CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

In this chapter, researcher will explain about related and relevant theories that become the main discussion in this research. This chapter covers language varieties, types of language varieties, colloquial, types of colloquial, teaching listening, and Ariana Grande “Thank U, Next” album.

2.1 Language Varieties

Language is not uniform or constant, even though English has been

established as international language, it does not mean people have same rule,

same dialect, and same way to use that language. The appearance of language

varieties is caused by the variety of linguistic styles used by the society and it

will continue to grow as the times develop. According to Nordquist (2019),

Language variety is a general term for any distinctive form of a language or

linguistic expression. Linguists commonly use language variety as a cover term

for any of the overlapping subcategories of a language.

Alluding to Wardhaugh and Fuller (2015), a ‘language’ is considered an

overarching category containing dialects, it is also often seen as synonymous

with the standard dialect; yet a closer examination of the standard reveals that

it is a value-laden abstraction, not an objectively defined linguistic variety.

Further, every language has a range of regional dialects, social dialects, styles,

registers, and genres. Those aspects might cause variations in language.

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2.2 Type of Language Varieties

Several points of view have been taken to analyze and classify the

language variety. In line with this, the varieties can be divided into two types,

they are individual and societal language varieties. Jendra (2012), divides into

many types of language variety, but the researcher only takes some points which

have close relation to this research. Whereas, in relation to the uses, language

varieties are classified according to several different points of view including

the way it is used, the formality, the stratification, and many others. According

to the way it is used, language is divided into spoken and written form.

According to the formality, it is separated into formal and informal language

varieties.

2.2.1 Individual and Societal Language Varieties

The language used by every individual in community is

concrete. Individual language variety is commonly referred to as a

speech. In sociolinguistics the variety is sometimes called as idiolect.

Fromkin (2011) argues that the differences among individual language

varieties might result from several factors such as age, sex, and state of

health, size personality, emotional state, and personal idiosyncrasies.

For example is remembering the powerful words used by the first

president of Indonesia, Soekarno, he is identical with his words such as

menghantam (to strike), menggempur (to assault), and his phrase such

as jiwa revolusi (spirit of revolution) which make the audiences amazed.

Hence, personal favorite expression is a symbol of distinguishable

idiolects. In addition, different ways of pronouncing, speed of speaking,

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unclear articulation, and unusual accent, are also features of individual

language variety.

Jendra (2012) asserts that the language used by a community is

abstract. Practically any idiolect (speech) can only be understood

through some knowledge about the society of which the individual

speakers belong to as member of the community. Unlike public figures’

language, the language of common people is normally a shared one

which is simply identified as a societal language variety. Hence, a

societal variety is a variety of a language that is shared and spoken by

members of a particular speech community. The variety is commonly

known as dialect but sometimes also called as socialect.

2.2.2 Spoken and Written Language Varieties

According to Jendra (2012), English presume written language

variety is more formal rather than the spoken form. The spoken variety

is basically differentiated from the written form as it involves

pronunciations, intonations, stress, tempo, gestures, and facial

expressions. While the written variety is signed with punctuation,

marks, capitalization of letters, and spacing. In speaking, the stress can

be showed by sounding louder, or rising the pitch, while in writing it can

be signed by underlining, capitalizing, and bold typing for the same

purpose. In speaking, we can use the gesture and facial expression to

express our felling, but in writing it is quite difficult to convey our

feeling.

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2.2.3 Formal and Informal Language Varieties

The formal language variety in written form is commonly used

for official letters, research reports, academic seminars, etc. For the

spoken form, formal language is usually used when speaking to people

that we are supposed to respect socially such as college lecturers,

business officers, and many others.

The informal language variety is commonly known as casual

style or colloquial style. Casual or colloquial style is frequently used in

spoken form rather than in written form. The informal language is

usually used when talking with friend, family at the break time, or it

might be used in written form when texting with friend or someone

close.

Wardhaugh and Fuller (2015) postulate that relationship

between language and social structure is paramount in the development

of the concept of the speech community, and this includes the idea that

there are different levels of speech communities which correspond to

different types of social groups. It can also reflect and make the selection

of language levels or the modesty of language (formal, semi-formal, and

informal) used in communicating in a community

The distinction of formal and informal language can be known

by seeing the use of form and degrees of vocabulary. The formal

language is necessary to use the complete form, for example I am, I

have, you will and many others. In contrast, the informal language might

use I’m, I’ve and you’ll, etc. By seeing the degree of vocabulary, the use

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of word “children” is more formal rather that “kids”, for “finished” word

is more formal rather than “fix up”, and many others.

Those type of language variety that have been discussed above is only a

small part of the classification of languages, which mean with the classification

will facilitate us as language users to better understand to use language

appropriately and in context. By studying and understanding the language, miss

communication can be minimized.

2.3 Colloquial

Barzegar (2008) asserts that “a colloquialism is any word or expression,

which might appropriately be used in conversation among ordinary or educated

people”. Colloquial words is commonly used in informal context such us in a

break time at school, and many other public places.

Similarly, Trask (1999 in colloquialism, n.d.) argues that: “colloquial

language, colloquial dialect, or informal language is a variety of language

commonly employed in conversation or other communication in informal

situations. The word colloquial by its etymology originally refers to speech as

distinguished from writing, but colloquial register is fundamentally about the

degree of informality or casualness rather than the medium, and some usage

commentators thus prefer the term casualism”(in Jalalpour and Tabrizi, 2017).

2.4 Type of Colloquial

According to Epoge (2012), colloquialism might consist of seven types, those

are in the forms of:

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1. Reduplication

Reduplication is doubling or repetition word with or without a

change in sound to express a morphosyntactic category or an excessive level

toward something. Igboanusi (2002) has identified the use of reduplication

purposes to show “each” (as in one-one, half-half). It can be used for

measurement or estimations that are emphasized (as in many-many, before-

before, fast-fast, fine-fine, slowly-slowly) or for pluralisation (as in big-big,

small-small). Some examples provided based on the theory are:

 Very-very: Your performance is very-very amazing. (Your performance

is very amazing.)

 Small-small: Do you have small-small pepper? (Do you have small

brand of pepper?)

2. Double Subjects

The use of double verb on English colloquial is purposed to

emphasize the subject. It is commonly used even though is not grammatically

correct.

The examples that are formulated based on theory above are:

 This your brother is very good boy. (This brother of yours is very good

boy)

 We students from English Department got good score of TAEP test. (The

students of English Department got good score of TEAP test.)

Basically, this type of colloquial sounds redundant and only uses

repetition to emphasize the subject.

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3. Coinage

Coinage (neologism) is a new word or phrase that eventually

becomes language. Mostly Coinage (neologisms) are the result of the

establishment of new field of art, science or technology. For example, the

field of computer science brings large range of neologism such as user-

friendly, software, floppy disk. The other examples of coined English are:

 Yahoo: the most popular terms in internet world.

 Fox: a Form One (first year) student in secondary school.

4. Compounding

A compound word is a linguistic expression that consists of at least

two free morphemes or morpheme constructions of which function is a single

word. Structurally, various types of word classes are compounded and

matched to form new words.

 Brain-box (it is made up of two English nouns ‘brain’ and ‘box’): an

intelligent person.

 Slow boy (it is made up of an English adjective ‘slow’ and noun ‘boy’):

snail.

5. Clipping

A clip is a short variant of a complex word. In "head words," the first

part (syllable) is used: lab for laboratory, math for mathematics. In "end

words," the beginning or the first syllable is deleted: phone for telephone,

plane for airplane.

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6. Semantic Extension

Semantic extension has to do with variation in the semantic range of

a word. The trend in this regard is that of the extension of the semantic range

of native English words wherein the words retain their English meanings but

acquire additional ones not familiar in native English.

 cassava farm: a part-time job for someone who has a full-time job.

 to wash somebody: slander someone; to make public someone’s dirty

lenient.

 small-thing (something of a relatively little size): a girlfriend. (e.g.

Mirabel is my small-thing.)

7. Pidgin-induced slangs

For linguists, Pidgin is a language that facilitates the development of

communication programs between groups that do not have the same

language. People who speak Pidgin also speak other languages as their

mother tongue. Frequently, people who speak pidgin also combine with the

slang words.

 cam-no-go: from the English words ‘come’, ‘not’ and ‘go’ (that which

comes and refuses to go away). It refers to a persistent kind of skin

infection (itchy rashes) caused by an animal parasite.

 mini-minor: a compound noun which refers to a young woman who has

not yet attained puberty; very young prostitute. This expression is

mainly used in oral contexts.

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Seven types of colloquial that have been explained above is the most

common colloquial words that are used by people in an informal context like in

daily speech to their close friends normally it happens among people of the same

age. Colloquial is more acceptable rather than slang and swear words, which is

because colloquial word purposed to make people easily and smoothly to share

and show their feeling.

2.5 Teaching Listening

As we know, listening is one of the macro skills in learning a language.

Yavuz & Celik (2017) assume that for those who assume that second language

learning is quite similar to native language acquisition, listening is a basic skill

in language learning in that listening is the primary tool of learners to create

their understandings in target language and acquire the input.

According to Richards (2008), “Earlier views of listening saw it as the

mastery of discrete skills or micro skills, such as recognizing reduced forms of

words, recognizing cohesive devices in texts, and identifying key words in a

text, and that these skills should form the focus of teaching. Later views of

listening drew in the field of cognitive psychology, which introduced the

nations of bottom-up and top-down processing and to the role of prior

knowledge and schema in comprehension.”

In teaching and learning process, media is one of the important points

that is considered especially in teaching listening because media in the

classroom purposes to trigger ideas and holding attention on important ideas. It

should lead students to remember the ideas more involved with them. What is

not always obvious is that students should first know what media is and ways

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to think about it. Critical skills in understanding media are extremely important;

without them the film, video, record or slide presented in relation to the subject

is only one dimensional. Datko (2014) proposes that multimedia-supported

listening activities, if properly executed, evolve the concept of traditional EFL

classroom ear practice and bring a number of potential benefits for the

development of one’s listening (and overall) competence in the target language.

One of the effective ways to teaching listening is by using song. Song

can be used as teaching media to improve students’ listening skill. By listening

to a song, students are able to learn about vocabulary, pronunciation, dialect,

and train their fluency. It can become an effective way to reduce anxiety of the

students in listening class.

2.6 Ariana Grande, “Thank U, Next” Album

Who do not know Ariana Grande, the talented singer from United States,

not only a top singer but also a songwriter and an actress. She was born on June

26, 1993. Ariana Grande began her career in 2008 and became more famous up

to now with her songs which is always trending either on the billboard or on

YouTube. No wonder if there are many kinds of awards that she can take as a

top singer on each album that she released.

“Thank U, Next” is the newest album that was released. It is fifth studio

album which was released on February 8, 2019, by Republic Records. This

album consists of 12 tracks. The tracklists are Imagine; Needy; NASA;

Bloodline; Fake smile; Bad idea; Make up; Ghostin; In my head; 7 rings; Thank

U, next; Break up with your girlfriend, I’m bored. The title track was booming

in early November 2018, and another chart-topping single, "7 Rings," followed

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in January 2019. The album debuted in February to strong praise, with USA

Today calling it her best to date. Two months later the 25-year-old singer showed her strength by becoming the youngest performer ever in Coachella

Valley Music and Arts Festival, as well as just the fourth woman to earn the honor (Biography.com, 2019).

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