The Verb Phrase

TASK 1 THE VERB PHRASE

LENGUA INGLESA II December 2009

Pedro Montiel Aguilera Grupo C 2

Taking into account the examples provided, make a comment on the VP as a whole:

I can imagine learners of moderate ability becoming confused if they had to select one among different critical approaches and all their attendant ideological baggage, because I have been explained these do not like being asked to choose between differing judgements on the same text.

Throughout this task, we are going to describe in detail the structure of the English verb phrase (VP), paying special attention to its constituents, as well as to the different realisations these may have. Furthermore, we will discuss the various types of VPs and the classification of the different elements that form part of its structure, that is, the different types of verbs according to the role they fulfil within the VP. In order to do so, we will be using examples taken from the text provided at the beginning of this page, using it as our corpus.

The English verb phrase acts as a predicator in the clause and, in the same way as the other types of phrases in English, it is formed by different constituents: a head and its dependents. In the case of the VP, the head is the Main Verb (MV) and the Auxiliary System (AS) is what depends on the head. There are seven VPs in this text: can imagine, becoming, had to select, have been explained, do not like, being asked and to choose. As previously stated, we are now going to classify and describe these VPs, thus completing an in-depth analysis.

1. can imagine This is a full, tensed, simple VP. It is full because it is formed by the two main elements that constitute a VP: the MV and the AS. It is tensed because it has no restrictions on verb modifications (it combines with tense especially, but also with mood, phase, aspect and voice, among other marginal modifications). Finally, it is simple because the MV is modified by auxiliary verbs only. The MV is imagine, which is a lexical-like verb (catenative). The AS is realized by means of the following modifications:

- Tense: non-remote [-ed1]: Realised by the absence of the remote morpheme, which semantically means that the act of ‘being able to imagine’ is close (in terms of time) to the speaker’s perspective, associated and included within the moment of speaking. - Mood: modal [+modal V]: Realised by the modal auxiliary can, which semantically means that the act of imagining is presented as a possibility, rather than as a fact.

- Phase: non-phased [-have+ed2]: Realised by the absence of the auxiliary have plus the

inflectional morpheme -ed2 in the following word. Semantically, this means that there is only one point of reference in time, without any relevant anteriority. - Aspect: non-progressive [-be+Ving]: Realised by the absence of the auxiliary be (or semiauxiliary keep) and the inflectional morpheme -ing in the following word. Semantically, this means that the action is presented in its entirety, not in any specific point in the middle of its process.

- Voice: non-passive [-be+Ved2]: Realised by the absence of the auxiliary be (or semiauxiliary

get) and the inflectional morpheme -ed2 in the following word. There is not much semantic implication in voice modification, apart from a change in the focus and the word order. - Contrast: non-contrastive. - Negation: affirmative.

Summarizing, the VP can imagine can be described as:

{[-ed1] [+modal V] [-have+ed2] [-be+Ving] [-be+Ved2]} (AS) + imagine (MV)

Modifications: imagine [+modal V] can imagine

2. becoming This is a full, non-tensed (-ing), simple VP. It is full because it is formed by the two main elements that constitute a VP: the MV and the AS. It is non-tensed (-ing) because it imposes some restrictions on the modifications they can take (most importantly, tense), and has the -ing form as initial element. Finally, it is simple because the MV can be modified by auxiliary verbs only. The MV is become, which is a lexical verb. The AS is realized by means of the following modifications: - Mood: non-modal [-modal V]: Realised by the absence of modal auxiliaries or semiauxiliaries, which semantically means that the act of ‘becoming’ is presented as a fact, rather than as a doubt, possibility, obligation, etc).

- Phase: non-phased [-have+ed2]: Realised by the absence of the auxiliary have plus the

inflectional morpheme -ed2 in the following word. Semantically, this means that there is only one point of reference in time, without any relevant anteriority.

- Voice: non-passive [-be+Ved2]: Realised by the absence of the auxiliary be (or semiauxiliary

get) and the inflectional morpheme -ed2 in the following word. There is not much semantic implication in voice modification, apart from a change in the focus and the word order. - Negation: It is affirmative. - ing

Summarizing, the VP becoming can be described as:

{[-modal V] [-have+ed2] [-be+Ved2] [+ing]} (AS) + become (MV)

3. had to select This is a full, tensed, simple VP. It is full because it is formed by the two main elements that constitute a VP: the MV and the AS. It is tensed because it has no restrictions on verb modifications (it combines with tense, mood, phase, aspect and voice, among other marginal modifications). Finally, it is simple because the MV can be modified by auxiliary verbs only. The MV is select, which is a lexical verb. The AS is realized by means of the following modifications:

- Tense: remote [+ed1]: Realised by the presence of the remote morpheme, which semantically means that the act of ‘having to select’ appears as being distant (in terms of time) to the speaker’s perspective, thus not associated and included within his moment of speaking, mainly because the action occurred in the past. - Mood: modal [+modal V]: Realised by the modal semiauxiliary have to, which semantically means that the act of selecting is presented as being an obligation.

- Phase: non-phased [-have+ed2]: Realised by the absence of the auxiliary have plus the

- Voice: non-passive [-be+Ved2]: Realised by the absence of the auxiliary be (or semiauxiliary

Summarizing, the VP had to select can be described as:

{[+ed1] [+modal V] [-have+ed2] [-be+Ving] [-be+Ved2]} (AS) + select (MV)

Modifications: select [+ed1] selected [+modal V] had to select

4. have been explained This is a full, tensed, simple VP. It is full because it is formed by the two main elements that constitute a VP: the MV and the AS. It is tensed because it has no restrictions on verb modifications (it combines with tense, mood, phase, aspect and voice, among other marginal modifications). Finally, it is simple because the MV can be modified by auxiliary verbs only. The MV is explain, which is a lexical verb. The AS is realized by means of the following modifications:

- Tense: non-remote [-ed1]: Realised by the absence of the remote morpheme, which semantically means that the event of ‘having been explained’ is close (in terms of time) to the speaker’s perspective, associated and included within the moment of speaking. - Mood: non-modal [-modal V]: Realised by the absence of modal auxiliaries or semiauxiliaries, which semantically means that the act of becoming is presented as a fact, rather than as a doubt, possibility, obligation, etc).

- Phase: phased [+have+ed2]: Realised by the combination of the auxiliary have in its plural form

plus the inflectional morpheme -ed2 in the following word. Semantically, this means that there are two points of reference in time, and the event, although happening in the past, continues to have some relevance in the present time. - Aspect: non-progressive [-be+Ving]: Realised by the absence of the auxiliary be (or semiauxiliary keep) and the inflectional morpheme -ing in the following word. Semantically, this means that the action is presented in its entirety, not in any specific point in the middle of its process.

- Voice: passive [+be+Ved2]: Realised by the presence of the auxiliary be and the inflectional

morpheme -ed2 in the following word. There is not much semantic implication in voice modification, apart from a change in the focus and the word order. - Contrast / Number / Negation: There is no contrast, it is plural and it is affirmative.

Summarizing, the VP have been explained can be described as:

{[-ed1] [-modal V] [+have+ed2] [-be+Ving] [+be+Ved2]} (AS) + explain (MV)

Modifications: explain [+have+ed2] have explained [+be+Ved2] have been explained

5. do not like This is a full, tensed, simple VP. It is full because it is formed by the two main elements that constitute a VP: the MV and the AS. It is tensed because it has no restrictions on verb modifications (it combines with tense, mood, phase, aspect and voice, among other marginal modifications). Finally, it is simple because the MV can be modified by auxiliary verbs only. The MV is like, which is a lexical-like (catenative) verb. The AS is realized by means of the following modifications:

- Tense: non-remote [-ed1]: Realised by the absence of the remote morpheme, which semantically means that the act of ‘not liking’ is close (in terms of time) to the speaker’s perspective, associated and included within his moment of speaking. - Mood: non-modal [-modal V]: Realised by the absence of modal auxiliaries or semiauxiliaries, which semantically means that the act of becoming is presented as a fact, rather than as a doubt, possibility, obligation, etc).

- Phase: non-phased [-have+ed2]: Realised by the absence of the auxiliary have plus the

- Voice: non-passive [-be+Ved2]: Realised by the absence of the auxiliary be (or semiauxiliary

Summarizing, the VP do not like can be described as:

{[-ed1] [-modal V] [-have+ed2] [-be+Ving] [-be+Ved2]} (AS) + like (MV) Modifications: like operator ‘do’ [+not] do not like

6. being asked This is a full, non-tensed (-ing), simple VP. It is full because it is formed by the two main elements that constitute a VP: the MV and the AS. It is non-tensed (-ing) because it imposes some restrictions on the modifications they can take (most importantly, tense), and has the -ing form as initial element. Finally, it is simple because the MV can be modified by auxiliary verbs only.

The MV is ask, which is a lexical-like (catenative) verb. The AS is realized by means of the following modifications: - Mood: non-modal [-modal V]: Realised by the absence of modal auxiliaries or semiauxiliaries, which semantically means that the act of ‘being asked’ is presented as a fact, rather than as a doubt, possibility, obligation, etc).

- Phase: non-phased [-have+ed2]: Realised by the absence of the auxiliary have plus the

inflectional morpheme -ed2 in the following word. Semantically, this means that there is only one point of reference in time, without any relevant anteriority.

- Voice: passive [+be+Ved2]: Realised by the presence of the auxiliary be in its -ing form and the

inflectional morpheme -ed2 in the following word. There is not much semantic implication in voice modification, apart from a change in the focus and the word order. - Negation: It is affirmative. - ing

Summarizing, the VP being asked can be described as:

{[-modal V] [-have+ed2] [+be+Ved2] [+ing]} (AS) + ask (MV)

Modifications: ask [+be+Ved2] [+ing] being asked

7. to choose This is a full, non-tensed (infinitive), simple VP. It is full because it is formed by the two main elements that constitute a VP: the MV and the AS. It is non-tensed (infinitive) because it imposes some restrictions on the modifications they can take (in the case of infinitive non-tensed VPs, tense is the only modification that cannot be taken). Finally, it is simple because the MV can be modified by auxiliary verbs only. The MV is choose, which is a lexical-like (catenative) verb. The AS is realized by means of the following modifications: - Mood: non-modal [-modal V]: Realised by the absence of modal auxiliaries or semiauxiliaries, which semantically means that the act of ‘choosing’ is presented as a fact, rather than as a doubt, possibility, obligation, etc).

- Phase: non-phased [-have+ed2]: Realised by the absence of the auxiliary have plus the

- Voice: non-passive [-be+Ved2]: Realised by the absence of the auxiliary be (or semiauxiliary

Summarizing, the VP to choose can be described as:

{[-modal V] [-have+ed2] [-be+Ving] [-be+Ved2] [+to]} (AS) + choose (MV)

Having finished with the analysis of the VPs in our corpus, you will have noticed that some terms referring to the functional classification of verbs have been consistently used throughout. Such terms are: lexical, catenative, auxiliary and semiauxiliary. While lexical and catenative verbs (also called lexical-like) function as the MV within the VP, the function of auxiliary and semiauxiliary verbs (also called auxiliary-like) is that of being part of the AS. In order to classify and identify verbs, there is a list of six criteria that verbs may (or may not) fulfil, depending on their type. These criteria are:

1. (Im)Possibility of independent existence as a full VP. 2. (Im)Possibility of acting as operator in the NICE contexts. 3. (Im)Possibility of being placed before frequency adjuncts and epistemic disjuncts. 4. (Im)Possibility of imposing semantic restrictions on the subject. 5. (Im)Possibility of accepting existential ‘there’ as subject. 6. (Im)Possibility of accepting, without change in meaning, the passive transformation of the verb which is supposed to function as Main Verb.

Following these six criteria, we are now going to ‘test’ one verb of each type, selecting them from our corpus at the beginning of this task:

1. AUXILIARY VERB: CAN in can imagine Criterion no.1) “Auxiliary-like verbs, in contrast to lexical-like verbs, have no independent existence as full VPs”. I can imagine learners vs. *I can learners Criterion no.2) “Auxiliary-like verbs, in contrast to lexical-like verbs, act as operator in the NICE contexts”. a) Operator in negation with not: I can imagine / I cannot imagine b) Inversion of Subject and Operator: I can imagine / Can I imagine? c) Operator in reduced clauses: I can imagine / I can imagine, can’t I? or So can you. d) Emphatic positive: I can imagine / I ‘CAN imagine

Criterion no.3) “Verbs which can be placed before frequency subjuncts and epistemic disjuncts are more auxiliary-like than those which cannot”. I can always imagine or I can probably imagine. Criterion no.4) “Verbs which do not impose semantic restrictions on the subject can be candidates for auxiliaryhood”. (In this case, the example will have to be slightly modified because the verb imagine itself imposes a restriction and it cannot be used with inanimate subjects). I can’t be late / The plane can’t be late Criterion no.5) “Verbs which can appear in the frame ‘There ______be...’ can be candidates for auxiliaryhood”. There can be severe delays today Criterion no.6) “Verbs which accept, without change in meaning, the passive transformation of the verb which is supposed to function as Main Verb can be candidates for auxiliaryhood”. I can imagine / It can be imagined (by me) As we can see, auxiliary verbs fulfil all the six criteria mentioned above.

2. SEMIAUXILIARY VERB: HAVE TO in had to select Criterion no.1) “Auxiliary-like verbs, in contrast to lexical-like verbs, have no independent existence as full VPs”. They had to select one approach vs. *They had to one approach Criterion no.2) “Auxiliary-like verbs, in contrast to lexical-like verbs, act as operator in the NICE contexts”. a) Operator in negation with not: They hadn’t to select (but also They didn’t have to select) b) Inversion of Subject and Operator: Had they to select one approach? (Correct, but a bit old-fashioned, only used in British English) c) Operator in reduced clauses: They had to select, hadn’t they? or So have they d) Emphatic positive: They had to select / They ‘HAD to select Criterion no.3) “Verbs which can be placed before frequency subjuncts and epistemic disjuncts are more auxiliary-like than those which cannot”. They always had to select but *They had probably to select (instead of They probably had to select). Criterion no.4) “Verbs which do not impose semantic restrictions on the subject can be candidates for auxiliaryhood”. She had to do it quickly / The plane had to land on time Criterion no.5) “Verbs which can appear in the frame ‘There ______be...’ can be candidates for auxiliaryhood”. There has to be an explanation for this Criterion no.6) “Verbs which accept, without change in meaning, the passive transformation of the verb which is supposed to function as Main Verb can be candidates for auxiliaryhood”. They had to select one approach / One approach had to be selected (by them)

As we can see, semiauxiliary verbs also fulfil all the six criteria mentioned above, although criteria 2 and 3 only partially. Similarly, some other semiauxiliary verbs do not fulfil all criteria completely.

3. LEXICAL VERB: SELECT in had to select Criterion no.1) “Lexical-like verbs, in contrast to auxiliary-like verbs, can have independent existence as full VPs”. I selected it carefully Criterion no.2) “Lexical-like verbs, in contrast to auxiliary-like verbs, cannot act as operator in the NICE contexts”. a) Operator in negation with not: *I selected not it carelessly (instead of I didn’t select it carelessly) b) Inversion of Subject and Operator: *select I it again? (instead of Do I select it again?) c) Operator in reduced clauses: *I already selected it, selected not I? (instead of I already selected it, didn’t I?) d) Emphatic positive: I ‘DID ‘’select it carefully Criterion no.3) “Verbs which can be placed before frequency subjuncts and epistemic disjuncts are more auxiliary-like than those which cannot”. *I select always good items (instead of I always select good items) Criterion no.4) “Verbs which do not impose semantic restrictions on the subject can be candidates for auxiliaryhood”. I select the computer’s model / *The wall selects the computer’s model Criteria 5 and 6 cannot be applied to lexical verbs, since they are incompatible with existential be and they cannot occur in catenative structures. Consequently, lexical verbs do not fulfil any of the six criteria for auxiliaryhood.

4. CATENATIVE VERB: ASK in being asked Criterion no.1) “Lexical-like verbs, in contrast to auxiliary-like verbs, can have independent existence as full VPs”. I ask you to do me a favour Criterion no.2) “Lexical-like verbs, in contrast to auxiliary-like verbs, cannot act as operator in the NICE contexts”. a) Operator in negation with not: *I askn’t you to do me a favour (instead of I don’t ask you to do me a favour) b) Inversion of Subject and Operator: *asked I you to do me a favour? (instead of did I ask you to do me a favour?)

c) Operator in reduced clauses: *I’ve asked you to do me a favour, askn’t I? (instead of I’ve asked you to do me a favour, haven’t I?) d) Emphatic positive: I ‘DID ‘’ask you to do me a favour Criterion no.3) “Verbs which can be placed before frequency subjuncts and epistemic disjuncts are more auxiliary-like than those which cannot”. *I ask you always to do me favours (instead of I always ask you to do me favours). Criterion no.4) “Verbs which do not impose semantic restrictions on the subject can be candidates for auxiliaryhood”. I asked you to do me a favour / *The box asked you to do me a favour Criteria 5 and 6 cannot either be applied to catenative verbs for the same reasons already mentioned before. Consequently, catenative verbs do not fulfil any of the six criteria for auxiliaryhood.

It can be seen that both lexical and catenative verbs seem (not) to fulfil the criteria for auxiliaryhood in similar ways. It is another criterion that takes the role of differentiating between these two types of verbs. Lexical verbs satisfy the ‘non-catenative use’ criterion, stated as: “Verbs which cannot form a catenative structure with a non-tensed complement should be considered lexical verbs”. Whereas catenative verbs have catenative and non-catenative uses (I ask you to do me a favour vs. I ask you something), lexical verbs can never form catenative constructions. Having understood the difference between these four types of verbs according to their function, we are going to end this task by classifying all the verbs appearing in our corpus:

VP: CAN IMAGINE VP: HAVE BEEN EXPLAINED

can: auxiliary (central modal) have + Ved2: primary auxiliary

imagine: catenative used as a catenative be + Ved2: primary auxiliary

VP: BECOMING VP: DO NOT LIKE become: lexical like: catenative used as a catenative

VP: HAD TO SELECT VP: BEING ASKED have to: modal semiauxiliary be: primary auxiliary select: lexical ask: catenative used as a catenative

VP: HAVE BEEN EXPLAINED VP: TO CHOOSE

have + 2: primary auxiliary choose: catenative used as a pure lexical

VP: HAVE BEEN EXPLAINED

BIBLIOGRAPHY Quereda Rodríguez-Navarro, Luis. A morphosyntactic study of the English verb phrase. Granada: Servicio de publicaciones de la Universidad de Granada, 1993