the end of the war, Murphy had received every medal that the United States gives for bravery. Texas’s mild climate and wide open spaces made it a perfect place to build training centers. Texas used the opportunity to build 65 Army airfields, 35 Army forts and camps, and seven naval stations and bases. More than 60 camps were built to hold prisoners captured during the war. New factories were built in Texas to make airplanes and ships. Farmers and ranchers went back to work planting crops and raising animals to feed the soldiers.

New Opportunities for Women Before World War II, women mostly worked at home as housewives or in the fields. It was difficult for women to buy property, save money of their own, or borrow money from banks. During World War II, women left their homes and went to work (many for the first time in their lives). They took over the jobs in factories once held by men who were away fighting the war. World War II gave women in Texas and throughout the rest of the United States the opportunity to learn new skills. During World War I, women had served in the military as nurses. After the bombing of Pearl Harbor, women wanted to actually serve in the Army, Navy, and Air Force, just like men. On March 15, 1942, the Women’s Auxiliary Army Corps, or WAAC, was created. A few months later, the Navy created the WAVES, which meant Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service. The AirSAMPLE Force created the WASPS, a division of women pilots. Although women in the military were not permitted to fight in combat, more than 400,000 went through basic training and served as military officers, soldiers, and pilots, doing many of the same jobs as men. They were, however, paid less, received less benefits, and struggled to receive the same respect shown to men in the military.

• In 1943, the Women’s Auxiliary Army Corps was changed to the Women’s Army Corps. This change gave women in the Army the same benefits as men. Fast Facts • Oveta Culp Hobby was the first director of the Women’s Army Corps. Oveta was a lawyer, newspaper editor, and the wife of a former governor in Texas. • General Douglas MacArthur called the WACs his “best soldiers.” According to MacArthur, women soldiers complained less and were better disciplined than men. FOR• Until 1993, womenREVIEW were not permitted to become fighter pilots. ONLY The United States government did not believe that women “had what it took” to be combat pilots. • In 1999, Shawna Rochelle Kimbrell became the first black female fighter pilot.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 126 Native American Soldiers More than 40,000 Native American men and women left their reservations to serve in the United States military during World War II. They fought on the front lines, built military bases, and donated what little money they had to the Red Cross. Minerals, crops,timber , and land for military training centers were also donated by Native Americans. Their hunting and fighting abilities made Native Americans excellent soldiers. They were able to go without food and water for long periods of time. Native Americans could walk long distances without resting. They were also excellent marksmen. Comanche and Navajo (NAH•vuh•hoe) men were used as “code talkers” to send messages to the American troops during World War II. Since the messages were in Comanche and Navajo, the Japanese could not understand them or figure out America’s plan of attack. African American Service Members Many of the Texans who fought in World War II were African Americans who had been discriminated against for years. They received less training than white soldiers and were not permitted to serve in the same combat units as white soldiers. Still, almost 80,000 African Americans in Texas volunteered to fight after the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor. They were assigned to units commanded by white officers and received basic training in camps located in Texas and other Southern states. African Americans fought in black combat units that included a small group of black Air Force pilots. African American women volunteered as nurses and truck mechanics, and even helped build ships and SAMPLE airplanes. Texas-born Doris Miller was the first African American hero of World War II. On December 7, 1941, Miller was doing laundry on the USS West Virginia when the Japanese began dropping bombs on Pearl Harbor. Because he was black, Miller had never been trained to use the Black Air Force Pilot guns aboard the ship. One by one, Miller watchedFOR his white crew members REVIEW fall to their deaths. He took control ONLY of a machine gun and began blasting away at the Japanese fighter planes. Miller received a Navy Cross for his bravery. Instead of earning a place in the Navy fighting alongside white soldiers in combat, Miller was promoted to cook on the USS Liscome.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 127 Texas’s Brave Mexican Americans Mexican Americans from Texas, known as Tejanos (tay•HAH•nos), served in World War II as well. They volunteered on battleships, flew airplanes, and fought on the ground. The Medal of Honor was awarded to more Mexican Americans during World War II than any other ethnic group. In Texas, five Tejanos, including Cleto Rodríguez, received the Medal of Honor, the military’s highest award for bravery. During the battle for Manila, Rodríguez and his partner, John Reese, killed 82 enemy soldiers. When he returned from the war, Cleto was given the key to the city of San Antonio.

The Bracero (bruh•SAY•roh) Program With the United States at war, there weren’t enough people to work on the farms. The United States turned to Mexico for help. On August 4, 1942, the first Mexican laborers crossed the border between the United States and Mexico, ready to harvest crops. This was known as the Bracero Program. In English, bracero means “laborer.” During the first five years of the Bracero Program, Texas’s farmers chose not to participate. Instead, they hired their farm workers directly from Mexico. These people entered the United States illegally. By 1945, there were about 62,000 braceros working Mexican Bracero throughout the Southwest. Texans finally decided to use braceros on their farms. Between 1942 and 1964, more than four million Mexicans were permitted to come to the United States to work on farms. Most of the braceros followed the rules and returned to Mexico after their work was finished. Others remainedSAMPLE illegally in Texas and other states in the Southwest. Discrimination After World War II, some of thesemigrant workers settled in Texas. Like other ethnic groups you have read about, Texas’s Hispanics suffered from discrimination. Hispanic workers were often paid less than white workers. White laborers could earn $2.25 each day for harvesting crops or picking cotton. Hispanic farm workers and cotton pickers were paid only $1.75 for a day’s work. Some white property owners in Texas refused to sell or rent to Mexicans. They were forced to live in the worst parts of town.

• Before the Mexican government would agree to send Fast Facts workers to the Bracero Program, the United States FOR governmentREVIEW had to guarantee that the American farmersONLY would pay round-trip transportation from Mexico to the United States. In addition, the braceros had to be paid the same amount as white farm workers.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 128 A Difficult Decision On April 12, 1945, in the middle of World War II, President Roosevelt died. Vice President Harry Truman took over as president of the United States and commander of the war. President Truman ordered Japan to surrender. Japan was not willing to give up. The United States had two choices to end World War II. The first choice was to send troops into Japan and risk losing more American lives. The second choice was to use the atomic bomb. President Truman chose to use the atomic bomb. The atomic bomb was the most powerful weapon ever used in war. On August 6, 1945, the United States dropped an atomic bomb on the Japanese city of Hiroshima (hear•oh•SHE•muh). About 300,000 people lived in Hiroshima. The blast from the bomb instantly killed at least 78,000 people. More than 10,000 people were never found. Another 70,000 people were injured. Hiroshima was almost completely destroyed. Japan still refused to surrender. On August 9, the United States dropped a second atomic bomb. This time the bomb was dropped on the Japanese city of Nagasaki (nah•guh•SAH•kee). The city was left in ruins. More than 40,000 people were killed in the blast. A few days later, Japan surrendered. World War II was finally over. President Truman declared September 2 as V-J Day, or Victory over Japan Day. Japanese AmericansSAMPLE World War II Soldier In the beginning of World War II, Japanese Americans were not welcome to fight for the United States. Japanese Americans were United States citizens whose ancestors were Japanese. They were born in the United States and had all of the rights and freedoms of American citizens. Since the United States was at war with Japan, the government was afraid that Japanese Americans would want to help their friends and relatives in Japan. Relocation Centers Thousands of Japanese Americans were forced to leave their homes and move to one of ten relocation centers west of the Mississippi River. Each center had long wooden buildings that were divided into small rooms. Japanese families lived in the small rooms and shared a dining hall, FORrecreation area, laundry REVIEW room, and bathroom with several other ONLY families. In addition to the ten Japanese relocation centers, there were also eight detention camps that held Germans, Italians, and Japanese Americans. Three of these detention centers were located in Texas.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 129 Proving Their Loyalty Japanese Americans wanted to prove their loyalty to the United States. Many of them volunteered to fight during World War II. In need of fresh soldiers, the United States government released many Japanese American men from the relocation centers. Some of these Japanese American soldiers were honored with medals for their bravery. After the war ended, the United States government admitted that it had made a mistake and apologized to the Japanese Americans who were kept in relocation centers. The centers were closed. Many of the Japanese Americans went home, only to find that their farms and houses had been sold during the war. Unfortunately, the United States government paid them only part of what their land was worth. World War II had changed their lives forever. Texas’s Economy after World War II Texas’s economy continued to benefit from World War II. People who had traveled to Texas during the war liked what they saw. They found a beautiful state with a warm climate and plenty of natural resources. After the war ended, many of these people chose to make Texas their new home. Between 1940 and 1950, Texas’s population jumped from five million to eight million people. For the first time in Texas’s history, more Texans lived in the city than in the country. In addition to farming and ranching, World War II had helped Texas’s economy grow with manufacturing, petroleum products, construction, and mining.

SAMPLE

• Half of the 120,000 Japanese Americans living on the West Coast who were sent to live in relocation centers were children. Fast Facts • Most of the Japanese Americans sent to the relocation centers were either born in the United States or were living here legally. • Sometimes families were separated from one another and put into separate FOR relocation centers. REVIEW ONLY • In the early 1990s, each victim of the relocation centers was sent an apology letter from President George H. W. Bush and a check for $20,000.

Today, Texans earn money in many different ways. The value of all products and services produced in Texas is more than one trillion dollars. Only California provides more products and services than Texas. Texas is the largest exporter of goods in the United States. Selling to other nations earns Texas more than $100 billion each year. Agriculture, mining, manufacturing, oil and natural gas, technology, and electric power round out Texas’s growing economy today. Agriculture and Manufacturing Texans have learned how to use the land for agriculture. Clearing trees, learning the crops that grow best in Texas’s climate and soil, and building dams on rivers to provide irrigation are some of the reasons that Texas has the most farms in the United States. Texas leads the nation in cotton and livestock production. Cattle is Texas’s most valuable agriculture product. If you ate watermelon, grapefruit, or cantaloupe today, there’s a good chance that a farmer in Texas grew the fruit for you. Texas’s first factoriesSAMPLE turned farm products into usable items. Cotton was made into thread, cloth, and cottonseed oil. Wheat went to flour mills and fruits and vegetables were sent to canning factories. Today, Texas is a leading manufacturing state. Computers and electronic equipment are the top products made in Texas. Texas Instruments, a company whose Computer Circuit Board headquarters are in Dallas, makes computer chips that are used in computers and electronic devices all over the world. MedicinesFOR to kill pain andREVIEW fertilizers to help crops grow are also ONLYmanufactured in Texas. Ships, boats, trailers, airplanes, farm machines, and mobile homes are made in Texas. Food processing plants continue to package soft drinks, baked goods, fruits, vegetables, and meats.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. 131 Reproducible for classroom use only. Petroleum and Oil Ever since the discovery of oil at Spindletop, Texans have been drilling holes in search of petroleum and natural gas. More than five billion barrels of petroleum are waiting to be extracted from the ground in Texas. This is almost one fourth of all the petroleum in the United States. The state’s refineries can process more than four million barrels of oil each day. The Baytown Refinery in the Houston area is the largest refinery inAmerica. Natural Gas, Wind, and Solar Power Texas also leads the United States in natural gas production, again producing about one fourth of the nation’s supply. Natural gas is used for heating and cooling homes, drying clothes, and heating the water in hot water heaters. You might even have a stove or clothes dryer that uses natural gas. In addition, Texans have learned how to turn wind into power. As a result, Texas produces the most wind power in the United States and has the ability to develop more solar power than any other state in the nation. Big Inch and Little Big Inch During World War II, getting oil from Texas to the East Coast of the United States became a problem. German submarines attacked the tankers carrying the oil from the Gulf of Mexico to the East Coast. Two pipelines, Big Inch and Little Big Inch, were created to deliver the oil safely from Texas to the eastern half of the United States where it was needed for the war. Big Inch was buried in a ditch that was four feet deep and three feet wide. Starting in Longview, Texas, Big Inch stretched for 1,254 miles across the Mississippi River and into Southern Illinois before ending in Pennsylvania. Little Big Inch started its journey in Houston and ended in New Jersey. It cost $146 million to lay the pipelines. More than 350 million barrels of oil were transported during World War II using Big Inch and Little Big Inch. Fishing, Minerals,SAMPLE and Timber Texas has a thriving fishing industry. Crabs, flounder, oysters, red snapper, sea trout, and shrimp are important to the fishing economy in Texas. The fishing industry creates many jobs for fishermen and shipbuilders. Texas’s natural resources are also important to the state’s economy. Miners remove magnesium from the sea. Sulfur, helium, and gypsum are other important resources found in Texas. Sand and gravel quarries produce cement, crushed stone, salt, and gravel. These resources are used for FORmaking concrete and buildingREVIEW roads. ONLY Timber companies cut down Texas’s trees to make paper, lumber, and other wood products.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 132 Aeronautics The Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center is one of the most important parts of Texas’s growing aeronautics industry. Located in southeast Houston, the center’s 100 buildings sit on 1,620 acres. The Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center is NASA’s launching pad for human spaceflight in the United States. The most recent space missions have resulted in scientific discoveries that help doctors create better medicines for healing and pain, artificial limbs for soldiers who have been wounded in battle, and heart pumps that keep failing hearts alive. Transportation Getting from one place to another was difficult during Texas’s early days. It took four to six months to travel from the eastern part of the United States to Texas by covered wagon. Once people settled in towns, they walked or rode on horseback to get around. Early Texans carried everything they owned on their backs. Today, Texas has America’s largest highway and railway systems and the largest number of airports in the United States. There are more than 80,000 miles of public highways in Texas. More than 14,000 miles of railroad tracks are laid throughout the state. Both the cities of Dallas and Houston feature light rail systems that move people from place to place around these cities quickly and comfortably. In 1966, more than 18 thousand acres of land was purchased for what would become one of the biggest airports in the world. The Dallas-Fort WorthSAMPLE International Airport officially opened in 1973. Today, it is the largest and busiest airport in Texas. More than 60 million passengers pass through Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport each year. In addition to Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport, there are almost 400 public airports in the state of Texas. Over 1,000 seaports dot Texas’s coast, which has over 1,000 miles of channels. The Port of Houston is one of the largest and busiest ports in the United States. More than 200 million tons of cargo pass through the Port of Houston each year.

• On June 15, 1921, Texas native Bessie Coleman, known as Brave Bessie or Queen Bess, became the first black woman in the Fast Facts world to earn her pilot’s license. Because no American flight schools would accept an African American, Coleman trained in France. FOR• MillieREVIEW Hughes-Fulford was born in Mineral Wells, Texas,ONLY in 1945. She graduated high school at age 16 and entered college to study chemistry and biology. In 1991, she was chosen to do medical research aboard a NASA space mission.

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 133 Tourism Texas’s mild climate, natural beauty, and location on the Gulf of Mexico make tourism another important part of the state’s economy. Each year, about 40 million people visit Texas’s amusement parks, historical cities, and other points of interest. Tourism adds billions of dollars to the economy each year as visitors spend money in the state’s hotels, shops, attractions, and restaurants. Rodeo is a popular sport enjoyed in Texas all year long. The most exciting rodeo events are bull riding, bareback riding, and saddle bronc riding. In 1883, the town of Pecos was the home of the world’s first rodeo. These first rodeos were a fun way for working cowboys on ranches to show off their roping and riding skills with horses. Cowboys and cowgirls still use skills like these every day on ranches all over the state. Texas also features several national monuments and dozens of state parks and historic places of interest. People from all over the world travel to Texas to visit points of interest that include Big Bend National Park, Longhorn Cavern State Park, and Padre Island National Seashore. These tourists help the economy of Texas by spending money to stay in hotels, eat in restaurants, and shop for souvenirs. The fees paid to enter Texas’s parks and monuments help keep these places beautiful so everyone can enjoy them. Texas’s Economy for the Future Only time will tell what Texas’s future economy will include. Texans expect their state to grow and prosper. Many Texans are concerned about the large numbers of people who continue to settle in Texas. They worry that the state’s natural resources of land, water, and minerals will soon disappear. It is important to Texans that they protect endangered plants and animals. “Don’t Mess with Texas” is the statewide slogan of an effort to keep Texas litter free. History has provenSAMPLE that Texans are strong people who are able to change with the times. Even when the state has faced tough challenges, it has been able to attract new people and businesses. Texas’s goal for the future will be to balance growth with its desire to protect the environment. Texans will depend upon their state and city governments to make economic decisions that will benefit Texas and all of its citizens.

Fast Facts • Padre Island National Seashore is located off the southeastern coast of Texas. From late March through July, employees and volunteers search the beaches of Padre Island for nesting sea turtles and their eggs. One of the goals of Padre Island National Seashore is to protect five FOR speciesREVIEW of endangered sea turtles. ONLY

©2015 Texas Studies. Nystrom Education Edition. Reproducible for classroom use only. 134 a•bol•ish stop or put an end to. al•lies groups of people who come together to help one another in times of trouble. a•bo•li•tion•ists people who fought to end slavery. a•mend•ments changes in wording or meaning. a•bused used incorrectly. an•ces•tors family members who lived ac•cused blamed or charged with a before you were born. crime. an•cient a long time ago. ad•mired well liked. An•glos white North Americans who speak a•do•be a heavy clay used for English and are not Hispanic. making bricks. an•nex•ing adding. a•dop•ted accepted and put into action. an•nu•al an event that takes place aer•o•nau•tics the science of flight. once a year.

aer•o•space the earth’s atmosphere and an•them a song of praise and love for the space beyond. SAMPLEone’s country.

Af•ri•ca the second largest continent an•ti•slav•er•y against slavery. in the world. Located south of Europe between the Atlantic and Indian oceans. ap•peals disagreements with a court’s ruling; to ask a higher court to make a decision on ag•gres•sive ready to fight the same case. for something. ap•point•ed chosen. ag•ri•cul•ture planting crops and raising farm animals. ar•chae•ol•o•gists scientists who study past human life by looking at prehistoric fossils al•le•gianceFOR a pledge of loyalty. REVIEWand tools. ONLY

ar•id an area that does not receive enough rainfall to support farming. 135 ar•mored a type of covering that offers ba•sin an area of land that sinks in. protection from bullets. bays small bodies of water separated from ar•ti•facts objects and tools used by early the main body. humans for eating, cooking, and hunting. bi•og•ra•phies stories of a person’s life A•sia the world’s largest continent with written by someone else. more than half of the earth’s population. bi•son buffalo. as•sas•si•nat•ed killed a government leader by a well-planned secret attack. black•smith•ing heating and hammering iron into different shapes. a•tom•ic types of explosives that use nuclear energy. block•ade shutting off a place to keep people and supplies from coming in or going out. at•tain•ing getting for oneself. bor•ders lies right next to something. at•tor•ney gen•er•al the highest law officer of the state. bound•a•ry dividing line. au•to•bi•og•ra•phy the story of your brand a mark burned into the skin of an life written by you. animal, usually a cow, to show ownership.

a•vi•a•tion the design, development, bur•row•ing digging a hole. and production of aircraft. cam•paign a contest for elected office. bail money needed to free a person charged with a crime from jail until he or ca•nals human-made waterways for boats or she goes to trial. SAMPLEfor watering crops. bal•co•nies platforms that extend from ca•nine pointed, cone-shaped teeth. the wall of a building, usually surrounded by a railing for safety. cap•i•tal the city that serves as the center of government for the state or nation. bales tightly wrapped packages of cotton. cap•i•tol the building where the government bar•ren land that is unable to meets to make important decisions for the produce crops. state or nation.

bar•ri•cad•ed blocked the entry and exit. cap•tive a person who is held without permission. bar•ri•er is•landFOR a long sandy islandREVIEW ONLY that runs next to a shore and provides cap•tiv•i•ty keeping an animal in an protection from hurricanes and tidal enclosed area or cage. waves. 136 car•bon dat•ing finding the age of Civ•il War the war fought from 1861 to 1865 ancient objects by measuring the amount between the Union and the Confederacy over of carbon in them. the issue of slavery. car•go items carried by a ship, aircraft, or cli•mate the average condition of weather other vehicle. over a period of years. car•pen•try the skill of making and coast an area of land that borders water. repairing objects made of wood. co•coons silky cases made by spiders and Cath•o•lic member of a Christian church insects for protecting their eggs. who traces his or her history back to the twelve apostles. col•o•nists people who are ruled by another country. cav•al•ry military troops riding on horseback. com•mand•er a leader in charge of a military unit. cav•ern large cave. com•mis•sion•ers government officials in cer•e•mo•nies religious or charge of a department. spiritual gatherings. com•ple•tion finished. chan•nels long, narrow, deep parts of a body of water. comp•trol•ler an official who is in charge of government spending. char•i•ty helping or giving to a person in need without expecting to be paid. con•dense to remove the water from a beverage or food product so it will stay fresh Chris•ti•an•i•ty a religionSAMPLE based on the without refrigeration. life and teachings of Jesus Christ. con•fed•er•a•cy a group of people with cir•cu•lar in the shape of a circle. common goals. cit•i•zens people in a city, town, state, Con•fed•er•ate the type of nation formed or country who enjoy the freedom to vote by the Southern states during the Civil War. and participate in government decisions. Con•gress the group of people who are ci•vil•ians people who are not part of elected to make laws for a state or the nation. the military. con•quered defeated by force. civ•il rights the rights and freedoms granted to allFOR citizens by the United REVIEW States con•serve to use something ONLY carefully so it Constitution. won’t be wasted or used up too quickly.

137 con•sti•tu•tion the plan for the state de•hy•drat•ed a type of food that has or nation that outlines the duties of been dried. government and guarantees the rights of the people. del•e•gates people sent with power to represent others. Con•sti•tu•tion•al Con•ven•tion the meeting of 1787, where the United States del•e•ga•tion a group of people sent with Constitution was written. power to represent others.

con•struc•tion work that involves putting de•riv•ing getting or receiving. something together. de•scen•dants family members born after con•ti•nent one of seven large areas of one has died. land on Earth. des•ti•ny events that we have no con•ven•tion a meeting with a power over. common purpose. de•struc•tive causing damage. con•vinced talked someone into doing something your way. dic•ta•tors rulers with complete power, making all of the decisions for a group crests showy feathers on tops of some of people. birds’ heads. di•gest the process used by the body cul•tur•al carefully planned activities that to break down food so it can be used for improve the mind, tastes, and manners. vitamins and energy.

cul•ture a group of people with a shared dis•a•bil•i•ty a physical or mental problem set of beliefs, goals, religiousSAMPLE customs, that keeps someone from doing normal attitudes, and social practices. activities that others are able to do.

cus•toms usual ways of doing things. dis•abled physically or mentally impaired.

debts amounts of money owed to dis•crim•i•na•tion treating some people someone else. better or worse than others.

dec•ades periods of ten years. dis•pute argument or disagreement.

de•clined slid downward. dis•solved destroyed by water. de•feat•ingFOR winning victory over. REVIEWdomed a type of roof that archesONLY upward. de•fend•ing protecting. do•nat•ed gave a free gift to someone in need.

138 dor•sal a body part located on the back of ep•i•dem•ic a disease that spreads quickly an animal. and affects many people at the same time. drought a long period with no rain. e•ro•sion wearing away the land by wind and water. dro•ver a person who herds cattle or sheep. e•rupt break out. dunes mounds of sand that pile up when es•carp•ment a steep slope; a long cliff. the wind blows. es•tab•lished set up. dwel•lings houses. eth•nic the label given to a large group of e•con•o•my a word used to describe people who share the same culture but live the way a city, town, state, or country outside of their place of national birth. makes money. Eu•rope the sixth smallest of Earth’s eld•er•ly older people who are in the seven continents. later stages of their lives. ev•i•dence proof. e•lect•ed selected by voting. ex•e•cu•tion put to death. el•e•va•tions the heights to which pieces of land are raised. ex•ec•u•tives people who have authority in an organization or business. em•blem an object that represents something. ex•hib•its displays. em•per•or the male rulerSAMPLE of an empire. ex•pand grow larger. em•pire a group of territories or peoples ex•pe•di•tion a journey for the purpose under one ruler. of exploring. en•dan•gered in danger of ex•port•er one who sends items out of the becoming extinct. country for sale or trade. en•dowed provided with. ex•o•skel•e•tons hard outer coverings that protect the bodies of some animals en•forced required someone to obey without backbones. the rules. ex•po•si•tions public shows. en•vi•ron•men•talFOR concern for thingsREVIEW ONLY that affect air, water, and living creatures. ex•tends stretches.

ex•trac•ted took out. 139 fac•to•ries buildings where a large found•ers people who establish or set amount of items are produced in the same something up for the first time. way at the same time. fron•tier an area of land that has not yet fast•ing a period without eating. been settled. fa•tal deadly. gey•sers springs that erupt heated water and steam. fault•ing cracking in the earth’s crust. gla•cier large sheet of ice moving slowly fed•er•al gov•ern•ment the group of down a valley or spreading across the surface people (often elected) who make decisions of the land. for the nation. gon•do•la an enclosed car that hangs fer•tile rich soil that produces a large from a cable, taking passengers to the top of number of crops. a mountain. fer•til•ized added a material to the soil to gorge a deep canyon that usually has a river make crops grow better. running through it. fi•nan•cial having to do with money. gov•er•nor a person who is in charge of an area or group. fish•er•ies businesses that specialize in fishing. gran•ite a hard rock formed millions of years ago that contains crystals. flex•i•ble something that bends easily. Great Bri•tain an island that includes flint a very hard stone that makes a spark England, Scotland, and Wales. when struck by steel. SAMPLE Great De•pres•sion the period of difficult foot•hills hills near the bases financial times during the 1930s. of mountains. grubs newly hatched eggs of beetles and for•bid•den not allowed. other insects. for•ma•tions arrangements of something. gyp•sum a mineral used for making plaster. for•mer coming from the past. hab•i•tat place where plants and animals grow or live in nature. fos•sil the remains of a plant or animal preserved inFOR earth or rock. REVIEWhar•vest•ed picked crops. ONLY found•ed established or set up. head•quar•ters main centers of operation.

140 he•li•um a very lightweight odorless and in•dus•tries businesses that provide a colorless gas used in airships and balloons. certain product or service. herds groups of animals that in•flu•en•za an illness that affects the travel together. lungs and causes fever, chills, muscular pain, and headaches. His•pan•ic Spanish-speaking person originally from Spain. in•hab•it•ed lived or settled in a place. his•to•ri•ans people who study the past. in•let a small bay or cove along a coast. hoax a trick. in•no•cent not guilty. hos•tile very unfriendly; not willing in•spect•ed carefully checked. to cooperate. in•ter•fere to become involved when help is hu•mid wet or moist air. not wanted.

Ice Age a time when the earth was mostly in•ter•nal on the inside. covered with huge sheets of ice. in•trud•ers people who enter without il•le•gal against the law. permission. im•mi•grants people who permanently in•vent•ed created. settle in another country. in•vest•ors people who lend money to a in•ac•tive surviving for a long time with business or put money in an account in the no movement. SAMPLEhopes of making more money. in•ci•sor one of four sharp-edged teeth in ir•ri•ga•tion watering crops by digging the front of the mouth used by mammals a ditch that leads from a body of water to a for cutting and gnawing. farm. in•come money earned from doing work is•land area of land that is completely or owning property. surrounded by water. in•cu•bat•ing keeping eggs warm until ju•ry a group of people who are chosen they hatch. to listen to all of the facts during a court case before making a judgment of guilt in•de•pen•dence not under the control or or innocence. rule of someone else. FOR REVIEWjus•tice fairness in the court ONLY system. in•di•vis•i•ble not able to be separated or divided. ju•ve•niles young people who are under the age of 18. 141 kid•napped took a person mam•moths large hairy extinct elephants without permission. with tusks that curved upward. la•goons bodies of water cut off from the man•u•fac•tur•ing making something from open sea by coral reefs or sand bars. raw materials by hand or machinery. land•fill a place where garbage, paper, marks•men people who are skilled glass, and metal are buried between layers target shooters. of dirt and other materials. mar•su•pi•als mammals with pouches for La•ti•nos Spanish-speaking people from carrying their young. Latin America. ma•son•ry the art of making things out leg•end a story passed down from a long of stone. time ago that is usually not true. met•a•mor•pho•sis a change in an animal leg•is•la•ture a group of people with as it grows from one stage to another. the power to make laws. mi•grant a person who moves from place to li•ber•ty the freedom to do as one pleases. place in search of work. lieu•ten•ant gov•er•nor an elected mi•grate to move from one region or official who ranks just below the governor country to another. of a state. mil•i•tar•y people who are part of the lime•stone a rock made mainly of calcium armed forces who may be asked to go to war. from the skeletons of small sea creatures. mi•mic copy the voice or actions of others. live•stock animals raisedSAMPLE on a farm to eat or sell for profit. min•er•als substances found below ground that include ore, coal, natural gas, water, loy•al stay committed to a person or and gems. a cause. min•i•mum the least amount. mag•ne•si•um a silver-white mineral that produces a bright white light when burned. mis•sion•ar•ies people sent to spread a religious faith. ma•jor•i•ty more than half. mis•sions types of churches. mam•mals warm-blooded animals that feed their young with milk, have backbones, mo•hair material made from the long silky and are coveredFOR with hair. REVIEWhair of Angora goats. ONLY

mon•u•ment building, stone, or statue created to remember a person or event. 142 mot•to a short phrase describing conduct pa•trol to keep an area safe. or principles. perch a resting place. mounds hills. pet•ro•glyphs carvings or drawings in rocks moun•tain•ous a place that has usually made by people who lived a long many mountains. time ago.

na•tive belonging to a place because pe•tro•le•um a flammable liquid that is of birth. found underground and is usually made into gasoline. nec•tar sweet liquid used for making honey. Pil•grims the English colonists who founded the first permanent settlement at Plymouth no•mad•ic types of people who in 1620. wander from place to place with no permanent home. pi•o•neer an early settler who prepared the way for others to follow. North A•mer•i•ca one of seven continents in the world. Bounded by plan•e•tar•i•um building where images of Alaska on the northwest, Greenland on the stars and planets are projected onto a northeast, Florida on the southeast, and dome-shaped ceiling. Mexico on the southwest. plan•ta•tions very large farms in the South nu•cle•ar powered by atomic energy. where crops of cotton and tobacco were grown and slave labor was generally used. of•fi•cial proper or correct. po•li•o a very serious disease that affects the or•chards groups of fruitSAMPLE or nut trees. nerve cells in the brain and the spinal cord. out•law a person who breaks the law. pop•u•la•ted the number of people or animals living in a place. out•num•bered having more people on one side than the other. ports cities or towns located next to water with areas for loading and unloading ships. out•raged extremely angered. po•ver•ty extremely poor. pan•han•dle a narrow piece of land that sticks out. prai•rie a wide area of flat, treeless grassland. pan•icked became filled with fear. FOR REVIEWpre•cip•i•ta•tion the deposit ONLY of rain, hail, par•a•lyze unable to move. snow, sleet, or mist on the earth.

143 pred•a•tors animals that hunt and eat ra•di•ance brightly shining. smaller animals. raids sudden attacks. pre•his•tor•ic the period of time before recorded history. ran•som money paid for the safe return of a person who has been taken pre•serve protect from injury or ruin so without permission. more can be learned. rat•i•fy approve. press people responsible for reporting the news. re•belled acted out against authority. prey an animal that is hunted by another rec•re•a•tion a type of activity designed for animal for food. rest and relaxation. priests people with the authority to re•cruit to find people who are willing to perform religious ceremonies. join a military force. pro•ces•sing changing food by re•cy•clers animals that process waste special treatment. materials so they can be used again. prof•it•a•ble a type of business that re•duce decrease in size. makes more money than it spends. re•fin•er•ies buildings with equipment used pro•mote to encourage someone to for producing oil. buy something. ref•uge shelter or protection from danger. pros•pec•tors people who explore areas for gold or other minerals.SAMPLEref•u•gees people who run from danger in their country to the safety of another country. pros•per have success or wealth. re•gen•er•ate make more of something. pro•test to argue against something thought to be unfair. re•gions areas of land with physical features and characteristics that set them apart from prov•ince a part of a country having a other areas of land. government of its own. re•lo•ca•tion move to a new location. pueb•lo a type of Native American village. re•pro•duce to produce new life by Pu•lit•zer Prize an award given to authors giving birth. who write greatFOR literature. REVIEW ONLY quar•ries open pits that provide stones for building. 144 rep•tiles cold-blooded animals covered sac•ri•ficed killed an animal or human being with scales or bony plates that breathe as a spiritual offering. through their lungs. sage•brush an American plant that grows re•pub•lic an independent nation with its as a low shrub and has a bitter juice and a own form of government, usually led by sharp smell. a president. sa•loons places where alcohol is served. res•er•va•tions areas of land set aside by the United States government for Native salt mar•shes areas of land overflowed by Americans. salt water. res•er•voir a large storage area for sa•lute use a hand signal to express honor. resources that include water, petroleum, and natural gas. sand bars mounds of sand built up by flowing water in a river or along the coast. re•signed quit. saw•mill a business with big machines that re•sort a place where people go for saw wood into planks and boards. a vacation. sculp•tures figures or designs shaped out of re•sourc•es things found in nature that clay, marble, or metal. are valuable to humans. se•cede withdraw or separate from re•stor•ing bringing something back to its the Union. original condition. sec•re•tar•y of state the official chosen by a re•tired left a job permanently to rest or governor to be in charge of state elections. try something different. SAMPLE se•cure safe. re•volt a fight against authority. sen•ate one part of a lawmaking body for a Rev•o•lu•tion•ar•y War battle for state or the nation. independence between Great Britain and the English colonists in America. shal•low a body of water that is not very deep. ro•dents types of mammals with large front teeth for gnawing or nibbling. slo•gan a phrase that expresses how someone feels about something. ro•de•o public performance featuring bronco and bull riding, calf roping, and small•pox a dangerous disease that causes steer wrestling.FOR REVIEWfever and bumps all over theONLY skin.

145 smug•gled brought something illegal in ten•ta•cles long, slender, flexible organs that without anyone else knowing about it. grow near the mouths of some invertebrates and are used for feeling, grabbing, or moving. snouts the noses and jaws of animals. ter•rains the features on the surface of a sor•ghum a grass grown for feeding piece of land. animals; the juice is used to make syrup. tes•ti•fy to make a formal statement in sou•ve•nirs tokens of remembrance. court about what is true.

spe•cies groups of plants or animals that Tex•as Rev•o•lu•tion the war fought are alike in many ways. in 1835 and 1836 between Mexico and the American settlers living in Texas; the squid an ocean animal with a long body, Americans won the war and created the ten arms, an internal shell, and a pair of Republic of Texas. rounded fins. tex•tile a woven or knit cloth. straits narrow strips of sea between two pieces of land. theme an activity that focuses on a central subject. sued went to court in the hopes of winning a judgment against someone for the•o•ry a scientific guess. wrongdoing. til•ling plowing the ground to make it ready suf•fo•ca•tion death from lack of air in for planting crops. the lungs. tim•ber wood from trees that can be used Su•preme Court the highest court in the for building. state or nation. SAMPLE tour•ism the business of providing services sur•ren•dered gave up completely. for people who are on vacation. tal•ons claws of birds. tra•di•tion•al types of customs and beliefs that are handed down from generation to tame gentle. generation. tan•ning the process of soaking animal trans•con•ti•nen•tal stretching across hides in a solution to turn them into leather. a continent. tech•nol•o•gy using science to solve trans•port to move products or people from problems in FORan industry. REVIEWone place to another. ONLY trea•ty a formal agreement.

146 tum•ble•weeds plants that break away wig•wams round Native American from their roots and are carried away by the dwellings that are built with poles and wind. covered in bark, mats, or animal skins. tu•tors private teachers. wil•der•ness an unsettled area where wild animals live. ty•rant a ruler who expects complete control. with•draw to leave. un•al•i•en•a•ble impossible to take wor•shipped honored someone; usually away or give up. during a religious ceremony. un•em•ployed without a job. yuc•ca a plant with pointed leaves and clusters of white, waxy flowers. u•nique special; one of a kind. u•nit•ing joining together and forming a single unit. ur•ban living within a city. va•ri•e•ty many different kinds. ven•om•ous poisonous. ver•ti•cal lines that go up and down. ves•sels large boats. SAMPLE vet•er•ans men and women who have served in the military. ve•to prevent a bill from becoming a law. vol•can•ic made of material that comes from a volcano. wage money paid to an employee for doing a job. war•rant signed permission from a judge to arrest or searchFOR someone’s property. REVIEW ONLY wea•ry very tired.

147 Alter, Judy. Santa Fe Trail. New York: Children’s Press, 1998. Brady, Marilyn Dell. The Asian Texans. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2004. Bredeson, Carmen. Texas. New York: Benchmark Books, 1997. Bredeson, Carmen, and Mary Dodson Wade. Texas. Celebrate the States. Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish Benchmark, 2006. Campbell, Nora. Texas. America the Beautiful. Buffalo, NY: Firefly Books, 2010. Chinery, Michael. Concise Color Encyclopedia of Nature. New York: Crowell, 1972.

Cities Of. “Escape to Texas.” 1997–2015. http://www.thecitiesof.com/texas/escape. Colorado Partners in Flight. “Land Bird Conservation Plan: Partners in Flight.” 2000. http://www.rmbo.org/pif/bcp/intro/exsum.htm. Davis, William B., and David J. Schmidly. “River Otter.” Mammals of Texas-Online Edition. 1997. http://www.nsrl.ttu.edu/tmot1/lutrcana.htm. Digital West Media. DesertUSA. 1996–2015. http://www.desertusa.com. Enchanted Learning. “Texas.” 2001–2015. http://www.enchantedlearning.com/usa/states/texas. Families Forever. “HistoricSAMPLE Trails of the Old West.” 1997–2004. Wakley-Canham. http://www.ida.net/users/lamar/trails.html. 50birds. Provides wood birdhouse designs for more than fifty North American birds. 2003. http://www.50birds.com. Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum. “Biography of Franklin D. Roosevelt.” 2004. http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/education/resources/bio_fdr.html. Frantz, Joe B. “Gail Borden, Jr.” In The Handbook of Texas. Texas State Historical Association. http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fbo24. Gough, G. A, J. R. Sauer, and M. Iliff. USGS: Science for a Changing World. Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter. 1998. Version 97.1. http://www.mbr-pwrc .usgs.gov/id/framlst/infocenter.html.FOR REVIEW ONLY

148 Hanson-Harding, Alexandria. Texas. From Sea to Shining Sea. New York: Children’s Press, 2008. Headley, Amy, and Victoria Smith. Do American History! Glendale, AZ: Splash! Publications, 2011. Heart of San Antonio. “The Alamo.” http://hotx.com/Alamo/index.html. Hermans-Killam, Linda. “Cool Cosmos: Warm and Cold-Blooded.” NASA. Published August 27, 2013. http://coolcosmos.ipac.caltech.edu/image_galleries/ir_zoo/coldwarm.html. Jacobs Altman, Linda. Texas. 2nd ed. It’s My State! New York: Marshall Cavendish Benchmark, 2010. Kidport. “The Animal Kingdom.” Kidport Reference Library. 1998–2012. http://www.kidport.com/RefLIB/Science/Animals/Animals.htm. McAuliffe, Emily. Texas Facts and Symbols. Mankato, MN: Capstone Press, 1998. Meadows, William C. The Comanche Code Talkers of World War II. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002. National Park Service. San Antonio Missions. Last modified March 15, 2015. http://www.nps.gov/saan. Nature Haven. “Toads.” Last modified February 13, 2013. http://www.naturehaven.com/Frog/toad.html. New Hampshire Public Television. “Structural and Behavioral Adaptations: Teacher’s Guide.” Nature Works. 2015. http://www.nhptv.org/natureworks/nwep1tg.htm Parker, Janice. Texas. A Kid’sSAMPLE Guide to American States. Mankato, MN: Weigl, 2001. Podendorf, Illa. Spiders. Chicago: Childrens Press, 1982. Rautenberg, Susann. “Metamorphosis of Frogs and Toads.” Whose Tadpole Is It? 2001–2011. http://www.whose-tadpole.de/metamorph_frogs.htm. Ross, Michael Elsohn. Spiderology. Minneapolis, MN: Carolrhoda Books, 2000. San Diego History Center. “Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo (?–1543).” 2001. http://www.sandiegohistory.org/bio/cabrillo/cabrillo.htm. Santa Clara Valley Audubon Society. “Behavioral Adaptation.” Kids’ Corner. Last modified NovemberFOR 25, 2005. http://www.scvas.org/index.php?page=text&id=wdp_behaveadapt. REVIEW ONLY

149 Steins, Richard. Exploration and Settlement. Austin, TX: Raintree Steck-Vaughn, 2000. Storad, Conrad J. Scorpions. Minneapolis, MN: Lerner, 1995. “Texas.” Academic American Encyclopedia, 2014. ———. Collier’s Encyclopedia, 2014. ———. Encyclopedia Americana, 2014. ———. Grolier’s Encyclopedia, 2014. ———. World Book Encyclopedia, 2014. Texas Parks and Wildlife Department. “Wildlife Fact Sheets.” 2005. http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/huntwild/wild/species. Texas State Historical Association. The Handbook of Texas Online. 2003. http://www.tshaonline.org. Texas State Library and Archives Commission. “Texas State Song.” Last modified August 23, 2011. http://www.tsl.state.tx.us/ref/abouttx/statesong.html. ———. “Triumph and Tragedy: Presidents of the Republic of Texas—Mirabeau B. Lamar.” Last modified March 16, 2015.http://www.tsl.state.tx.us/exhibits/presidents/lamar/path.html. Urban Programs Resource Network. “Worm Facts.” University of Illinois. 2015. http://urbanext.illinois.edu/worms/facts/index.html. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. “Southwest Region.” Last modified March 18, 2015. htp://www.fws.gov/southwest.SAMPLE

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