Feasibility Study for the LITTLE COLORADO RIVER VALLEY NATIONAL HERITAGE AREA
DRAFT Prepared by the Center for Desert Archaeology April 2008 table of contents
1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND...... 1 Introduction...... 1 What is a National Heritage Area ...... 1 Background ...... 2 Basic Description of the Study Area: Little Colorado River Valley...... 4 Study Process and History of Effort to Achieve Designation ...... 6 Scope of Public Outreach and Involvement ...... 7 Supporting Concurrent Efforts of Other Organizations ...... 15 Preparation of Feasibility Study ...... 16
2. PROPOSED CONCEPT ...... 18 Principles ...... 18 Heritage Education ...... 18 Voluntary Preservation ...... 19 Security of Property Rights ...... 19 Local Management ...... 19 General Guidelines ...... 20 Goals...... 21 Goal 1: Development and Increase of Heritage Tourism, and a Resulting Boost in Economic Revenues and Value of Local Lifestyles ...... 21 Goal 2: Additional Source of Funding for Locally Important Projects Pertaining to Cultural Education and Resoruce Conservation ...... 21 Goal 3: Increased Ability to Effectively Network with Multiple Organizations on a Regional Scale and Pool Resources to Complete Tourism, Educational, and Conservation Projects ...... 22 Goal 4: Increased Support for Local, Rural Economies ...... 22 Goal 5: Expanded Opportunties and Resources for Volunteer Stewardship of Natural Resources and Elements of the Region’s Heritage ...... 23 Goal 6: Balanced Preservation and Promotion ...... 23 Future Local Coordinating Entity and Conceptual Financial Plan ...... 23 Federally Appointed Commissions ...... 24 Locally Appointed Commissions ...... 25 Departments of Public Universities ...... 25
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Nonprofit Corporations ...... 25 Future Local Coordinating Entity for the Little Colorado River Valley National Heritage Area ...... 27 Conceptual Financial Plan ...... 30 Proposed Boundaires ...... 35 Roles of Different Organizations After Designation ...... 36 Petrified Forest National Park ...... 36 Little Colorado Heritage Partnership, Inc...... 36 Center for Desert Archaeology ...... 37
3. HERITAGE THEMES AND RELATED RESOURCES ...... 38 Development of the Heritage Themes ...... 38 Theme 1: Sacred and Enchanted Lanscapes ...... 40 Summary of Theme...... 40 Description of Theme ...... 41 Geology ...... 41 Paleontology ...... 43 Hydrology ...... 44 Biology ...... 46 Distinctiveness of Theme ...... 48 Related Resources ...... 49 Related Resources List ...... 49 Primary References ...... 54 Theme 2: Trails, Roads, and Rails of the West ...... 55 Summary of Theme...... 55 Description of Theme ...... 55 Native Trade and Travel Routes ...... 55 Spanish Exploration...... 57 Mormon Migration South...... 58 East-West Corridor ...... 60 Distinctiveness of Theme ...... 69 Related Resources List ...... 70 Primary References ...... 74 Theme 3: Living from the Land ...... 75 Summary of Theme...... 75 Description of Theme ...... 76 Agricultural Antiquity, Continuity, and Change ...... 76 Food and Farming Diversity in Arid Landscapes ...... 76 Cattle Ranching and Sheepherding...... 79 Lumber ...... 84 Mining ...... 86 Distinctiveness of Theme ...... 86 Related Resources List ...... 87 Primary References ...... 91 Theme 4: Native Nations ...... 93 Summary of Theme...... 93 Description of Theme ...... 93 Hopi...... 94 Zuni ...... 98 Navajo ...... 102 White Mountain Apache ...... 105 Distinctiveness of Theme ...... 108 Related Resources ...... 109 Related Resources List ...... 109
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Primary References ...... 109 Theme 5: Archaeology ...... 111 Summary of Theme...... 111 Description of Theme ...... 111 Overview of Prehistoric Culture History ...... 111 Anasazi or Ancestral Pueblo ...... 113 Mogollon ...... 114 Sinagua ...... 114 Historic Period Archaeology...... 115 Little Colorado Heritage Area Subareas ...... 115 Hopi Area (Including Hopi Mesas and Southeaster Kayenta ...... 116 Sinagua Area (Including Flagstaff Area and Anderson Mesa) ...... 116 Middle Little Colorado Area and Rio Puerco of the West ...... 117 Silver Creek Area ...... 118 Upper Little Colorado Area ...... 119 Zuni/Cibola Area ...... 120 Distinctiveness of Theme ...... 120 Related Resources ...... 120 Related Resources List (Native Nations and Archaeology) ...... 121 Primary References ...... 128 Theme 6: Expressions of Art and Life ...... 130 Summary of Theme...... 130 Description of Theme ...... 130 Pueblo Arts ...... 130 Navajo Arts ...... 133 Trading Posts ...... 135 Gallup: Home of the Inter-tribal Indian Ceremonial ...... 140 Native American Art Shows and Auctions ...... 141 Ancient Way Arts Trails ...... 142 Hopi Festivals ...... 143 Economic Impact of Native Arts ...... 143 Mural Art Reflects Life in Little Colorado Communities ...... 144 Distinctiveness of Theme ...... 147 Related Resourced List ...... 147 Primary References ...... 152 Theme 7: Outdoor Recreation ...... 155 Summary of Theme...... 155 Description of Theme ...... 155 Camping and Backpacking...... 155 Recreational Trails ...... 156 Wildlife Viewing ...... 157 Boating and Fishing ...... 158 Hunting ...... 159 Winter Sports ...... 159 Off-highway Vehicle (OHV) Use ...... 159 Climbing ...... 161 Astronomy and Star Gazing ...... 161 Hot Air Ballooning...... 161 Distinctiveness of Theme ...... 161 Related Resources ...... 162 Related Resource List ...... 162 Primary References ...... 165
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4. EVALUATION ACCORDING TO NATIONAL HERITAGE AREA CRITERIA ...... 167 Critical Steps and Criteria for becoming a National Heritage Area ...... 167 Critical Steps ...... 167 Suggested Criteria ...... 169 The Area has an Assemblage of Natural, Historic, or Cultural Resources that Together Represent Distinctive Aspects of American Heritage Worthy of Recognition, Conservation, Interpretation, and Continuing Use, and are Best Managed as Such an Assemblage through Partnerships among Public and Private Entitites, and by Combining Diverse and Sometimes Noncontiguous Resources and Active Communities ...... 170 The Area Reflects Traditions, Customs, Beliefs, and Folk Life that are a Valuable Part of the National Story ...... 171 The Area Provides Outstanding Opportunities to Conserve Natural, Cultural, Historic, and/or Scenic Features ...... 171 The Area Provides Outstanding Recreational and Educational Opportunities ...... 173 Resources that are Important to the Identified Theme of Themes of the Area Retain a Degree of Integrity Capable of Supporting Interpretation ...... 174 Residents, Businesses, Nonprofit Organizations, and Governments within the Proposed Area are Involved in the Planning, Have Developed a Conceptual Financial Plan, that Outlines the Roles for All Participants Including the Federal Government, and Have Demonstrated Support for Designation of the Area ...... 174 The Proposed Management Entity and Units of Government Supporting the Designation are Willing to Commit to Working in Partnership to Develop the Heritage Area ...... 175 The Proposal is Consistent with Continued Economic Activity in the Area ...... 175 A Conceptual Boundary Map is Supported by the Public ...... 176 The Management Entity Proposed to Plan and Implement the Project is Described...... 177 National Heritage Areas Feasibility Study Guidelines, Appendix 1: Examples of Nationally Distinctive Landscapes ...... 177 Important Historical Periods of the Nation and Its People ...... 178 Major Events, Persons, and Groups that Contributed Substantively to the Nation’s History, Customs, Beliefs, and Folklore ...... 178 Distinctive Cultures and Cultural Mores ...... 179 Major Industries and Technological, Business, and Manufacturing Innovations/Practices, Labor Movement, and Labor Advancements that Contributed Substantively to the Economic Growth of the Nation and the Wellbeing of Its People ...... 179 Transportation Innovations and Routes that Played Central Roles in Important Military Actions, Settlement, Migration, and Commerce ...... 179 Social Movements that Substantively Influenced Past and Present Day Society ...... 180 American Art, Crafts, Literature, Music ...... 180
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Distinctive Architecture and Architectural Periods and Movements ...... 181 Major Scientific Discoveries and Advancements ...... 181 Other Comparable Representations that Together with Their Associated Resources Substantively Contributed to the Nation’s Heritage ...... 182
5. SUPPORTING RESOURCES AND AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT...... 183 Supporting Resources ...... 183 List of National Historic Landmarks and National Register Sites ...... 183 Other Supporting Resources ...... 183 Affected Environment ...... 184 Expected Positive Effects ...... 185 An Increase in Regional Coordination of Conservation or Preservation Efforts ...... 185 An Increase in Regional Coordination of Heritage Tourism Efforts ...... 185 Additional Funding for Education, Preservation, or Heritage Tourism Efforts...... 185 Greater Ability to Raise Awareness of the Little Colorado River Region on a National or International Scale ...... 185 New Investment in the Region ...... 186 Support of Local Economies...... 186 Quality of Life ...... 186 Potential Negative Effects ...... 186
6. POTENTIAL FOR ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT BASED ON HERITAGE TOURISM ...... 188 Economic Importance of National Heritage Designation...... 188 Attributes of the Little Colorado River Valley Area ...... 189 Economic Value of Tourism to the Area ...... 191 Growth of the Tourism Industry in Arizona 1998-2005 ...... 193 Growth of the Tourism Market ...... 193 Aging Population ...... 193 Cultural and Heritage Tourism ...... 194 Hispanic Tourists ...... 194 Need for New Product Development ...... 195 Potential for Economic Growth ...... 195 Primary References ...... 196
7. ALTERNATIVE ACTIONS ...... 198 Alternative 1: Continue Current Efforts ...... 198 Expected Outcomes of Alternative 1 ...... 198 Alternative 2: Designation of a State Heritage Area ...... 198 Expected Outcomes of Alternative 2 ...... 198 Alternative 3: Designation of a Little Colorado River Valley National Heritage Area ...... 199 Expected Outcomes of Alternative 3 ...... 199 Alternative 4: Designation of a Little Colorado River Valley National Heritage Area According to the Map Provided in Appendix 2 ...... 199 Expected Outcome of Alternative 4 ...... 199
APPENDIX A: AN ACT ...... 200
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APPENDIX B: ALTERNATIVE HERITAGE AREA MAP ...... 206
APPENDIX C: NPS CRITERIA FOR DESIGNATION ...... 207
APPENDIX D: NPS DISTINCTIVE CRITERIA ...... 208
APPENDIX E: DETAILED BUDGETS, 2009–2011...... 209
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INTRODUCTION West. The open landscapes, regional arts, fabled travel routes, and time- The American Southwest invokes a honored lifestyles are not just things of vivid image in the mind and stirring the past. They are a vibrant part of the feeling in the heart, even among those valley’s modern-day character and who have never been here. Its land and embody aspects of the American legends are intricately woven into the identity that modern-day people still fabric of America’s past and current like to discover. For these reasons, the culture. The Little Colorado River designation of the Little Colorado River Valley, a 26,000+ square mile Valley National Heritage Area would watershed that straddles the northern add considerable dimension to the Arizona and New Mexico border, has stories already being told by the 37 witnessed many seminal events in the current National Heritage Areas. history of the United States and is home to people whose families lived and traveled in the area for hundreds, What is a National Heritage Area? and in some cases, thousands of years before the region became an official A National Heritage Area is a non- part of the country. The valley is home regulatory, federal designation that to the entire Hopi and Zuni Indian recognizes the defining landscapes and Reservations and the southern portion regional cultural traditions of the of the Navajo Nation as well as the United States. The designation helps to descendents of early Hispanic and preserve nationally important Mormon immigrants and those who resources through the creation of followed in the wake of development partnerships among federal, state, and after the region was ceded to the local entities. United States in 1848 as a result of the Mexican-American War. Rich in A “national heritage area” is a history—the Hopi village of Oraibi is place designated by the United one of the oldest, continuously States Congress where natural, inhabited communities in the present- cultural, historic and recreational day United States—the region is alive resources combine to form a with some of the oldest traditions of cohesive, nationally-distinctive the prehistoric and historic American landscape arising from patterns of
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human activity shaped by based on the resulting long-term geography. These areas tell benefits to the region. Through nationally important stories about voluntary participation and local our nation and are representative management, and without affecting of the national experience through property rights, some major benefits to both the physical features that residents and visitors are expected to remain and the traditions that include the following: have evolved within them. Development and increase of (National Park Service 2008) heritage tourism, and a resulting boost in economic revenues and National Heritage Areas are different value of local lifestyles from National Parks and many other Additional source of funding for types of federally designated lands locally important projects because designation does not impose pertaining to cultural education additional zoning or regulations on and resource conservation private or public land. Because a Increased ability to effectively National Heritage Area is locally network with multiple initiated and managed, it is a organizations on a regional scale community-based conservation and pool resources to complete strategy that recognizes that the people tourism, educational, and who live in a region are uniquely conservation projects qualified to preserve its resources. Increased support for local, rural economies Local stakeholders manage National Expanded opportunities and Heritage Areas, with planning and resources for volunteer interpretation assistance from the stewardship of natural resources National Park Service. Through annual and elements of the region’s Congressional appropriations, up to heritage $10 million in 50-percent match Balanced preservation and funding is available to each National promotion Heritage Area over a period of 15 years. This seed money helps cover basic expenses, such as staffing, and BACKGROUND also leverages money from state, local, and private sources to implement The following sections of this chapter locally selected projects. A broad provide a list of place names that spectrum of local stakeholders seeks appear throughout the study, a basic the designation of a Little Colorado description and information about the River Valley National Heritage Area study area, the study process and a
Table 1.1. Place names of the Little Colorado River watershed. Name State Notes
Counties Apache Arizona — Catron New Mexico — Cibola New Mexico — Coconino Arizona — McKinley New Mexico — Navajo Arizona —
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Name State Notes
Cities, Towns, Chapters, and Other Communities Cameron Chapter Arizona — Church Rock Chapter New Mexico — Concho Arizona — Eagar Arizona — Erastus (abandoned) Arizona Early Mormon settlement Flagstaff Arizona Coconino County Seat Ft. Defiance Arizona — Gallup New Mexico McKinley County Seat Ganado Chapter Arizona — Holbrook (formerly Horse Head Crossing) Arizona Navajo County Seat Joseph City (formerly Allen’s Camp) Arizona — Kykotsmovi Arizona Hopi capital Leupp Chapter Arizona — McGaffey New Mexico — Nahata Dziil Chapter Arizona — Obed (abandoned) Arizona Early Mormon settlement Pine Hill New Mexico — Pinetop-Lakeside Arizona — Polacca Arizona Hopi village Ramah (formerly Savoia) New Mexico — Sanders Arizona — Show Low Arizona — Sipaulovi Arizona Hopi village Snowflake Arizona — Springerville Arizona — St. Johns Arizona Apache County Seat St. Michael’s Chapter Arizona — Taylor Arizona — Vernon Arizona — Walpi Arizona Hopi village Window Rock Arizona Navajo capital Winslow (formerly Sunset Crossing) Arizona — Zuni New Mexico Zuni capital
Other El Morro National Monument New Mexico — Homol’ovi Ruins State Park Arizona Puebloan site near Winslow Reservoir first created by a Mormon-built dam south of St. Lyman Lake State Park Arizona Johns. Also a petroglyph and pueblo ruins site. A 200-mile escarpment that runs basically east-west across Mogollon Rim Arizona eastern Arizona to the New Mexico border. Major tributary to the Little Colorado flowing from New Arizona, New Rio Puerco Mexico to the southwest and Mexico meeting the Little Colorado at Holbrook
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brief history of the effort to achieve Coconino, Navajo, and Apache designation, documentation of the Counties, Arizona and McKinley, scope of public outreach and Cibola, and Catron Counties, New involvement, and examples of how this Mexico. It includes the entire Hopi study supports concurrent efforts of Reservation in Arizona and the entire other organizations in the region Zuni Reservation in New Mexico and related to heritage tourism approximately the southern half of the development, cultural education, and Navajo Nation which spans both states. resource conservation goals. The final An accurate population total is difficult section describes the preparation of this to determine due to the irregular feasibility study and its contents. border, but, based in part on U.S. Census data, is estimated to be approximately 235,000 or more. Basic Description of the Study Area: Little Colorado River Valley The Little Colorado River begins atop Mt. Baldy in Arizona’s White The Little Colorado River Valley is a Mountains and is joined by numerous 26,000+ square mile watershed in the tributaries along its 270+ mile American Southwest. With minor northwesterly course to its confluence alterations, the geophysical boundary with the main Colorado River on the of the Little Colorado River’s eastern edge of Grand Canyon National watershed is the boundary used for this Park. The site of the springs that create feasibility study for designation of a the river’s headwaters is a designated National Heritage Area. The minor sacred site for the White Mountain alterations are the inclusion of the Apache Tribe. Into the early 20th entire San Francisco Peaks landform century, the Little Colorado flowed (the actual watershed boundary year-round and flooded frequently. In excludes a small portion of the today’s times, it flows perennially mountain’s western slope) and the through its upper reaches but is dry exclusion of extremely small parcels of throughout much of its course the watershed that occur in San Juan depending on the season and volume County, New Mexico, and on the White of recent rains or snows. The Mountain Apache Reservation in watershed contains the highest point in Arizona. The eastern boundary of the Arizona, the 12,633 ft. top of Mt. watershed is formed by the Continental Humphries which is part of the San Divide in New Mexico, the southern Francisco Peaks, and drops to an boundary is formed by the geological elevation of 2,500 ft. High elevation feature known as the Mogollon Rim. pine forests are found on and The western boundary is the San immediately surrounding the San Francisco Peaks and the northern Francisco Peaks, in the White boundary follows the ridge of Black Mountains which follow the Mogollon Mesa on the Navajo Nation. Rim, and in the Zuni Mountains in Approximately one-fifth of the New Mexico. The rest of the watershed watershed lies in western New Mexico contains mostly pinyon-juniper forest while four-fifths lie in northeast or high desert grassland. Arizona. The boundary, being a watershed, does not follow political The region is currently home to two lines. The proposed Little Colorado western Pueblo tribes, the Hopi Tribe, River Valley National Heritage Area the Pueblo of Zuni, and the Navajo includes significant portions of Nation. Archaeological studies and
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tribal oral histories give evidence of and both became official U.S. many different people living in the Territories. Both Arizona and New watershed over time beginning Mexico achieved statehood in 1912, approximately 10,000-12,000 years ago. making them the last of the contiguous After Europeans came to the Americas, 48 states to join the union. the region became part of northern New Spain. Francisco Vasquez de Recognition of tribal rights and lands Coronado traveled through the were supposed to be a part of the southeastern corner of the watershed in Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, although 1540, encountering Zunis at the pueblo the United States did not always honor of Hawikku. He continued north and those rights. In 1864, Kit Carson began east in a vain search for the Seven a scorched-earth campaign against the Cities of Cibola (also known as the Navajos, burning their homes and Seven Cities of Gold), which was one of agricultural fields and killing their the most compelling, yet erroneous, livestock to force them off their land. myths of his time. Don Juan de Oñate Eventually, all Navajos were rounded also traveled through the southeast up and sent to Fort Sumner (also corner of the watershed, leaving his known as Bosque Redondo) in eastern famous inscription at El Morro when New Mexico. This journey is referred he undoubtedly stopped for water at to as The Long Walk. Approximately the perennial pool at the rock’s base. 8,000 to 9,000 people started the walk, Oñate is credited as being the first but between 2,000 and 3,000 died either governor of what would become New on the way or during the next four Mexico and also the first to introduce years of imprisonment. The Treaty of sheep as ranch animals on a large scale. 1868 finally established a Navajo Sheep would forever change Navajo reservation and allowed the people to culture. Their legends foretold of the return their homelands. Today, the animal’s arrival and they fully Navajo Nation extends from northeast embraced the raising of sheep, the Arizona into northwestern New making of products from its wool, and Mexico and southern Utah and is the incorporation of sheep into their divided politically into 110 chapters, diet and spiritual beliefs. For a time, each governed by an elected council. sheep raising would also become the There is also an 88-member Tribal number one industry for non-Navajos Council and Tribal President. The in the region as well. Oñate, however, Navajo capital is in Window Rock, could be a brutal ruler and he was Arizona. The Zunis first signed an eventually removed from his post as agreement with Indian Agent James governor largely due to his horrendous Calhoun in 1850 in regards to their land treatment of Native Americans. and rights but it was not until 1877 that the first portion of the current Zuni Mexico won its independence from Reservation was delineated by Spain in 1821, thereby changing the Executive Order. Today, the Zuni Tribe land from northern New Spain to has an elected Tribal Council and northern Mexico. The Treaty of Governor located in Zuni, New Guadalupe Hidalgo, which ended the Mexico. The Hopi Reservation was not Mexican-American War in 1848, ceded formally formed until 1882. The the region to the United States. It was Reservation lands are comprised of not until 1863, however, that the formal three main mesas that the Hopi have boundary between present-day continuously occupied beginning 1,000 Arizona and New Mexico was drawn years ago and the Reservation is often
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referred to as the Hopi Mesas or the Late in 2003, local citizen concern for Mesas. From east to west, the mesas petroglyphs along tributaries to the are named First Mesa, Second Mesa, Little Colorado River near Snowflake and Third Mesa. There are twelve brought together representatives from distinct villages on the Mesas, each Arizona’s State Historic Preservation with their own governing body. The Office, a land company, town village of Kykotsmovi, Arizona on government, the local citizenry, and the Third Mesa is the Hopi capital. The Center for Desert Archaeology to Hopi Tribe has an elected Tribal discuss ways in which these ancient Council and Chairman. The boundaries sites could be protected and preserved of all three reservations have changed while still allowing for public access. A since their initial designations. similar meeting focused on Casa Malpais and on preservation of the The largest city in the watershed is historic elementary school was held in Flagstaff, Arizona (pop. 58,000) Springerville at that same time. At both followed by Gallup, New Mexico (pop. meetings similar concerns were raised 19,000). With few exceptions, most about the challenges of protecting other cities, towns, and communities important sites, interpreting them for a have populations well below 6,000. The variety of audiences, and linking the area is rural. Cattle and sheep ranching stories of one community to those of still occur in many Native and non- neighboring communities throughout Native communities and tourism is a the region. The challenge of finding the major contributor to local economies. necessary funding to support these efforts was a central theme of both meetings. Center staff members were Study Process and History of Effort aware of the National Heritage Area to Achieve Designation program and were helping to prepare a feasibility study for the proposed Santa The earliest ideas for a Little Colorado Cruz Valley National Heritage Area. River Valley National Heritage Area The idea of a Little Colorado River began along the river itself. The Center Valley National Heritage Area was for Desert Archaeology (Center), a raised by Center staff members during nonprofit, (501)(c)(3) corporation based these two meetings in 2003. It was one in Tucson, Arizona, has worked on of several approaches to find funding archaeological and heritage tourism and meet local preservation goals that projects in communities along the Little were discussed. Colorado River since 2001. Some of the more long-standing and significant During the summer of 2004, Center for projects include working with the Desert Archaeology staff members Town of Springerville on the ancestral prepared a map that displayed the Puebloan site of Casa Malpais, with watershed boundary of the Little private landowners on another Colorado River and highlighted the ancestral Puebloan site now known as many communities, National Parks, Sherwood Ranch Ruin (formerly Raven and tribal nations that were located Ruin), and with the Hopi Tribe on sites within the watershed. The map was within Homol’ovi Ruins State Park shared in an informal meeting with outside of Winslow. Individual staff several town officials in Springerville, members also worked at Homol’ovi and the concept of a National Heritage before their employment with the Area was discussed. Based on that Center for Desert Archaeology. meeting, the Center’s Executive
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Director made a presentation to the Scope of Public Outreach and October 4, 2004, meeting of the Apache Involvement and Navajo County Mayor and Council Members Association in Taylor, The Center for Desert Archaeology Arizona. There was a strong and used a number of methods to reach the enthusiastic response to the National public and seek input and support Heritage Area concept among those from communities throughout the present, and the first letter of support watershed for the proposed Little was written by the Association’s Chair, Colorado River Valley National Jim Boles, on October 18, 2004. Heritage Area. More than 200 information packets were distributed to Based on this initial enthusiasm, the tribal officials, businesses, civic Center for Desert Archaeology organizations, local governments, state increased its public outreach efforts. By and federal agencies, individuals, and the summer of 2005, a total of eighteen educational institutions. Center staff local organizations and governments also made many informational had given formal letters or resolutions presentations to local governments and of support for the project. The work up organizations, had information display to this point had been undertaken by a booths at local events, sent a steady part-time staff member, but the Center stream of press releases to local media knew the tremendous effort required outlets, and sent monthly updates to an for a full feasibility study would ever-growing list of interested people. require a full-time position. In the In addition to these methods of public spring of 2006, the Center was awarded outreach, the Center held seventy a grant from the Arizona State Parks meetings as a means of facilitating Heritage Fund to support such a public involvement. These efforts position. resulted in contact with diverse stakeholders throughout the region and The Center hired a Heritage Programs a total of 57 formal letters or Coordinator within a couple of months resolutions of support from businesses, and the amount of public outreach, organization, agencies, and local involvement, awareness, and support governments all across the proposed reached a new level. The proposed Area. The following tables and lists National Heritage Area’s general detail these efforts. guidelines, heritage themes, and lists of related resources (all to be discussed in Information Presentations greater detail in subsequent chapters) were wholly developed by members of In addition to the presentations the public. specifically about the proposed Little
Table 1.2. Informational presentations given. Group Location Date Apache and Navajo Counties Mayor and Taylor, Arizona October 4, 2004 Councilmembers Association Little Colorado River Watershed Coordinating Holbrook, Arizona November 2004 Council Little Colorado River Watershed Coordinating Holbrook, Arizona March 1, 2005 Council Executive Committee Springerville Town Council Springerville, Arizona March 2, 2005
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Group Location Date Apache and Navajo Counties Mayor and Holbrook, Arizona April 4, 2005 Councilmembers Association Society for Applied Anthropology Conference Santa Fe, New Mexico April 6, 2005 Homolovi Chapter of the AZ Archaeological Winslow, Arizona April 21, 2005 Society Hopi Cultural Resources Advisory Team Kykotsmovi, Arizona May 19, 2005 Pinetop-Lakeside Town Council Lakeside, Arizona May 19, 2005 Winslow City Council Winslow, Arizona May 23, 2005 Arizona Statewide Historic Preservation Tucson, Arizona June 10, 2005 Conference Holbrook City Council Holbrook, Arizona June 14, 2005 Interdisciplinary Team Meeting Kykotsmovi, Arizona June 20, 2005 (Hopi Dept. of Natural Resources) Flagstaff City Council work session Flagstaff, Arizona July 11, 2005 Navajo County Board of Supervisors Holbrook, Arizona July 18, 2005 Little Colorado River Watershed Coordinating Holbrook, Arizona July 13, 2006 Council Staff of Congressman Rick Renzi Flagstaff, Arizona August 1, 2006 White Mountain Audubon Society Pinetop, Arizona November 1, 2006 Dine be iina (a Navajo sheepherders’association) Tsalie, Arizona November 4, 2006 Winslow Chamber of Commerce Winslow, Arizona November 9, 2006 Diablo Trust (a partnership of two ranches) Flagstaff, Arizona November 10, 2006 Gallup Chamber of Commerce Gallup, New Mexico November 15, 2006 Local citizens at Inscription Rock Trading Ramah, New Mexico November 17, 2006 Company Apache and Navajo Counties Mayor and Taylor, Arizona January 8, 2007 Councilmembers Association TRACKS Board (hiking and trail building group) Lakeside, Arizona January 8, 2007 Catron County REDTT Council Reserve, New Mexico January 10, 2007 (Rural Economic Development Through Tourism) Cibola County REDTT Council Grants, New Mexico January 11, 2007 (Rural Economic Development Through Tourism) Coconino Community College Colorado Plateau Flagstaff, Arizona January 17, 2007 Studies capstone class St. Johns Regional Chamber of Commerce St. Johns, Arizona January 24, 2007 Snowflake-Taylor Chamber of Commerce Snowflake, Arizona January 25, 2007 Museum of Northern Arizona docents Flagstaff, Arizona February 13, 2007 Friends of Flagstaff’s Future Flagstaff, Arizona February 28, 2007 Painted Desert Kiwanis Club Holbrook, Arizona March 8, 2007 Winslow Historical Society Winslow, Arizona March 9, 2007 Snowflake Academy Foundation Snowflake, Arizona March 13, 2007 Snowflake Town Council Snowflake, Arizona March 13, 2007 Winslow Historic Preservation Commission Winslow, Arizona March 28, 2007 Winslow Planning & Zoning Commission Winslow, Arizona April 9, 2007 Springerville-Eagar Chamber of Commerce Springerville, Arizona April 10, 2007 Eagar Town Council Eagar, Arizona April 10, 2007
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Group Location Date St. Johns City Council St. Johns, Arizona April 12, 2007 Nahata Dziil Chapter planning meeting Sanders, Arizona April 13, 2007 Dine be iina (a Navajo sheepherders’ association) Hard Rock, Arizona April 14, 2007 Navajo Nation Scenic Byway 98 meeting Page, Arizona April 19, 2007 Sunnyside Neighborhood Association Flagstaff, Arizona May 10, 2007 Heber-Overgaard Chamber of Commerce Overgaard, Arizona May 15, 2007 Nahata Dziil Chapter tourism planning meeting Sanders, Arizona May 17, 2007 Homolovi Chapter of the AZ Archaeological Winslow, Arizona May 17, 2007 Society Arizona Historic Preservation Conference Prescott, Arizona June 14, 2007 Nahata Dziil Chapter Meeting Sanders, Arizona June 15, 2007 Southside Neighborhood Association Flagstaff, Arizona June 21, 2007 Houck Chapter Meeting Houck, Arizona July 8, 2007 Lupton Chapter Meeting Lupton, Arizona July 12, 2007 Hopi Pre-Commission Flagstaff, Arizona August 16, 2007 Coconino Community College Teaching and Flagstaff, Arizona August 16, 2007 Learning Conference Sipaulovi Development Corporation Sipaulovi, Arizona August 22, 2007 Zuni Tribal Council Zuni, New Mexico September 12, 2007 Navajo County Board of Supervisors Holbrook, Arizona September 18, 2007 Apache and Navajo Counties Mayor and Winslow, Arizona October 1, 2007 Councilmembers Association Northern Arizona Council of Governments Flagstaff, Arizona October 25, 2007 Land Team (Hopi) Kykotsmovi, Arizona November 21, 2007 Western Navajo Agency Flagstaff, Arizona December 15, 2007 Community Service Administrators (Hopi) Kykotsmovi, Arizona December 20, 2007 Coppermine Chapter planning meeting Coppermine, Arizona January 1, 2008 Little Colorado River Watershed Coordinating Show Low, Arizona January 31, 2008 Council Winter Conference Navajo County Farm Bureau Snowflake, Arizona February 26, 2008 Coppermine Chapter planning meeting Coppermine, Arizona March 4, 2008 Coconino Natural Resource Conservation District Flagstaff, Arizona March 10, 2008 St. Johns City Council St. Johns, Arizona March 13, 2008
Colorado River Valley National promoting heritage tourism, local Heritage Area given to area culture, or resource conservation. This organizations, the Heritage Programs served to inform her about ongoing Coordinator attended or participated in efforts in the region and to begin to more than 20 local events, conferences, establish relationships and partnerships and meetings of groups dedicated to upon which the future Area can build.
Table 1.3. Information display booth at local events. Event Location Date
Flagstaff Farmers’ Market Flagstaff, Arizona October 1, 2006 Slide Rock State Park AppleFest Sedona, Arizona October 14, 2006
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Event Location Date Voices that Beautify the Land Flagstaff, Arizona April 27-28, 2007 Conference Ramah Farmers’ Market Ramah, New Mexico June 9, 2007 Heber-Overgaard 4th of July Overgaard, Arizona June 30 – July 1, 2007 Celebration Suvoyuki Day at Homolovi Ruins Winslow, Arizona July 7, 2007 State Park Ramah Farmers’ Market Ramah, New Mexico October 6, 2007 Little Colorado River Watershed Coordinating Council Winter Show Low, Arizona January 31 – February 1, 2008 Conference
Local Media White Mountain Independent “Very productive” meetings on proposed The proposed Little Colorado River Little Colorado heritage area. White Valley National Heritage Area was the Mountain Independent. October 19, 2007. subject of 30 articles in newspapers
White Mountain Independent The Independent Proposed National Heritage Area questions Heritage Area is proposed for region. The and answers. White Mountain Independent (Gallup, N.M.). September Independent. January 22, 2008. 4, 2007.
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Gamble, Sara Gray-Searles, Tammy The Little Colorado River Valley National Area Residents Offer Input Toward National Heritage Area. The NOISE. No. 74, pg. 16. Heritage Area Designation. Holbrook July 2007. Tribune-News. March 30, 2007.
The Winslow Mail Gray-Searles, Tammy Little Colorado Designation Heating Up National Heritage Area Designation May Be This Summer. The Winslow Mail. May 30, Sought for Our Watershed. Holbrook 2007. Tribune-News. March 21, 2007.
Hayes, Judy The Pioneer Councilors question impact of heritage White Mountains River Valley Receives designation. White Mountain National Recognition. The Pioneer Independent. May 18, 2007. (Snowflake, Ariz.). February 21, 2007.
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Bianchini, John Pope, Jeff Restoration and Heritage protection sought Protecting and profiting from history. The for Little Colorado River area. The Winslow Winslow Mail. May 12, 2005. Mail. July 19, 2006.
Buckles, Christyl Community Working Group Meetings Citizens’ Support is Sought for Proposed LCRV Heritage Area. Holbrook Tribune- In addition to these information News. July 8, 2005 dissemination methods, the Heritage
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series of four Working Group meetings Purpose: After evaluating the many were held in each of five locations locations identified and reflecting on across the proposed Area: Flagstaff, the varied meanings associated with Gallup, Ramah, the White Mountains, those locations, participants developed and the Winslow/Holbrook region. a list of heritage themes that reflected Meeting sites were alternated between the diversity and unity of the Little two communities in the White Colorado River watershed as a whole. Mountains and in the Winslow/ The heritage themes developed by all Holbrook region to equalize driving five Working Group locations led distances for the people who directly to the seven heritage themes participated. A description of what presented in this feasibility study. occurred at each round of meetings is given below along with date it Dates and Locations: occurred in the five locations. A total of Flagstaff [March 29, 2007] more than 140 people participated. Gallup [May 3, 2007] White Mountains (Lakeside) [May 9, Meeting One 2007] Winslow/Holbrook (Winslow) [June 7, Activity: Participants defined what 2007] they liked and disliked about their Ramah [June 8, 2007] communities now and defined what they did and did not want for their Meeting Three communities in the future. Activity: With the seven heritage Purpose: These expressed likes and themes established, participants wrote dislikes of the public became the down all activities, sites, organizations, foundations of general guidelines for businesses, festivals, historical events, the proposed Area. When the future and other resources that expressed Area is awarding grants, embarking on some aspect of a particular theme. projects, or setting goals, it will use these guidelines to help evaluate how Purpose: The list of resources well a particular project will encourage developed for each heritage theme the type of community the public became the foundation for the resource desires. lists that appear with each theme in this study. The lists also informed the Dates and Locations: contributing writers of resources Flagstaff [November 30, 2006] throughout the watershed of which Gallup [February 22, 2007] they may not have been personally Ramah [February 23, 2007] aware. These lists will also serve as a White Mountains (Lakeside) [February database of potential future partners 26, 2007] for the proposed Area. Winslow/Holbrook (Holbrook) [March 22, 2007] Dates and Locations: White Mountains (Springerville) Meeting Two [August 23, 2007] Gallup [September 6, 2007] Activity: Participants used maps of the Ramah [September 7, 2007] watershed to identify key sites, Flagstaff [September 13, 2007] activities, and places of historical and Winslow/Holbrook (Holbrook) cultural importance. [September 20, 2007]
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Meeting Four County of McKinley Deighton, Natasha Activity: The first draft of this El Morro Area Arts Council feasibility study was made available for El Morro and El Malpais National public review. Monuments Flagstaff Chapter of the Arizona Purpose: Participants could give Native Plant Society comments and ask questions about the Gallup/McKinley County Chamber study. Suggestions received during the of Commerce public comment period have been Heber-Overgaard Chamber of incorporated into this final version of Commerce the feasibility study. Historic Route 66 Association of Arizona Dates and Locations Holbrook Chamber of Commerce Flagstaff [March 26, 2008] Holbrook Painted Desert Kiwanis Winslow/Holbrook (Winslow) [April Club 9, 2008] Homolovi Chapter of the Arizona Snowflake [April 10, 2008] Archaeological Society White Mountains (Springerville) [April Houck Chapter 16, 2008] Hubbell Trading Post National Gallup [April 17, 2008] Historic Site Ramah [April 18, 2008] Jeffers Cattle Co., Inc. La Posada Hotel Formal Letters of Resolutions of Little Colorado River Chapter of the Local Support Arizona Archaeological Society Little Colorado River Plateau The following is a list of the 57 Resource, Conservation, and individuals, organizations, agencies, Development Area businesses, or governments that gave Little Colorado River Watershed formal letters or resolutions of support Coordinating Council for the proposed Little Colorado River Lupton Chapter Valley National Heritage Area. Many Museum of Northern Arizona participated fully in the Working Nahata Dziil Chapter Group meetings and gave significant Navajo County Board of Supervisors input towards the development of the Navajo Tourism Department proposed Area. (To view copies of the New Mexico and Arizona Land actual documents, see Appendix X.) Company New Mexico Historic Preservation Apache & Navajo Counties Mayors & Division Council Members Association Northern Arizona University Babbitt Ranches Old Trails Museum (Winslow Center for Sustainable Environments Historical Society) City of Gallup Petrified Forest National Park City of Holbrook Pinetop-Lakeside Chamber of City of Show Low Commerce City of Winslow Plateau Sciences Society Coconino County Cooperative Program in Community, Culture, and Extension Environment Show Low Historical Colorado Plateau Studies Program at Society Coconino Community College Show Low Main Street
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Snowflake Academy Foundation Morro National Monument featuring Snowflake Heritage Foundation a Zuni interpreter and musician, a Southwest Indian Foundation Gallup Zuni Fall Festival and Arts Market Cultural Ctr. that also featured traditional dances, Southwest Sustainable Forests an archaeology fair, outdoor Partnership barbeques, and more. St. Johns Chamber of Commerce Swift, Marguerite Arizona Game and Fish: Since 1973, The Archaeological Conservancy the Department has been managing The Field Museum, Chicago Becker Lake in Springerville as a Town of Pinetop-Lakeside trout fishery. In 2002, the Department Town of Snowflake purchased 291 acres next to Becker Town of Springerville Lake to increase riparian habitat Town of Taylor along the Little Colorado River for TRACKS species of special concern and Winslow Chamber of Commerce ongoing development of the site is Winter Sun Trading Company and occurring. Recent recreational Arizona Ethnobotanical Research development includes visitor Association restrooms, a boat ramp, two hiking trails, and a bird blind. Stream restoration has also occurred. Supporting Concurrent Efforts of Management goals include providing Other Organizations the public with quality trout fishing and wildlife observing experiences. Many communities in the Little Colorado River Valley recognize that A:shiwi A:wan Museum and tourism is a major portion of their Heritage Center: This museum in income and a number of communities Zuni has been working with local are actively planning for further schools to develop a gardening tourism development. Educational and program to teach youth the resource conservation efforts are also traditional methods and crops of underway in a variety of ways Zuni and also to promote healthier throughout the watershed. The lifestyles based on Zuni culture. following is a partial but representative list of current initiatives by the City of Gallup National Park Service, local governments, and private Coconino County: The County organizations that promote heritage embarked on a comprehensive tourism, heritage education, or Sustainable Economic Development resource conservation. Initiative in 2006. One of the five original Action Teams of this Ancient Way Fall Festival: This is a Initiative is devoted to sustainable coordinated effort by residents, tourism development. business owners, non-profits, the National Park Service, and the Zuni Hopi village of Moenkopi and and Acoma Tribes all of whom live Navajo Chapter of Shonto: Both on or in the vicinity of Route 53 in communities are midway through New Mexico. 2007 was the eighth plans to develop multi-faceted travel year of the Festival, which included a centers that will include the cycling race, evening hikes at El necessary gas stations and
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convenience stores, but also cultural Preparation of the Feasibility Study museums and vendor villages where local craftspeople can market their This feasibility study is the result of wares directly to tourists. more than two years of intensive collaboration for the express purpose of Hopi village of Sipaulovi: Sipaulovi completing the study and of many held its first annual arts and crafts prior years of partnership and fair, featuring the work of local cooperation among individuals, craftspeople, in July 2007. The communities, and local organizations Sipaulovi Development Corporation for the purpose of honoring the special recently hired a staff member heritage of this region. The Heritage dedicated to tourism development Programs Coordinator of the Center for for the village and the larger Desert Archaeology coordinated the reservation and northeast Arizona development of the study, but many region. Plans include walking tours individuals and local organizations and of Sipaulovi, business and hospitality governments supported the effort with training, and an artists’ booklet and their time, energy, resources, and market. knowledge.
Navajo Chapter of Leupp: The In addition to Center staff, five writers Leupp Family Farms is an initiative were asked to contribute to this study. of 40 families to grow traditional All five live within the proposed Area. crops by traditional methods, thus Four have extensive backgrounds in leading to a healthier diet and particular heritage themes identified by lifestyle and the passing of traditional Working Group participants as knowledge to the next generation. significant to this region and one has more than 20 years experience in the Petrified Forest National Park: tourism industry. All five writers Petrified Forest recently restored the incorporated information given by the Painted Desert Inn and updated public during Working Group meetings numerous interpretive signs along into their drafts. The first full draft of current trails. An expansion of the the entire study was distributed for Park was approved by Congress in review and comment during a final 2005, thereby increasing the Park’s round of Working Group meetings. ability to protect more resources Comments received during this review related to the land and presenting process were incorporated into this new opportunities to study and study as appropriate. (For a list of interpret the landscape. comments received, see Appendix X.)
Trail of Many Tracks: The Trail of This study describes the basic concept Many Tracks is a narrated CD tour of of a Little Colorado River Valley the southern portion of the National Heritage Area. The study watershed from Sanders, Arizona to describes the underlying principles of Zuni, New Mexico, through the the proposed Area and proposes a White Mountains, and ending in conceptual financial plan and general Winslow, Arizona. The organization guidelines for a future management that developed the CD is actively entity in Chapter 2, describes the seeking more effective means of Colorado River Valley’s heritage marketing and distribution. through a set of seven themes in
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Chapter 3, and evaluates the significant its 501(c)(3) tax-exempt letter from contributions of the region in the Internal Revenue Service in 1991 accordance with National Heritage Served as coordinator and financial Area nationally distinctive criteria in administrator of the effort to develop Chapter 4. Chapter 5 identifies the this Feasibility Study natural and cultural resources Obtained funds for preparation of the currently available in the region and Feasibility Study, supporting anticipates how they may be affected materials, and public outreach from by designation. Chapter 6 shows the the Arizona State Parks Heritage potential for further development of Fund heritage tourism in the Little Colorado Works throughout the Greater region and Chapter 7 discusses Southwest to conduct community- management alternatives and their based, preservation archaeology anticipated impacts. Appendices The Center will relegate coordination include copies of all letters or and financial management roles to resolutions of support, draft legislation the Little Colorado Heritage for the proposed Area, public Partnership, Inc., upon completion of comments about the feasibility study, this Feasibility Study and two pertinent National Park The Center may participate as a Service documents. member of an advisory board for the Little Colorado River Valley National Description of The Center for Desert Heritage Area in the future Archaeology The Center is likely to contribute information to the future National Arizona nonprofit corporation Heritage Area and work with it as a founded in 1989; the Center received partner
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The 37 current National Heritage Rather than being top-down, Areas, while similar in many respects, mandatory, and involving land set- differ considerably in their focus, asides or use restrictions, this type of project goals, common partnerships, designation is based on grass roots and management according to the organization, voluntary preservation, needs and resources of their respective and does not involve property or land- communities. It is important that local use regulation. The concept of a Little residents and communities, as well as Colorado River Valley National officials of the National Park Service Heritage Area is based on the following and members of Congress, understand common principles of National the specifics of what is being proposed Heritage Areas: heritage education, for the Little Colorado River Valley voluntary preservation, security of National Heritage Area. This chapter property rights, local management. will discuss the underlying principles of the proposed Area, explain the development and intended application Heritage Education of general guidelines for future grant awards and projects, describe long- A deeper understanding and term goals, and describe the future appreciation of the region’s cultural management entity and a conceptual and natural legacy can be achieved, in financial plan for the proposed Area. part, through heritage education. In The watershed concept for the addition to nurturing a sense of boundary is also explained. continuity and connection with historical and cultural experiences, heritage education instills a stronger PRINCIPLES “sense of place,” and encourages residents to consider their past in The National Heritage Area program of planning for the future. In a National the National Park Service is based on Heritage Area, heritage education innovative differences from other types fosters a stewardship ethic that leads to of federal land designations for the community-based, voluntary resource purpose of resource conservation. preservation.
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Voluntary Preservation National Heritage Areas are not National Parks and are not A fundamental principle of the considered units of the National National Heritage Area concept is that Park Service and therefore have no conservation efforts are most successful regulatory authority when the people who live in and Most National Heritage Area around heritage resources and who legislation prohibits the use of the carry on cultural traditions are the designation to change zoning or primary people identifying the other land-use regulations and priorities of their particular community these provisions are included in the and initiating preservation actions draft legislation for the Little voluntarily. Participation by private Colorado River Valley National property owners or practitioners of Heritage Area traditional lifestyles is always Property owners within a National voluntary. The primary function of a Heritage Area are not required to National Heritage Area is to provide permit public or government access assistance to communities, groups, to their lands landowners, and other stakeholders to The designation of a National help them achieve their goals of Heritage Areas has no effect to resource and lifestyle preservation, either strengthen or weaken any promotion, and interpretation. type of regulation either Priorities are identified through an prohibiting or allowing the active public process. demolishing of old buildings on private properties, selling or subdividing properties, or from Security of Property Rights developing properties National Heritage Areas do not The National Heritage Area concept increase liability for a property recognizes the importance of private owner in the event someone is lands, and that property owners are the injured on their property primary planners of land use. National Heritage Areas do not Designation does not affect private add additional regulations to the property rights, property taxes, zoning, public lands permitting process for or the right to renovate or remove grazing, logging, hunting, or other existing buildings on private property. purposes Like other National Heritage Areas, National Heritage Areas do not specific language is included in the restrict or limit a tribe from draft legislation for the proposed Little protecting cultural or religious sites Colorado River Valley National on tribal lands Heritage Area (see Appendix X) stating that the Area will have no regulatory authority and it will be precluded from Local Management using federal funding to acquire real property or an interest in real property. The Little Colorado River Valley Statements regarding the Area’s lack of National Heritage Area will adhere to effect on private property rights and the National Park Service requirement public land-use regulations will also be that it be managed by a local entity included in the future management with broad representation from the plan. Important points on this issue region. The primary goal of the include the following: organization that will manage the
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proposed Area will be to achieve a meetings in five different locations balanced diversity in terms of across the watershed, resulting in a geography, cultural background, and total number of 76 categories of professional background and interest responses for the four questions. Most for its board members, staff members, categories were unique to particular and any advisory groups or Working Groups in particular committees. Ideally, the board of the locations, but seventeen categories management entity will have were repeated two or more times representatives from each of the six across the five meeting locations. Those counties and three tribes. Other sub- categories that appeared two or more sectors of the general population to times were deemed to be include would be representatives of representative of common sentiments state, local, and tribal governments, the shared by communities throughout the ranching and agricultural community, watershed. The categorized responses the arts community, historic to the four original questions provide a preservation and environmental solid framework to which the future conservation interests, education, and management entity can refer when tourism businesses such as lodging, making decisions about the grant restaurants, and attractions. awards, projects, and the future direction of the proposed Area. For example, future staff and board GENERAL GUIDELINES members can ask, “Is the project described in this grant application During the first round of community likely to support what people like Working Group meetings, participants about their community currently or were asked four questions: want for the future, or does it address (1) What do you like about your some issue that they currently do not community now? like or do not want for the future?” The (2) What do you dislike about your categorized responses that appeared community now? two or more times during the course of (3) What do you want for your five meetings and have now become community in the future? general guidelines for the future Area (4) What do you not want for your are as follows: community in the future? (1) What do you like about your Each participant wrote as many community now? responses to each of these questions as Outdoor activities and recreation they wanted, each on a separate piece Beautiful landscapes of paper. Then, all of the papers Cultural heritage and diversity expressing “likes” for the current Rural and small town atmosphere community were grouped together, Sense of community then all of the papers expressing “dislikes” for the current community (2) What do you not like about your were grouped together, and so on. community now? Participants were then divided into Uncontrolled growth four smaller groups and asked to group Destruction of environment the total number of responses for one Drugs and crime of the four questions into categories. Lack of jobs and economic This exercise took place at five opportunities
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(3) What do you want for your increase local, national, and community in the future? international recognition of its unique Trails and parks historic treasures, cultural traditions, Facilities/infrastructure scenic landscapes, diverse wildlife, and Environmental planning and other heritage and nature resources. protection This increased awareness will result in the desire for more people to travel to (4) What do you not want for your the region to explore and learn for community in the future? themselves. The increased awareness Unmanaged/uncontrolled will also raise the perceived value of growth those resources among local residents, Chain stores which will, in turn, create a greater Destruction of natural resources sense of pride among residents for their Pollution community. The flight of the younger Social ills (intolerance; loss of generation from rural places to urban community, diversity, or centers is a well-documented pattern in heritage) modern society. The move is often for the economic opportunities larger cities offer. With a boost in revenue from GOALS tourism, more jobs will be available in local communities. Because heritage Building upon these principles and tourism is based on resource general guidelines, establishment of a preservation rather than resource Little Colorado River Valley National extraction, this type of economic Heritage Area can support the care and development is sustainable, long term, promotion of heritage and nature and will also benefit future generations resources in accordance with of residents. Heritage tourism also community wishes without affecting focuses on the authentic realities of a property rights. A local management particular place, and therefore the host entity with broad representation of the community does not need to change region’s stakeholders will select and itself and its character to accommodate assist voluntary efforts to preserve, tourist expectations. restore, and interpret the heritage and nature resources that make this region unique. Opportunities for partnerships GOAL 2: Additional Source of and funding for these activities will Funding for Locally Important also increase. The National Heritage Projects Pertaining to Cultural Area will coordinate these activities in Education and Resource accordance with the nationally Conservation distinctive heritage themes explained in Chapter 3. Rural communities, with their smaller populations, cannot compete for grants as well as larger communities can. Goal 1: Development and Increase They have fewer people with expert of Heritage Tourism, and a Resulting skills in a specific discipline to consult Boost in Economic Revenues and on a grant application and they have Value of Local Lifestyles fewer local residents with substantial wealth to make philanthropic gifts to A National Heritage Area designation the community. Yet, their cultural for the Little Colorado River Valley will education and resource conservation
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needs are the same as those who live in is realized, but if multiple communities larger cities. With approximately 65% remove tamarisk the effect is many of the population of the Little Colorado times greater. Likewise with tourism, River Valley living in rural one small community might be able to communities of less than 20,000 people, attract a tourist for a few days. But if and the vast majority of those living in neighboring communities work communities below 6,000 people, the together, the tourist might stay in the opportunity to distribute financial region a full week or more. The money resources to rural regions is the tourist spends stays within the guaranteed. Since the federal funds of region and benefits more local the Little Colorado River Valley businesses. Most chambers of National Heritage Area will be commerce and tourism promotion available only to communities in the organizations in the Little Colorado watershed, the rural communities will River Valley already cross-promote to a have a more equal chance of obtaining certain degree, but their scopes do not these funds without the competition include the entire watershed. The from large urban centers. Designation National Heritage Area will have the as a National Heritage Area will make unique focus of the entire watershed the region eligible for 50-percent match and be well-positioned to link funding of up to $1 million annually communities with similar goals or over a period of 15 years. This federal corresponding resources and needs seed money has proven to be an together to complete projects more important catalyst for raising other effectively. National Heritage Areas funds for local projects. also work with all sectors of a community—government, private businesses of all types, civic GOAL 3: Increased Ability to organizations, state and federal Effectively Network with Multiple agencies, and educational institutions— Organizations on a Regional Scale and are therefore able to facilitate and Pool Resources to Complete partnerships among groups that may Tourism, Educational, and not usually work together. Conservation Projects
The Little Colorado River Valley is GOAL 4: Increased Support for large, yet it is connected by geography, Local, Rural Economies history, and culture. The efforts of one community are returned many times The last decades of the 20th century over when neighboring communities were a time of great change for rural also participate. For example, the communities. The traditional invasive species tamarisk chokes the economies of agriculture, logging, and river banks. It prevents native willows mining upon which most rural and cottonwoods from growing and, economies were built declined severely subsequently, deprives native birds and, in some cases, collapsed and animals of suitable habitat and completely. Towns have been looking food. Tamarisk also requires much for alternatives ever since. Tourism is more water than native vegetation, certainly one option for rural thereby over-tapping an already communities and the National Heritage limited resource in the West. If one Area’s role in that industry has already community removes the tamarisk from been explained in Goals 1 and 3. A their jurisdiction a small improvement number of existing National Heritage
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Areas have focused on downtown and technical assistance for the preservation local economy revitalization whether it of particular resources and providing pertains to tourism or not. Examples funding for related costs. include the Delaware and Lehigh National Heritage Corridor’s Market Towns Initiative, the Path of Progress GOAL 6: Balanced Preservation and National Heritage Route’s Progress Promotion Fund, and Wheeling National Heritage Area’s Adaptive Reuse Study, and this While a National Heritage Area can is a goal the proposed Little Colorado help develop tourism facilities in River Valley National Heritage Area locations that want them, it can also aid can pursue as well. Often the efforts to restore and protect sensitive restoration of natural and cultural places. Communities that do not want resources results in jobs during the higher numbers of visitors may choose restoration and continued jobs once the not to be promoted even though the resource has been rehabilitated. When National Heritage Area may still work historic buildings are renovated, new with such communities on educational business often move in creating jobs or resource conservation projects. and increasing the overall economic Applicants for tourism development stability of the community. grants will be required to show broad community support to receive assistance. Some of the economic GOAL 5: Expanded Opportunities benefits of a National Heritage Area and Resources for Volunteer designation can be invested in Stewardship of Natural Resources minimizing tourism impacts on the and Elements of the Region’s very resources that attract visitors, and Heritage they can also be used to protect places with sensitive cultural meaning or Public lands in the Little Colorado fragile resources that need limited or River Valley contain many incredible restricted visitation. natural resources and sites of cultural importance, but they do not contain them all. Significant archaeological FUTURE LOCAL COORDINATING sites, historic structures, places of ENTITY AND CONCEPTUAL cultural importance, and unique FINANCIAL PLAN wildlife habitats, to say nothing of continuous open space, cross into The management entities of existing private lands as well. Often families National Heritage Areas can be want to preserve and protect the categorized into several types. The landscape they have grown to love for following comparisons are based on the benefit of the community and for information obtained about the future generations. Sometimes private organizational structures of 15 of the 27 property owners are willing to allow National Heritage Areas designated public access to particular resources before 2006. In this sample, there are such as trails along river banks or four types of management entities: (1) archaeological sites. Yet, they may not federally appointed commissions; (2) know how to do so or where to turn for locally appointed commissions; (3) advice and, equally importantly, departments of public universities; and funding. The National Heritage Area (4) nonprofit corporations. In all of can address such needs by offering these types of management entities,
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representatives of the National Park “To guide programs,” Service serve in non-voting (ex officio), commission designees formed a advisory roles. nonprofit, with 12 board members representing local governments, agricultural Federally Appointed Commissions interests, and a state water conservation district Several existing National Heritage Areas are managed by federally Cane River National Heritage Area appointed commissions. Their (Louisiana) operations are administrated by Designated in 1994 National Park Service staff and some Managed by a federally operate under management plans appointed commission, with 19 prepared by the National Park Service. members representing The number of commissioners for these municipalities, the state, management entities is usually between business/tourism, preservation, 15 and 30. Commission appointments hunting, river use, cultural are usually based on recommendations heritage, and private landowners by Congressional delegations, and are designed to ensure representation of Erie Canalway National Heritage local municipalities, state agencies, Corridor (New York) business interests, economic Designated in 2000 development, tourism, historic Managed by a federally preservation, outdoor recreation, and appointed, 27-member private landowners. Some of these commission, with appointments commissions have formed nonprofit, based on recommendations by 501(c)(3) corporations to build the governor and the region’s partnerships and to guide programs. Congressional delegation
Examples Essex National Heritage Area (Massachusetts) Blackstone Valley National Historic Designated in 1996 Corridor (Massachusetts and Rhode Managed by an 85-member, Island) federally appointed commission Designated in 1986, second representing municipalities, National Heritage Area in the business, tourism, preservation, country education, and environmental Managed by a 19-member, bi- interests (26 additional members state, federally appointed are state and federal legislators commission serving ex officio) National Park Service staff An 18-member board of trustees administers operations and represents local chambers of implements interpretive commerce, economic Programs development, conventions/ tourism, colleges, arts, nature Cache La Poudre River Corridor conservation, museums, historic (Colorado) preservation, and private Designated in 1996 corporations Managed by a federally A 23-member executive appointed commission committee oversees operations
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Locally Appointed Commissions exempt, and funds are managed by the university foundation. Both National Heritage Areas that fall into this category have state appointed Example or certified management organizations whose members represent a diverse Tennessee Civil War National Heritage group of local interests. Area (Tennessee) Designated in 1996 Examples Operations administrated by staff of the Center for Historic Lackawanna Heritage Valley State and Preservation at Middle Tennessee National Heritage Area (Pennsylvania) State University (MTSU), a Designated in 2000 university department which also Managed by a county-appointed serves as the clearinghouse for commission with a 6-member federal funding; center funds are board of directors representing administrated and invested by the county, colleges, business, the MTSU Foundation heritage destinations, historic Center is advised by a 25- preservation, economic member Board of Advisors development, and residents representing the state, counties, Advised and assisted by several preservation, nature committees: Lackawanna conservation, heritage Heritage Valley Roundtable destinations, and tourism. Board (heritage attractions, tourism, members are appointed based on preservation), Lackawanna River recommendations from the Heritage Trail Management governor, state tourism agency, Committee (parks, recreation, and State Historic Preservation business, boroughs, citizens), Office (SHPO) Education Alliance (no A 4-member executive council of information) the Board of Advisors includes representatives of the governor, National Coal Heritage Area (West state tourism agency, SHPO, and Virginia) the Center for Historic Designated in 1996 Preservation Currently developing management plan Management plan recommends Nonprofit Corporations that the National Coal Heritage Area be managed by a state- The most common management appointed commission in entities are nonprofit corporations with partnership with a new nonprofit 501(c)(3) status with the Internal representing various interests; Revenue Service. These usually operate some members would overlap as public charities rather than private foundations [the two types of 501(c)(3) organizations] because: (1) they receive Departments of Public Universities substantial portions of their funding from governmental units, publicly One existing National Heritage Area is supported organizations, and the managed by a department of a public general public; and (2) they receive university. The department is tax more than one-third of their financial
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support from contributions, Path of Progress National Heritage membership fees, and gross receipts Tour Route (Pennsylvania) from activities related to their tax- Designated in 1988 exempt functions, and normally receive Originally managed by a 21- less than one-third of their funding member federally appointed from investments. These nonprofits commission typically have boards of directors (or Supporting legislation renewed in boards of trustees) of twelve to sixteen 1998 members, with executive committees of Federally appointed commission five and seven members, that oversee now serves as the funding entity operations. Interests represented by Now managed by a nonprofit board members often include counties, 501(c)(3) corporation with a 6- municipalities, state agencies, tourism, member board of directors economic development, historic Nonprofit management entity preservation, nature conservation, and also has a for-profit arm residents. Board members usually participate in several planning Quinebag and Shetucket River Valleys committees. These nonprofits are National Heritage Corridor usually assisted by advisory (Connecticut and Massachusetts) commissions, councils, or committees Designated in 1994 with broad representation of local Managed by private, nonprofit interest groups, including counties, 501(c)(3) corporation with a 16- municipalities, tribes, state agencies, member board representing local businesses, economic development, organizations and state officials education, tourism, heritage Board members elected annually attractions, arts, historic preservation, by membership nature conservation, outdoor Members participate in five recreation, and private landowners. planning committees Partners include the National Examples Park Service, Connecticut Humanities Council, state Ohio & Erie Canalway National historic commissions, state Heritage Corridor (Ohio) environmental protection and Designated in 1996 transportation agencies, and local Managed by a nonprofit, 501(c)(3) economic development corporation with a 15-member organizations board of directors representing Has several active committees four counties, city planning with broad citizen participation departments, parks, economic development, and tourism Shenandoah Valley Battlefields (National Park Service ex officio) National Historic District (NHA) A 5-member executive committee (Virginia) oversees operations Designated in 1996 Management entity partners with Originally managed by a two other nonprofits on federally appointed commission programs Now managed by a nonprofit, Assisted by several advisory 501(c)(3) corporation with a 23- committees with broad member board of trustees representation of local interest representing varied interests, groups including the state, counties,
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municipalities, other nonprofits, board of directors representing and residents the city, county, state, tourism/ The nonprofit has the authority to economic development, historical provide federal funding to help societies, historic preservation, local groups acquire Civil War agriculture, residents, and the sites; the only National Heritage National Park Service (ex officio) Area with such authority A 7-member executive committee oversees operations; members Silos and Smokestacks National include representatives of the Heritage Area (Iowa) city, tourism/economic Designated in 1996 development, historical society, Managed by a nonprofit, 501(c)(3) agriculture, and residents corporation with a 12-member A large advisory commission board of trustees representing represents a broad range of municipalities, counties, colleges, community interests parks, agricultural equipment manufacturers, preservation, and residents Future Local Coordinating Entity Advised by a non-voting for the Little Colorado River Valley committee of prominent National Heritage Area Leadership Advisors representing the state, The concept for the proposed Little municipalities, businesses, and Colorado River Valley National universities Heritage Area’s management entity Receives recommendations for follows the non-profit model used by project funding from a 15- the majority of existing National member Partnership Council Heritage Areas. The Little Colorado representing heritage Heritage Partnership (LCHP) will destinations, preservation incorporate as a nonprofit, 501(c)(3) societies, universities, farm corporation chartered in the State of bureau, and lodging Arizona by June 2008. The organization will start with a small Board of Wheeling National Heritage Area Directors drawn from the diverse (West Virginia) geographic, cultural, and personal Designated in 2000 expertise attributes that are Managed by a nonprofit 501(c)(3) represented by the multiple Working corporation with 12 board Groups members that have members representing city, participated in this feasibility study. county, and state A 9-member foundation helps This Board will be responsible for with fundraising planning, fundraising, and staff hiring. Management plan recommends The initial board will review the creation of a 20-30 member general plan and options outlined in Community Advisory Council this draft document and will have input into the final version of this Yuma Crossing National Heritage Area feasibility study. This will ensure (Arizona) congruence between the organizational Designated in 2000 structure and goals presented here and Managed by a nonprofit, 501(c)(3) the goals of the newly appointed LCHP corporation with an 11-member Board.
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An important goal of the proposed Initial Board of Directors LCHP board is to ensure equitable Members from the five Working representation of jurisdictions, interest Groups advocated the proposed groups, and cultures within the National Heritage Area and who proposed boundaries of the National represent a broad spectrum of Heritage Area. Eventually, a smaller local interests Executive Committee will be elected Will apply for 501(c)(3) status from among the board members to Recruit new board members oversee operations and provide direction to staff. The staff will The initial Board of Directors is to implement programs and coordinate transition to a larger board with a the activities of the National Heritage structure that equitably represents the Area. The Board of Directors will be counties and tribes within the proposed advised and assisted by a relatively boundaries of the National Heritage large Partnership Advisory Council Area, as well as a composition which whose members represent a broad reflects the cultural diversity of the range of local interests. Little Colorado Valley. The planned structure to achieve this goal is a board Board of Directors with 16 members (15 voting members and a non-voting National Park Service In June of 2008, an Arizona not-for- representative). Board members will profit entity, the Little Colorado include a representative of the National Heritage Partnership, Inc., will be Park Service (the Superintendent of incorporated. The initial Board of Petrified Forest National Historical Directors will consist of individuals Park or an appointee, serving in an ex who have demonstrated a strong officio role), a representative of the commitment to the Little Colorado State of Arizona and the State of New River Valley National Heritage Area Mexico (appointed by the Arizona State through their participation in Working Parks Department and New Mexico Group activities. Representation will State Parks Department, respectively), come from each of the five working representatives of four counties groups, thereby helping to cover the (appointed by the respective county varying interests from throughout the Boards of Supervisors), three Native region of the proposed National American nation representatives Heritage Area. The primary (appointed by the tribal governments responsibility of this initial board is to of the Hopi Tribe, the Pueblo of Zuni, review and help revise the draft and the Navajo Nation), and six at- Feasibility Study. Board members will large members representing some also draft criteria for board combination of the following interests: membership and will recruit new municipalities, Native American tribes, board members. They will also help tourism/economic development, promote the heritage area concept ranching, agriculture, historic within the Little Colorado watershed. preservation, nature conservation, and The board will also begin preparing an culture/arts. application for tax exempt status under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal In this structure, the full board will Revenue Code. That application will be meet at least quarterly, with primary submitted in early 2009. functions to include planning,
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fundraising, and staff hiring. Meetings –1 National Park Service (non-voting) may be held via conference call to –1 Hopi Tribe (appointed by tribal reduce the burden of travel. Officers government) will be elected annually. Six members –1 Pueblo of Zuni (appointed by of the board will be elected to serve as tribal government) an Executive Committee that will meet –1 Navajo Nation (appointed by monthly to oversee operations and tribal government) provide direction to staff (see below). –6 at-large members representing the The board will be advised and assisted following interests: municipalities, by a large Partnership Council Native American tribes, ranching/ representing a broad spectrum of local agriculture, tourism/economic interests (see below). development, historic preservation, nature conservation, culture/arts Pre-designation tasks for the Board of Elects a 6-member Executive Directors include: (1) continued public Committee that meets monthly to outreach; (2) communication with the oversee operations and provide legislators sponsoring the designation direction to staff bill; (3) organization of local support Meets at least quarterly for the designation bill; (4) initiation of Conducts planning, including some programs to demonstrate the completing the required management potential effectiveness of the plan during first three years of Partnership, and to raise the profile of designation the proposed National Heritage Area; Continues public outreach (5) fundraising to support these Communicates with legislators activities; and (6) hiring of staff to sponsoring designation bill coordinate these activities, following Organizes local support for the necessary fundraising. After designation bill designation, the most important board Initiates programs tasks, initially, will be to identify the Conducts fundraising scope of work and to perform a review Identifies scope of work and role during preparation of the performs review role for management plan. management plan Hires staff Structure and Roles of Board of Receives recommendations from the Directors Partnership Advisory Council for funding and other support of projects 16 members (15 voting members) and programs (see below) —1 Coconino County (appointed by Board of Supervisors) Staff –1 Navajo County (appointed by Board of Supervisors) The staff of the local coordinating –1 Apache County (appointed by entity will identify possible funding Board of Supervisors) sources, prepare grant proposals, –1 McKinley County (appointed by coordinate fundraising, conduct public Board of Supervisors) outreach, liaison with legislators, help –1 State of Arizona (appointed by build and support partnerships, Arizona State Parks) develop and maintain a website, and –1 State of New Mexico (appointed develop and implement programs. The by New Mexico State Parks) goal is to hire the first staff in 2009 to
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begin some of these activities prior to influence of the often-changing designation. After designation, the staff political environment to be as will coordinate preparation of the responsive as possible to the needs of management plan. local residents and interest groups. Operating as a separate nonprofit, tax- Structure and Roles of Staff exempt corporation, the management entity can most effectively approach Positions will be funded by a individuals, corporations, foundations, combination of donations from local and government funding sources for governments, businesses, and both operating and programmatic foundations and matching funds funds. An independent nonprofit will from annual Congressional also be able to collaborate effectively appropriations to the National with other entities in the region— Heritage Area government agencies, other nonprofits, The goal is to hire the first staff and private foundations. The person in 2009 organizational structure of the Writes grant proposals management entity outlined here— Coordinates public outreach including a medium-sized Board of Coordinates fundraising Directors, a small Executive Serves as liaison with Congressional Committee, staff positions with legislators specified roles, and an inclusive Develops content for website Partnership Advisory Council—will Develops programs allow for efficient planning and operations responsive to the needs and Rationale for Local Coordinating inputs of a broad spectrum of local Entity Plan stakeholders.
Input from stakeholder meetings and a large number of supporting entities and Conceptual Financial Plan individuals indicate strong support for the concept of a new local organization This conceptual financial plan for the that will develop and manage the Little proposed Little Colorado Valley Colorado River Valley National National Heritage Area begins by Heritage Area. The unique purpose of defining two phases that are essential this organization is to serve as the local for achieving the transition from this coordinating entity for the National Feasibility Study through to the Heritage Area. This mission will completion of a management plan for require a very focused approach to an established heritage area. This planning and management over the section then addresses a number of long term. areas critical to ensuring its long-term economic sustainability: While representatives of local capability to fund—through both governments will be involved, the need earned and unearned income for this management entity to be operating budgets for the next broadly representative of local interests two phases of heritage area requires that it operate independently. development The local coordinating entity should be funding strategy designed to operate outside the federal match funding
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Phasing achieving designation. The Center is able to offer half-time services of its The initial concept of a National Heritage Programs Coordinator as well Heritage Area for the Little Colorado as provision of administrative and River Valley emerged from community other support services during the two meetings in Springerville and year duration of Phase 1. Snowflake, Arizona, that were held in late 2003. Thus, the completion of this Phase 2: Completion of a Management Feasibility Study in late 2008 will Plan (2011-2012) represent the culmination of five years of gradual development of that A management plan is a key concept. It is helpful to consider the requirement that must be completed by completion of this Feasibility Study as the local coordinating entity, the LCHP, the close of the initial phase of the after the Little Colorado River Valley proposed Area’s development. It is also National Heritage Area is designated important to clearly define the next two by Congress. The management plan is a phases of the process. The review of detailed presentation of the goals of the this study by the Secretary of the Area. There must be comprehensive Interior and the passage of legislation lists of resources that will be protected, by Congress to create the Little enhanced, or interpreted, and their Colorado River Valley National relationships to the themes of national Heritage Area are the critical elements significance must be clearly stated. The of the next phase, which ends with specific strategies to be employed to achieving designation. The subsequent achieve educational, economic, and phase after designation is focused on preservation goals must be identified. completing a management plan. Those Of critical importance is the business two stages are briefly outlined, because plan of the local coordinating entity the basis for structuring a financial plan and the documentation that the plan for the LCHP. was developed through broad community outreach and participation. The present Feasibility Study has Phase 1: Achieving Designation (2009 initiated the process that will come and 2010) together in the management plan. Given the amount of progress already The Feasibility Study was funded by an achieved, it is estimated that the Arizona Heritage Fund grant and management plan could be completed private support obtained by the Center in 18 months. The Secretary of Interior for Desert Archaeology. It is proposed would respond to that plan within six that the next phase move forward as a months. These two time elements are formal partnership between the LCHP, the basis for the two years allocated for the diverse interest groups and achievement of an approved municipal and tribal governments of management plan. the proposed National Heritage Area, and the Center for Desert Archaeology. Preparation of a management plan The momentum that has been gained would require federal funding. It is through the process of preparing this assumed in the phasing outlined here Feasibility Study can easily be lost if that other activities related to there is not continuity of personnel and development and implementation of the dedication of key individuals to the program of the Little Colorado invest substantial time to work toward River Valley National Heritage Area
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would also take place throughout both with a record of successful grant Phases 1 and 2. writing.
Capability to Fund Memberships will be a minor, but very important, source of income for the The underlying motivation for this LCHP. A business membership will be effort to establish a Little Colorado developed for enterprises that conduct River Valley National Heritage Area heritage or nature based activities has been the potential benefits to the within the boundaries of the Area. many communities of varying size that These could be bed-and-breakfast are located throughout the watershed. operations that feature historic For that reason, a key element of the buildings or other historic themes, or initial funding strategy for the LCHP is they could be ranches that offer to seek a baseline of five years of opportunities for tourists to participate support from these many communities in ranch life. The LCHP would actively and their associated municipal promote such enterprises through a governments. These funding requests website and heritage tourism literature, would be proportional to the size of the and such businesses would pay a community and would be subject to higher level membership fee to the annual renewal. The LCHP will submit LCHP. The second form of an annual report detailing membership would focus on interested accomplishments, spending, and supporters, from businesses to families identifying specific goals for the to individuals. They would pay a upcoming year. Thus, there will be a reasonable annual fee and receive a strong element of accountability and a regular newsletter and other nominal requirement that these local dollars are benefits. achieving goals that benefit the local communities. Low levels of earned income are anticipated in the second phase of Grants will also comprise a key developments, after additional staff element of the funding for the LCHP. members have been hired. This is There are many opportunities for expected to be in the form of sales of grants from federal and state sources as heritage or nature related books or well as from private foundations. calendars that would also serve to Because the one-to-one matching fund expand awareness of the rich resources requirements for an established Area of the Area. There is potential for must come from non-federal sources, significant expansion of earned income priority will be given to seeking non- in subsequent phases of heritage area federal grants where that is development. Those opportunities will appropriate. Thus, the Arizona be addressed in the management plan Heritage Fund will be a high priority and will be essential to achieving long- candidate for grants. The State of New term sustainability for the National Mexico offers small grants for historic Heritage Area. preservation through its State Historic Preservation Office. The key to Private and corporate donations will be successful grant writing is to ensure an additional source of support, that there is a close match between the however, it is expected that these will goals of the funding agency and the require time to develop. The LCHP will needs of the LCHP. It will be very need to establish its tax exempt status important that the LCHP develop staff and to develop a track record of
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Table 2.1. Budget summary for Phase 1 and Phase 2. 2009 2010 2011 2012 Income Non-federal 100,000 100,000 201,000 196,000 In-kind 20,000 20,000 30,000 30,000 Federal - - 200,000 200,000 Total 120,000 120,000 431,000 426,000
Expenses Employees 62,500 67,500 183,750 195,000 Other 30,000 29,000 216,800 132,800 Grants - - - 60,000 Total 92,500 96,500 400,550 387,800
success. It is expected that the LCHP to initiate the 15-year, up to $10 million board and staff will be able to achieve support cycle for a new Area. Thus, it at least low levels of private and is strongly recommended that the local corporate support initially, however, a communities and county governments position devoted to fund raising and of the Little Colorado River watershed community relations is expected to be a make pledges of five years of financial necessity to build private and corporate support to the LCHP. Simplified donations into a significant source of budgets are displayed in the following support for the LCHP. That position is table for Phase 1 and Phase 2, and more not anticipated in the two phases of detailed budgets are included as development that are considered in this Appendix XX. document. Personnel Plan for Phases 1 and 2 Proposed Operating Budgets for Phase 1 and Phase 2 This plan assumes that there will be one full-time employee during Phase 1 Phase 1 is the two-year period with expansion to three employees following completion of this Feasibility during Phase 2. The personnel are Study and prior to achieving briefly described. designation as a National Heritage Area. No federal funds are available Phase 1 Program Manager: Ideally, this during that time period, and it is a position would be filled by Linda critical time in the development of the Marie Golier, the Heritage Programs National Heritage Area effort. This is Coordinator for the Center for Desert the time when it is essential that the Archaeology, who has led the effort to local communities that will ultimately create this Feasibility Study. The Center benefit from the Little Colorado River can detail Ms. Golier to the LCHP for Valley National Heritage Area provide the two years of Phase 1. The Center financial support. Furthermore, even can cover half of her payroll and after designation has been achieved, benefits costs if other non-federal initial efforts during Phase 2 must sources can cover the other half of focus on completion of a management those costs. Ms. Golier’s substantial plan. A management plan approved by experience with this project would the Secretary of the Interior is essential ensure that the transition to this
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important stage of the overall effort This will allow the Executive Director does not result in any loss of and Program Manager to be more momentum. Key tasks for Phase 1 focused on their core responsibilities as relate to continued building of support this individual will provide office for the National Heritage Area effort administration, technical support, and and the initiation of program activities clerical services. of broad benefit across the entire Little Colorado watershed. This core staff, if filled with highly qualified individuals, should be able to Phase 2 Executive Director: The carry out the basic work of the LCHP. Executive Director must have a diverse In combination with a skilled and skill set in order to effectively manage engaged Board of Directors, the LCHP relationships with the Board of will be able to efficiently and effectively Directors, the LCHP staff, and with serve as the local coordinating entity collaborating partners. The Executive for the Little Colorado River Valley Director should be responsible for National Heritage Area. carrying out the policies and program direction provided by the Board and Federal Match Funding must advise the Board on issues and opportunities that influence the The potential to bring federal funding organization’s ability to meet its to assist in the process of promoting mission goals. In particular, the heritage and nature tourism and to Executive Director must work closely provide the opportunity to create a with the Board to develop sources of grant program to benefit specific income that will contribute to the long- projects within the Little Colorado term sustainability of the LCHP. River Valley National Heritage Area is Previous experience and demonstrated a very important element of this success as an Executive Director is program. It is the intention of the highly desirable. proposed LCHP to create a competitive program through which local Phase 2 Program Manager: This communities, projects, nonprofits, and position will work closely with the other qualified organizations can access Executive Director in order to the match funding that will eventually implement specific programs related to be appropriated to the National education, interpretation, preservation, Heritage Area from Congress through or heritage tourism development. the National Park Service. The LCHP Preparing and administering grants grant program will be guided by its and taking the lead on public approved management plan with communications through both a regularly updated 5-year strategies newsletter and the LCHP web site are developed with input from public expected responsibilities. Continuing to meetings and the Partnership Council. demonstrate the community benefits of The LCHP will set criteria for the National Heritage Area and to eligibility, funding amounts, types of develop relationships with potential projects to be funded, and monitoring donors are also elements of this job. and evaluation processes.
Phase 2 Administrative Assistant: A The grants program is anticipated to half-time or three-quarter-time begin in the second year of Phase 2, administrative assistant will be an with a small grants program for important addition during Phase 2. projects up to $10,000. This will help to
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provide immediate benefits for roughly San Juan County, New Mexico and on six to ten projects that can meet the White Mountain Apache eligibility and matching fund Reservation in Arizona) as described in requirements. This need to expand the Chapter 1. As will be shown in Chapter availability of funding within this 3, the river provided a unifying force region has been identified consistently for centuries of human habitation. The by stakeholders throughout the high mountains and mesas proposed heritage area. Expansion of surrounding most of the watershed’s this grants program will be addressed edges, and the unique landforms specifically in the management plan within its boundaries, led to the prepared during Phase 2. development of human lifestyles that differ from regions that surround it. Summary Native Americans developed specialized crops and farming This Conceptual Financial Plan for the techniques in response to the climate proposed Little Colorado River Valley and soil conditions. The timing and National Heritage Area addresses the intensity of Spanish colonial needs of the NHA and its local settlements was quite different in the coordinating entity, the Little Colorado Little Colorado River Valley as Heritage Partnership (LCHP). It also compared to the Rio Grande River outlines the roles of the various Valley, its neighbor immediately to the potential funding sources and lays out east. Logging played a major role in the a strategy to ensure the economic late 19th century development of several sustainability of the Area. Fully towns, but virtually no logging took adopting and implementing this place in regions to the south of the Financial Plan will allow the LCHP to watershed, especially in Arizona. The ensure that the distinctive landscapes region’s topography and climate and resources of the heritage area are facilitated easier east-west travel than recognized, protected, enhanced, and could be found through the Rocky interpreted to improve the quality of Mountains to the north or the hotter life for residents, and also to ensure deserts to the south. This travel opportunities for public appreciation, corridor, roughly along the 35th education, enjoyment, and economic parallel, would time and again play a sustainability. significant role in what happened in the region. The Little Colorado River watershed unites what is at first glance PROPOSED BOUNDARIES a very diverse region into a cohesive, inter-related landscape. The proposed boundaries of the Little Colorado River Valley National The watershed boundary marks an area Heritage Area encompass between 26– that is a source of identity for many 27,000 square miles in northeast residents, is a coherent natural and Arizona and northwest New Mexico. cultural landscape, and has sufficient The boundary is natural. It is the nature and heritage resources to watershed boundary of the Little support a National Heritage Area Colorado River and its tributaries with designation. The boundary is not the exception of three minor alterations regulatory and designation will have (the inclusion of the entire San no effect on private property rights, Francisco Peaks landform and the zoning, property taxes, or government exclusion of extremely small parcels in and agency jurisdictions. An analogy
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for a Heritage Area is an “enterprise Contains the Painted Desert Inn, built zone,” in which an area has been in 1924, renovated by Mary Colter designated for voluntary participation with murals by Fred Kabotie in 1947, to obtain benefits. and designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1987 Another analogy would be Resource Serves as required National Park Conservation & Development Districts Service partner for the development operated through the Department of of the feasibility study and future Agriculture. Resource Conservation & management plan of the proposed Development Districts are Little Colorado River Valley National geographically defined regions that Heritage Area received federal dollars and staff to Will provide comments and input to engage with local leaders and National Park Service testimony landowners to conduct project about the feasibility study and primarily related to land and water management plan resource management and May manage annual Congressional improvement. Projects within the appropriations to the National proposed National Heritage Area Heritage Area through amendments boundary will be eligible for federal to the Cooperative Agreement which funding and other assistance from the describe the purposes of each year’s National Heritage Area. funding (Note: this funding structure is under review at this time and may change according to Congress’s ROLES OF DIFFERENT decisions) ORGANIZATIONS AFTER Will provide a non-voting, ex-officio DESIGNATION member to the board of the Little Colorado Heritage Partnership Some existing and new groups and Will assist in the process for National institutions, as well as a unit of the Register nominations in the National National Park Service, have Heritage Area participated in the designation process. Will provide expertise about geology, Three of these will be involved in the paleontology, and natural and management of the National Heritage cultural resources to the National Area after designation. The following Heritage Area and its partners summarizes their roles.
Little Colorado Heritage Petrified Forest National Park Partnership, Inc.
Created by President Theodore A newly-created non-profit that will Roosevelt in 1906 as Petrified Forest serve as the coordianting entity for National Monument; achieved the Little Colorado River Valley National Park status in 1962 National Heritage Area Park currently consists of 93,533 Board will consist of individuals that acres, but a boundary expansion represent the geographic and cultural approved in 2004 will increase the diversity of the region boundaries to 218,533 acres as lands Will likely develop a small paid staff are purchased or gifted Will have a major fundraising role
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Will be responsible for administering May provide one non-voting, ex- federal appropriations through a re- officio member to the board of the granting program Little Colorado Heritage Partnership, Will evolve as the needs and Inc. during the initial stages of the capabilities of the National Heritage National Heritage Area’s Area develop over time development
Center for Desert Archaeology
Secured the funding and personnel to complete the feasibility study
Draft: 8 April 2008 chapter 3 heritage themes and related resources
DEVELOPMENT OF THE events, notes about the current HERITAGE THEMES diversity of cultures found in the watershed, and lists of activities related The seven heritage themes in this to outdoor recreation or local festivals. chapter emerged directly from public Continuing in their small groups, input. During Meeting Two of the participants reviewed all of the items series of four Working Group meetings placed on the maps and devised described in Chapter 1, participants between four and six themes that were divided into small groups and would capture all of the items. Each given large maps of the Little Colorado small group then reported its themes to watershed. They were then asked a the whole group. The whole group then series of four questions designed to worked all of themes suggested by each elicit responses that would describe the smaller group into one set of between heritage of the region. four and six themes. This process took place at five meetings in five different If you had a two-week dream locations across the watershed and vacation in the Little Colorado resulted in a total of 25 heritage themes River watershed, where would you being suggested. Many of the themes go? from a Working Group in one meeting If you had to describe this area to location were virtually the same as someone who had never been here, themes suggested by one or more what would you say? Working Groups in other meeting When friends or family come to locations, thus giving evidence that visit, where do you take them? particular themes indeed identified If “something” were to leave this prevalent, consistent, and over-arching area forever, what would you miss characteristics of the region. The most? Heritage Programs Coordinator reviewed all 25 suggestions and found Participants drew or wrote their seven common themes that united the responses on the maps. In most cases, most frequently suggested themes by the maps were completely covered the Working Groups. Those seven with sites, references to historical unifying themes became the seven
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heritage themes described in this were written on large pieces of paper chapter: and participants wrote down the name of the resource (a site, event, Sacred and Enchanted Landscapes organization, business, etc.) and its Trails, Roads, and Rails of the West general location on the paper of the Native Nations particular theme the resource fit. Living from the Land Participants were asked to identify Archaeology resources that related to tourism as Expressions of Art and Life well as those that served local Outdoor Recreation communities, although often a single resource fulfilled both functions. After establishing the seven heritage Often, too, a single resource reflected themes, the next round of Working more than one theme. The related Group meetings focused on identifying resources sections that appear in each resources within the watershed that heritage theme chapter are a direct reflected, interpreted, or embodied one result of data generated during these or more themes. The seven themes Working Group meetings.
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Theme 1 Sacred and Enchanted Landscapes
“The valley is vast. When you look out over it, it does not occur to you that there is an end to it. You see the monoliths that stand away in space, and you imagine that you have come upon eternity. They do not appear to exist in time. You think: I see that time comes to an end on this side of the rock, and on the other side there is nothing forever.” —The Names, N. Scott Momaday
SUMMARY OF THEME or carefully marked by shrines, prayer feathers, petroglyphs, corn pollen, and The Little Colorado River Valley is a story. A Hopi farmer looks toward a landscape of mesmerizing colors, particular mesa on the horizon and astounding views, deceiving distances, tracks the sun’s position through the immense quiet, and ancient, year; a Zuni man follows an old trail to remembered places. For a very long a revered place beside the river; time, people’s lives have been Apache school children take a field trip intricately linked to this land, with into the mountains and learn plants meaning attached to nearly everything along the way; a Navajo grandmother gathers fragrant sprigs of a shrub she’ll use for medicine.
The 26,000-square-mile watershed of the Little Colorado extends from the Continental Divide in New Mexico, south to the Mogollon Rim and White Mountains of Arizona, west to the San Francisco Peaks, and north to Black Mesa on the Navajo and Hopi reservations. It’s big country, 16.5 million acres, with unending vistas across empty grasslands, broken badlands, undulating volcanic fields, and hidden canyons.
The Little Colorado River begins its winding journey to the north- Travelers speeding by on the west after starting as a mountain spring high in the White Moun- interstate might not notice tains. The higher land on the left side of the picture is the result of lava that bubbled up from a shield volcano and spread across the much of interest. The land slowly. (Photo credit: Adriel Heisey) enchantment comes with a detour off the main road, in it and everything it produces— permitting more time for a closer look sacred mountains, springs, streams, at the subtleties. It grows with a walk rocks, plants, animals—each honored down into painted hills littered with
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gleaming chips of petrified wood, on a to the Equator then, and the hike up a trail into the mountain environment was humid to subtropical. headwaters of the Little Colorado, or at a roadside pullout where a flashflood The defining formation of the Little steamrolls down a normally dry wash. Colorado Basin, known best in the Then that sense of endless time and Painted Desert and Petrified Forest silence seeps in, working magic and National Park, is the Chinle. The instilling appreciation of why this Chinle’s multicolored pastel layers— landscape is viewed as enchanted and red, purple, blue, green, gray, white— sacred. consist of clays, mudstones, and sandstones deposited by streams that flowed slowly across a low basin about DESCRIPTION OF THEME 225 million years ago, in late Triassic times. The Chinle also contains Geology significant amounts of ash blown in from surrounding volcanoes. The ash The Little Colorado Basin occupies the weathered to bentonite clay that swells southeast section of the Colorado and shrinks with wetting and drying, Plateau, a major physiographic giving the formation the common name province and geologist’s paradise. Like “badlands.” The Chinle reaches the larger plateau of which it is part, greatest expression near the border of the predominant rocks of the Little Arizona and New Mexico, where it is Colorado Basin are sedimentary and nearly 2,000 feet thick. The soft clays volcanic in origin, recording more than erode rapidly, at the rate of one to two 200 million years of geologic time. feet a century. The weathering and Underlaying most of the basin are the erosion reveal animal and plant fossils same sedimentary layers as those that that have made the Chinle famous occur in the upper portion of Grand among paleontologists for well over a Canyon. Two of those layers, the century. Kaibab Limestone and Coconino Sandstone, crop out in a few places. About 200 million years ago, at the end of the Triassic and beginning of the Mostly exposed on the surface are Jurassic, uplifted land held sand progressively younger, mostly waiting to be picked up and carried by horizontal, sedimentary layers that the wind to accumulate as the Wingate make up the Plateau’s classic Mesozoic Sandstone. To the south, the Wingate sequence: the Moenkopi, Chinle, grades into the Moenave Formation, Wingate and Moenave, Kayenta, laid down partly as windborne dunes, Navajo and Gallup sandstones, and but also in ephemeral lakes and local Dakota and Mesa Verde Formations. rivers. Atop these rest the Kayenta Formation, river-laid silts and The brick-red Moenkopi Formation is sandstones interspersed with purplish composed largely of siltstones and fine- beds of shale. The Navajo Sandstone, grained sandstones veined with one of the plateau’s outstanding rock gypsum. The sediments were deposited layers, started as dunes in a paleo- by a northwest-heading river flowing desert as large as today’s Sahara. The across a coastal plain 250 to 228 million nearly pure quartz sand grains were years ago, the early Triassic Period of compressed into rock that forms steep, the Mesozoic. This part of the sculpted cliffs and rounded domes. American Southwest was much closer Moving eastward into New Mexico, the
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Zuni and Gallup Sandstones form movement along faults, and formation similar cliffs, overlain by Cretaceous- of large-scale folds such as the East Period Dakota and Mesa Verde Kaibab Monocline, shape the modern Formations. course of the Little Colorado River. Thus the fundamental geologic In the ensuing Cenozoic Era (65 million processes of deposition, uplift, and years ago-present), riotous volcanic erosion have occurred, and are still activity spewed voluminous quantities occurring, throughout the Little of lava, cinders, and ash across the Colorado Basin. Erosion is an land. Thick caps of resistant basalt especially visible, and exceedingly cover many mesas; hundreds of cinder rapid, process in rocks such as the cones and associated lava flows Chinle Formation, and accounts for the punctuate the landscape. Three huge sediment loads the river carries. volcanic regions, among the largest in the country, occur in the basin—the San Minerals occur in minable amounts in Francisco and Hopi Butte fields in some of the rocks, especially uranium Arizona, and the Springerville field deposits in the Chinle and coal in the near the White Mountains which Mesa Verde Formation. extends into the Datil area in New Mexico. The youngest cinder cone in Meteor Crater, a national landmark, is the basin is Sunset Crater just east of a large indentation in the grassy plain the San Francisco Peaks. It erupted south of Interstate 40 and west of sometime between A.D. 1050 and 1100 Winslow, Arizona. Early establishment for up to several years, and left behind geologists thought the pit resulted from a cone rimmed with reddish-yellow a volcanic explosion. But mining cinders, hence the name and protection engineer Daniel Barringer believed the as a national monument. crater—500 feet deep and 4,000 feet across—was left behind after a The San Francisco Peaks, a meteorite crashed into Earth. He stratovolcano, mark the western edge intended to mine the iron-rich deposits of the basin. At 12,633 feet elevation, left behind by the meteorite. Barringer, the Peaks are the highest point in it turns out, was correct. Meteor Crater Arizona. They are sacred to more than now is understood to have been the a dozen Native groups. To the Navajo result of such an impact, and it is now they are the Dook’o’osliid, the “abalone a world-renowned feature among shell mountains,” one of the four planetary geologists and nonscientists sacred peaks that mark the boundaries alike. of their land. The Hopi call them Nuvatekiaqui, home of the kachina, While dramatic events like meteorites, spiritual beings that live half the year and the sometimes less spectacular on the Peaks and half the year on the work of water, have shaped the Hopi Mesas. To the Zuni they are landscape, wind is a force to reckon Sunha K’hybachu Yalanne, to the with here. Geologists set up weather Apache Dzil Tso. stations on cliffs in the Painted Desert as part of the Desert Winds Project. But About 20 million years ago, the the wind blew so hard, and carried so landscape began to assume its present much sand, the equipment soon configuration with uplift of the became jammed. Remote monitoring Colorado Plateau as a single, largely systems replaced it, and geologic and undeformed, crustal block. Renewed meterologic data have been collected
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for many years. The information is remarkably full reconstruction of the useful in studies of climate change and late Triassic has come from the rich desertification in the region. Sand in fossil record of the Little Colorado the basin tells another interesting story. River Basin, particularly from the Westerly winds blow sand up off the Chinle Formation in and around bed of the Little Colorado, ramps of Petrified Forest and the Painted Desert. dunes climb the cliff faces to the east, then some of the sand is brought back The first fossil plants and vertebrates down the washes to the river, the were collected in the Chinle by process continually repeating in a giant exploring parties in the mid 19th recycling system. century. Scientists combed the area through the 20th century. Research and excavations into the first decade of the Paleontology 21st century are still posting many “firsts” in paleontology, with new and The late, famed paleontologist Edwin exciting finds at Petrified Forest in Colbert wrote that the Petrified Forest particular. The discovery of several “is in many ways unique . . .[and] is. . . well-preserved skeletons of an animal an outstanding segment of a world- named Revueltosaurus. Determined to wide record of the earth as it existed be a relative of crocodiles rather than more than 200 million years ago.” dinosaurs, this discovery has led to a wholesale reexamination of The Petrified Forest—and a major evolutionary lines in the late Triassic. portion of the Little Colorado River Other crocodile relatives—the Basin—preserves that significant, aetosaurs—have been found. New unique record of life on earth. Here, the phytosaur skeletons, including door opens into the Mesozoic Era, the complete skulls, have also been Age of Reptiles, especially those great uncovered. reptiles known as dinosaurs. With major rock layers dating to the late A pair of quarries in the Chinle near Triassic of the Mesozoic, they hold the Saint Johns, Arizona, along the Little key to a time of transition in life forms. Colorado River, have also been It was the time when the earliest motherlodes for paleontologists. The dinosaurs and modern predecessors of Placerias and Downs quarries have other animals, and plants, stood poised yielded more bone than almost any on the threshold; during the same other Triassic site in the hemisphere. period, doors were being closed on Among the most common fossils are some of nature’s failed experiments. the namesake Placerias. This mammal- like reptile was shaped like a barrel, During the late Triassic, a diverse with some specimens weighing two group of animals populated what tons and sprawling to nine feet in would become the American length. Also, lizard-like reptiles, Southwest. Small and large, predator aetosaurs, and big amphibians known and prey, meat-eaters, plant-eaters, as metoposaurs have been recovered at dwellers both on land and in water, these locations. they added up to an incredibly diverse lot. There were giant amphibians, An array of plant fossils has added to crocodile relatives, freshwater sharks, the reconstruction of the Triassic bony fish, clams, insects, and those environment. Some 200 species have earliest dinosaurs. Much of the been identified from Petrified Forest
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alone—fossilized leaves, stems, cones, bowl rimmed on all sides by higher pollen, even charcoal. Cycads, country. All runoff drains into the horsetails, and ferns indicate an Little Colorado River, the seam that environment that was then much stitches the watershed together. Along wetter, some say tropical. Of course, its 350-mile course, the Little Colorado the area’s best known fossil is petrified can be divided into three distinct wood, from large conifers that were sections. The river begins life as springs washed downstream, buried in ash and that rise on 11,400-foot Mount Baldy, a mud, and the wood literally turned to wilderness area in the White stone over time. (Arizona’s state fossil, Mountains of eastern Arizona. These Araucarioxylon arizonicum, is the source headwaters are sacred to the White tree that has produced most of the Mountain Apache, home of their petrified wood.) benevolent gaan spirits. The East, West, and South Forks join to form a single Other rock layers in the basin have also stream, a cool brook narrow enough to yielded fossils, ones that indicate a step across in the upper reaches. change to a drier environment and that show dinosaurs assuming their full This character persists as the river reign. Though a few plant fossils have flows north past Greer, through Round been found in the Moenave Formation, Valley and beside the town of mostly it is known for trackways of Springerville to Saint Johns. Zunis animals. The three-toed tracks of large make pilgrimages to the river near carnivorous dinosaurs are notable, Saint Johns, at a sacred place they call along with those of archosaurs, Kolhuwaa la:wa, or Zuni Heaven. therapsids, and possibly small mammals. On Navajo land near Here the Little Colorado veers Cameron and Tuba City, Arizona, northwestward, winding across the dinosaur track sites have been known Painted Desert past Holbrook and for more than a century. One of the Winslow to Cameron. It transforms to a most extensive ones in the West is in “flashy” desert river, crisscrossing a the Ward Terrace area. Barnum Brown, wide, flat floodplain, flowing curator of vertebrate paleontology at intermittently with winter snowmelt the American Museum of Natural and summer monsoon rains. Its History in New York, learned of it from average flow is about 250 cubic feet a local residents. He visited the site in second, 18,000 cfs is considered high 1929, and Museum of Northern flow, and historic extreme flows of Arizona paleontologists rediscovered 50,000 cfs have been recorded. But the and studied it in the 1980s and 1990s. word “average” has little meaning for this mercurial river. The water can rise Still more tracks and fossils—of by feet in a matter of hours, then recede dinosaurs, frogs, turtles, lizards, to a trickle by the next day. Early pterosaurs, and more—have been Mormon colonists learned this when found in the Kayenta Formation and they arrived in the valley in the spring layers above it. of 1876 to settle homes and farms. They remarked that the river looked “like a running stream of mud of reddish Hydrology color.” But by July, it was reported dry. The Mormons tried repeatedly to The 26,000-square-mile basin, about the construct brush and rock dams to size of the state of West Virginia, is a divert irrigation water, but a
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rampaging Little Colorado swept away it to go around and back down into its the dams as fast as they could be built. old channel. At nearly 190 feet high, Grand Falls is higher than Niagara Ideas of where the Little Colorado Falls. originally flowed engender lively discussions among geologists. The river continues on through the Depending on how far back one goes in Painted Desert to Cameron, Arizona. geologic time, the river’s course From this point, it enters the final 50- probably was not what it is now. One mile reach, dropping precipitously over prevailing theory proposes that an 2,000 feet in that short distance, down ancestral river flowed out of the north through a sheer-walled gorge to its and turned toward the southeast, confluence with the mainstem opposite the Little Colorado’s modern Colorado in Grand Canyon. In flood, direction. An uplift blocked the the Little Colorado enters the main southeast flow, caused formation of a Colorado as a frothy silt-rich chocolate large lake, and sent the Little Colorado brew. At such volumes, the water in a reverse direction. It was then carries enormous loads of sediment—in “captured” by another major drainage January 1993 the Little Colorado system and pulled into what became shuttled an estimated 10 million tons of the through-flowing main Colorado sediment into the Colorado. River. A look at a map today shows the Little Colorado entering the mainstem Perennial base flow in this lower reach, Colorado just as the Colorado makes a however, is supplied by Blue Springs, 90-degree turn into the heart of the emerging from limestone layers several Grand Canyon. This critical positioning miles above the confluence. The high thus ties any theory into the evolution carbonate load precipitates out to form of the Grand Canyon and Colorado travertine terraces in the river, and River, and uplift of the Colorado turquoise waters swirl into the Plateau. It’s a very complex story, Colorado. Near the confluence is the destined to keep geologists busy for sipapu, which the Hopi identify as the many years to come. place where they entered this, the Fourth World. Studies of the Little Colorado in the 20th century, at least, show the river The Little Colorado’s own major constantly adjusting to climatic, land tributaries enter from the east. The use, and other factors. From 1900 to Zuni River meets it near Saint Johns, around 1940, large floods eroded and while the Puerco River, rising at the widened the river channel. With a Continental Divide in New Mexico, decrease in rainfall in the 1940s-1950s comes in near Holbrook. From north floods were less frequent, and flow was and east ephemeral washes—Oraibi, about half the preceding period. The Dinnebito, and Moenkopi among main channel narrowed. Wetter years from ones—drain Hopi and Navajo lands. 1952 to 1978 again built up the From south and west Silver Creek, East floodplain. Clear Creek, Chevelon Creek, and Deadman Wash enter. Grand Falls is a notable landmark in the middle stretch of the river. This The basin also holds important stairstep waterfall formed where the groundwater sources, including the C- Little Colorado encountered a basalt and N- aquifers. Where groundwater flow that dammed the river and forced encounters an impermeable rock layer,
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springs and seeps come to the surface. the geographic area, there are amazing Notable ones include those at the base surprises. A small but significant piece of Black Mesa, which provide crucial of alpine tundra exists on the San water for Hopi agriculture. Heavy Francisco Peaks. Below that is a forest drawdown of the aquifers for of mixed conifers (Englemann and blue industrial, municipal, and power spruce, subalpine fir, Douglas fir) and generation uses are raising concerns quaking aspen in the mountains of about the long-term sustainability of New Mexico, the headwaters of the groundwater resources and springs. Little Colorado in Arizona’s White Native people of the region, with Mountains, and on the San Francisco others, are working to protect and Peaks. Damp meadows and small lakes restore the valuable springs and in the White Mountains host cattails, wetlands. sedges, reeds, and rare bog orchids. Once the heart of grizzly bear country, these mountains are still home to black Biology bear, elk, wild turkey, deer, and the endangered Mexican wolf. The The Little Colorado River Basin is a Mexican spotted owl seeks the dark land of extremes. That’s a fairly forests, while bald eagles and ospreys obvious statement, but numbers rule the sky. reinforce it. Precipitation varies from about 8 to 30 Around 7,000 feet in elevation, inches, both as snow in ponderosa pine becomes dominant, the higher elevations part of the largest continuous and as summer rains. ponderosa forest on the continent. This Elevational extremes, pine has been the focus of intensive from 2,500 feet studies of forest fire and restoration above sea level ecology. Gambel oak is the main to over 12,000 understory tree. Hundreds of feet, along with thousands of acres of pinyon and Top: A small herd of prong- complex juniper woodlands grow across mesas, horn thunder across open land in Navajo County. Right: geology, hills, and ridges at 6,000 to 5,000 feet. Arizona and New Mexico are topography, and Though they grow slowly and do not famous for their deserts, but microclimates attain great heights, some specimens snow is a frequent winter visi- tor in the higher elevations of combine to are a thousand years old or more. the Little Colorado River wa- produce high Pinyon pines at Sunset Crater and tershed. biological Wupatki National Monuments in the diversity. It was western part of the basin are being these extremes that brought biologist C. studied to assess different climate Hart Merriam to the region in the late change scenarios. Pinyons on cinder 19th century, and from his work here he soils of Sunset Crater (“high-stress” formulated the pioneering concept of sites drier and lower in nutrients) grow “life zones.” more slowly, produce fewer cones, and are more susceptible to insects than The region resides in the rainshadow of those on the lower-stress, sandy-loam the higher Mogollon Rim to the south sites in Wupatki. and the San Francisco Peaks on the west, accounting for the region’s Around 5,000 feet elevation, high- general arid and semiarid climate. But desert shrubs such as four-wing with so many life zones present within saltbush, shadscale, sagebrush, and
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rabbitbrush begin to appear, the hunt. Coyote, the Trickster, figures representing a southern extension of in many Navajo stories. Ma’ii is the high, cold Great Basin Desert. In magical, and though often guilty of addition, Great Basin grasslands greed is a wise messenger of morality. (gramas, sacaton, ricegrass) merge with It was Coyote who threw the North the farthest west extension of Plains Star and the Milky Way into the sky. shortgrass prairie. Often muted and gray-green in appearance, the grass The “breaks” of Chinle Formation, and shrubs morph into vivid green interspersed with the grass and with only a few days of good summer shrublands, are nearly barren of plants. rains. After a wet winter, an The few species that can survive on the unexpectedly colorful wildflower poor soils often are specialists that can display adds interest. tolerate soils high in salts and gypsum for example. The grasslands of the Little Colorado Basin are ideal habitat for pronghorn, The Little Colorado and tributaries— and the region’s herds are important to along with hundreds of isolated the animals’ populations. Optimum springs, seeps, and shaded pools—are food for these ungulates is a mix of riparian areas that add immensely to forbs and grasses. The fastest land the basin’s biodiversity. The river’s old mammals on the continent, they can channel is marked by Fremont sprint up to 60 miles an hour and flee cottonwoods that tree-ring studies any predator. Fawns, however, are show sprouted between 1800 and 1905. more subject to predation and need Those cottonwoods, and native grass high enough to stay hidden willows, have mostly been during their first weeks of life. outcompeted by aggressive exotics, Pronghorn also have adapted both to especially tamarisk and camelthorn. survive days of freezing temperatures, Tamarisk was first noted near Winslow and extreme heat and drought. Other in 1909, but by the mid 20th century it animals of the grassland live below had spread along the riverbed. ground. Burrowing owls, badgers, prairie dogs, and ground squirrels These rare wet areas are the only places assume tenancy of empty burrows, and where amphibians (true toads, occasionally these different species will spadefoot toads, tiger salamanders, share a burrow. and leopard frogs) can survive. These species exhibit fascinating adaptations The Navajo have a number of stories to the extreme fluctuations in and uses for these grassland mammals. temperature, moisture, and salinity The prairie dog, “dloo,” is lured from presented by intermittent water its burrow with a shiny object, then sources. Among invertebrates in the killed with a special, single-barbed basin, unique species include the arrow. Though the Navajo consider California floater (a freshwater mussel), ground squirrels thieves, a squirrel tail the White Mountain water penny hung on a cradleboard makes the child beetle, and long dash butterfly, found agile. Black-tailed jackrabbits, in Arizona only along East Clear Creek, commonly seen in the grass and a tributary of the Little Colorado. shrublands, in the past sustained the people through periods of starvation. One aquatic species, the introduced They say that killing one before going crayfish, has become a problem. deer hunting will bring good luck in Especially common in the upper
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reaches of the Little Colorado, crayfish wealth. The land is inseparable from have altered plant and invertebrate the indigenous people who have lived communities in streams wherever they here for generations, inseparable from live. Likewise, introduced fish compete their language, imagery, traditions, and with unique native fish such as Apache religions. For these reasons, this trout, a minnow called the Little watershed qualifies as a distinct part of Colorado spinedace, the Zuni bluehead the country, worthy of national sucker, and the humpback chub. The heritage designation. Apache trout and Little Colorado spinedace are both targets of intensive recovery programs in the region’s DISTINCTIVENESS OF THEME streams. For the endangered humpback chub, the remaining breeding grounds The landscape of the proposed Little are the warmer backwaters at the Colorado River National Heritage Area mouth of the Little Colorado. is one that has been familiar to people Protection of the chubs’ critical habitat who have both lived in and traveled has led to changes in the operation of through the region. For Native Glen Canyon Dam upstream of Grand Americans, it encompasses the San Canyon. Francisco Peaks, arguably the singlemost important sacred mountain, For birds, particularly migrating birds, the central landmark, in the religions of the green ribbon of riparian habitat every group. Both nationally and serves as an essential corridor. The internationally, the region is known endangered Southwest willow among geologists and paleontologists flycatcher, when present in the for the extraordinary exposures of watershed, is completely dependent on Mesozoic-aged rock and the fossil this zone. wealth sequestered in that rock. The geologic resources of the region have Like the larger Colorado Plateau of yielded fossil remains that have which it is part, the Little Colorado allowed a detailed reconstruction of a watershed contains a high number of key time in earth’s evolutionary endemic creatures, known only from history, the late Triassic. Further, the the basin, along with ones identified as presence of extensive volcanic fields, species of special concern. Botanical and the impact feature Meteor Crater, examples include Peebles Navajo brought attention to the region in the cactus, gladiator milk vetch, Arizona mid 20th century. Astrogeologists willow, White Mountain paintbrush, determined this landscape to be the Sunset Crater penstemon, and San closest analog to the terrain of the Francisco Peaks groundsel. Among Moon, and so it served as an important mammals are endemic subspecies of “real-life” training ground for the chipmunk, spotted ground squirrel, Apollo astronauts. In addition, the Botta’s pocket gopher, silky pocket extreme ranges of natural mouse, Ord’s kangaroo rat, and environments and climates led to Stephen’s woodrat. formulation of the seminal biological concept of life zones. Though later The Little Colorado River watershed is modified by ecologists, the concept still a region unto itself. It possesses offers a way to explain the internationally known geologic and interrelationships of climate and paleontologic features, and numerous assemblages of plants and animals. In unique species and significant biologic summary, all of these unique attributes
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add up to a sound rationale for the Conservancy’s Hart Prairie Preserve worthiness of this region as a national sits at the foot of the San Francisco heritage area. Peaks, and The Arboretum at Flagstaff features native plants. Each Native American tribe generally has RELATED RESOURCES departments of fish and wildlife, natural resources, parks, or outdoor Visitors and residents of the Little recreation that are good sources of Colorado Valley have many information. Check Web sites of possibilities to experience and learn specific tribal governments: Hopi Tribe about the region’s natural history. (www.hopi.nsn.us), Navajo Nation Three national forests—Apache- (www.navajo.org), White Mountain Sitgreaves, Coconino, and Cibola— Apache (www.wmat.nsn.us), and Zuni offer several million acres of public (www.ashiwi.org). Maps and land and hundreds of miles of publications are available at visitor backcountry roads. Forest district centers in parks and towns, local offices have good maps and libraries, museum bookstores, trading knowledgeable people. National parks posts, and outdoor shops. and monuments display and interpret the wealth of geology, paleontology, and biology resources. Among them RELATED RESOURCES LIST are Petrified Forest National Park, and Sunset Crater, Wupatki, Walnut 1,000-yr. old junipers, New Mexico: Canyon, and El Morro National Some species of juniper can live to be Monuments, with scenic drives, trails, more than 1,000 years old. Western ranger programs, and exhibits. State New Mexico has numerous such parks in Arizona, Homolovi Ruins, awe-inspiring specimens in their Fool Holow, and Lyman Lake, and Red forests. Rock State Park in New Mexico, offer hiking, camping, and interpretive The Arboretum at Flagstaff, opportunities. The Little Colorado Flagstaff: Previously a working cattle River Gorge Navajo Tribal Park, ranch, the Arboretum’s 200 acres operated by the Navajo Nation, offers now showcases plants native to the overlooks of the dramatic gorge region and conducts ongoing leading to the confluence of the Little research and education programs and main Colorado Rivers and, for the related to the natural flora and flora brave, spectacular hiking. Arizona of the area. One research project in Game & Fish Department manages particular focuses on the Little several wildlife areas, including Becker Colorado spinedace fish. Lake, Chevelon Canyon, Sipe, Wenima, and White Mountain Grasslands. The Arizona Ethnobotanical Research Little Painted Desert County Park near Association, Flagstaff: Founded in Winslow contains bright exposures of 1983, the Association promotes the the Chinle Formation. Meteor Crater study, documentation, and use of National Natural Landmark has an traditional plants from the American interesting visitor center and rimside Southwest. It also promotes the walk for a full view into the crater. The development of bilingual and Museum of Northern Arizona in multicultural educational programs Flagstaff offers exhibits and trips into about plants, sustainable cultivation, parts of the basin. The Nature the protection of natural habitats, the
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development of a seed bank, and the Biennial Colorado Plateau creation of a medicinal plant Conference, Flagstaff: This herbarium. conference brings together land
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managers, biologists, and other the region through a variety of professionals to share information media. and develop better strategies to manage the natural resources of the Grand Falls on the Little Colorado, Colorado Plateau. Leupp Chapter: A 190 ft. waterfall, dramatic for its height, the two Buffalo Park, Flagstaff: This city distinct kinds of rock that converge at park in Flagstaff offers uninterrupted the site, the 90-degree turn of the and spectacular views of Mt. Elden Little Colorado River after the Falls, and the San Francisco Peaks. Deer views of the San Francisco Peaks, the and other wildlife sightings are not depth of scale of the gorge after the uncommon. falls, and the chocolate milk color of the sediment-laden water which Dinosaur footprints and fossils: gives the Falls one of its nicknames, Found in several locations Chocolate Falls. throughout the watershed (Petrified Forest National Park and Cameron Hart Prairie (Nature Conservancy and Tuba City Chapters are two well- interpretive hikes): Free, guided known places), well-preserved nature walks and hikes aid in footprints and bones have added peoples’ understanding and significantly to scientists’ appreciation of the geological and understanding of the world during ecological features of the San the dinosaurs’ time. Francisco Peaks.
El Morro National Monument, New Little Colorado River Gorge, Mexico: A striking, 200 ft. sandstone Cameron Chapter: The Little bluff in western New Mexico with an Colorado descends 2,000 ft. in just 30 important, ancient pool at its base. miles as it approaches the mainstem The Mesa Top Trail leads visitors to Colorado. The massive sandstone see the nearly-eroded rock layers at walls that form the steep gorge are the top, to take in an incredible view topped with limestone and reach of the surrounding landscape, to see 1,000 ft. tall in places. The gorge is the beautiful box canyon in the center the site of many ancient trails and is of the bluff, and past the ruins of a currently a Navajo Tribal Park and sizeable pueblo. open to visitors.
Flagstaff Chapter of the Arizona Los Gigantes, Ramah: Rock Plant Society, Flagstaff: The Arizona formations near Ramah, New Mexico Native Plant Society promotes that look like giant male and female knowledge, appreciation, figures. These “figures” are conservation, and restoration of considered sacred by the Ramah Arizona’s native plants and their Navajos and Zunis. habitats. The Flagstaff Chapter hosts a series of lectures and plant walks in Lowell Observatory and dark skies: the general area for the enjoyment Visitors to rural Arizona and New and education of participants. Mexico marvel at the night sky. Many long-time residents still do, Gallup Public Library Fine Art too. With no major urban areas and Collection, Gallup: Contains artwork few cities greater than 10,000 people, that reveals the dynamic landscape of the night skies are both infinitely
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dark and infinitely filled with stars. Apache, as well as the source of the The experience of the night sky is as headwaters of the Little Colorado much a part of the landscape of the River. Little Colorado region as are its mountains and canyons. Pluto was National Forest and National Park discovered from Lowell Observatory Service interpretive programs and in Flagstaff and the research hikes: Ranger-led hikes or institution holds regular public interpretive trails on both National viewings through its historic Forest and Park Service lands help telescope. Flagstaff is also has the local residents and visitors both to distinction of being the first better understand the treasures they International Dark Sky City. Quality contain. stargazing for the average viewer and amateur astronomy enthusiast Native Plant and Seed: A retail alike only increases in the more rural nursery that specializes in native areas. varieties of plants. Also provides full- scale, native plant restoration Meteor Crater, eastern Coconino services. County: Meteor Crater was the first meteor impact site in the world Painted Desert and Little Painted identified as such my modern Desert County Park, Navajo County: science. A young Eugene Shoemaker The current name is derived from the reached this conclusion in 1960 after label Spanish explorers gave to the building on the work of the Crater’s region, el desierto pintado, because of early owner, Daniel Barringer. It has the brilliant colors of its rock continued to contribute significantly formations. It is a geologic formation to the study of meteor impacts and to the north side of the Little was also used by Apollo astronauts Colorado River that extends in a to train for their landing on the gentle curve from the western Navajo Moon. Reservation through the Petrified Forest National Park. The desert is Mogollon Rim: A 200-mile mostly comprised of the Chinle escarpment that runs basically east- Formation, formed up to 225 million west across eastern Arizona to the years ago mostly through river New Mexico border. It defines the deposits. When the sun is low in the southern boundary of the Little sky, as at sunrise or sunset, the Colorado River watershed and the stripes of gray, purple, blue, green, southern boundary of the larger red, pink, white, orange, and Colorado Plateau. The elevation combinations of any of these, are at difference between land above and their most dramatic. The interaction below the Rim is as much as 3,000 ft. of rising and falling watertables, The central section of the Rim is various minerals, and layers of characterized by dramatic sandstone volcanic ash created the colorful cliffs. The Rim is a major geologic canvas that is still in an active and feature and a major divide for plant dynamic state of erosion, exposing and animal communities. more dinosaur fossils and petrified wood on a regular basis. Little Mt. Baldy, Apache-Sitgreaves Painted Desert County Park in National Forest: Mt. Baldy is a Navajo County is an excellent sacred site to the White Mountain viewing area.
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Petrified Forest: Trees buried under protecting the San Francisco Peaks sediment more than 200 million years which are held sacred by the Navajo, ago are now re-emerging as sparkling Hopi, Zuni, and 10 other tribes. rainbows of rock. Quartz replaced the wood, minerals added color, and Scenic Skyride at the Arizona now erosion is wearing off sediment Snowbowl, Flagstaff: In the summer that buried the trees in prehistoric months, the Arizona Snowbowl ski times, exposing thousands of resort, located on the southwest side petrified logs and other fossils. of the San Francisco Peaks, still Petrified Forest National Park operates its lifts for panoramic preserves many logs in their natural viewing of the Northern Arizona state, but the actual extent of the landscape. Views extend for 70 miles range of the ancient forest extends and include the Grand Canyon. well beyond Park boundaries into Coconino National Forest state, private, and tribal lands. interpretive rangers meet riders at the top and discuss the biology and Rock Art Ranch, Winslow: Chevelon geology of the region. Creek/Canyon passes through the ranch, containing a rich riparian Sunset Crater Volcano National habitat, numerous petroglyphs, and a Monument: Sunset Crater is the chance for visitors to experience the youngest and least-eroded cinder delights of one of the region’s many cone volcano in the San Francisco smaller, but still spectacular canyons. Volcanic Field, making it and the surrounding landscape an ideal San Francisco Peaks: A former setting for the study of soil strato-volcano, the Peaks dominate formation, plant succession, and the skyline for as much as 100 miles other ecological processes following and the tallest of the peaks, Mt. an eruption. The Monument consists Humphries, is the highest point in of 3,040 acres of cinder cones, lava Arizona. The Peaks are sacred to the fields, lava tubes, and an ice cave. Navajo, Hopi, Zuni, and 10 other tribes. Traditional Navajo land, or Walnut Canyon National Dinetah, is bound by four mountains Monument: Walnut Canyon is 20 in the four cardinal directions that miles long (the Monument contains 6 represent the four pillars of a worldly of these miles), 400 ft. deep, and ¼ hogan, the traditional dwelling of mile wide. Its extremes of Navajos. The Peaks are the western topography, along with seasonal mountain, known as Dook’o’sliid or water, result in a place of the Abalone Shell Mountain. To the concentrated biological diversity. Hot Hopi, the Peaks are known as desert climates and shady forest Nuvatekiaqui and the home of rain- climates occur nearly side by side making kachina spirits. To the Zuni, when in most places they would be they are known as Sunha K’hybachu separated by hundreds of miles or Yalanne and are also extremely thousands of feet in elevation. Cliff sacred. dwellings more than 700 years old line one side of the canyon. Save the Peaks Coalition, Flagstaff: An organization dedicated to Willow Bend Environmental Center, addressing cultural and Flagstaff: A non-profit environmental rights, in particular environmental education center
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sponsored by the Coconino Natural The site contains five gardens with Resource Conservation District slightly different microclimates to dedicated to nurturing a sense of display the variety of plants, insects, place through hands-on and animals found in the diverse environmental education programs. Northern Arizona ecosystem.
PRIMARY REFERENCES
Arizona Heritage Program n.d. Arizona Game & Fish Department.
Brown, David E. (editor) 1982 Biotic Communities of the American Southwest-United States and Mexico. Special Publication of Desert Plants, Vol. 4(1-4). University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Center for Sustainable Environments. n.d. Safeguarding the Uniqueness of the Colorado Plateau. With Grand Canyon Wildlands Council and Terralingua. Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff.
Houk, Rose 1990 The Painted Desert: Land of Light and Shadow. Petrified Forest Museum Association, Petrified Forest National Park, Arizona.
Nabhan, Gary P., Marcelle Coder, and Susan J. Smith 2004 Woodlands in Crisis. Occasional Papers No. 2. Bilby Research Center, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff.
Natural Heritage New Mexico n.d.
Sadler, Christa, William Parker, Sidney Ash n.d. Dawn of the Dinosaurs. Petrified Forest Museum Association, Arizona.
Thybony, Scott 2006 The Painted Desert: Land of Wind and Stone. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
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Theme 2 Trails, Roads, and Rails of the West
SUMMARY OF THEME single most influential item to make the journey north from the Mesoamerican The long and varied history of the heartland, aside from the people Little Colorado River Valley has themselves, was corn. First literally left its mark on the landscape. domesticated in Mexico roughly 10,000 Well-worn paths of Native American years ago, corn spread across the North farmers and traders, Spanish explorers, American continent as far as present- Mormon migrants, and Americans day Maine. The Hopi and Zuni from the east can still be seen in the perfected varieties of this plant, and form of rock carvings, wagon ruts, and complimentary farming methods, to fit distinct overland trails. Sometimes, the unique climate of the Little though, the trail cannot be seen because Colorado high desert. a modern travel corridor has been placed directly over the old, adding a Hopi and Zuni are Pueblo Tribes with new layer of history, with the distinct extensive oral histories of where people sign of its times, to a route that has came from and how they came to be stood witness to the passage of many where they currently are. Both Hopi generations. Walking a mile in another and Zuni beliefs tell of three previous person’s—indeed in another culture’s worlds before people emerged into the or another time’s—shoes is easy in the current Fourth World—the place of Little Colorado if one simply knows emergence being at the confluence of where to walk. the Little Colorado and (big) Colorado Rivers. According to some Hopi histories, Spider Grandmother told the DESCRIPTION OF THEME newly-emerged people they must begin migrating four days after their Native Trade and Travel Routes emergence. The purpose of the migration was to teach them about this The pre-Hispanic American Southwest new world. The group was divided was an active, dynamic region with into smaller groups and a mocking bird people traveling near and far to trade, assigned them different directions to to procure special resources such as pursue. Taking further directions from salt or obsidian, to establish productive natural signs such as shooting stars, farmland, and, not unlike the Spanish sun rays, red clouds, and birds flying priests or Mormon settlers to follow, to in formation, the groups continued fulfill religious or spiritual beliefs. their migrations, sometimes criss- Major and minor routes, traveled by crossing each other’s paths at different foot in days before Spanish horses, times, until they all eventually arrived linked people living in the Little at the Hopi Mesas. Masawu, the Colorado River Valley to each other original inhabitant of the Fourth World and to trade and cultural centers and Owner of the Fire, lived at the outside the region. Material items such Mesas but said he was willing to let the as seashells and macaw feathers from people live there in harmony if they present-day Mexico traveled as far lived a proper life. Different clans north as the Hopi Mesas. Perhaps the migrated in different directions and for
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different lengths of time before arriving Hopi Trail, connects the pueblos of at the Hopi Mesas, and it is difficult to Zuni and Hopi and runs across many say exactly how far or for exactly how of the eastern tributaries of the Little long the migrations occurred. It is quite Colorado. evident, however, that the experience of migration features prominently in Zunis also have extensive oral histories Hopi religion and beliefs and, because regarding the migrations early people of archaeological remains, that much of took before arriving at the Middle the migration did occur in the Little Place, the general region of the present- Colorado River Valley. day Zuni Reservation. One significant event during these migrations took The migrating groups received their place on the Little Colorado River. clan name while on these journeys. For Mothers were crossing the River while example, the Bear Clan received its carrying their children on their backs. name when the group came across a As they crossed, the children bear carcass and paused to reflect on its transformed into water creatures meaning. The group leaders (frogs, lizards, turtles, and so forth), determined that this symbol meant went to the bottom of the river, and they were to be now known as the Bear formed the Council of the Gods. The Clan. Another migrating group came place is known as koluwala:wa and upon the same bear carcass at a later marks a pivotal moment in Zuni pre- time. They cut straps from the hide to history. Zunis continue to make use for carrying heavy loads, and pilgrimages there every four years and subsequently became known as the it is believed that a person’s spirit Strap Clan. Still later, another group travels back to koluwala:wa upon his or came to the place of the bear carcass her death. and saw a bluebird eating its meat and named themselves the Bluebird Clan. Salt is a necessary mineral for human At least four additional clans acquired health and Native Americans would their name from migrating past this travel great distances to obtain it where same bear carcass at different times. it naturally occurred on the landscape. Clans left a record of their routes by Salt, and the journey to get it, was and carving their clan symbol into rock is associated with deep spiritual faces as they traveled. They also carved meaning. Zunis have a specific place in pictorial records of major events or northern Catron County, New Mexico, sometimes the signs they used to known as Zuni Salt Lake, where they determine their routes into rock as have traveled for centuries. There is well. In this way, petroglyphs are a real also a salt cave near the confluence of account of clan history. the Little and main Colorado Rivers that has been an important site to A portion of one Hopi migration trail, Navajos, Hopis, and Paiutes. The trail the Palatkwapi Trail, survives to this leading to the cave follows a canyon day and is designated as a Historic whose name, Salt Trail Canyon, reflects Trail of Arizona by Arizona State the significance of its route. In Navajo Parks. The modern trail connects Walpi belief, the cave is the place where Salt Village on Second Mesa to the city of Woman emerged onto the earth and it Winslow, but in the time of the is also the place where Changing migrations would have extended much Woman, who created the four original farther south. Another designated Navajo clans from her own body, met Historic Trail of Arizona, the Zuni- Salt Woman.
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Trails to reliable water sources are also made their home. After four desperate of extreme importance. Blue Spring years in terrible conditions, the Treaty feeds the Little Colorado River about of 1868 was signed and the government 11 miles above the confluence and is a created a designated Navajo year-round source of high quality Reservation. Approximately 2,000 to water in very arid country. Waterhole 3,000 out of a population of 8,000 to Canyon Trail and Blue Spring Trail are 9,000 never returned, however, having two Navajo trails from the east that died either on the way to Bosque lead to this important site. Tó Redondo or during the time there. On bichi’o’ooldon, Tó bihooyéé’, and the return journey, people stopped for Dá’ák’óózhi kó’ are all primarily Navajo a short while at Ft. Defiance, Arizona trails that lead to tributaries of the to receive the allotment of sheep—2 for western portion of Little Colorado every man, woman, and child—the River. Countless other trails across all government gave them to start their three reservations have led the way to lives anew. water for generations upon generations of families. The Zuni-Acoma Trail, which connects the two pueblos, passes Spanish Exploration the waterhole at the base of the 200 ft sandstone bluff now known as El Friar Marcos de Niza, his guide Morro National Monument. It was the Esteban, and a small group of others only year-round water source on the were the first known Europeans to journey. El Morro contains more than travel into the Little Colorado River 2,000 petroglyphs and inscriptions watershed. They were on an expedition from those who lived near or traveled in 1539 to find the alleged Seven Cities by. of Cibola, also known as the Seven Cities of Gold. Esteban went ahead of One trail of extreme significance to the de Niza and reached the Zuni pueblo of Navajo is one they wish they never had Hawikku, where he was reportedly to take—the Long Walk. Raids between killed. Upon his return, De Niza Navajos and other residents of New reported that he saw “Cibola” Mexico and Arizona Territory were (Hawikku) from a distance and he routine, each ethnic group alternately continued to support the myth of the playing the role of perpetrator and cities of gold. Francisco Vasquez de victim. The U.S. Government viewed Coronado, governor of the territory in these raids as a major deterrent to New Spain where de Niza lived (the further European-American settlement present-day Mexican states of Jalisco, and development of the region. In an Sinaloa, and Nayarit) then decided to attempt to establish control, Kit Carson go for himself. Mounting an incredible began a scorched-earth campaign in force of several hundred men, 1864. With their crops burned and Coronado set out in 1540. He reached livestock slain or taken by the military, Hawikku and, when the people there people had little choice but to follow refused his demands for food and other the army to Ft. Sumner (Bosque supplies, he used force. During his time Redondo) on the Pecos River in eastern with the Zunis he dispatched a New Mexico. Although imprisoned, scouting expedition led by Pedro de they would at least have something to Tovar to the Hopi Mesas, hoping to eat. The journey was hard and between find the “real” cities of gold there since 300 and 500 miles long depending on Hawikku proved not to be it. Tovar where in the region a particular family reported that there were no golden
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cities on the Mesas either, but that he the Spanish dramatically altered the did learn of a great river to the north. lives of all Native Americans. Spanish Hoping to find a water route to influence was negative in terms of the southern New Spain, Coronado then brutality employed in an attempt to sent another scouting expedition led by force people to adopt the Catholic Garcia Lopez de Cárdenas to religion or accept Spanish rule, but also investigate. Cárdenas, led by Hopi positive in terms of the introduction of guides, became the first European to new crops, horses, and other farm see the Grand Canyon. Native animals. Americans had long been traveling to and in the canyon to collect various resources, make offerings, or trade Mormon Migration South with other tribes. Cárdenas, however, found its ruggedness so frustrating that Although they believed in a different his unfavorable report dissuaded God and used different criteria for further Spanish exploration for 200 guiding their movement, the Mormons, years. Coronado then continued north too, migrated through the Little and east as far as present-day Kansas, Colorado River Valley due to religious still in search of the Seven Cities of reasons and directives. In 1844, the Cibola. religion’s founder, Joseph Smith, described a Mormon future that flowed Juan de Oñate also passed near Zuni in over both American continents, North 1605 and left his inscription on El and South. The concept of Manifest Morro. Oñate originally came to Destiny reached its height in the Anglo- present-day New Mexico in 1598 to American mindset during the 1840s. establish permanent settlements in the Smith’s vision of settlements of Saints Rio Grande Valley. He made this in Mexico and beyond was the inscription during a return trip to Mormon version of that dream and Mexico City. came to be understood as a natural unfolding of God’s will. Fathers Silvestre Velez de Escalante and Francisco Dominguez set out from Starting in 1858, Jacob Hamblin visited Santa Fe in 1776 to try and establish an the Hopi Mesas and scouted trails overland route to California since no through canyons and made note of the east-west waterway exists. They best river crossings and water sources essentially completed a loop, traveling in the southern Utah and northern northwest through Colorado to Great Arizona region. In December 1872, Salt Lake, Utah. A fierce October Brigham Young sent a party of 14 men blizzard convinced the weary to explore both the Little Colorado and expedition to return to Santa Fe, which Verde Rivers. In April 1873, a mission they did by taking a southeasterly of approximately 100 people set out course through Ganado, Arizona and with the intent of establishing stopping in Zuni in late November settlements along the Little Colorado. before reaching Santa Fe. The mission’s president, Horton Haight, reached the Little Colorado Spanish exploration of the Little River south of the Hopi villages of Colorado region was part of a larger Moenkopi in late May, explored it for The Ramah Museum in Ramah, legacy of Spanish influence in the entire 120 miles, and declared it unfit for New Mexico, documents the har- diness and history of the Mormon American West. Spanish missions were settlement due to obvious signs of settlement and its settlers. established at both Zuni and Hopi and flooding, no suitable place to dam, and
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lack of wood or rock for building. north to intercept Snow and make his Wrote Andrew Amundsen, a Native case. Snow approved and agreed to Norwegian and member of that map out a townsite plan for the new mission, in his diary: community of Snowflake. Snow also directed local leaders to negotiate the From the first we struck the little purchase of the town of St. Johns. Collorado…, it is the same thing Though relatively few in number, other all the way, no plase fit for a European settlers had either human being to dwell upon. In established themselves or laid claim in case of hie water the bottoms are various locations in the Little Colorado all flooded, [there is] no plase for a region prior to the Mormons’ arrival. dam for if we could get plenty of While some Mormon settlements, such water it would back op about 6 or as Joseph City, Brigham City, Obed, 8 miles op the River and the and Eagar, were established by Cottonwood is so scrubby and Mormons themselves, a number of crukked so it would only be fit for others were bought, as in the case of fierr wood. No rock for bilding, no Snowflake, St. Johns, and the pine timber within 50 or 75 miles community of Erastus next to Concho. of her. Wherever you may luck the Purchases were often effected with a country is all broken up. The combination of cash and high quality moste desert lukking plase that I Utah cattle. ever saw, Amen. (Peterson 1973:12) The settlers traveled a path that was becoming more well-defined with each Despite these initial setbacks, church mission caravan or drive of Utah cattle. leadership would not abandon the The missionaries made their way from dream of their founder or will of their their various locations in Utah and God and another exploration party was often made a stop in St. George to visit sent to the region in late 1875. In 1876, the temple before the final drive to two colonies, whose intent it was to Arizona Territory. Crossing the (big) serve the local Native populations, Colorado River at Lee’s Ferry, they were established along the Little made their way to the villages at Colorado River: Moenkopi and Savoia Moenkopi and then followed Moenkopi (modern-day Ramah). The call to serve Wash to the Little Colorado River. one’s mission continued and at least six Once at the River, they followed it more settlements were started between upstream to modern-day Holbrook and 1877 and 1878. In the fall of 1878, the the confluence with the Rio Puerco. apostle Erastus Snow made a trip from From there, some followed the Rio Utah to visit the fledgling communities. Puerco to the northeast, some went Just before Snow’s arrival, William south along Silver Creek, and some Flake bought the homestead of James continued along the main Little Stinson, whose claim included a sizable Colorado to St. Johns and places higher and well-grassed portion of Silver in the White Mountains. Creek Valley till its confluence with the Little Colorado, but Flake’s This route, portions of which were individualistic actions drew sharp used previously by area tribes to trade criticism from other Mormons. with each other, became known as the Knowing Snow was on his way and Mormon Wagon Road or the Mormon believing he could convince him of the Honeymoon Trail and is another wisdom of his purchase, Flake traveled designated Historic Trail of Arizona.
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Modern-day Highway 89 follows the By 1880, most of the Mormon approximate course of the Wagon Road settlements that were to be in the Little from Moenkopi north to Lee’s Ferry Colorado River Valley had been and continuing to Jacob’s Lake and established and the ensuing decades Fredonia to the Utah border. saw the effort to solidify the claims and keep the towns alive. The settlements The nickname “Honeymoon Trail” was relied heavily on ranching and crops coined by Arizona historian Will or, for those higher in the White Barnes who lived along the Little Mountains, on ranching and lumber. Colorado River in the 1880s and Townspeople habitually constructed witnessed the movement of Mormons dams to try and manipulate the Little north and south along the Road. In Colorado to their purposes—the lake at addition to the normal traffic of trade Lyman Lake State Park between St. goods, family visitors, and new Johns and Springerville, for example, missionaries, many newlyweds was begun by a Mormon dam—but the traveled the Road. Sometimes the call river habitually broke them. In times of to a mission hastened a wedding before need, supply wagons from Utah, departure, as is evidenced by this letter traveling the same route the settlers included in an 1871 diary entry of John had taken themselves, fortified the Pulsipher. struggling communities. Not every town survived, but many did and I think much of the short, but Mormon presence and influence in the happy acquaintance we have Little Colorado River Valley remains formed, and if you would not strong to this day. think me rude or in haste I would like to hear from you soon. As we live in these days of short prayers, East-West Corridor short sermons, and short courtships, I would like you to Modern-day I-40 crosses the entire write me a plain mountain Little Colorado River watershed for X English letter and tell me truly, if miles in a neat east-west direction. The you think it would be best and city of Gallup, county seat of McKinley proper for us to be joined in County, New Mexico, the City of marriage? Do you think enough of Holbrook, county seat of Navajo me, almost stranger as I am, to County, Arizona, and Flagstaff, county choose me before all other men that seat of Coconino County, Arizona, all live? If you was satisfied to say sit squarely on I-40’s course. State yes, how long a time would you Route 87 in Arizona, leading to the want to close up your business and Hopi capital of Kykotsmovi, and Indian be ready for a mission to the Route 12 of Arizona, leading to the South?” Navajo capital of Window Rock, also (Peterson 1973:50) connect directly to I-40. I-40’s course, however, was a major east-west travel Sometimes, too, the couple met in the corridor long before its completion in settlements of Arizona but, lacking any the late-1980s, long before President temple in the Territory, traveled north Einsenhower’s vision of a national to the temple in St. George to have interstate system, long before the their marriage sealed and then traveled invention of the horseless carriage, and the Road back again as newlyweds to long before this part of the country was their home in Arizona. annexed to the United States as part of
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the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo Francisco Peaks (near modern-day following the Mexican-American War. Flagstaff) and then bore west across the I-40 follows the same corridor as Route Black Mountains to the Colorado River. 66, which in turn followed the same Senator Gwinn was not the only one corridor as the Atchison, Topeka & pushing Congress to establish railroads Santa Fe Railroad, which followed the and the political climate of the 1850s same corridor as the Beale Wagon was already showing the North-South Road, which followed the expedition factionalism that would lead to the routes of Lieutenant Amiel Whipple, Civil War. Gwinn championed a Captain Lorenzo Sitgreaves, and railroad along the 35th parallel, citing Captain Randolph Marcy. The entire the report made by the Marcy original length of the Route 66 corridor, expedition that the route was the most- which became I-40 from Oklahoma suitable in terms of grade and climate, City to Bartsow, Calif., is more than but Congress would not tolerate the 2,400 miles and ran from Chicago to development a single route, especially Los Angeles. Different sections of this a southern one. In 1853, it was decided route have different histories, but that five routes should be explored, of various major sections were which the 35th parallel would be one. undoubtedly developed by Native Yet another military expedition, this Americans as the first Europeans to one with the specific purpose of explore the region either used Natives establishing a route suitable for a as guides or consulted with them when railroad, was sent and this time they made their own routes. Lieutenant Amiel Whipple was in charge. He, too, hired Leroux and With the annexation of entire modern- traveled the Little Colorado River from day California, Nevada, and Utah and Zuni to the San Francisco Peaks. parts of modern-day Arizona, New Whipple’s report, published in 1855, Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming as a inspired the desire for an east-west result of the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe wagon road in addition to a rail route. Hidalgo, there was a desire of the U.S. In 1857, the U.S. Government sent Government to survey the lands to see Lieutenant Edward Beale to establish exactly what they had. The finding of such a road and to test the viability of gold in California that same year added using camels for transport in this desert more than a little to the feeling of region. Beale and his camels made a urgency to establish east-west routes summer departure from Fort Smith, across the new part of the nation. In Arkansas and, largely following Lt. 1849, Captain Randolph B. Marcy made Whipple’s course, reached Los Angeles the first U.S. Government-sponsored by Christmas. The next year, Congress expedition of the region. In 1850, approved $150,000 to improve the California achieved statehood and one route and Beale set out with 100 men to of its two Senators, William Gwinn, construct the first federally funded began pushing Congress for an east- highway across the Southwest and, west railroad to link the new state to inadvertently, set the course for the the rest of the country. In 1851, another future railroad, Route 66, and I-40. military-sponsored expedition, led by Captain Lorenzo Sitgreaves, explored The Atchison and Topeka Railroad the region. Sitgreaves hired trader began with the dream of Cyrus K. Antoine Leroux who knew of a trail Holliday and an 1859 charter for a that went northwest along the Little railroad to go between the towns of Colorado River from Zuni to the San Atchison and Topeka, Kansas. His
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desire was to tap into the lucrative now extended to Albuquerque, New trade along Santa Fe Trail that spanned Mexico, to jointly develop the route from St. Louis, Missouri, across with A&P west to California. The Kansas, to Santa Fe, New Mexico. In railroad that passed from Albuquerque 1863, the company was reorganized through Arizona was known at the and acquired the name under which it time as the A&P, but ATSF gained total became famous, the Atchison, Topeka ownership by 1907. & Santa Fe Railroad (ATSF). Railroad building was a risky and cut-throat Three modern-day cities in the Little business, with companies constantly on Colorado watershed reflect this the brink of bankruptcy and constantly complicated history: Gallup, New fighting over land grant rights. The Mexico is named for David L. Gallup, Atlantic & Pacific Railroad (A&P) an auditor and paymaster of the ATSF; experienced financial trouble after the Holbrook, Arizona is named for H.R. Panic of 1873 and its land grant rights Holbrook, an Atlantic & Pacific along the 35th parallel, which had been engineer who worked on the route in granted to it by the U.S. Government in this region; and Winslow, Arizona is 1866, came to be controlled by the St. named for Edward G. Winslow who Louis and San Francisco Railroad was the president of the St. Louis and beginning in 1876. Intense negotiations San Francisco. Holbrook and his ASTF between ATSF and the St. Louis and counterpart, engineer Lewis Kingman San Francisco finally led to an 1880 (for whom Kingman, Arizona is agreement allowing the ATSF, which named) used Lt. Whipple’s expedition notes to survey the route from Albuquerque, New Mexico, across the Little Colorado River watershed, to the Colorado River. In August 1883, a bridge across the Colorado River at Needles, California was completed and from there the ATSF connected to railroads already established in that state, thereby effectively completing their route from the mid-section of the country to the Pacific Coast.
The first person rode the original Kansas portion of the ATSF in 1869, beginning a 103-year history of passenger service until AmTrak took over all passenger operations in the county in 1971. Although ATSF was originally built as much for freight traffic as it was for passengers, it was its various passenger amenities that made it famous.
In 1876, English immigrant Fred Top: A mural in downtown Winslow documents the Harvey leased ATSF’s Topeka Lunch impact the railroad has had in the community over the past century. Bottom: Retired Santa Fe cabooses Counter believing he could now grace a downtown park in Winslow, Arizona. revolutionize the eating experiences of
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rail travelers and workers alike. Company, and the West. The national Having a background in both impact of Harvey Houses, and restaurants and railroads, Harvey especially the waitresses, was so great eventually landed a position with the that MGM made a 1946 movie entitled Chicago, Burlington & Quincy The Harvey Girls. It was set in a fictional Railroad. He traveled the railroad town in western New Mexico, starred extensively and knew first-hand the Judy Garland and Angela Lansbury, deplorable conditions of restaurants and at the end of the movie the male and hotels in most small Midwestern and female lead have fallen in love and towns. are traveling to Flagstaff to start a new life. The Chicago, Burlington & Quincy was not interested in Harvey’s ideas to Earlier Harvey Houses, such as the one improve these services, so he that opened in Holbrook, Arizona in approached ATSF. After his initial lease 1884, were built for railroad employees of the Topeka Lunch Counter, ATSF or as mealtime stopovers for officials became nervous. The quality of passengers. After 1900, ATSF the food was so good that growing management saw an opportunity in demand from rail passengers and establishing resort-like hotels to locals alike required an expansion of encourage passengers to lengthen their the facility. ATSF officials feared stays in particular places or to give passengers would be so enamored with those visitors the impetus to make a their experience that they would not trip in the first place. Mary Elizabeth continue farther west. The solution: Jane Colter became the primary interior allow Harvey to open more such places designer and occasional architect for farther down the line. these resorts, combining Native and Spanish architecture into buildings that “Harvey Houses,” sometimes a came to define the spirit of the restaurant, a hotel, a train station, a American West. newsstand, or any combination of these, became known for their After the unexpected death of her impeccable quality, comfort, and father, Colter persuaded her mother to service. Beginning in 1883, Harvey allow her to attend the California started employing young, unmarried School of Design so she could become a women to be waitresses in his qualified art teacher and support her restaurants to the exclusion of men, a mother and sister. While in school, socially unusual practice for the day. Colter also apprenticed in an architect’s Their uniforms consisted of near floor- studio, an experience that would serve length, long-sleeved black dresses her well later in life. Upon her under starched white aprons—a clear graduation in 1890, she returned home contrast to the dress of the only other to St. Paul, Minnesota and taught high single women found in quantity in the school art. She also took archaeology West, the “soiled doves” of the saloons classes during this time for her own and brothels. pleasure.
These waitresses became known as A visit to a friend in San Francisco, a Harvey Girls and their training in friend who worked in a Fred Harvey manners and service gave an air of east gift shop, eventually led to a job offer coast sophistication to the entire in the summer of 1902. Fred Harvey operations of the ATSF, Fred Harvey had died in 1901 and the company was
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now managed by his two sons and one making studios in some of the rooms son-in-law. They saw the potential in during construction to get exactly the marketing Native arts and crafts to style and look she wanted, designed train passengers and wanted Colter to the frames for pictures of San Ysidro arrange the interior decorating for the (the patron saint of the hotel) that went new Indian Building that was being in every guest room, and put a broken erected next to the new ATSF station in ox cart of the type commonly used in Albuquerque. The Indian Building the desert a century earlier in the served as museum, artists’ cactus garden. demonstration studio, and gift shop all in one. The job was temporary, and La Posada opened on May 15, 1930 and after the building opened Colter was a base of operations for another of returned to St. Paul. In the summer of the ATSF’s passenger amenities, the 1904, the Fred Harvey Company called Indian Detours. Indian Detours were upon Colter again, this time to design small, guided auto trips to surrounding the entire building, not just the interior, attractions. The first Detours were for the Hopi House that was being built offered out of Las Vegas, New Mexico across from the El Tovar hotel at the beginning in 1926. These tours took south rim of the Grand Canyon. Hopi travelers to several ancient pueblo House was the first of eight buildings sites, contemporary pueblos, and Colter would eventually build in the included stops at Harvey future National Park. In 1910, the Fred establishments in Albuquerque and Harvey Company offered her a Santa Fe. Indian Detours operated out permanent job. of La Posada went to Grand Canyon, Petrified Forest, Painted Desert, the Colter would design or decorate 22 White Mountains, and the Hopi buildings for the Fred Harvey Reservation. Company between her first in 1902 and her last in 1949. Three of these were to Upon the 1957 announcement of the be in the Little Colorado River closure and sale of La Posada and the watershed, including the one she auction of its furnishings, Colter is considered her masterpiece, La Posada, reported to have said “There is such a in Winslow, the home city of ATSF’s thing as living too long” (Grattan Arizona headquarters. La Posada was 1980:111). Three months later, her El an elegant hotel, train station, Navajo hotel in Gallup, New Mexico restaurant, and gardens all in one and was torn down. Colter had hired Colter had complete design control Navajo artist Sam Day, Jr. to design over every detail down to the china sand paintings for the interior décor patterns and maids’ uniforms. and El Navajo was the first place this type of art, which is traditionally Begun in 1929 before the stock market temporary and used only by trained crash, no expense was spared. Colter medicine men in healing ceremonies, conceived of a history for the was allowed for permanent public building—it was the hacienda of an old view. La Posada, although up for sale Spanish family who had lived in it for and largely gutted, narrowly escaped several generations and filled it with the fate of El Navajo. When no buyers fine arts from their worldly travels and presented themselves, ATSF turned the sturdy folk furniture made by their building into crew offices. Then, after a ranchhands—and designed it number of years, the railroad closed accordingly. Colter set up furniture- the offices and abandoned the building
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completely. As with many Harvey and has remained open ever since Houses, La Posada had been popular except for a short period between 2004 with locals as well as travelers. A and 2005 when it underwent major number of Winslow residents formed a restorations. Although it no longer group called the Gardening Angels and offers meal service or overnight took care of the grounds the best they accommodations, it still offers visitors could considering it was an abandoned a comfortable and spectacular view of property. Their efforts saved many of the Painted Desert and a tiny glimpse the original trees and other plants at La into the Hopi culture through Kabotie’s Posada and likely deterred significant murals. vandalism to the property as well. Several members of this group joined Colter designed La Posada’s front with others and formed the La Posada entrance facing south to the ATSF Foundation to find a way to save La tracks. Today, the front entrance faces Posada from the imminent wrecking north to a Winslow city street known as ball. The building was finally 2nd Street, or in previous decades, as purchased in 1997 by Allen Affeldt and Route 66. La Posada’s unique physical the lengthy process of restoration position that joins the railroad and The began. The hotel is once again filled Mother Road is but a metaphor for the with overnight guests, the restaurant entire history of the two travel serves meals of true quality, and it has corridors. Like the ATSF, Route 66 runs become a popular meeting place filled the entire 210-mile east-west length of with activity. A group called the the Little Colorado River watershed. Winslow Harvey Girls, some of whom are descendents of actual Fred Harvey Route 66 was and is the culmination of Company employees, give guided some of the most dramatic social and tours of the hotel in full Harvey Girl economic conditions ever to take place uniform. in the United States. Picking up where the previously-discussed Native, Colter’s third Little Colorado building, Anglo-explorer, wagon, and railroad for which she served as interior history of its corridor leave off, Route decorator in 1947, is the small and 66’s nascent beginnings as an auto road charming Painted Desert Inn at began with the organization and Petrified Forest National Park. The designation of the National Old Trails building achieved National Historic Road. The idea for this road came from Landmark status in 1987. It features the Daughters of the American murals by renowned Hopi artist Fred Revolution who proposed the Kabotie whom Colter first development of a national motor route commissioned to paint Hopi in time for the 1915 Panama Exposition ceremonial scenes in the Watchtower in to be held in San Francisco. As the Grand Canyon National Park. Kabotie name suggests, this was a route that painted three murals inside the Painted ran across the entire nation from New Desert Inn including one that depicted York to California and was comprised an important trail Hopis traditionally of many smaller regional routes took between the Mesas and Zuni to including the original National Road obtain salt. Painted Desert Inn was authorized by President Jefferson in closed for many years after the Fred 1808, the Santa Fe Trail, and the route Harvey Company ceased it operations of the ATSF. Most of the National Old at Petrified Forest, but was reopened Trails Road from Santa Fe to Los for the nation’s bicentennial in 1976 Angeles would become Route 66.
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In the early 1920s, the federal Avery formed the Highway 66 government began to respond to public Association from a group of pressure and the proliferation of businessmen to promote Route 66 as a named, regional routes by attempting tourist road from the very beginning. to organize and standardize road travel Its first president, John T. Woodruff, throughout the country. For more than called Route 66 “America’s Main two decades, car owners had been Street.” The title was a publicity stunt, forming local auto clubs and but was also based in reality. From the developing and naming regional beginning, Route 66 was designed to routes. A growing post-WWI economy link rural towns to each other and to meant that more and more Americans their urban counterparts for the were buying cars, joining clubs, and enhancement of rural economies. The establishing even more routes— first major event for the Association approximately 250 such routes existed and for all of Route 66 was a nearly 3- before roads were organized month footrace held in the spring of nationally. The American Association 1928 from Los Angeles to Chicago and of State Highway Officials met in 1925 then on to New York City. and formed the Joint Board of Interstate Highways whose job it was With the stock market crash of 1929 to develop the first comprehensive and the ensuing Dust Bowl and Great national highway system. It was a Depression, Route 66 became a road of member of this board that suggested desperation and hold-out hope as the current numbering system still in opposed to a road of fun and frivolity. place today: odd-numbered routes John Steinbeck’s famous 1939 novel The travel north-south, even-numbered Grapes of Wrath and subsequent 1940 routes travel east-west, and routes movie by the same title captures the ending in either 5 or 0 are considered essence of the flight an estimated primary routes. 200,000 Midwesterners took as the wind literally swept their farms away Cyrus Avery, an Oklahoman and from them and California seemed like member of the Joint Board, proposed a their only chance at a job and survival. Chicago to Los Angeles route to pass It was Steinbeck who first called Route through Oklahoma City and a 1925 66 “the mother road,” a moniker that map produced by the Joint Board endures to this day. Very few of those shows such a route named as Route 60. who made the journey stayed in The route follows the Atlantic & Pacific California, however, and they likely Railroad corridor from Chicago to traveled Route 66 again in their plight Oklahoma City and joins the ATSF elsewhere. Route 66 symbolized hope corridor at Santa Fe. This same map for a job for displaced farmers during also shows Route 62 branching off from the 1930s and meant a real job for many Route 60 at Springfield, Missouri and young men who were part of President running the east-west length of Roosevelt’s Civilian Conservation Kentucky to Newport News, Virginia. Corps or Works Project This upset Kentucky Governor William Administration. Both organizations J. Fields, who was unyielding in his focused heavily on road improvements, demands that his state should have a and by 1938 the entire length of Route primary route. The debate went on for 66 was paved when less than half of it, months until it was finally agreed on mostly in California, Illinois, and April 30, 1926 that the Chicago to Los Missouri, had been paved just 10 years Angeles route would be Route 66. earlier.
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Little tourist traffic was seen on Route mindset as this new generation added 66 during the 1930s or during the gas- it own chapter. The 1969 movie Easy and rubber-rationing war years of the Rider, conceived by Peter Fonda and early 1940s. The post-WWII era, Dennis Hopper who also starred in its however, even more so than the post- leading roles, was largely filmed on WWI era, was a time of economic Route 66. The film received standing growth for the country. The increase in ovations at the Cannes Film Festival material possessions, such as cars, and that year, adding yet another layer to the increase in wealth and leisure time the rebellious and distinctly American as America transformed from a rural image of the road as the way to greater agricultural and laborer society to an freedom, personal discovery, and a urbanized technological society is a better life. well-noted phenomenon among social and economic historians. This The 210-mile Little Colorado River combination, along with exuberance watershed section of Route 66 shares from winning the war, meant that the history of the entire road. Route 66 America was on the move. It was in is still essentially main street in Gallup, this spirit that Bobby Troup, a recently- Holbrook, Joseph City, Winslow, and returned WWII veteran, and his wife Flagstaff and the road runs through the Cynthia hit the road in Pennsylvania in Navajo Chapters of Manuelito, Lupton, February 1946 to make a life for Houck, Red Rock, and Iyanbito. Along themselves in California. On the way, the Little Colorado section of Route 66, they wrote a song that was recorded one can see traditional Navajo hogans, and released within a few weeks after the vast open ranges and spectacular their West Coast arrival as “Get Your rock formations that define the Kicks on Route 66” by Nat King Cole. Southwest landscape, and an array of Later recordings were also made by architectural gems that tell Route 66’s Chuck Berry and the Rolling Stones, story both as a town Main Street and as bringing the road built in the Roaring a major tourists’ highway. Though too Twenties and first made famous during many to detail one by one, a sampling the Depression firmly into the age of of notable structures includes the rock and roll. following. The beautiful 1928 El Morro Theatre in Gallup is a local treasure The 1950s and 1960s saw the rise of a and the only Spanish Eclectic style new generation. The prosperity and building in the watershed. The 1937 El comforts of the post-war era also Rancho Hotel, also in Gallup, was built resulted in homogenization and by and for Hollywood. Built by R.E. conformity, something with which the Griffith, brother of director D.W. emerging generation found fault. Griffith, at a time when many Westerns Roads to them were a form of rebelling, were being filmed in northwest New a symbolic and literal means of getting Mexico, the hotel’s architecture and away from cultural norms they did not décor reflects a blend of both the “real” embrace. Jack Kerouac’s novels, West and a Hollywood creation of the especially his 1957 On the Road, are as “West.” The two-story lobby displays revealing of this national phenomenon authentic Navajo rugs, oversized rustic of the 1950s as Steinbeck’s Grapes of wooden furniture, and hundreds of Wrath was of the Dust Bowl plight of classic black-and-white signed the 1930s. The myth of the open road headshots of the famous stars that symbolizing endless possibilities was stayed there. The hotel is owned and becoming more fixed in the American operated by the Ortega family, who has
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store in Gallup, built the post in the late 1800s. From 1924 to 1953, the trading post was managed by Roman Hubbell, son of Juan Lorenzo Hubbell whose original trading post in Ganado, Arizona on the Navajo Nation is now a National Historic Site. The building is currently under renovation to become the city’s Welcome Center. The 1926 ATSF train depot in Flagstaff, like La Posada in Winslow, is flanked on the
A mural on the side of a restaurant in Holbrook, Ari- south by the tracks and on the north by zona, celebrates Route 66. Route 66. It continues to serves as a train depot for AmTrak, is the home of roots several generations deep in the Flagstaff’s Visitor’s Center, is a hub for Gallup region as traders, and is equally Open Road Tours (a local shuttle and popular with locals as it is with tour bus company), and is a focal point travelers. In Holbrook, one easily of the downtown. The El Morro recognizes the Wigwam Village as a Theater, El Rancho Hotel, Wigwam classic example of roadside tourist Village, Hubbell Building, La Posada, architecture. Built in 1950, the motel is and the Flagstaff Visitors’ Center are all currently owned and operated by the on the National Register of Historic son and daughter of the original Places. builder, Chester Lewis. Lewis, owner of other Arizona hotels at the time, saw Route 66 was decommissioned in the original Wigwam Village built by sections and stages, beginning in Frank Redford in Cave City, Kentucky. California as early as 1965. The Lewis forged an agreement with Oklahoma to Arizona/California Redford for the plans and built his border section was the last in 1985. Wigwam Village in Holbrook, the sixth Williams, Arizona, just to the west of out of ten such Villages that would the Little Colorado watershed, was the eventually be built throughout the last town on the entire route to be country. Another classic post-war bypassed by the new I-40. Route 66, the tourist enterprise is the Jack Rabbit road designed link rural American Trading Post between Holbrook and towns together and enhance their Winslow. Its multiple bright yellow economies, had done its job. Now that billboards featuring a simple black it was no longer, those small businesses silhouette of a rabbit and the and economies began to decline. The declaration “Here it is!” in red are one concentration of the population into of the best examples of the style of urban centers began in the 1920s and roadside tourist advertising of its era. 1930s and has continued ever since. Another classic tourist attraction is the The interstate highway system 12-foot jackrabbit statue outside the facilitated this trend by making travel store that visitors can ride and to and through bigger cities easier and photograph. Reflecting the “Main faster. At the same time, it reduced the Street” side of Route 66 are the early need to have duplicate stores and Mormon houses seen in Joseph City. services in smaller towns. For The Hubbell Building in Winslow businesses directly related to road served locals and tourists alike. The travel—filling stations, hotels, and Richardson family, who still operates a restaurants—the wise business decision
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was obviously to move to the interstate took the silver for the 10,000 meter race exits and entrances and off of “Main in the 1912 Olympics and Nicholas Street.” Subsequently, many Route 66 Quamawahu won the Long Beach-New businesses and downtown economies York Marathon in 1927 and held the suffered considerably. lead during the first part of the 1928 Route 66 run. Both Arizona and New Mexico have designated Route 66 as a National Later European migration has left Scenic Byway, signifying that while the comparable impacts on the land, nature and role of the road has cultural character of the region, and changed with the times, its importance shaped the minds of their descendents. to its communities and the state as a The Mormon population of Arizona whole remains high. Additionally, the and western New Mexico remains National Park Service has a Route 66 high, and Snowflake is home to one of Corridor Preservation Program that only two temples built in Arizona. focuses on local business and tourism Despite a few early explorers and development along the entire road, adventurous homesteaders, the much in the same spirit as the original introduction the vast majority of Route 66 Association. Americans from the east got of the Southwest was by way of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad and, later, DISTINCTIVENESS OF THEME Route 66.
America has always been a country on ATSF and Fred Harvey Company made the move. Before Europeans arrived, the Southwest accessible to those Native Americans built extensive trail unused to its landforms and climate, systems over thousands of miles to yet they also selectively packaged fulfill their subsistence and spiritual elements of the land and its culture to needs. They traveled far and often and make it especially attractive. Their the stories of their journeys are central stylized advertisements, buildings, and to their clan and individual identities interior train décor, as much as they and to their religious and moral codes drew upon the Southwest’s to this day. Although entire clans are authenticity, also created a specialized no longer on the move as in ancient image of the Southwest in the minds of times, the philosophy of running, often eastern European-Americans. ATSF on ancient trails or to ancient sites, still also sponsored the trips of many artists persists in Pueblo culture. such as painter and etcher Thomas Moran who had two of his western Footraces, such as those that take place landscape paintings hanging in the during the Zuni ceremony of Shalako, Capitol for many years. This artwork are spiritual in nature. One Hopi belief added to the image easterners is that running opens pathways for developed of the Southwest even for water to flow, an ever-important those who could not travel there. consideration in the desert. The Hopis have several organized endurance Route 66 was and is the culmination of runs, open to Natives and non-Natives the most dramatic social and economic alike, that emphasize running for the events in the 20th century United States: benefit of both the earth and spirit of the rise of the automobile, the Dust the runner as opposed to the desire to Bowl and Great Depression, and the win or compete. Hopi Louis Tewanima post-WWII era of growth. Its roots
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draw on equally important events in Brigham City, Winslow: The the 19th century and earlier, and it foundations of this Mormon continues to evolve with the changes settlement still exist within the city of being seen in the 21st century. Although Winslow. Archaeological studies completely decommissioned by 1985, have been conducted and plans for the road never lost its importance. The restoration are currently being Historic Route 66 Association, the first developed. of its kind, formed just two years later. It is a road with an incredible history El Morro National Monument, New itself, but it has also come to symbolize Mexico: A 200 ft. sandstone bluff that the essence of the mythical “open road” has a reliable waterhole at its base. and all the possibilities, dreams, and An ancient pueblo sits atop the bluff, restlessness Americans attach to that and the site has long been used by concept. In a sense, it is not just The travelers as a source of water. More Mother Road, but Every Road. With a than 2,000 petroglyphs and retiring Baby Boomer generation ready inscriptions cover the surface of the to travel, and a growing trend to sandstone, recording the passage of revitalize local economies and centuries of time and hundreds of emphasize the local character of people. communities, Route 66 will continue to play a prominent role in how America Chavez Trail, Winslow to Prescott: A defines and envisions itself. designated Historic Trail of Arizona, the Chavez Trail was developed in the late 19th century over part of the RELATED RESOURCES LIST ancient Palatkwapi Trail. The Chavez Trail was an important travel Amtrak and BNSF, entire east-west corridor to Prescott, which served as length of the watershed: Amtrak the Territory’s capital from 1863-67 was born when passenger rail service and from 1877-1889. It also served as was reorganized in 1971. Amtrak a section of a much longer travel services Flagstaff, Gallup, and route between Santa Fe and Los Winslow. BNSF resulted from a Angeles. merger of the ATSF and Burlington Northern railways to become the Coronado Trail Scenic Byway, Burlington, Northern, Santa Fe. It is Clifton to Springerville: The one of the largest railroads in the northern terminus of the Coronadao country and services freight needs. Trail Scenic Byway is in Both Amtrak and BNSF operate on Springerville, Arizona and it the tracks initially laid through the commemorates Coronado’s route joint effort of the Atlantic & Pacific from present-day Mexico into the and ATSF. present-day American Southwest.
Beale Camel Trail/Beale Wagon Dine’Tah “Among the People” Road, entire east-west length of Scenic Road, Lupton to Window watershed: A wagon route laid out Rock: This road is a window into by Lt. Edward Beale in 1857-58. It Navajo culture, taking travelers past became the basic travel corridor for canyons and cliffs that define the the ATSF, Route 66, and present-day Navajo landscape, hogans, ancient I-40. It is a designated Historic Trail ruins, petroglyphs, missions, and of Arizona. ending in the modern capital.
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General Crook Road, White Mogollon Rim connecting Ft. Apache Mountains: A designated Historic and Prescott, then the Territorial Trail of Arizona, it follows the capital.
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Hashknife Pony Express Ride, Southwest that did not become part Holbrook to Scottsdale: Celebrating of Route 66. its 50th year in 2008, the Hashknife Pony Express is the oldest officially Mormon Honeymoon Trail, Lee’s sanctioned Pony Express in the Ferry, Arizona to New Mexico and country. Reviving the spirit of the White Mountains: The route taken original Pony Express, riders are by many Mormon families from Utah sworn in as temporary mail carriers to northeast Arizona and western and carry real mail in sacks on New Mexico. A designated Historic horseback as they make their way Trail of Arizona. southwest through the Little Colorado watershed to Scottsdale. Naat’tsis’aan “Navajo Mountain” Commemorative envelopes to be Scenic Road, Route 98 from Page to carried by the Hashknife Pony Route 160: The southern portion of Express can be purchased year round this route lies within the Little at locations in and around Holbrook. Colorado River watershed. The route The ride is held every January. takes travelers through the dramatic landscape of intensely colored Hopi-Zuni Trail, Hopi to Zuni: An sandstone mixed with desert ancient trail used by Hopis and Zunis grassland valleys. to connect their two settlements. This was almost certainly the route taken Paatuwaqatsi Run, Polacca: by the Spanish explorers Tovar and Translated from the Hopi, Cárdenas when they were led by Paatuwaqatsi Run means “Water Is Native guides from Zuni towards the Life Run.” Organized in 2003, the Grand Canyon. The Hopi-Zuni Trail event now attracts over 200 is now a designated Historic Trail of participants to run a roughly 30-mile Arizona. course up and down the Hopi Mesas on trails that are seen traditionally as La Posada Hotel, Winslow: The “veins” of the villages. In the Hopi railroad resort hotel that architect perspective, using the trails keeps the Mary Colter considered her veins open, the villages alive, and masterpiece. brings rain clouds. The focus of the run is to build community spirit and Madonna of the Trail statue, reinforce cultural values of water and Springerville: The daughters of the running. The run is open to Hopis American Revolution commissioned and non-Hopis alike. one statue for each of the 12 states connected by the National Old Trails Painted Desert Inn, Petrified Forest Road. Each statue is identical, National Park: Mary Colter served as although on two sides of the base are interior decorator for this building recorded major historical events now a part of Petrified Forest particular to each statue’s location. In National Park. Hopi artist Fred Springerville, Arizona, one side notes Kabotie painted three murals inside Coronado’s passage and on the other featuring different aspect of Hopi life, side is a tribute to American pioneer including their journeys on ancient mothers who faced the dangers of a trails to retrieve salt. land that was unknown to them. Springerville lies on a rare section of Palatkwapi Trail, Walpi to Winslow: the National Old Trails Road in the A long, ancient trail used by
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ancestors of the Hopi during musical fame by installing Standin’ migrations from the south to the on a Corner Park at the intersection Hopi Mesas. The section between of Route 66 and Kinsley Street. The Walpi and Winslow is now a park is crafted after the lyrics of Take designated Historic Trail of Arizona. It Easy by the Eagles which mention Winslow by name. People delight in Pistols, Plows, and Petticoats, White having their picture taken next to the Mountains: This self-guided car tour bronze statue of a guitar player who takes visitors to sites in the White is standing in front of a mural that Mountains to explore many historic depicts various lyrics in the song. building and locations that shaped Immediately adjacent to the park will the development of the area. be the Route 66 Performance Plaza, currently under construction. It will Ramah Museum, Ramah: This be an outdoor music venue with museum is located in one of the early distinctly Route 66 décor. houses of the Mormon settlement at Ramah and contains many household Sunset Cemetery, Homol’ovi Ruins artifacts and pictures from that era. It State Park: A cemetery associated also contains a number of Native with the Mormon pioneer settlement American artifacts from the of Sunset Fort built by Lot Smith. The surrounding region. cemetery was used between 1876 and 1884, and the Fort was occupied till San Francisco Peaks Scenic Road about 1888. (Route 180 from MP 224 to 255): This route affords travelers spectacular The Long Walk: This is a journey views of the west face of the San Navajos took from their homes to Ft. Francisco Peaks and surrounding Sumner in eastern New Mexico in forests. 1864 when they were forced off the land and into the Bosque Redondo Snowflake Historic Homes and reservation by Kit Carson. Many Snowflake Academy, Snowflake: perished during the journey or Snowflake retains many of its during the ensuing four years of Mormon settlers’ homes, several of captivity and the experience is a which can be toured. The homes seminal event in the modern history reflect both the rustic log cabins of of the tribe. the earliest families and the multi- story, well-appointed brick houses of Trail of the Ancients, Zuni to later families who were a part of the northwest New Mexico, Utah and general prosperity of the community Colorado: A designated Scenic as a whole. The Snowflake Academy Byway, the trail links many present- was the community’s school for day and ancient Native American decades and the local nonprofit, sites in three states. Snowflake Academy Foundation, is currently in the process of Trail of Many Tracks, Sanders to fundraising for restoration of the Zuni to the White Mountains to academy. Winslow: A self-guided audio CD tour that leads visitors off the Standin’ on a Corner Park and highway and to many of the Route 66 Performance Plaza, highlights of the White Mountains Winslow: Winslow capitalized on its and Zuni. Created and narrated by
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local residents, it covers Native River watershed, affording travelers American culture, European pioneer views of and access to the incredible history, and describes the local White Mountain range. geology and other natural attributes of the region. Zuni-Acoma Trail: An ancient route that connects Zuni to its next-nearest White Mountain Scenic Road, Hon- neighbor to the east, Acoma pueblo. Dah to Eagar: The eastern half of this The ancient trail passed El Morro route lies within the Little Colorado bluff and its perennial pool.
PRIMARY REFERENCES
Arizona Office of Tourism n.d. Arizona Scenic Roads.
Bryant, Keith L. 1984 History of the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railway. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.
Courlander, Harold 2000 (1971) The Fourth World of the Hopis. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Duff, Andrew I. 2002 Western Pueblo Identities. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Grattan, Virginia L. 1980 Mary Colter: Builder upon the Red Earth. Northland Press, Flagstaff, Arizona.
Krim, Arthur J. 2005 Route 66: Iconography of the American Highway. Center for American Places, Santa Fe.
Mose, Jr. Don Jr., and Kathryn E. Smith (editors) 2001 Navajo Clan Legends. San Juan School District, Blanding, Utah.
National Park Service 1995 Special Resource Study: Route 66.
Peterson, Charles S. 1973 Take up Your Mission. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Roberts, Alexa, Richard M. Begay, and Klara B. Kelley 1995 Bits’íís Ninéézi (The River of Neverending Life): Navajo History and Cultural Resources of the Grand Canyon and the Colorado River. Navajo Nation Historic Preservation Department, Window Rock, Arizona.
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Theme 3 Living from the Land
SUMMARY OF THEME based education projects on nearly all the reservations in the watershed that Oral histories, historic accounts, and are working to pass traditional archaeobotanical evidence indicate that agricultural knowledge on to the next several cultures have farmed, practiced generation, as well as effort to restore selective forestry, and mined in the irrigation systems, orchards, gardens, Little Colorado River Valley fields and native crops. Some of these continuously for at least 4,100 years. have been paired with cultural and The food production begun four agricultural tourism to provide new millennia ago with annual field crops income streams for local residents and turkeys later diversified as based on the production, marketing perennial crops such as agaves and and interpretation of place-based fruit trees were introduced, and heritage foods. livestock management was undertaken. Both ranching and sheepherding are Within this watershed, it is still activities that cross-cut all the cultures possible to see how Native American of the Southwest. Begun with the cultivators integrated seedstocks, tree introduction of criollo (corriente) cattle plantings and water management and churro sheep in the 1590s, these practices from Mesoamerica, Spain, livestock traditions retain their North Africa and the Middle East to Spanish, Basque, Moorish, and Arabian successfully produce an abundance of roots but have been shaped and foodstuffs on a limited water budget. transformed by Native Americans and These adapted seeds, trees and farming later by Northern European- and Afro- practices kept most Hopi, Tewa, Zuni American cowboys. Thus, stockmen and Navajo traditions provide a basis for exploring communities food both commonality and sharing of self-sufficient even traditions but also the influence of through the 1930s differences of lifestyles and beliefs. The Dust Bowl, when Little Colorado contains examples of other Western many combinations of managing cattle, farmers and sheep, goats, (and more recently), ranchers went belly- llamas and alpacas: cultural variety, up with the historical variety, breed variety, variety drought. Since then, of size of operation, and variety in A garden display at the Ramah Farmers’ Market however, acreages innovations of relevance for the future. making use of products strongly associated with the planted to native region. crops have Logging and mining also played continued to shrink with out-migration, significant roles in the Little Colorado springwater depletion, and economic region. The economic and social change, and the number of native crop impacts of the industries shaped the varieties still grown by contemporary development of many local farmers on reservations is less than half communities and were part of a larger of what it was a century ago. era of expansion the nation as a whole Nevertheless, there are community- experienced in the decades preceding
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and succeeding the turn of the last At the same time, Mexican and century. European crop introductions and diversified water management practices derived from Mesoamerica, DESCRIPTION OF THEME Spain, North Africa, and the Middle East offer unprecedented opportunities Agricultural Antiquity, Continuity to interpret both continuity and change and Change in agrarian economies, rather than assuming that they have remained Until the last quarter century, the static or rigid. The contrast of fertile oldest known agricultural remains in floodwater fields and spring-fed the co-terminous United States were gardens or orchards with the said to be from Bat Cave, near surrounding sand plains, redrock Magdalena, New Mexico, not too far canyon walls and barren slickrock have southeast of the proposed Little intrigued millions of tourists for well Colorado River National Heritage over a century, and now there is Area. However, recent archeobotanical renewed capacity and interest among analyses of crop remains found near indigenous communities in interpreting Zuni, in Canyon de Chelly, and on as well as safeguarding these agrarian Black Mesa near the Hopi pueblos now landscapes. suggest that corn and squash were grown on the Colorado Plateau—and within the Little Colorado River Food and Farming Diversity in watershed—for upwards of 4,100 Arid Landscapes years. These radiocarbon dates on crop remains rival those recently reported Nowhere else in the United States can from the Santa Cruz River Valley in one see within a few hours drive an southern Arizona. equivalent diversity of farming strategies still practiced by Native Impressively, the Little Colorado River Americans, Hispanic Americans and Valley exhibits the continued use of Anglo (in particular, Mormon) some of the very same field complexes Americans, nor sample in nearby from which these crop remains were festivals, farmers markets, and presumably derived. Some fields near restaurants such a diversity of Zuni, New Mexico and Second Mesa, distinctive traditional foods. One can Arizona are still being cultivated— view sand dunes that have been dry- without any evident depletion of soil farmed for centuries along the fertility nor soil microbial diversity—at roadsides leading to Hopi villages, or sites described by the very first floodwater-supplemented orchards European visitors to these areas. and cornfields along washes near Zuni Whereas dry farming and floodwater and Navajo settlements. Spring-fed faming have all but died in other parts terrace gardens have been recently of Arizona and the Southwest, they renovated at Bacavi and Wepo by Hopi have persisted in the Little Colorado and Tewa youth, while Navajo-Churro River Valley despite a recent decade of sheep butchering, shearing, wool severe drought. This watershed is one spinning and weaving are being of the few watersheds in the American revived among Navajo and Hispanic West where farming traditions can be settlements. From thin, delicate Hopi experienced that predate European piki waferbreads to chunky, smoky settlement. Navajo kneal-down breads, a
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distinctive set of native food products foods. Many of the indigenous and otherwise unfamiliar to outsiders can Hispanic communities of the region are be purchased at roadside stands, flea now reviving such foods as part of markets, farmers markets and locally- their efforts towards seed sovereignty owned restaurants. Many of these and food self-sufficiency. prepared foodstuffs are homemade from heirloom grains, vegetables and In fact, the Little Colorado River fruits, or heritage breeds of meats (like Valley—as part of the Colorado Plateau Navajo-Churro mutton) now as a whole—harbors a greater diversity collectively called place-based heritage of native and traditional crop varieties
Table 3.1. Folk varieties of Native American crops and livestock, Little Colorado. (The numbers in this table refer to varieties of each species that have been documented to date.) At At Navajo- Zuni and Scientific Name Common Name Hopi/Tewa Apache Pueblos Amaranthus cruentus Red amaranth 1 - - Amaranthus Grain amaranth - - 1 hypochondriacus
Chile pepper 2+ 2+ 2+ Capsicum annuum Canavalia ensiformis Jackbean 1 - - Cushaw Cucurbita argyrosperma 1 1 3 Squash Cucurbita maxima Hubbard squash 2 2 1 Big cheese Cucurbita moschata 1? - - pumpkin Acorn Cucurbita pepo 5 3 5 squash, etc Gossypium hirsutum Cotton 1 - 1 Helianthus annuus Sunflower 1 1 - Helianthus tuberosus Sunchoke 1 - - Lagenaria siceraria Bottlegourd 4 1 2 Nanakopsi Monarda menthaefolia 1 - - bushmint Nicotiana attenuata Pueblo tobacco 1 1 1 Turkish Nicotiana rustica 1 - - Tobacco Nicotiana tabacum Common tobacco 1 1 1 Opuntia viridiflora Cholla cactus - - 1 Physalis philadelphica Husk tomato - - 1 Proboscidea parviflora Devil’s claw 2 - 1 Phaseolus acutifolius Tepary bean 2 1 2 Phaseolus coccineus Runner bean 2 - - Phaseolus lunatus Lima bean 4 - - Phaseolus vulgaris Common bean 10 6 4 Zea mays Corn/maize 15 11 5 Meleagris gallopavo Turkey 1 1 - TOTAL 128 60 36 32
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Table 3.2. Historically introduced seeds and breeds of the Colorado Plateau. Native/ Scientific Name Common Name Hispanic/Basque Anglo/Mormon Indigenous Allium cepa Onion X X X Allium sativum Garlic X X X Citrullus lanatus Watermelon X X X Cucumis melo Melon X X X Cydonia oblonga Quince X X - Lens culinaris Lentil X X X Malus domesica Apple X X X Pisum sativum Pea X X - Prunus armenica Apricot X X X Prunus domestica Plum X X X Prunus persica Peach X X X Pryrus communis Pear X X X Sorgum bicolor Sorghum X X X Triticum aestivum Wheat X X - Vitis vinifera Grape X X - Vicia faba Fava bean X X - LIVESTOCK Bos bos Cattle X X X Equus asnus Burro X X X Equus caballus Horse X X X Ovis aries Sheep x X X Ovis cabra Goat X X X Sus scrofa Pig X X ? POULTRY Anas domestica Duck X X - Anser anser Goose X X - Gallus domesticus Chicken X X X
than any other equivalent area north of varieties of crops still grown in Native the Tropic of Cancer. It is not merely a and Hispanic communities of this region with deep agricultural traditions watershed centuries after their featuring corn, beans and squash; grain introduction is truly astounding. At the amaranths, sunflowers, tobaccos, same time, perhaps as much as half gourds, greens, fruits (such as of them have been lost since the 1930s, wolfberries) and fibers (such as cotton) making current efforts for their have persisted since prehistoric times. conservation, interpretation, and In addition, historically introduced revival by local communities critically crops such as peaches, almonds, pears, important. The proposed designation plums, apples, apricots, Jerusalem of this heritage area—in a way that artichokes, chiles, tomatoes, tomatillos, validates and supports these agrarian melons, and watermelons still traditions—may help save this proliferate. The number of distinctive imperiled diversity.
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Cattle Ranching and Sheepherding wild foods formerly harvested by hand were eaten out by livestock. Livestock Ranching, though practiced by people raising, of course, is practiced by many of virtually every ethnicity in the cultures throughout the world and Southwest, has its roots with the throughout time, but in the American Spanish and the Moors. Although Southwest it has had, and continues to turkeys were prehistorically herded have, a distinctly Spanish, Moorish and and used to manage field weeds and Arabic flavor, rather than a Northern pests, the 500 cattle and 5,000 sheep European one. It appears that a that walked behind Coronado and disproportionate number of Esteban el Morro as they entered into Andalusians—including crypto-Arabs, the watershed in 1540 were the first Moors and Jews—were among those domesticated livestock in the Little who settled the northern frontier of Colorado region. Coronado was not a New Spain in an attempt to escape the rancher, however. He was an explorer Spanish Inquisition, and they brought and for him the animals were simply a along Arab- and Moor-influenced food supply and not the base herd for a terms in Spanish for managing horses, future hacienda. Don Juan de Onate, irrigation ditches, crops and livestock. first governor of what is now New The following list is a sampling of Mexico, is credited as the first to bring ranch terms that show these close churro sheep and criollo cattle to the connections (Table 3.3). Traditional region to establish herds around 1598. cowboy clothing and the leatherwork The Spanish padres who established and metalwork of saddles and tack are missions in indigenous communities all also strongly rooted in Spanish custom. across northern New Spain used livestock raising both to sustain Nevertheless, persistent raids, themselves and to establish a different especially by Apaches and Navajos, dynamic within the community kept most non-Natives from economy. Where cattle, sheep, or goats establishing permanent settlements in were set loose to graze, fields and the Little Colorado River Valley and orchards had to be fenced, and some kept what few ranching operations there were from developing on a Table 3.3. English ranching terms derived from major scale into the early 1870s. The Spanish (and ultimately Arabic or Moorish*) words. exception to this situation is Don Spanish English Manuel Antonio Candelaria who settled with bride and flock of sheep Alazán* Alice-Ann along a creek at a place that would Albarda* Albardón come to be known as the town of Chaparerras Chaps Concho, Arizona sometime in the Cincha Cinch early 1860s (sources differ as to the Corral Corral exact year). As a small boy, Jaquima* Hackamore Candelaria was taken captive by Lazo lasso Apaches and raised by them until Mesteno mustang his early adulthood. When he Rancho ranch returned to his family’s town in Reata lariat Cubero, New Mexico, about 60 miles east of the Continental Divide, locals Rodear rodeo there did not even recognize him. Vaquero buckaroo Candelaria, upon his return to the Xinete* jinete creek and grasslands he
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remembered in Arizona redirected to fighting Native Territory, asked Apache Americans in the West. The military’s leaders for their repeated campaigns against tribes did permission to let him eventually result in the cessation of settle there and it was raids against homesteads and ranches granted. The raids that and the subsequent settling of the plagued other non- region by non-Natives. One of the Native settlements earliest known non-Native ranchers in reportedly never the region, aside from the settlers at Cattle ranching has a long and multicultural history happened in Concho. Later, Concho, was James Stinson, who by throughout the watershed. Candelaria’s brothers followed him to 1873 had a respectable cattle ranch at Concho, as did other Hispanic present-day Snowflake. Thirsty sheep individuals, families, and sheep from and their herders—John Clark, William New Mexico. The descendents of the Ashurst, Thomas McMillon, and the Candelaria brothers became the most Daggs brothers—began arriving in the prominent sheep-owning family in the area of present-day Flagstaff in 1876 region, at one time having 50,000 head when severe drought hit California. or more. John Wood was cattle ranching in the White Mountains by 1877. The total number of sheep raised by the entire Concho community is estimated John Young, son of Brigham Young, to have reached a height of 100,000 noticed the good grasslands around head in a range that extended north to present-day Flagstaff while cutting ties the present-day for the advancing railroad. He Petrified Forest, established the Moroni Cattle south to the town Company nine miles north of Flagstaff of Vernon, on behalf of the Mormon Church in Arizona on the 1881. Two years later, with the edge of the partnership of eastern investors, he White reorganized the business into the Mountains, and Arizona Cattle Company. Known as A- west to 1 because of the shape of its brand, the Snowflake. The company bought 132,000 acres from the land grant of the Atlantic & Pacific Railroad and filled it with between Top: Sheepherding south 14,000 to 16,000 head of cattle. to lower and warmer eleva- tions for the winter cross Two aspects of A-1’s development are State Route 77 just north of Snowflake, Arizona. (Photo significant because they reflect by Galen Hicks.) Right: common occurrences for developing Sheepherders gather for ranches all across the West. First of all, an annual conference and sheep show dedicated to A&P’s holdings were checkerboarded, the Navajo-Churro breed. meaning that when the railroad was given the right to develop through the success of Concho sheepherders led to region, the government divided the the town establishing the first bank in land into one-mile by one-mile squares Apache County in 1902. and awarded every other square, or “section,” to the railroad. Railroad Following the close of the American companies were eager to sell their Civil War in 1865, the U.S. military was sections after their routes had been
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determined because land sales were metal for tracks, engines, and cars, but one of the ways they financed their they could transport mining products typically cash-strapped operations. to factories or population centers that This is a phenomenon that occurred were in need of the product but wherever railroads developed. The typically located far away from the purchase of 132,000 acres (or mine. approximately 206 sections) in effect gave A-1 twice that amount of grazing Railroads did not build themselves. land because the sections were not Great numbers of men were needed to fenced and, at that time, there was no plan and grade the route, build oversight of the government-owned bridges, and lay track and all of these sections. The second significant detail men needed to eat. Railroad crews of A-1’s history is that the ranch consumed large amounts of Arizona developed with the help of eastern and New Mexico beef while working in capital. Many industries and their the area, and, just as with wood and related towns of the non-Native West— mining products, once the railroad was railroads, mining, logging, etc.— complete, ranchers could use it to ship developed as a result of east coast live animals or wool from coast to financial investment. Wealthy coast. Before the railroad came to the entrepreneurs in cities such as Boston, Little Colorado River Valley, wool Philadelphia, New York, and Chicago either had to be sent by oxcart to the were willing to risk their money, if not nearest railhead in Trinidad, Colorado their comfortable lifestyles, and (a trip of about 500 miles one way) or invested in fledgling business start-ups along the Beale Wagon Road to the in the West. The ranching industry was Colorado River where it was loaded on no different. With ample land and few boats that would eventually make their other settlers to pose competition, way around the tip of South America— ranching in the early 1880s could turn the Panama Canal would not be built considerable profits. until 1914—and finally to Boston or other eastern markets. The railroad, which was also largely funded by eastern interests, completely The effect of more efficient railroad connected the Little Colorado region to transport was immediate. In 1880, three the east and west coasts in 1883 and, years before the railroad, the number of like in every other Western town along sheep raised by non-Natives in any railroad route, changed the entire northern Arizona was approximately economy of the region profoundly. The 68,000 head. By 1890, that number histories of the railroad, mining, increased more than nine-fold to logging, and ranching cannot be approximately 620,000 head. The effect separated. The coming railroad and the on cattle ranching was less dramatic, need for ties spurred the logging but followed a similar pattern. In 1880, industry. Once the railroad was built, cattle raised in northern Arizona by ties were still needed for the inevitable non-Natives equaled about 78,000 repairs and improvements, plus head, but by 1890, that number lumbermen could now use the railroad increased to 121,000 head. In all cases, to send wood products to markets in the railroad facilitated access to far away places. The railroad had a markets and a rise in profits for rural similar effect on mining. Not only did industries and rural industries in turn trains consume enormous amounts of patronized the railroad and added to coal and require significant amounts of its financial success as well.
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The famous Hashknife ranch, at one boundary was about 12 miles east of time the third largest ranch in North Snowflake; the southern boundary America, followed a similar pattern of crossed just north of Show Low. It development as the A-1 with its use of extended west a few miles past eastern investors and purchase of Winslow, and the northern boundary railroad lands. Like the A-1, it was was the railroad itself. The Hashknife known by the shape of its brand, which bought 1,000,000 acres but effectively was shaped like a kitchen tool got the use of 2,000,000 because of the chuckwagon cooks used to cut hash checkerboarding. The size of its herd, and vegetables. Unlike the A-1, it could through additional imports and actually make use of the railroad at the breeding, grew to 60,000 in just a few start of its operations. years and the Hashknife needed more than 2,500 horses and 100 cowboys to In 1884, Edward Kinsley, a shareholder take care of it all. The headquarters of in the A&P Railroad, persuaded the Hashknife were located just south eastern investors to buy one million of Joseph City, and the growing acres of checkerboarded land at $.50/ railroad town of Holbrook quickly acre. Officially titled the Aztec Land became a major livestock shipping and and Cattle Company, the company distribution center with extensive then spent about another $330,000 stockyards, scales, and loading chutes. acquiring 22,000 head of cattle, and with them the rights to the distinctive People, including other ranchers, were brand, from the Continental Cattle already living in Hashknife ranch Company in Texas. Suffering from two territory by the mid-1880s. The years of drought and resulting low Mormon settlements had much smaller prices for poor quality animals, numbers of livestock as compared to Continental was more than happy to the Hashknife, but the livestock still accept the price of $15/head even if it needed to eat and drink. The was half of what they got just a few sheepherders of Concho and Flagstaff years before. Buying cattle is one thing, also made use of a wide territory to moving them to a new ranch is quite find suitable summer and winter another. Ranches in Texas were losing ranges. Hashknife cattle added grazing half or more of their cattle to starvation pressure to the grassland resource itself at the time. Those that were not dead and increased tensions between yet were severely weakened and well sheepherders and cattlemen, even on their way. If the Hashknife tried to those not with the Hashknife outfit. drive cattle in such condition on foot from west Texas, across all of New Periodic droughts in other places Mexico, to northeast Arizona, most prompted additional moves of cattle would not survive the trip. Most would (not just the Hashknife’s) and sheep to survive the trip, however, if they the Little Colorado region and soon it traveled on the new railroad. was becoming as overstocked as the places from which the animals were In addition to the drought, the coming. Devastation from drought and grasslands in Texas had been severely overgrazing was just a matter of time overgrazed, producing a dire situation for the Little Colorado. For the most for ranchers. The grasslands of the part, non-Natives were ranching with a Hashknife, however, were vast and market in mind and usually that was a lush. The ranch was 72 miles east-west market far removed from the ecological by 50 miles north-south. The eastern and climatic realities of the Southwest.
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If east or west coast markets paid high overgrazed and overstocked ranges, prices for beef and wool, Little and inconsistent beef markets. While Colorado ranches, especially those smaller operations faced these same backed by eastern investors like the challenges, they had at least one Hashknife, tried to fill the demand. advantage over the larger operations— smaller overhead costs. The A-1 Ranch The climate of the Southwest, the new folded in 1899. Much of its acreage was settlers were learning, is highly bought by the Babbitt brothers of unpredictable and irregular. To Flagstaff who had begun their own confront the uncertainty of rain and ranch with a mere 160 acres just north available grass, ranches tried to secure of Flagstaff in 1886. The Hashknife their livelihood in a variety of ways. Ranch went out of business two years The A-1 began developing dams, tanks, later, and again, most of the land and and pipelines to springs. The drought the famous brand were bought by the of 1892 prompted many cattle ranchers Babbitts. Babbitt Ranches is still a fully to begin planting alfalfa for a more operating cattle ranch today and the steady supply of feed, to begin selling hashknife brand is currently used on animals at one year of age when their award-winning quarter horses previously they had been kept for two which are offered for public sale every years or more, and to improve their July. Babbitt Ranches’ enduring success stock through breeding. It took was due to several reasons. First, virtually the same amount of feed and although they grew quite large, they water to support an animal of inferior started small and built slowly over breeding as it did one of superior time. They also diversified their income breeding, yet the animal of superior by operating a mercantile, lumberyard, breeding would bring a higher price and slaughterhouse in town, and even due to its higher quality. Grazing by raising sheep. The Babbitts’ tactic of pressure and competition also started acquiring property slowly over time the practice in the 1880s for was not unique to their operation. It sheepherders to take their flocks over was a method many smaller the Mogollon Rim to winter along the homesteads throughout the watershed Salt and Gila Rivers outside of Phoenix. employed to build their ranches and The annual spring and fall movements income to a reliable level. of the sheep became hallmarks of the industry and communities along the Cattle, and especially sheep, ranching route. As one historian wrote, “the were major industries throughout the harbinger of spring in Flagstaff was not watershed. Sheep ranching for many a robin’s chirp, but the bleat of a years was northern Arizona’s largest Merino” (Mangum 2002b:68). The industry, involving hundreds of seasonal migration continues to this families, and it also played a larger role day, albeit on a much smaller scale. in northwest New Mexico than did Still, twice each year, State Highway 77 cattle. The creation of the Forest just north of Snowflake is closed to Reserves in the late 1890s, which traffic for a short time to allow the became known as National Forests sheep to cross on their way south for with the creation of the Forest Service the winter or north for the summer. in 1905, struck considerable fear and outright anger into the hearts of Improved irrigation, breeding, and ranchers. For a time, a ban of all alfalfa fields, however, proved no grazing on public land was considered. match for repeated drought, Then the ban was considered only for
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sheep. Sheep had long been looked beef, the Little Colorado’s agricultural upon as more damaging to vegetation offerings are many and varied. A few and land than cattle, although in traditional cattle operations are now actuality they can be managed to avoid looking to wind power and other harmful effects and can even produce business enterprises compatible with beneficial effects such as embedding ranching in order to diversify their seeds into the ground that would source of income while enabling them otherwise be blown away by the wind. to continue the ranching lifestyle they Some ranchers, such as the Babbitts, enjoy. saw the new management rules as an opportunity to further develop the quality and integrity of the ranching Lumber industry and a safeguard against overgrazing. Grazing on public lands— Although not as widespread across the and virtually all grazing in the West is watershed as ranching, lumber did done in part on public lands—has come play a major role in the economies and with a set of regulations ever since. lifestyle of communities in forested places. The western and southern Periodic market rises and declines border of the watershed is home to part affected both the cattle and sheep of the largest continuous Ponderosa industries, but both remained basically Pine forest on the continent. This forest strong into the first half of the 20th literally built other major industries: it century. The development of synthetic provided ties for the railroad, fruit and fabrics after WWII, however, took a vegetable crates for agriculture, and huge toll on the sheep industry over shafts for mining. It employed up to the succeeding decades. A 1,000 people during the early 1900s, disappearing market, coupled with the placing it as the 3rd largest industry in Southwest’s rapid urban growth and the state of Arizona, and more than corresponding decrease in grazing 90% of the industry was concentrated land, forced most sheepherders out of in the northern part of the state. In business or into retirement by the specific communities, lumber was the 1970s. The cattle industry fared slightly number one industry. better, although any rancher today will speak of the great effort involved in The first major call for lumber came just breaking even. A common joke with the advancing railroads. Lumber about cattle ranching states that the key from the Zuni Mountains built the to a successful ranch is a wife who track as it passed through Gallup. works in town. Railroad orders were responsible for the development of lumber companies Modern-day agriculture in the Little in the White Mountains and around Colorado has taken an interesting new Flagstaff as well. One of Flagstaff’s turn in recent years. In addition to the most influential early families was the historic industries of cattle and sheep Riordans. They made their living with ranching and Native crops and timber, surviving the intense boom and gardens, a number of people have bust cycle of the industry, and made started new farms with an innovative many lasting contributions to the focus. Organic, local, and naturally- developing town. produced foods and plants are gaining popularity with farmers and consumers Denis Matthew Riordan came to alike. From goat cheese to lavender to Flagstaff as a general manager of the
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Ayer Lumber Company, a Chicago- attracted men from all ethnic backed firm, in 1884 and his brothers backgrounds, although the most Timothy Allen and Michael James numerous were Mexicans or those of joined him within two years. In 1887, Spanish or Mexican descent. With the Denis Matthew bought Ayer and United States’ entry into WWI, many renamed it the Arizona Lumber American men went to fight and their Company. In 1893, his brothers places in the forest were filled largely purchased his interests and changed with new Mexican migrants. the name a final time to the Arizona Department of Labor statistics show Lumber and Timber Company. Denis that more than 1,100 workers from Matthew eventually moved from Mexico came to northern Arizona Arizona, but not before he succeeded in between June of 1917 and January 1919. separating Coconino County from In 1924, the Cady Lumber Company of Yavapai County in 1891 and Louisiana, quickly running out of establishing Flagstaff as the county timber in its home state, bought the seat. Timothy and Michael stayed for Apache Lumber Company in the White the remained of their lives and married Mountains and the Flagstaff Lumber sisters, who happened to be first Company in Flagstaff and moved a cousins to the Babbitt brothers. The total of 800 people—mostly black Riordan brothers built a distinctive workers and their families—to Flagstaff double mansion—one wing for each and to McNary, Arizona, located just brother adjoined in the center by a south of the watershed on the White billiard room—with architect Charles Mountain Apache Reservation. Within Whittlesey who, one year later, would six years, most of the McNary workers, build El Tovar lodge in Grand Canyon unhappy with the isolation of the for the ATSF railroad. The mansion is community or the drastic climatic now a State Park. The Riordans change from southern Louisiana, engaged in many projects outside the moved. Some returned to the South, immediate purview of the lumber others went to nearby communities in industry that shaped the town the White Mountains, but many went considerably during its early years. to Flagstaff to work in the lumber mills Together with the Babbitts and another there. The lumber industry did not businessman, they established the first bring Hispanics or blacks to the Little electric company in Flagstaff. Colorado region for the first time, but it Partnering with ATSF, the Riordans did significantly increase their developed a pipeline for water from numbers. The South Beaver School in the inner basin of the San Francisco Flagstaff, a National Register property Peaks. This is still a source of water for that still serves as an elementary Flagstaff to this day. Another water school, was built by Works Project project, the damming of Clark Valley, Administration (WPA) employees to resulted in Lake Mary, the reservoir serve students of Spanish-speaking named for Timothy’s eldest daughter parents. that is a popular fishing and boating lake today and still used as a reservoir The Great Depression hit all industries for the city. more or less equally hard, but lumber had already suffered a decade of Aside from these development projects, changing markets and prices during the the lumber industry itself shaped the 1920s. 1931 production levels were half forested communities of the Little of what they were in 1920 and many Colorado. The logging industry lumber companies simply closed. Some
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went through several cycles of closing ran out residents usually moved out and reopening, some were bought by shortly thereafter. Gamerco and Allison other companies and changed names. both still have a few residents, but Preparations for WWII, such as the Heaton, Mentmore, Navajo, and construction of army barracks and Clarkville are ghost towns. If the depots and crates for shipping mining towns themselves were not supplies, once again increased demand lasting, the impact of the coal industry and the post-war housing boom set a was. Mines attracted workers of all new record for pine products in 1947. backgrounds, as did the railroad. By this time, though, the days of the Gallup has a long history of a diverse family owned, local lumber mill were population including European, Asian, gone. The industry had consolidated Hispanic, and Native residents whose during the 1930s and early 1940s and families were first attracted by its early individual mills were run by large industries. Mining and the railroad companies with operations all across each helped the other industry develop the West. and, in turn, provided much prosperity to a young and growing Gallup.
Mining Both the Navajo and Hopi Reservations have a long history with coal mining as Although mining for turquoise, well. The coal mined today is not used hematite, obsidian and precious for trains but for producing electricity minerals has occurred in the region in power plants that surround the since prehistoric eras, both Hispanic reservations. Coal provides a and Anglo settlers increased the substantial portion of revenue for the intensity and range of mining activities tribes and many jobs, but, like in most in the Little Colorado River watershed. places, is also fraught with controversy. Gallup is a city made as much by The Navajo Reservation also has a mining as by the railroad. Officially history of uranium mining and named for a railroad paymaster and uranium is also found in other parts of auditor David L. Gallup, the city was the Little Colorado River Valley and in also known for as time as “Carbon areas immediately surrounding it. City” due to the numerous coal mines Uranium became an important that surrounded it. No less than six resource during WWII for the towns, all within a few miles’ radius of development of the atomic bomb and Gallup, were active mining in the decades following for the communities in the early 1900s. The development of nuclear weapons and towns—Heaton, Mentmore, Navajo, nuclear power. Gamerco, Allison, and Clarkville—all share the same basic history and sequence of events, only the specific DISTINCTIVENESS OF THEME years and names of the players differ. All of the towns were company towns. The variable, and not always favorable, The mining company provided simple, climate and soil conditions led to the frame houses for its employees and development of highly specialized crop usually a company store. There was types and farming methods in the Little often a post office and a saloon, and Colorado River watershed. The sometimes a school, clinic, or sports diversity of crops and livestock breeds facilities. The town was founded when that farmers and ranchers introduced the coal was found, and when the coal and adapted as much as 4,100 years
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ago largely survives today, forming the indelible marks on each other. Most richest set of traditional food modern-day communities of the Little biodiversity extant in the Americas Colorado are enduring legacies of the north of the Tropic of Cancer. This dynamic social and economic forces ancient and diverse agricultural record that drove the expanding nation during suggests that the Little Colorado River this period. Valley is not only one of the oldest continuously cultivated areas in North America, but the one with the greatest RELATED RESOURCES LIST continuity of diverse dry land farms, spring-fed gardens, and irrigated 26 Bar Ranch, Eagar: A working orchards persisting to the present time. cattle ranch, formerly owned by John Wayne, that now belongs to the Hopi Spanish-flavored ranching and sheep Tribe. Operates as a bed and herding traditions are synonymous breakfast and participates in Valle with the American Southwest. The Redondo Days celebration. American cowboy has been both a national icon and international hero for Amelia’s Garden, Snowflake: A well over a century, and integrates restaurant and market that features Spanish, Anglo, Arabian, African, and organic and locally-grown foods. Native American traditions. His historic persona, based somewhat in Babbitt Ranches, Flagstaff: Babbitt reality but also polished with myth, Ranches, first established in 1886, captures everything Americans think continues to operate on land good about themselves and their surrounding the San Francisco Peaks country: he is free, he is independent, and near the Grand Canyon and the he is simple yet wise from experience, family continues to operate a retail he is hard working, he is both tough shop (a modern incarnation of their when he needs to be and a gentleman original mercantile) in their historic when he needs to be, he is a straight- structure in downtown Flagstaff. In talker, and he lives by a code of honor. addition to cattle, the Ranches are Foreign visitors flock by the hundreds known for breeding award-winning of thousands to the Colorado Plateau American Quarter Horses, which are each year, merely to catch a glimpse of offered at a public auction on the the true West and its “riders of the ranch every July. Babbitt Ranches has purple sage.” put large tracts of land into permanent conservation and The Little Colorado also has a continues to seek ways to improve significant logging and mining history. the ecological health of their The four land-based industries of rangelands to improve both the farming, ranching, logging, and quality of their cattle and habitat for mining, combined with the railroad, wildlife. was the recipe that fueled the development of most of the nation Bed and breakfasts, Eastern Agency from the mid-1800s to the early 1900s. of the Navajo Nation: A number of The East looked to the West for families will host overnight guests in continued economic expansion and traditional hogans. Guests can supply of resources, while the West experience a small part of Navajo looked to the east for markets for its culture, including sheepherding and products. The two regions left their traditional meals.
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Black Mesa Ranch, Concho: A goat cheesemaking workshops and farm where cheese is made fresh on conducts open houses during the the premises. Also offers summer.
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Blevins House, Holbrook: Still Eagar and the White Mountains and standing on Joy Nevin Blvd., the features timber-related sporting Blevins house was the site of a events and competitions in addition famous 1887 shootout that was a to music, games, and a community result, in part, of the notorious barbeque. It is one of the few disputes and tensions between remaining logging events in the cattlemen and sheepherders. Southwest. Although some cattlemen and sheepherders cooperated, and some Farmers’ Markets, Concho, Show individuals raised both animals Low, Flagstaff, and Ramah: Farmers’ either concurrently or during markets in these northern Arizona different years of their careers, the communities provide an opportunity Pleasant Valley Wars of central for consumers to purchase direct Arizona are among the most famous from local and regional growers and examples of when the two did not get for growers to more directly learn along. Sherriff Commodore Perry and respond to their consumers’ Owens served a warrant for the preferences. The town of Ramah and arrest of Andy Blevins (a.k.a Andy the Ramah Farmers’ Market were Cooper) at the house. Andy had just specifically mentioned in a recent arrived in town after being involved edition of a Frommer’s Travel Guide. in shooting incidents in the Pleasant Valley Wars to the south. When Flagstaff Youth Gardens, Flagstaf:– Andy, who already had a reputation A program for high school students for murder and cattle rustling, tried that teaches a mix of traditional and to evade his arrest, the Sherriff, in an modern organic farming methods open and undefended position, shot with healthy doses of science, Native him in the abdomen. This drew shots culture, community building, work from three other men in the house, skill development, and fun. two of whom Sherriff Owens shot and killed and one of whom he Hubbell Trading Post National wounded to the point of permanent Historic Site, Ganado Chapter: John disability. Lorenzo Hubbell began trading at this site in 1878. He and his Diablo Trust, eastern Coconino descendents operated the post until it County: This organization is a was sold to the National Park Service partnership between two family- in 1967. Navajos would bring in their owned ranches in Coconino County. wool and other goods in trade for They engage a diverse group of basic manufactured items. Ongoing scientists, local government officials, efforts are restoring an adjacent wash the non-agricultural public, federal and reintroducing livestock and agencies, artists, and others to both garden crops that were present educate people about the ranching during the time of J. L. Hubbell. lifestyle and its realities and to seek input and support for continued Lyman Lake State Park: Mormons range improvements that serve both built the earthen dam that made the cattle and wildlife. lake to support their farming settlements. For thousands of years Eagar Daze, Eagar: Eagar Daze, held before that, Native settlements annually in August since 1985, flourished and farmed along the focuses on the logging history of river’s edge.
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Magdalena Cattle Trail, Ramah Lake, Ramah: Built in the Springerville, Arizona to 1890s by Mormon pioneers, the dam Magdalena, New Mexico: The trail, failed twice during the lake’s early also known as the Magdalena history. The community of Ramah, Livestock Driveway, is thought to be and the lake, continued to survive the last regularly-used cattle trail in and today the lake is a popular the United States. Local ranchers fishing spot. used the route to drive livestock to Magdalena, which was once one of Red Rock Ranch & Farms, Concho: the largest shipping centers west of This 130-acre farm is one of the Chicago. largest lavender growing operations in the Western Hemisphere and the Mountain Meadow Permaculture second-highest (in terms of altitude) Farm, Flagstaff: A family owned and commercial lavender operation in the operated permaculture farm that world. The farm has more than produces a variety of agricultural 45,000 plants in the ground products, gives tours, and hosts representing twelve varieties and workshops for those interested in more than 10,000 additional plants in sustainable permaculture design and the greenhouse. Plants are harvested practices. by hand each year. Their products can be found in several local stores Native Movement, Flagstaff: Based and the farm hosts several public in Flagstaff, this organization works tours each summer. extensively on the Hopi and Navajo reservations as well. Current projects Riordan Mansion State Park: The include school and youth gardens double, jointed home of Timothy and and alternative building workshops. Michael Riordan and their respective Native Movement’s alternative families, the mansion is a testament buildings make use of the natural to the importance and impact of environment to achieve heating and Flagstaff’s logging history. The cooling efficiency and are designed to mansion also hosts monthly catch and make the most efficient use presentations covering a wide variety of rainwater on the property. of topics related to Arizona’s history.
Native Seeds/SEARCH, Tucson: An Rodeos: Rodeos, the classic event organization that maintains a seed showcasing cowboy skills, take place bank for crops and wild plants in numerous Little Colorado cities, traditionally used as food, fiber, or towns, and in many chapters of the dyes in the American Southwest, Navajo Nation. Some of the larger including the Little Colorado River rodeos include the Snowflake Rodeo, Valley. Also has a retail store to sell Taylor Rodeo, Pine Country Pro products made from traditional plant Rodeo, Wrangler Jr. High Rodeo, varieties. Wild Thing Championship Bull Riding, and the Navajo Nation Fair Natwani Coalition (Natwani Rodeo. Tu’sawyaqam), Kykotsmovi: An affiliation of organizations and Sweet Corn Festival, Taylor: A fall institutions dedicated to preserving festival that celebrates sweet corn and restoring the local food system and also hosts the Arizona State on Hopi. Barbeque Championship.
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Trappings of the American West, Z Lazy B Guest Ranch, McGaffey: A Flagstaff: This annual exhibit, hosted guest ranch on land that the at the Museum of Northern Arizona, grandparents of the current owner features original artwork related to settled at the turn of the 20th century. ranching and the West. Special programming, such as cowboy Zuni Youth Agriculture Program, poetry sessions, also accompanies the Zuni show.
PRIMARY REFERENCES
Abruzzi, William S. ???? The Social and Ecological Consequences of Early Cattle Ranching in the Little Colorado River Basin. Human Ecology 23:75-98.
DeGlane, E.M. 1981 Concho The Enchanted Pearl. Quality Printing Co., Kanab, Utah.
Friederici, Peter and Rose Houk, editors. 2004 A New Plateau: Sustaining the Lands and People of Canyon Country. Renewing the Countryside Press, Minneapolis, with the Center for Sustainable Environments of Northern Arizona University and the Museum of Northern Arizona, Flagstaff.
Haskett, Bert 1936 History of the Sheep Industry in Arizona. Arizona Historical Review VII(3):3- 50.
Hughes, Stella 1985 (1984) Hashknife Cowboy: Recollections of Mach Hughes. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Legends of America 2008 Legends of New Mexico: McKinley County Ghost Towns.
Mangum, Richard K. 2002a Days Past: Sheep, Part One. Mountain Living Magazine February:76.
2002b Days Past: Sheep, Part Two. Mountain Living Magazine March:68.
2002a Days Past: Sheep, Part Three. Mountain Living Magazine April:68.
2002a Days Past: Sheep, Part Four. Mountain Living Magazine May:68.
2002a Days Past: Sheep, Part Five. Mountain Living Magazine June:68.
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Morris, Michele 1993 The Cowboy Life: A Saddlebag Guide for Dudes, Tenderfeet, and Cowpunchers Everywhere. Simon & Schuster, New York.
Nabhan, Gary Paul 2008 Heritage Farming in the U.S. Southwest. Western Parks Association, Tucson.
Nabhan, Gary Paul (editor) 2001 Safeguarding the Uniqueness of the Colorado Plateau. Center for Sustainable Environments of Northern Arizona University, with Grand Canyon Wildlands Council and Terralingua, Flagstaff.
Nabhan, Gary Paul, and Patty West 2005 Linking Arizona’s Sense of Place to a Sense of Taste. Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff.
O’Neal, Bill 1989 Cattlemen vs. Sheepherders. Eakin Press, Austin.
Schlegel, Paul 1992 A History of the Cattle Industry in Northern Arizona, 1863-1912. Unpublished Master’s thesis, Department of History, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff.
Smead, Robert N. 2004 VocabularioVaquero/Cowboy Talk. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.
Vance, Robert 1992 Lumber and Sawmill Workers in the Flagstaff Timber Industry: 1917-1947 Migration , Adaptation, and Organization. Unpublished Master’s thesis, Department of History, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff.
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Theme 4 Native Nations
SUMMARY OF THEME greater significance, these traditions are integrated into the daily lives of these From the oldest petroglyphs and ruins Native Nations. to present-day arts and crafts production, the Native American influence on the Little Colorado area DESCRIPTION OF THEME landscape and the landscape’s influence on Native culture cannot be Reliable, accurate, and in-depth overstated. Today, fully one-half of the cultural information about most proposed Little Colorado River Valley Southwestern tribes is difficult for non- National Heritage Area is comprised of tribal members to ascertain. Although American Indian Reservation lands. the Hopi, Zuni, Navajo, and Apache The entire valley has been occupied by have been studied by numerous non- Native Americans for at least 10,000 Native anthropologists and other years (see “Archaeology” theme), and Westerners for more than a century, the thus there is a long and varied history information gathered and resulting of migration and settlement by publications of most of these outsiders numerous cultural groups in different is generally regarded by tribal places and times. Today the valley is members as incomplete or inaccurate to home to two Pueblo tribes, the Hopi varying degrees. Throughout history, and the Zuni, and their entire anthropologists conducted themsevles reservations are contained within the with varying degrees of sensitivity and watershed. scruples, thus often adding to the legacy of Western extraction of Native The valley also contains the southern cultural information and actual portion of the United States’ largest material objects for purposes that Indian Reservation, the Navajo Nation. mostly benefited Western researchers The White Mountain Apache or institutions and gave little in return Reservation borders the National to Native communities. This too, Heritage Area boundary to the south, affected the quality and integry of their and this group’s cultural influence, writings. both prehistoric and modern-day, can be felt throughout the White Furthermore, no Hopi or Zuni or Mountains. While Native Americans Navajo or Apache person knows the differ from community to community complete history or all of the cultural and from individual to individual in rituals associated with their own tribe. their blend of traditional and modern This is because knowledge is passed in lifestyles, the family ties and cultural a highly structured manner according histories of these four groups provide to one’s individual clan or according to strong connections to the Little one’s membership in other tribal Colorado River Valley. Their traditions societies such as a kiva group, curing and those of other Southwestern or medicine society, or priesthood. The cultures are celebrated in the areas knowledge individuals receive as a many museums, cultural parks, public result of clan or other memberships is events, and other institutions. Of intentionally kept secret, even from
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other members of the tribe who Hopi language is of the Uto-Aztecan maintain different memberships. It is family. Hopi population at the time of believed that the knowledge should Spanish contact is estimated at about only be known by people who have 2,800. After dropping to around 2,000 been taught it through rituals or been in 1907, the Hopi now number about properly initiated into the special 7,500. society. Although not public knowledge, this knowledge is the basis The Hopi tribe is comprised of many of the past and continuing cultural clans. Hopi believe they are now living practices and beliefs of all four tribes. A in the Fourth World. People left the most basic and generalized account of three previous worlds in time because some cultural components for each the corrupt ways of the vast majority of tribe is included in this chapter, along the people made life unbearable for with historical information regarding those who still tried to follow the right the tribes’ development after Spanish path. People emerged into this world contact. The reader should know, through an opening in the earth. This however, that it is impossible to give in opening is at a place called Sipapu, a report of this sort a full review, even which is an actual land formation at the a generalized one, of an entire culture’s confluence of the Little and main many interrelated practices and beliefs Colorado Rivers. The concept of that developed over the past several emerging from the earth is extremely thousand years. Far greater depth of important in terms of the general Hopi meaning and connection between worldview. The idea of “Mother Earth” beliefs and the activities of daily life are takes on a deeper layer of meaning as realized by tribal members in their own the idea of emerging from the middle realm of experience and knowledge. of the earth onto its surface is easily comparable to the birth of a baby from its mother’s womb into the rest of the Hopi world. Both Hopi and Zuni mothers traditionally went into a secluded, The present-day Hopi reservation shaded room for 20 days upon the birth includes Antelope, First, Second, and of their babies. The darkened room Third Mesas in northeast Arizona. symbolized the darker underworlds Several Hopi villages were founded and was thought to protect the mother here as early as the A.D. 1300s, and newborn from the hazards of attesting to the historical depth of everyday life. The baby “emerged” ancestral Hopi groups in the Little from this room on the 21st day to great Colorado area. In fact, the Hopi village ceremony. Upon death, Hopi believe of Oraibi is one of the oldest they will return as rain clouds that will continuously occupied settlements continue to enable the growth of life, north of Mexico. The Hopi have strong including humans, on earth. connections to a much larger area of Arizona and New Mexico than their After emergence, a mocking bird had present-day reservation. This larger the people select an ear of corn that area was the place of the most frequent would determine their way of life. He and recent clan migrations before the explained that selecting the yellow ear clas coalesced on the Mesas. The term would bring a short life, but one full of Hopi often is translated as “good” or enjoyment and prosperity. Choosing “peaceful,” but more properly means the blue ear would mean a life of work “one who follows the right path.” The and hardship, but the life would be
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long. Speckled corn, white corn, and full calendar of clan and society-related red corn all had different implications. ceremonies to accommodate the The Navajos, Sioux, Comanches, and kachinas. Every year, kachinas leave Utes picked their ears even before he their home in the San Francisco Peaks finished the explanations. The people about the time of Soyalangw (winter who were to become Hopis were left solstice) and return to the Mesas to live with the blue corn, and thus the among the people and to listen to their prospect of a hard life. The next day prayers, especially prayers for rain. they began their migrations. (For more This begins the half-year cycle of information on the migrations, which kachina ceremonies. One of the most lasted for thousands of years, see the well-known of the ceremonies is “Trails, Roads, and Rails of the West” Powamuya, or the so-called “Bean theme previously in this chapter.) Dance.” In preparation, girls apply a During the migrations they formed into fresh coat of mudwash kiva walls and distinct clans, but did not consider paint pictures of clouds and lightning themselves to be true Hopis until they on the ceilings. Bean and corn sprouts reached the Mesas. The Mesas were the are then started inside the kivas and home of the God Masawu, but he said taken out during the ceremony. the arriving clans could live there if Powamuya is a time for personal and they followed a right way of life. The community cleansing in preparation for Bear Clan arrived first and settled the the upcoming growing season. The town of Shungopavi near a spring on kachina cycle ends when the kachinas Second Mesa. (The current community depart once again for their home in the of Shungopavi, on top of the mesa, was mountains, about the time of established after the Pueblo Revolt of Nimàntikive (summer solstice). The 1680.) The Bear Clan are the traditional relationship of the people with the leaders and required that each kachinas is reciprocal. People “feed” succeeding clan contribute a particular the kachinas with prayers and by talent or ceremony that would support performing the ceremonies correctly the life of all of the people. In this way, and the kachinas, in return, “feed” the the different clans came to preside over people by providing for rain for crops. different ceremonies that control During the ceremonies, certain per- different aspect of daily life, such as formers, known as “clowns,” act out planting or bringing the rains, and each the things that are not a part of leading clan was an important part of the a right life. They stand out in contrast integrated whole of the society. to the main kachina dancers, who dress and act properly, as a constant re- The escape from the corruption of the minder of what is not acceptable and previous three worlds was not total, what consequences unacceptable however, and over time things got out behavior has. of balance again. The Hopis invited the kachina spirits to come live with them The first Hopi-Spanish encounter was to help restore order. One kachina in A.D. 1540, when a small group led arrived to assess the situation, and then by Alejandro (Pedro?) de Tovar, a returned to bring the other kachinas. member of the Coronado expedition, The kachina agreed to the people’s arrived at one of the eastern Hopi request for their aid, but required that settlements from the pueblo of Zuni. people dedicate half the year to cer- De Tovar was met with hostility, and emonies for the kachinas. The people he attacked and defeated the village. agreed and condensed their already He then peacefully visited six other
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Hopi villages. The Hopi welcomed order to survive; soon the population Antonio de Espejo in 1583, and in 1598 of the Hopi mesas was reduced to less the Hopi submitted to the authority of than 1,000. The situation was Spain under pressure from Juan de exacerbated by a smallpox epidemic in Oñate. 1781, but plentiful rain the same year marked the beginning of better times, Franciscan missionaries began living and many Hopi were able to return to and preaching among the Hopi in 1629. the mesas. The Hopi requested Spanish At least three villages had churches. aid to protect against Navajo raids in Although the Franciscans reported the early 1800s, but to no avail. great progress, the poisoning of one of the priests in 1633 suggests that not all The establishment of the Moqui Pueblo Hopi were happy with their new Agency in 1870 marks the United States neighbors. During the Pueblo Revolt of government’s official recognition of the 1680, they killed their missionaries and Hopi. A missionary school was took in refugees from the Rio Grande founded in 1874. The Hopi Reservation pueblos. Fearing reprisals, the Hopi (originally Moqui Reservation) was moved villages to defensible mesa tops. created by an executive order in 1882, In 1700, a faction from Awatovi but the land set aside was for the use of favored Catholicism and was visited by all Indians, not exclusively Hopi. a missionary, apparently at their Passage of the Dawes Act in 1887 request. After the missionary had left, resulted in federal pressure on the anti-Catholic Hopis from several Hopi to shift from family and villages destroyed Awatovi, killing the community landholdings to individual men who resisted and scattering their allotments. Due to a lack of a boundary wives and children among the survey, conflicts with the Navajo over remaining settlements. The Hopi then grazing lands intensified. Through a sent a peace delegation to Santa Fe series of executive orders, the Hopi requesting that they be allowed to Reservation eventually was fully continue their old religion. The Spanish enclosed by the Navajo Reservation, governor rejected the entreaty and in and, in the 1930s, the Bureau of Indian 1701 attacked the Hopi in retaliation for Affairs (BIA) reduced the area officially the murders of Christian Hopi. designated as Hopi land to about one- Outnumbered and unable to breach the fourth its original size. Hopi defensive positions, the Spanish force eventually withdrew. By the 1940s, about 4,000 Hopi lived in 14 settlements. Increasing land erosion Because they were so far from the due to drought and overgrazing, as capital in Santa Fe, the Hopi villages well as population increase on an ever- were somewhat protected from direct shrinking land base, were critical Spanish control. During the 1740s and problems during the mid-20th century. early 1750s, the Spaniards were A federal livestock reduction program preoccupied with other Indian groups, and changes in stock management and were not able to devote their full practices were instituted to remedy the efforts to the Hopi. Drought and erosion problem, which hit hardest in hunger beginning in 1755, however, the Oraibi area. Although farming caused the Hopi to gravitate practices did not change dramatically increasingly toward accepting the at this time, new tools, such as the Spaniards. By 1779, many Hopi had plow, began to replace more traditional moved from their homeland to Zuni in methods such as the planting stick.
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Fields continued to be watered from and daughters’ daughters), plus stream flooding or by hand, as they husbands and unmarried sons, form had been in the past. Efforts to irrigate the household core. Traditionally, Hopi lands affected only a small area when a household outgrew its space, a and were not very successful. room was added to accommodate newer members. This adjacent The arid Hopi homeland receives household remained part of the lineage sporadic and patchy rainfall, and the or clan, within which farmland was Hopi do not have easy access to large, held in common and certain religious predictable streams or reivers. Thus, ceremonies were conducted. unlike the Eastern Pueblos of the Rio Grande Valley, who irrigate their Clans formed nine larger phratries, fields, the Hopi rely on dry farming by which were associated with a common taking advantage of rainwater from the mythological past. Members of the upland sandstone region that seeps same phratry shared ceremonial and down to a layer of shale and emerges at land-holding interests and were not the ends of mesas. allowed to marry within the group. Villages were and are largely Traditionally, the Hopi farming year autonomous, with overall village began when the fields were cleared for control in the hands of the village chief planting around the end of February. and the war chief. The village chief Planting was a group effort on the part settled land disputes and was relied of males. Maize, the primary staple and upon to give advice concerning any symbol of life, was planted in holes critical community matter. The war made with a digging stick. Beans were chief’s power was more concrete in that sometimes planted among the maize he could inflict verbal or physical stalks but more typically were raised in punishment. Clan and familiar separate plots, as were squash and relationships prescribe a detailed set of cotton. These four indigenous crops, responsibilities for each person. It is along with post-Spanish Aztec and believed that knowing and fulfilling lima beans, gourds, sunflowers, chili one’s role in the society leads to a sense peppers, onions, peaches, watermelons, of individual self-worth. and wheat, were the major crops. The Hopi also occasionally tended several Traditionally, the most elaborate Hopi wild plant species, including wild crafts were cotton textiles, usually tobacco. By the beginning of the 20th woven by men on looms in their homes century, sheep had also become or in kivas. They made square and important. Sheep were owned rectangular cloth for blankets and belts. individually but herded cooperatively Men wove women’s wedding robes, by men. Cattle were less popular, not belts, dresses, and shawls, men’s kilts only because they were expensive to and sashes for ceremonies, as well as purchase but because their grazing blankets, kilts, and shirts for daily use. often destroyed crops. Like sheep, Women made both undecorated horses were individually owned but pottery for cooking and storage and often tended jointly by men. polished and decorated pottery for other uses. In 1895, excavations at the Hopi society is matrilineal and prehistoric ruin of Sikyatki by matrilocal, meaning that kinship is archaeologist Jesse Walter Fewkes led reckoned along female lines and to a renaissance in Hopi pottery women (grandmother(s), daughters, making. One of Fewkes’ workmen,
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Lesou, showed sherds from the Mesoamerican, and South American excavation to his wife Nampeyo, who cultures. developed her own style based on these originals. Nampeyo, a Hopi-Tewa from Hano Pueblo, eventually became Zuni known as one of Hopi’s finest potters, and her work is continued to this day Hopis and Zunis are both Pueblo tribes by her extended family. and, in a general sense, share similar customs and beliefs. Zunis also have a Well-known ethnographer Mischa story of emergence from three previous Titiev, who lived and worked at Hopi worlds and stories of migrations which between 1932 and 1966, proposes that brought them to where they are now, the construction of paved highways the Middle Place. The Zuni Pueblo is linking Black Mesa with cities and the center of the world in the Zuni towns in northern Arizona and New perspective. Mexico hastened the abandonment of traditional Hopi life. Although roads, According to one account of the cars and trucks, and increased tourism emergence and migrations, Father Sun certainly brought great changes to Hopi traveled over Mother Earth each day in the mid- and late 20th centuries, one and under Mother Earth each night. of the most dramatic changes of the When he traveled above Mother Earth, past century may have occurred much he could hear the cries of his children earlier with the 1906 split at Oraibi. deep inside her. One day, at high noon, This major rupture between he paused and created the Twin Gods “traditional” and “progressive” to go to Mother Earth and bring the factions led to the establishment of two children into his light. After they were new settlements, Hotevilla and Bacavi. brought into the light and traveled for a short time, the time came for the The Hopi today face a number of issues people to split into different groups with deep and complex historical roots, and continue in different directions. including coal mining on Black Mesa The Gods presented the people with and the Navajo-Hopi land dispute. The two eggs and told them to pick one. latter is the result of a 1974 The A:shiwi (Zuni) had first pick and congressional act intended to resolve chose the turquoise-colored egg. The centuries of conflict over shared other group got the less-attractive territory by setting aside certain parcels brown, gray, white, and yellow for exclusive use by one group or the speckled egg. As a result of their other. It has resulted in the choices, the A:shiwi were to follow K/ displacement of hundreds of Navajo walashi (Crow) to a cold land in the and Hopi families. north and the other group was to follow Mu/la (Macaw) to a land of The Hopi tribe maintains the Hopi eternal summer in the south. Cultural Preservation Office (HCPO), which oversees archaeological and Archaeologists have shown cultural other scientific research on tribal lands continuity in the Zuni region, also and develops research policies. The known as Cibola, stemming back over HCPO staff also conducts research on 1,100 years. The Zuni/Cibola culture Hopi language, oral history, cultural area is roughly equivalent to the area affiliation, and linguistic and cultural claimed by the Zuni Tribe in their 20th connections among Hopi, century land claims case against the
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federal government. The claim area following year by Francisco Coronado, was bounded to the north by the upper who journeyed to Zuni and the Rio Rio Puerco River of the West and the Grande Pueblos with a large army. Pueblo Colorado Wash, on the west by Coronado fought a brief battle at the San Francisco Peaks, on the Hawikku, overwhelmed the Zuni and southwest by the Mogollon Rim, on the occupied Zuni Pueblo, and eventually south by the upper Gila River, on the departed peacefully. Antonio Espejo in east by the Magdalena Mountains, and 1583 was the first to use the term Zuni. on the northeast by the edge of the Grants lava flow. Most significant In 1598, Juan de Oñate visited Zuni religious and other important sites are Pueblo as part of a larger effort to within this region. secure obedience to Spain from the various Pueblo groups living in New The Zuni language is a linguistic Mexico. After this time, the Zuni were isolate, with no known relatives in the largely left to continue their traditional Southwest. One Zuni perspective of the way of life until the 19th century. Zuni development of language suggests that population nonetheless decreased people lived at Denatsali Im’a (near dramatically during the Spanish Woodruff Butte) in eastern Arizona, colonial period of the 17th century, and but that over time the palce became too several villages were gradually crowded. When people left they abandoned. This development traveled to the area of the current Zuni culminated in the Spanish Reconquest Reservation and began speaking the of the Pueblos following the Pueblo Zuni language. Modern-day Zunis live Revolt of 1680. In 1693, the Zuni mainly on a reservation of over 400,000 abandoned all the remaining villages, contiguous acres in west-central New including Zuni Pueblo, and Mexico. The reservation population is consolidated atop Dowa Yallane, an over 8000 people, and most of these easily defendable mesa. They left the people live in Zuni Pueblo. In late mesa near the beginning of the 18th prehistoric times the area around Zuni century and re-occupied only Zuni Pueblo and the Zuni River Valley also Pueblo. had relatively high populations, with at least nine villages occupied around During the 18th and 19th centuries A.D. 1400. Between six and eight Zunis, like many other village-dwellers, villages were occupied in the fifteenth were the targets of Apache and Navajo and sixteenth centuries. raiding. As a response to this and increasing pressure from the colonial The first encounter between Zunis and government, the Zunis established Europeans occurred in 1539, when numerous refuge sites in defensive Friar Marcos de Niza, along with the locations on the mesa edges of the Zuni former slave Esteban, set out in search River Valley near prime agricultural of the Seven Cities of Cibola. Esteban land. Near the end of the 19th century, was sent ahead of the expedition, after the U.S. Army had forced the where he met the Zuni at the village of Navajo to stop raiding by interring Hawikku. Esteban’s welcome was met them in Bosque Redondo for four with suspicion, and he was killed. years, the Zuni concentrated their Several members of his party escaped population into three villages near and reported back to Friar Marcos, major springs. Zuni farmers and who retreated to Mexico. His stories, herders and their families lived at these however, led to an expedition the villages during the summer, returning
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to Zuni Pueblo in the winter. These (e.g., rain, abundant crops, and farming villages were busy agricultural plentiful game), to rectify a problem centers through the early 20th century, situation, and/or for general public until farming declined in importance enjoyment. There are several special and the Zuni tended to live year-round orders, or priesthoods, as well as about in the main Pueblo. a dozen societies with more restricted membership, many of which are mainly Zuni social structure is often described concerned with curing. as comprised of five overlapping but distinct social categories: clan, kiva, Zunis have kachina gods (also called curing society, priesthood, and gaming kokko) but unlike the kachinas for Hopi, group (the latter is largely inactive Zuni kachinas are present in the today). Also important in Zuni social villages nearly all year-round. Zunis organization, at least historically, was also follow a ceremonial cycle that is farming village residence. This divided by the summer and winter complexity in social structure may be solstices. Preparations for the winter due to historic circumstances—the solstice ceremonies begin in October. In concentration of Zuni population from early December, the Shalako gods visit multiple villages into one. The previously selected and newly-built matrilineal clan is the primary homes for an approximately week-long organizing structure today. An series of ceremonies. The Shalako bring individual is born into the mother’s the promise of renewal to the commu- clan and born “for” the father’s clan, nity. The New Fire Ceremony follows and each relationship carries marriage shortly after, marking the beginning of proscriptions. Upon marriage, a couple a new year. Families fast, make prayer usually resides with the wife’s mother offerings, and make clay representa- until the couple can construct their own tions of their wishes for the new year. house, usually in the vicinity of the Gods from the Big Fire Curing Society wife’s parents’ house. The lineage of visit each home to give families a neighboring mothers and daughters firebrand. Families take the firebrand forms the backbone of Zuni society by to the river to make offerings and then pooling major resources, such as labor, return home to re-light their fireplaces and farming land. Lineages also and make additional offerings. The fast cooperate in the observance of is broken and the new year begins. ceremonial events, such as the initiation of a child into a curing society Zuni world view divides the cosmos or construction of a Shalako home. In into “cooked” and “raw” people. The everyday life, however, individual former are humans; the latter are the households are largely economically gods. Directional symbolism pervades independent. the Zuni worldview. The Zuni recognize the four cardinal directions, The remaining social categories are as well as the zenith (up) and the nadir religious ones. Zuni religion consists of (down). Each is associated with its own several independent entities: the kivas, color, type of rain, gods, game animals, societies, and rain priesthoods. Every and birds. Kivas are also connected to male child is still initiated into one of this directional symbolism, as are the six kiva groups, which are responsible rain priesthoods. for holding masked dances, most of them in public locations. The dances Traditional farmers, the Zuni once are intended to bring good fortune practiced extensive floodwater
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irrigation, relying on the construction among other items. Most Zunis live of check dams, diversionary dams, and within Zuni Pueblo. The Zuni have a mud walls to divert snowmelt and Tribal Constitution that created two rainwater from seasonal storms to governmental branches: the Tribal agricultural plots. Maize fields were Council and the Courts. The Tribal placed in the silted areas behind check Council, which is responsible for dams. This land use strategy resulted creating and administering laws, is in a pattern of scattered plots of elected every four years by adult tribal various sizes covering a large area. The members. The Tribe supports the Zuni few permanent water sources in the Cultural Resource Enterprise, and the Zuni area (Ojo Caliente, Ojo Pescado, Zuni Heritage and Historic and Nutria Springs), provided a Preservation Office (ZHHPO). The reliable supply of drinking water and former conducts historical, also became areas of irrigated anthropological, and archaeological agriculture. Zunis used canals to work both on and off the reservation irrigate fields at the time of Spanish and provides data management and contact, and recent archaeological data information technology service. The suggests this practice dates to some ZHHPO, created in 1994, includes the 3,000 years ago in the Zuni area. position of Tribal Historic Preservation Historically, maize was the most Officer. significant crop. “Waffle gardens,” constructed of low, rectangular mud The Zuni Tribe has recently been walls, also were placed along the Zuni successful in their efforts to reclaim River. These smaller, hand-watered tribal lands that were lost during the family plots were used to grow late 1800s and early 1900s. Many areas peppers, onions, squash, melons, that had historically been occupied by pumpkins, and cotton. the Zuni were settled by Mormon and Hispanic settlers, as well as by an As farmers in a desert-like climate, increasing Navajo population. The much thought and effort is given to construction of the railroad in 1882 securing adequate rains. The kick-stick promoted ever greater land loss, as race is but one example of such a large numbers of cattle were imported practice. Teams of three to four people and grazed along the margins of Zuni run a 20- to 40-mile course throughout territory. the reservation. Runners run barefoot, lifting and kicking a small stick with By 1934, the Zuni were restricted to their toes as they go. The action of the their reservation boundaries. Because stick symbolizes the debris that water of an error made by the federal rushing the dry arroyos will push government, the Zuni Tribe did not file ahead of itself when the summe rains with the Indian Claims Commission come. The runners themselves Court in the 1950s. It was not until 1982 represent the water and the entire race that the Zuni were able to win a claim is prayer in motion. for compensation for lost lands; the tribe has continued to reclaim Modern-day Zunis practice a mixed additional lands in the vicinity of the economic strategy emphasizing wage reservation, often through litigation or work, craft production, stock raising, land exchanges. The tribe also and small-scale farming. Zuni artists continues to work towards repatriating are known for their silver and stone numerous ancestral Zuni artifacts and jewelry, pottery, and stone fetishes, burials.
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Navajo even hastening the end of the war. The Navajo Code was not declassified by The Navajo, or Diné, currently are the the U.S. government until 20 years after largest Native American group in the the end of the war. United States, with a population over 200,000. The Navajo have made a Athabaskans’ arrival in the Southwest dramatic comeback since their from northwest North America is a incarceration at Fort Sumner (Bosque topic of much debate. The most recent Redondo) in the 1860s when their total anthropological research suggests it population numbered less than 10,000 was around A.D. 1400 or 1450. before incarceration. The nearly 14 Archaeologically and historically, million acre Navajo Reservation covers distinguishing Navajo from other portions of Utah and New Mexico with Athabaskan tribes is difficult, a the largest portion being in Arizona. It problem that is made even more completely encloses the Hopi difficult by a mobile lifestyle. reservation. The Navajo Nation capitol Researchers believe Navajos initially is at Window Rock, Arizona. The spread into southern Colorado and Navajo also live in several northern and eastern New Mexico, discontinuous areas: the eastern areas that were largely unoccupied checkerboard of New Mexico, and the between A.D. 1300 and 1400. The Ramah, Alamo, and Tohajiileeh earliest Spanish accounts mention what (formerly known as Canoncito) may be Navajo or other Apache chapters of New Mexico. A large groups. Fray Zarate Zalmeron’s 1627 Navajo community that is not part of use of the term “Apaches de Nabaju” is the Navajo Nation can also be found on the first documentary reference to the the Colorado Indian River Reservation people living in what is present-day on the Arizona-California border. This northwest New Mexico, but Zalmeron reservation is shared with members of may refer to a geographic location the Mohave, Chemehuevi and Hopi rather than a distinct group of people. tribes. Coronado reports “Querechos” on the Plains in 1540, and Espejo mentions the Linguistically, the Navajo are same group near Mt. Taylor in 1583. Athabaskan, speaking a language Navajo oral history holds that they closely related to the Apachean groups were present at Canyon de Chelly by of the Southwest. The Athapaskan (Na- A.D. 1692. Dene) language family has its origins in Alaska and Canada, and the Southern Regardless of the timing of their arrival Athapaskan, or Apachean, languages in the Southwest and their emergence only became distinct in the last 1,000 as a distinct group, it appears that early years. During WWII, Navajo “Code Navajos were largely hunter-gatherers, Talkers” played a significant role in the who hunted deer, rabbits and U.S. war effort in the Pacific by using a jackrabbits, and who gathered combination of the Navajo language goosefoot, cattails, cacti and and English spelling to send messages. squawberries, as well as practicing Because the Navajo language is quite limited maize horticulture. During the complex and, at the time, virtually Pueblo Revolt period and the unknown outside the United States, the Reconquest period, interaction between code was never broken and is credited Pueblos and Navajos increased as with giving the Allies an advantage Pueblo people sought refuge with over their enemies, saving lives, and nomadic groups.
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Navajos built small masonry structures Alamo, and Ramah reservations. The known as pueblitos between the late checkerboard is the legacy of the late 1600s through mid 1700s. These 19th century, when the United States structures are interpreted as Navajo granted alternate sections of land to the responses to Spanish incursions and railroad and the Territory of New Ute raiding. Pueblitos are known from Mexico, and opened the rest to northeastern Arizona as far west as homesteading. Homesteads were Black Mesa. limited in size, and people claimed land with permanent water sources. By the early 1700s, Navajos were more Individual Navajos were awarded regularly tending livestock and homesteads outside of the reservation growing corn, beans, and pumpkins. boundaries, which are known today as They lived in log or stone hogans, Indian allotment lands. These particularly in the winter, and built developments set the stage for the temporary herding camps as they complicated settlement patterns and moved from grazing area to grazing confusion over land claims of the 20th area. The Navajo also depended century. The United States Government economically upon raiding their Pueblo has recently attempted to consolidate and Hispanic neighbors, a pattern that Navajo land holdings through persisted through the mid-1800s. administrative withdrawals, land Pueblo and Hispanic villagers exchanges, and outright purchase. retaliated with raids of their own. American military forces attempted to By the turn of the 19th century, herding, stop the raiding between 1847 and agriculture, and government assistance 1851, but had little success. The had largely replaced the more establishment of military forts (such as traditional Navajo hunting and Fort Defiance in Apache County) gathering lifeway. Navajos also relied marked a concerted effort to remove increasingly on trading posts and wage the Navajo threat to settlers. In 1864, labor associated with railroad the majority of Navajos were captured construction. Competition for land and sent on the “Long Walk” to Fort intensified with an increase in cattle Sumner at Bosque Redondo, New grazing between 1880 and 1920. Mexico. More than 8,000 Navajos, as well as some Mescalero Apache who Navajo social structure is characterized had not fled south, were marched 350 by matrilineal clans that shape patterns miles through spring blizzards from of marriage, descent, residence, and Fort Defiance to Fort Sumner. inheritance. An individual is born into his mother’s clan and is born “for” his Following the Navajo Treaty of 1868 father’s clan, and must marry outside and the establishment of the Navajo both clans. Traditionally, Navajo reservation—which at that time was families are composed of parents and almost entirely in Arizona—the Navajo unmarried children, with married returned to find that much of their children, preferably daughters, living territory was occupied by Anglo nearby. The resulting household settlers. Several Navajo groups compounds are located near fields. (including members of a band of Additional seasonal residences are “enemy Navajo” who had collaborated found throughout grazing areas. with the U.S. Army) settled in the areas Families living in the same house pool which were to become the resources such as food and cash; checkerboard, and the Tohajiileeh, families living in the same compound
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pool their labor and land resources. almost every aspect of life. The east is Cooperating compounds in geographic the direction of physical and mental proximity linked by kin ties and share knowledge. Children are taught string access to major resources such as water games, which are played during the are called outfits. They typically follow winter, to develop concentration and the leadership of a male head and dexterity. The ability to concentrate is gather for significant events like stock seen as essential to grow in roundups and large ceremonies. understanding and respect. East, being the direction from which the sun rises, Navajo religion is organized into a is the organizing direction for all system of ceremonies which are activities. Hogan doors always face designed to reestablish harmony, east. When hogans are built, the eastern beauty, health, and natural order to the posts are placed first. Baskets and wool world. Ceremonies are mainly for are woven and spun in a clockwise curing disease and are performed for a (sunwise) direction. South is the patient under the direction of a direction of daily tasks and “singer”, who is paid for his services. responsibilities. People keep their According to the Navajo worldview, farming and herding implements on the world is composed of the south side of the hogan. Looms, superimposed hemispheres supported when not outside for the summer by pillars. The number of reported months, are also placed along the south hemispheres varies; there are at least wall. Weaving is as much about the four underworlds, this world, the sky, process—from raising the sheep to the and one world above the sky. actual weaving on the looms—as it is about the finished product. As one Everything in the world has both male weaves, one gives thanks for the sheep, and female qualities. For people, the plants that make the dyes, and for whether male or female, the left side of the trees that provide the parts of the the body is considered male and the loom and other weaving tools. The right side female. In hogans, the patterns woven into the textile, stylized traditional homes, when one faces the male and female lightning stripes, mist, entrance (which is always east), the left and clouds are a way to give thanks side of the home is male and the right that these elements visited. The west is side female. The sky is Father Sky, and the direction of social and family thus male, and the earth is Mother responsibility. Sheepskins are kept Earth and thus female. Life occurs along the west wall of a hogan and are where earth and sky touch. used for family storytelling sessions in the evening, when visitors come, and Dinetah, or the traditional homeland of for sleeping. The North is the direction the Navajo (Diné) is bound by four of ceremonial knowledge and objects. sacred mountains: Sis Naajiní (Mount Herbs, minerals, and other items used Blanca) in the east, Tsoodzil (Mt. Taylor) in ceremonies are kept along the north in the south, Dook’o’oosliid (San wall of a hogan. There are two primary Francisco Peaks) in the west and Dibé types of ceremonies: Blessingway Nitsaa (Hesperus Peak) in the north. ceremonies that give thanks and The mountains were created by the reaffirm the balance, beauty, and Dinyin Dine’é (Holy People). These are harmony of life as it is supposed to be the four pillars that support the world and Protectionway ceremonies that and each mountain and direction has address situations when illness or other many layers of meaning that affect forces are present and indicating a life
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out of balance. Protectionway Many people continue to orient their ceremonies are led by a singer for the lives in accordance to these cultural benefit of a particular patient, but the beliefs and traditional ceremonies. attendance of family members is an Many also continue to make a living important part of the total healing through livestock husbandry. Tourism process. The sand paintings that often and arts and crafts also provide some accompany such ceremonies are visual income. The Navajo are known for reminders for the patient and attending their skilled weavers (typically, but not family members alike of the way the exclusively, women) of wool blankets Dinyin Dine’é first created the world in and rugs, as well as their silver jewelry. a perfect state of harmony and balance. The Navajo Tribe takes an interest in managing cultural resources on Navajo Asdzáá Nádleehé (Changing Woman) controlled lands. The Navajo Nation was born when a dark cloud passed Historic Preservation Department over Ch’óol’i’í (Gobernador Knob in (NNHPD), created in 1986, oversees northwest New Mexico) and lived most permitting of archaeological and of her life within the bounds of the four anthropological work performed on sacred mountains. The Dinyin Dine’é Navajo land and develops policies and told First Man and First Woman how to standards for such work. The NNHPD care for her and they fed her pollen and also reviews federal antiquities permits dew. Asdzáá Nádleehé grew into and actions taken outside of Navajo adulthood quickly, in four days or four lands but within a 200 mile radius years depending on the particular around them for their potential effect version of the story. When she reached on Navajo culture. maturity, Dinyin Dine’é held a ceremony for her. This is still an important ceremony held for girls as White Mountain Apache they reach maturity. She taught the animals and people how to live well The Fort Apache Reservation bounds within the four mountains. She gave the proposed Little Colorado Heritage birth to twin sons, Naayéé’ Neizghaní area on the south along the Mogollon (Monster Slayer) and Tó Bájíshchíní Rim. The Reservation, ranging from (Child Born of Water) whose job it was 2,700 feet to almost 11 ,500 feet in to try and rid the world of evil. Asdzáá elevation, includes the traditional Nádleehé also created the four original territories of the Cibecue and White Navajo clans: Kin yaa’áannii (Towering Mountain Western Apache groups House Clan), Honágháahnii (One Who (collectively, the Coyoteros) north of Walks around You Clan), Tó dich’ii’nii the Salt and Black rivers. The Apache, (Bitter Water Clan), and Hashtl’ishnii or Ndee (the People), as they call (Mud Clan). Eventually Asdzáá themselves, were once part of a larger Nádleehé’s husband, the Sun, asked her group of Athapaskan-speakers who to live with him in the Western Ocean. moved into the Southwest around A.D. Asdzáá Nádleehé performed a 1400. Limited archaeological and Blessingway ceremony on herself and anthropological evidence indicates that left blessings for the people who lived they initially were buffalo hunters between the mountains. The passing of living in areas where the mountains the days and the passing of the seasons met the plains. The Western Apache are reflections of the rapid life stages of (the San Carlos, White Mountain, Asdzáá Nádleehé from birth to maturity Cibecue, and Tonto people of central to old age. Arizona) and the Navajo probably
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moved westward early. The Lipan and Constant conflict with the Apache Jicarilla Apache of the west Texas weakened the Spaniards and plains and northern New Mexico contributed to their defeat during the mountains, respectively, split off by 1680 Pueblo Revolt. about 1600. The Mescalero and Chiricahua Apache moved into Finally, in 1786, the governor of New southern New Mexico by the early 17th Spain tried a different approach, one century. that eventually was devastating to the Apache, especially the southern bands. At first, Pueblo and Apache people He instructed Spanish populations to seem to have coexisted relatively make peace with the Apache, convince peacefully. Spanish explorers found them to live near presidios, and supply Apaches lived in the mountains them with food and drink. His goal surrounding Pueblo villages, where was to make them dependent on the they had established regular trade Spaniards. The Spaniards also sought relationships. Confrontation began to undermine any solidarity among the when Apaches raided Spanish various bands by stirring up trouble expeditions for food and horses. The among them. During the Mexican soldiers retaliated, initiating full-blown period of the early 1800s, Mexico’s hostilities between the two groups. fledgling revolutionary government Relationships among Pueblos, Apaches, could not afford to buy the Apaches’ and Spaniards deteriorated through the dependency. By 1835, the Apaches had 1600s. Sonora and Chihuahua were the returned to raiding, which was full- earliest and most intense areas of blown when the United States took conflict. By the early 1700s, the control of Apachería in 1847. Apaches held sway as far north as Zuni Pueblo. Western Apache groups ranged Initially, the Apache welcomed the through nearly 90,000 square miles of Americans as potential trade partners. territory, an area equivalent to three- When the U.S. authorities objected to fourths of the state of Arizona. the Apaches’ continued raiding of Eventually, the northern limits of New Mexican homesteaders, however, Spain were defined by the extent of relations rapidly deteriorated. From the Apache territory, called Apachería by Apache point of view, raiding was the Spaniards. Explorers also gave necessary for their survival—even Spanish names to each Apache band more after Anglo settlers began they encountered. appropriating Apache land and disrupting traditional food gathering Within Apachería, the Apaches rounds. The U.S. responded by developed their culture through the constructing a series of forts across 18th century, often remaining protected Apache territory. These were no more in rough mountain strongholds. effective than the Spanish presidios at Raiding became a way of life, preventing raids or protecting settlers, something that the Apache viewed as a but they did house large numbers of necessity of the times due to the fact troops, which repeatedly conducted that Spanish land grants limited the punitive attacks. A number of brutal ability of the Apache to access much of massacres eventually culminated in a their previous hunting and gathering formal U.S. peace policy in 1871, which spaces. The Apache essentially cut off called for the concentration of Apache New Mexican settlements near Santa Fe bands on reservations. The Camp from the Sonora-Chihuahua frontier. Verde, San Carlos, and Fort Apache
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reservations of Arizona were all were loosely connected into bands. founded at this time. Neighboring bands with shared cultural traits were interpreted by Throughout the 1800s, the White outsiders as tribes, but to the Apache, Mountain and Cibecue bands largely the local group was always the most avoided conflicts with the Americans. important unit of social organization. They did not outwardly resist the Chiefs with limited power were elected founding of the military outpost that to lead small groups; their influence became Fort Apache in 1863, even depended upon bringing success to when the Army restricted hunting. their followers in hunting, raiding, and Since animal skins became hard to warfare. Clan membership further tied obtain as a result, tipi use ended and families and local groups together. styles of dress changed. Encouraged by the respected White Mountain chief Apache families revolved around Alchesay, many Apache men joined the women; sisters and daughters lived U.S. forces in their fight against the together throughout their lives. Women southern Apache in order to earn established camp, building wickiups in wages. the mountains and setting up tipis on the plains. Women also did most of the White Mountain Apache territory was gathering and cooking, as well as mostly outside the areas most affected tending of farm plots. Men became part by pioneering and mineral prospecting of a family and local group via in the late 1800s and early 1900s, and marriage. They were responsible for they were able to continue their hunting, raiding, and warfare. Men or traditional lifeways longer than other women could conduct ceremonies and Apache groups. This meant that they curing rites, although most ritual were on the move for most of the year specialists were men. Both men and following the seasonal availability of women carried on oral histories and plants and animals. Traditionally group traditions. important wild plants included yucca, tule roots and pollen, mescal, locust Apache religion is characterized by two flowers, wild onion, ponderosa pine elements: the individualistic, visionary bark, sumac berries, juniper berries, shaman and the learned priest, or strawberries, chokecherries, wild “singer”, who conducts standardized potatoes, mulberries, pitahaya cactus, rituals. Neither person carries any screwbean mesquite, saguaro fruit, authority other than his own prickly pear, mesquite, walnuts, piñon knowledge and ritual power. Rituals nuts, greens, acorns, grasses, amaranth, are conducted to mark major changes sunflower seeds, and honey. About in an individual’s life-cycle, when a one-quarter of their diet also came person is sick or threatened, or to bless from cultivated crops. an undertaking. Traditions and ceremonies remain strong today, and Grenville Goodwin’s anthropological many sacred sites still lie within sight research among the White Mountain of modern Apache homes. Apache is one of the key sources of information on traditional Western Like their Athapaskan cousins the Apache kinship and social Navajo, White Mountain Apache also organization. The Apache traditionally have a belief in Changing Woman and lived in extended families organized elaborate, four-day ceremonies are held into local groups (35-200 people) that for girls when they reach the stage of
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physical maturity. The ceremony after Fort Apache was decommissioned incorporates some of the moments of in 1922. Many Apache have started to Changing Woman’s life and the whole follow, at least partially, more non- ceremony is a symbol of her rapid Native American ways, although growth from a baby to adulthood. Apaches continue to retain their Apache girls are seen as essentially distinct culture. By 1952, about 80 changing from girls to women during percent of Arizona Apaches spoke the four days. Most of the ceremony English. Today, Fort Apache has takes place under a ceremonial tipi bilingual/bicultural public schools. made of four poles of four different New communities have divided woods common to the region and traditional bands and disrupted decorated with the four colors intermarriage rules. Newly unified associated with the four cardinal clans, once dispersed among isolated directions: black for the east, blue for local groups, now define much of an the south, yellow for the west, and Apache’s social identity. Family and white for the north. Four represents the kin ties remain strong and highly four days during which the world was valued. Although nuclear families have created (everything began as black and replaced the family cluster and local in the east the earth was created, then group, women continue to form the in the south the sky became blue, the core of Apache society. yellow sun appeared in the west, and lastly white clouds were made in the Of all the Apache groups, the White north), the four stages of life (birth, Mountain Apache may be the most childhood, adulthood, and old age), the economically successful in the modern four directions, and the four seasons. era. Since the Depression of the 1930s, During the ceremony, the girls take on when the last Anglo grazing lease on the personage of Changing Woman and Apache land expired, the cattle and have the power of healing. Gaan spirits timber industries have become integral appear each night and dance to protect to the community economy. The tribe the girl during her transition from owns a sawmill that generates $30 girlhood to womanhood. Gaan come million annually and employs over 400 from the four directions of the world people, 90 percent of them Apache. The and their primary job is to keep it tribal Recreation Enterprise, begun in steady. Accompanying the Gaan is 1954, now includes Sunrise Ski Area Libaiyé, a type of “clown” who is also and resort, with about $9 million in called the “Gray One.” He is guide, revenues per year. Summer cabin messengers, and protector for the Gaan leases and camping, fishing, and and he also represents whirlwinds and hunting permits provide additional the unpredictability of life. income as well as revenues from the Hon-Dah Casino. Just as east is the direction of life, since that is where the life-giving sun rises, west is the direction of death. DISTINCTIVENESS OF THEME Traditionally, when an Apache person died, they were removed from their The diverse and vital Native American wikiup through a hole in the west side. history and cultural traditions of the Little Colorado region make it Many changes affect the Apache of the distinctive among National Heritage 20th and 21st centuries. Whiteriver Areas. Particularly significant are the became the dominant reservation town ongoing relationships that living Native
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American groups maintain with the Arizona State Museum in Tucson archaeological landscape. Native highlight Native American cultures of peoples have occupied the Little Arizona. Numerous arts and crafts Colorado area for thousands of years, markets, such as the Museum of and many archaeological and historical Northern Arizona Indian and Spanish sites continue to play a key role in the Shows, and the Pueblo Grande and Native American oral history, religion, Heard Museum shows in the Phoenix economy, and politics (see also Chapter area, showcase the rich artistic 5). Therefore, the proposed Little traditions of Little Colorado area tribes. Colorado National Heritage Area Many reservation communities also would play a key role in preserving regularly host arts and crafts markets. and conveying Native American values Powwows, fairs, and dances at various and lifeways. pueblos and Navajo chapters and in towns like Gallup and Flagstaff often are open to the public, and many RELATED RESOURCES reservation communities welcome visitors. Significant historic sites and Numerous museums, parks, fairs, and buildings include the areas many other events and institutions, both trading posts, like the Hubbell Trading within and beyond the Little Colorado Post National Historic Site, as well as area, provide opportunities for the other historic sites like Fort Wingate. public to experience the area’s rich Native American cultures. A sampling of these (see also Resources Table) RELATED RESOURCES LIST includes the Museum of Northern Arizona in Flagstaff, the A:shiwi A:wan See Related Resources List after Museum and Heritage Center at Zuni “Archaeology” section of this chapter. Pueblo, the Explore Navajo Nation Lists for Native Nations and Interactive Museum in Tuba City, and Archaeology have been combined due the Hopi Cultural Center and to the overlapping affiliation of many Restaurant at Hopi. Farther afield, the of the resources. Heard Museum in Phoenix and the
PRIMARY REFERENCES
Dutton, Bertha P. 1983 American Indians of the Southwest. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Ferguson, T. J., and E. Richard Hart 1985 A Zuni Atlas. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.
Gilpin, Dennis 2004 Protohistoric Navajo Colonization of Northeastern Arizona. Paper presented at the Fall 2004 Arizona Archaeological Council Conference, Faint Traces of Past Places: The Archaeology of Low Visibility Groups in the Southwest, A.D. 1200-1900.
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Holmes, Barbara E. 1989 American Indian Use of El Malpais. University of New Mexico Project No. 185-387 and Zuni Archaeology Program Report No. 302. Office of Contract Archaeology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque.
Oswalt, Wendell H., and Sharlotte Neely 1996 This Land Was Theirs: A Study of North American Indians. 5th Ed. Mayfield Publishing Company, Mountain View, California.
Towner, Ronald H. 2004 The Navajo Occupation of Northwestern New Mexico. Paper presented at the Fall 2004 Arizona Archaeological Council Conference, Faint Traces of Past Places: The Archaeology of Low Visibility Groups in the Southwest, A.D. 1200-1900.
Trimble, Stephen 1993 The People: Indians of the American Southwest. SAR Press, Santa Fe.
Washburn, Dorothy K. 1995 Living in Balance: The University of the Hopi, Zuni, Navajo, and Apache. University of Pennsylvania Museum, Philadelphia.
Wilshusen, Richard H. 2007 Ethnogenesis at the Edge of History: The Northern Southwest between AD 1500 and 1750. Paper presented in the symposium “Across the Great Divide: Continuity and Change in Native North American Societies, AD 1400-1850” at the 72nd Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Austin, Texas.
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Theme 5 Archaeology
SUMMARY OF THEME DESCRIPTION OF THEME
The number, variety, and significance The Little Colorado area contains the of archaeological sites found in the remains of prehistoric and historic Little Colorado River Valley are rivaled occupations dating back at least 12,000 by few other locations in the country. years and spans two major late These sites not only contribute greatly prehistoric archaeological culture areas: to our understanding of past lifeways the Anasazi or Ancestral Pueblo and in the American Southwest, but also Mogollon. These groups eventually have provided a foundation for coalesced to form what anthropologists numerous advancements in call the Western Pueblo. Later, Apache archaeological field methods over the and Navajo groups made the past two centuries. Southwest their home, and together with the Hopi and Zuni Pueblo people, While many Little Colorado sites are continue to occupy much of the Little fragile, currently unprotected, or Colorado area. Archaeological remains otherwise not appropriate for visitation of Hispanic, Mormon, and other from members of the general public, historic period settlers also dot the they continue to serve as important landscape and remain powerful landmarks for the history and cultural reminders of the more recent past. The development of modern-day Hopi, following overview briefly summarizes Zuni, Navajo, and White Mountain the Little Colorado area’s long, rich, Apache people (see “Native Nations” and diverse past, highlighting some theme). Visitors with an interest in key resources and significant archaeology, however, are not at a loss archaeological advances of particular for interesting places to see in the Little localities. Colorado area.
Several state and national parks or Overview of Prehistoric Culture monuments feature ruins and History petroglyphs from various time periods and cultures. Extensive artifact Approximately 15,000 years ago, collections and exhibits can be found at populations crossed the Bering Strait the Museum of Northern Arizona, and land bridge from Asia into North many smaller museums throughout the America. These groups likely arrived region also display artifacts. following the Wisconsin glaciation, Archaeology is further supported by when sea levels were low and an ice- three highly respected educational free corridor existed between glaciers programs at Northern Arizona on the east side of the Rocky University, Arizona State University, Mountains. Except for a few highly and the University of Arizona, and by a controversial sites purportedly of great network of site steward volunteers and antiquity (e.g., Sandia Cave near avocational archaeologists in both Albuquerque, New Mexico), the Arizona and New Mexico. Southwest’s Paleoindian occupation
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traditionally is dated between around however, point to integration of 10,000 and 5500 B.C. The Pleistocene agriculture into some southwestern climate was wetter than previously, communities as early as 3,500 years causing the expansion of savannas and ago, indicating this definition of the the westward spread of several large Archaic may be too simplistic. mammal species, or megafauna, like mammoth, bison, horse, camel, dire Initially, the Archaic lifeway was not wolf, and several antelope species. The much different from the Paleoindian: distinctive, fluted Clovis and Folsom highly mobile, small group size, and points are well-known examples of mixed hunting and gathering. specialized Paleoindian hunting Eventually, however, Archaic technology. In addition to hunting, populations began to rely more heavily Paleoindian groups also must have on wild plant foods and less upon collected edible wild plants. hunting, perhaps because the climate again became wetter and stimulated Paleoindian populations are envisioned increased plant growth. The number of as small, highly mobile family bands. known Archaic sites also increases They often obtained stone tool raw through time, not only because more materials from very great distances, recent sites are more likely to be visible either through trade or as a result of to archaeologists, but also because considerable population mobility. overall population size probably Paleoindian sites typically are increased. By the end of the Archaic, characterized by the presence of habitation sites often had large, shallow diagnostic projectile points found storage pits as well as concentrations of either in isolation or in association with fire-cracked cobbles and artifacts. small scatters of chipped stone Structural architecture generally was artifacts. Because of their great age lacking. Hearths, bell-shaped pits, such sites are relatively rare. In the cobble cairns (possibly roasting pit Little Colorado watershed, isolated debris), and a variety of pit structures Clovis and Folsom points have been are known. Archaic period basketry, found near Sanders, Houck, the St. rabbit fur clothing, yucca twine robes, Johns/Concho/Lyman Lake area, woven bags, wood digging sticks, Winslow, on the Hopi mesas, and in jewelry in various media (stone, shell, the Petrified Forest. bone, feathers and seeds), atlatls, bone tools, and possible ritual objects The less-specialized Archaic adaptation occasionally are preserved in dry that emerged within a relatively dry rockshelters. climatic period around 5500 B.C. marks the end of the Paleoindian period. The Like Paleoindian sites, obvious Archaic term “Archaic” designates both a time period sites are not well represented in period and a way of life characterized the Little Colorado area. Some of the by hunting (both small and large game) better known are on Black Mesa near and gathering (mainly plant seeds). Hopi, where a large number of early Throughout the Southwest, agriculture sites dating to the late archaeologists generally identify the Archaic and/or succeeding early beginning of the Archaic period with Ancestral Pueblo (Basketmaker) the appearance of grinding equipment periods are represented. In addition, and the end of the Archaic with the several sites along Y-Unit draw in the appearance of pottery and horticulture Zuni region have Archaic or around A.D. 200. Recent data, Basketmaker II components. These
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sites, excavated by the Zuni Cultural hunting strategies, and (4) more Resource Enterprise, provide evidence complex architecture, including a for early agriculture at the Archaic- transition from pit structure habitation Pueblo transition. to aboveground masonry rooms. An increased emphasis on stored resources After about A.D. 200, around the time also is apparent. Early Pueblo that pottery was first made and used in (Basketmaker II and III) populations the Southwest, the archaeological continued to use the atlatl, basketry, cultures traditionally identified as the basin grinding slabs, and cobble manos Anasazi and Mogollon emerge. This and exploited wild plants and animal distinction persists until about A.D. foods. Utilitarian pottery was gray in 1000, when the two cultures color and serving vessels (bowls and presumably merged into what jars) typically had black painted archaeologists commonly refer to as designs on a gray or white-slipped Western Pueblo. In the northern Little background. Viewed together, these Colorado region (from about Holbrook, changes point to increased sedentism St. Johns, and Quemado north to the beginning sometime between A.D. 400 San Francisco Peaks) archaeologists and 800 across most of the northern classify sites as Anasazi or Ancestral Southwest. Pueblo and generally follow the Pecos Classification for this area developed During the Pueblo I period (A.D. 700– by A.V. Kidder in the 1920s. In the 900), environmental conditions in the southern Little Colorado, including the northern southwest deteriorated Upper Little Colorado and Forestdale somewhat, resulting in subsistence regions, pre-A.D. 1000 sites are stress for horticultural groups. understood within the Mogollon Settlements generally increased in size framework. The area around Flagstaff during the Pueblo I period, probably south to the Mogollon Rim is classified reflecting overall population growth. as Sinagua, an archaeological culture Habitation began to shift from that also contributed to the Western semisubterranean pit structures to Pueblo identity. above-ground masonry rooms. Pit structures were retained as kivas used mainly for ceremonial purposes. Red- Anasazi or Ancestral Pueblo slipped pottery with black painted designs was introduced at this time. The Pueblo period in the northern Southwest typically is viewed as a The Pueblo II period (A.D. 900-1150), period of dramatic change. Researchers was a time of marked regional generally agree this period was marked differentiation. Other than the dramatic by minor droughts across the Colorado great houses of Chaco Canyon and Plateau, accentuating the risks elsewhere in the San Juan Basin (just associated with dependence on northeast of the Little Colorado area), domesticated crops. Notable Pueblo II settlements were somewhat developments early in the Pueblo smaller and more dispersed than sequence include: (1) increased reliance previously. Masonry surface rooms on maize horticulture, (2) widespread were increasingly used for living space adoption of ceramic technology and the and kivas for ceremonial space. development of regional pottery styles, (3) the introduction of the bow and During the Pueblo III period (A.D 1150- arrow and concomitant changes in 1300), also known as Great Pueblo,
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large, multistory pueblos were Mogollon constructed in many areas of the northern Southwest. Around A.D. The far southern portion of the Little 1130, severe drought affected portions Colorado watershed includes areas of the region, making some areas less traditionally considered to be part of attractive. Populations left these the Mogollon archaeological culture. localities and began consolidating in Beginning around A.D. 200, during the areas such as Mesa Verde in the Four Mogollon Early Pithouse period (A.D. Corners, Canyon de Chelly (just 200-550, groups living in the outside the Little Colorado watershed), mountainous country of southeastern and the Zuni region. Notably, the Arizona and southwestern New Chaco regional system, which Mexico began producing characteristic influenced much of the northern brownware utilitarian pottery. They Southwest, changed dramatically as the also constructed pithouses and great houses were largely abandoned practiced maize agriculture. Early or altered in function. Mogollon settlements in eastern Arizona were on high, defensible The Pueblo III to Pueblo IV transition at landforms, and occupations were either about A.D. 1300 witnessed a dramatic seasonal or short term. reorganization of the social landscape, including large scale migrations, During the Late Pithouse period (A.D. widespread conflict, and the 550 to ca. A.D. 1000), there was a development of new religious systems. change from pithouses to above- At this point former Anasazi and ground, masonry or cobble pueblo- Mogollon groups cannot be style dwellings. Mogollon potters distinguished from one another and are began producing red-slipped decorated considered to be Ancestral Pueblo. pottery in many areas and black-on- white pottery in other areas (notably, During the Pueblo IV period (A.D. 1300 the Mimbres region). In eastern to ca. 1600), many portions of the Arizona, later Mogollon settlements northern southwest were essentially were typically not much larger than empty and other areas, including many earlier Mogollon settlements, but were localities of the Little Colorado area, located on valley floors near potential were densely populated. Pueblo horticultural lands. A few larger settlements became much larger overall settlements probably served as centers and were typically oriented around one for more dispersed populations. or more plazas. A tradition of brightly During the 1200s, large pueblos appear colored, polychrome pottery, much of in portions of the eastern Arizona it decorated with glaze paint, Mogollon territory. Considerable influx developed along the Mogollon rim and of Anasazi populations probably began spread north and east. Exchange of around this time, and by the 1300s the cotton, pottery, obsidian, and other occupied portions of the former items was widespread. Many of these Mogollon area are considered part of items were directly or indirectly the larger Western Pueblo culture. connected to pan-Southwestern religious traditions (the Southwest Regional Religion or Kachina Religion) Sinagua that emphasized rain, fertility, and social integration of diverse The area between the San Francisco populations. Peaks near present-day Flagstaff,
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Arizona, and the Verde Valley to the villages). Notably, many prehistoric south was occupied, from around A.D. sites and particular geographic areas 650 to 1300, by an archaeologically often figure prominently in migration distinct group known as the Sinagua. legends and clan histories. The Sinagua area has been called a “frontier” in which diverse cultures In addition to prehistoric and historic intermingled. The northern Sinagua, Native American archaeology, the around Flagstaff, initially constructed Little Colorado area contains the legacy pithouse villages at the interfaces of more recent groups that have come between piñon-juniper woodlands and to reside there. Early in the area’s ponderosa forests, where they farmed history, Hispanic settlers ranched and and where they also hunted and farmed in the area. Mormon pioneers gathered. Later, the northern Sinagua followed, and today many Little established large, pueblo-style, Colorado towns reflect a strong masonry villages. The southern Hispanic or Mormon heritage. Sinagua farmed on the fertile mesas Railroading, mining, and commercial along the Mogollon rim. ranching were and continue to be major economic activities that have each left Both the northern and southern respective material traces. Historic Sinagua groups had ties with the archaeological remains in the Little Hohokam to the south, and the Colorado area thus consist of the southern groups also interacted with remains of homesteads, ranches, forts, Kayenta populations. Some time after trading posts, hotels, mining towns, about A.D. 1300, the northern Sinagua schools, cemeteries, railroads, and left the San Francisco Peaks area, other historic structures and features. forming villages in the Wupatki area Some of these are listed on State or and joining groups at Anderson Mesa National registers of historic to the southeast. Eventually these properties, but many currently lack groups made their way to Hopi. The such formal recognition. southern Sinagua appear to have directly joined groups already living in the Hopi area. Little Colorado Heritage Area Subareas
Historic Period Archaeology Since the Little Colorado watershed includes a wide range of archaeological For many, history in the Southwest resources attributed to different begins around A.D. 1540 with the archaeological cultures, regions, and Spanish entrada. The Native Peoples of time periods, the following sections the region show clear continuity across provide summaries for smaller, this time period, and their oral histories individual subareas. These subareas and traditions connect them directly to have both geographical and the places of earlier times. They are archaeological meaning. Identified often closely connected to those places subareas and localities are also and continue to use them in one form identified on a master map (to be or another although they may appear created), and individual sites are to be abandoned. Present uses include bulleted in the chapter on key religious purposes, plant or other resources. Of necessity, each section resource gathering, and seasonal highlights but a sample of the diverse occupation (such as Zuni farming archaeological sites in each area. Note
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that sites believed to be especially Sinagua Area (Including Flagstaff sensitive (i.e., to have particular Area and Anderson Mesa) religious or other cultural significance that is not appropriate for general Numerous archaeological sites, many knowledge) are not discussed here, nor of which are within three National are they listed in the table or plotted on Monuments in the vicinity of Flagstaff, the map. Arizona, are attributed to the Sinagua culture. Sunset Crater National Monument, which contains the Hopi Area (Including Hopi Mesas namesake volcano that erupted and Southeastern Kayenta) dramatically for a relatively brief interval between A.D. 1050 and 1100, The Little Colorado watershed includes was home to Sinagua farmers. In the the Hopi Mesas and the Black Mesa aftermath of its eruptions, the Sunset area of the Kayenta region. The Crater area was no longer farmable, Kayenta region is largely outside of the causing local populations to move to defined Little Colorado watershed, and villages in nearby Walnut Canyon and includes such well-known Wupatki. Here, thinner layers of ash archaeological areas as Monument and cinders actually made agricultural Valley and Tsegi Canyon (Navajo lands more productive. Wupatki National Monument). As discussed National Monument contains the above, Black Mesa is notable for its remains of Wupatki, Wukoki, Citadel, Archaic and early Pueblo occupation. Lomaki, and nearly 3,000 other sites Valley View Ruin, for example, is a ranging from Archaic times through large Pueblo I hamlet located on the the late 1200s. Wupatki Pueblo itself mesa rim. has produced several interesting items, including turquoise and shell jewelry, Archaeologists generally consider the copper bells, and a buried parrot Hopi area to include the prominent skeleton, indicating its occupants were Hopi Mesas, the Hopi Buttes to the connected to an extensive trading southeast along Cottonwood Wash, network. The monument also includes and the Moenkopi area to the numerous petroglyphs. Walnut Canyon northwest. The area is perhaps best National Monument is just east of known for its Pueblo IV and historic Flagstaff along Walnut Creek. Included occupation. The Hopi Mesas (from in the monument are numerous well- northwest to southeast: Third Mesa, known Sinagua cliff dwellings Second Mesa, First Mesa, and Antelope occupied between about A.D. 1150 and Mesa) actually are southwesterly 1225. Also present are many pueblo- extensions of Black Mesa. A population style masonry dwellings on the canyon boom on the mesas apparently rim. Because they are less visible, these occurred during the late 1200s, when at sites have escaped much of the looting least 14 large settlements were that devastated the cliff dwellings prior established here. These were relatively to the monument’s establishment in large, with at least 100 rooms. The two 1915. largest villages, Oraibi and Awatovi, had 500 to 800 rooms, respectively. On the northeast edge of Flagstaff is Many of the Pueblo IV villages were Elden Pueblo, a 60-70 room Sinagua inhabited through the Spanish colonial pueblo dating from about A.D. 1100 to period, and four remain occupied 1250. The pueblo is notable not only today. because it appears to have been an
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important regional trade center during intense fourteenth century interaction its heyday, but also because it has been with Hopi Mesa villages, based identified as a key ancestral Hopi primarily on the abundance of village. As discussed later in this distinctive Jeddito Yellow Ware pottery chapter, public archaeology and in site assemblages. Jeddito Yellow collaboration by many individuals and Ware was made only on the Hopi organizations have contributed to the Mesas, so it must have been traded to excavation and interpretation of this Anderson Mesa and Homol’ovi sites. site. Also on the outskirts of Flagstaff is Both regions were largely vacated by the Sinagua petroglyph panel in Buffalo the late 1300s, coinciding with Park, which is accessible to the many population increases on the Hopi visitors that use this area for outdoor Mesas. recreation.
The Anderson Mesa area is southwest Middle Little Colorado Area and of the Little Colorado River, between Rio Puerco of the West modern-day Sedona on the west, Flagstaff on the northwest, Winslow on The Middle Little Colorado area is the east, and the Mogollon Rim to the centered on the confluence of the Little south. With the exception of recent Colorado River and Cottonwood Wash, work by Wesley Bernardini and earlier including the towns of Winslow and excavations at Nuvakwewtaqu (Chavez Holbrook, Arizona. Included in this Pass) by archaeologists from Arizona area is the Rio Puerco of the West, State University, this area remains which begins just east of Gallup and somewhat understudied. Typically flows west to join the Little Colorado classified as Sinagua, Anderson Mesa near Holbrook. North of Winslow is the actually is a transition zone between Homol’ovi settlement cluster Anasazi groups to the north, Mogollon comprised of Homol’ovi I, II, III, IV, groups to the east, and Salado groups Cottonwood, and Chevelon. to the south. Several large villages were Researchers from the Arizona State constructed and occupied in this area Museum at the University of Arizona during the Pueblo III and Pueblo IV have spent decades excavating and periods, including the extensive, multi- interpreting these large, late Pueblo III roomblock Nuvakwewtaqu as well as and Pueblo IV villages that had strong the loosely clustered Grapevine ties to villages on the Hopi mesas. In complex. fact, Homol’ovi is a Hopi word for “place of the low hills or mounds.” Both the Anderson Mesa and Cotton production for exchange was Homol’ovi areas (the latter discussed likely a key economic activity at the below under “Middle Little Colorado”) Homol’ovi villages. Within Homol’ovi are likely sources for immigrants to Ruins State Park, established in 1986, Hopi in late prehistory. Villages in are the Homol’ovi sites I-IV, as well as these two regions figure prominently in more than 300 additional Hopi migration traditions, with more archaeological sites of various kinds. than two dozen Hopi clans tracing their Homol’ovi I and Homol’ovi II are open ancestral migrations from southern to the public. Exhibits at the park Arizona through Anderson Mesa and visitor center interpret the area’s Homol’ovi on their routes north significance, and a podcast audio tour toward the Hopi Mesas. Both areas also is available on the Center for Desert have archaeological evidence for Archaeology’s website.
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Petrified Forest National Park covers historic Sunset Cemetery within over 90,000 acres on the north and Homol’ovi State Park. south sides of the Rio Puerco east of Holbrook. The northern park portion includes the Painted Desert, while the Silver Creek Area south park portion is known for its abundance of petrified wood. The park The Silver Creek area, extending south contains over 650 known archaeological of the Little Colorado River along sites, the oldest of which, Flattop Silver Creek, includes the modern-day Village, predates A.D. 500. This site, towns of Snowflake/Taylor, Showlow, probably a summer residence for and Pinetop/Lakeside. The area is Basketmaker people, contains 25 slab- bounded on the south by the Mogollon lined pithouses. Agate House, occupied Rim, where Silver Creek has its from about A.D. 1100-1250, is one of headwaters, flowing north to join the many buildings in the park constructed Little Colorado. Archaeological entirely of petrified wood. It was remains in this area are classified as reconstructed to its current Mogollon and, later, as Western configuration in the 1930s. The Pueblo. Sites post-dating A.D. 1000 are thirteenth- and fourteenth-century best known and have been the focus of Puerco Ruin, a 125-room pueblo, is the most archaeological investigations. largest site within the park. It has been During the tenth and eleventh centuries partially excavated and stabilized. the Silver Creek received immigrants Associated with this village are a large from a number of Ancestral Pueblo group of petroglyphs that are argued to areas, who founded small villages. contain an archaeoastronomical feature Population grew, and many villages that marks the summer solstice. dating to the eleventh and twelfth Additional petroglyphs are present centuries have circular great kivas throughout the park, perhaps most similar to earlier great kivas found at notably at Newspaper Rock, a huge Chaco Canyon and elsewhere in the boulder containing hundreds of northern southwest. During the petroglyphs spanning the eleventh thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, through fourteenth centuries A.D. local groups aggregated into large, Additional sites and petroglyphs, plaza-oriented pueblos much like other including the petroglyph site at the portions of the northern Southwest. Hidden Cove Golf Course in Holbrook, can also be found in the surrounding The Silver Creek area figures area. prominently in the history of Southwest archaeology. In 1929, Several important historic archaeology researchers from the National sites also occur in the Middle Little Geographic Society’s Third Beam Colorado subarea. The first, Brigham Expedition, including well-known City, is a restored fort first built by archaeologist Emil Haury, recovered a Mormon pioneers in 1876. The fort’s tree-ring sample from the Showlow walls, which later were moved to the Ruin that made it possible to link the grounds of the La Posada Hotel in prehistoric and historic tree-ring Winslow, enclosed settlers’ homes. This chronologies established by A.E. small settlement only lasted five years Douglass. Thus, many sites in the due to repeated flooding of the river Southwest could now be precisely that destroyed crops. A second historic dated to within a few decades. Haury site important in Mormon history is the also excavated at Showlow and
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Pinedale Ruins. Archaeologists from Upper Little Colorado River proper the Field Museum of Chicago between Springerville and St. Johns. excavated several sites, including Situated on the terraces of crumbling Carter Ranch and Broken K Pueblo, in basalt cliff just outside Springerville, the Hay Hollow Valley just east of Casa Malpais incorporates both Silver Creek and to the west of Silver relatively early Mogollon and later Creek, the Chevelon Archaeological Western Pueblo features. The Center Research Project conducted survey and for Desert Archaeology, the Salmon excavations. Ruins Museum, and the town of Springerville recently partnered in an Most recently, researchers from the emergency stabilization program for University of Arizona have spent over this unique basalt-masonry site of Casa a decade excavating and interpreting Malpais. The site is accessed via guided Silver Creek sites spanning the eleventh tours from the Casa Malpais Visitor through fourteenth centuries, including Center and Museum, where visitors three great kiva sites, a ca. 50-room late can view exhibits about the site. Lyman Pueblo III site, and the large, Lake State Park near St. Johns contains aggregated early Pueblo IV period hundreds of archaeological sites and Bailey Ruin. petroglyphs, including Rattlesnake Point Pueblo and Baca Pueblo, which were investigated by Arizona State Upper Little Colorado Area University in the 1990s.
The Upper Little Colorado area Sherwood Ranch Pueblo (formerly includes the upper portion of the Little known as the Raven Ruin) is north of Colorado River drainage and its Springerville. From the mid 1980’s to tributaries, from the headwaters in the mid 1990’s, this site was excavated by a White Mountains south of group known as the White Mountain Springerville, Arizona to the confluence Archaeological Research Center with the Zuni River northwest of St. (WMARC). WMARC offered Johns, Arizona. As discussed above, archaeological research vacations that Paleoindian artifacts found near St. allowed the public to participate in Johns attest to the very long archaeological excavations. occupational history of this area. Unfortunately, the records from these Basketmaker period pithouse excavations have not been published, settlements are found throughout the and the location of excavated artifacts region, as are small masonry structures is presently unknown. In 2002, the dating to the tenth and eleventh site’s owners terminated their lease centuries. There are several Chaco- agreements with WMARC and the site period great houses along the Upper was donated to the Archaeological Little Colorado, including Garcia Conservancy, which sponsored a Ranch northeast of St. Johns near the program of architectural New Mexico border and Cox Ranch documentation and mapping. In 2003, Pueblo near Fence Lake and Quemado, Sherwood Ranch Pueblo was fully which researchers from Washington documented and backfilled to ensure State University have recently the stabilization and long term investigated. preservation of exposed archaeological features. The site was listed on the Several well-known Pueblo III and National Register of Historic Places in Pueblo IV period sites are along the 2005.
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Zuni/Cibola Area the Zuni region were abandoned and the entire regional population became The Zuni/Cibola area of east central concentrated into nine villages along Arizona and west central New Mexico the Zuni river, many of which were includes the Zuni River drainage, all of occupied into the historic period. the present-day Zuni Reservation, the Modern-day Zuni pueblo is one such El Morro Valley to the east of the village. reservation, and the Jaralosa Draw and Quemado areas south of the reservation. During the Chaco period, DISTINCTIVENESS OF THEME much of the Zuni region population lived in small pueblos of 10 to 20 The archaeology theme, with its rooms. Some room blocks were primary focus on Native American dispersed and others were loosely sites, is unique to heritage areas. clustered in what appear to be Archaeology and living Native communities, the best known of which American cultures are major is probably the Village of the Great components of the Little Colorado area Kivas. During the post-Chacoan period and provide a source of connection (A.D. 1150-1250), larger aggregated with the past for local and tourist alike. villages of 500-plus rooms appeared. The Little Colorado area is home to These often had multiple room blocks vibrant Native American cultures with focused around great houses and deep roots and continued connections oversized, apparently unroofed, great to the area. The area also has a rich kivas. One of these is the Los Gigantes historical record reflected in numerous community in the El Morro Valley, historic archaeology sites. The heritage which was recently investigated by area would protect valuable archaeologists from Arizona State archaeological resources and ensure University. their continued relevance to today’s diverse communities. The large, apartment-like nucleated villages of the Pueblo IV period are perhaps the most archaeologically RELATED RESOURCES visible sites in the Zuni area. They include the pueblos of Atsinna and A number of archaeological sites, parks North Atsinna that are open to the and monuments, museums, private public at El Morro National organizations, and events are open to Monument. In the vicinity of the the public. These are too numerous to monument, to the west on the Zuni discuss in detail and the following reservation, and to the south toward discussion highlights a small sample of Quemado are many more nucleated what is available. The Little Colorado pueblos that are less accessible. Many area is home to a total of six National of these are on private or Zuni tribal Parks, National Monuments, and State land. Several have been investigated by Parks. In addition to state parks and archaeologists from institutions as monuments within the watershed are diverse as Washington University in St. four significant areas—Canyon de Louis, Wake Forest University, Chelly National Monument, Chaco Columbia University/Barnard College, Canyon National Park, Grand Canyon and Arizona State University. National Park, and Navajo National Beginning around A.D. 1400, the Monument—immediately outside its eastern and southernmost portions of boundaries.
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The Museum of Northern Arizona in Archaeological Conservancy, and local Flagstaff houses extensive collections community members. Many tribal and also interprets the archaeology and governments have also established history of the northern southwest. The cultural preservation offices that Museum’s annual Indian and Spanish conduct and oversee archaeological shows attract thousands of artists and investigations and historic preservation visitors. Also in Flagstaff, current on tribal lands. archaeological work at Elden Pueblo, led by Coconino National Forest archaeologist Peter Pilles, is a RELATED RESOURCES LIST cooperative effort among volunteers (Native Nations and Archaeology) from the Museum of Northern Arizona and the Arizona Archaeological 26 Bar Ranch, Eagar: Now owned by Society, as well the Arizona Natural the Hopi tribe, the ranch previously History Association, the Hopi Cultural belonged to John Wayne. Petroglyphs Preservation Office, and the general and other archaeological sites are on public. This project is featured as an the property. The ranch also “Interactive Dig” by Archaeology participates in Valle Redondo Days Magazine. over Memorial Day Weekend, a festival celebrating John Wayne and Several privately owned organizations the local area in general. The ranch provide controlled access to hosts Hopi dance performances open archaeological sites. Among these is the to the public. Rock Art Ranch, located on an old cattle ranch with numerous Archaeological Conservancy, petroglyphs in an isolated canyon. Albuquerque: The Archaeological Conservancy works with willing Arizona’s three state universities, landowners to study and preserve Arizona State University, Northern archaeological sites on their property. Arizona University, and the University The Conservancy owns nine sites in of Arizona, have long been involved in the Little Colorado River watershed. archaeological research, publication, and public outreach in the Little Arizona Archaeological Society Colorado area. Notable projects include (AAS): A statewide organization the U of A’s investigations at with local chapters, including three in Homol’ovi Pueblo and the Silver Creek the Little Colorado River watershed, area, as well as ASU’s multiple projects the Society promotes the in the Zuni region and El Morro Valley. understanding, respect, and The Little Colorado area has also protection of archaeological sites for attracted researchers from institutions professional and avocational as far away as Washington State archaeologists alike. University and Wake Forest University, to name but a few. Arizona and New Mexico Site Steward Programs: Volunteers are Finally, appreciation and protection of trained to visit sites and evaluate and archaeological sites is achieved at the report any damage, whether caused local level through a network of trained by vandalism or natural forces. site stewards, avocational and Regular monitoring helps reduce the professional groups, preservation and severity of impacts and aids in the conservation organizations such as the long-term preservation of the site.
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A:shiwi A:wan Museum and El Morro National Monument: El Heritage Center, Zuni: The museum Morro contains many ancient features a beautiful mural depicting petroglyphs as well as pueblo ruins the Zuni story of emergence into the atop its sandstone bluff. Fourth World as well as other displays of art, history, culture, and Elden Pueblo, Flagstaff: This pueblo the difficulty the tribe has was inhabited from about A.D. 1070 experienced in being the subject of to 1275. Since 1978, the Arizona intense anthropological study. Natural History Association and professional archaeologists have led Black Mesa Trust, Kykotsmovi summer sessions in which school- aged children and members of the Brigham City, Winslow: The site of public can participate in excavations an early Mormon settlement from the and learn the science of archaeology 1870s, it has been the subject of recent and about ancient cultures in a archaeological studies and plans are hands-on way. in place for its restoration. Explore Navajo Interactive Museum, Casa Malpais site and museum, Tuba City: This new, state-of-the-art Springerville: Casa Malpais is an museum allows visitors to explore ancestral Puebloan site built at the land, language, history, culture, and edge of a lava flow a few hundred ceremonies of the Navajo people. The yards from the Little Colorado River. design of the museum reflects Navajo It is important to both the Hopi and worldview by having visitors travel Zuni Tribes and is also well-known through the exhibits from east to and cared for by local residents. south to west to north (mimicking the path of the sun) and by also Cottonwood Creek and Chevelon emphasizing the number “four,” ruins: Part of the ancestral Hopi which is a foundational concept (four Homol’ovi settlement cluster along seasons, four directions, etc.) in the Middle Little Colorado near Navajo thought. Winslow, Cottonwood Creek and Chevelon ruins are on opposite sides Fort Defiance, Fort Defiance of the river. Chevelon is the larger of Chapter: This was the first military the two, with up to 500 rooms and outpost (1851) in Arizona Territory several plazas. Cottonwood Creek the U.S. Army established in an has about 120 rooms. Both pueblos attempt to control Navajos. Kit were occupied from the late 13th to Carson drove people from their the late 14th century A.D. homes to here, and then continued driving them on to Ft. Sumner where Cox Ranch Pueblo: Cox Ranch they spent four years incarcerated. Pueblo near Fence Lake is one of the This journey is known as The Long southernmost settlements linked to Walk. Ft. Defiance became the first the Chacoan regional system. The agency when the Navajo Reservation complex, which has recently been the was established in 1868 and was the subject of excavations by Washington site of distribution of over 13,000 State University personnel, has a 50- sheep and 1,000 goats to Navajo room Chaco style great house families as they resettled in their surrounded by 18 smaller residential lands after the ordeal at Ft. Sumner. room blocks. Those sheep and goats form a large
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basis of the present herds people Hubbell began trading at this site in keep today. 1878. He and his descendents operated the post until it was sold to Hay Hollow Valley: The Hay Hollow the National Park Service in 1967. Valley, just east of Snowflake, The Hubbell Trading Post is still an contains the remains of Broken K and active trading post, hosts two Carter Ranch pueblos. Archaeologists auctions of Native American arts from Chicago’s Field Museum every year, and is in the process of excavated at Broken K Pueblo in the restoring gardens and livestock herds 1960s. This roughly 100-room that would have been present during Mogollon residence dates from about J.L. Hubbell’s time. A.D. 1150 to 1280. Inscription Rock Trading Post, Rte. Homol’ovi Ruins State Park: Four 53 near Ramah: A modern-day major pueblos and a section of the “trading post,” Inscription Rock Little Colorado River comprise this features the work of artists from State Park. A recent Memorandum of nearby Zuni and Navajo as well as Understanding between Arizona from around the world. State Parks and the Hopi Tribe has resulted in significant Hopi influence Inter-Tribal Indian Ceremonial, in Park operations and programming. Gallup: The Ceremonial, held The annual event, Suvoyuki Day, annually since 1922, is the largest features traditional dances, foods, Native-related event in North specially-guided archaeological America. It started as a tribute to tours, and art demonstrations. Native Americans in the Gallup vicinity but now attracts tribes from Hooper Ranch and Danson pueblos: across the continent. It features four Located along the Upper Little days of juried art shows, rodeos, Colorado River north of Casa night dances, parades, Native foods, Malpais, these ancient Pueblo sites queen contests, fashion shows, were occupied from the late 13th footraces, and more. through the late 14th centuries. Danson is atop a steep knoll and has KUYI Hopi Radio: KUYI, Hopi about 25 rooms. Hooper Ranch is owned and operated, began somewhat larger, at 60 rooms, and is broadcasting in 2000 and currently only a few hundred meters south of reaches Flagstaff, Winslow, Tuba Danson. City, and the I-40 corridor in addition to the Hopi Reservation. Its Hopi Cultural Center and programming features a mix of Restaurant, Second Mesa: The traditional Hopi music, Cultural Center and Restaurant are a contemporary Native music from main stop for visitors to Hopi. The Hopi and other tribes, as well as local restaurant offers traditional Hopi and regional news and some dishes and some of the 12 villages National Public Radio programming. operate gift shops in the adjoining Interestingly, “kuyi” in the Hopi complex that feature a variety of language means water, and water is Hopi and other tribal arts and crafts. considered the source of all life.
Hubbell Trading Post National Leupp Chapter: Leupp contains Historic Site, Ganado: John Lorenzo several interesting historic and
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modern-day places including a approximately 20,000) and features trading post, remnants of a WWII footraces, song and dance Japanese Internment Camp, Indian competitions, and a free barbeque. School, and the North Leupp Family Farms. The Farms are an effort of Natwani Coalition (Natwani approximately 40 families to restore Tu’sawyaqam), Kykotsmovi: An native crops and farming traditions affiliation of organizations and as a means of transmitted Navajo institutions dedicated to preserving culture to youth and to encourage a and restoring the local food system healthier diet and lifestyle. on Hopi.
Lyman Lake State Park: The lake Navajo Nation Archaeology itself was created by a Mormon dam Department, Flagstaff and Window on the Little Colorado River and Rock: The Navajo Nation served early Mormon settlements in Archaeology Department serves the the vicinity. The Mormons were not Navajo Nation in a number of ways. the first to recognize the quality of It provides survey, archaeological the area, however. Native Americans research services, and cultural lived there for many centuries before, consultation for public projects, such building several pueblos and carving as road construction, on the hundreds of petroglyphs into reservation, provides the same boulders surrounding what was then services for families working with the river banks. homesite leases, and also provides hands-on experience for young Museum of Northern Arizona Navajo archaeologists in training. (MNA), Flagstaff: Founded in 1928, The Department conducts its work in the museum has a long history of a manner that is scientifically promoting Native cultures and arts. respected but also consistent with Its three annual Native arts shows cultural values. (one each for Hopi, Navajo, and Zuni) draw visitors from around the Navajo Nation Fair, Window Rock: country and around the world. The The Navajo Nation Fair began in 1938 oldest, the Hopi Show, is celebrating for the encouragement of livestock its 75th year in 2008. The permanent improvements and management collection of MNA contains many through exhibits and demonstrations. Native art pieces. The museum also Seventy years later, the mission of the sponsors periodic cultural trips to the Fair is “to preserve and promote reservations where participants can pride in the Navajo heritage and learn from Native guides. culture for the benefit of the Navajo Nation.” It is a world-renowned Native American Appreciation Day, event that showcases Navajo Gallup: Started by trader Ellis agriculture, fine arts and crafts, and Tanner in recognition of the immense much more. It is the largest American impact Native Americans have on the Indian fair and rodeo. Gallup economy, the event is now sponsored by the City of Gallup and Navajo Nation Museum and Navajo a number of local organizations and Nation Zoo and Botanical Park, businesses in addition to Tanner’s. Window Rock: The Navajo Nation is The event draws 10,000 people on the only United States tribe to own average (Gallup’s total population is and operate its own zoo. Most of the
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animals of the zoo are native to the Life Run” in English. Organized in Navajo Reservation and the zoo 2003, the event now attracts over 200 reflects the importance these animals participants to run an approximately have in the culture. Adjacent to the 30-mile course up and down the Zoo and Botanical Park is the Navajo Hopi Mesas. In the Hopi perspective, Nation Museum, which has exhibits, trail running renews the earth by a book and gift shop, and programs keeping the pathways of water open about the Navajo people. and the villages alive. The focus of the run is to build community spirit Northern Arizona University and reinforce cultural values of water Anthropology Department, and running. The run is open to Flagstaff: The Department is Hopis and non-Hopis alike. recognized for its training of highly skilled and capable archaeologists as Petrified Forest National Park: The well as for its cooperative part contains significant pueblo, relationships with Native Americans, petroglyph, and other ancient sites particularly the Hopi and Navajo that indicate more than 10,000 years Tribes. of human history in addition to its impressive geologic and Northern Arizona University paleontologic resources. Student Powwow: Sponsored by the Native American United student Picture Canyon, Flagstaff: This organization, this powwow features tucked-away site on the east side of arts and crafts as well as Flagstaff has hundreds of performances. petroglyphs on the boulders that line the creek bed. Coconino County Nuvakwewtaqa (Chavez Pass) Supervisors and local citizens are Pueblo, Anderson Mesa: Located on exploring ways to officially protect Anderson Mesa southwest of the site. Winslow, Nuvakwewtaqa is a large site complex with three main pueblos Plateau Sciences Society, Gallup: and several smaller room blocks and This organization sponsors trips, other features. This Sinagua lectures, and additional programs residence was occupied from the that encourage a greater early 13th to the late 14th centuries understanding of past and present A.D., and is considered ancestral to Native cultures and of the Colorado the Hopi. Plateau as a whole.
Our Lady of Guadalupe Mission, Ramah Navajo Weavers Associaton, Zuni: Inside this 17th century church Pine Hill: Weavers belonging to the are two contemporary murals by Association use handspun and Zuni artist Alex Seowtewa featuring naturally dyed wool from locally the summer and winter pantheon of raised Churro sheep. The workshop, Zuni kachinas. It provides an located in a hogan, is open to visitors interesting and thought-provoking seasonally. mix of the religion of two cultures. Rock Art Ranch, Winslow: Rock Art Paatuwaqatsi Run, Polacca: Ranch is a privately owned working Translated from the Hopi, cattle ranch that includes a portion of Paatuwaqatsi Run means “Water Is Chevelon Canyon. The Canyon
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contains significant petroglyphs and Bailey Ruin, are well-preserved. the site is listed on the National These pueblos date largely to the late Register of Historic Places. 1200s and 1300s.
Rudd Creek Pueblo: Located within St. Michael’s Museum and Catholic the Sipe White Mountain Wildlife Church and School, St. Michael’s Area near Springerville and Eager, Chapter: Mother Katherine Drexel, Rudd Creek Pueblo is a 50-room founder of the Sisters of the Blessed ancestral Pueblo village that was Sacrament Order whose specific occupied during the early to mid- focus was to serve American Indians, 1200s. The visitor center offers an worked with Franciscan priests to exhibit based, in part, on Arizona establish a church and school in this State University’s excavations at the location. The school was completed site, which can be seen on the Rudd in 1902 and remains the only Catholic Creek Trail. Petroglyphs are common School in the Navajo Nation. The along rock outcrops in the area. museum is an excellent source for insight into early 20th century Navajo San Francisco Peaks: These life and culture. mountains feature prominently in the religious beliefs of 13 tribes, Sunset Crater Volcano National including the Navajo, Hopi, Zuni, Monument :People lived in the and White Mountain Apache. vicinity for several hundred years, at Pilgrimages are still made to various a minimum, before an eruption shrines on the mountains themselves caused the creation of Sunset Crater and culturally important plants are sometime between 1050 and 1100. collected for ceremonies. Pithouses have been found burned and filled with cinders, but thus far Sherwood Ranch Pueblo, there is no evidence of people dying Springerville: This ancestral from the eruption. One of the more Puebloan site, numbering at least 800 interesting archaeological artifacts rooms, is one of many along the Little discovered in the region are the Colorado River near its headwaters occasional rocks of lava that cooled in the White Mountains. against a corncob which left a distinctive impression on one side. Silver Creek area sites: The Silver People left the immediate area after Creek drainage, with its headwaters the eruption and likely settled nearby on the Mogollon Rim, contains at what are now Walnut Canyon and several important pueblos that have Wupatki National Monuments. been investigated beginning in the early 1900s by such well-known Trading Posts: At one time, more archaeologists as Leslie Spier, Jessie than 50 trading posts operated in Walter Fewkes, Emil Haury, and Native communities throughout the Barbara Mills. Many pueblos (such as Little Colorado River watershed. Fourmile, Shumway, and Pinedale Their economic and social impact on ruins) have been heavily impacted by the lives of Native families has left a construction or pothunting. Multiple lasting legacy. A number of trading individuals and institutions are posts, often operated by third and presently involved in efforts to fourth generation trading families, preserve remaining intact portions of remain today while others, such as these sites. Other pueblos, such as the Bidahochee Trading Post in
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Indian Wells Chapter, are currently probably made the land more being restored and converted into hospitable for farming than it modern cultural and arts education appears today due to the ability of centers. thin layers of ash to retain moisture in soil. Wupatki must have been a Tribal Cultural Preservation Offices wealthy and successful community (Navajo, Hopi, and Zuni): The tribal for many trade goods from great cultural preservation offices consult distances have been found. These on construction and other projects include shell jewelry and copper bells that may affect resources important from Mexico as well as more than 40 to their respective tribes, on or off the macaws from Mesoamerica. Wupatki reservations, and also serve as a also has what is generally considered resource for all types of cultural to be the northern-most ball court, a matters, research, education, and form of architecture typically promotion. associated with Mesoamerican cultures. Walnut Canyon National Monument: Evidence of people in Zuni McKinley County Fair, Zuni: A the canyon, at least on a temporary county fair with a Native American basis, dates back several thousand flare, this event, held at the Zuni Fair years. Permanent inhabitation dates Grounds, features several traditional from about 600 to 1400. The people, Native dance groups, Jr. Miss and usually considered to be Sinagua (an Miss Zuni Talent Night, and rodeos. ancestral Pueblo culture) had small- scale farms of corn, beans, and Zuni Area Pueblos: The ancestral squash. Zuni pueblos of Village of the Great Kivas and Hawikku are but two of Wupatki National Monument: The many significant archaeological sites Monument consists of several pueblo near present-day Zuni Pueblo. clusters with Wupatki, Wukoki, and Chaco-era Village of the Great Kivas Lomaki being three of the most is well known for its impressive prominent. The site was inhabited petroglyphs and pictographs. less than 800 years ago and is Hawikku is the larges of the historic considered by the Hopi to be one of “Cities of Cibola.” It was visited by the last places several of the clans Coronado’s expedition in A.D. 1540. lived before their migrations brought Both sites are listed on the State them to the Hopi Mesas. The Register of Cultural Properties and eruption of Sunset Crater Volcano the National Register of Historic before settlement at Wupatki began Places.
PRIMARY REFERENCES
Adams, E. Charles, and Andrew I. Duff (editors) 2004 The Protohistoric Pueblo World, A.D. 1275-1600. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
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Adler, Michael A. (editor) 1996 The Prehistoric Pueblo World, A.D. 1150-1350. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Bernardini, Wesley 2005 Hopi Oral Tradition the Archaeology of Identity. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Cordell, Linda S. 1994 Ancient Pueblo Peoples. St. Remy Press, Montreal, and Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
1997 Archaeology of the Southwest. 2nd ed. Academic Press, San Diego.
Duff, Andrew I. L. 2002 Western Pueblo Identities: Regional Interaction, Migration, and Transformation. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Huckell, Bruce B. 1996 The Southwestern Archaic: Scale and Perception of Preceramic Hunter- Gatherers. In Interpreting Southwestern Diversity: Underlying Principles and Overarching Patterns, edited by P. R. Fish and J. J. Reid, pp. 7-16. Anthropological Research Papers No. 48. Arizona State University, Tempe.
Mills, Barbara J., Sarah A. Herr, and Scott Van Keuren (editors) 1999 Living on the Edge of the Rim: Excavations and Analysis of the Silver Creek Archaeological Research Project 1993-1998. Archaeological Series No. 192(1). Arizona State Museum, University of Arizona, Tucson.
Noble, David Grant 1991 Ancient Ruins of the Southwest: An Archaeological Guide. Northland Publishing, Flagstaff, Arizona.
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Theme 6 Expressions of Art and Life
SUMMARY OF THEME are highly prized by museums, private collectors, and individuals. The American Southwest has long been noted for its association with Native From the late 19th to the late 20th American arts and crafts. For literally century, trading posts were the thousands of years, this region has primary locations where Native artists been home to cultures and tribal took their pieces and where non- groups who developed complex and Natives could purchase them. Trading sophisticated societies that posts also served a crucial role in the incorporated a broad range of religious household economies of most Native activities, governmental systems, families and were a centerpiece of any transportation and communication community. Traders served a key role networks, agricultural practices, in the community, keeping necessary architecture, science, astronomy, and supplies available during economically the technology required to lean times and often serving as liaisons manufacture, utilize, and trade a between the Native community and number of craft items that were outsiders. necessary adjuncts to daily life routines. For over 2,000 years, the vast Several Little Colorado communities Colorado Plateau has been home to the are graced with impressive murals that Basketmaker/Anasazi/Pueblo culture. honor the multi-layered history of their In late prehistoric times, this culture respective locations. Painted by Native became one of the most advanced and non-Native artists alike, their societies in all of North America, in subjects cover the full range of history, spite of the difficult terrain and geography, and cultural diversity. The unpredictable weather patterns. murals, some more than 50 years old and some completed just last year, are The quality and originality of the art vibrant and engaging testimonies to the produced reflects the sophistication of richness of the region. the culture in general. Navajo arts and crafts production is as impressive as that of Pueblo tribes. Both Navajo and DESCRIPTION OF THEME Pueblo cultures are known for pottery, jewelry, weaving, and basket making as Pueblo Arts well as other forms. The Native Southwest artistic style is recognized The ancient culture, variously known the world over. The style embodies key as the Anasazi, Hisatsinom, or elements of the cultures including Ancestral Pueblo, once ranged over the belief systems, the surrounding entire southern portion of the Colorado environment, and various cultural Plateau. The two most western practices. Native arts serve to connect branches, the Zuni and the Hopi, and reconnect the artist to the spiritual occupied the drainages of the Little and physical landscape, as well as Colorado River. One of their most primary sources of income. In the non- significant crafts centered around the Native world, Native Southwest arts tradition of ceramics. Pueblo pottery is
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perhaps the most distinctive, versatile, was successful in revitalizing pottery and long-lived craft found among any making among Hopi artisans. Her North American Indian group. children carried on the tradition, and now many of her grandchildren are Until the end of the 19th century, continuing the craft, still using local pottery was primarily a household supplies of clay and temper, craft. Since the beginning of the manufacturing the vessel by the coil ceramic tradition in the 1st century, technique, painting Sikyatki style millions of pots have been created for designs, and firing the pots in outdoor cooking, food storage, holding water, kilns utilizing sheep dung and locally serving foods, and for ritual uses. mined bituminous coal. Today, pottery Eventually the pots would be given is made in all the villages throughout away, traded, or worn out, broken, and the three mesas on the Hopi discarded. reservation, but painted, or decorated vessels are only produced on First By the middle of the 19th century, with Mesa. Pottery from Second and Third metal pots and pans, and later plastic Mesas are always plainwares with a and glass containers, readily available red slip. at the trading posts, pottery making quickly declined. Modern pottery is The Pueblo of Zuni witnessed a similar only occasionally utilitarian and, when decline of pottery production made for use within the Pueblos, it is throughout the 19th and early 20th mainly for ceremonial use. Irrespective centuries. After World War II, almost of its historical value, almost all every family in the Pueblo was engaged contemporary Pueblo pottery is valued in some facet of silversmithing, and purely on the basis of aesthetics and the only three or four families—and mostly reputation of the potter. It is produced the women of the families—continued by one culture largely for the to produce traditional pottery. In the appreciation of another culture that mid-1960’s, Zuni High School initiated buys and collects it. an art program that included pottery making. A granddaughter of Nampeyo, Generally speaking, Hopi pottery of the Daisy Hooee, who had married a Zuni, 19th century was coarsely made, with was hired to teach the course. She crude designs, and poorly fired. A made a point of teaching only the Zuni major change occurred in 1897 when J. style pottery and even took her Walter Fewkes, the distinguished students to various museums in the anthropologist of the Bureau of Southwest to view and study their Zuni American Ethnology, came to the Hopi pottery collections. By 1975, when villages and began to excavate the long- Jennie Laate took over the program, 78 abandoned ruin of Sikyatki. Here he students had gone through the classes. found quantities of beautiful and well- Currently, these former students, both executed pottery dating back some 400 men and women, and their children years. Among his Native workmen was form the nucleus of the community’s a man named Laysoo, whose wife, a pottery makers. Although most adhere Hopi-Tewa, became extremely to the traditional methods, several now interested in the old pieces and tend to utilize commercial clays, and determined to revive the old styles. fire the vessels in an electric kiln.
This woman, known to all students and In the 21st century, pottery is a vital collectors of Hopi pottery as Nampeyo, craft for both Hopi and Zuni.
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Production is not limited just to Eventually, the peoples of the Colorado women, as Lawrence Namoki (Hopi) Plateau developed a sturdy, drought- and Randy Nahohai (Zuni) can attest. resistant species of cotton that required In a number of cases, the younger only 85 frost-free days for maturity. craftspeople are not just producing the Known as Gossypium hopii, it soon traditional bowl and jar forms. Their became a fiber of choice among the sculptural pieces are adding a new, northern villages. By the 13th century, fresh dimension to both contemporary the ancestors of the Hopi, Zuni, and Hopi and Zuni ceramics. Acoma were growing and harvesting great quantities of this cotton. Another Pueblo craft that is rooted in Tradition indicates that while women antiquity is textile production. The assisted in de-seeding the bolls and technique of utilizing plant fibers by spinning the fibers into yarn, it was the interlacing two elements, the warp men of the village who did the actual (foundation) and weft (binder), weaving. The first Spaniards who came resulting in a basket, plaque, or even into the area were very impressed with sandals, can be traced back some 6,000 both the quality and quantity of Pueblo years to the Folsom culture. In fact, the blankets. Antonio de Espejo, who earliest phases of the Anasazi/Pueblo visited the Hopi village of Awatobi in culture has been referred to as 1582 recorded, “Hardly had we pitched “Basketmaker” because of the camp when about 1000 Indians came tremendous amount of baskets and laden with maize, ears of green corn, containers produced by these people pinole (corn meal), tamales, and 1,500 to 2,000 years ago. firewood, and they offered it all together with 600 widths of blankets, The people of the past were able to small and large, white and painted utilize a wide variety of plant and (colored) so that it was a pleasant sight animal fibers, including yucca, agave, to behold.” milkweed, hemp, sotol, bear grass, human hair, dog hair, and strips of In late historic times, it seems that the rabbit fur which were incorporated into Zuni stopped growing cotton and yarns made on a yucca-fiber core. The depended entirely on the Hopi for this more rigid fibers were used in making raw material. As Spanish-introduced baskets and sandals, while the more sheep and goats made wool and flexible strands, spun together to make mohair readily available, the use of a long yarn, were favored for weaving cotton yarn was reduced to the blankets or sashes. manufacture of traditional ritual garments. The last recorded harvest of A significant change occurred about cotton on the Hopi reservation 500 A.D. when cotton was introduced occurred in 1942. After World War II, into the region. A species of a long- commercially produced cotton yarns staple cotton, Gossypium hirsutum, became available, and today the few which needed almost 200 days to Hopi men who still produce woven maturity, was grown in large amounts textiles mostly utilize commercial by the Hohokam in the lower Salt and cotton yarns colored with commercial Gila river drainages. For several dyes. Most of their products are centuries, harvested raw cotton was shoulder blankets, kilts, and sashes traded to the northern Mogollon and worn in ceremonies and also traded to Anasazi/Pueblo peoples for their the Zuni, Acoma, and Laguna Pueblos weaving needs. for the same purposes.
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Besides the crafts discussed above, the and then using the surplus for trade. Hopi are also well known for their Navajo oral tradition states the carvings using the root of a knowledge of weaving was a gift cottonwood tree. Begun hundreds of taught by Spider Woman, one of the years ago as simple renditions of their Holy People. Spider Woman’s holy messengers (kachinas) they were husband, Spider Man, built the loom intended as teaching tools for the for her, using elements of the earth and children. By the middle of the last sky, lightning rods, and sun rays for its century, with the availability of construction. This symbolism shows modern carving tools, files, and knives, the great connection and reverence for these carvings became more life-like the natural world in Navajo weavings. and the masks and body paints of the Weaving is as much a spiritual practice figurines more detailed. These uniquely as it is a task necessary for the crafted carvings soon caught the production of needed items. attention of both visitors and collectors. Today, finely carved kachina figurines Nearly all Navajos were forced from are recognized as one of the most their homeland to live at Bosque artistic and sophisticated art forms Redondo in eastern New Mexico from produced by any Native American 1864 to 1868. The Treaty of Peace group. signed on June 1, 1868 established the first part of the current Navajo Reservation and during the last three Navajo Arts decades of the 1800s, the Navajo population and economy grew, as did The various Apache tribes, including their land holdings. By 1890, Navajos the Navajos, are descendants of an were selling over two million pounds Athabaskan migration that arrived, and of surplus wool to the various trading began to settle in the Southwest during posts, who in turn shipped the wool to the early years of the 15th century. By eastern markets. But it was what the the time the Spaniards arrived, a Navajos did with the wool and mohair northern branch of these Athabaskan- they kept that soon created a national Apaches had converted from the market. traditional hunting-gathering society to one heavily involved in agriculture. Up until this time, and even during the Their Tewa Pueblo neighbors referred forced exile at Bosque Redondo, to them as “Nabaju,” or People of the Navajo women took the wool they Great Planted Fields. sheared from their sheep, washed, carded, spun, and dyed it, and wove By the end of the 18th century, Navajos blankets and women’s dresses again re-structured their economy and incorporating plain stripe motifs. lifeways to compensate for the large Although well woven, the designs were flocks of sheep and goats that they had always simple, the colors limited, and acquired from the Spanish. the sizes fairly standard. In response to Consequently, they began a shift to the suggestions from the various traders, south and west of their original Navajo weavers soon began to enlarge homeland in a constant search for new their looms, tighten up the warp, pastures. It was during these times that experiment with both commercial and the Navajo women, using wool from natural dyes, produce a variety of their flocks, began to weave garments sizes, and adapt new designs, including and blankets, first for their own use borders.
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Since weaving was a year-round received in blacksmithing and activity, the sale and trade of textiles metalworking. Once they returned was a constant source of income for home, several continued practicing Navajo families and provided a what they learned and began to work consistent flow of product to the in silver rather than copper. One trading posts. A concerted effort by Navajo silversmith, Atsidi Chon (Ugly several traders, including Lorenzo Smith), after establishing himself as a Hubbell, Sam Day, Cozy McSparron, J. well-known craftsman, moved to Zuni B. Moore, and Mike Kirk, soon Pueblo in the mid-1870s. In exchange produced a national market for these for room and meals, he made jewelry textiles, which were promoted as rugs to sell and also taught several young rather than blankets. Literally tons of men the basic techniques of cast and Navajo rugs were shipped off the stamped items. It has been reported reservation to rail centers in Gallup, that he was the first silversmith, in Winslow, and Flagstaff and on to 1880, to set a piece of turquoise on a eastern and California markets. As time ring, and this wonderful combination went on, the personal preferences of of silver and turquoise has been a the traders, especially regarding hallmark of Southwestern Indian designs and color combinations, jewelry ever since. A decade later, one became strong influences on the local of Atsidi Chon’s sons repeated his weavers and soon resulted in the so- father’s tactics and moved in with a called area or regional rugs. Within the Hopi family on Second Mesa. Again, in Little Colorado region, some of the exchange for room and meals, he most widely recognized regional rugs created custom-ordered jewelry to sell are Ganado Red, Wide Ruins-Pine to the Hopis and also instructed several Springs, Burntwater, Storm-pattern, men in the art of silversmithing. Pictorial, and Gallup throw. More Generally speaking, for awhile, Navajo, recently, trader Bruce Burnham in Zuni and Hopi jewelry styles were Sanders has encouraged weavers in the indistinguishable from each other. Nahata Dziil Chapter (or New Lands) area to recreate the old traditional The Fred Harvey Company took note Germantown designs—Germantown, of the possibilities of selling Navajo Pennsylvania being a source of some of jewelry to non-Indians riding the the early commercial yarns used on the railroad or staying at any one of their Navajo Reservation. guest lodges. The idea proved to be an immediate success, and soon traders in Currently, Navajo weaving is still a Gallup, Winslow, and Flagstaff were vibrant craft and is both a source of responding by ordering large quantities pride as well as income for many of lighter-weight jewelry from the local families. One of the major changes in craftspeople and reselling the pieces to modern times has been the wide the Fred Harvey Company. By the mid- availability of commercially processed 1920s, this commercialization had wool yarns, making the time- produced an enormous awareness and consuming steps of shearing, washing, demand for Native jewelry, but also carding, spinning and dyeing much less had cheapened the product. The common. jewelry typically consisted of bracelets, rings, pins, bolo ties, earrings and One of the few positive aspects of the necklaces of light-weight silver years spent at Bosque Redondo may stamped with so-called Indian designs, have been the training some of the men and set with a few small turquoises.
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Both the Depression and World War II Trading Posts played havoc with the production and sale of Indian jewelry, although by the Both historically and in the present- early 1950s, the situation had turned day, large amounts of Native arts and around. Returning Navajo veterans, crafts can be found in the region’s finding jobs scarce, took up various trading posts. The history of silversmithing as a home-based Indian trading practices goes back to industry. A number of Hopi veterans, the itinerant Spanish-Mexican trader with financial support through the G.I. with his pack train who would wander Bill, formed the Hopi Silversmiths from pueblo to pueblo, or visit Guild and concentrated on producing a rancherias, clusters of Navajo hogans, distinctive style of overlay jewelry. scattered throughout the mountainous Zuni silversmiths, with newly headwaters of the San Juan River. A developed precision tools, emphasized few Mexican settlements such as cluster work, petit-point and inlay Cubero and Cebolleta also served as using a variety of semi-precious stones. trading centers, as did the larger pueblos at Jemez, Acoma, and Zuni. This renewal of jewelry making was During the early years of the American coupled with a post-war economic period, second generation Santa Fe or boom. After years of gas rationing, Taos traders began edging closer to the Americans were on the move like never Little Colorado region. Romulo before. Traffic on old Route 66 was Martinez moved back and forth along almost bumper to bumper, and these the eastern escarpment of the Chuska people were in a mood to stop at a Mountains. Juan Anaya, who in his roadside booth, or a store downtown, youth had been captured and raised by and buy—pottery, rugs, paintings, and the Navajos and spoke their language jewelry. fluently, began a trading post in the 1850s near “Pass Washington” (now Jewelry production is still a good Narbona Pass) on what is now New source of employment and income Mexico Route 134. among the Zuni, Hopi, and Navajo to this day. Changes and improvements in Most trading posts in the Little equipment and tools have made it Colorado region, however, developed easier to produce fine, and very after 1868 when the Navajo were expensive, items of jewelry. However, transferred from Bosque Redondo to the indiscriminate use of treated their own reservation. It was the turquoise, other stones of poor quality, military that stripped Navajos of their and the flooding of the market with self-sufficient household economics, look-alike pieces that are not produced but it was the trader that aided in that by Native Americans in more recent recovery and started many households times have negatively impacted the in a new direction. The four years at buying public’s trust and interest in Bosque Redondo, followed by ten years acquiring and wearing Native of rations distribution once the American jewelry. Much effort on the reservation was established, part of individual artists, artists’ accustomed Navajos to manufactured guilds, tribal agencies, and other American goods and basic foodstuffs. organizations has been put into public The trader provided these in exchange education campaigns to teach ways in for the Navajo products of wool, which to discern authentic pieces from blankets, jewelry, livestock, and other fakes. goods. Manufactured goods, of course,
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were also sought by other tribes and because what would happen would non-Natives living in the vicinity. be, the temptation would be just too great for the customer to just For the most part, Indian agents spend all their buying power in a appointed from Washington to six-week period, and then have supervise these newly-designated two, three months of no ability to reservations were in office too short a buy at all. And so a trader had a time to begin to understand the people grave responsibility of budgeting or to care about their problems. On the his customer… You knew always, other hand, traders had a real vested within ten dollars—I don’t know interest in the welfare of their how we did it—but a good trader customers. In this post-Civil War always knew within ten dollars of period, firearms were not usually a what every customer owed. And trading post commodity, nor was you knew that they would have whisky freely dipped from a hidden ten, twelve bags of wool, or you barrel as many Hollywood movies knew that they would have depict; the trader, wishing to stay alive, seventy-five or eighty head of placed too high a value on his life. lambs to sell. So you knew what Traders who moved in with an idea of their capacity was to pay their bill, making quick fortunes found no hard so you kind of gauged ‘em and money in circulation—many trading only would let ‘em spend so much posts issued tin tokens in exchange for every month, knowing that by the goods—and the Indians too clever to time wool season was here, or the trade long with anyone who cheated time lamb season was here, they them. would be pretty much at their limit…We knew within ten dollars Simple integrity, leavened with of how much a customer owed. We understanding, humor, personal knew within ten or fifteen dollars courage, and commitment were prime how much they would have in requisites for a successful trading assets to pay. So it was a funny venture. John Lorenzo Hubbell, system, but that was probably the founder of the trading post that is now gravest responsibility that a trader the Hubbell Trading Post National had. But it wasn’t something that Historic Site and one of the most was explained to him, it was just successful and respected traders of his something that you took for time, wrote in 1907 that, “…The first granted, and your customer took it responsibility of an Indian trader…is to for granted, and that’s just the look after the material welfare of his way it was. You didn’t do neighbors” (Blue 1986:17). Modern-day anything that would put a family trader Bruce Burnham elaborates in in a position of not being able to this way: eat. (Burnham 1998) I would say that the role of the trader in the community was In the early days, most traders had almost family-like, inasmuch as only a grammar school education but you had a responsibility to take they soon found themselves bilingual care of your customer. You had a and playing the roles of a doctor, responsibility of making sure they banker, advisor, peacemaker, and even ate year-round. A trader couldn’t mortician. They also found themselves just merchandise his wares, thrust into a position of being the
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bridge between their community and enough credit to assemble a wagonload the various government agencies. of pots and pans, staples like flour, coffee, and sugar, some bolts of cloth, They came from various backgrounds. and a variety of tools. At the same time Among the first in the Little Colorado they would initiate the difficult and region were a German named thorny process of obtaining a trader’s Hermann Wolf, who established a post license from the Indian Service, a in the 1870s near Canyon Diablo, and process dependent more on who you the legendary trader, Berrando, who knew, rather than what you knew. also about 1870 built “a kind of trading With license and inventory in hand, the post” at Horse Head Crossing—later would-be trader began to look for a known as Holbrook, Arizona—and put good location—easy for his Native up a sign at the door reading “If you customers, but not too close to his have money, you can eat. No got competition. In most cases, this money, eat anyway.” Some were resulted in locating near a spring or Mormons like Joseph Lehi Foutz and other source of water used by locals for his sons and sons-in-law who settled in their domestic and livestock needs. the Tuba City area along with Jacob Since they had to make periodic trips to Hamblin. Fellow Mormons David the water source, the trader could Udall and his sons established count on their business at the same themselves around St. Johns and Seth time. Historical records are replete “Shush” Tanner and his sons scattered with the names of traders who stayed in and around the Gallup area. A in the business less than a year, but a number were Civil War veterans, from number of them stuck it out and made both North and South, sick of war and a life-long vocation of it, like Dan crowding civilization: men like Anson DuBois at Rock Springs, Charles Damon and Samuel Day. Damon was a Cousins at Cornfields, Thomas Keam at son of Irish immigrants and a veteran Hopi, David and William Babbitt at of the California Column who had been Red Lake, Flagstaff, Willow Springs, stationed at Ft. Sumner during the last Cedar Ridge and Tuba City. By the two years of Navajo incarceration. He beginning of the 20th century, there married a Navajo woman and returned were nearly 50 active trading posts with them to their reservation in 1868 throughout the southern portion of the and set up a trading post in Ft. Navajo Reservation, the area embraced Defiance. Day served with an Ohio by the Little Colorado River and its Infantry Regiment during the Civil tributaries. Lorenzo Hubbell owned or War, then came West as a surveyor, managed about two dozen of these and eventually to the Navajo posts, including a retail business in Reservation where he and his sons Winslow. established several trading posts near St. Michaels and Chinle, Arizona. In Zuni, and the region to the north, Others were Englishmen, Irish, traders like C.G. Wallace, Charles Germans, or Czechs. A rare few were Kelsey, and the Vanderwagens were survivors of the old mountain-man responding to the request by Fred trade, their leathery skins bullet- Harvey to furnish his company with scarred and sun-cured. Indian-made jewelry. For more than four decades, almost every family in Many of these early traders had very Zuni had at least one active little collateral or financial backing but silversmith. The Navajos to the north would manage, somehow, to get also became highly involved in this
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lucrative jewelry manufacturing At the same time, communities on the business. various reservations became more cosmopolitan. Ramah, Zuni, Window This demand also led to the production Rock, Ft. Defiance, Ganado, Keams of imitation jewelry, and in an effort to Canyon, Polacca, Tuba City, and curtail this activity, a number of traders Pinyon were supporting grocery stores, banded together to form the United gas stations, restaurants, laundromats, Indian Traders Association (UITA) in churches, public schools, post offices, 1931. The initial function of this and a motel or two. In many cases, the organization was to fight for legislation old traditional trading post was closed that would insure authenticity of down, or converted into a convenience Indian arts and crafts. But then came store. the Depression, and World War II, followed by a period of dramatic Things came to a climax in 1972, with a transformations throughout Indian series of hearings carried out by the Country. With the demise of passenger Federal Trade Commission, responding trains, the need for Indian jewelry and to complaints over relationships souvenir crafts by the Fred Harvey between some traders and their Company likewise diminished. For customers and abuses of the pawn awhile, however, this was offset by system. For over a century, the practice increased automobile traffic on national of pawn was a central part of Navajo highways such as Route 66. household economics and, to a lesser degree, for the Apache, Hopi, and Indian craftspeople took advantage of Zuni. For the Navajo in particular, their this increased traffic by setting up little major source of income came in the late road-side booths and selling their spring and early summer with the sale jewelry, pottery, and rugs directly to of wool and lambs. For the rest of the the tourist. For the first time, Navajos, year, they had to rely on their ability to Zunis, and Hopis became produce and sell woven rugs and/or entrepreneurs, resulting in less and less pieces of silver and turquoise jewelry. dependence on the middleman—the In many situations, it was the practice trader. At the tribal level, guilds and of pawning individual property that co-ops were established to encourage provided the necessary funds for consistency in products, provide raw acquiring foodstuffs, clothing, and materials, and develop regional and supplies for immediate domestic needs. national markets. All these activities replaced the role the local trader had Because trade in Indian country existed played in the area of arts and crafts. on a system of barter and credit, the most successful traders were those who By the end of the 1960s, paved roads extended enough credit to keep their crisscrossed the Navajo and Hopi clientele through the lean months, but reservations, and almost all families not to the extent that they bankrupted had replaced their wagons with pick- themselves. Collateral for this credit ups. This made travel a lot easier and was usually jewelry, Pendleton trips to border towns, like Gallup, blankets, guns, or even saddles that Holbrook, Winslow, and Flagstaff, were deposited as pawn with the became routine for shopping purposes. trader. Government regulations This, too, further eroded the need to determined the amount of interest the rely on the local trader for foodstuffs trader could charge, and the length of and gasoline. time the trader had to keep the item
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(usually six months) after the last Bruce Burnham describes the future of principle/interest payment had been his profession in this way: made before he could consider the loan in default and take possession of the The future of Indian trading, I item (then considered “dead” pawn). think, is going to swing more and more in line with rug weaving and Most traders carried some families on arts and crafts. The traders are no their books indefinitely, and when a longer going to be general trading post changed hands or went merchandise Indian traders as out of business, it was often found that we’ve known ‘em, but they’re the owner was owed large sums of going to become specialized traders money in uncollected debts. In the vast of dealing in arts and crafts. The majority of cases, traders conducted trading posts, as a trading post, is their pawn business with utmost doomed, and we’re on the last legs honesty and integrity, and Native of it now… And we’re just one of families scrupulously made their many, many businesses in the interest and principle payments on United States that have made the time and redeemed the items in proper crossover into the computer age fashion. and not survived it. It was more pronounced for us, because we Unfortunately, within a system of went from seeing our customers barter and exchange such as this, there riding in a wagon to data was bound to be situations, on both processing, in forty years. That’s a sides, that would lead to controversy, tremendous change. It hasn’t been arguments, and accusations. As a result that long since I’ve seen Navajos of the FTC hearings and coming into the store in a wagon. recommendations, Congress enacted (Burnham 1998) new regulations regarding the procedures dealing with pawn. These However, a vestige of that era still stifling regulations were appealed by remains in Gallup, and to some extent, UITA, but to no avail. Within a year or along the Route 66-Interstate 40 so, pawn, which had been a constant corridor. Perhaps the store that most form of exchange between Navajos and retains the atmosphere of the old-time traders for over a century, ceased trading post is Ellis Tanner Trading almost altogether. Today, only a few Company. It includes a complete line of businesses in border towns continue to groceries, plus a meat counter (always deal in pawn, in spite of all the new fresh mutton), a cafeteria that serves restrictions and paper work. the best fry bread and lamb stew in town, a very active pawn department, By the end of the 20th century, the and a sizable selection of Indian arts classic trading post era was over. The and crafts for sale. In the spring there Hubbell trading post and home in are clerks who will assist their Indian Ganado had been purchased and customers in filing their income tax restored by the National Park Service forms. They pay good prices in the as a National Historic Site and UITA spring for wool, and for pinyon nuts in had been disbanded. Many other posts the fall. Another major operation in lie alone and abandoned, their stark, downtown Gallup is Richardson’s decaying walls mute testimony to one Trading Post. The business has been in of the most unique and fascinating the family since 1911, and the family stories of the life in the Southwest. patriarch, 86-year-old Bill Richardson,
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still works at least five days a week. Native American customs, dances, His business is centered around the traditional foods, rodeos, and other buying and selling of Indian crafts, games would expand public mainly jewelry, rugs, and paintings, appreciation of Native arts and crafts, but he does carry on a lively pawn and thus, increase the demand. business. Two other stores, Perry Null’s (formerly Tobe Turpen’s) At a Kiwanis Club meeting in the Trading Post and Bill Malone’s Shush spring of 1922, trader Mike Kirk Yaz Trading Post also deal in pawn, as proposed that the community well as buying and selling arts and undertake an annual tribute to Native crafts. Griswold’s Trading Post, just people from around the region. With east of Window Rock, conducts a the financial backing of the railroad similar business. and the Kiwanis Club, Gallup hosted a four-day gathering in the early fall of In the Sanders, Arizona area there are that year. Indian families arrived from also two traditional trading posts that, all directions in their horse-drawn although visitor/tourist oriented, do a wagons, bonfires attracted Indian and good business with their Navajo visitor alike, and automobile headlights customers. One is Indian Ruins Trading were used to illuminate the night Post owned by a second-generation dances. Over the years, the Inter-Tribal trader, Armand Ortega, and the other Indian Ceremonial became firmly is Burnham Trading Post, owned and rooted in Gallup’s calendar of activities operated by fourth-generation trader and was attended by thousands of Bruce Burnham. Southwestern Indians, tourists, craft dealers, and collectors from all over the country. Gallup: Home of the Inter-tribal Indian Ceremonial In 1952, the Gallup Ceremonial welcomed its most famous guest. In the 1920s Gallup was a dry, dusty Having just won the Republican town spread along the rail tracks of the nomination for president, Dwight D. Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Eisenhower accepted an invitation to Railroad. People and buildings alike attend that year’s event. He felt it was were constantly pounded by the most appropriate since that was the unrelenting winds, and covered with a first time Navajos could vote in both combination of dust and coal soot. national and state elections. Many streets in town were not yet paved. The town boasted almost 2,000 The mid-1970s saw a major change in residents, a railroad depot, several the Ceremonial. The old performance hotels and cafes, a number of saloons, grounds were incorporated into the and Kitchen’s Opera House. Both in right-of-way for the new Interstate 40 town and scattered throughout the and land was purchased about five vicinity were a number of trading posts miles east of Gallup, near Churchrock, that catered primarily to Navajos and for the new facility. In 1975, the Gallup Zunis. Thanks to businesses like the Ceremonial held its first event in the Fred Harvey Co., Navajo and Zuni, as new arena and grounds at Red Rock well as some Hopi, jewelry and other State Park. Today, the Gallup Inter- crafts were getting recognized by the Tribal Indian Ceremonial, the largest general public. Therefore, it seemed Indian related event in North America, likely that a broader exposure to is still a major attraction. Held during
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the second week in August, the event can also watch artisans, weavers, inlay consists of a colorful and exciting jewelers, fetish carvers, potters, and assortment of arts and crafts booths, painters demonstrate their crafts. The food booths, exhibit hall of juried art, Hopi show always takes place around craft demonstrators, fashion shows, the Fourth of July weekend, and cultural workshops, rodeos, song-and- features numerous artists and dance competitions, golf tournament, craftspeople from the twelve Hopi pow-wows, queen contest, parades, villages who continue to create and entertainment, long-distance runs, and innovate upon centuries-old arts and its famous Night Performances which crafts traditions. Up-close proudly depict traditional songs and demonstrations, dance groups, music, dances of almost two dozen tribal traditional foods, and insightful groups from the western United States, discussions about the Hopi values of Canada, and Mexico. humility, cooperation, respect, balance, and earth stewardship fill the Museum grounds throughout the weekend. The Native American Arts Shows Navajo show takes place in early and Auctions August and is augmented by cultural seminars and workshops on Navajo Throughout the Little Colorado River language and philosophy, traditional Valley, or nearby, a number of art songs and dances, a retrospective shows and/or auctions in addition to fashion show, presentations by the Ceremonial are conducted contemporary native filmmakers, annually. booths selling native foods, and craft demonstrations, including weavers The Hubbell Trading Post National working on upright looms. Historic Site in Ganado, Arizona sponsors two extraordinary Native These three shows have a fascinating American Art Auctions every year. history. In the 1920s, the new director Both auctions include contemporary of the Museum of Northern Arizona, and antique Navajo weavings, Pueblo Dr. Harold Colton, and his wife, Mary- kachina carvings, pottery, paintings, Russell Ferrell Colton, a recognized sculptures, and baskets from many artist in her own right, became very tribes. Sale of items usually ranges concerned over the deterioration of from $20 to $4,000. All contemporary traditional crafts among Southwest items are submitted for sale by the Indians. Their efforts to help remedy artisans themselves, some of whom this situation centered on their creation attend the auction and will pose for a of an exhibit and sale on the museum picture with their item and the winning grounds. This exhibit, specializing on bidder. In association with the auction the Hopi, and the subsequent ones are a number of booths selling a variety focusing on Navajo and Zuni, have a of native foods. four-fold objective: (1) to encourage the manufacture of objects of artistic and The Museum of Northern Arizona in commercial value which have fallen Flagstaff conducts three major Native into disuse and are becoming rare; (2) American Festivals of Art and Culture to stimulate better workmanship each year. The Zuni show is usually among all the people; (3) to encourage held at the end of May, and is a good the development of new forms of art of opportunity to experience traditional purely Indian design and the Zuni dances and flute playing. Visitors application of old arts to modern uses;
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and (4) to create a wider market for traditional dances, as well as a large Hopi (and Navajo and Zuni) goods of assortment of contemporary arts and the finest type. crafts. The Navajo Nation Fair in Window Rock and the fair held in Tuba In 1930, the Coltons established the City are truly spectacular cultural annual Hopi Craftsman Exhibit at the events. museum to provide a place for Hopi craft work to be shown and sold and to furnish an incentive for excellence in Ancient Way Arts Trail the work. At first they concentrated on pottery, basketry, and weaving, but by A recent development has been 1940 jewelry also became an item of undertaken to expand the old Trail of interest. The shows were discontinued the Ancients Byway into an Ancient during World War II, but started up Way Arts Trail. This trail will again in 1947. At that time, the Coltons incorporate Route 53 from Grants, New worked closely with Paul Saufkie, Fred Mexico, to Zuni Pueblo, and then north Kabotie, and 18 Hopi veterans who on Route 602 to Gallup, and then established the silversmithing training follow Route 491 to Newcomb. The classes under the G.I. Veterans’ goal of this designation is to better Program. This project not only market the artists and craftspeople who produced a number of fine Hopi live along the route and to enhance silversmiths, but was also instrumental regional economic development by in the development of an overlay providing additional advertising and technique that became distinctively exposure to trading posts, art galleries, Hopi. museums and other tourist-related facilities that can be found along the In 1949, the Coltons expanded their Trail. The corridor between El Morro efforts at promoting Indian crafts by National Monument and the small initiating a Navajo Crafts Show, and in community of Ramah is active year- 1986 the museum added an exhibit and round with some type of art-related sale of Zuni crafts and jewelry. event. To the south, the Navajo families around Pine Hill, have formed the The Museum of Northern Arizona also Ramah Navajo Weavers Guild. The sponsors a “Celebraciones de la association utilizes a traditional 8-sided Gente,” or Celebration of the Day of the hogan as their office, meeting place, Dead (Dia de los Muertos). This is an and sales room. These weavers ancient Mesoamerican holiday held maintain their own standards for throughout Mexico, Latin America, and beautiful rugs and pillows. All in the Hispanic American Southwest. products are woven with locally This festival offers the visitor an insight grown, handspun, naturally dyed, to traditional rituals, songs, foods, and Churro wool. Members are available a wide assortment of Hispanic crafts for craft demonstrations and/or and art. lectures on the history of Navajo weaving. The Navajo Nation conducts a series of fairs throughout the fall at several Zuni Pueblo includes an Arts & Crafts locations. Each of these fairs include Enterprise, a Visitor Center, the rodeos, carnivals, queen contests, 4-H A:shiwi A:wan Museum and Heritage and livestock exhibits, pow-wows, a Center, the Zuni Craftsman’s parade, evening programs and Cooperative, and several privately
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owned and operated galleries and Silvercraft Guild. Cecil Calnimptewa a studios. Tours can be arranged to visit well-known kachina carver also artists at their workrooms in the homes operates a gallery on the outskirts of and to the old Spanish mission church Old Oraibi, near the Monongye which has beautiful murals of Zuni Gallery. kachinas. An annual Zuni Arts Expo is always held on the same weekend as Since 2000, the Hopi Putavi Project has the Inter-Tribal Indian Ceremonial in sponsored Tuhisma, the Hopi Indian Gallup and the annual Zuni Tribal Fair Arts & Crafts Market Show. It is held follows shortly thereafter. Two active every Columbus Day weekend on trading posts, Turquoise Village and Second Mesa and consists of a number Silver Rain Jewelry, provide a wide of Hopi craft vendors, social dances, assortment of Zuni jewelry, fetishes, and native food booths. Another paintings, and pottery. annual show and sale of crafts takes place on a Saturday in July during On Route 602, Joe Milo’s (Joe Suvoyuki Day at Homol’ovi Ruins Milosevich) Whitewater Trading Co. is State Park. Dances, art demonstrations, an active, modern trading post and food booths are all part of this representing a legacy of the working event and a larger arts and crafts sale relationships between a trader and his occurs the following day in the village Navajo and Zuni customers. of Sipaulovi. Furthermore, on most Saturdays during the summer, the Park In Gallup, a new facility, the Gallup hosts a series of cultural programs and Performing Arts Center (GPAC), plays lectures on Hopi culture. host to a number of cultural activities, including dance and music classes and recitals, monthly art shows featuring Economic Impact of Native Arts local artists, bluegrass sessions, teacher workshops and private musical Native American arts are a key factor instrument lessons. Generally, GPAC in the continuing development of broadens the base of understanding, tourism, especially heritage tourism. appreciation and support for the Tourism has been and is a significant performing and visual arts through contribution to the economic prosperity meaningful educational initiatives and of both New Mexico and Arizona. The community partnerships. estimated overall economic impact of the arts and crafts produced and sold in McKinley County alone amounts to Hopi Festivals approximately 20 percent of the total economy for the county. A fairly The Hopi villages also offer a variety of representative sample of statistics can outstanding crafts including plainware also be seen in data provided by and decorated pottery, overlay jewelry, McKinley County for 2003. The first ceremonial textiles, and kachina quarter of Arts & Crafts Cluster wages figurines. They are the only Puebloans for McKinley County was $4,524,910 who still produce baskets in fairly large out of a total amounting to $29,516,517. numbers and in a variety of techniques This equates to 15.3 percent of all (plaited, coil, and wicker). The Hopi wages for that quarter in the county Cultural Museum and craft shop on that were directly associated with the Second Mesa maintains an expansive Arts & Crafts Cluster. For the same inventory, as does the nearby Hopi quarter, the data show that 3,493 jobs
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were linked to the Arts & Crafts during, and after World War II. In Cluster out of a total of 14,015. This 2005-06, Sargent completed two more computes to almost one-quarter of all murals on the front of the Gallup- the jobs in the county being related to McKinley County Adult Detention the business of supplying the raw Center. The “Work of Mind” is on the materials, producing, buying, or selling left side of the main entrance and is Native American arts and crafts. balanced by the “Work of Heart” mural on the right. At the same time, the The simple acts of buying and selling county sponsored a contest for a mural are one facet of the economics related design that would enhance the new to arts production. Engaging people in addition of the County Administration the experience of arts and crafts Building. The winner was Navajo artist production adds another layer. More Jerry Brown who conceived, produced, and more, people are seeking and installed a 20-ft by 25-ft mural educational, authentic experiences and using hundreds of ceramic tiles to one-on-one interactions when they create a mosaic depicting an idealized travel—and research shows they are rural landscape of McKinley County. willing to pay for the privilege. Artists who are willing and able to host guests Perhaps the grandest, and most can provide the unique experience and expensive, mural project began in 2005. opportunity to learn about a culture Known as the Downtown Mural that many travelers are seeking. Project, it consisted of eight buildings with unobstructed walls, eight subjects, and eight artists. Over the next two Mural Art Reflects Life in Little years the following artists all Colorado Communities completed their assigned projects: Irving Bahe, “Ceremonial;” Andrew For decades, Gallup has been graced Butler, “The Coal Mining Era;” Geddy with murals, both indoors and on the Epaloose, “The Zuni Mural;” Chester walls of buildings throughout the Kahn, “Native American Trading;” downtown area. Remnants of a Paul Newman, “The Great Gallup painting of a 1920s-style tour bus on a Mural;” Leon “Ric” Sarracino, “Gallup south First Street building is perhaps Community Life;” Erica Rae Sykes, the oldest public mural in town. In the “Multi-Cultural Women’s Mural;” and 1980s and early 1990s, several murals Richard K. Yazzie, “The (Navajo) Long were commissioned by the Main Street, Walk Home.” In 2007, two additional U.S.A. Program. These included Elmer murals were completed. One is a Yazzie’s rendition of Pyramid Rock – tribute to all the veterans from Church Rock scene, “The Rainmaker” McKinley County, and the other, by Ric by Ken Van Brott, and “Historical Sarracino is entitled “Gallup Buildings” by Mike Wallace. In 2001, Hispanics.” Be Sargent was commissioned to paint what is now the largest (18 ft by 60 ft) Gallup is renowned for its indoor outdoor public mural in the downtown murals as well. The two most famous area. The mural honors the famous murals were done under the auspices Navajo Code Talkers, a group of World of the Works Progress Administration War II Marines who used their native (WPA). Both are inside the McKinley language as a code in many Pacific County Courthouse, which was also battles. The mural depicts these Navajo built with WPA funds. On the ground warriors in cultural scenes before, floor is a 60 square-foot mural entitled
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“Zuni Pottery Woman” done by Anna and a research library, and has Keener Wilton. On the second floor, in developed an outreach program the main courtroom, all four walls are available to schools. covered with a mural by Lloyd Moyan entitled “History of New Mexico.” This Tanner, a fourth-generation Indian 2,000 square-foot mural is the largest trader, sees this Circle of Light Mural WPA painting in the state of New project as a means to pay honor to the Mexico. Both murals were executed in people with whom he has worked for 1940. most of his life. This unique set of murals is a visual rendering of Navajo Without doubt, the most ambitious history and culture, and can be as undertaking, at least from the private popular with tourists and visitors as it sector, has been Ellis Tanner’s “Circle is with his Navajo customers. of Light.” In 1994, Tanner commissioned Navajo artist Chester In Window Rock, the Navajo and Kahn to paint murals of prominent Bureau of Indian Affairs buildings that Navajos on the walls of his business, were to comprise the new Navajo Ellis Tanner Trading Company, for the Tribal administrative center were built purpose of inspiring Navajo youth. The between 1933 and 1935. The Navajo seven-year project resulted in 58 Tribal Council Chamber was individual panels honoring prominent constructed of sandstone blocks, in an Navajo people of the 20th century. From 8-sided configuration, resembling a nationally recognized traditional and traditional Hogan. The interior walls contemporary artists, musicians, sports are covered with a mural that depicts figures, published scholars, journalists, the history of the Navajo people. Using physicians, educators, entrepreneurs, WPA funds, Indian Commissioner John tribal government and community Collier hired Gerald Nailor and his leaders, to lawyers, scientists, and assistant Hoke Dinetsosie to use the veterans, these individuals exemplify fresco technique for painting the mural. the tenacity and commitment of the Over the years the mural has been Navajo to succeed in their chosen fields subjected to abuse and leaky ceilings, while still maintaining a strong sense of but at present, has been restored and is cultural affiliation and pride. Three properly attended to, in recognition of additional murals, the “Return from Ft. its true historical value. Sumner,” “Honoring the Veterans,” and “The Working People” represent In Zuni, unusual and fascinating significant events and accomplishments murals appear on two interior walls of of the Navajo people as a nation. Our Lady of Guadalupe Mission. Built in 1629 and restored after the Pueblo Once the murals were finished, Tanner Revolt of 1680, the church gradually expanded the project in several fell into disuse in the latter part of the directions to continue the idea of 19th century. In 1966, that the Catholic inspiring Navajo youth. He established Church, Pueblo of Zuni, and the a non-profit organization, the Circle of National Park Service cooperated in a Light Navajo Educational Project project to restore the church. The effort (CLNEP), whose objective is to foster a was completed in 1970 and the mission strong sense of cultural pride and self- was formally rededicated on May 29, worth in Navajo youth. Today, the 1972. It was then that the noted Zuni project has a full-time staff, gives tours artist Alex Seowtewa approached Fr. of the murals, has created publications Niles Kraft with the idea of painting
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representations of traditional kachinas Second Street (Route 66) and Kinsley on the walls of the restored mission. Avenue is now the most famous spot in Permission was granted and Seowtewa Winslow. There is a life-size bronze laid out his plans for the two murals. statue of a young man holding a guitar On the north wall, the main subject and a two-story mural depicting the would be the Shalako who would be story behind the famous song. On the associated with all the other Holy last weekend in September, the People that are active and present in townspeople turn out for the annual the winter dances and ceremonies. On Standin’ On The Corner Festival. This the south wall, he planned to paint two-day street party features a variety renditions of all the kachinas that dance of live music and numerous arts and in the summer months when villagers crafts booths (mostly Navajo and seek rain and bountiful crops. Hopi). In conjunction with the festival Seowtewa’s son Kenneth finished the is the annual show and sale of the High murals three decades later and the Desert Piece-makers Quilt Guild. This paintings have received both national unique show features the products of and international recognition. Mass is more than 20 Winslow artists. The no longer celebrated in the mission, but Guild has their own workshop, a guided tours are available from the converted home, where the members Zuni Tourism Office. can share the work space, tools, and sewing machines. Quilting is a Painting murals inside religious quintessential American art tradition, buildings is nothing new to Pueblo reflecting the creativity and artists. Kivas—traditional, semi- resourcefulness of the quilter. Quilts underground, Pueblo sacred structures from the High Desert Piece-makers used by men—were also sometimes reflect Southwest and Native- painted with murals that represented influenced designs as well as more clan and other sacred ceremonies, common quilt patterns. Another deities, or other important subjects and activity tied into the festival is the Just events. Cruzin’ Car Show. This event is a showcase for antique and restored Both Winslow and Holbrook boast vintage autos that come from around many downtown murals. Large and the nation. It features a large array of small, they depict different aspects of automobiles of all styles and sizes. life in the two frontier towns including the railroad, shootouts, Native Holbrook, in addition to its murals, has American trading, cattle grazing, the its impressive courthouse. In 1895, Pony Express, Route 66, and the Navajo County was created from mythical jackalope. A look at these western Apache County, and Holbrook murals is a look back in time. was designated the county seat. The imposing courthouse was completed in One of Winslow’s murals, however, 1898, and served in that capacity until has a more modern reference. In the 1976. Today, the courthouse is home to The mural and bronze sculpture early 1970’s, a song written by Glenn a fascinating museum. Visitors step that comprise “Standin’ on the Frey and Jackson Browne, Take It Easy, back in time and learn about the area’s Corner Park” on Route 66 in Winslow are already a focal became the first hit song by The Eagles. wild history. A walk through the old point of the community. The The verse, “Standin’ on a corner in jail, with walls covered in prisoners’ Route 66 Performance Plaza Winslow, Arizona” peaked people’s artwork, is especially interesting. being built adjacent to the park will add additional interest and interest in this small town on Route 66. During the summer months, Native life to the downtown. The corner, at the intersection of American dances are held in the
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courtyard on weekday evenings. Many RELATED RESOURCES LIST special events also center around the courthouse, such as Old West Days in 1st Friday Art Walk, Flagstaff: A August which features arts and crafts popular event in Flagstaff for years, booths in addition to other kinds of the many downtown art shops and entertainment. galleries stay open late, host artist receptions, and otherwise celebrate the arts once a month. The vast DISTINCTIVENESS OF THEME majority of the businesses feature Native arts or arts by non-Native Native Southwest arts and crafts are locals. among the most recognizable artistic styles in the world. Navajos, Hopis, Ancient Way Art Trail, New Mexico: and Zunis share in this rich tradition, A designated route that takes developed over thousands of years, travelers through Navajo, Zuni, and and yet exhibit techniques and other artistic points of interest in specialized forms and patterns that western New Mexico. distinguish their art from other Southwest cultures. Native art, Bitahochee Trading Post, Indian whether of traditional or contemporary Wells: A trading post in the past, a design, continues to enjoy popularity new non-profit hopes to make the with collectors and individual historic site a center for Navajo arts enthusiasts worldwide. Arts and crafts and cultural education in the future. production is one of the mainstays of Native economies and one way culture Burnham Trading Post, Sanders: and customs are transmitted from one Operated by fourth-generation trader generation to the next. Trading posts, Bruce Burnham and his wife, who one of the iconic images of the also comes from a long line of American Southwest, were in reality as traders, Burnham’s is one of the few influential in the shaping of the remaining posts that still trades in Southwest in the late 19th and 20th the traditional way. Part convenient centuries as was the railroad or other store, part trading post with pawn, industries. As places where diverse and part Navajo arts gallery, the post cultures met, staple goods were is a source for wool dyed by hand obtained, and the business of daily life using vegetal dyes, rugs woven in the was conducted, their role in their New Lands style, and other exquisite respective communities was significant Navajo arts. and long-lasting, sometimes to this day. Numerous murals in Little Colorado Cameron Overlook Market, communities depict the impact of Cameron Chapter: Roadside vending Native arts, trading, and other of arts and crafts has been a common significant aspects of life in the practice among many Native artists. Southwest. While the mural art form Highway 64, leading from Cameron itself is not exclusive to the Little to the South Rim of the Grand Colorado River Valley, the distinctive Canyon, has been one of the most subject matter of the paintings is. The popular locations. Arizona subject matter reflects both major Department of Transportation milestones or aspects of local history concerns over the safety of cars and culture and major national events exiting and entering the highway and their impact on the local region. from vending stalls led to the idea of
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a single site developed specifically community dances, poetry groups, for venders and also incorporating and more. traditional Navajo structures, a cultural area, and information Flagstaff Friends of Traditional signage. The site, now under Music and Pickin’ in the Pines development, overlooks the Bluegrass and Acoustic Music incredible Little Colorado River Festival, Flagstaff: Begun in the Gorge and affords views of the 1980s, this organization has been Painted Desert to the east. promoting acoustic music and traditional dancing through public Cameron Trading Post, Cameron concerts and collaboration with other Chapter: First established in 1916, it organizations. With the opening of has served Grand Canyon and Native the Pine Mountain Amphitheatre, American Indian Country visitors for FFOTM began Pickin’ in the Pines more than 90 years. Gardens and an Bluegrass and Acoustic Music old suspension bridge over the Little Festival in 2006. It is quickly Colorado River delight guests. becoming a major event in the world of acoustic music and in 2008, the Circle of Light Murals, Gallup: festival will feature the Grammy Inside the Ellis Tanner Trading Award-winning Del McCoury Band Company, the 58 portraits of among others. prominent Navajos and three historical panels serve as an Gallup Performing Arts Center, illustrated history of Navajo Gallup: The GPAC provides accomplishments and source of performance space, summer art inspiration for Navajo youth and camps, gallery space, and artistic non-Natives alike. instruction of all types.
Coconino Center for the Arts, Hubbell Building, Winslow: A Flagstaff: The Center has a 4,000 sq. trading post for decades, the Hubbell ft. gallery and 200-seat theatre and Building is currently being renovated hosts temporary exhibits and other as the Winslow Welcome Center. arts programming year-round. Distinctive Navajo rug patterns are Annual exhibits and programs focus painted on the outside walls. The on children’s art, contemporary building will continue to display Native art, and recycled art. Most of Native American arts and museum- the exhibits feature local artists or quality exhibits. local subjects. Hubbell Trading Post National El Morro Area Arts Council and Old Historic Site, Ganado Chapter: John School Gallery, Ramah: Located in Lorenzo Hubbell began trading at an old schoolhouse, the El Morro this site in 1878. He and his Area Arts Council promotes the descendents operated the post until it significant talents of regional artists was sold to the National Park Service who work in a variety of media in 1967. The Hubbell family were including glass, ceramics, paint, successful and well-respected metal, and more. Extensive traders, owning or operating up to programming includes art two dozen other trading posts workshops for adults and children, throughout the region. The Hubbell theatrical and musical productions, Trading Post is still an active trading
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post, hosts two auctions of Native and regional news and some American arts every years, is in the National Public Radio programming. process of restoring gardens that would have been present during J. L. La Posada Hotel, Winslow: The Hubbell’s time, and allows visitors to architectural masterpiece of Mary tour the Hubbell home. Colter, the former ATSF station and resort hotel is once again a Indian Dances, Gallup and functioning and popular restaurant, Holbrook: Both communities hold hotel, and meeting place for locals regular, evening Indian dances in and visitors alike. The hotel also front of their respective courthouses features many works by artist Tina during the summer months. It is a Mion, who was one of five artists good opportunity for residents and exhibited as part of the Portraiture visitors alike to experience Native Now: Framing Memory exhibit at the dances without imposing on a Smithsonian National Portrait religious ceremony. Gallery from 2007-08.
Inscription Rock Trading Post, Rte. Museum of Northern Arizona 53 near Ramah: A modern-day (MNA), Flagstaff: The permanent “trading post,” Inscription Rock collection of MNA consists of Native features the work of artists from and non-Native arts from the nearby Zuni and Navajo as well as Colorado Plateau region. The from around the world. museum also hosts four major annual art shows and sales featuring Hopi, Inter-Tribal Indian Ceremonial, Navajo, Zuni, and Hispanic art as Gallup: Since 1922, this event has well as the Trappings of the American grown to be one of the premier West annual exhibit that features arts gatherings and celebrations for and crafts related to the ranching Native Americans in the United lifestyle. MNA also has an artists in States. This annual four- to five-day residence program and many arts event, the Inter-Tribal Ceremonial education programs for children and includes a juried art show, traditional adults alike. dances, and traditional song performances, in addition to other Music from Greer, Greer: Classical events. Featured artists and music finds a home in the White performers come from surrounding Mountains. Special summer concerts, tribes and from Native communities including a free children’s concert, across the United States, Canada, and give residents and visitors alike the Central America. opportunity to enjoy a type of performance usually found in urban KUYI Hopi Radio: KUYI, Hopi settings. owned and operated, began broadcasting in 2000 and currently Native American Festival, Pinetop- reaches Flagstaff, Winslow, Tuba Lakeside: This festival will celebrate City, and the Interstate 40 corridor in its 21st year in 2008. It is a two-day addition to the Hopi Reservation. Its juried art show that exhibits the work programming features a mix of of approximately 80 Native artists. traditional Hopi music, All work must be handmade and all contemporary Native music from artists must be present during the Hopi and other tribes, as well as local show.
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Northern Arizona Book Festival, celebration of the town, its culinary Flagstaff: Founded in 1998, the legacy, and the creativity of local annual festival features appearances bakers. Many pies entered into the by local and nationally-renowned contest contain distinctly Southwest writers including Toni Morison, ingredients such as pinyon nuts. Russell Banks, and others. Events include Native poetry readings, Quilt Shows, Bacavi, Holbrook, writing workshops, signings, and Pinetop-Lakeside, Winslow: The more. distinctly American art form of quilting reflects the surroundings, Octavia Fellin Public Library, cultural influence, and creativity of Gallup: Librarian Octavia Fellin individual quilters. Native and amassed a 10,000+ collection of Southwest-inspired designs can be Southwest books of significant found at these shows along with the quality over a period of 40 years and more traditional. the collecting continues today. In addition to the Southwest Collection Ramah Navajo Weavers Association of books, the library holds 30 pieces and New Mexico Fiber Arts Trail, of art from the Works Progress Pine Hill: Weavers belonging to the Administration, some of which are Association use handspun and on display, and approximately 130 naturally dyed wool from locally pieces from local artists. raised Churro sheep. The workshop, located in a hogan, is open to visitors Our Lady of Guadalupe Mission, seasonally. The Association is on the Zuni: The church itself is a classic New Mexico Fiber Arts Trail which example of 17th century Spanish features 71 sites across the state mission architecture and inside are where fiber arts are practiced with two contemporary murals by Zuni richness and vibrancy. artist Alex Seowtewa and his son Kenneth. These murals feature the Sacred Heart Cathedral, Gallup and summer and winter pantheon of Zuni Church of the Good Shepherd, Ft. kachinas. Defiance Chapter: Both were designed by John Gaw Meem. Meem Painted Desert Inn (Fred Kabotie is recognized as a leader in the murals), Petrified Forest National Pueblo Revival style of architecture Park: Fred Kabotie became an and designed many buildings in accomplished artist of several forms: Santa Fe, at the University of New painting, silversmithing, and Mexico in Albuquerque, and won illustrating. He was known for recognition at an international rendering traditional Hopi themes in competition for his design of the modern media. Three of his murals Colorado Springs Fine Arts Center in can be found inside the Painted Colorado. Desert Inn. Snowdrift Art Space, Winslow: Pie Town Pie Festival, Pie Town: Pie Located in the historic Babbitt Town, New Mexico got its name Brother Department Store (built in from the reputation of a WWI 1914), Snowdrift is a studio, gallery, veteran who started baking pies as a and living space that features the business venture in the 1920s. The sculptures of its owner as well as the modern-day Pie Festival is a work of other regional artists.
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Storyteller Museum and Wisdom for their in-depth cultural detail and Keeper Bookstore at Gallup sensitivity. Cultural Center, Gallup Tuhimsa, Second Mesa: Held in Tony Hillerman novels: Tony October along with the Bacavi Quilt Hillerman has written 18 mystery Show, the arts and crafts show novels as well as other fiction and features Hopi artists skilled in a non-fiction books pertaining to variety of forms and media. Navajo culture, the culture of other Natives and non-Natives living in the Zuni Cultural Arts Expo, Zuni: Since Southwest, and the landscape. He has 1993, the Expo has showcased high won two awards from the American quality and authentic arts from Mystery Writers of America: a 1974 award-winning Native artists. The Best Novel award and a 1991 Grand Expo also features Zuni social Master award. His works are noted dances.
PRIMARY REFERENCES
Adair, John 1944 The Navajo and Pueblo Silversmiths. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.
Allen, Laura Graves 1984 Contemporary Hopi Pottery. Museum of Northern Arizona, Flagstaff.
Babbitt, James E. 1984 Trading Posts Along the Little Colorado River. Plateau (57)3:2-10.
Bahti, Mark 1975 A Consumers Guide to Southwestern Indian Arts & Crafts. Bahti Indian Arts, Tucson.
1999 Spirit in the Stone. Treasure Chest Books, Tucson.
Bahti, Tom, and Mark Bahti 1997 Southwestern Indian Arts & Crafts. K. C. Publications, Las Vegas.
Bassman, Theda 1993 The Beauty of Hopi Jewelry. Kiva Publishing Co., Santa Fe.
1996 Treasures of the Zuni. Northland Publishing Co., Flagstaff, Arizona.
1997a The Beauty of Navajo Jewelry. Kiva Publishing Co., Santa Fe.
1997b Treasures of the Hopi. Northland Publishing Co., Flagstaff, Arizona.
1998 Treasures of the Navajo. Northland Publishing Co., Flagstaff, Arizona.
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Bassman, Theda, and Michael Bassman 1998 Zuni Jewelry. Schiffer Publishing Ltd., Atglen, Pennsylvania.
Blue, Martha 2000 Indian Trader: The Life & Times of J. L. Hubbell. Kiva Publishing, Inc., Walnut, California.
Burnham, Bruce 1998 Bruce Burnham Interview. Colorado Plateau Digital Archives, Cline Library, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona.
Cousins, Jean, and Bill Cousins 1986 A View from the Bullpen: A Navajo Ken of Traders and Trading Posts. Plateau 57(3):10-19.
1996 Tales from Wide Ruins. Texas Tech University Press, Lubbock.
Dittert, Alfred, and Fred Plog 1980 Generations in Clay. Northland Publishing Co., Flagstaff, Arizona.
Eddington, Patrick, and Susan Makov 1995 Trading Post Guidebook. Northland Publishing Co., Flagstaff, Arizona.
Getzwiller, Steve 1984 The Fine Art of Navajo Weaving. Ray Manley Publications, Tucson.
Gillmor, Frances, and Louisa Wade Wetherill 1953 Traders to the Navajos: The Story of the Wetherills of Kayenta. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Graves, Laura 1998 Thomas Varker Keam: Indian Trader. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.
Hall, Edward T. 1994 West of the Thirties. Anchor Books Doubleday, New York.
Hayes, Allen, and John Blom 1996 Southwestern Pottery: Anasazi to Zuni. Northland Publishing Co., Flagstaff, Arizona.
Hegemann, Elizabeth Compton 1963 Navaho Trading Days. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Jacka, Lois E., and Jerry Jacka 1994 Navajo Jewelry: A Legacy of Silver and Stone. Northland Publishing Co., Flagstaff, Arizona.
1997 Art of the Hopi. Northland Publishing Co., Flagstaff, Arizona.
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James, Harold 1988 Rugs and Posts. Schiffer Publishing, Ltd., Atglen, Pennsylvania.
Kaufman, Alice, and Christopher Selser 1985 The Navajo Weaving Tradition. E. P. Dutton Co., New York.
McNitt, Frank 1962 The Indian Traders. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.
Newcomb, Charles 1968 The Smoke Hole. The Naylor Company, San Antonio.
Ostler, James, Marian Rodee, and Milford Nahohai 1995 Zuni: A Village of Silversmiths. Zuni A:Shiwi Publishing Co., Albuquerque.
Pendleton, Mary 1974 Navajo and Hopi Weaving Techniques. Macmillan Publishing Co., New York.
Powers, Willow Roberts 2001 Navajo Trading: The End of an Era. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Richardson, Gladwell 1986 Navajo Trader. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Rodee, Marian 1996 One Hundred Years of Navajo Rugs. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Rodee, Marian, and James Ostler 1986 Zuni Pottery. Schiffer Publishing, Ltd., Atglen, Pennsylvania.
Wagner, Sallie 1999 Wide Ruins: Memories from a Navajo Trading Post. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Weigle, Marta, and Barbara Babcock 1997 The Great Southwest of the Fred Harvey Co. & Santa Fe Railway. The Heard Museum, Phoenix.
Wright, Barton 1977 Hopi Kachinas. Northland Publishing Co., Flagstaff, Arizona.
Wright, Margaret Hopi Silver. Northland Publishing Co., Flagstaff, Arizona.
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Theme 7 Outdoor Recreation
SUMMARY OF THEME and conservation programs would help sustain these valuable landscapes so The spectacular natural and scenic they may be enjoyed by future resources within the proposed Little generations of outdoor recreationists. Colorado River Valley National Heritage Area provide the context for a wide range of outstanding outdoor DESCRIPTION OF THEME recreation opportunities. The diverse topography, vegetation, and climate of The prevalence of public land within the area play a vital role in shaping the the Little Colorado River Valley outdoor leisure pursuits enjoyed by provides easy access to an abundant regional, national, and international array of outstanding natural, scenic, visitors. The breathtaking beauty of the and cultural resources. Three national towering peaks, picturesque canyons, forests offer opportunities for hunting, and wide open spaces express dramatic fishing, camping, backpacking, topographic variability. A variety of climbing, horseback riding, and off plant communities populate the highway vehicle (OHV) use. Four landscape ranging from extensive national monuments and one national grasslands to the largest Ponderosa park, with a total area of 136,645 acres, Pine forest on the continent. Research afford access to remarkable natural has shown that the quality of a features and cultural sites. Four state recreational experience is largely a parks (more than 7,000 acres) and eight function of the environment in which it wildlife viewing areas (19,858 acres) occurs. Thus, the high quality provide excellent opportunities for environment of the Little Colorado camping, hiking, fishing, boating, and River Valley provides an excellent wildlife observation. backdrop for a multitude of meaningful recreational experiences. The numerous recreational resources within the Little Colorado River Valley Outdoor recreation and natural serve a broad spectrum of visitors and resources are intricately linked. A local residents. From solitude to social healthy environment is essential to the interaction to fitness, outdoor continued availability of diverse recreation provides physical and recreational opportunities in the Little psychological benefits to a wide variety Colorado River Valley. National of demographic groups. These benefits Heritage Area designation would are significant given that more than 75 enhance existing efforts to protect and percent of Americans participate in conserve the rich natural and scenic some form of outdoor recreation. integrity of the region. Compatible economic development such as interpretive facilities and recreational Camping and Backpacking trail development could boost local economies and increase awareness of Although some campers relish the the region’s significant natural and rustic tradition of sleeping in a tent, scenic wonders. Resource protection others prefer the comfort and
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convenience of pop-up trailers or beauty and interesting geologic recreational vehicles. Campgrounds features of these wilderness areas. At within the proposed National Heritage Strawberry Crater Wilderness, unusual Area accommodate a variety of visitor geologic wonders abound. It was here needs and expectations. Hundreds of that Strawberry Crater, the youngest designated campsites, ranging from volcano on the Colorado Plateau, primitive sites to developed sites with erupted less than 1,000 years ago. electrical and water hook-ups, exist on Wilderness visitors can hike along the state and federal lands within the Little volcanic cinder cone and molten lava Colorado River Valley. Campgrounds flows that appear frozen in time. such as Little Elden Springs Horse Strawberry Crater is one of more than Camp and Cinder Hill OHV Area cater 600 craters and cones that make up the to campers with specific needs and San Francisco Peaks volcanic field, the interests. second largest volcanic field of its type in the United States. (Springerville Campers and backpackers seek a wide Volcanic Field is the third largest of its range of experiences. For some, type in the nation.) spending time with family and friends in a group campground is a desirable outcome of their outdoor recreation Recreational Trails experience. Others seek the solitude and quietude of backpacking in Recreational trails within the Little undeveloped wilderness areas where Colorado River Valley are used by no mechanized travel is allowed and a backpackers, hikers, bikers, runners, leave no trace ethic prevails. Public walkers, and horseback riders. lands within the proposed National Hundreds of trail miles span the gamut Heritage Area easily accommodate the from rugged backcountry settings to wide range of experiences sought by easily accessible resources such as the these outdoor recreationists. Flagstaff Urban Trail System (FUTS) and the community trails near the city In our increasingly industrialized and of Gallup. A wide range of trails, many hectic world, wild places where of which are multi-use, accommodate humans can reconnect with the natural nearly every skill level. Some trails, environment and seek inspiration are particularly those in developed areas, of major importance. The Little are universally accessible. Colorado River Valley is home to five such areas: Kachina Peaks Wilderness, Recreational trails often lead to scenic Strawberry Crater Wilderness, Mount vistas or areas of natural or cultural Baldy Wilderness, Escudilla Wilderness significance. Hikers that reach the Area, and Petrified Forest National summit of Mount Humphreys, the Wilderness. These sites include more highest peak in Arizona (12,633 feet), than 91,000 acres of land set aside in are rewarded with amazing views of accordance with the Wilderness Act of the Painted Desert and the North Rim 1964 to “secure for the American of the Grand Canyon. En route to the people of present and future top of this extinct volcano, hikers pass generations the benefits of an enduring through several distinct biotic resource of wilderness.” communities called Life Zones: piñon- juniper woodlands, ponderosa pine, Backpackers and day hikers are mixed conifer, aspen, spruce-fir, and attracted to the astounding scenic the only true alpine tundra in the state.
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The slopes of the San Francisco Peaks Trails (Pyramid Rock and Church are known as the place where C. Hart Rock), and the White Mountain trail Merriam developed the concept of Life system. The High Desert Trail is a Zones in the late 19th century. The newly developed 23-mile system that is concept is based on the similarity of frequented by mountain biking enthusi- plant and animal distributions asts. Pyramid Rock and Church Rock observed with increases in elevation trails near McGaffey provide stunning and corresponding increases in views of sandstone spires and other red latitude. rock formations. The White Mountain trail system consists of a series of The proposed National Heritage Area multi-use loop trails and connectors. A includes and is adjacent to several collaborative effort of the National major recreational trails. The eastern Forest Service, Pinetop/Lakeside portion features the Arizona Trail, TRACKS, and the Arizona State Parks which traverses the state from Mexico Heritage Trails helped create the White to Utah, linking deserts, mountains, Mountain trail system, much of which canyons, and communities. The intent was built by dedicated volunteers. of this trail is to highlight the state’s topographic, biologic, historic, and cultural diversity. Advocates are Wildlife Viewing engaged in ongoing efforts to gain National Scenic Trail status for the Wildlife viewing is the fastest growing Arizona Trail. Attaining this presti- recreational activity in the United gious status would increase trail States. According to the U.S. Fish and recognition and provide access to Wildlife Service Director, H. Dale Hall, technical assistance and funding. “Wildlife related recreation rejuvenates our spirit, connects us with nature and The eastern portion of the Little Colo- gets us outside pursuing healthy rado River Valley is bordered by the activities.” The popularity of this Continental Divide National Scenic outdoor recreation activity can have Trail. This scenic trail includes the significant positive impacts on the local Chain of Craters Area, located within economies of small towns and rural the El Malpais National Conservation areas. Preliminary data from the 2006 Area. The Chain of Craters, a unique National Survey of Fishing, Hunting, and geological oddity, was formed when an Wildlife-Associated Recreation indicate underground lava flow reached a weak that 71 million Americans spent $43 area and created a rift at the surface billion on some form of wildlife view- flanked by 30 cinder cones. ing in 2006.
To the south, the General Crook Trail Outstanding opportunities for wildlife follows the route of one of the first observation are available at eight major roads in Arizona. Original blazes Wildlife Viewing Areas within the can still be seen on the ponderosa pines Little Colorado River Valley. These adjacent to this trail, which is popular Wildlife Viewing Areas, which are with hikers, mountain bikers, and managed by the Arizona Game and horseback riders. Fish Department, preserve a range of habitat that includes grasslands, Strikingly beautiful trails within the woodlands, and riparian areas. A Little Colorado River Valley include diversity of large and small mammals, Gallup’s High Desert Trail, McGaffey birds, and reptiles can be readily
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observed at these sites. For example, at Boating and Fishing Sipe White Mountain Wildlife Area, visitors may observe elk, pronghorn, Plentiful boat launches and well- mule deer, coyotes, and up to seven stocked reservoirs set the stage for species of bats. The astute visitor may exceptional boating and fishing in the even hear the howl of the reintroduced White Mountains. Apache-Sitgreaves Mexican gray wolf or the wailing bugle National Forest, Fool Hollow Lake of an elk. Recreation Area, and Lyman Lake State Park offer abundant opportunities to Exceptional waterfowl habitat has been spend time on or near the water. developed at Allen Severson Wildlife (Lyman Lake State Park has the Area. The city of Show Low, in coop- distinction of being the first eration with Apache-Sitgreaves Na- recreational state park in Arizona.) tional Forest and the Arizona Game Becker Lake, the oldest artificial lake in and Fish Department, became the first Arizona, is managed as a quality trout community in Arizona, and one of the fishery. As such, the lake has special first in the nation, to create artificial regulations including possession limits, wetlands using wastewater effluent. restricted methods of take, motor The 370-acre marsh serves the dual restrictions, and seasonal closures. The purpose of increasing waterfowl Arizona Game and Fish Department’s nesting habitat and providing waste- fish hatchery system stocks more than water disposal for the city. In addition 90 percent of the brook, brown, to wildlife observation, these viewing cutthroat, and rainbow trout in many areas also provide opportunities for lakes in the White Mountains. camping and hiking, with some trails Although the majority of fish in these leading to prehistoric ruins and petro- lakes are trout, other species such as glyphs. bass, crappie, northern pike, walleye, and catfish can also be caught. The Audubon Society has identified three Important Bird Areas (IBAs) Anglers have the unique opportunity to within the proposed National Heritage fish for Apache trout, a native species Area: Blackrock and Nutria Lakes, that is found nowhere else in the Anderson Mesa, and the Upper Little world. After many years of protection Colorado River Watershed. To be and recovery efforts, Apache trout identified as an IBA, a site must meet have been restored to much their objective, standardized, science-based historic range in the White Mountains. criteria. In addition to protecting vital Fishing is now allowed in designated avian habitat for species such as the state waters or on the Fort Apache endangered Southwestern Willow Reservation. This trout species, which Flycatcher, these sites are popular was once threatened with extinction, is destinations for bird watchers. IBAs now an important recreational and Signs at Becker Lake Wildlife can serve as the catalyst that brings economic asset to the state of Arizona. Area help visitors identify and appreciate the birds that fre- people together to protect birds and the quent the lake. diverse habitats they occupy. Accord- Fishing is a year around pursuit and ice ing to Frank Gill, Senior Ornithologist fishing has quickly gained popularity for the National Audubon Society, as a winter recreation activity in “IBAs have the unique power to unite Northern Arizona. To accommodate people, communities, and organiza- winter anglers, select roads remain tions in proactive bird conservation, open during the winter months one place at a time.” allowing access to reservoirs. In
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addition, some resorts and local hunting. With permission, hunting is merchants remain open for business allowed on private land and may also during the prime ice fishing months. be arranged on Indian Lands in Nelson Reservoir, a popular ice fishing agreement with the Tribal Game & Fish location, is easily accessible by road. Departments. Lakes without road access may be reached by snowmobile or, for the adventurous, with snowshoes. Winter Sports
McGaffey Lake Recreation Area, The variable elevation and climate of Ramah Lake, and Quemado Lake the Little Colorado River Valley Recreation area are popular trout provide recreational opportunities for fisheries stocked by the New Mexico all seasons—including winter. Higher Department of Game and Fish. elevations receive significant snowfall, McGaffey Lake, situated at an elevation which creates a winter sport haven for of 7,600 feet, is a scenic destination for skiing, snowshoeing, snowboarding, boating and fishing. Ramah Lake, also skijoring, and sledding. Numerous recognized for its spectacular scenery, cross-country skiing and snow play is surrounded by some of the most areas are available in both, the beautiful mesa country in New Mexico. Coconino and Apache-Sitgreaves Quemado Lake Recreation Area is a national forests. picturesque 130-acre lake bordered by piñon-juniper woodlands and pines. Additional opportunities for winter Two boat ramps, two universally recreation are available through private accessible fishing piers, eight enterprises. The Flagstaff Nordic campgrounds, and seven miles of Center features more than 40 hiking trails are among the amenities kilometers of groomed skate/classic ski available at Quemado Lake. trails. At Mormon Lake, the largest natural lake in Arizona, the ski touring center grooms over 30 kilometers of Hunting trails for novice, intermediate, and advanced skiers. At the Arizona The diverse habitat within the Little Snowbowl, one of the oldest Colorado River Valley supports continually run ski areas in the country, numerous large and small game skiers and snowboarders enjoy over species. Hunters can engage in the 2,300 feet of vertical drop on 32 scenic challenge of harvesting large game trails covering 777 acres. This is the animals such as elk, bear, mountain only ski slope where skiers and lion, mule deer, pronghorn, and even snowboarders can catch a glimpse of buffalo. Small game species include the North Rim of the Grand Canyon cottontail rabbits, tree squirrels, while hitting the slopes. mourning doves, and various waterfowl. Hunters use archery, firearms, muzzle loading rifles, and Off-highway Vehicle (OHV) Use trapping to harvest wildlife. Hunting is allowed on National Forest lands with Rapidly increasing numbers of appropriate licenses and permits. recreationists are using OHVs to access Raymond Ranch, Becker Lake, and Sipe and enjoy the outdoors. In 2004, OHV White Mountain wildlife viewing areas use accounted for between 11 and 12 provide additional opportunities for million visits to national grasslands
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Table 3.4. Recreational opportunities on public lands within the proposed Little Colorado River Valley National Heritage Area.
Camping Backpacking Interpretive trails Hiking Biking Horseback riding Wildlife viewing Boating Fishing Hunting Winter sports Off highway vehicle use Climbing Archaeological sites NATIONAL FORESTS Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest Cibola National Forest Coconino National Forest NATIONAL PARKS & MONUMENTS El Morro National Monument Petrified Forest National Park Sunset Crater National Monument Walnut Canyon National Monument Wupatki National Monument STATE PARK LANDS Homolovi Ruins State Park Fool Hollow Lake Recreation Area Lyman Lake State Park Red Rock State Park ARIZONA GAME & FISH WILDLIFE AREAS Allen Severnson Wildlife Area Becker Lake Wildlife Area Jacques Marsh Wildlife Area Lamar Haines Memorial Wildlife Area Raymond Ranch Wildlife Area Sipe White Mountain Wildlife Area Wenima Wildlife Area White Mountains Grassland Wildlife Area
and forests. OHVs, which include specifically for this group of outdoor motorized all-terrain vehicles (ATVs) enthusiasts. dirt bikes, and snowmobiles, are generally allowed on designated roads, The OHV trails in the White Mountains trails, and areas on federal lands. OHV near the town of Eagar are considered users are responsible for understanding by some to be the best high country the specific rules and regulations of the trails in Arizona. Saffel Canyon Trail lands on which they are recreating. offers spectacular views along the 25- Coconino National Forest manages mile round trip trail that passes Cinder Hills OHV Area near Flagstaff through piñon-juniper, ponderosa pine, Chapter 3: Heritage Themes and Related Resources [Theme 7: Outdoor Recreation] Page 161
and mixed conifer vegetation zones. recognized as the world’s first OHV use is not limited by the seasons. International Dark Sky City. After the snow falls, the Sunrise to Big Lake route is open for snowmobile use. The city of Flagstaff has a long This trail traverses mountains and association with astronomy and is meadows and passes through beautiful considered one of the premier deep coniferous forests. space research sites in the world. The area is home to Lowell Observatory, Braeside Observatory, U.S. Naval Climbing Observatory’s Flagstaff Station, and the Navy Prototype Optical Interferometer. Several rock climbing and bouldering Lowell Observatory, known for the locations exist within the Little discovery of Pluto in 1930, holds Colorado River Valley. Jack’s Canyon regular astronomy programs (with camping and climbing area, about 30 indoor and outdoor viewing miles south of Winslow, is situated in a opportunities) for the public. picturesque isolated canyon with steep limestone/sandstone cliffs. Nearly 300 routes offer what some consider some Hot Air Ballooning of the best sport climbing in the United States. The Pit, located in a scenic The Red Rock Balloon Rally in Gallup, shallow canyon about 15 minutes from New Mexico takes place against the Flagstaff, is bordered by ponderosa magnificent and vibrant bluffs and pines. The Pit features about 100 routes canyons of Red Rock State Park. From a that range from 35 to 80 feet in length show of four balloons in 1981, and 5.9 through 5.13+ in difficulty. participation today is by invitation only Mentmore Rock climbing area near and limited to 200—and there is a Gallup has more than 50 bolted top waiting list. This makes the Rally the rope climbs and 31 sport climbs. These second-largest balloon festival in the climbs range in height from 25 to 45 world. Each year during the first feet and have difficulty levels ranging weekend of December, balloonists and from 5.0 to 5.13. their chase crews descend on Gallup. Thousands of spectators gather to watch and enjoy the mass ascensions, Astronomy and Star Gazing competitive events, evening balloon glows, Native American dances, and The spectacular dark night skies of the the holiday Christmas parade. Willing Little Colorado River Valley provide spectators can even become excellent opportunities for star gazing, participants by joining chase crews, making the region a desirable location and thereby possibly get a balloon ride for amateur astronomers. Efforts to out of the deal. But whatever role the maintain dark skies around Flagstaff, spectator takes, the blue sky, red rocks, the largest municipality within the and two hundred colorful balloons proposed Area, have been ongoing for create a photographic paradise. decades. In 1958, the Flagstaff City Council passed the world’s first lighting ordinance, signifying the start DISTINCTIVENESS OF THEME of the dark skies movement. 2008 marks the 50th anniversary of that The distinctiveness of the outdoor historic occasion. In 2001, Flagstaff was recreation theme is directly linked to
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the outstanding natural and scenic examples of local commitment to resources of the Little Colorado River providing outdoor recreation Valley. Because the relationship opportunities and open spaces. between landscapes and outdoor Outfitters, guides, and tour companies recreation are so intricately offer valuable services to both intertwined, the diversity of natural experienced and novice outdoor and scenic resources support a vast recreationists. Riding stables near array of recreational opportunities Greer, Pinetop-Lakeside, Show Low, during all seasons. Collectively, these and Flagstaff lead guided trail rides recreational resources provide through remarkable landscapes. Trail outstanding opportunities for guides share valuable information recreationists to seek and attain a wide about the natural and cultural history spectrum of desirable experiences and of the area, enhancing the outdoor benefits. Large tracts of public land recreation experience. Outfitter and allow individuals and groups easy guide services are a particularly access to these extraordinary valuable resource for visitors from recreational resources. areas outside the Little Colorado River Valley. Clearly, the Little Colorado River Valley includes a multitude of unique resources. Soaring peaks, immense lava RELATED RESOURCES LIST fields, colorful concentrations of petrified wood, native Apache trout, Adventure Gallup, Gallup: A non- the first international dark sky profit organization established to community, and an abundance of promote adventure tourism. archaeological sites contribute to the area’s rich natural and cultural history. American Cancer Society’s Annual These places hold significant value at Climb to Conquer Cancer, Flagstaff: both a local and national level. Both a fundraiser and an awareness According to Ibrahim and Cordes, “the raiser, thousands of people outdoors has special meaning, because participate in this annual seven-mile it is deeply imbedded in our history walk up Snowbowl Road on the and culture.“ For many, outdoor southwest side of the San Francisco recreation strengthens their affinity for Peaks. protecting those resources that create the context for meaningful experiences. Arizona ATV Outlaw Trail Jamboree, Eagar: A three-day event where beginning and experienced RELATED RESOURCES riders have the opportunity to choose from more than twenty guided trail In addition to the vast array of public rides. The event also includes an lands within the Little Colorado River ATV rodeo, a parade, and fireworks. Valley, local city and county parks contribute to the availability of outdoor Becker Lake Wildlife Area, recreation opportunities. Navajo Springerville: This 100-acre lace is County Park, McHood Park on the part of a more than 600-acre wildlife banks of Clear Creek Reservoir in area owned and managed by the Winslow, Hidden Cove Golf course in Arizona Game & Fish Department. It Holbrook, and Woodland Lake Park in features a walking trail, excellent Pinetop-Lakeside are excellent wildlife viewing, and trout fishing.
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Chain of Craters Backcountry travelers through incredible volcanic Byway, Cibola County: One landscape. terminus of this Bureau of Land Management designated Backcountry Continental Divide Trail: The Byway lies just inside the Little eastern boundary of the proposed Colorado River watershed and leads Little Colorado River Watershed is
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the natural geologic feature of the lectures, hikes, and hands-on Continental Divide. The Continental activities. Many nearby natural and Divide Trail was officially designated cultural attractions offer free by the Congressional Oversight admissions during the festival. Committee of the National Trails System in 1978. The trail occurs in a Gallup Trails 2010, Gallup: This is a corridor of up to 50 miles to one side vision and a plan to develop a or the other of the actual Continental comprehensive multi-use trail system Divide and El Morro National in and around the town of Gallup. Monument and Pie Town are Two mountain biking groups and a specifically mentioned as sites of running crew meet regularly to interest along the route. participate in biking and running activities. Escudilla National Recreation Trail, Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest: Hart Prairie (Nature Conservancy A three-mile trail up Arizona’s third interpretive hikes): Free, guided tallest peak takes hikers through nature walks and hikes aid in aspen, spruce, and fir forests and peoples’ understanding and mountain meadows before opening appreciation of the geological and to stunning panoramic views of the ecological features of the San landscape. From the fire tower on top Francisco Peaks. of the mountain, people can see the dramatic changes in the land as it McHood Park and Clear Creek rises from dry desert through deep Canyon, Winslow: Boat launches in canyons to mountain peaks. On a McHood Park allow for easy access clear day, the San Francisco Peaks, to Clear Creek Canyon. The canyon is 200 miles to the northwest, are popular with canoers, boaters, visible. sunbathers, and those who like to climb, and dive from, its impressive Fischer Canyon, Flagstaff: Fischer rock walls. The canyon also has a few Canyon is an easily accessible and petroglyph sites visible from the popular place for hiking as well as water. bouldering and climbing. Northern Arizona Audubon Society, Flagstaff Biking Organization: A Flagstaff: Members lead regular bird local nonprofit dedicated to walks at The Arboretum at Flagstaff increasing the use of bicycles for and other locations. recreation and transportation. The group sponsors bike safety classes, an Northern Arizona Trail Runners annual Bike to Work Week, special Association, Flagstaff: An bike day-trips for kids, weekly road organization that promotes of-road rides, has a trained trail crew that running on forest trails and sponsors assists the Forest Service with trail other running events for people of all maintenance, and is involved in abilities. many other bicycle-related endeavors. Northern Arizona University (NAU) hiking club, Flagstaff: A free, Flagstaff Festival of Science, student organization that seeks to Flagstaff: Brings together multiple bring students together to experience resources to organize fascinating the outdoors.
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Red Rock Balloon Rally: New every August since 1975 and Mexico is famous for its great hot air provides a picturesque backdrop to ballooning climate, and Gallup is no the Red Rock Balloon Rally every exception. Since 1981, the city has December. hosted the Red Rock Balloon Rally which features 200 balloons by Woodland Wild Country Expo, invitation only and Native American Pinetop-Lakeside: Fly fishing arts and crafts as prizes for the demonstrations, star gazing, and various competitions. information about hiking in the White Mountains. Red Rock State Park, Gallup: Known for its stunning sandstone Winterfest Flagstaff, Flagstaff: An cliffs, canyons, and buttes, Red Rock annual event for more than 20 years, State Park is a hiker’s and a mountain the festival features nearly 100 events biker’s paradise. It has also hosted including ski competitions, sled dog the Inter-Tribal Indian Ceremonial races, and other winter activities.
PRIMARY REFERENCES
Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest 2008
Arizona Game and Fish Department 2008
Arizona Office of Tourism, Map 2003 Arizona Grand Canyon State Recreation and Historic Sites: Campgrounds and Facilities on State, Federal, and Tribal Lands.
Arizona Snowbowl 2008
Arizona Trail 2008
Audubon. Important Bird Area (IBA)
Benchmark Maps 1999 New Mexico Road and Recreation Atlas.
2004 Arizona Road and Recreation Atlas.
Cibola National Forest 2008
Coconino National Forest 2008
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Flagstaff Dark Skies Coalition 2008
Ibrahim, H., and K. A. Cordes 1993 Outdoor Recreation. Wm. C. Brown Communications, Dubuque, Iowa.
Outdoor Industry Foundation 2006 The Active Outdoor Recreation Economy.
Pigram, J. J., and J. M. Jenkins 1999 Outdoor Recreation Management. Routledge, New York.
U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau. 2006 2006 National Survey of Fishing, Hunting, and Wildlife-Associated Recreation: National Overview.
Wilderness Act of 1964
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The National Park Service has set forth Congressional consideration and a number of criteria to evaluate designation of a National Heritage proposed National Heritage Areas. One Area. document, Critical Steps and Criteria for becoming a National Heritage Area (1) Completion of a suitability/ describes four Critical Steps and ten feasibility study Suggested Criteria. Furthermore, (2) Public involvement in the Appendix 1 of the National Heritage suitability/feasibility study Area Feasibility Study Guidelines (3) Demonstration of widespread identifies ten types of resource public support among heritage area assemblages that contribute to the residents for the proposed greater understanding, preservation, designation and celebration of the Nation’s (4) Commitment to the proposal from heritage. This chapter evaluates the key constituents, which may Little Colorado River Valley in include governments, industry, and accordance with the criteria contained private, non-profit organizations, in in these two documents developed by addition to area residents the National Park Service. The proposed Little Colorado River Valley National Heritage Area CRITICAL STEPS AND CRITERIA achieved the following with regards to FOR BECOMING A NATIONAL these four Critical Steps. HERITAGE AREA (1) Completion of a Suitability/Feasibility Critical Steps Study
The Critical Steps and Criteria for This document is the feasibility study becoming a National Heritage Area for the proposed Little Colorado River document identifies four Critical Steps Valley National Heritage Area. It that must be completed before contains all of the applicable
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information indicated in the National time position for the feasibility study Park Service’s National Heritage Area process. The new Heritage Programs Feasibility Study Guidelines. Coordinator began giving public presentations and conducting community Working Group meetings (2) Public Involvement in the Suitability/ by November of that year. Since that Feasibility Study time, more than 50 public presentations have been given and more than 140 The Little Colorado River Valley people attended Working Group National Heritage Area feasibility meetings. Additionally, the proposed study process involved the public Little Colorado River Valley National throughout its development. The initial Heritage Area was the topic of ideas for the proposed Area developed information booths at eight community out of the expressed needs of events since October 2006 and the topic communities along the river to of no less than 22 newspaper articles effectively protect and promote since July 2006. The Heritage Programs different resources, primarily in Coordinator also sent monthly updates Springerville and Snowflake. The via email or mail to anyone who Center for Desert Archaeology had requested. People could also sign worked with the town government and themselves up to receive Updates by volunteers of Springerville for a visiting the proposed Little Colorado number of years and was invited to a River Valley National Heritage Area preliminary scoping meeting regarding pages on the Center for Desert petroglyph sites in Snowflake. The Archaeology website. By February Center for Desert Archaeology also had 2008, the number of people receiving working relationships with staff and Updates exceeded 650. All past Hopi consultants at Homol’ovi Ruins Updates, as well as past formal press State Park. Once the National Heritage releases to media outlets, were kept Area idea was proposed as one option accessible on the website for continued to address these community needs and public access. For more information a map was devised, the Center for and detailed listing of public outreach Desert Archaeology conferred with efforts, see Chapter 1. these original partners. They expressed enthusiasm for the idea and then the The heart of the feasibility study itself, process of concerted public outreach the heritage themes, developed directly throughout the watershed began. from public input. A detailed description of this process appears in A part-time Center for Desert Chapter 3. Likewise, the General Archaeology staff member conducted Guidelines for the proposed National the outreach from the fall of 2004 Heritage Area were also a direct result through the summer of 2005, making 13 of the visions and realities expressed by public presentations during that time. participants during the Working Group A total of 7 newspaper articles during meetings. This process is explained at the same time also relayed the length in Chapter 2. development of the proposed Area to a wider audience. Significant progress The whole feasibility study document was delayed until the Center for Desert also underwent public review and Archaeology received an Arizona State received XXX comments during the Parks Heritage Fund Grant in the comment period. All comments are spring of 2006 to fund a two-year, full- included in Appendix X. People could
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make comments during one of six document also lists ten Suggested Working Group meetings, write and Criteria to ascertain whether a mail in comments, or submit comments proposed region qualifies for National online. Heritage Area status.
3. Demonstration of Widespread Public (1) The area has an assemblage of Support Among Heritage Area natural, historic, or cultural Residents for the Proposed Designation resources that together represent distinctive aspects of American The proposed Little Colorado River heritage worthy of recognition, Valley National Heritage Area has conservation, interpretation, and received 57 letters or resolutions of continuing use, and are best support. The majority of these letters managed as such an assemblage (approximately 50) were written by a through partnerships among variety of individuals, independent public and private entities, and businesses owners, large landowners, by combining diverse and private non-profit organizations, and sometimes local governments while the others noncontiguous resources and have been written by educational active communities institutions and state, federal, or tribal (2) The area reflects traditions, agencies and departments. customs, beliefs, and folk life that Additionally, approximately 150 are a valuable part of the national people gave a total of more than 400 story hours of their time to attend Working (3) The area provides outstanding Group meetings and guide the opportunities to conserve development of the future Area. natural, cultural, historic, and/ or scenic features 4. Commitment to the Proposal from (4) The area provides outstanding Key Constituents, which may Include recreational and educational Governments, Industry, and Private, opportunities Non-profit Organizations in Addition to (5) Resources that are important to Local Residents the identified theme or themes of the area retain a degree of In addition to formal support given by integrity capable of supporting the people mentioned in Critical Step interpretation Number Three, a number of state, (6) Residents, business interests, federal, and tribal governments and non-profit organizations, and agencies also gave their support for the governments within the proposed Area. The Petrified Forest proposed area that are involved National Park agreed at the onset of the in the planning, have developed feasibility study to act as the lead a conceptual financial plan that federal agent for the proposed Little outlines the roles for all Colorado River Valley National participants including the federal Heritage Area. government, and have demonstrated support for designation of the area SUGGESTED CRITERIA (7) The proposed management entity and units of government The Critical Steps and Criteria for supporting the designation are becoming a National Heritage Area willing to commit to work in
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partnership to develop the Trading Post National Historic Site in heritage area Ganado reflects the theme of Living (8) The proposal is consistent with from the Land due to recent restoration continued economic activity in of native gardens and an historic the area orchard, the theme of Expressions of (9) A conceptual boundary map is Art and Life due to its current and supported by the public historic role as a trading post and (10) The management entity proposed current Native American Art Auctions, to plan and implement the as well as the theme of Native Nations, project is described again due to its role as a trading post and auction site and due to its location The proposed Little Colorado River in the Navajo Nation. Similarly, the 26 Valley fulfills the Suggested Criteria in Bar Ranch in Eagar reflects the Living the following ways. from the Land theme because of its history as John Wayne’s ranch, but it can also reflect the Native Nations and The area has an assemblage of Archaeology themes because it is now natural, historic, or cultural owned and operated by the Hopi Tribe resources that together represent and contains petroglyphs within its distinctive aspects of American boundaries. El Morro National heritage worthy of recognition, Monument reflects the Sacred and conservation, interpretation, and Enchanted Landscapes theme because continuing use, and are best of its striking geology and importance managed as such an assemblage in Native culture, the Trails, Roads, through partnerships among public and Rails of the West theme because of and private entities, and by its importance as a reliable water combining diverse and sometimes source for Native, Spanish, and noncontiguous resources and active American travelers and explorers and communities. due to the petroglyphs and inscriptions they left, and the Native Nations and The seven heritage themes of Chapter 3 Archaeology themes because of the describe in detail the natural, historic, pueblo ruins located on top of the bluff. and cultural resources found within the Countless other individual sites reflect Little Colorado River Valley. Each of multiple associations across time and those chapters also contains a listing of cultures. related resources in the region that reflect that particular theme. The These resources are intricately related related resource lists, though lengthy, to each other. El Morro National are not absolutely comprehensive due Monument relates directly to the to issues of cultural sensitivity development of the Beale Wagon Road, regarding many Native American sites ATSF railroad, Route 66, and modern- and traditions and also due to the day I-40. The natural resource of the impossibility of documenting every vast forests ringing the watershed possible resource in a living and ever- fueled the development of the railroad changing landscape. Still, the lists and the founding of several towns. reflect the wealth of resources for any Ranchlands continue to provide a of the heritage themes that can be lifestyle for individual families, but found throughout the watershed. also contribute to the open character of Often, one resource reflects a number the landscape so intricately associated of themes. For example, the Hubbell with the Southwest and, if managed
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with this intent in mind, provide three tribes are nationally and habitat for native and wild plants and internationally renowned for their arts animals. Because these resources cross and crafts traditions and in general for multiple political and jurisdictional their unique ways of life. boundaries—state, federal, tribal, private, and local government—and Ranching and the cowboy lifestyle is a hold significance to any number of large part of the national identity, even individuals or cultures that may or for those who have never ridden a may not be the actual owners of such horse, roped a cow, walked with a resources, a willing partnership flock of sheep to a summer mountain approach is a most appropriate way to pasture, or awakened before dawn to address future planning for such help in the birthing of a calf. Few resources. images speak to the American soul more than that of a lone cowboy—in a The heritage and resources of the Little Stetson hat, weathered jeans, pearl- Colorado region are worthy of snapped shirt, fringed chaps, silk recognition, conservation, neckerchief, and leather gloves—riding interpretation and continuing use his way across an open range. because they define critical moments in Ranching is not just a part of the Little the development of the United States as Colorado’s past, it is a continuing part a whole and in the development of of it present and future. Ranchers and particular cultures and lifestyles of other agriculturalists, both Native and people whose lives add to the rich non-Native, are fusing traditional diversity of the Nation. practices with modern twists to respond to ever-changing economic, social, and ecological conditions. They The area reflects traditions, customs, are simultaneously keeping a vibrant beliefs, and folk life that are a tradition alive while adding another valuable part of the national story. chapter to its long and colorful history.
The Little Colorado River Valley has been home to the ancestors of modern- The area provides outstanding day Hopi and Zuni for a minimum of opportunities to conserve natural, thousands of years. The development cultural, historic, and/or scenic of the ancestral cultures into the features. distinct Hopi and Zuni cultures of today occurred more than 1,000 years Despite the region’s rate of population ago. Generally speaking, the Hopi and growth—Arizona as a whole grew Zuni have been living in the same basic greater than 30 percent over each of the vicinity as they are today for last four decades and New Mexico has approximately 1,000 years. Few other grown an average of about 20 percent cultural groups in the present-day over each of the last three decades—the United States can claim such a long and Little Colorado region has been less unbroken connection to a particular affected than other parts of the states. landscape. The Navajo Nation, The Little Colorado region remains approximately half of which lies within primarily rural and therefore the the Little Colorado River watershed, is potential to retain the natural and the largest Native Nation in the United scenic quality of the area is high. States both in terms of size of Culturally, the region contains a population and size of reservation. All number of unique lifestyles that are
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rooted in deep tradition and yet habitat, ecological conservation, adjusting to modern realities. public engagement, and innovative Numerous natural and cultural solutions on their lands in eastern conservation efforts are at various Coconino County. stages of development throughout the proposed Little Colorado River Valley Flagstaff, Gallup, and Springerville: National Heritage Area. The following All three have plans and committees is a partial listing and brief description working toward the preservation of of some of these initiatives. Additional open space in their respective initiatives were also previously communities. described Chapter 1. These are but a small number of existing examples of Homol’ovi Ruins State Park: the possibility that exists within the Homol’ovi Ruins State Park contains watershed as a whole. four major pueblo sites, built by ancestors of modern-day Hopi, that Babbitt Ranches: In 2001, Babbitt number more than XXX rooms each Ranches placed more than 34,000 as well as smaller pueblos. Through a acres of private land into a Memorandum of Understanding, the conservation easement to preclude Hopi Tribe has taken an increasing any future mining, subdividing, or role in recent years in developing development of the property. Babbitt interpretive plans and future Ranches continues to look for management goals for the Park. Hopi additional easements or other cultural events, lectures, and youth conservation options for some of program visits to the Park have their range that is not currently increased dramatically under the protected. guidance of Hopi liaisons.
Billy Creek Restoration: The Town Hubbell Trading Post National of Pinetop-Lakeside enjoys numerous Historic Site: There is ongoing mountain streams and lakes that preservation of the trading post provide natural beauty, recreational structures. Recent initiatives have opportunities, and critical water been undertaken to revitalize the resources and habitat. Working with larger cultural landscape of the a private stream restoration firm, the trading post by re-introducing Town secured an Arizona Water agriculture and heritage orchard Protection Fund grant in late 2007 for species which were present during the first phase of restoration along the time of the Hubbell family’s Billy Creek. The area is zoned open homestead as well as returning the space and will retain its natural Pueblo Colorado wash which runs character while public access will be through the site to its condition facilitated in the future through before the invasion of exotic species trailheads and picnic areas. along its banks.
Diablo Trust: This organization, Natwani Coalition: This Hopi formed in 1993, is a partnership of organization promotes the return to two family-owned ranches, each with traditional Hopi methods of farming a history of several generations in and traditional varieties of crops. The Arizona. The Diablo Trust is Coalition works with school-aged committed to the dynamic blend of children to teach them agricultural viable cattle ranching, wildlife techniques and has also restored
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traditional farming sites along Treasures fund of the National Park springs on the reservation. Service.
Picture Canyon: Located in the southeast side of Flagstaff, Picture The area provides outstanding Canyon earned its name from the recreational and educational very high concentration of opportunities. petroglyphs found on its rock boulders and currently lies on state- The Outdoor Recreation section of owned land. Coconino County Chapter 3 describes in detail the wealth Board of Supervisors and volunteers and variety of outdoor recreation have been working for a number of opportunities the Little Colorado years to remove invasive plant region offers residents and visitors species and are also exploring ways alike. The experience of outdoor to ensure protection of the site into recreation, no matter what the actual the future. activity, cannot be separated from the landscape in which it takes place. The Show Low Bluff archaeological incredible diversity and unmatched park: Show Low Bluff is a private character of Little Colorado geology housing development that announced and ecology makes outdoor recreation in March 2008 that it will set aside 46 an exciting, ever-changing experience. acres for the preservation of That, added to the vast amount of approximately 1,000 petroglyphs in public lands, means that outdoor the subdivision. Show Low Bluff will recreation opportunities are plentiful make a privately owned park that is and open to all. publically accessible out of the area and has already begun to work with Quality educational opportunities the Arizona Site Steward Program to regarding natural and cultural heritage develop a special group of monitors go hand-in-hand with having an intact for the site. landscape. Because the vast majority of the Little Colorado region has not been Town of Springerville: Springerville urbanized, the geological and became a Preserve America ecological stories are writ large and community in 2006. It restored its obvious across the landscape. The edge Madonna of the Trail statue in the of a lava flow from a shield volcano same year (one of only twelve in the near Springerville is easily identifiable. country placed by the Daughters of The natural route of ancient passes the American Revolution) and the through mountain ranges is easily seen town is currently working on the from the top of El Morro National restoration of its historic school Monument. Ribbons of green building. vegetation, able to be seen at considerable distances because few Zuni: The murals of Our Lady of large structures or other built Guadalupe, a 17th century Spanish environments obscure the view, mission, are in need of repair due to announce the flow and role of water in deterioration of the church walls. basically arid country. Natural and Partial support for the restoration has cultural heritage education is been received from the New Mexico emphasized at many sites and locations legislature and the Save America’s throughout the watershed and
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numerous schools and non-profit Resources that are important to the organizations promote natural and identified theme or themes of the cultural learning in a more general area retain a degree of integrity sense. The Colorado Plateau Studies capable of supporting interpretation. Program at Coconino Community College (CCC) and the Sustainable Many of the sites discussed in the Living Series of classes at both CCC heritage theme chapters and listed in and Northland Pioneer College are two each chapter’s related resources section such examples, the Elderhostel enjoy previous special designations Program at Northern Arizona from the national or state level such as University is another. The STAR School National Monuments, state parks and in Flagstaff and the St. Michael’s trails, scenic byways, or other similar Association for Special Education serve designations. Additionally, all of the younger learners with a curriculum National Register sites that occur based in regional ecology and culture. within the watershed, most of which The Flagstaff Chapter of the Arizona are specifically mentioned in the Native Plant Society sponsors lectures heritage theme chapters, are listed in and plant walks during the warmer Chapter 5, Supporting Resources. All of months and the Plateau Sciences the sites in the related resource sections Society in Gallup, in addition to of the heritage theme chapters were providing a wide variety of educational suggested by Working Group opportunities to its members, holds a participants, showing that the public Native Plant Sale every spring resources have a certain degree of and promotes the knowledge and use quality and public awareness and are of native plants in landscaping. The perceived positively by the community. Arizona Ethnobotanical Research Association in Flagstaff studies, documents, and promotes the use Residents, business interests, non- traditional plants and conducts profit organizations, and periodic field schools that bring governments within the proposed students in contact with Native area are involved in the planning, American elders as teachers. The have developed a conceptual Museum of Northern Arizona’s financial plan that outlines the roles Ventures Program takes participants on for all participants including the multi-day trips led by expert scientists, federal government, and have writers, artists, and other guides. demonstrated support for Numerous other educational programs designation of the area. sponsored by schools, local historical societies, museums, the National Park The extensive public involvement in Service and Forest Service, many other the development of the proposed Little organizations add to the educational Colorado River Valley National opportunities available, and to the Heritage Area thus far is detailed in potential for more coordinated, earlier chapters of this feasibility study. comprehensive, and diverse learning Chapter 1 gives a complete listing of all experiences. National Heritage Area public presentations, information booth designation could facilitate the creative venues, newspaper articles, public networking and resource sharing that Working Group meeting dates, an would enhance the many efforts that explanation of the monthly Updates, already exist. and a listing of all 57 formal letters or
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resolutions of support received. The proposal is consistent with Additionally, Appendix X includes continued economic activity in the copies of each letter or resolution. area. These letters and resolutions demonstrate support from local As Chapter 6 explains, tourism already businesses, individuals, non-profits, is a significant portion of revenues for local and tribal governments, state, most communities in the Little tribal, and federal agencies, land Colorado River watershed. As Chapter owners, and educational institutions. 6 also explains, tourism as an industry Chapter 2 describes how public input is projected to continue its steady shaped the development of the General growth for the next several decades. Guidelines for the proposed Area and Tourism trend studies show that Chapter 3 explains how public input heritage tourists—those keenly led directly to the seven heritage interested in learning about and themes included in this study. Public experiencing the true character of a involvement is also summarized in particular place—will comprise ever response to the Critical Steps listed at increasing percentage of the total the beginning of this chapter. A tourism market. National Heritage conceptual financial plan appears in Area designation, therefore, will only Chapter 2. serve to emphasize the Little Colorado River watershed as a region where distinctiveness of place is vibrant, The proposed management entity diverse, and recognizable. Heritage and units of government supporting tourism promotion can contribute to the designation are willing to the economy in a variety of ways: it can commit to working in partnership to attract visitors from outside the area; it develop the heritage area. can result in visitors staying longer in the area; and it can attract local Local government officials and staff residents to travel within their own have been directly involved in region, thus keeping their leisure facilitating resolutions of support for dollars in the general area. the proposed Area. Also, many such individuals have given their time to Tourism is not the only manner in attend Working Group meetings or which the designation can enhance lend their assistance in contacting economic activity. Many current additional potential partners for the National Heritage Areas place project. The Town of Pinetop-Lakeside considerable focus on downtown and and the City of Holbrook allowed the local economy revitalization. The use of their council chambers to Delaware and Lehigh National conduct Working Group meetings Heritage Corridor Market Towns which were attended by people from Initiative, the Path of Progress National many surrounding communities. In Heritage Route’s Progress Fund, and some cases, Working Group meeting Wheeling National Heritage Area’s locations alternated between two Adaptive Reuse Studies are good communities in a larger sub-region, but examples. Natural areas and pre- government officials or staff were historic or historic site restoration committed to attending the meeting provide jobs as would additional or irrespective of the specific location. increased educational programming.
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A conceptual boundary map is Reservation falling inside of Coconino supported by the public. County were also included so as not to artificially divide the reservation. The Center for Desert Archaeology Likewise, the villages of Upper and received enthusiasm for the proposed Lower Moenkopi, although occurring Little Colorado River Valley National within Coconino County and separated Heritage Area with the boundaries as from the main Hopi Reservation, are the river’s watershed at the very nonetheless Hopi tribal lands and it beginning of the process in 2004. Since was felt they should be included along that time, 57 individuals and with the rest of the reservation. Tuba organizations of all types have given City Chapter was also included due to support for the proposed Area with the its proximity and shared history with original boundaries. the villages of Moenkopi. The Center then asked a variety of people who In the winter of 2007-08, some were familiar with the project for their individuals and organizations began to input regarding the alternative express concern that the proposed Area boundary. These individuals lived and was simply too large. Concerns worked across the watershed: two from included potential future Coconino County, four from Navajo administrative problems with an Area County, one from Apache County, one of this size, the worry that the financial from McKinley County, and one who and other resources a National worked on the Navajo Reservation. The Heritage Area could bring to the region responses varied slightly, but the would be too diluted to be effective, general consensus was that eliminating and that “locking up” this much Coconino County would be detrimental acreage was in general a frightful to the proposed Area as a whole due to concept because of fears of additional the amount of natural and cultural regulations or infringement on private resources it contains that are connected property rights. to the rest of the region.
In January 2008, the Center for Desert Concerning potential future Archaeology developed an alternative administrative problems, the proposed boundary based on the comments Area is large and it is recognized that received by those concerned with the its administration will present unique size and in respect to the regions that challenges that smaller Areas may not had shown the most active support up experience. At 26,000+ square miles, to that time. (This alternative map the proposed Area would be the appears as Appendix X.) Briefly, the second largest of the 37 currently- alternative boundaries eliminated designated National Heritage Areas Catron County and most of Coconino (Tennessee Civil War National County except for the portion that is Heritage Area is the largest at 41,143 part of the Hopi Reservation and the square miles), although it would be Tuba City and Birdsprings Chapters of only marginally bigger than the third- the Navajo Reservation. Trying to largest Area (Freedom’s Frontier respect natural and cultural realities, National Heritage Area at 25,547 the Birdsprings Chapter was included square miles). Distance is certainly a due to the fact that the Little Colorado factor, although because of the rural River runs through the Chapter and and open character of the landscape, that half of the chapter lies within the number of people and political Navajo County. The parts of the Hopi entities with which to coordinate is not
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greater than in Areas with denser to deny a landowner the right to erect a populations and denser concentrations billboard. National Heritage Area staff of cities and towns. Approaches to worked quickly to have the City of minimize the problems associated with Yuma reverse its inappropriate action, distance are addressed in a preliminary however, the incident caused much fashion in Chapter 2 when the anger and fear among private property management entity is described. owners and ultimately resulted in the reduction in size of Yuma Crossing. The worry that financial and other This incident has caused some private resources will be too diluted to be property owners throughout the Little effective is also related to the size of the Colorado River watershed to approach proposed Area. The alternative map, the idea of a proposed National even though it would have reduced the Heritage Area with caution. proposed Area by approximately 8,000 square miles, would not have reduced the size enough to significantly alter the The management entity proposed to dollar-to-acre ratio that people plan and implement the project is concerned with this worry often cite. described. Many of those concerned with the size look to Yuma Crossing National The proposed management entity is Heritage Area as an example, which is described at length in Chapter 2. the smallest of all 37 National Heritage Chapter 2 also contains a conceptual Areas. Yuma Crossing has facilitated financial plan to serve as a starting positive changes for the Yuma point for the new management entity. community, however it is atypical of the size of most National Heritage Areas. NATIONAL HERITAGE AREAS FEASIBILITY STUDY GUIDELINES, Other concerns about the proposed APPENDIX 1: EXAMPLES OF Little Colorado River Valley National NATIONALLY DISTINCTIVE Heritage Area center around the fear of LANDSCAPES land being “locked up” or subject to additional regulation or infringement The National Park Service developed a of private property rights. The Area is comprehensive set of guidelines for perceived by some as having the power National Heritage Area feasibility or authority to change zoning studies. Appendix 1 of this document ordinances, public logging permits, and lists ten different types of resource other land management regulations. As assemblages that indicate a region of National Heritage Areas are non- national distinction. Appendix 1 regulatory, the designation, by law, describes nationally distinctive cannot interfere with private property landscapes as: rights or future development of any …places that contain important kind on public or private lands. An regional and national stories that, incident occurred in the Yuma Crossing together with their associated National Heritage Area in 2004 in natural and/or cultural resources, which a city employee of Yuma, not an enable the American people to employee of the Yuma Crossing understand, preserve and celebrate National Heritage Area, acted outside key components of the multi- of his or her authority and improperly faceted character of the Nation’s tried to use the designation as a reason heritage. The landscapes are often
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places that represent and contain to each of the ten points of Appendix 1 identifiable assemblages of are given here. resources with integrity associated with one or more of the following: 1. important historical periods of Important Historical Periods of the the Nation and its people; Nation and Its People 2. major events, persons and groups that contributed The entire Little Colorado River substantively to the Nation’s watershed was ceded to the United history, customs, beliefs, and States in the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe folklore; Hidalgo following the Mexican 3. distinctive cultures and American War. This cession consisted cultural mores; of the entire modern-day states of 4. major industries and California, Nevada, and Utah, technological, business and significant portions of Arizona, New manufacturing innovations/ Mexico, and Colorado, and a practices, labor movements southwestern strip of Wyoming. The and labor advancements that cession equals roughly 1/6 of the total contributed substantively to land area of the present-day United the economic growth of the States. Nearly 300 years before this Nation and the well-being of cession, the region witnessed some of its people; the first Spanish explorers to travel into 5. transportation innovations what is now the American Southwest and routes that played central and parts of the western Plains states. roles in important military actions, settlement, migration, Before the Spanish, Native tribes, some and commerce; of whom are now entering their second 6. social movements that millennium in their villages, substantively influenced past established the Little Colorado as their and present day society; homeland. Before these lasting villages 7. American art, crafts, were established, ancestors of modern- literature and music; day tribes also lived and migrated 8. distinctive architecture and through the Little Colorado region. architectural periods and After the cession, the Little Colorado movements; region played a significant role as the 9. major scientific discoveries nation moved westward. It holds one and advancements; and of the major east-west corridors that 10. other comparable has been used, and is still used, by rail representations that together and road alike to link the two sides of with their associated resources the continent together and to the substantively contributed to interior of the country. the Nation’s heritage.
The proposed Little Colorado River Major Events, Persons, and Groups Valley National Heritage Area meets that Contributed Substantively to the these ten criteria. In-depth descriptions Nation’s History, Customs, Beliefs, of the region’s contributions to the and Folklore Nation’s heritage are given throughout the heritage theme chapters and this The ranching history of the Little entire study, but brief accounts tailored Colorado embodies the essence of what
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is popularly thought of as the Major Industries and Technological, American West and the image of the Business, and Manufacturing American cowboy on the open range. Innovations/Practices, Labor The Hashknife Ranch, in the heart of Movements, and Labor the Little Colorado River Valley, was Advancements that Contributed once the third largest ranch in all of Substantively to the Economic North America. Growth of the Nation and the Well- being of Its People The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad also contributed significantly The logging, cattle, mining, and to the national impression of the railroad industries are inextricably Southwest. Through its advertisements, linked in the Little Colorado region and train décor, tours, sponsored artists, are also inextricably linked to the and architecture, ATSF both introduced prosperity of the nation as a whole. the rest of the country to the Southwest Railroads provided for efficient and simultaneously shaped what they movement of people and goods from saw and experienced. one end of the country to another, and everywhere in between, at a scale unprecedented in previous eras. Distinctive Cultures and Cultural Railroads carried lumber, mining Mores products, and food to distant markets (often in the east) while the lumber, The Little Colorado River watershed is mining products, and agriculture home to three Indian Reservations, industries literally built the railroad including the largest reservation in the and fed its workers. Beyond material United States (Navajo). All three tribes, goods, the railroad also transported Navajo, Hopi, and Zuni, are known for people making leisure travel or travel their high degree of traditionalism in for business more feasible. The impact comparison to many other tribes across of the railroad and related Western the country. Traditional religious industries on the entire country is hard beliefs and observances, and distinctive to overstate. languages, foods, arts, music, dances, and economic practices are still in place on the reservations and in varying Transportation Innovations and degrees with tribal members who live Routes that Played Central Roles off the reservations in surrounding in Important Military Actions, communities. Settlement, Migration, and Commerce The Little Colorado region is also home to a significant number of Mormons The Little Colorado region has whose differences in beliefs forced their witnessed thousands of years of relocation in the mid-19th century from migrations by people whose the middle sections of the United States descendents still live in the area today. to the then-Western frontier lands. Later Mormon migrations and the Mormon migration and settlement in economic and social impact of the Arizona and western New Mexico was railroad have already been discussed in a direct result of church teachings and Numbers 3 and 4. Route 66 added a desire to spread the religion over another major layer to the history of both American continents. movement and settlement along its
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notorious east-west corridor, and a Efforts of non-profits (Native whole new style of commerce oriented Movement) and educational toward the new invention of the institutions (Coconino Community automobile. From the Dust Bowl College, Northland Pioneer College, migrations out of the central Plains to and Northern Arizona University) to the post-WWII era of prosperity to the promote sustainable building 21st century’s focus on places of unique techniques character, Route 66 has held the Numerous private enterprises and promise of discovery, freedom, community organizations related to adventure, and a distinctly American sustainable agriculture or other way of both loosing oneself and finding businesses oneself all at the same time. Route 66 Many of these efforts are mentioned was specifically designed to stir within the heritage theme chapters. economic growth in the rural Combined, they demonstrate that communities it touched. It certainly residents and local officials of the succeeded in that goal, and also Little Colorado region are thinking succeeded in stirring the hearts and progressively and for the future. souls of generations of Americans. These efforts and cooperating organizations also provide a wealth of resources and information for Social Movements that Substantively those who want to pursue an Influenced Past and Present Day alternative lifestyle aimed at Society reducing negative impacts on the landscape. The mining and logging camps of the Little Colorado did experience worker strikes as were common in many parts American Art, Crafts, Literature, of the country where such industries Music prevailed. While their impact was significant locally, other larger labor Navajo, Hopi, and Zuni arts and crafts movements had much greater influence are known the world over for their in the national social fabric and distinctive style, materials, and high development of worker relations. quality craftsmanship. Significant collections exist in many American The Little Colorado region is at the cities outside of the Little Colorado forefront of a recent social shift region and in international cities as occurring in this country regarding well. While some materials for art and sustainable and local economic craft production were acquired development. Examples include: through trade, in prehistoric times the The commitment of Coconino County vast majority of materials and design to pursue sustainable economic patterns were direct reflections of the development on a variety of fronts resources and lived experience of the Several public and private Little Colorado region. In modern partnerships to develop wind power times, ancient and traditional designs (Arizona Public Service (APS), are still highly prized among artists Northern Arizona University, City of and buyers. Even for artists who break Flagstaff, Bureau of Land from the strictly traditional, their Management, private landowners artwork still echoes the aesthetics and private businesses) developed by their culture over
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centuries. The most common Native art passageways between them, thick stone forms are pottery, jewelry, weavings, or adobe mud walls, often two stories and carvings of stone or wood. Music or more, with large wooden and dance, though artistic and crossbeams forming a ceiling upon definitely distinctive to a particular which smaller branches and grass are tribe or society within a tribe, are laid in opposing directions and sealed usually more religious in nature. with mud. In past times, pueblo rooms had no doors and were entered via a Award-winning author Tony ladder and hole in their flat roofs. Hillerman has written 18 mystery Many examples of authentic prehistoric novels as well as other fiction and non- pueblo structures remain in the Little fiction books pertaining to the Navajo Colorado region. The architectural culture, the culture of others living in elements characteristic of pueblos— the Southwest, and the landscape. His adobe, rounded wall corners, large books are noted for their cultural wooden ceiling beams (vigas) that details. protrude from the exterior walls, an earthen color scheme, flat roofs, and a profile that suggests multiple layers— Distinctive Architecture and are also found in many modern Architectural Periods and buildings regardless of the method in Movements which they were built.
Mary Colter worked extensively in the Similarly, Navajo hogans are as unique Mission Revival and Pueblo Revival to the Navajo as pueblos are to the style of architecture. Her work for the Hopi, Zuni, and other Pueblo tribes. Fred Harvey Company and ATSF Eight-sided with the entrance to the Railroad helped to spread the east, hogans are the traditional popularity and awareness of these dwelling structure of Navajos. Even styles that came to signify Southwest today when many have other types of architecture in the minds of Americans housing, many homesites still have a across the country. The major basis for hogan for traditional religious or other her designs was, of course, authentic purposes. Spotting a hogan from the pueblo buildings themselves. side of the road while driving is one Developed and perfected over sure way a traveler knows he or she centuries and in complete harmony has entered Navajo territory. with the materials and climate prevalent in the Southwest, the structures of Native Americans were so Major Scientific Discoveries and indicative of their lifestyle that the Advancements Spanish used the term pueblo, meaning “town,” to refer to the people The extreme elevational changes themselves. The term has crossed present in the Little Colorado region centuries, languages, and cultures and led biologist C. Hart Merriam, one of refers to both an actual structure or an the original founders of the National entire culturally distinct group of Geographic Society, to develop the Native Americans. concept of life zones. Life zones describe a certain grouping of plants Pueblos, the structures, are multi-unit and animals that occur together at buildings consisting of connected different altitudes or at different square rooms with or without latitudes. His concept has been altered
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and improved upon since first other meteor impact sites around the developed in 1889, but remains a basic world and on the Moon. Meteor Crater tenet in the ecological sciences and in was used as a training ground for the the minds of the general public. Apollo astronauts for their lunar landings. Shoemaker went on to an Major astronomical discoveries also impressive career in astronomy and occurred in the Little Colorado region. astrogeology, winning the National Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff was Medal of Science in 1992. built in 1894 and is one of the oldest observatories in the West. It is perhaps Native Americans have long known of most famous for the discovery of Pluto the intricate relationship between the in 1930, but has made other equally movement of the stars and planets to impressive discoveries as well. These cycles on earth. Many petroglyphs, and include data gathered by astronomer even entire structures, are thought to Vesto Melvin Slipher that led to the mark the annual movements of the sun realization that the university is or moon. The astronomical purpose of expanding, the variation in brightness these markers is only recently being re- of Halley’s Comet, the presence of discovered by non-Natives today. oxygen on Jupiter’s moon Ganymede, the three largest known stars, the co- Both nationally and internationally, the discovery of the rings of Uranus, and Little Colorado region is known by the discovery of a number of planets geologists and paleontologists for orbiting stars in the Milky Way galaxy. exposures of Mesozoic-aged rock and Lowell Observatory is now in a the fossil wealth it contains. The region, partnership with the Discovery as a whole, is in a process of erosion, Channel to build the 4.2-meter which is constantly leading to new Discovery Channel Telescope, which is fossil exposures and subsequent planned to be operational by 2010. The discoveries. The geologic resources telescope will research Near Earth already discovered yielded enough Objects, extrasolar planets, and objects fossil remains to allow a detailed in the Kuiper Belt that lie just beyond reconstruction of a key time in earth’s our solar system. evolutionary history, the late Triassic.
Meteor Crater is an example of what happens when space meets Earth. Long Other Comparable Representations considered a volcanic crater, a young that Together with Their Associated Eugene Shoemaker proved in 1960 Resources Substantively what one of the crater’s earlier owners Contributed to the Nation’s had always suspected since the turn of Heritage the century—that it was caused by a meteor impact. Meteor Crater is the The previous nine criteria, as well as first proven meteor impact site on earth the rest of the study, adequately and the best-preserved. The explain the heritage of the Little information gained at Meteor Crater Colorado and its significance both led to the development of the field of regionally and nationally. astrogeology and the identification of
Draft: 8 April 2008 chapter 5 supporting resources and affected environment
SUPPORTING RESOURCES Grand Canyon Trust, Flagstaff: This nonprofit organization focuses its This chapter inventories all National efforts on many projects including air Historic Landmarks and properties quality and energy, forests, listed on the National Register of landscape protection and restoration, Historic Places. The quality and water, and culturally appropriate importance of these places have development projects on Native already been recognized at the national American reservations. Its extensive level as being significant to the history volunteer program allows people to and culture of the region and the engage in hands-on activities that nation. Additionally, resources that increase their appreciation and support the richness of living in the knowledge of the region. Little Colorado region, but that do not fit squarely into one of the seven main Local historical societies and heritage themes, are also listed and museums, Gallup, Holbrook, explained. Ramah, Snowflake, Show Low, White Mountain, Winslow: These historical societies or heritage (LIST OF NATIONAL HISTORIC foundations support a range of LANDMARKS AND NATIONAL programs, events, and sites tnat REGISTER SITES FORTHCOMING) interpret many different aspects of life in their respective communities. Other Supporting Resources Historical information and exhibits, Native American artifacts, local Cushman Art Museum, artists, and more are given public Springerville: A remarkable access and attention by these collection of Renaissance to early 20th organizations. century European art, the pieces are the gift of Renee Scharf Cushman and Museum of Northern Arizona are on display by appointment. Ventures Program, Flagstaff: The
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Ventures Program offers a wide and candle-dipping. The collections range of educational trips throughout of the museum contain farm the southern Colorado Plateau machinery, a logging locomotive, region. From geology to Native pioneer clothing, household culture to historic roads, participants furnishings, and other memorabilia. always travel with a recognized expert in the field and are afforded Roden Crater, east of Flagstaff: rare, intimate opportunities to Roden Crater is the vision of artist experience and learn. Jim Turrell. Turrell has exhibited across Europe, in Japan, as well as in Northern Arizona University, the United States. His Roden Crater Flagstaff: The university’s Ceramic project is a work in progress. Initially Complex is home to Tozan kilns. The begun in 1972, major construction wood-fire kilns, which produce an began in 1999 and is ongoing. When unusual type of finish on clay pieces, compelte, the crater will be were developed in Japan and are transformed into an observatory of exceedingly rare in the Western sorts designed speficially for viewing Hemisphere (the only other known night skies. site is in British Columbia, Canada). As a result, the university has hosted Valle Redondo Days, Springerville a number of international ceramics and Eagar; Pioneer Days, workshops and conferences since Snowflake; Ramah Pioneer Days, their completion in 1985. The vision Ramah: These community of the kilns’ builder, master Japanese celebrations bring together foods, ceramist Yukio Yamamotot, included music, sporting events, dances, a Japanese teahouse to be built at the crafts, and activities that celebrate the site. This was completed in 2002, and founding and history of the now hosts public programs. The respective towns. Valle Redondo university also maintains an art Days celebrate the community’s museum that is open to the public connection to John Wayne, who and sponsors a number of owned the 26 Bar Ranch in Eagar as performing arts and film series. An the ancient and modern culture of the Elderhostel program also operates ranch’s current owners, the Hopi from the campus and since 1983 has Tribe. offered more than 50 programs for seniors who want to explore, learn, and really understand the life and AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT land of northern Arizona and western New Mexico. How will the proposed designation affect the natural and cultural Pioneer Museum, Flagstaff: The resources mentioned in this and Arizona Historical Society operates previous chapters? This is an important this museum, the building of which question as the importance of the was originally built in 1908 as a region’s resources has already been county hospital. The museum demonstrated previously in this study. features an annual Wood Festival and Exact and specific effects are an Independence Day Celebration impossible to detail at this stage of the featuring living history camps and proposed Area’s development, but demonstrations of early European- general effects are expected to include settler crafts such as woodworking the following.
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EXPECTED POSITIVE EFFECTS to all communities in the Area and in marketing all of the opportunities as a National Heritage Areas are designed, diverse menu of potential experiences. of course, to facilitate numerous positive changes in a community in regards to natural and cultural Additional Funding for Education, preservation efforts, education, Preservation, or Heritage Tourism heritage tourism development, greater Efforts support for local economies, among other benefits. The following is how. At some point, good intentions and good will need financial backing. The numerous education, preservation, and An Increase in Regional heritage tourism efforts already Coordination of Conservation or underway in the Little Colorado region Preservation Efforts attest to the desire of people and communities to pursue these types of As has been shown in Chapter 3, the projects. As most involved with the individual natural and cultural projects will say, however, adequate resources of the Little Colorado River funding is one of the most difficult Valley are interrelated. The experience aspects of the project to develop. The of one community with a particular National Heritage Area can be a source type of resource may be extremely of matching funds for projects as well helpful for another community with a as a source of technical guidance to similar resource facIng a similar help ensure those funds are put to use preservation issue. The National for the maximum benefit. Heritage Area can provide a forum in which these experiences are shared and assistance given. Greater Ability to Raise Awareness of the Little Colorado River Region on a National or International Scale An Increase in Regional Coordination of Heritage Again, while one community may not Tourism Efforts be able to attract national or international attention, the region as a Heritage travelers typically like a mix whole contains a cohesive and dynamic of things to do and experience during heritage that many find intriguing. An their trips. Most Little Colorado analogous example would be the Napa communities are too small individually Valley of California. Napa Valley to host visitors with wide-ranging contains about 10 separate cities and interests for an extended period of towns and additional parks, lakes, and time. However, the diversity of the National Recreation Areas, but to most region as a whole provides plenty of people the region is simply known as opportunities to keep visitors in the Napa Valley. The American Southwest region for as long as they would wish. as a whole already receives many When communities cross-promote national and international visitors, but instead of compete, more tourism the Little Colorado region falls behind dollars stay closer to home. The other neighboring regions in terms of National Heritage Area can be the number of visitors it receives. influential in making the Area’s Raised awareness, along with more different tourism opportunities known developed heritage tourism
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infrastructure and offerings, will make to projects funded or undertaken by the the region more well-known and National Heritage Area will ensure that understood. the quality of life in communities is enhanced or maintained. Projects that are culturally, environmentally, and New Investment in the Region economically appropriate will reinforce the values and landscape upon which Many of the potential benefits work the communities were intially built. hand-in-hand with each other. As initial conservation, education, and tourism projects are completed and the POTENTIAL NEGATIVES region gains wider recognition, funding EFFECTS agencies and foundations, as well as private individuals and entrepreneurs, As with any endeavor, negative effects will look to the Little Colorado region’s can occur along with positive effects. success and want to contribute. The Because participation in any National average ratio of federal dollars to other Heritage Area program or plan is investments all National Heritage voluntary, individual communities or Areas taken as a whole have been able individual residents can weigh the to attract is 1:8, though in some Areas potential positive and negative impacts the amount of non-federal investment of a particular project beforehand and is much higher. choose to participate or not given their personal evaluation of the situation. As a whole, the negative impacts of Support of Local Economies designation are few and related to an increase in tourism. The National Heritage Area will focus on the aspects of a community that A raw increase in tourism can increase make it unique and on projects that negative environmental and social reinforce its own character. Many times impacts. These amount to what distinguishes one community environmental impacts related to from another are the types of higher rates of use of trails, lakes, and businesses and industries found within other natural areas or the wear and tear the community and the specific look of historic or pre-historic structures and feel of its built environment. associated with an increase in the National Heritage Areas have a history number of visitors. Regarding social of supporting local businesses and impacts, in any community, there are downtown development and the people who welcome tourists and proposed Little Colorado River Valley people who do not. Any increase in National Heritage Area has the same tourism may be seen as a negative potential. impact by those who do not like tourism in general, but an increase in tourism is often welcome by those who Quality of Life own or work in a variety of businesses. Yet, the negative impacts of increased The proposed Little Colorado River tourism are not expected to be serious Valley National Heritage Area is a due to several factors. place of diverse cultures, communities, and industries, yet all overlap and A large amount of the negative impacts affect each other. A balanced approach associated with tourism has to do with
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the pollution associated with travel. As its tourist offerings are diverse, no one noted elsewhere in this study, both community will receive the brunt of a Arizona and New Mexico are already dramatic increase in tourist numbers popular tourist destinations as a whole and therefore what minimal negative and the I-40 corridor is heavily impacts may occur will be diffused traveled. Enticing tourists who are throughout the region and remain at a already traveling through or near the level that is easy to manage. The Little Colorado region to make stops increased revenues from overnight within the region will not add tourists and increased incomes from significantly to the amount of travel fees for tourist activities and attractions they are already doing. Furthermore, can be used in part to maintain tourist the goal of heritage tourism is to have facilities and attractions. Additionally, visitors stay for longer periods of time heritage tourists, when compared to in a region as opposed to simply the total tourism market, tend to spend attracting a higher number of visitors. more and be more respectful of the Visitors who spend one or more nights local community and environment. in a community significantly increase Thus, their positive impacts are greater the amount of revenue a community and their negative impacts are less than realizes as compared to day-tripper can be expected from the standard tourists. If visitors who come to the tourist. Little Colorado can fill their vacation time within the region, then there is While the National Heritage Area, by less incentive for them to travel to law, cannot interfere with development more distant destinations, thus of any kind, it can choose what type of potentially reducing travel-related tourism development it supports as an impacts, and dollars spent in one organization. Localized tourism that community still can still benefit the respects cultural values and economy of the neighboring environmental integrity will be the community. Because the Little types of tourism the National Heritage Colorado region is relatively large and Area will promote.
Draft: 8 April 2008 chapter 6 potential for economic development based on heritage tourism
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF boundaries are internationally known NATIONAL HERITAGE geological attractions such as the DESIGNATION Petrified Forest and culturally renowned features such as the Navajo, Tourism is one of the most important Hopi, and Zuni Nations. The increased segments of the economy, contributing recognition brought by designation as a $11.8 billion into Arizona’s economy National Heritage Area will build on and $6.5 billion to the economy of New an existing tourism industry and Mexico in 2006. Compared to urban encourage the development of areas, tourism contributes a larger partnerships throughout the region that proportion to the economy in rural will create opportunities for new areas such as the Little Colorado River tourism development. Valley Area because of the scarcity of other income producing industries. A Today’s visitors are seeking unique Congressional National Heritage Area experiences as a means of fulfillment. designation for the Little Colorado The Little Colorado River Valley Area River Valley Area can have a has the raw ingredients for producing significant impact on the region’s numerous itineraries with high dollar capacity for economic growth. A value. The seed funding provided for comparative study by Michigan State designated Areas promotes University found that National collaborations among private and Heritage Areas were able to double the public entities and draws together economic impact of tourism within 10 formerly separate entities. Such years after designation resulting in collaboration often results in more jobs, business income, and tax cooperative marketing efforts that link revenues. multiple tourist attractions and public and private entities to create a tourism The proposed National Heritage Area experience that has a stronger appeal currently attracts domestic and than the sum of the individual pieces. international visitors who come to view The economic importance of creating the dramatic landscapes and learn such experiences has been clearly about its cultural heritage. Within the recognized. Modern tourists are not
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Table 6.1. Visitation at major attractions within the proposed Little higher price since they perceive Colorado River Valley National Heritage Area, 2006. coordinated experiences as having Number of Attraction higher value. An analysis of the Visitors attributes of the Little Colorado National Park Service River Valley Area reveal a strong Petrified Forest 581,801 potential for the development of Wupatki National Monument 242,980 four types of experience tourism: Sunset Crater National Monument 221,406 cultural heritage, natural environment, outdoor recreation, Walnut Canyon National Monument 120,820 and culinary. Hubbell Trading Post Natl. Historic Site 77,099 El Morro National Monument 35,000 Total visitation to NPS attractions 1,271,906 Attributes of the Little Colorado National Forest Service River Valley Area Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest N/A Coconino National Forest (2005) 3,250,000 Visitation Cibola National Forest N/A Of the 33.7 million visitors to Navajo Tribal :Parks Arizona, approximately 18.9% visit Little Colorado River Gorge (viewpoint) 43,363 (’07) Northern Arizona, a large region of which the Little Colorado River State Parks Valley Area is a portion. Within Homol’ovi Ruins State Park, Arizona 91,259 this area there are six attractions Lyman Lake State Park, Arizona 34,628 managed by the National Park Riordan Mansion State Park, Arizona 25,915 Service, parts of three National Fool Hollow State Park, Arizona 15,979 Forests, five state parks and three Red Rock State Park, New Mexico N/A major private attractions (Table Private Attractions 6.1). Four of the public lands in the Lowell Observatory 72,766 proposed heritage area are listed in the top 25 natural attractions for Museum of Northern Arizona 69,152 the state of Arizona: the Petrified Meteor Crater ~216,000 (’07) Forest National Park, Wupatki (AZOT 2007, Dean Runyan Associates) National Monument, Sunset Crater National Monument, and Walnut satisfied with simply observing a Canyon National Monument. When the number of interesting places, but rather visitation numbers for the five Arizona seek unique experiences that leave attractions managed by the National them with favorable sense-of-place Park Service are combined, the number feelings and an attachment to the of visits total more than 1.2 million destination that results in repeat (AZOT 2007). In addition, El Morro visitation and external sales. The National Monument in New Mexico development of such experiences attracts 35,000 visitors annually (NPS requires public land management El Morro). Three National Forests agencies, government offices, and compliment the natural attractions: operators of lodging, food service, Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest, tours, and attractions to work together Coconino National Forest, and Cibola to create memorable experiences. This National Forest. In addition to the type of tourism results in greater federally managed lands, four state economic value to the destination parks provide opportunities for because visitors are willing to pay a cultural, heritage, and outdoor tourism.
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Cultural Heritage Tourism Painted Desert county park, Walnut Canyon National Monument, the The Little Colorado River Valley has Petrified Forest National Park and the unique and varied cultural and historic Painted Desert. The uniqueness and resources upon which to draw to build drama of the landscape has the a viable cultural heritage tourism potential to attract more visitors than it industry. Several State and National currently does. The Petrified Forest Parks feature the ruins and petroglyphs National Park currently attracts 600,000 of a variety of cultures from the earliest annually but it has the capacity to to more modern-day residents. In handle a great deal more visitors. addition, local museums and the Designation of the Little Colorado Museum of Northern Arizona house River Valley as a National Heritage numerous artifacts that tell the story of Area will facilitate cooperation among the land and its people. Remnants of the various land management agencies the lives of the ancestors of the modern and local stakeholders. Such Native American nations that currently cooperation may lead to the inhabit the region can be experienced development of tourism experiences by visitors. Hopi, Zuni, Navajo and that link the awe inspiring landscapes White Mountain Apache Indians to the geological and anthropological continue to produce highly prized rugs, history of the region. The designation jewelry, and pottery. All of this is has the potential to change the current further enhanced by numerous art, tourist activities from site-seeing to craft, and music festivals. Each of these experiences that give visitors a richer resources has the potential to bring and more connected experience with economic growth to the region. The the landscape and people. Experience numerous cultural heritage resources tourism keeps the visitors in the region located within the Little Colorado longer and attracts higher spending River Valley Area are explained and visitors, thereby increasing the listed throughout the seven heritage economic impact of their visitation. The theme sections of Chapter 3. Sacred and Enchanted Landscapes and Outdoor Recreation sections of Chapter Natural Environment Tourism 3 describe and list the dramatic landscape features located in the Little The striking and dramatic landscapes Colorado River Valley. in the Little Colorado River Valley draw tour groups and individual Outdoor Recreation Tourism travelers to the region. Visitors come to view the sweeping open vistas and the Expansive and extraordinary world’s most rare examples of Triassic landscapes within the proposed Area period petrified wood and dinosaur provide a unique and appealing fossils. Inside the proposed Little backdrop for a myriad of outdoor Colorado River Valley are notable recreation activities. Well maintained geographic features such as the Painted trails and facilities in National and Desert, the volcanic San Francisco State Parks as well as recreation areas Peaks, the Mogollon Rim, and Hopi in the extensive Coconino, Cibola, and Mesas. Visitors are attracted to the Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests are numerous publicly managed lands particularly attractive to visitors who including the Coronado Trail National enjoy hiking, biking, hunting, fishing, Scenic Byway, Wupatki National and camping. Hikers can hike from the Monument, Sunset Crater, the Little southern border of Arizona to its
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northern border and back again on the cultures that inhabit the area. These Arizona Trail, part of which is located early residents survived largely on in the Little Colorado River Valley. The maize, squash, pine nuts, game, and Arizona Trail is but one of the Anasazi beans. Another very numerous trails that are maintained for interesting and unique food is the the enjoyment of residents and visitors Churro sheep currently being raised on alike. Hunters are attracted to the the Navajo reservation. These sheep are wildlife, especially the elk that inhabit direct descendants of the Churrea these protected lands. The features of sheep brought into the area by the mountainous regions attract winter Spanish in the 1590s. These types of sport enthusiasts and stargazers who culinary tours can be enriched with the appreciate the dark skies and clear air. history and culture of the people who Climbers come to be challenged by developed these foods. Ingredients impressive canyon walls that beg to be such as prickly pear cactus and pine scaled. Open spaces with spectacular nuts can be featured in local products scenery facilitate ballooning excursions that are sold in tourist shops. Working and festivals. The drama of the outdoor food producers can also benefit from features of the region provide tourism by opening their wineries, opportunities for economic farms, and ranches to tourism or by development by setting the stage for having local restaurants and retailers the production of unique tourism sell their products to a knowledgeable experiences designed to present a and appreciative public of both challenge to and encourage the residents and tourists. Such operations involvement of the visitor in the can also offer classes, workshops, and landscape. These opportunities are special events. described at length in the Outdoor Recreation section of Chapter 3. Economic Value of Tourism to Culinary Tourism the Area
Culinary tourism is one of the fastest Tax Revenues and Income from growing segments of the industry. This Tourism lucrative segment of the tourism market is drawn to experiences where Tourism is an important part of the they can learn to prepare foods that economy and a significant contributor they have not previously experienced. to local, state, and federal tax revenues. Visitors delight in the discovery of new In 2006, $1.5 billion in Arizona state ingredients and new cooking and local tax revenues was generated techniques. They are anxious to gain from direct travel spending and the information about foods that they federal government collected another know little or nothing about. An $1.2 billion in tax revenues (Runyan important motivation for culinary 2006). Of the $1.5 billion in state and tourism is to do something no one else local tax revenues, 5.3 percent ($78.3 in their circle of friends has done. million) came from the three counties Unique heritage and modern culinary (Coconino, Navajo, and Apache) in the experiences can be created based on the proposed Little Colorado River Valley resources of the Little Colorado River National Heritage Area. Of the $18.6 Valley. A particularly intriguing billion spent by visitors in Arizona, $1.2 culinary experience can be developed billion, or 6.6 percent, was spent in the around the foods of the ancient three counties. Especially interesting is
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Table 6.2. Economic impact of tourism in the proposed heritage area. State and Local Expenditures % Tax Revenues Region ($ Million) % State Jobs State $ Million % State Arizona 18,600.0 173,000 1,479.0 Coconino County 834.1 4.5 10,740 6.2 55.0 3.7 Navajo County 259.1 1.4 3,040 1.8 15.3 1.0 Apache County 128.5 0.7 1,730 1.0 8.0 0.5 Tri County Total 1,221.7 6.6 15,510 9.0 78.3 5.3
New Mexico 5,007.6 55,630 411.0 Catron County 4.1 0.1 30 0.1 0.1 0.1 Cibola 63.7 1.3 670 1.2 5.0 1.2 McKinley 149.9 3.0 1,490 3.0 11.7 3.0 Tri County Total 217.7 4.3 2,190 3.9 16.8 4.0
the number of jobs generated by high. From 1998 to 2005, the three tourism expenditures. Of the 173,000 Arizona county regions experienced a tourism related jobs in Arizona, 15,500 2.6 percent decline in tourism thousand or approximately 9 percent employment while the state of Arizona are in the designated region. saw a 14.2 percent increase in tourism related jobs. The highest increase in In New Mexico, tourism accounted for employment (16.1 percent) occurred in $411 million in state and local taxes of a rural county in which a tourism which approximately 4 percent came business, the Hon-Dah Resort-Casino from the three counties in the Little and Conference Center, was Colorado River Valley Area. The region developed. accounts for less than 4 percent of the jobs in the state and a similar percent of The natural, cultural, recreational and local and state tax revenues. culinary resources of the Little Colorado River Valley Area provide Table 6.2 provides detailed data on the resources for the creation of expenditures, jobs, and tax revenues. tourism experiences that will result in The proposed Area receives a relatively increasing employment opportunities small portion of the economic benefits for both the skilled and unskilled labor of tourism compared to other counties. force. A tourism experience that Increasing tourism opportunities may includes a personal guide, hand crafted result in improving the ability of the memorabilia, locally grown food and area to attract tourism dollars that pampered lodging will require more result in an increase in jobs and tax employees than the current type of revenues. tourism. The heritage area designation encourages the development of rich Tourism Provides Employment experiences while protecting and Opportunities preserving the resources that attract visitors. It encourages cooperation The data displayed in Table 6.3 between public land management demonstrates the importance of agencies and private landowners, each tourism development in rural areas one benefiting from cooperative efforts where unemployment is relatively while contributing to economic growth.
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Table 6.3. Tourism job growth, 1998 to 2005. growth. According to 1998 2005 Percent the US Census Bureau, Region Jobs Jobs Change the domestic tourism market increased from Arizona 148,000 169,000 +14.2 100 million to 200 Coconino County 11,230 10,740 -5.3 million from 1967- Navajo County 3,210 3,040 -4.4 2006. By 2040, the 2006 Apache County 1,490 1,730 +16.1 figure will double to Tri County Total 15,930 15,510 -2.6 400 million. As the value of the dollar Growth of the Tourism Industry in declines in relation to the Euro, the US Arizona 1998-2005 is becoming an increasingly attractive destination to European travelers. While tax revenues from tourism in International tourism has rebounded Arizona grew 57.6 percent between significantly from the decline after the 1998 and 2005, tax revenues from 911 Attacks and continues to tourism in the tri-county region grew demonstrate strong growth. Arizona is by only 28.4 percent. The three counties one of the fastest growing states in the in the designated region experienced a US. Its population has nearly mere 29.5 percent increase in tourism quadrupled since 1960 when the state’s spending compared with a 49.1 percent population was roughly 1.3 million. increase in the state of Arizona. The Today, the U.S. Census Bureau figures suggest the proposed Little estimates the population has grown to Colorado River Valley Area, especially nearly 6.2 million and will continue to Coconino County, is not capturing its grow until the population doubles in share of tourism’s growth potential. 2020. This increased population will Coconino County, the largest county in result in more resident travel and more the state, shows the poorest travel to rural areas and neighboring performance with a meager 23.2 states such as New Mexico. Another percent increase in tourist spending in increase in tourism will occur when the seven years. While Apache County is new residents entertain visiting friends keeping pace and exceeding state and family. Currently, visiting friends averages in tourist spending, the other and relatives account for more than two counties lag behind state averages. one-half of all visitors to Phoenix and The significant increase in jobs in Tucson. Consequently, there will be a Apache County (54.6 percent) can be demand for new tourism products; largely attributed to the development especially those that help the new of the Hon-Dah Resort-Casino and residents understand and appreciate Conference Center demonstrating the the land, history, and culture of importance of tourism development to Arizona. The designation of the Little rural communities. Table 6.4 displays Colorado River Valley Area as a data related to the growth of tourism in national heritage area will stimulate Arizona and the three counties in the interest in visitation resulting in proposed heritage area from 1998-2005. significant economic growth.
Growth of the Tourism Market Aging Population
The U.S. domestic tourism market Two-thirds of the Baby Boomers list continues to experience vigorous travel as their preferred retirement past
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Table 6.4. Growth of tourism in Arizona, 1998 to 2005. State & State & Local Local Tax Tax Tourist Tourist Revenue Revenue Spending Spending 1998 2005 % 1998 2005 % Region ($ Millions) ($ Millions) Change ($ Millions) ($ Millions) Change Arizona 938 1479 57.7 11800 17600 49.1 Coconino 44.2 55 24.4 678.8 836.5 23.2 County Navajo 11.1 15.3 37.8 183.5 259 41.4 County Apache 5.7 8.0 40.4 83.1 128.5 54.6 County Tri County Total 61.0 78.3 28.4 945.4 1224 29.5
time. This group of active travelers will months. Interest in the culture and require new types of tourism activities. history of a region is equally important They will be looking for tourism in to resident visitors, out of state, and which they can be involved and from international visitors. Visitors from which they can benefit. outside the region were motivated by novelty, seeking something new and Educational tourism, ecotourism, different while local residents felt culinary tourism, and voluntourism are visiting such attractions would enhance but a few of the types of tourism that their quality of life. For most, visiting will engage these avid travels who cultural and heritage attractions is fun. have the interest, time, and financial Approximately 1.6 million of Arizona’s resources to travel (Cothran 2007). As visitors are inspired to visit the region demonstrated earlier, the proposed because of its unique history and Area has the natural, historical, and culture (Andereck and Ng 2006). cultural resources with which to develop tourism experiences that will appeal to the large group of retirees. Hispanic Tourists
A relatively large proportion (28.5 Cultural and Heritage Tourism percent) of Arizona’s population has Hispanic heritage. Hispanics tend to The results of a recent survey indicate recreate differently from other groups. that the majority of visitors to Arizona They often travel in large, (58 percent) wanted to experience the multigenerational groups and are local culture and learn about the attracted to outdoor areas with picnic history of a region. These visitors were facilities. The heritage area can take seeking an appreciation and knowledge advantage of the economic of the cultural heritage of the area they opportunities of attracting travelers were visiting. More than 90% of the with Hispanic backgrounds by offering visitors had visited at least two cultural local, intergenerational activities and heritage attractions in the past six events (Cothran 2007).
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Need for New Product Potential for Economic Growth Development A National Heritage Area designation Significant changes in the types of will provide incentives for the tourism products desired by emerging development of tourism products and markets are expected in the next 5 to 15 seed money for improved marketing years. Recent retirees who are well- resulting in an increase of tourism traveled are seeking experiences that dollars that will drive regional enrich their lives. These higher economic development. The increase in spending experienced tourists are now the number of jobs and tax revenues to seeking authentic tourism activities in fund infrastructure improvements will which they can be actively involved. open the area to other economic 2008 marks the year when the first development opportunities. While the group of baby boomers will turn 62, a designated region has a considerable popular retirement age. Two-thirds of number of attractions and places of the retirees are likely to be spending interest as well as a rich history and their retirement years traveling. culture that is of interest to both Consequently, in the next few years, domestic and international visitors, it retired baby boomers will be lacks a critical mass of attractions with dominating the tourism market. significant drawing power. Boomers with considerable travel experience will be seeking unique The organization of the area into a destinations with authentic experiential recognizable entity creates the potential tourism products. They will be looking for the development of tourism for tourism that they can talk about experiences that draw upon the rich when they get home, products that will resources of the region to provide actively involve them and products visitors with a memorable and unique that enrich their knowledge, altruism experience. Such tourism products and/or status. Destinations that add meet the demands of the current new products to attract this lucrative tourism market that seeks enrichment and growing market are likely to see and distinctive activities that are considerable economic gain. unmatched elsewhere. Regions that can provide these unique tourism Heritage area designations create fertile experiences will benefit from the ground for the development of willingness of the market to pay cultural, historic, and nature tourism premium prices for a product that experiences because of the incentives to cannot be duplicated elsewhere. preserve and enhance the unique character of the region. The types of A National Heritage Area designation tourists attracted to the attributes of the is an effective economic development Little Colorado River Valley Area are strategy because it significantly some of the most desirable kinds of increases heritage and natural tourism tourists. Cultural, heritage, and nature thereby increasing business income, the tourist tend to stay longer and spend number of jobs available in the area more money than traditional mass and tax revenues. Rehabilitation of tourists. The Arizona Office of Tourism historic buildings supported by grants ranks nature tourism as the fastest and loans combined with federal and growing type of tourism in the state. state credits available because of the
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designation will create new housing, impact from tourism activity doubled. help revive historic neighborhoods and A Michigan State University study downtowns, stimulate the growth of a found that such increases are typical. A rehabilitation industry, and create new doubling of tourism expenditures in investment opportunities. the Little Colorado River Valley would raise the income in the three Arizona Economic growth can be substantial for counties from tourism to close to $2 a designated National Heritage Area. billion. Tax revenues would increase by For example, in the ten years following 78 million and 15,000 new jobs would the designation of Path of Progress be added to the tri county region in National Heritage Area in Arizona. Pennsylvania, the annual economic
PRIMARY REFERENCES
Andereck, K., and Ng, E. 2006 Arizona Cultural Heritage Tourism Study. Arizona Office of Tourism. Accessed 28 December 2007.
Arizona Office of Tourism 2007a Arizona 2006 Tourism Facts. Statewide and Regional Tourism Indicators. Year-end summary. Accessed 1 January 2008.
2007b Arizona Travel Impacts 1998-2006. Accessed 28 December 2007.
2007c AZ Tourism Indicators. Accessed 1 January 2008.
2007d Top Natural Attractions 2006. Accessed 28 December 2007.
2007e Top Private Attractions 2006. Accessed 28 December 2007.
Cothran, C. 2007 Arizona’s Tourism Future: Effects of Population & Demographic Change. Arizona Hospitality Research and Resource Center, Flagstaff.
Dean Runyan Associates 2007 2006 by the Numbers Arizona Governor’s Conference on Tourism. Research Breakout Session. 12-13 July 12-13. Presented by AOT Research Division.
National Park Service 2007a El Morro National Monument. Frequently asked questions. Accessed 1 January 2008.
Draft: 8 April 2008 Chapter 6: Potential for Economic Development Based on Heritage Tourism Page 197
National Park Service 2007b Petrified Forest National Park. Frequently asked questions. Accessed 26 December 26 2007.
New Mexico Tourism Department 2007 Travel Economic Impact Model. Accessed 30 January 30 2008.
Draft: 8 April 2008 chapter 7 alternative actions
ALTERNATIVE 1: CONTINUE There would be no one person, as in a CURRENT EFFORTS paid staff member, specifically dedicated to coordination and With this alternative, there would be development of the whole region and no designation of a Little Colorado therefore such coordination and River Valley National Heritage Area development would be highly unlikely. and conservation, education, and tourism development efforts would continue as they have in the past. ALTERNATIVE 2: DESIGNATION OF A STATE HERITAGE AREA
Expected Outcomes of With this alternative, the Little Alternative 1 Colorado River Valley would become a heritage area jointly designated by the Little Colorado community efforts to States of Arizona and New Mexico. conserve resources, provide cultural education, or develop heritage tourism have largely been on a specific Expected Outcomes of community-by-community or Alternative 2 site-by-site scale. Many local governments and private businesses, Several established National Heritage organizations, and citizens have and Areas (Lackawanna Heritage Valley would continue to donate their time, National Heritage Area and Schuylkill talents, and limited funding to projects River National & State Heritage in their immediate locale. Past efforts Corridor are two examples) were state- have been effective in ensuring the designated heritage areas before their integrity of many individual heritage national designations. In such cases, sites and practices, but coordination on achieving state-level designation can be a larger scale has not occurred to any seen as a helpful, developmental step great extent. Many community leaders towards greater national recognition. recognize the importance of Neither Arizona nor New Mexico has coordinating efforts across a larger an established program of this type, region but lack the funding or however, and therefore this is not a personnel power to do so effectively. viable alternative at this time. Arizona
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has considered starting a state heritage established over time, it could tackle area program, but nothing is in place larger-scale efforts than any one now and will not be for the foreseeable community might be able to do on its future. Waiting for the establishment of own. For these reasons, Alternative 3 is a state-level program before seeking the preferred alternative. national-level designation would squander the considerable amount of time, energy, and resources that have ALTERNATIVE 4: DESIGNATION been committed to this current effort. OF A LITTLE COLORADO RIVER VALLEY NATIONAL HERITAGE AREA ACCORDING TO THE MAP ALTERNATIVE 3: DESIGNATION PROVIDED IN APPENDIX A OF A LITTLE COLORADO RIVER VALLEY NATIONAL HERITAGE With this alternative, Congress would AREA establish a Little Colorado River Valley National Heritage Area according to With this alternative, Congress would the map provided in Appendix XX, establish a Little Colorado River Valley would designate a local coordinating National Heritage Area, would entity to carry out regional goals and designate a local coordinating entity to projects, and would appropriate funds carry out regional goals and projects, during the succeeding 15 years to and would appropriate funds during ensure its success. the succeeding 15 years to ensure its success. Expected Outcomes of Alternative 4 Expected Outcomes of Alternative 3 The establishment of a National Heritage Area according to the map The establishment of a National provided in Appendix XX would Heritage Area would provide funding achieve many of the same regional and a designated non-profit coordination and financial benefits organization dedicated specifically to described in Alternative 3, except that a the development of the entire region. significant number of related resources With a dedicated staff and financial of considerable quality would be support, success in executing ignored. The slight benefits realized by educational, resource conservation, or a somewhat smaller region in terms of heritage tourism development projects easier coordination and a marginal would be more likely than under the concentration of financial resources previous two alternatives. The status of were not viewed by a group consulted a national designation would attract with in January of 2008 as outweighing heritage tourists as well as additional the considerable loss of heritage non-federal investment in the region. resources and potential partnerships As the Little Colorado River Valley the map in Appendix XX indicates. National Heritage Area became more
Draft: 8 April 2008 appendix a an act
To establish the Little Colorado River Valley National Heritage Area.
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled,
SEC. 1. SHORT TITLE.
This Act may be cited as the ‘Little Colorado River Valley National Heritage Area Act.’
SEC. 2. DEFINITIONS.
In this Act: (1) HERITAGE AREA – The term ‘heritage area’ means the Little Colorado River Valley National Heritage Area established by section 4. (2) LOCAL COORDINATING ENTITY – The term ‘local coordinating entity’ means the Little Colorado Heritage Partnership or a successor of the Little Colorado Heritage Partnership. (3) MANAGEMENT PLAN – The term ‘management plan’ means the management plan for the Little Colorado River Valley National Heritage Area. (4) SECRETARY – The term ‘Secretary’ means the Secretary of the Interior. (5) STATES – The term “states” means the States of Arizona and New Mexico.
SEC. 3. FINDINGS AND PURPOSE.
(a) FINDINGS – Congress finds that – (1) the natural, cultural, and historic heritage of the Little Colorado River Valley in Northeast Arizona and Western New Mexico is nationally significant; (2) within the entire Little Colorado River watershed are places that witnessed and continue to demonstrate –
Draft: 8 April 2008 Appendix A: An Act Page 201
(A) the unique and varied landscape of the American Southwest which is viewed as sacred by many Native American tribes and awe- inspiring to most residents and visitors; (B) the pattern and lasting legacy of ancient Native American trading trails and networks followed by American exploration and expansion during the 19th century which included overland trails, roads, and the development of the railroad; (C) the ancient and modern homeland of three distinct Native American tribes (Navajo, Hopi, and Zuni); (D) the sophisticated forms of agriculture developed by Native Americans for the unique and challenging climate of the region as well as the impact of Anglo-American logging, ranching, and mining in the earlier settlement and modern-day economy of the region; (E) past human cultures and lifestyles through a rich and varied archaeological record, including sites that are still important in the religious practices of modern-day Native American tribes; (F) the practice of fine arts and crafts in a style that is recognized both nationally and internationally as distinct to the American Southwest; and (G) opportunities for diverse outdoor recreation experiences in an environmental setting that cannot be found in other parts of the country (3) the natural, cultural, and historic resources within the Little Colorado River watershed are significant in number and retain a degree of integrity high enough to afford them a position of high value in local communities as well as the possibility of being places, events, or activities that can enable visitors to understand and appreciate the character of the Little Colorado River region; and (4) the Little Colorado River watershed demonstrates a unique and lasting contribution to the development of the United States as a whole. (b) PURPOSE – The purpose of this subtitle is to establish the Heritage Area to – (1) foster a close working relationship among the private sector, residents, non-profit organizations, tribal and local governments, and state and federal agencies; and (2) encourage the support, promotion, interpretation, and enhancement of the heritage of communities in the Little Colorado River watershed through voluntary means while strengthening local economic opportunities.
SEC. 4. LITTLE COLORADO RIVER VALLEY NATIONAL HERITAGE AREA.
(a) ESTABLISHMENT – There is hereby established the Little Colorado River Valley National Heritage Area. (b) BOUNDARIES – The Heritage Area shall be composed of the natural, geo- physical watershed of the Little Colorado River, with minor adjustments, as identified on the map entitled “Little Colorado River Valley National Heritage Area,” numbered ______and dated ______.
Draft: 8 April 2008 Appendix A: An Act Page 202
(c) LOCAL COORDINATING ENTITY – The Little Colorado Heritage Partnership, a non-profit corporation chartered in the State of Arizona, shall serve as the management entity for the heritage area. (d) NATIONAL PARK SERVICE – The heritage area shall not be deemed to be a unit of the National Park System.
SEC. 5. MANAGEMENT PLAN.
A management plan submitted under this Act for the national heritage area shall present recommendations for the funding, conservation, interpretation, enhancement, and promotion of heritage resources within the area. (a) The management plan shall – (1) be based on existing federal, tribal, state, and local plans and provide for a cooperative and coordinated approach to the enhancement, conservation, interpretation, and promotion of natural, cultural, historic, and recreational resources in the heritage area; (2) ensure private property rights are observed; (3) involve residents, non-profit organizations, the private sector, tribal and local governments, and state and federal agencies during the development of the plan; (4) support the continued development of local economies; (5) identify existing and potential sources of funding; and (6) be submitted to the Secretary for approval no later than three (3) years after the date of enactment of this Act. (b) The Secretary shall – (1) Approve or disapprove the plan no later than 120 days after receipt of the plan. (2) Notify the local coordinating entity upon disapproval of the plan and shall provide — (A) reasons for disapproval; and (B) recommendations for revision. (c) The local coordinating entity may revise and submit the management plan until the plan is approved by the Secretary.
SEC. 6. AUTHORITY AND DUTIES OF THE LOCAL COORDINATING ENTITY.
(a) AUTHORITIES – The local coordinating entity may, for the purposes of preparing and implementing the management plan, use funds made available through this Act to— (1) make grants to, and enter into cooperative agreements with, States or their political subdivisions, federal agencies, tribal governments or their political subdivisions, private organizations, or any person; (2) hire and compensate staff; and (3) enter into contracts for goods and services. (b) DUTIES – The local coordinating entity shall – (1) develop and submit to the Secretary for approval a proposed management plan as described in section 5 no later than three (3) years after the date of enactment of this Act
Draft: 8 April 2008 Appendix A: An Act Page 203
(2) hold public meetings regarding the implementation of the management plan at least annually (3) conduct all activities of the heritage area within the confines of private property rights and the land use plans of federal, state, tribal, and local governments (4) coordinate the individualized efforts of residents, non-profit organizations, the private sector, tribal and local governments, and state and federal agencies in— (A) establishing and maintaining interpretive exhibits in the heritage area (B) developing and maintaining outdoor recreational opportunities in the heritage area (C) increasing public awareness and appreciation for the natural and cultural resources in the heritage area (D) promoting events and attractions based on traditions and cultural lifestyles, when appropriate, and natural resources of the heritage area (E) rehabilitation or protection of archaeological sites, historic structures, and natural places within the heritage area if requested by the owner (F) carrying out other activities that the local coordinating entity agrees are appropriate to fulfill the purposes of this Act and that are consistent with the management plan. (c) ANNUAL REPORTS AND AUDITS (1) For any year in which the local coordinating entity receives Federal funds under this Act, the local coordinating entity shall submit an annual report to the Secretary setting forth accomplishments, expenses and income, and each entity to which any grant was made by the management entity. (2) The local coordinating entity shall make available to the Secretary for audit all records relating to the expenditure of Federal funds and any matching funds. The management entity shall also require, for all agreements authorizing expenditure of Federal funds by other organizations, that the receiving organization make available to the Secretary for audit all records concerning the expenditure of those funds.
SEC. 7. DUTIES OF THE SECRETARY.
(a) IN GENERAL — The Secretary and the heads of other Federal agencies shall, upon request of the local coordinating entity, assist the local coordinating entity in the preparation and implementation of the management plan described in section 5. The Secretary and heads of other Federal agencies may – (1) award grants (2) provide technical assistance and planning and design services (3) offer office space and equipment
Draft: 8 April 2008 Appendix A: An Act Page 204
(4) enter into cooperative agreements with the local coordinating entity or others for the purposes of conserving, interpreting, or enhancing natural and cultural resources in the heritage area. (b) PROHIBITION OF CERTAIN REQUIREMENTS – The Secretary or heads of other Federal agencies may not, as a condition of the award of the assistance in section 7(a), require any recipient of the assistance to enact or modify any land use restriction.
SEC. 8. REQUIREMENTS FOR INCLUSION OF PRIVATE PROPERTY
(a) NOTIFICATION AND CONSENT OF PROPERTY OWNERS REQUIRED — No privately owned property shall be preserved, conserved, or promoted by the management plan for the Heritage Area until the owner of that private property has been notified in writing by the local coordinating entity and has given written consent for such preservation, conservation, or promotion to the coordinating entity. (b) LACK OF EFFECT – No privately owned property shall be considered to be affected or required to comply with any project or plan of the local coordinating entity unless such owners directly and explicitly request, in writing, to be included in the specific project or plan.
SEC. 9 PRIVATE PROPERTY PROTECTIONS; SAVINGS PROVISIONS
(a) ACCESS TO PRIVATE PROPERTY— Nothing in this Act shall be construed to require any private property owner to permit public access (including Federal, State, or local government access) to such private property. Nothing in this subtitle shall be construed to modify any provision of Federal, State, or local law with regard to public access to or use of private lands. (b) LIABILITY- Designation of the heritage area shall not be considered to create any liability, or to have any effect on any liability under any other law, of any private property owner with respect to any persons injured on such private property. (c) RECOGNITION OF LACK OF AUTHORITY TO CONTROL LAND USE— Nothing in this Act shall be construed to modify, enlarge, or diminish any authority of Federal, State, or local governments to regulate land use nor shall it be construed to grant the powers of zoning, land use, or condemnation to the local coordinating entity. (d) PARTICIPATION OF PRIVATE PROPERTY OWNERS IN HERITAGE AREA— Nothing in this Act shall be construed to require the owner of any private property located within the boundaries of the heritage area to participate in or be associated with the heritage area. (e) COOPERATION AND AWARDS OF ASSISTANCE— The local coordinating entity may not, as a condition of cooperation or awarding of technical or financial assistance, require any partner in cooperation or recipient of assistance to enact or modify any land use restriction.
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(f) ACQUISITION OF REAL PROPERTY— The local coordinating entity may not use Federal funds received under this Act to acquire real property or an interest in real property. (g) REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS – Nothing in this Act shall — (1) be considered to impose or form the basis for imposition of any environmental, occupational, safety, or other rule, regulation, standard, license, or permit process that is different from those that would be applicable had the heritage area not been established; and (2) authorize or imply the reservation or appropriation of water or water rights for any purpose as a result of the establishment of this heritage area. (h) EFFECT OF ESTABLISHMENT— The boundaries designated for the heritage area represent the area within which Federal funds appropriated for the purpose of this subtitle shall be expended. The establishment of the heritage area and its boundaries shall not be construed to provide any nonexisting regulatory authority on land use within the heritage area or its viewshed by the Secretary, the National Park Service, or the local coordinating entity. (i) TRIBAL LANDS— Nothing in this Act shall restrict or limit a tribe from protecting cultural or religious sites on tribal lands. (j) TRUST RESPONSIBILITIES— Nothing in this Act shall diminish the Federal Government’s trust responsibilities or government-to-government obligations to any federally recognized Indian tribe. (k) FISH AND WILDLIFE—Nothing in this Act shall diminish the authority of the State or tribal governments to manage fish and wildlife, including the regulation of fishing and hunting within the heritage area.
SEC. 10. SUNSET
The authority of the Secretary to provide assistance under this Act terminates on the date that is 15 years after the date of enactment of this Act.
SEC. 11. AUTHORIZATION OF APPROPRIATIONS.
(a) IN GENERAL - There is authorized to be appropriated to carry out this Act $10,000,000 of which not more than $1,000,000 may be authorized to be appropriated for any fiscal year. (b) 50 PERCENT MATCH - Federal funding provided under this Act may not exceed 50 percent of the total cost of any assistance or grant provided or authorized under this Act.
Draft: 8 April 2008 appendix b alternate heritage area map
Draft: 8 April 2008 appendix c nps criteria for designation
National Park Service National Heritage Areas Critical Steps and Criteria for becoming a National Heritage Area
Critical Steps
The National Park Service has outlined four critical steps that 3. The area provides outstanding opportunities to conserve need to be taken prior to congressional designation of a natural, cultural, historic, and/ or scenic features; national heritage area. These steps are: 4. The area provides outstanding recreational and educational opportunities; 1. Completion of a suitability/feasibility study; 5. Resources that are important to the identified theme or 2. Public involvement in the suitability/feasibility study; themes of the area retain a degree of integrity capable of 3. Demonstration of widespread public support among heritage supporting interpretation; area residents for the proposed designation; and 6. Residents, business interests, non-profit organizations, and 4. Commitment to the proposal from key constituents, which governments within the proposed area that are involved in may include governments, industry, and private, non-profit the planning, have developed a conceptual financial plan that organizations, in addition to area residents. outlines the roles for all participants including the federal government, and have demonstrated support for designation of the area; Suggested Criteria 7. The proposed management entity and units of government supporting the designation are willing to commit to working The following components are helpful in assessing whether an in partnership to develop the heritage area; area may qualify as a national heritage area. A suitability/ 8. The proposal is consistent with continued economic activity feasibility study should include analysis and documentation in the area; that illustrates that: 9. A conceptual boundary map is supported by the public; and 10. The management entity proposed to plan and implement the 1. The area has an assemblage of natural, historic, or cultural project is described. resources that together represent distinctive aspects of American heritage worthy of recognition, conservation, interpretation, and continuing use, and are best managed as such an assemblage through partnerships among public and private entities, and by combining diverse and sometimes noncontiguous resources and active communities; 2. The area reflects traditions, customs, beliefs, and folk life For more information, visit our website: that are a valuable part of the national story; http://www.cr.nps.gov/heritageareas/
Draft: 8 April 2008 appendix d nps distinctive criteria
NATIONAL HERITAGE AREA FEASIBILITY STUDY GUIDELINES
APPENDIX 1
EXAMPLES OF NATIONALLY DISTINCTIVE LANDSCAPES
Nationally distinctive landscapes are places that contain important regional and national stories that, together with their associated natural and/or cultural resources, enable the American people to understand, preserve and celebrate key components of the multi-faceted character of the Nation’s heritage. The landscapes are often places that represent and contain identifiable assemblages of resources with integrity associated with one or more of the following: 1. important historical periods of the Nation and its people;
2. major events, persons and groups that contributed substantively to the Nation’s history, customs, beliefs, and folklore;
3. distinctive cultures and cultural mores;
4. major industries and technological, business and manufacturing innovations/ practices, labor movements and labor advancements that contributed substantively to the economic growth of the Nation and the well-being of its people;
5. transportation innovations and routes that played central roles in important military actions, settlement, migration, and commerce;
6. social movements that substantively influenced past and present day society;
7. American art, crafts, literature and music;
8. distinctive architecture and architectural periods and movements;
9. major scientific discoveries and advancements; and
10. other comparable representations that together with their associated resources substantively contributed to the Nation’s heritage.
Draft: 8 April 2008 appendix e detailed budgets, 2009–2011
Draft: 8 April 2008 Appendix E: Detailed Budgets, 2009-2011 Page 210
Proposed Budget for Year 1 (2009)
Income Notes
Municipal governments 45,000 All cities, towns, counties Private support 30,000 Center for Desert Archaeology Grants 20,000 Tourism; other small Memberships 5,000 5 corporate @ $500; 50 regular @ $50 Earned income 0 — Program support 0 — In-kind & volunteer 20,000 Non-cash National Park Service 0 Only after designation
Total Income 120,000
Cash Income 100,000
Expenses
Salaries and wages 50,000 One full-time admin. staff Travel 12,000 Washington DC; 12K miles @ $0.50; perdiem Insurance 2,500 Liability; Board Office rental 0 Assumed to be donated Equipment & supplies 5,000 Computers; copier; fax; office supplies Printing & postage 7,500 Brochures; mailings Program expenses 1,000 Establish new 501(c)(3) Contracted services 2,000 Legal; accounting Employee costs 12,500 Health insurance, payroll costs
Total Expenses 92,500
Net gain (loss) 7,500
Draft: 8 April 2008 Appendix E: Detailed Budgets, 2009-2011 Page 211
Proposed Budget for Year 2 (2010)
Income Notes
Municipal governments 45,000 All cities, towns, counties Private support 30,000 Center for Desert Archaeology Grants 20,000 Tourism; other small Memberships 5,000 5 corporate @ $500; 50 regular @ $50 Earned income 0 — Program support* 0 Income to support specific programs (see Program Expenses) In-kind & volunteer 20,000 Non-cash National Park Service 0 Only after designation
Total Income 120,000
Cash Income 100,000
Expenses
Salaries and wages 54,000 One full-time admin. ftaff Travel 12,000 Washington DC; 12K miles @ $0.50; perdiem Insurance 2,500 Liability; Board Office rental 0 Assumed to be donated Equipment & supplies 5,000 Computers; copier; fax; office supplies Printing & postage 7,500 Brochures; mailings Program expenses* 0 — Contracted services 2,000 Legal; accounting Employee costs 13,500 Health insurance, payroll costs
Total Expenses 96,500
Net gain (loss) 3,500
*Program Revenue: assumes that money is received for implementing a specific project or program. That program will not be initiated unless revenue is received first. For planning purposes, an equal and offsetting amount is included in Program Expenses. It is possible that some programs will generate some Earned Income.
Draft: 8 April 2008 Appendix E: Detailed Budgets, 2009-2011 Page 212
Proposed Budget for Year 3 (2011)
Income Notes
Municipal governments 45,000 All cities, towns, counties Private support 25,000 Need to identify potential sources Grants 90,000 Heritage Fund ($80K); Small ($10K) Memberships 15,000 10 corporate @ $500; 200 regular @ $50 Earned income 6,000 Sales of calendars, CDs, books, etc. Program support* 20,000 Income to support specific programs (see Program Expenses) In-kind & volunteer 30,000 Non-cash National Park Service 200,000 Congressional appropriation for Management Plan
Total Income 431,000
Cash Income 401,000
Expenses
Salaries and wages 147,000 Exec. Dir; Prog Mgr; Admin. Asst Travel 15,000 Washington DC; 16K miles @ $0.50; perdiem Liability ($8K); Board ($2K); [Liability insurance increases with total Insurance 10,000 revenue] Office rental 20,000 1000 sq. ft * $20 per sq. ft. annually Equipment & supplies 12,200 Computers (2); copier; fax; office supplies Printing & postage 9,600 Brochures; mailings e.g. Regional Festival; Calendar. Only if Program Support is Program expenses* 20,000 provided. Contracted services 90,000 Specialists: Planning; Econ.; Archaeo.; History; Natural Res. Management plan 40,000 Planning conf.; Printing of Plan & Exec. Summary Employee costs 36,750 Health insurance, payroll costs
Total Expenses 400,550
Net gain (loss) 450
*Program Revenue: assumes that money is received for implementing a specific project or program. That program will not be initiated unless revenue is received first. For planning purposes, an equal and offsetting amount is included in Program Expenses. It is possible that some programs will generate some Earned Income.
Draft: 8 April 2008