chapter 3 heritage themes and related resources

DEVELOPMENT OF THE events, notes about the current HERITAGE THEMES diversity of cultures found in the watershed, and lists of activities related The seven heritage themes in this to outdoor recreation or local festivals. chapter emerged directly from public Continuing in their small groups, input. During Meeting Two of the participants reviewed all of the items series of four Working Group meetings placed on the maps and devised described in Chapter 1, participants between four and six themes that were divided into small groups and would capture all of the items. Each given large maps of the Little Colorado small group then reported its themes to watershed. They were then asked a the whole group. The whole group then series of four questions designed to worked all of themes suggested by each elicit responses that would describe the smaller group into one set of between heritage of the region. four and six themes. This process took place at five meetings in five different Š If you had a two-week dream locations across the watershed and vacation in the Little Colorado resulted in a total of 25 heritage themes River watershed, where would you being suggested. Many of the themes go? from a Working Group in one meeting Š If you had to describe this area to location were virtually the same as someone who had never been here, themes suggested by one or more what would you say? Working Groups in other meeting Š When friends or family come to locations, thus giving evidence that visit, where do you take them? particular themes indeed identified Š If “something” were to leave this prevalent, consistent, and over-arching area forever, what would you miss characteristics of the region. The most? Heritage Programs Coordinator reviewed all 25 suggestions and found Participants drew or wrote their seven common themes that united the responses on the maps. In most cases, most frequently suggested themes by the maps were completely covered the Working Groups. Those seven with sites, references to historical unifying themes became the seven

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heritage themes described in this were written on large pieces of paper chapter: and participants wrote down the name of the resource (a site, event, Š Sacred and Enchanted Landscapes organization, business, etc.) and its Š Trails, Roads, and Rails of the West general location on the paper of the Š Native Nations particular theme the resource fit. Š Living from the Land Participants were asked to identify Š Archaeology resources that related to tourism as Š Expressions of Art and Life well as those that served local Š Outdoor Recreation communities, although often a single resource fulfilled both functions. After establishing the seven heritage Often, too, a single resource reflected themes, the next round of Working more than one theme. The related Group meetings focused on identifying resources sections that appear in each resources within the watershed that heritage theme chapter are a direct reflected, interpreted, or embodied one result of data generated during these or more themes. The seven themes Working Group meetings.

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Theme 5 Archaeology

SUMMARY OF THEME DESCRIPTION OF THEME

The number, variety, and significance The Little Colorado area contains the of archaeological sites found in the remains of prehistoric and historic Little Colorado River Valley are rivaled occupations dating back at least 12,000 by few other locations in the country. years and spans two major late These sites not only contribute greatly prehistoric archaeological culture areas: to our understanding of past lifeways the Anasazi or Ancestral Pueblo and in the American Southwest, but also Mogollon. These groups eventually have provided a foundation for coalesced to form what anthropologists numerous advancements in call the Western Pueblo. Later, Apache archaeological field methods over the and Navajo groups made the past two centuries. Southwest their home, and together with the Hopi and Zuni Pueblo people, While many Little Colorado sites are continue to occupy much of the Little fragile, currently unprotected, or Colorado area. Archaeological remains otherwise not appropriate for visitation of Hispanic, Mormon, and other from members of the general public, historic period settlers also dot the they continue to serve as important landscape and remain powerful landmarks for the history and cultural reminders of the more recent past. The development of modern-day Hopi, following overview briefly summarizes Zuni, Navajo, and White Mountain the Little Colorado area’s long, rich, Apache people (see “Native Nations” and diverse past, highlighting some theme). Visitors with an interest in key resources and significant archaeology, however, are not at a loss archaeological advances of particular for interesting places to see in the Little localities. Colorado area.

Several state and national parks or Overview of Prehistoric Culture monuments feature ruins and History petroglyphs from various time periods and cultures. Extensive artifact Approximately 15,000 years ago, collections and exhibits can be found at populations crossed the Bering Strait the Museum of Northern Arizona, and land bridge from Asia into North many smaller museums throughout the America. These groups likely arrived region also display artifacts. following the Wisconsin glaciation, Archaeology is further supported by when sea levels were low and an ice- three highly respected educational free corridor existed between glaciers programs at Northern Arizona on the east side of the Rocky University, Arizona State University, Mountains. Except for a few highly and the University of Arizona, and by a controversial sites purportedly of great network of site steward volunteers and antiquity (e.g., Sandia Cave near avocational archaeologists in both Albuquerque, New Mexico), the Arizona and New Mexico. Southwest’s Paleoindian occupation

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traditionally is dated between around however, point to integration of 10,000 and 5500 B.C. The Pleistocene agriculture into some southwestern climate was wetter than previously, communities as early as 3,500 years causing the expansion of savannas and ago, indicating this definition of the the westward spread of several large Archaic may be too simplistic. mammal species, or megafauna, like mammoth, bison, horse, camel, dire Initially, the Archaic lifeway was not wolf, and several antelope species. The much different from the Paleoindian: distinctive, fluted Clovis and Folsom highly mobile, small group size, and points are well-known examples of mixed hunting and gathering. specialized Paleoindian hunting Eventually, however, Archaic technology. In addition to hunting, populations began to rely more heavily Paleoindian groups also must have on wild plant foods and less upon collected edible wild plants. hunting, perhaps because the climate again became wetter and stimulated Paleoindian populations are envisioned increased plant growth. The number of as small, highly mobile family bands. known Archaic sites also increases They often obtained stone tool raw through time, not only because more materials from very great distances, recent sites are more likely to be visible either through trade or as a result of to archaeologists, but also because considerable population mobility. overall population size probably Paleoindian sites typically are increased. By the end of the Archaic, characterized by the presence of habitation sites often had large, shallow diagnostic projectile points found storage pits as well as concentrations of either in isolation or in association with fire-cracked cobbles and artifacts. small scatters of chipped stone Structural architecture generally was artifacts. Because of their great age lacking. Hearths, bell-shaped pits, such sites are relatively rare. In the cobble cairns (possibly roasting pit Little Colorado watershed, isolated debris), and a variety of pit structures Clovis and Folsom points have been are known. Archaic period basketry, found near Sanders, Houck, the St. rabbit fur clothing, yucca twine robes, Johns/Concho/Lyman Lake area, woven bags, wood digging sticks, Winslow, on the Hopi mesas, and in jewelry in various media (stone, shell, the Petrified Forest. bone, feathers and seeds), atlatls, bone tools, and possible ritual objects The less-specialized Archaic adaptation occasionally are preserved in dry that emerged within a relatively dry rockshelters. climatic period around 5500 B.C. marks the end of the Paleoindian period. The Like Paleoindian sites, obvious Archaic term “Archaic” designates both a time period sites are not well represented in period and a way of life characterized the Little Colorado area. Some of the by hunting (both small and large game) better known are on Black Mesa near and gathering (mainly plant seeds). Hopi, where a large number of early Throughout the Southwest, agriculture sites dating to the late archaeologists generally identify the Archaic and/or succeeding early beginning of the Archaic period with Ancestral Pueblo (Basketmaker) the appearance of grinding equipment periods are represented. In addition, and the end of the Archaic with the several sites along Y-Unit draw in the appearance of pottery and horticulture Zuni region have Archaic or around A.D. 200. Recent data, Basketmaker II components. These

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sites, excavated by the Zuni Cultural hunting strategies, and (4) more Resource Enterprise, provide evidence complex architecture, including a for early agriculture at the Archaic- transition from pit structure habitation Pueblo transition. to aboveground masonry rooms. An increased emphasis on stored resources After about A.D. 200, around the time also is apparent. Early Pueblo that pottery was first made and used in (Basketmaker II and III) populations the Southwest, the archaeological continued to use the atlatl, basketry, cultures traditionally identified as the basin grinding slabs, and cobble manos Anasazi and Mogollon emerge. This and exploited wild plants and animal distinction persists until about A.D. foods. Utilitarian pottery was gray in 1000, when the two cultures color and serving vessels (bowls and presumably merged into what jars) typically had black painted archaeologists commonly refer to as designs on a gray or white-slipped Western Pueblo. In the northern Little background. Viewed together, these Colorado region (from about Holbrook, changes point to increased sedentism St. Johns, and Quemado north to the beginning sometime between A.D. 400 San Francisco Peaks) archaeologists and 800 across most of the northern classify sites as Anasazi or Ancestral Southwest. Pueblo and generally follow the Pecos Classification for this area developed During the Pueblo I period (A.D. 700– by A.V. Kidder in the 1920s. In the 900), environmental conditions in the southern Little Colorado, including the northern southwest deteriorated Upper Little Colorado and Forestdale somewhat, resulting in subsistence regions, pre-A.D. 1000 sites are stress for horticultural groups. understood within the Mogollon Settlements generally increased in size framework. The area around Flagstaff during the Pueblo I period, probably south to the Mogollon Rim is classified reflecting overall population growth. as Sinagua, an archaeological culture Habitation began to shift from that also contributed to the Western semisubterranean pit structures to Pueblo identity. above-ground masonry rooms. Pit structures were retained as kivas used mainly for ceremonial purposes. Red- Anasazi or Ancestral Pueblo slipped pottery with black painted designs was introduced at this time. The Pueblo period in the northern Southwest typically is viewed as a The Pueblo II period (A.D. 900-1150), period of dramatic change. Researchers was a time of marked regional generally agree this period was marked differentiation. Other than the dramatic by minor droughts across the Colorado great houses of Chaco Canyon and Plateau, accentuating the risks elsewhere in the San Juan Basin (just associated with dependence on northeast of the Little Colorado area), domesticated crops. Notable Pueblo II settlements were somewhat developments early in the Pueblo smaller and more dispersed than sequence include: (1) increased reliance previously. Masonry surface rooms on maize horticulture, (2) widespread were increasingly used for living space adoption of ceramic technology and the and kivas for ceremonial space. development of regional pottery styles, (3) the introduction of the bow and During the Pueblo III period (A.D 1150- arrow and concomitant changes in 1300), also known as Great Pueblo,

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large, multistory pueblos were Mogollon constructed in many areas of the northern Southwest. Around A.D. The far southern portion of the Little 1130, severe drought affected portions Colorado watershed includes areas of the region, making some areas less traditionally considered to be part of attractive. Populations left these the Mogollon archaeological culture. localities and began consolidating in Beginning around A.D. 200, during the areas such as Mesa Verde in the Four Mogollon Early Pithouse period (A.D. Corners, Canyon de Chelly (just 200-550, groups living in the outside the Little Colorado watershed), mountainous country of southeastern and the Zuni region. Notably, the Arizona and southwestern New Chaco regional system, which Mexico began producing characteristic influenced much of the northern brownware utilitarian pottery. They Southwest, changed dramatically as the also constructed pithouses and great houses were largely abandoned practiced maize agriculture. Early or altered in function. Mogollon settlements in eastern Arizona were on high, defensible The Pueblo III to Pueblo IV transition at landforms, and occupations were either about A.D. 1300 witnessed a dramatic seasonal or short term. reorganization of the social landscape, including large scale migrations, During the Late Pithouse period (A.D. widespread conflict, and the 550 to ca. A.D. 1000), there was a development of new religious systems. change from pithouses to above- At this point former Anasazi and ground, masonry or cobble pueblo- Mogollon groups cannot be style dwellings. Mogollon potters distinguished from one another and are began producing red-slipped decorated considered to be Ancestral Pueblo. pottery in many areas and black-on- white pottery in other areas (notably, During the Pueblo IV period (A.D. 1300 the Mimbres region). In eastern to ca. 1600), many portions of the Arizona, later Mogollon settlements northern southwest were essentially were typically not much larger than empty and other areas, including many earlier Mogollon settlements, but were localities of the Little Colorado area, located on valley floors near potential were densely populated. Pueblo horticultural lands. A few larger settlements became much larger overall settlements probably served as centers and were typically oriented around one for more dispersed populations. or more plazas. A tradition of brightly During the 1200s, large pueblos appear colored, polychrome pottery, much of in portions of the eastern Arizona it decorated with glaze paint, Mogollon territory. Considerable influx developed along the Mogollon rim and of Anasazi populations probably began spread north and east. Exchange of around this time, and by the 1300s the cotton, pottery, obsidian, and other occupied portions of the former items was widespread. Many of these Mogollon area are considered part of items were directly or indirectly the larger Western Pueblo culture. connected to pan-Southwestern religious traditions (the Southwest Regional Religion or Kachina Religion) Sinagua that emphasized rain, fertility, and social integration of diverse The area between the San Francisco populations. Peaks near present-day Flagstaff,

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Arizona, and the Verde Valley to the villages). Notably, many prehistoric south was occupied, from around A.D. sites and particular geographic areas 650 to 1300, by an archaeologically often figure prominently in migration distinct group known as the Sinagua. legends and clan histories. The Sinagua area has been called a “frontier” in which diverse cultures In addition to prehistoric and historic intermingled. The northern Sinagua, Native American archaeology, the around Flagstaff, initially constructed Little Colorado area contains the legacy pithouse villages at the interfaces of more recent groups that have come between piñon-juniper woodlands and to reside there. Early in the area’s ponderosa forests, where they farmed history, Hispanic settlers ranched and and where they also hunted and farmed in the area. Mormon pioneers gathered. Later, the northern Sinagua followed, and today many Little established large, pueblo-style, Colorado towns reflect a strong masonry villages. The southern Hispanic or Mormon heritage. Sinagua farmed on the fertile mesas Railroading, mining, and commercial along the Mogollon rim. ranching were and continue to be major economic activities that have each left Both the northern and southern respective material traces. Historic Sinagua groups had ties with the archaeological remains in the Little Hohokam to the south, and the Colorado area thus consist of the southern groups also interacted with remains of homesteads, ranches, forts, Kayenta populations. Some time after trading posts, hotels, mining towns, about A.D. 1300, the northern Sinagua schools, cemeteries, railroads, and left the San Francisco Peaks area, other historic structures and features. forming villages in the Wupatki area Some of these are listed on State or and joining groups at Anderson Mesa National registers of historic to the southeast. Eventually these properties, but many currently lack groups made their way to Hopi. The such formal recognition. southern Sinagua appear to have directly joined groups already living in the Hopi area. Little Colorado Heritage Area Subareas

Historic Period Archaeology Since the Little Colorado watershed includes a wide range of archaeological For many, history in the Southwest resources attributed to different begins around A.D. 1540 with the archaeological cultures, regions, and Spanish entrada. The Native Peoples of time periods, the following sections the region show clear continuity across provide summaries for smaller, this time period, and their oral histories individual subareas. These subareas and traditions connect them directly to have both geographical and the places of earlier times. They are archaeological meaning. Identified often closely connected to those places subareas and localities are also and continue to use them in one form identified on a master map (to be or another although they may appear created), and individual sites are to be abandoned. Present uses include bulleted in the chapter on key religious purposes, plant or other resources. Of necessity, each section resource gathering, and seasonal highlights but a sample of the diverse occupation (such as Zuni farming archaeological sites in each area. Note

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that sites believed to be especially Sinagua Area (Including Flagstaff sensitive (i.e., to have particular Area and Anderson Mesa) religious or other cultural significance that is not appropriate for general Numerous archaeological sites, many knowledge) are not discussed here, nor of which are within three National are they listed in the table or plotted on Monuments in the vicinity of Flagstaff, the map. Arizona, are attributed to the Sinagua culture. Sunset Crater National Monument, which contains the Hopi Area (Including Hopi Mesas namesake volcano that erupted and Southeastern Kayenta) dramatically for a relatively brief interval between A.D. 1050 and 1100, The Little Colorado watershed includes was home to Sinagua farmers. In the the Hopi Mesas and the Black Mesa aftermath of its eruptions, the Sunset area of the Kayenta region. The Crater area was no longer farmable, Kayenta region is largely outside of the causing local populations to move to defined Little Colorado watershed, and villages in nearby Walnut Canyon and includes such well-known Wupatki. Here, thinner layers of ash archaeological areas as Monument and cinders actually made agricultural Valley and Tsegi Canyon (Navajo lands more productive. Wupatki National Monument). As discussed National Monument contains the above, Black Mesa is notable for its remains of Wupatki, Wukoki, Citadel, Archaic and early Pueblo occupation. Lomaki, and nearly 3,000 other sites Valley View Ruin, for example, is a ranging from Archaic times through large Pueblo I hamlet located on the the late 1200s. Wupatki Pueblo itself mesa rim. has produced several interesting items, including turquoise and shell jewelry, Archaeologists generally consider the copper bells, and a buried parrot Hopi area to include the prominent skeleton, indicating its occupants were Hopi Mesas, the Hopi Buttes to the connected to an extensive trading southeast along Cottonwood Wash, network. The monument also includes and the Moenkopi area to the numerous petroglyphs. Walnut Canyon northwest. The area is perhaps best National Monument is just east of known for its Pueblo IV and historic Flagstaff along Walnut Creek. Included occupation. The Hopi Mesas (from in the monument are numerous well- northwest to southeast: Third Mesa, known Sinagua cliff dwellings Second Mesa, First Mesa, and Antelope occupied between about A.D. 1150 and Mesa) actually are southwesterly 1225. Also present are many pueblo- extensions of Black Mesa. A population style masonry dwellings on the canyon boom on the mesas apparently rim. Because they are less visible, these occurred during the late 1200s, when at sites have escaped much of the looting least 14 large settlements were that devastated the cliff dwellings prior established here. These were relatively to the monument’s establishment in large, with at least 100 rooms. The two 1915. largest villages, Oraibi and Awatovi, had 500 to 800 rooms, respectively. On the northeast edge of Flagstaff is Many of the Pueblo IV villages were Elden Pueblo, a 60-70 room Sinagua inhabited through the Spanish colonial pueblo dating from about A.D. 1100 to period, and four remain occupied 1250. The pueblo is notable not only today. because it appears to have been an

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important regional trade center during intense fourteenth century interaction its heyday, but also because it has been with Hopi Mesa villages, based identified as a key ancestral Hopi primarily on the abundance of village. As discussed later in this distinctive Jeddito Yellow Ware pottery chapter, public archaeology and in site assemblages. Jeddito Yellow collaboration by many individuals and Ware was made only on the Hopi organizations have contributed to the Mesas, so it must have been traded to excavation and interpretation of this Anderson Mesa and Homol’ovi sites. site. Also on the outskirts of Flagstaff is Both regions were largely vacated by the Sinagua petroglyph panel in Buffalo the late 1300s, coinciding with Park, which is accessible to the many population increases on the Hopi visitors that use this area for outdoor Mesas. recreation.

The Anderson Mesa area is southwest Middle Little Colorado Area and of the Little Colorado River, between Rio Puerco of the West modern-day Sedona on the west, Flagstaff on the northwest, Winslow on The Middle Little Colorado area is the east, and the Mogollon Rim to the centered on the confluence of the Little south. With the exception of recent Colorado River and Cottonwood Wash, work by Wesley Bernardini and earlier including the towns of Winslow and excavations at Nuvakwewtaqu (Chavez Holbrook, Arizona. Included in this Pass) by archaeologists from Arizona area is the Rio Puerco of the West, State University, this area remains which begins just east of Gallup and somewhat understudied. Typically flows west to join the Little Colorado classified as Sinagua, Anderson Mesa near Holbrook. North of Winslow is the actually is a transition zone between Homol’ovi settlement cluster Anasazi groups to the north, Mogollon comprised of Homol’ovi I, II, III, IV, groups to the east, and Salado groups Cottonwood, and Chevelon. to the south. Several large villages were Researchers from the Arizona State constructed and occupied in this area Museum at the University of Arizona during the Pueblo III and Pueblo IV have spent decades excavating and periods, including the extensive, multi- interpreting these large, late Pueblo III roomblock Nuvakwewtaqu as well as and Pueblo IV villages that had strong the loosely clustered Grapevine ties to villages on the Hopi mesas. In complex. fact, Homol’ovi is a Hopi word for “place of the low hills or mounds.” Both the Anderson Mesa and Cotton production for exchange was Homol’ovi areas (the latter discussed likely a key economic activity at the below under “Middle Little Colorado”) Homol’ovi villages. Within Homol’ovi are likely sources for immigrants to Ruins State Park, established in 1986, Hopi in late prehistory. Villages in are the Homol’ovi sites I-IV, as well as these two regions figure prominently in more than 300 additional Hopi migration traditions, with more archaeological sites of various kinds. than two dozen Hopi clans tracing their Homol’ovi I and Homol’ovi II are open ancestral migrations from southern to the public. Exhibits at the park Arizona through Anderson Mesa and visitor center interpret the area’s Homol’ovi on their routes north significance, and a podcast audio tour toward the Hopi Mesas. Both areas also is available on the Center for Desert have archaeological evidence for Archaeology’s website.

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Petrified Forest National Park covers historic Sunset Cemetery within over 90,000 acres on the north and Homol’ovi State Park. south sides of the Rio Puerco east of Holbrook. The northern park portion includes the Painted Desert, while the Silver Creek Area south park portion is known for its abundance of petrified wood. The park The Silver Creek area, extending south contains over 650 known archaeological of the Little Colorado River along sites, the oldest of which, Flattop Silver Creek, includes the modern-day Village, predates A.D. 500. This site, towns of Snowflake/Taylor, Showlow, probably a summer residence for and Pinetop/Lakeside. The area is Basketmaker people, contains 25 slab- bounded on the south by the Mogollon lined pithouses. Agate House, occupied Rim, where Silver Creek has its from about A.D. 1100-1250, is one of headwaters, flowing north to join the many buildings in the park constructed Little Colorado. Archaeological entirely of petrified wood. It was remains in this area are classified as reconstructed to its current Mogollon and, later, as Western configuration in the 1930s. The Pueblo. Sites post-dating A.D. 1000 are thirteenth- and fourteenth-century best known and have been the focus of Puerco Ruin, a 125-room pueblo, is the most archaeological investigations. largest site within the park. It has been During the tenth and eleventh centuries partially excavated and stabilized. the Silver Creek received immigrants Associated with this village are a large from a number of Ancestral Pueblo group of petroglyphs that are argued to areas, who founded small villages. contain an archaeoastronomical feature Population grew, and many villages that marks the summer solstice. dating to the eleventh and twelfth Additional petroglyphs are present centuries have circular great kivas throughout the park, perhaps most similar to earlier great kivas found at notably at Newspaper Rock, a huge Chaco Canyon and elsewhere in the boulder containing hundreds of northern southwest. During the petroglyphs spanning the eleventh thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, through fourteenth centuries A.D. local groups aggregated into large, Additional sites and petroglyphs, plaza-oriented pueblos much like other including the petroglyph site at the portions of the northern Southwest. Hidden Cove Golf Course in Holbrook, can also be found in the surrounding The Silver Creek area figures area. prominently in the history of Southwest archaeology. In 1929, Several important historic archaeology researchers from the National sites also occur in the Middle Little Geographic Society’s Third Beam Colorado subarea. The first, Brigham Expedition, including well-known City, is a restored fort first built by archaeologist Emil Haury, recovered a Mormon pioneers in 1876. The fort’s tree-ring sample from the Showlow walls, which later were moved to the Ruin that made it possible to link the grounds of the La Posada Hotel in prehistoric and historic tree-ring Winslow, enclosed settlers’ homes. This chronologies established by A.E. small settlement only lasted five years Douglass. Thus, many sites in the due to repeated flooding of the river Southwest could now be precisely that destroyed crops. A second historic dated to within a few decades. Haury site important in Mormon history is the also excavated at Showlow and

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Pinedale Ruins. Archaeologists from Upper Little Colorado River proper the Field Museum of Chicago between Springerville and St. Johns. excavated several sites, including Situated on the terraces of crumbling Carter Ranch and Broken K Pueblo, in basalt cliff just outside Springerville, the Hay Hollow Valley just east of Casa Malpais incorporates both Silver Creek and to the west of Silver relatively early Mogollon and later Creek, the Chevelon Archaeological Western Pueblo features. The Center Research Project conducted survey and for Desert Archaeology, the Salmon excavations. Ruins Museum, and the town of Springerville recently partnered in an Most recently, researchers from the emergency stabilization program for University of Arizona have spent over this unique basalt-masonry site of Casa a decade excavating and interpreting Malpais. The site is accessed via guided Silver Creek sites spanning the eleventh tours from the Casa Malpais Visitor through fourteenth centuries, including Center and Museum, where visitors three great kiva sites, a ca. 50-room late can view exhibits about the site. Lyman Pueblo III site, and the large, Lake State Park near St. Johns contains aggregated early Pueblo IV period hundreds of archaeological sites and Bailey Ruin. petroglyphs, including Rattlesnake Point Pueblo and Baca Pueblo, which were investigated by Arizona State Upper Little Colorado Area University in the 1990s.

The Upper Little Colorado area Sherwood Ranch Pueblo (formerly includes the upper portion of the Little known as the Raven Ruin) is north of Colorado River drainage and its Springerville. From the mid 1980’s to tributaries, from the headwaters in the mid 1990’s, this site was excavated by a White Mountains south of group known as the White Mountain Springerville, Arizona to the confluence Archaeological Research Center with the Zuni River northwest of St. (WMARC). WMARC offered Johns, Arizona. As discussed above, archaeological research vacations that Paleoindian artifacts found near St. allowed the public to participate in Johns attest to the very long archaeological excavations. occupational history of this area. Unfortunately, the records from these Basketmaker period pithouse excavations have not been published, settlements are found throughout the and the location of excavated artifacts region, as are small masonry structures is presently unknown. In 2002, the dating to the tenth and eleventh site’s owners terminated their lease centuries. There are several Chaco- agreements with WMARC and the site period great houses along the Upper was donated to the Archaeological Little Colorado, including Garcia Conservancy, which sponsored a Ranch northeast of St. Johns near the program of architectural New Mexico border and Cox Ranch documentation and mapping. In 2003, Pueblo near Fence Lake and Quemado, Sherwood Ranch Pueblo was fully which researchers from Washington documented and backfilled to ensure State University have recently the stabilization and long term investigated. preservation of exposed archaeological features. The site was listed on the Several well-known Pueblo III and National Register of Historic Places in Pueblo IV period sites are along the 2005.

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Zuni/Cibola Area the Zuni region were abandoned and the entire regional population became The Zuni/Cibola area of east central concentrated into nine villages along Arizona and west central New Mexico the Zuni river, many of which were includes the Zuni River drainage, all of occupied into the historic period. the present-day Zuni Reservation, the Modern-day Zuni pueblo is one such El Morro Valley to the east of the village. reservation, and the Jaralosa Draw and Quemado areas south of the reservation. During the Chaco period, DISTINCTIVENESS OF THEME much of the Zuni region population lived in small pueblos of 10 to 20 The archaeology theme, with its rooms. Some room blocks were primary focus on Native American dispersed and others were loosely sites, is unique to heritage areas. clustered in what appear to be Archaeology and living Native communities, the best known of which American cultures are major is probably the Village of the Great components of the Little Colorado area Kivas. During the post-Chacoan period and provide a source of connection (A.D. 1150-1250), larger aggregated with the past for local and tourist alike. villages of 500-plus rooms appeared. The Little Colorado area is home to These often had multiple room blocks vibrant Native American cultures with focused around great houses and deep roots and continued connections oversized, apparently unroofed, great to the area. The area also has a rich kivas. One of these is the Los Gigantes historical record reflected in numerous community in the El Morro Valley, historic archaeology sites. The heritage which was recently investigated by area would protect valuable archaeologists from Arizona State archaeological resources and ensure University. their continued relevance to today’s diverse communities. The large, apartment-like nucleated villages of the Pueblo IV period are perhaps the most archaeologically RELATED RESOURCES visible sites in the Zuni area. They include the pueblos of Atsinna and A number of archaeological sites, parks North Atsinna that are open to the and monuments, museums, private public at El Morro National organizations, and events are open to Monument. In the vicinity of the the public. These are too numerous to monument, to the west on the Zuni discuss in detail and the following reservation, and to the south toward discussion highlights a small sample of Quemado are many more nucleated what is available. The Little Colorado pueblos that are less accessible. Many area is home to a total of six National of these are on private or Zuni tribal Parks, National Monuments, and State land. Several have been investigated by Parks. In addition to state parks and archaeologists from institutions as monuments within the watershed are diverse as Washington University in St. four significant areas—Canyon de Louis, Wake Forest University, Chelly National Monument, Chaco Columbia University/Barnard College, Canyon National Park, Grand Canyon and Arizona State University. National Park, and Navajo National Beginning around A.D. 1400, the Monument—immediately outside its eastern and southernmost portions of boundaries.

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The Museum of Northern Arizona in Archaeological Conservancy, and local Flagstaff houses extensive collections community members. Many tribal and also interprets the archaeology and governments have also established history of the northern southwest. The cultural preservation offices that Museum’s annual Indian and Spanish conduct and oversee archaeological shows attract thousands of artists and investigations and historic preservation visitors. Also in Flagstaff, current on tribal lands. archaeological work at Elden Pueblo, led by Coconino National Forest archaeologist Peter Pilles, is a RELATED RESOURCES LIST cooperative effort among volunteers (Native Nations and Archaeology) from the Museum of Northern Arizona and the Arizona Archaeological Š 26 Bar Ranch, Eagar: Now owned by Society, as well the Arizona Natural the Hopi tribe, the ranch previously History Association, the Hopi Cultural belonged to John Wayne. Petroglyphs Preservation Office, and the general and other archaeological sites are on public. This project is featured as an the property. The ranch also “Interactive Dig” by Archaeology participates in Valle Redondo Days Magazine. over Memorial Day Weekend, a festival celebrating John Wayne and Several privately owned organizations the local area in general. The ranch provide controlled access to hosts Hopi dance performances open archaeological sites. Among these is the to the public. Rock Art Ranch, located on an old cattle ranch with numerous Š Archaeological Conservancy, petroglyphs in an isolated canyon. Albuquerque: The Archaeological Conservancy works with willing Arizona’s three state universities, landowners to study and preserve Arizona State University, Northern archaeological sites on their property. Arizona University, and the University The Conservancy owns nine sites in of Arizona, have long been involved in the Little Colorado River watershed. archaeological research, publication, and public outreach in the Little Š Arizona Archaeological Society Colorado area. Notable projects include (AAS): A statewide organization the U of A’s investigations at with local chapters, including three in Homol’ovi Pueblo and the Silver Creek the Little Colorado River watershed, area, as well as ASU’s multiple projects the Society promotes the in the Zuni region and El Morro Valley. understanding, respect, and The Little Colorado area has also protection of archaeological sites for attracted researchers from institutions professional and avocational as far away as Washington State archaeologists alike. University and Wake Forest University, to name but a few. Š Arizona and New Mexico Site Steward Programs: Volunteers are Finally, appreciation and protection of trained to visit sites and evaluate and archaeological sites is achieved at the report any damage, whether caused local level through a network of trained by vandalism or natural forces. site stewards, avocational and Regular monitoring helps reduce the professional groups, preservation and severity of impacts and aids in the conservation organizations such as the long-term preservation of the site.

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Š A:shiwi A:wan Museum and Š El Morro National Monument: El Heritage Center, Zuni: The museum Morro contains many ancient features a beautiful mural depicting petroglyphs as well as pueblo ruins the Zuni story of emergence into the atop its sandstone bluff. Fourth World as well as other displays of art, history, culture, and Š Elden Pueblo, Flagstaff: This pueblo the difficulty the tribe has was inhabited from about A.D. 1070 experienced in being the subject of to 1275. Since 1978, the Arizona intense anthropological study. Natural History Association and professional archaeologists have led Š Black Mesa Trust, Kykotsmovi summer sessions in which school- aged children and members of the Š Brigham City, Winslow: The site of public can participate in excavations an early Mormon settlement from the and learn the science of archaeology 1870s, it has been the subject of recent and about ancient cultures in a archaeological studies and plans are hands-on way. in place for its restoration. Š Explore Navajo Interactive Museum, Š Casa Malpais site and museum, Tuba City: This new, state-of-the-art Springerville: Casa Malpais is an museum allows visitors to explore ancestral Puebloan site built at the land, language, history, culture, and edge of a lava flow a few hundred ceremonies of the Navajo people. The yards from the Little Colorado River. design of the museum reflects Navajo It is important to both the Hopi and worldview by having visitors travel Zuni Tribes and is also well-known through the exhibits from east to and cared for by local residents. south to west to north (mimicking the path of the sun) and by also Š Cottonwood Creek and Chevelon emphasizing the number “four,” ruins: Part of the ancestral Hopi which is a foundational concept (four Homol’ovi settlement cluster along seasons, four directions, etc.) in the Middle Little Colorado near Navajo thought. Winslow, Cottonwood Creek and Chevelon ruins are on opposite sides Š Fort Defiance, Fort Defiance of the river. Chevelon is the larger of Chapter: This was the first military the two, with up to 500 rooms and outpost (1851) in Arizona Territory several plazas. Cottonwood Creek the U.S. Army established in an has about 120 rooms. Both pueblos attempt to control Navajos. Kit were occupied from the late 13th to Carson drove people from their the late 14th century A.D. homes to here, and then continued driving them on to Ft. Sumner where Š Cox Ranch Pueblo: Cox Ranch they spent four years incarcerated. Pueblo near Fence Lake is one of the This journey is known as The Long southernmost settlements linked to Walk. Ft. Defiance became the first the Chacoan regional system. The agency when the Navajo Reservation complex, which has recently been the was established in 1868 and was the subject of excavations by Washington site of distribution of over 13,000 State University personnel, has a 50- sheep and 1,000 goats to Navajo room Chaco style great house families as they resettled in their surrounded by 18 smaller residential lands after the ordeal at Ft. Sumner. room blocks. Those sheep and goats form a large

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basis of the present herds people Hubbell began trading at this site in keep today. 1878. He and his descendents operated the post until it was sold to Š Hay Hollow Valley: The Hay Hollow the National Park Service in 1967. Valley, just east of Snowflake, The Hubbell Trading Post is still an contains the remains of Broken K and active trading post, hosts two Carter Ranch pueblos. Archaeologists auctions of Native American arts from Chicago’s Field Museum every year, and is in the process of excavated at Broken K Pueblo in the restoring gardens and livestock herds 1960s. This roughly 100-room that would have been present during Mogollon residence dates from about J.L. Hubbell’s time. A.D. 1150 to 1280. Š Inscription Rock Trading Post, Rte. Š Homol’ovi Ruins State Park: Four 53 near Ramah: A modern-day major pueblos and a section of the “trading post,” Inscription Rock Little Colorado River comprise this features the work of artists from State Park. A recent Memorandum of nearby Zuni and Navajo as well as Understanding between Arizona from around the world. State Parks and the Hopi Tribe has resulted in significant Hopi influence Š Inter-Tribal Indian Ceremonial, in Park operations and programming. Gallup: The Ceremonial, held The annual event, Suvoyuki Day, annually since 1922, is the largest features traditional dances, foods, Native-related event in North specially-guided archaeological America. It started as a tribute to tours, and art demonstrations. Native Americans in the Gallup vicinity but now attracts tribes from Š Hooper Ranch and Danson pueblos: across the continent. It features four Located along the Upper Little days of juried art shows, rodeos, Colorado River north of Casa night dances, parades, Native foods, Malpais, these ancient Pueblo sites queen contests, fashion shows, were occupied from the late 13th footraces, and more. through the late 14th centuries. Danson is atop a steep knoll and has Š KUYI Hopi Radio: KUYI, Hopi about 25 rooms. Hooper Ranch is owned and operated, began somewhat larger, at 60 rooms, and is broadcasting in 2000 and currently only a few hundred meters south of reaches Flagstaff, Winslow, Tuba Danson. City, and the I-40 corridor in addition to the Hopi Reservation. Its Š Hopi Cultural Center and programming features a mix of Restaurant, Second Mesa: The traditional Hopi music, Cultural Center and Restaurant are a contemporary Native music from main stop for visitors to Hopi. The Hopi and other tribes, as well as local restaurant offers traditional Hopi and regional news and some dishes and some of the 12 villages National Public Radio programming. operate gift shops in the adjoining Interestingly, “kuyi” in the Hopi complex that feature a variety of language means water, and water is Hopi and other tribal arts and crafts. considered the source of all life.

Š Hubbell Trading Post National Š Leupp Chapter: Leupp contains Historic Site, Ganado: John Lorenzo several interesting historic and

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modern-day places including a approximately 20,000) and features trading post, remnants of a WWII footraces, song and dance Japanese Internment Camp, Indian competitions, and a free barbeque. School, and the North Leupp Family Farms. The Farms are an effort of Š Natwani Coalition (Natwani approximately 40 families to restore Tu’sawyaqam), Kykotsmovi: An native crops and farming traditions affiliation of organizations and as a means of transmitted Navajo institutions dedicated to preserving culture to youth and to encourage a and restoring the local food system healthier diet and lifestyle. on Hopi.

Š Lyman Lake State Park: The lake Š Navajo Nation Archaeology itself was created by a Mormon dam Department, Flagstaff and Window on the Little Colorado River and Rock: The Navajo Nation served early Mormon settlements in Archaeology Department serves the the vicinity. The Mormons were not Navajo Nation in a number of ways. the first to recognize the quality of It provides survey, archaeological the area, however. Native Americans research services, and cultural lived there for many centuries before, consultation for public projects, such building several pueblos and carving as road construction, on the hundreds of petroglyphs into reservation, provides the same boulders surrounding what was then services for families working with the river banks. homesite leases, and also provides hands-on experience for young Š Museum of Northern Arizona Navajo archaeologists in training. (MNA), Flagstaff: Founded in 1928, The Department conducts its work in the museum has a long history of a manner that is scientifically promoting Native cultures and arts. respected but also consistent with Its three annual Native arts shows cultural values. (one each for Hopi, Navajo, and Zuni) draw visitors from around the Š Navajo Nation Fair, Window Rock: country and around the world. The The Navajo Nation Fair began in 1938 oldest, the Hopi Show, is celebrating for the encouragement of livestock its 75th year in 2008. The permanent improvements and management collection of MNA contains many through exhibits and demonstrations. Native art pieces. The museum also Seventy years later, the mission of the sponsors periodic cultural trips to the Fair is “to preserve and promote reservations where participants can pride in the Navajo heritage and learn from Native guides. culture for the benefit of the Navajo Nation.” It is a world-renowned Š Native American Appreciation Day, event that showcases Navajo Gallup: Started by trader Ellis agriculture, fine arts and crafts, and Tanner in recognition of the immense much more. It is the largest American impact Native Americans have on the Indian fair and rodeo. Gallup economy, the event is now sponsored by the City of Gallup and Š Navajo Nation Museum and Navajo a number of local organizations and Nation Zoo and Botanical Park, businesses in addition to Tanner’s. Window Rock: The Navajo Nation is The event draws 10,000 people on the only United States tribe to own average (Gallup’s total population is and operate its own zoo. Most of the

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animals of the zoo are native to the Life Run” in English. Organized in Navajo Reservation and the zoo 2003, the event now attracts over 200 reflects the importance these animals participants to run an approximately have in the culture. Adjacent to the 30-mile course up and down the Zoo and Botanical Park is the Navajo Hopi Mesas. In the Hopi perspective, Nation Museum, which has exhibits, trail running renews the earth by a book and gift shop, and programs keeping the pathways of water open about the Navajo people. and the villages alive. The focus of the run is to build community spirit Š Northern Arizona University and reinforce cultural values of water Anthropology Department, and running. The run is open to Flagstaff: The Department is Hopis and non-Hopis alike. recognized for its training of highly skilled and capable archaeologists as Š Petrified Forest National Park: The well as for its cooperative part contains significant pueblo, relationships with Native Americans, petroglyph, and other ancient sites particularly the Hopi and Navajo that indicate more than 10,000 years Tribes. of human history in addition to its impressive geologic and Š Northern Arizona University paleontologic resources. Student Powwow: Sponsored by the Native American United student Š Picture Canyon, Flagstaff: This organization, this powwow features tucked-away site on the east side of arts and crafts as well as Flagstaff has hundreds of performances. petroglyphs on the boulders that line the creek bed. Coconino County Š Nuvakwewtaqa (Chavez Pass) Supervisors and local citizens are Pueblo, Anderson Mesa: Located on exploring ways to officially protect Anderson Mesa southwest of the site. Winslow, Nuvakwewtaqa is a large site complex with three main pueblos Š Plateau Sciences Society, Gallup: and several smaller room blocks and This organization sponsors trips, other features. This Sinagua lectures, and additional programs residence was occupied from the that encourage a greater early 13th to the late 14th centuries understanding of past and present A.D., and is considered ancestral to Native cultures and of the Colorado the Hopi. Plateau as a whole.

Š Our Lady of Guadalupe Mission, Š Ramah Navajo Weavers Associaton, Zuni: Inside this 17th century church Pine Hill: Weavers belonging to the are two contemporary murals by Association use handspun and Zuni artist Alex Seowtewa featuring naturally dyed wool from locally the summer and winter pantheon of raised Churro sheep. The workshop, Zuni kachinas. It provides an located in a hogan, is open to visitors interesting and thought-provoking seasonally. mix of the religion of two cultures. Š Rock Art Ranch, Winslow: Rock Art Š Paatuwaqatsi Run, Polacca: Ranch is a privately owned working Translated from the Hopi, cattle ranch that includes a portion of Paatuwaqatsi Run means “Water Is Chevelon Canyon. The Canyon

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contains significant petroglyphs and Bailey Ruin, are well-preserved. the site is listed on the National These pueblos date largely to the late Register of Historic Places. 1200s and 1300s.

Š Rudd Creek Pueblo: Located within Š St. Michael’s Museum and Catholic the Sipe White Mountain Wildlife Church and School, St. Michael’s Area near Springerville and Eager, Chapter: Mother Katherine Drexel, Rudd Creek Pueblo is a 50-room founder of the Sisters of the Blessed ancestral Pueblo village that was Sacrament Order whose specific occupied during the early to mid- focus was to serve American Indians, 1200s. The visitor center offers an worked with Franciscan priests to exhibit based, in part, on Arizona establish a church and school in this State University’s excavations at the location. The school was completed site, which can be seen on the Rudd in 1902 and remains the only Catholic Creek Trail. Petroglyphs are common School in the Navajo Nation. The along rock outcrops in the area. museum is an excellent source for insight into early 20th century Navajo Š San Francisco Peaks: These life and culture. mountains feature prominently in the religious beliefs of 13 tribes, Š Sunset Crater Volcano National including the Navajo, Hopi, Zuni, Monument :People lived in the and White Mountain Apache. vicinity for several hundred years, at Pilgrimages are still made to various a minimum, before an eruption shrines on the mountains themselves caused the creation of Sunset Crater and culturally important plants are sometime between 1050 and 1100. collected for ceremonies. Pithouses have been found burned and filled with cinders, but thus far Š Sherwood Ranch Pueblo, there is no evidence of people dying Springerville: This ancestral from the eruption. One of the more Puebloan site, numbering at least 800 interesting archaeological artifacts rooms, is one of many along the Little discovered in the region are the Colorado River near its headwaters occasional rocks of lava that cooled in the White Mountains. against a corncob which left a distinctive impression on one side. Š Silver Creek area sites: The Silver People left the immediate area after Creek drainage, with its headwaters the eruption and likely settled nearby on the Mogollon Rim, contains at what are now Walnut Canyon and several important pueblos that have Wupatki National Monuments. been investigated beginning in the early 1900s by such well-known Š Trading Posts: At one time, more archaeologists as Leslie Spier, Jessie than 50 trading posts operated in Walter Fewkes, Emil Haury, and Native communities throughout the Barbara Mills. Many pueblos (such as Little Colorado River watershed. Fourmile, Shumway, and Pinedale Their economic and social impact on ruins) have been heavily impacted by the lives of Native families has left a construction or pothunting. Multiple lasting legacy. A number of trading individuals and institutions are posts, often operated by third and presently involved in efforts to fourth generation trading families, preserve remaining intact portions of remain today while others, such as these sites. Other pueblos, such as the Bidahochee Trading Post in

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Indian Wells Chapter, are currently probably made the land more being restored and converted into hospitable for farming than it modern cultural and arts education appears today due to the ability of centers. thin layers of ash to retain moisture in soil. Wupatki must have been a Š Tribal Cultural Preservation Offices wealthy and successful community (Navajo, Hopi, and Zuni): The tribal for many trade goods from great cultural preservation offices consult distances have been found. These on construction and other projects include shell jewelry and copper bells that may affect resources important from Mexico as well as more than 40 to their respective tribes, on or off the macaws from Mesoamerica. Wupatki reservations, and also serve as a also has what is generally considered resource for all types of cultural to be the northern-most ball court, a matters, research, education, and form of architecture typically promotion. associated with Mesoamerican cultures. Š Walnut Canyon National Monument: Evidence of people in Š Zuni McKinley County Fair, Zuni: A the canyon, at least on a temporary county fair with a Native American basis, dates back several thousand flare, this event, held at the Zuni Fair years. Permanent inhabitation dates Grounds, features several traditional from about 600 to 1400. The people, Native dance groups, Jr. Miss and usually considered to be Sinagua (an Miss Zuni Talent Night, and rodeos. ancestral Pueblo culture) had small- scale farms of corn, beans, and Š Zuni Area Pueblos: The ancestral squash. Zuni pueblos of Village of the Great Kivas and Hawikku are but two of Š Wupatki National Monument: The many significant archaeological sites Monument consists of several pueblo near present-day Zuni Pueblo. clusters with Wupatki, Wukoki, and Chaco-era Village of the Great Kivas Lomaki being three of the most is well known for its impressive prominent. The site was inhabited petroglyphs and pictographs. less than 800 years ago and is Hawikku is the larges of the historic considered by the Hopi to be one of “Cities of Cibola.” It was visited by the last places several of the clans Coronado’s expedition in A.D. 1540. lived before their migrations brought Both sites are listed on the State them to the Hopi Mesas. The Register of Cultural Properties and eruption of Sunset Crater Volcano the National Register of Historic before settlement at Wupatki began Places.

PRIMARY REFERENCES

Adams, E. Charles, and Andrew I. Duff (editors) 2004 The Protohistoric Pueblo World, A.D. 1275-1600. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.

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Adler, Michael A. (editor) 1996 The Prehistoric Pueblo World, A.D. 1150-1350. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.

Bernardini, Wesley 2005 Hopi Oral Tradition the Archaeology of Identity. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.

Cordell, Linda S. 1994 Ancient Pueblo Peoples. St. Remy Press, Montreal, and Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

1997 Archaeology of the Southwest. 2nd ed. Academic Press, San Diego.

Duff, Andrew I. L. 2002 Western Pueblo Identities: Regional Interaction, Migration, and Transformation. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.

Huckell, Bruce B. 1996 The Southwestern Archaic: Scale and Perception of Preceramic Hunter- Gatherers. In Interpreting Southwestern Diversity: Underlying Principles and Overarching Patterns, edited by P. R. Fish and J. J. Reid, pp. 7-16. Anthropological Research Papers No. 48. Arizona State University, Tempe.

Mills, Barbara J., Sarah A. Herr, and Scott Van Keuren (editors) 1999 Living on the Edge of the Rim: Excavations and Analysis of the Silver Creek Archaeological Research Project 1993-1998. Archaeological Series No. 192(1). Arizona State Museum, University of Arizona, Tucson.

Noble, David Grant 1991 Ancient Ruins of the Southwest: An Archaeological Guide. Northland Publishing, Flagstaff, Arizona.

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