Glossary of Linguistic Terms
accent Often used to refer to distinctive pronuncia tions which differ from that of Received Pronunciation It differs from dialect which includes syn tax and vocabulary as well acronym A word formed from the initial letters of the words which make up a name, e.g. NATO (from North Atlantic Treaty Organisation) active A clause in which the subject is the actor of the verb; in a passive clause the actor is not the grammatical subject; seep. 14 addressee The person being addressed or spoken to in any form of discourse adjective In traditional grammar a word which de scribes a noun, as happy in 'the happy man'; an adjective phrase is a group of one or more words fulfilling the function of an adjective; seep. 11 adverb In t:r:aditional grammar a word which de scribes a verb; in 'he ran slowly', slowly describes how he ran An adverb phrase is a group of one or more words fulfilling the function of an adverb; see p. 11 affix A morpheme which is attached to another word as an inflection or for derivation Affixes include prefixes at the beginning of a word and suffixes at the end of a word, e.g. un-god-ly with prefix un- and suffix -ly A derivational affix is used to form a new word, e.g. the suffix -less with hope gives the new word hopeless; an inflectional affix marks grammatical relations, in comes, the -s marks third person singular present indicative 159 160 Glossary alliteration The repetition of the same sound at the beginning of two or more words in close proximity, e.g. 'time and tide' alveolar In phonetics the sounds formed by the tongue closing the air passage at the alveolar ridge (immediately behind the front top teeth) Such sounds in English include ltl, ldl, and lnl analogy The tendency to make all examples of a particular feature follow a regular pattern; thus since most nouns in English form their plural by adding -s, the tendency is for nouns which do not form their plural in this way to change by analogy to this plural, e.g. formulas compared with older formulae article In traditional grammar the name given to a or an (indefinite article) and to the (definite article) assimilation The process whereby two adjacent sounds become more alike in pronunciation because one of them discards those sound elements which are different from the elements found in the other; see pp. 33-4 auxiliary A verb which is part of the verb phrase, but is not the head of the verb phrase except through elision; examples include do, can, may, must, shall; see p. 8 bilabial In phonetics the sounds, such as I pI and lb I, caused by closing both lips and then opening them quickly bilingual Proficiency in two languages, usually as a native speaker clause A clause normally consists of a subject and a verb, though it may have other elements as well Clauses can be linked together through co ordination, i.e. when they are of the same status, or subordination, i.e. when one is of higher rank than the other; see pp. 15-17 Glossary 161
code switching The change from one language or variety of language to another\within a conversation A speaker in Belgium might change from French to Flemish and back again depending on the subject matter and the other partici pants in the conversation collocation The habitual co-occurrence of two words command A type of sentence which is an order, e.g. 'Go away'; also known as an imperative Such sentences normally have no subject; seep. 19 complement An adjective, noun phrase or a clause acting as a noun phrase which is dependent on a stative verb In 'He is happy', the adjective happy is the complement complex sentence A sentence consisting of at least one subordi nate clause in addition to the main clause, i.e. the clause which can stand on its own; see p. 18 compound A word consisting of at least two free mor phemes, i.e. two elements which are them selves words as in freewheel, where free and wheel are both words compound sentence A sentence of at least two main clauses joined together through co-ordination, as 'He sat down and the seat collapsed'. see pp. 17-18 conjunction A conjunction can be either co-ordinate or subordinate A co-ordinate conjunction joins together elements of equal rank, as the two adjectives in 'a rare and auspicious event' are joined by and A subordinate conjunction usually joins a subordinate clause to a main clause, e.g. if, when, although; seep. 10 and pp. 17-19 connotation The associations attached to a word in addi tion to its dictionary definition; e.g. in addi tion to its colour meaning, white has the connotation of purity 162 Glossary co-ordination The joining together of two linguistic ele ments of equal weight; see conjunction correlative Two clauses linked together by two conjunc tions or adverbs which function as a pair to reinforce the logical relationship between them, as in 'Though she is beautiful, never theless she is not proud' creole A pidgin which has been adopted as the mother tongue of some people determiner A word that occurs before the head, or premonifiers if any, in a noun phrase, such as the or my; only one determiner can appear before a premodifier or head; see pp. 9-10 dialect A variety of language associated with a particular speech community, either geogra phically to give a regional dialect or socially to give a class dialect diphthong A vowel sound in which there is a change of quality during its articulation and is repre sented graphically by the first and last point of articulation to suggest that it contains two vowel sounds, e.g. I ai/. diglossia A situation in which two significantly differ ent states of a single language are both used by a speech community discourse The organisation of language beyond the sentence dynamic A verb which expresses an action rather than a state and can take forms in -ing as part of the progressive, e.g. come, is coming ellipsis The omission of some part of the sentence which can be understood from the context In the answer 'Yes, he is' to the question 'Is he coming?', the present participle is coming is reduced through ellipsis to is euphemism A term regarded as more acceptable socially which has replaced another term which has become tainted by the unfavourable associa tions of the concept it refers to Hence to spend a penny is a euphemism Glossary 163 exclamation A sentence which expresses surprise, amaze ment, etc. and is usually followed by an exclamation mark, as in 'What a wonderful day!' see p. 19 finite A term used to describe those parts of the verb which are marked for tense, person and number; see p. 13 fricative In phonetics a term used of consonants which are produced through constricting some part of the air passage, e.g. /f/ and /s/. grammaticalisation The process whereby what had been an optional feature in a language becomes a regular feature of its grammar In English questions it used to be possible to say either Came he? or Did he come? (i.e. with or without a part of the verb to do), but today the do form has been grammaticalised and questions now include the do auxiliary reg ularly head The obligatory element of a phrase on which all the other elements depend. In the noun phrase 'the happy man', man is the head and both the and happy are dependent on it homonym Two words which are identical in speech and writing infinitive Equivalent to the base form of a verb which is entered in dictionaries as the headword; it can also be used with to: (to) come; (to) enter inflection The marking of grammatical categories like case or tense through the use of an affix or some other linguistic mechanism interjection A word in traditional grammar which stands outside the normal grammar of a sentence, e.g. 'Damn! she's not coming', seep. 11 inversion Reversing the order of two elements, as for example the order of the subject and verb is reversed to form a question so that He did come becomes Did he come? language contact The situation in which two or more languages come into contact with one another on a regular basis and force their speakers to 164 Glossary
adopt some strategy such as the development of a pidgin to enable communication to take place lexis The term used to describe the vocabulary of a language liquid In phonetics referring to lrl and Ill, but often taken to include I w I and I j I sounds as well modal A closed class of verbs which are part of the auxiliary verbs and express such features as obligation and necessity; they include can, may and shall and are used with a lexical verb; see p. 8 morpheme The smallest distinctive unit of meaning in grammar A free morpheme can stand by itself as a word, e.g. boy, but a bound morpheme must be attached to another morpheme, e.g. the -s in boys; see affix, and pp. 3-5 morphology The study of morphemes nasal In phonetics the term used of sounds which are produced by air coming both through the mouth and the nasal passage, e.g. lnl. non-finite Those parts of the verb which are not marked for tense, person or number such as the infinitive and participle A non-finite verb cannot act by itself as a predicator; see p. 13 noun In traditional grammar the name given to a person, place or thing; see pp. 5-6 noun phrase A phrase that acts like a noun and can fulfil the role of subject or object object A noun phrase which suffers the action of a transitive verb and usually follows the verb in order onomatopoeia The term used to refer to those words which are said to replicate natural sounds, e.g. woof woof as the noise made by a dog palatal In phonetics the sounds made when the central part of the tongue is raised to touch the hard palate, e.g. ljl. Glossary 165 participle A non-finite part of the verb used as an adjective or in the verb phrase after auxili aries Present participles end in -ing, e.g. coming, and past participles end in -en or -(e)d/t, e.g. given, learned/learnt passive see active phoneme The minimal unit in the sound system of a language which can be tested through sub stitution: if the sound changes the meaning of a word when it replaces another sound, then both are phonemes. Thus I £1 and I cl are phonemes because fat and cat have different meanings phonetic alphabet As the Roman alphabet does not contain enough letters, a special alphabet has been developed to represent the sounds of any language The standard form of this alphabet is known as the International Phonetic Alpha bet. The characters used to represent English sounds are listed on pp. 20-1 phonetics The study of the sounds which can be made by humans phonology The study of the sounds of a single language phrase A group of one or more words, usually without a finite verb; see pp. 11-14 pidgin A means of communication developed through language contact which is usually a simplified linguistic system of a single lan guage with inputs from one or more other languages It is no one's mother tongue plosive In phonetics the sounds made when the air passage is completely blocked for a moment (usually by the lips); when unblocked the air escapes as though with an 'explosive' sound; examples are I pI and lb I. postmodifier Those parts of the noun phrase which come after the head; in English most usually a relative clause or prepositional phrase: in 166 Glossary
'the boy with the big head', with the big head is the postmodifier which comes after boy (head); see pp. 11-12 predicator The verb phrase which is an obligatory constituent of a clause; see p. 12 prefix see affix premodifier Those parts of the noun phrase which come after the determiner and before the head; in 'the beautiful red house', beautiful red comes after the (determiner) and before house (head); seep. 11 preposition A word such as in, on or by which comes before a noun phrase to express the relation ship of that phrase to the rest of the clause; in the prepositional phrase 'on the table', on is the preposition and the table is the noun phrase; see p. 10 progressive A form of the verb formed by a part of the auxiliary to be and the present participle of a lexical verb to express an action which is continuing as in 'he is coming'; see pp. 13-14 pronoun In traditional grammar a term used of a dosed class of words that can stand in place of a noun; see pp. 6-7 psycholinguistics The study of the relation between linguistic behaviour and the psychological processes such as mind or memory which are assumed to determine it question A type of sentence which asks a question and is sometimes referred to as an interrogative; in English questions normally have inversion of subject and (auxiliary) verb; e.g. 'Is he coming?' see pp. 18-19 rankshift A term describing the process whereby a linguistic unit is used lower down the gram matical hierarchy. Hence a word like free can be used as a morpheme in freewheel, and a clause like he is coming can be used as a phrase in I think he is coming Received The prestige variety of speech associated with Pronunciation education and high social status Glossary 167 register A variety of language which is employed in relation to the social environment in which it is used, e.g. formal or informal rhetoric The way of organising an utterance or speech to achieve the effect on the listener one intends which was promoted and codified in the past; nowadays it is particularly asso ciated with figures of speech such as meta phor and simile sentence In traditional grammar a unit of language consisting of one or more clauses and in writing marked off by a capital letter at the beginning and a fullstop at the end; see pp. 17-19 slang Colourful colloquial usage often associated with particular groups of people, though the slang of one age may become accepted as standard in the next sociolinguistics The study of the relation between linguistic usage and social situations and structures standard language That variety of language which cuts across regional differences and has become institu tionalised as the status variety to be used in writing, education, government, etc.; see p. xi statement A type of sentence which makes a statement and is also referred to as declarative It is often regarded as the normative sen tence in a language and in English has the order subject-verb-object/ complement; see p. 18 stative A verb which expresses a state rather than an action, e.g. 'I am happy'. subject A noun phrase which is normally the actor of the verb and precedes the verb in statements; seep. 15 subjunctive No longer an important mood in English, but traditionally it represented something hy pothetical such as a wish In the present tense it is recognised by the absence of final -s in the third person singu lar, e.g. 'Long live the Queen'; it is today more 168 Glossary
usually expressed through modal auxiliaries, e.g. 'I wish he would come'. subordinate clause A clause which cannot stand alone as it is dependent on another clause and is usually introduced by a subordinate conjunction In the sentence 'When he comes I will tell him', When he comes cannot make a complete sentence; see p. 18 suffix see affix syntax The study of the grammatical relations of a language, which in English are principally expressed through word order token In vocabulary this refers to the number of times a lexical item or type occurs transitive A verb which requires an object; its opposite is intransitive type In vocabulary this refers to the different lexical items which may be counted We refer to 'lexical items' rather than 'words', because sing and sings, although different words, are the same lexical item velar In phonetics the sounds produced when the back of the tongue is in contact with the soft palate or velum verb A lexical verb differs from an auxiliary in having meaning in itself A verb like sing is a lexical verb because it means something by itself, whereas an aux iliary like shall is used in conjunction with a lexical verb voice A sound is said to be voiced if the vocal cords vibrate as it is pronounced; it is otherwise unvoiced If you place a finger on your Adam's apple you will feel the vibration for /z/ (voiced), but not for /s/ (unvoiced). Glossary 169 word Words can be divided into two types lexical and grammatical Lexical words are usually nouns, adjec tives, adverbs and verbs and contain signifi cant meaning in themselves, whereas grammatical words such as prepositions and articles are important in the organisation and structure of a sentence Suggestions for Further Reading
For further information about grammar the following books are useful: N .F. Blake, Traditional English Grammar and Beyond (London: Macmillan, 1988); Geoffrey Leech, Margaret Deuchar and Robert Hoogenraad, English Grammar for Today: A New Introduction (Lon don: Macmillan, 1982) and Dennis Freeborn, A Course Book in English Grammar (London: Macmillan, 1987). A book which includes phonology is Barbara Strang, Modern English Structure, 2nd edn (London: Arnold, 1968). A book on phonology is Charles W. Kreidler, The Pronunciation of English: A Course Book in Phonology (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989). An entertaining introduction to child language is David Crystal, Listen to your Child: A Parent's Guide to Children's Language (London: Penguin, 1986). See also Jerome Bruner, Child's Talk, Learning to Use Language (London: Oxford University Press, 1983), Jill and Peter de Villiers, Language Acquisition (Cambridge MA: Havard University Press, 1978) and Gordon Wells, The Meaning Makers (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1987). On language change see Jean Aitchison, Language Change: Progress or Decay? (London: Fontana, 1981). For histories of English see A.C. Baugh and T. Cable, A History of the English Language, 3rd edn (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978), Dick Leith, A Social History of English (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1983), and David Burnley, The History of the English Language: A Source Book (London: Longman, 1992). The number of books on language variety and the social context is enormous, and the recommendations here are very selective. On standard language see J. and L. Milroy, Authority in Language: Investigating Language Prescription and Standardisation, 2nd edn (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1989) and Sidney Greenbaum, Good English and the Grammarian (London: Longman, 1988). General books include Dennis Freeborn with David Langford and Peter French, Varieties of English: An Introduction to the Study of Language (London: Macmillan, 1986), W.R. O'Donnell and Loreto Todd, Variety in Contemporary English, 2nd edn (London: Allen & Unwin, 1989), and Randolph Quirk and Gabriele Stein, English in Use (London: Longman, 1990). See also E. Ryan and H. Giles, Attitudes 170 Further Reading 171
towards Language Variation (London: Arnold 1982), P. Trudgill, Sociolinguistics: An Introduction, (HannonHsworth: Penguin, 1974), and Lesley Milroy, Language and Social Networks 2nd edn (Oxford: Blackwell, 1987). A book which explores some of the attitudes linked with accent is John Honey, Does Accent Matter? (London: Faber, 1989). On language and styles see D. Crystal and D. Davy, Investigating English Style (London: Longman, 1969), M. Stubbs, Discourse Analysis (Oxford: Blackwell, 1983), N.F. Blake, An Introduction to the Language of Literature (London: Macmillan, 1990) and Ronald Carter and Walter Nash, Seeing through Language: A Guide to Styles of English Writing (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990). For help with your project you can consult Christine McDonald, English Language Project Work (London: Macmillan, 1992). For a general book on language see David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987). The recently published The Oxford Companion to the English Language, edited by Tom McArthur (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992) contains a wealth of information and ideas, some of which could be followed up as projects. Dwight Bolinger, Language, the Loaded Weapon: the Use and Abuse of Language Today (London: Longman, 1980) discusses the influence of language on thinking and behaviour. Index
abbreviations 60, 65, 72, 103, Austin Allegro Owners Workshop 107-8, 130 Manual 110 Academie Fran~aise 84 Australian 90-1 accent 90, 92, 105, 159 auxiliary 8, 12-14, 18-19, 26, 44-5, acronym 103, 159 47-8, 50, 69, 74, 96, 160, 165-6, action 8-9, 12-14, 122 168; modal 8, 12-13, 26, 61, active 14, 27, 118, 159 109-10, 125, 127, 138, 164, 168; Adelmann, Mr 127 primary 8,12-13,15,26 addressee 159 adjectival phrase 11, 122 Bangladeshi 91 adjective 4-5, 8-9, 11, 17, 38, 41-2, Beano 151 47, 50, 62, 68, 70, 73, 80, 96, 101, Belgium 161 118, 137, 159, 161, 165; Bernstein, Basil 95 comparative 9, 42; bilabial 22, 31, 34, 160 superlative 9 bilingualism 93-4, 160 adverb(ial) 5, 9, 11-12, 15-18, 27, Birmingham 87 43-4,50,67-8,73-4,100,107 Black English Vernacular 110, 116-18, 122, 138, 159, 162; (BEV) 95-7 of manner 9; of place 9, 15, Blake, N.F. 157 43, 68; of time 9, 116, 138 Bodmin (Cornwall) 71 adverbial phrase 11, 68, 159 Bolinger, Dwight 103 advertisement 113-15 borrowing 6, 57, 63, 70 advertising 19 brackets 60 affix 159, 163-4, 166 Britain 116, 128 affricate 22-4 British Empire 58, 79 Age of Reason 57 agent 45, 47, 51 alliteration 115, 118, 138, 160 Canterbury Tales, The 64, 82 alveolar 22, 32, 160 capital letter 5, 17, 19, 60, 65, 67, Alzheimer's 128, 130-1 118 America(n) 35, 39, 59, 83, 90, 92,95 Caxton, W. 64-71, 73, 75 ampersand 65, 72 Chalmers-Hunt, B. L. 110 analogy 42, 54, 160 Chaucer, Geoffrey 64-71, 82 Anglo-Saxons 82 China 93 antonym 116 Christ 70 apostrophe 6 Clare, Professor Anthony 128-32 archaism 63, 66, 70 clause 2-3, 11, 15-18,26,42,45, 50, article 9, 67, 160 60-1,66-9,80,107-8,110, articulation 22-4, 33 121-2, 160-2, 166-8; main 10, aspect 12-14 74, 161; relative 7, 28, 117, assimilation 33-4, 160 165; subordinate 18, 75, 161, audience xii, 107-8, 110, 119, 123, 168; superordinate 126, 138 126-9, 131-2 Clift, Elizabeth 71-3; Robert 71; Austin, Frances 71 William 71~ 172 Index 173
Clift Family Correspondence 1792- diphthong 20-1, 25-6, 162; 1846, The 71 closing 25; centring 25 Cockney 85, 88-9, 104 discourse xii, 3, 46, 105-6, 153, 162; code, language as a 92-4; field of 105-7 restricted and elaborated 95--6 Edgar (King Lear) 84 code switching 92-7, 161 Elizabethan 57, 84 collocation 122, 124-5, 134, 138, ellipsis 162 161 England 56, 71, 79, 81, 84, 88, 90, colloquialism 62, 94, 118, 130, 137 92, 102, 104, 126, 136, 138-9 colon 60 enjambement 137 comma 65,73 euphemism 81, 86, 102, 113, 162 command 18-19, 44, 50, 86-7, Europe 116 108-10, 121-2, 161 exclamation 18-19, 162-3; complement 17-19, 27, 161 mark 11, 19, 60, 113 compound 62,69,161 compounding 63 finite 12-13, 15, 17-18, 26, 28, 163, conjunction 5, 10, 17-18,38, 45, 61, 165 69, 74, 161-2, 168; co finiteness 12-13 ordinating 10, 17, 28, 126, 161 Flemish 161 subordinating 10, 18, 45, 161 form of address 51 connotation 102, 127, 133, 161 formality 1 consonant 20-4, 31-4, 59, 65; French 1, 32, 57, 63, 66, 68-9, cluster 31, 34; syllabic 32-3 79-80, 161 Continent 126 fricative 22-4,31-2,163 contraction 106, 122, 137 frictionless continuant 23-4 Cooking for Special Occasions, by Mrs full stop 17, 19, 65, 73 Cozens 120 functional shift 26, 63 correctness 1-2,38, 40,56-8,60, 62, 82-5 GCSE 107 correlative 162 gender 7, 99, 101, 104; Cozens, Mrs 122 differences 101-2 creole 88, 162 genre xii, 55-6, 64, 70, 72, 75, 117 Cumbria 57 German 1, 80, 94-5, 123, 127; Swiss German 94-5 Germany 94 dash 60,73 Gilbert, Mr and Mrs 72-3 declarative see statement glide 32 Delia Smith's Cookery Course 121 glottal 22 denotation 107, 110, 124 God 97, 133-4 dental 22 Going, Going 135-9 Department of Health 127 Golding, William 112, 133 determiner 5, 9-11, 43, 48, 75, 115, grammar ix-x, 1, 19, 57, 73, 79-80, 121, 162, 166 83-4,86,123,127,139,154 dialect 33, 56, 63, 82, 8(r..90, 94-5, traditional x, 16, 159-60, 97-8, 118, 162 16(r..7 dialectology 92, 97-8 grammaticalisation 163 Dickens, Charles 85 Greece 111 diglossia 93-4 Greeks x 174 Index
Guardian 113 language change x-xi, 2, 55-79, 153 Hardy, Thomas 89, 152 language contact 88, 94, 163 Hart, John 7&-7 language corruption 55 Haynes, J. M. 110 Language in the Inner City 96 head(word) 6, 10-11, 28, 51, language project 26, 89, 147-58; 115-16, 124, 160, 162-6 descriptive 152-4, 156; hierarchy 2, 5, 11, 17 theoretical 152-4 Hindi 93 language topic 151-4 Hindu 93 language variety xi, 1-2, 55, homonym 163 80-104 Housman, A. E. 145 Larkin, Philip 13&-9 Hunter, John 71 lateral 22-4 Hunterian Museum 71 Latin 1, 57, 63, 65-6, 69-70, 75, 96, 103 imperative see command Lenin, V.I. 35 Independent, The 100, 102, 123, lexis see vocabulary 139-40 linguistic variable 97-100 Indian 91, 93 Linkinhorn 72 Industrial Revolution 89 liquid 32, 164 infinitive 8, 13, 115, 163 literary texts, analysis of 132-9 inflections 4, 7, 61, 66, 163 Lithuania(n) 102-3 intensifier 9, 11 Liverpudlian 88-9 intention 13 Llandudno 100, 102 interjection 5, 11, 163 London 57,71-3,82,91 International Phonetic Alphabet Loneliness of the Long Distance (IPA) 21, 55, 85, 151, 165 Runner, The 142 interrogative see question Lord of the Flies 112 intonation 25-7, 105, falling 26; Lyrical Ballads 57 rising 26 intransitive 16, 27, 83 inversion 45, 50, 74, 96, 163, 166 macron 65 Irish 88, 90 marking 14 irony 118, 138 meaning 5-8, 35-41, 118, 134, 139, italics 118 154, 157; change of 20, 63, 70 Mental Health Foundation 128-9 Jacobean 84 Merchant of Venice, The 61 jargon 103 metaphor 111-12, 115, 118, 130, Johnson, Dr Samuel 72, 77-9 134, 139, 167 Midlands 88 Kilbride, Don 100 Mirror 123 King Lear 84 modal see auxiliary modality 12, 14 labio-dental 22 monomorphemic 4, 9 Labour Party 116 morpheme 2-6, 19,44,66, 159,161, Labov, William 95-6,98-100 164, 166; bound 4-6, 102, 164; language acquisition x-xi, 29-54, derivational 4-5, 9, 159; 149, 152-3 free 4-5, 102, 164; language, arbitrary nature of 80-2 inflectional 4, 61, 159 Index 175
morphology 3, 5-8, 12, 41-2, 44, onomatopoeia 81, 118, 164 48,55,61,66, 72,88, 100,164 Orthographie 77 mother tongue 1 Muslim 93 Pakistani 91 palatal 22, 32, 164 palato-alveolar 22, 32 nasal 22-4, 164 paragraph 3, 108, 110, 113, 117, National Association of Probation 122, 126, 129-31 Officers 100 participle, past 8, 13-14, 50, 61, 73, National Curriculum in 96, 122, 165; present 8, 13-14, English 107 48, 96, 165-6 National Kidney Research passive 14, 27, 51, 69, 109-10 118 Fund 127 1 165 I nationalism 57 pathetic negation 44-5,53,62,96 fallacy 134 patterning 115-16 negative 14, 27,44-5,47, 61, 69, 74; Penzance (Cornwall) 72 concord 96, 100 Pepys's Diary 156 Nelson, Katherine 46 perfective New Zealand 91 14, 27 person Newcastle 89 7, 101, 118 130, 163 personification newspaper 123-7 111-12, 131, 138 Peugeot205 non-finite 12-15, 26, 5Q-1, 122, 113-15 phoneme 164-5 20, 25, 165 phonetic non-standard English alphabet see International (language) ix-xi, 1-2, 4, 27, Phonetic 57-8, 60, 79, 95, 113, 153-5 Alphabet phonetics Norwich 100, 102 165 phonic noun 4-6, 9, 11, 38, 41, 43, 47, 49, level 87 phonology 19, 26, 32, 51, 61-2, 66, 70, 76, 80, 96, 101, 39, 165 phrase 110, 118, 121, 137, 154, 164, 166; 2-3, 11-15, 42, 61, 64, 66, 80, 115, 165-6 abstract S-6, 118, 131, 133; pidgin common 5; concrete 5-6 49 88,94, 162,164-5 118, 133, count 6; non- ' ' plosive 22-4, 32, 165 count 6; proper 5; plural 4, 6-7, 42, 44, 48, 61, 65, 101, 160 possessive 4, 6-7, 43 noun phrase 6, 1Q-12, 15-19, 26-8, poetry 134-9 51, 61, 108, 110, 115-16, 118, positive 14, 27, 44 121, 124-6, 138, 167-7 possibility 13 number 100, 163 postdeterminer 10 numeral 10 postmodification 1Q-11, 18, 28, 108, 110, 116-18, 121, 126 postmodifier 12, 44, 51, 67-8, object 6-7, 12, 15-19, 28, 43, 48, 165-6 108, 110, 115, 121-2, 164; predeterminer 10 direct 16, 43, 68; indirect 16 predicator 166 43, 68 I prefix 4,62,69, 159,166 obligation 13 premodification 9-11,28,110, 116 Old English (Anglo-Saxon) 4, 7, 118, 121, 124-6 I 66,70 premodifier 44, 68, 115 124 162 1 On Wenlock Edge 145 166 I I 176 Index preposition 5, 10-12, 38, 44, 48, 61, rhetorical question 113, 137 68-9, 121, 166 rhyme 118 prepositional complement 6, 12, Roman x, 165 116 Romantic Revolution 57 prepositional phrase 6, 10, 12, Royal College of Surgeons 71 15-16, 51, 116-17, 121-2, 165-6 RoyalS
79, 82, 85, 94-6, 100, 104, 118, transitive 16, 27, 83, 108-10, 115, 153, 155, 167 121-2, 168 standardisation 56-7, 73, 82-5 two-word utterance 42-5, 53 stanza 136-8 Tudor 57 state 8-9, 14 type see word type statement 18, 26, 45, 50-1, 86-7, 121, 167 Uganda 91 statistics 128, 131, 151 United Kingdom 90-2 stative see verb unvoiced 33-4, 168; see also stereotyping 87, 89-91 voiceless Stewart, J. 144 Urdu 93,95 stress 25--6, 34, 87 stress-timed 25 variant 56, 59--{)0 style 14, 18, 28, 57, 61, 63, 66, variation 65, 84; use-related 86- 68-71,105,108,117,124-6, 153; 8, 92-7, 105; user-related 86- formal 58, 61, 65-6, 72-3, 92, 105 75-6,85,94,98-9,106,122,154, varieties, 58, 81, 86, 88-9,91-2, 94-6; informal 56, 58-9, 63, 74-5, class 55, 57; regional 55-7 85; poetic 62, 95, 98-9, 154; velar 22, 32-3, 168 pompous 61, 64-5, 69, 75,138; verb 5, 8-19, 27, 38, 41-3, 47-8, 50, to inform 107-8; to 61-2, 66, 70, 96, 100, 107, 112, instruct 108-10; to 118, 131, 134, 138, 160, 163, 165, persuade 111-17; to 167-8; base form of 4, 8, 13, entertain 111-17 19, 48, 50, 112, 115, 154, 163; subject 6-7, 13-15, 17-19, 27-8, 44, dynamic 14, 27, 112, 118, 134; 47, 51, 68-9, 74, 96, 100, 107-8, lexical 8, 12-15, 26, 96, 110, 134, 160-1, 164, 166-7; 164, 168; phrasal 50, 62, 154; dummy 68,96 stative 14, 27, 118, 167 subjunctive 73, 167 verb phrase 8-9, 12-14, 26-7, 44, suffix 62-3, 69, 159, 168 76, 109-10, 121, 125, 160, 166 Switzerland 94 Vietnam 93 syllable 4, 9, 25, 31, 34, 59, 137 vocabulary (lexis) ix, 35-41, 47, Sylvester, J.J. 144 49-50, 55-61, 63-4, 69, 73, 75, syntactic function 5, 7 82, 86, 102-3, 107-8, 113, 118, syntax 3, 10, 16-18, 41--{), 55-6, 121-2, 124, 126-7, 133, 139, 150, 61-2, 70, 73, 83, 88, 100, 115, 152--{), 164, 168; active 40; 150-1, 155, 168 learned 65; passive 40; technical 110, 127; see also taboo 81 word tense 12-13, 41, 163; vocal cords 33, 168 compound 13; past 4, 8, vocalisation 32-3 12-14, 27, 42, 138; present 8, voice 12, 14, 168 12-14, 27, 48, 61, 66, 138, 159, voiced 22, 24, 33, 168 167 voiceless 22, 24; see also unvoiced text analysis 26, 117-39 vowel 20-5, 31-4,59, 65; back 23, texts, language study of 105-46 25; centre 23; close 23, 25; TGAT 107 front 23, 25; three-word utterance 44 neutralisation 32; open 23, token see word token 25 178 Index
Wales 100, 102 41-2, 44, 47, 61, 168; Wells, Gordon 48, 50-1 learned 69-70; lexical 5, 38, Welsh 88 42, 168; new 4, 63, 69-70, 83, West Country 104 154, 156-7; open class 5, West Indies 91 165-6; polysyllabic 57; Westminster 64 token 40, 47, 53, 168; willingness 13 type 40, 47, 53, 168; see also Woman's Institute 123 vocabulary word 2-5, 11, 19, 26, 35-41, 47-9, word formation 4, 55, 62, 69, 154 53,63-4,66,69-70,75,81,102, word order 4, 51, 61, 66-8, 74, 80, 115, 134, 137, 154-5, 161, 168--9; 107 closed class 5, 11, 165-6; grammatical/structural 5, 38, Your Talking Cat 146