THE I-40, EXIT 102 ACOMITA INTERCHANGE STUDY: Research Design and Data Recovery Plan for Six Archaeological Sites (LA 54902, LA 89019, LA 89020, LA 108511, LA 145685, and LA 149868), Cibola County, New

Stephen S. Post and Charles A. Hannaford

Office of Archaeological Studies

Museum of AN 371 2005

OFFICE OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDIES

DEPARTMENT OF CULTURAL AFFAIRS

The I-40, Exit 102 Acomita Interchange Study: Research Design and Data Recovery Plan for Six Archaeological Sites (LA 54902, LA 89019, LA 89020, LA 108511, LA 145685, and LA 149868), Cibola County, New Mexico

STEPHEN S. POST AND CHARLES A. HANNAFORD

With Contributions by

Nancy J. Akins Jeffrey L. Boyer Pamela J. McBride James L. Moore Mollie S. Toll C. Dean Wilson

ARCHAEOLOGY NOTES 371

SANTA FE 2005 NEW MEXICO ADMINISTRATIVE SUMMARY

This data recovery plan was prepared by the tectural remains and scatter . Excavation Museum of New Mexico, Office of Archaeological may yield information on the or ganization of agri- Studies (OAS), at the request of the New Mexico cultural-based subsistence behaviors between A.D. Department of Transportation (NMDOT). It pro- 1000 and 1 150 in the Acoma Province and the vides a cultural-historical, theoretical, and method- periphery of the San Jose drainage basin. ological context for the archaeological investiga- LA 89019 is multicomponent with an artifact tion of portions of six archaeological sites, LA scatter dating from late Paleoindian to Pueblo II 54902, LA 89019, LA 89020, LA 108511, LA period and a Territorial period foundation with a 145685, and LA 149868, which occur within two light scatter of artifacts located within an undulat- proposed design alternatives for the propose I-40 ing and intermittently deflated and stable Exit 102 improvement project (Alternative dune/bedrock setting. Alternative 3 will af fect a 3–Single Point Urban Interchange, and Alternative narrow strip of the prehistoric component along 5–Compressed Diamond Interchange Shifted the existing I-40 right-of-way . Alternative 5 will West). The project is located between I-40 Mile affect 66 percent of the site area including Posts (MP) 101.34 and 102.83 in the eastern por- Paleoindian, Early and Middle Archaic, Pueblo II, tion of the Pueblo of Acoma, Cibola County, New and late Territorial period components. Excavation Mexico. The project will be funded by the Federal may yield information on changing hunting and Highway Administration (FHWA), NMDOT, and gathering practices and or ganization on the mar- the Pueblo of Acoma. Initial field surveys were gins of a lar ge mammal migratory route along the conducted in two phases by archaeologists from Rio San Jose, and Acoma Province Anasazi sea- Marron and Associates, Inc. of Albuquerque, New sonal subsistence patterns centered on agriculture Mexico, and OAS gratefully recognizes Kenneth and foraging. The late Territorial period compo- Brown, Marron and Associates, Inc., for supplying nent reflects pastoral subsistence pattern within the electronic copies of much of the introductory sec- shifting sociopolitical boundaries of Acoma tions and site descriptions that are included in the Pueblo and the community of Cubero. data recovery plan (M. E. Brown and K. L. Brown LA 89020 is an elongated sherd and lithic arti- 2005). This data recovery plan conforms with the fact scatter with Late Archaic and Pueblo III requirements of the New Mexico and federal (Kowina phase) components. Less than 5 percent statutes as they may apply to archaeological inves- of the site will be af fected by Alternative 3 con- tigations conducted on state, Indian, and private struction. Most of the potential site area within the lands with federal, state, and Acoma Tribe funding. I-40 eastbound on-ramp is covered or removed by LA 54902 is a small site consisting of a Pueblo water run-of f and modern alluviation from high- II period artifact scatter and linear configuration of way drainage patterns. Small-scale excavation sandstone slabs that may represent the remains of a may yield artifact assemblages that can be com- fieldhouse or seasonally occupied structure founda- pared with technological characteristics of contem- tion. A field check, combined with interpretation of poraneous assemblages from other sites, if tempo- aerial and spatial imagery , indicates that only the rally diagnostic artifacts are recovered. Alternative 5 construction may af fect the southern LA 108511 is a spatially extensive, low densi- portion of the site, which is characterized by a very ty sherd and lithic artifact scatter within an ancient light surface artifact scatter . Limited hand excava- floodplain. The dispersed artifact scatter dating tion with a spatially extensive backhoe excavation from the Pueblo II period (Pilares phase) appears program is recommended to determine if deeply to result from berm construction, underground util- buried cultural deposits underlie the surface archi- ity installation, and borrow pit activities that have

ii brought buried cultural resources to the surface. LA 149868 is a multicomponent Pueblo II These surface artifacts may not directly reflect pre- fieldhouse with a sherd and lithic artifact scatter historic activities and behaviors, however , they and three historic era features probably dating indicate the presence of subsurface cultural from the late Territorial period and associated with deposits. Pueblo II farmers practiced a land-exten- activities at LA 89019, which was located only 60 sive settlement pattern that provided access to m to the east. Alternative 5 construction would farmlands distant from permanent villages. affect the north portion of the site, which is prima- Construction of an Alternative 5 access road does rily a dispersed prehistoric artifact scatter in inter- not affect the surface artifact scatter. However, the mittently stable and deflated dune and sandstone potential for subsurface deposits and features from bedrock settings. Cultural deposit depth should be fieldhouse occupations or other seasonal activities variable and the contextual integrity of the cultural may be encountered both within and outside the deposits is unknown. Some artifacts may be con- existing site boundary . A program of subsurface temporaneous with the main prehistoric compo- backhoe excavation and subsequent hand excava- nent, while others remain from low intensity, short tions of features in the vicinity of LA 108511 may duration activities. Excavations may yield data on yield data on Pueblo II subsistence technology, set- intermittent, low intensity use of this area for farm- tlement, and organization. ing and diurnal foraging by Anasazi farmers. LA 145685 is a small site located along the The following research design and data recov- south side of the I-40 eastbound on-ramp. It is ery plan provides cultural-historical and environ- described as a Pueblo I sherd and lithic artifact mental context, site descriptions, an assessment of scatter of which only a small portion may be data potential of site areas within proposed affected by Alternative 3 construction. A site visit Alternatives 3 and 5 construction and research revealed a small stabilized dune area within a mod- questions with a site-specific and regional scales. ern, highway-related drainage swale that may have Field data recovery and laboratory analysis meth- contextual integrity. Excavation may yield limited ods link the archaeological site data potential to the information in the organization of Pueblo I subsis- appropriate research questions and scales of analy- tence and ceramic technology. sis and interpretation.

MNM Project No. 41.808 NMDOT Project No. IM-040-2(58)102 (I-40/Exit 102 Interchange Project) CN 2763 NMCRIS No. 95951

iii iv CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION ...... 1 ARTIFACT ANALYSES AND RESEARCH ISSUES 83 Chronometrics by J. L. Moore ...... 83 ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING ...... 9 Chipped Stone Artifacts by J. L. Moore ...... 86 Physiography and Geology ...... 9 Ground Stone Artifacts by J. L. Moore ...... 88 Soils ...... 9 Native Ceramics by C. D. Wilson, J. L. Moore, and Climate ...... 11 E. Blinman ...... 89 Surface Water ...... 11 Botanical Remains by M. S. Toll, P. McBride, Vegetation ...... 11 and J. L. Moore ...... 92 Fauna ...... 12 Euroamerican Artifacts by C. A. Hannaford . . . . .93 Faunal Remains by N. J. Akins ...... 94 CULTURE HISTORY ...... 13 Human Remains by Nancy J. Akins ...... 96 Paleoindian Period (10,000–5500 B.C.) . . . . .13 Archaic Period (5500 B.C.–A.D. 400) ...... 14 REFERENCES CITED ...... 99 Puebloan Period (100 B.C.–A.D. 1540) ...... 15 Historic Period (A.D. 1540–Present) ...... 20 APPENDIXES

PREVIOUS RESEARCH ...... 27 1. Site Summary and Legal Description ...... 111 2. Alternative 3 with Site Locations ...... 114 TRADITIONAL CULTURAL PROPERTIES . . . .31 3. Alternative 5 with Site Locations ...... 115 4. Acomita Landowners ...... 116 SITE DESCRIPTIONS ...... 33 LA 54902 ...... 33 FIGURES LA 89019 ...... 35 LA 89020 ...... 40 1. Project Vicinity Map ...... 2 LA 108511 ...... 43 2. Aerial photograph of Alternative 3 ...... 3 LA 145685 ...... 45 3. Aerial photograph of Alternative 5 ...... 4 LA 149868 ...... 46 4. Land status with Alternatives 3 and 5 ...... 5 5. LA 54902 site map ...... 34 RESEARCH DESIGN AND DATA RECOVERY 6. LA 89019 site map ...... 36 PLAN ...... 51 7. LA 89019 historic structure plan map ...... 38 Introduction ...... 51 8. LA 89020 site map ...... 41 9. LA 108511 site map ...... 44 RESEARCH DESIGN AND ORIENTATION . . . .55 10. LA 145685 site map ...... 46 Late Paleoindian-Archaic Period ...... 55 11. LA 149868 site map ...... 47 Pueblo Period ...... 64 Historic Period Component ...... 70 TABLES

DATA RECOVERY FIELD METHODS ...... 73 1. Recorded sites within project APE ...... 28 General Field Methods ...... 73 2. Recorded site components on the Cubero Quad . . .29 Special Methods: Structures, Features, and 3. Surface artifact assemblage, LA 54902...... 35 Extramural Areas ...... 74 4. Recorded artifact sample, LA 89019 ...... 39 Special Situations ...... 76 5. Surface artifact assemblage, LA 89020 ...... 42 6. Surface artifact assemblage, LA 145685 ...... 46 DATA RECOVERY STRATEGIES FOR LA 54902, 7. Surface artifact assemblage, LA 149868 ...... 48 LA 89019, LA 89020, LA 108511, LA 145685, AND LA 149868 FOR ALTERNATIVES 3 AND 5 . . . .77 Alternative 3 ...... 77 Alternative 5 ...... 79

v vi INTRODUCTION

This data recovery plan was prepared by the Alternative 3 includes the reconstruction of the Museum of New Mexico, Office of Archaeological existing interchange as a Single Point Urban Studies (OAS), at the request of the New Mexico Interchange at the existing interchange (Fig. 2). Department of Transportation (NMDOT). It pro- The on and of f ramps would be reconstructed in vides a cultural-historical, theoretical, and method- their entirety , but grades would remain close to ological context for the archaeological investiga- their existing conditions. Acceleration and deceler- tion of portions of six archaeological sites, LA ation lanes parallel to I-40 would be included to 54902, LA 89019, LA 89020, LA 108511, LA improve vehicle operations with respect to diver- 145685, and LA 149868, which occur within two gence or mer ge conditions with I-40 traf fic. The proposed design alternatives for the proposed I-40 interchange would be rebuilt as an underpass. To Exit 102 improvement project (Alternative minimize the bridge area and optimize driveway 3–Single Point Urban Interchange, and Alternative spacing to the north, I-40 would be reconstructed 5–Compressed Diamond Interchange Shifted to eliminate the divided median at the bridge. West). The project will be funded by the Federal Concrete wall barriers would separate traf fic on I- Highway Administration (FHWA), NMDOT, and 40. SP-30 would be widened and then transitioned the Pueblo of Acoma. back to its existing two-lane sections north and The proposed project is in the of Section south of the interchange. In the future, the section 22 and the of Section 23 and the of north of the interchange would be expanded out as Section 27 within T 10N, R 7W , NMPM, Cibola a five lane urban section as identified in the master County; (UTM center point plan. Traffic at the new interchange would be con- NAD 27) (USGS Cubero 7.5' quadrangle 35107- trolled at a single signalized intersection under I- A5, 1957/1971). The project is located between I- 40. Access north of the interchange would require 40 Mile Posts (MP) 101.34 and 102.83 in the east- modifications as a result of new access control lim- ern portion of the Pueblo of Acoma, Cibola its and spacing requirements to conform with the County, New Mexico (Fig. 1). Proposed design NMDOT standards. Alternatives 3 and 5 are shown on Figures 2 and 3. I-40 would be reconstructed in order to reduce Land ownership in the project area is compli- median width, hence reducing the size of the cated and can be briefly summarized for bridge deck and right-of-way required for the alter- Alternatives 3 and 5 (Fig. 4). The Alternative 3 native since the ramps would be pulled in closer to corridor encompasses 9.3 ha (23 acres) of which I-40. The driveway to the NMDOT rest area would 0.8 ha (2 acres) is Pueblo of Acoma land, 0.4 ha (1 be reconstructed to the south with SP-130, and acre) is Town of Cubero Grant land, and 8.1 ha (20 minimizing the impact of ingress and egress move- acres) is NMDOT land acquired from private ments from the facility on interchange operations. sources. The Alternative 5 corridor encompasses Access control along SP-30 will remain limited, 11.6 ha (38 acres) of which 1.6 ha (4 acres) is and NMDOT would seek to combine or remove Pueblo of Acoma land, 7.3 ha (18 acres) is Town of driveways in the vicinity of the interchange. A Cubero Grant land, 2.4 ha (6 acres) is private land, sidewalk or pedestrian path would be constructed and 4 ha (10 acres) is NMDOT land acquired from on one side of SP-30 to connect the Acoma busi- private sources (M. E. Brown and K. L. Brown nesses with the NMDOT rest area. 2005:2). Alternative 3 would include one new bridge The following project descriptions are quoted and would not utilize the existing bridges (bridge directly from M. E. Brown and K. L. Brown numbers 6397 and 6398). The new bridge would (2005:3-4). include the new single point intersection construct-

1 2 Figure 2. Aerial photograph of Alternative 3.

3 Figure 3. Aerial photograph of Alternative 5.

4 a C .2 miles area a 0 00 meters 3 NM ownership

land ownership area Private ) 5 3

( lternative A Alternative 3 Cubero N R Figure 4. Land status with Figure Alternatives 3 and 5.

5 ed above I-40 at the existing interchange location. required with this alternative. SP-30 would remain The bridge would have a single span for a total in service as a local access road. The existing structure length of 195 ft. In addition to the bridge, bridge structures would be widened to accommo- mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) retaining date new acceleration and deceleration lanes for walls would be required at the abutments. the eastbound on-ramps and westbound off-ramps. Retaining walls would also be required along the The existing interchange on and of f ramps would new ramps. Alternative 3 would also include a 38.1 be removed after completion of the new inter- m (125 ft) extension of concrete box culvert sec- change. tions under the new ramps. Drop inlet structures to The off-ramps would have deceleration lanes the north of the interchange would be realigned to that extend parallel to I-40 prior to the ramps ensure ef fective conveyance of drainage water divergence from the mainline. On-ramps would from of f-site sources. Drainage originating from have acceleration lanes parallel to I-40 to allow for the proposed interchange and 244 m (800 ft) of adequate heavy vehicle acceleration onto I-40. The proposed roadway for SP-30 would be collected by new on and off-ramps would have full access con- curb and median drop inlets. The collected flow trol. The north and south connection roads will would be conveyed through a trunk line. The trunk have limited access control management, negotiat- line would have outlet points that would not affect ed, and approved by the NMDOT. Road "B" would the interchange. Additional drainage improve- have its access control designated by the Pueblo of ments would include adding crossing culverts Acoma. Access control along SP-30 will remain where they are needed along the proposed 244 m limited. Sidewalks would be constructed on both (800 ft) of SP-30, building median and curb drop sides of the new cross road. A sidewalk or pedes- inlets where roadway curb sections apply , and trian path would be constructed on one side of SP- roadway fill/cut slopes to convey localized flows 30 to connect the Acoma businesses with the to crossing structures or drop inlets. NMDOT rest area. Alternative 5, the Compressed Diamond Alternative 5 includes one new bridge and uti- Interchange Shifted West Alternative, would result lizes two existing bridges (bridge numbers 6397 in the reconstruction of the interchange in a dia- and 6398) with one bridge requiring widening. mond configuration approximately 457 m (1,500 Bridge number 6397 would be widened to accom- ft) west of the existing location (Fig. 3). The inter- modate the proposed typical section and alignment change would be constructed as an overpass with in order to carry the transition lane of the new east- new on and off ramps. A new cross road would be bound on-ramp. The new bridge would have two aligned closely with Road "A" as shown in the 30 m (100 ft) spans for a total structure length of master plan. The new cross road would be built 61 m (200 ft). It would have MSE retaining walls approximately 183 m (600 ft) to the north and then at the abutments. connected with Plan Road "B," which would con- The west concrete box culvert would be nect traffic back to the east where it would inter- extended along with construction of a transition sect with SP-30. The alignment of master plan structure to collect of fsite runoff. An approximate Road "B" would be shifted to the south of the loca- 15 m (50 ft) extension would be needed north of I- tion shown in the master plan in an ef fort to mini- 40 and an additional 36.6 m (120 ft) extension mize impacts to cultural resource sites. The con- south of I-40. Realignment of drop inlets would be nection of the new interchange to the south would needed to ensure conveyance of drainage from off- be completed by constructing a new three-lane site areas. Drainage across Road "A," Road "B," road section to an intersection point with SP-130. and the new connection to SP-30 and SP-130 SP-130 would be realigned with a reverse "S" would be achieved with circular metal pipe struc- curve to the north. At the point of intersection tures. These circular metal pipe structures would between the two roadways, a roundabout intersec- be located at various terminus points along exist- tion would be constructed. A new leg to the east ing flow paths. Flows originating from the future would be built to provide a connection back to SP- overpass crossing of Road "A" would be managed 30. There would not be any reconstruction of I-40 with deck drains and ground swales. Additional

6 drainage improvements would include adding (LA 89019 and 89020) have Archaic components, crossing culverts at the new connection to SP-30 four (LA 89019, 104153, 10851 1, and 108512) and SP-130 and building median and curb drop have Pueblo I components, six (LA 54902, 89019, inlets where roadway curb sections are proposed. 99628, 10851 1, 108512, 1 17550, and 145683) Initial field surveys were conducted in two have Pueblo II components, six (LA89019, 89020, phases by archaeologists from Marron and 98452, 145143, 145684, and 149868) have Pueblo Associates, Inc. of Albuquerque, New Mexico. II–III) components, two (LA 145685 and 149867) Detailed description of project location and scope have unknown Puebloan components, and one (LA is provided in M. E. Brown and K. L. Brown 89019) has a historic component. From this site (2005) and will not be repeated here. The invento- inventory, only LA 54902, LA 89019, LA 89020, ry identified eleven previously documented and LA 108511, LA 145685, and LA 146898 require a five new archaeological sites. Of the 16 sites, two research design and data recovery plan and project.

7 8 ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING

(After M. E. Brown and K. L. Brown 2005)

PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY SOILS

The I-40 Exit 102 improvement project, which is The soils of the project area are broadly classified on Pueblo of Acoma, Town of Cubero Grant, as Rock Land-Torriorthents-Argiustolls (Maker et NMDOT land acquired from private sources, and al. 1978, map). This association occurs on gently private lands, lies within the Acoma-Zuni Section to strongly sloping mesa tops, steep to very steep of the Plateau Physiographic Province in mesa side slopes and escarpments, and gently to northwestern New Mexico (Hawley 1986:24). This strongly sloping alluvial fans and narrow valley section is the southeastern subdivision of the bottoms. The more extensive soils of this associa- Colorado Plateau and "is characterized by exten- tion are residual, developing from weathered sedi- sive upper Cenozoic volcanics that form a discon- mentary rocks, primarily sandstone or interbedded tinuous cover on erosional and constructional land- sandstone and shale. As a result, these soils are forms" (Hawley 1986:25). Prominent features of often shallow and gravelly or rocky. Sandstone and the Acoma-Zuni Section in the general project shale outcrops occur along mesa rims and on steep vicinity include Mount Taylor, basalt-capped canyon walls and escarpments (Maker et al. mesas, and the Malpais Lava Field. MountTaylor is 1978:93). "a composite stratovolcano of Pliocene age" Of the various soil units that occur within the (Hawley 1986:25) that was formed by a series of proposed project corridor , five—the Dumps-Pits successive lava and ash flows. The older flows are Complex, the Skyvillage–Rock Outcrop–Bond basalt and the younger are dacite and andesite Complex, the Sparank–San Mateo Complex, the (Chronic 1987:50). Horace Mesa, just north of the Hagerman-Bond Association, and the Penistaja- project area, is one of four lava-covered mesas Oelop Association—are associated with sites forming Mount Taylor's platform (Robinson recorded during the cultural resource survey . Two 1994:110). An obsidian source on Horace Mesa, of these soil units—the Hagerman-Bond which is of better quality than that of East Grants Association and the Penistaja-Oelop Association Ridge (Shackley 1999:2), may have been the origin —are major units within the proposed project area of the obsidian artifacts recorded during the present of potential effect (APE). These five soil complex- cultural resource survey . The Malpais Lava Field, es and associations are described below. Minor soil just west of the project area, was formed by a series units in the project APE are not described. of lava flows originating from small volcanoes 32.2 to 48.3 km (20–30 miles) southwest of I-40. The Dumps-Pits Complex (230) youngest flow—the McCarty Lava Flow—is about 1,000 years old and forms the eastern portion of the The Dumps-Pits Complex (5 to 90 percent slopes) is Malpais (Chronic 1987:48–49; Hawley 1986:25). on hills and flats. Areas are irregular in shape and Locally, the project area is bounded on the are 200 to 1,000 acres in size. They are generally southeast by Cubero Mountain (Flower Mountain) barren of vegetation. Dumps occur as areas of waste and on the south by the Rio San Jose. The project rock, mine spoil, and other refuses. Pits consist of area is in a broad valley and low uplands. The ter- open excavations from which soil material and rain within the proposed project corridor varies some rocks have been removed (Parham 1993:34). from flat to rolling. Project elevations range from 1,875 to 1,885 m (6,150–6,185 ft).

9 Sparank soil varies with depth from a yellowish Skyvillage–Rock Outcrop–Bond Complex, 3 to 40 brown clay loam (0–5 cm [0–2 inches]) to light Percent Slopes (251) yellowish brown and light olive brown silty clay to a depth of 1.52 m (60 inches) (Parham 1993:35). The Skyvillage–Rock Outcrop–Bond Complex is San Mateo soil is deep and well drained. It 40 percent Skyvillage sandy loam on 3 to 40 per- formed in mixed alluvium with moderate perme- cent slopes, 30 percent Rock Outcrop, and 20 per- ability. Its available water capacity is high. Runoff cent Bond sandy loam, 3 to 8 percent slopes. The is medium and the hazard of water erosion is mod- Skyvillage soil is on benches and the lee side of erate. The hazard of soil blowing is severe. The mesas and edges of mesa tops. The Rock Outcrop soil is occasionally flooded for brief periods during is on escarpments and the Bond soil is on benches the summer unless it is protected or gullied. and the edges of mesas. The Skyvillage soil is shal- Typically, the San Mateo soil varies with depth low and well drained, having formed in eolian from a light yellowish brown loam (0–5 cm [0–2 material derived mostly from sandstone. inches]) to light olive brown loam and sandy clay Generally, the surface layer is light yellowish loam (5–69 cm [29 inches]) to a light olive brown brown sandy loam about 10.2 cm (4 inches) thick. sandy clay loam that has thin strata of sandy loam The underlying material is dark yellowish brown to silty clay loam to a depth of 1.52 m (60 inches) sandy loam about 20.3 cm (8 inches) thick. (Parham 1993:35). None of the 16 sites in the proj- Sandstone is at a depth of about 30.5 cm (12 inch- ect APE is on Sparank–San Mateo Complex soils. es). Permeability is moderately rapid and water capacity is very low, with medium runoff and mod- Hagerman-Bond Association, 1 to 10 Percent erate water erosion (Parham 1993:34–35). Slopes (625) The Rock Outcrop is barren or nearly barren areas of exposed sandstone on benches and escarp- The Hagerman-Bond Association (1 to 10 percent ments. The Bond soil is shallow and well drained, slopes) is on hills, ridges, mesa tops, and cuestas. having formed in eolian material derived mostly This unit consists of 55 percent Hagerman fine from sandstone. Generally , the surface layer is sandy loam and 30 percent Bond sandy loam. The brown sandy loam about 10.2 cm (4 inches) thick. former occurs on hills, ridges, mesa tops, and the The subsoil is reddish brown sandy clay loam lower dip slopes of cuestas. The latter occurs on about 15.2 cm (6 inches) thick. Sandstone is at a hilltops, ridges, mesa tops, and the upper dip depth of 25.4 cm (10 inches). Permeability is mod- slopes of cuestas. Small areas of other soils repre- erate and water capacity is very low . Runof f is sent 15 percent of the unit (Parham 1993:78). medium and water erosion is moderate. Wind ero- The Hagerman soil formed in eolian and allu- sion can be severe (Parham 1993:35). vial material derived primarily from sandstone. This soil is moderately deep and well drained. Sparank-San Mateo Complex (257) Runoff is medium and the water erosion hazard is moderate. The wind erosion hazard is severe. The Sparank–San Mateo Complex is comprised of Typically, the Hagerman soil varies with depth 50 percent Sparank loam with 1 to 5 percent slopes from a brown sandy loam (0–8 cm [0–3 inches]) to and 40 percent San Mateo loam with 1 to 5 percent a dark brown fine sandy loam (8–15 cm [3–6 inch- slopes. Smaller soil units comprise the remainder es]) to a brown sandy clay loam (15–58 cm [6–23 10 percent of the complex (Parham 1993:35). inches]) to a strong brown and light brown sandy Sparank soil is deep and well drained. It clay loam (58–86 cm [23–34 inches]). Sandstone formed in mixed alluvium. Permeability is slow occurs at a depth of 86 cm (34 inches) (Parham and available water capacity is very high. Runoff is 1993:78). slow and the water erosion hazard is moderate.The The Bond soil formed in eolian material wind erosion hazard is severe. The soil is occasion- derived primarily from sandstone. This soil is shal- ally flooded for brief periods during the summer low and well drained. Runof f is medium and the unless it is protected or gullied. Typically, the water erosion hazard is moderate. The wind ero-

10 sion hazard is severe. Typically, the Bond soil June through October in the form of brief, often varies with depth from a brown sandy loam (0–13 heavy, thunderstorms. Occasionally , thunder- cm [0–5 inches]) to a dark brown sandy clay loam storms are accompanied by hail and strong, gusty (13–38 cm [5–15 inches]) to a strong brown sandy winds. The Gulf of Mexico is the main source of clay loam (38–46 cm [15–18 inches]). Hard sand- moisture during this period. During winter, precip- stone occurs at a depth of 46 cm (18 inches) itation is provided by eastward-moving Pacific (Parham 1993:78–79). Five of six archaeological Ocean storms. Most of the moisture, however , is sites requiring data recovery—LA 54902, LA lost in the mountains west of New Mexico. Winter 89019, LA 89020, LA 145685, and LA 146898— precipitation is usually light. The average annual are on the Hagerman-Bond soil association. snowfall ranges from 0.3 to 1.2 m (1–4 ft) and falls from November through March. In general, precip- Penistaja-Oelop Association, 0 to 5 Percent itation varies from month to month and from year Slopes (645) to year (Parham 1993:2–3). The average annual temperature ranges from The Penistaja-Oelop Association (0 to 5 percent 54ºF (12ºC) at lower elevations to 47ºF (8ºC) at slopes) is on fan terraces and in swales. This unit higher elevations. The average annual temperature consists of 60 percent Penistaja sandy loam and 25 at Grants is 50ºF (10ºC). The average number of percent Oelop loam. The former occurs on fan ter- days with freezing temperatures ranges from 150 races. The latter occurs in swales. Small areas of to 200. The average frost-free season ranges from other soils represent 15 percent of the unit (Parham 110 days at El Morro National Monument to 156 1993:81). days at Laguna. Winds are light throughout most of The Penistaja soil formed in mixed alluvium the year, averaging 16 km (10 miles) per hour at reworked by wind. This soil is deep and well Acomita, with March as the windiest month. drained. Permeability is moderate. Runoff is medi- Winds are primarily from the west (Parham um and the water erosion hazard is moderate. The 1993:3, 170). wind erosion hazard is severe. Typically, the Penistaja soil varies with depth from a brown SURFACE WATER sandy loam (0–8 cm [0–3 inches]) to a strong brown sandy clay loam (38 cm [15 inches]) thick The project area is east of the Continental Divide, to a light brown and strong brown sandy clay loam in the upper portion of the Rio San Jose basin. The to a depth of 1.52 m (60 inches) (Parham 1993:81). Rio San Jose, the nearest perennial stream, is 1,524 The Oelop soil formed in mixed alluvium. m (5,000 ft) southwest of the I-40 Exit 102 over- This soil is deep and well drained. Permeability is pass. The river has its headwaters in the Zuni moderately slow with available water capacity Mountains and drains much of the Acoma-Zuni very high. Runof f is medium and the water and Section before emptying into the Rio Puerco. The wind erosion is moderate. Typically, the Oelop soil Rio San Jose is the Rio Puerco's major tributary , varies with depth from a yellowish brown loam but the former itself has few perennial reaches (0–8 cm [0–3 inches]) to a brown clay loam (33 cm (Hawley 1986:25). "Most narrow , deeply [13 inches]) thick to a yellowish brown clay loam entrenched valleys of the Rio San Jose system are and loam to a depth of 1.52 m (60 inches) (Parham south and east of the Mount Taylor volcanic field" 1993:81–82). One of the six sites, LA 108511, is (Hawley 1986:25). Just north of the river , springs on the Penistaja-Oelop soil association. and seeps are present along the base of Horace Mesa. The project area itself, however, is dissected CLIMATE by intermittent drainages.

The project area has a semiarid continental climate VEGETATION characterized by cold winters and warm summers. The average annual precipitation is 229 to 305 mm The project area lies within the Upper Sonoran (9–12 inches). Most of the precipitation falls from Zone (Bailey 1913:27). The vegetation of the proj-

11 ect area is variously classified as Plains–Mesa 91). In New Mexico, the juniper species of the Grassland and Juniper Savanna (Dick-Peddie juniper savanna is usually the one-seed juniper (J. 1993a, 1993b:86, 102) and Plains and Great Basin monosperma). Although most of the Juniper Grassland and Great Basin Conifer Woodland Savanna in the state has little or no shrub compo- (Brown and Lowe 1994). The Plains–Mesa nent, there are areas in northwestern New Mexico Grassland is the most extensive grassland commu- where sagebrush or shadscale (Atriplex confertifo- nity in New Mexico. As a result of grazing, farm- lia) are dominant shrubs (Dick-Peddie 1993b:91). ing, and urbanization, most of the areas in New Shrubs noted within the Juniper Savanna portion Mexico historically occupied by this plant communi- of the project area during the cultural resource sur- ty have changed to juniper savanna at the high bound- vey include rabbitbrush, snakeweed, prickly pear , aries and to desert grassland at the low boundaries. In cholla, barrel cactus, narrowleaf , and banana climax condition, Plains–Mesa Grassland consists yucca (Y. baccata). Juniper is the dominant tree but almost entirely of grasses. Transitional areas from piñon is also present. grassland to desert grassland vegetation are subtle and extensive. Grasses include grama ( Bouteloua FAUNA spp.), three-awn ( Aristida spp.), dropseed (Sporobolus spp.), muhly ( Muhlenbergia spp.), buf- The project area and vicinity contain or formerly falograss (Buchloe dactyloides), and Indian ricegrass contained a variety of vertebrate fauna (e.g., (Oryzopsis hymenoides). Major shrubs include four- Findley et al. 1975). This includes various mice, wing saltbush (Atriplex canescens), rabbitbrush rats, hawks, owls, lizards, snakes, and carnivores. (Chryso-thamnus nauseosus), broom snakeweed The mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) , wapiti (Gutierrezia sarothrae), sagebrush ( Artemisia spp.), (Cervus elaphus), pronghorn (Antilocapra ameri- cholla and prickly pear ( Opuntia spp.), and yucca cana), bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis), white- (Yucca spp.). Forbs include prairie clover tailed prairie dog (Cynomys gunnisoni), cottontail (Petalostemum spp.), prairie coneflower (Ratibida (Sylvilagus spp.), black-tailed jackrabbit (Lepus tagetes), and globemallow (Sphaeralcea spp.) (Dick- californicus), woodrat (Neotoma spp.), and turkey Peddie 1993b:104, 1 13–115). The project area is (Meleagris gallopavo) were important meat within the Plains–Mesa Grassland. Vegetation noted resources for the prehistoric and early historic in this portion of the project area during the cultural inhabitants of the area. Many animals—bears resource survey includes various grasses (e.g., (Ursus sp.), wolves (Canis lupus), coyotes (Canis dropseed, grama), rabbitbrush, snakeweed, cholla, latrans), bobcats (Felis rufus), striped skunks prickly pear , fourwing saltbush, widely scattered (Mephitis mephitis), gray foxes (Urocyon juniper (Juniperus), and an occasional piñon (Pinus). cinereoargentus), eagles, hawks, ravens (Corvus Juniper Savanna, an ecotone between wood- corax), turkeys, and various perching birds—were land and grassland, is broad and extensive in New also procured as raw material sources (e.g., pelts, Mexico. "The transition from woodland to grass- hides, feathers, bones) for tools, clothing, orna- land involves a marked decrease in the density of ments, and ceremonial uses. Animals noted in the trees, accompanied by reduction to a single tree project area during the present cultural resource species, usually a juniper" (Dick-Peddie 1993b: survey include cottontail and jackrabbit.

12 CULTURE HISTORY

(after M. E. Brown and K. L. Brown 2005)

The following brief overview of the culture histo- earliest Plano complex. The indented base series ry of the project area is based in part onTainter and includes Firstview , Alberta, and Gillio (1980) and on S tuart and Gauthier (1984). points, such as Eden and Scottsbluf f. Agate Basin Reports by Broster and Harrill (1982), Wase et al. and Hell Gap points comprise the constricted base (2000), and others are also used. This culture his- series (Cordell 1979a:21). tory was adapted from the inventory report by M. The basic adaptive strategy recognized for the E. Brown and K. L. Brown (2005). Paleoindian period was a subsistence economy that focused on the procurement of a limited number of PALEOINDIAN PERIOD (10,000–5500 B.C.) key resources, especially megafauna (e.g., mam- moth, bison). Because the locations of residential The earliest substantiated cultural manifestation in camps probably depended on the location and size the Southwest, the Paleoindian period, can be of game herds, Paleoindian groups were undoubt- divided into three subperiods or complexes— edly highly mobile. Although most excavated Clovis (10,000–9000 B.C.), Folsom (9000–8000 Clovis sites are kill sites in which Clovis points are B.C.), and Plano (8000–5500 B.C.)—named for associated with mammoth bones, the bones of different cultural groupings. S tylistically distinct much smaller animals—bison, horse, camel, projectile points associated with now-extinct late cervids, canids, pronghorn, jackrabbit, birds— Pleistocene and early Holocene megafauna charac- have also been recovered from Clovis processing terize these complexes. In addition, Paleoindian localities. It has been suggested that Clovis hunters sites are typically identified by lithic assemblages may have been scavengers of mammoth and that exhibit a very refined and standardized tech- hunters of bison and other diverse species (Cordell nology. Clovis components are characterized by 1979a:19–20). The meat diet was probably supple- large lanceolate spear points with a single short mented with nuts, berries, tubers, and seeds. Due basal flute on both faces. The Clovis toolkit also to climatic change and/or overkill, mammoth includes spurred endscrapers; lar ge, unifacially became extinct and were replaced by bison as an flaked side scrapers; keeled scrapers on lar ge important meat source for Paleoindian popula- blades; flake knives; backed, worked blades; tions. Folsom points have been found in associa- gravers; perforators; shaft straighteners; and bone tion with a now-extinct form of late Pleistocene points and foreshafts (Gunnerson 1987:10). bison—Bison antiquus. Pronghorn, canid, and rab- Folsom assemblages are characterized by the pres- bit bones have also been recovered from Folsom ence of small, finely made diagnostic lanceolate sites (Frison 1978, 1991). The earliest evidence for projectile points with a single flute on each face, communal hunting occurs with Folsom assem- extending almost the entire length of the point. blages. These communal hunts required greater Technologically, the developed from social organization and control than that evidenced the preceding form. Plano complexes in Clovis sites (Frison 1978:243–250, are characterized by a variety of 1991:276–288). Folsom assemblages are indica- types that include laterally thinned, indented base, tive of a hunting and gathering subsistence econo- and constricted base series. Plano complex projec- my that focused on the seasonal availability of ani- tile points lack flutes and consist, instead, of lar ge mal and plant resources. Although many recorded lanceolate forms with basal grinding and large par- Plano sites in the western United S tates represent allel flaking (Wheat 1972; Wormington 1957). The mass bison kills, campsites have also been report- Plainview complex contains laterally thinned ed. The earliest Plano complexes were frequently points—Midland, Plainview, Meserve, Milnesand, associated with now-extinct forms of bison, but by and Frederick—and is generally considered the 7000 B.C., only modern fauna were available

13 (Cordell 1979a:20, 1997; Judge 1982:48–49). and Bajada) represent a basically Paleoindian (i.e., Paleoindian remains in the general project area focal) hunting adaptation to essentially modern are represented primarily by isolated diagnostic faunal and floral resources. If Judge is correct, the projectile points. Folsom points have been found in Early Archaic artifact assemblages of northwestern the Grants area, northwest of the current project New Mexico may reflect technological adjust- area (Mabry et al. 1996:156). Points representing ments to a changing resource base by Paleoindian the various Paleoindian complexes have also been groups present in the area, rather than indicating an reported for Cebolleta Mesa, just southwest of the influx of new peoples (Cordell 1979a:25–26; project area (Broster 1982:74–81). In addition, Stuart and Gauthier 1984:33). Judge (1973:28, 63) recorded Paleoindian sites During the Archaic period (5500 B.C.–A.D. along the Rio San José, 16 to 24 km (10–15 miles) 400), the subsistence pattern shifted from a focus east of Cebolleta Mesa. A basal fragment from a on lar ge mammal procurement to the hunting of probable Midland point was observed at LA89019 smaller mammals and to the gathering of wild suggesting that Paleoindian sites are nearby, if LA plant foods. In other words, the main Archaic 89019 lacks a recognizable Plainview component. adaptation was a "dif fuse" economy in which a The paucity of recorded Paleoindian sites in wide variety of plant and animal resources were the region is partly due to low visibility resulting exploited (Judge 1982:49). Consequently , the from more recent soil deposition that has covered Archaic settlement pattern reflects reoccupation of Pleistocene deposits. This is the case of a site, west areas where the distribution and density of key of Cebolleta Mesa, that Dittert (1959:516) report- plant resources could be predicted on a seasonal ed as having a buried Paleoindian component. basis. Many known Paleoindian sites occur in areas of horticulture first appeared in the severe erosion (Cordell 1979a:133). In addition, Southwest between 1500 and 1000 B.C. (Cordell low Paleoindian site recognition has resulted from 1997:129). Although maize was not a dominant the difficulty in distinguishing such sites from lith- component of the Late Archaic subsistence strate- ic scatters of other cultural periods. Both gy, Huckell (1995:15–16) has proposed replacing Paleoindian and Archaic sites are difficult to iden- the term Late Archaic with the name Early tify in the absence of diagnostic artifacts, primari- Agricultural period. This new designation recog- ly projectile points. Undoubtedly , some nizes the most important cultural development in Paleoindian manifestations lacking diagnostic arti- the Southwest between 1500 B.C. and A.D. 200— facts have been misidentified as Archaic or record- the appearance and spread of agriculture. ed as "unknown." Archaic sites are usually identified as lithic artifact scatters with fire-cracked rock, hearths, ARCHAIC PERIOD (5500 B.C.–A.D. 400) specific projectile point types, and ground stone tools—basin , cobble manos. Pottery is Paleoenvironmental data suggest the Paleoindian absent. The presence of fire-cracked rock and the period was marked by fluctuating climatic changes concomitant absence of pottery are commonly that decreased effective moisture. By 5500 B.C., as used to identify Archaic sites that lack diagnostic a result of the cumulative ef fect of these changes, projectile points. The Archaic is also associated the environment of northwestern New Mexico was with a biface-oriented chipped stone technology probably unable to support lar ge herds of herbi- and a diversity of lithic raw materials (Lintz et al. vores, such as bison. Paleoindian groups, there- 1988:135). fore, probably abandoned the area (Irwin-Williams The is the most commonly 1973:4; Irwin-W illiams and Haynes 1970). used cultural-temporal framework for the Archaic Because no generic connection was discerned in the project area. Defined by Irwin-W illiams between the late Paleoindian and Early Archaic (1973) on the basis of work in the Arroyo Cuervo occupations of the region, Irwin-W illiams area, southwest of San Ysidro, between the Rio (1973:4–5) postulated a hiatus. Judge (1982:49), Puerco and Jemez River , the Oshara Tradition is however, contends Early Archaic phases (e.g., Jay the hunter -gatherer predecessor of the Puebloan

14 period. The Oshara is divided into five Archaic 108511, and 108512) have Pueblo I components, phases—Jay (5500–4800 B.C.), Bajada (4800– six (LA 89019, 99628, 10851 1, 108512, 1 17550, 3200 B.C.), San Jose (3200–1800 B.C.), Armijo and 145683) have Pueblo II components, six (LA (1800–800 B.C.), and En Medio (800 B.C.–A.D. 89019, 89020, 98452, 145143, 145684, and 400). The En Medio phase spans most of the 149868) have Pueblo II–III) components, and two Basketmaker II period (A.D. 1–500), which is con- (LA 145685 and 149867) have unknown Puebloan sidered transitional between the Late Archaic and components. early Puebloan periods. The Oshara phases are probably indicative of successive adaptations to Basketmaker II (100 B.C.–A.D. 400) fluctuating climatic conditions, population size, and subsistence emphasis. "The Jay and Bajada Basketmaker II is considered transitional between phases may reflect generalized hunting and forag- the Late Archaic and early Puebloan periods. ing strategies by small groups; the San Jose, Several trends originating in the Late Archaic Armijo, and En Medio phases may represent became more pronounced during Basketmaker II. increasingly heavy reliance on plant foods by larg- These continuing trends included longer seasonal er groups in an increasingly crowded landscape" and probable year -round occupation of various (Wase et al. 2000:1.21). Agriculture was adopted locales, construction of storage units and more per- during the Armijo phase. manent habitations, and a greater dependence on Although the Oshara sequence is often applied cultigens, especially maize and squash. The subsis- unquestioningly to Archaic manifestations in the tence economy also included the continued region, many Archaic projectile points found in the exploitation of wild plants and animals. Archaic area are types reflecting another Archaic sequence, technology carried over into Basketmaker II the Cochise Tradition, rather than the Oshara included the spear thrower (i.e., atlatl), cobble (Elyea et al. 1994:7). Of the two Archaic projectile manos, basin metates, and basketry . Brown ware points found during the present survey , one—a pottery appeared from the south late in the period Jay-like point (LA 89019) and an En Medio-like (Reed et al. 2000; Vivian 1990:91; Wilson and point (LA 89020)—are types associated with the Blinman 1994). Late Basketmaker II pottery Oshara. A third dart point basal fragment (LA includes Adamana Brown (Goetze and Mills 89020) is too small to assign to a type. Except for 1993:89) and Lupton Brown. these points, no other Archaic cultural material was found during the surveys. Based on previous sur- Basketmaker III (A.D. 400–700) veys in the project area, LA 89019 has Early and Middle Archaic components, LA 89018 has Basketmaker III is the earliest Puebloan period. Middle and Late Archaic components, and LA Major cultural changes included greater sedentism, 89020 has a Late Archaic component. more permanent architecture, an increased reliance on cultigens, production of reduction-fired pottery, PUEBLOAN PERIOD (100 B.C.–A.D. 1540) and use of the bow and arrow . Local population densities increased during this period. Climatic Although maize and other cultigens were intro- changes favored greater sedentism and expanded duced into the Southwest during the Late Archaic, horticulture (V ivian 1990:1 11–112). "Increased agriculture was not a major subsistence strategy . precipitation made zones that were formerly mar- The Puebloan period, however , was an era of ginal for horticulture more productive, though at increasing dependence on cultigens—maize, the same time areas at higher elevations became beans, squash—and of concurrent changes in more precarious for farming because of colder sedentism and residence patterns. The phases temperatures and shorter frost-free periods" described in the following are those of the (Vivian 1990:1 12). Increased relative moisture, sequence defined by Dittert (1959) for the rising water tables, and aggrading alluvium Cebolleta Mesa area of the Acoma Cultural allowed horticultural expansion into non-flood- Province. Of the 16 sites, four (LA89019, 104153, plain areas. In addition, wild plant foods increased

15 in habitat area and density. Thus, it was possible to ished and unpolished varieties of White Mound produce larger food surpluses (Vivian 1990:112). and San Marcial coincides with Hurst's classifica- More permanent Basketmaker III architecture tion for the Middle Rio Puerco (Irwin-W illiams in the Acoma area includes pit structures, surface and Baker 1991). structures, and slab-lined cists. The greater abun- dance of ground stone tools suggests an increased Pueblo I (A.D. 700–900) emphasis on plant food processing. Although the data are limited, the presence of marine shell and The was characterized by a num- nonlocal lithic material is indicative of trade. ber of social and technological changes including Characteristic Basketmaker III pottery types more permanent architecture, larger storage facili- include Lino Gray, Fugitive Red, La Plata Black- ties, population dispersal, greater standardization on-white, White Mound Black-on-white, Alma in pottery production, and increased trade. Plain, and San Marcial Black-on-white (Goetze Deteriorating environmental conditions— and Mills 1993:89; Vivian 1990:131). decreased regional moisture, a probable tempera- Dittert's (1959:523–524) White Mound phase ture increase, lower groundwater levels, and allu- (A.D. 700–800) is transitional between vial degradation—triggered adaptational responses Basketmaker III and Pueblo I. Site types range by Pueblo I populations. In early Pueblo I, horti- from small villages of circular pithouse structures culture had expanded into nonfloodplain areas and slab-lined storage pits to low-density sherd with high water tables, good alluvium, and associ- scatters representing special activity sites and agri- ated wild plant foods. However , as climatic and cultural sites (Dittert 1959:523). environmental conditions began worsening in the Sites are located in a variety of topographic mid-eighth century, previously dispersed popula- settings, but a definite shift toward arable dunes tions aggregated on floodplains and a major and valley bottoms is evident as agriculture episode of erosion and arroyo cutting forced became increasingly important (Irwin-W illiams groups to keep moving ahead of the headward 1973:15-16; Wozniak 1981:19). Some Basket- entrenchment of streams. Rapid fluctuation in rain- maker III sites occur in apparent defensive loca- fall made farming more precarious and curtailed tions. Some researchers interpret these defensive the stockpiling of surpluses (V ivian 1990: locations as evidence of competition for resources 135–136). between Archaic foragers and the emer ging farm- Populations in some areas were more mobile, ers (Ruppé 1966:325; Tainter and Gillio 1980:67). with a segment leaving seasonally and returning Associated ceramic types consist mainly of for the winter and/or summer (Schmader 1994). Lino Gray and White Mound Black-on-white, with Dispersed settlement occurred near or on alluvial intrusive types including Alma Plain and Alma flats. In the Acoma area, there was a move to high- Neckbanded (Dittert 1959:523–524). San Marcial er benches and mesa tops after A.D. 800. Pueblo I Black-on-white occurs on the eastern edge of the habitation sites generally consisted of a linear province. The problem with distinguishing White arrangement of four to ten contiguous surface Mound Black-on-white from similar types induced rooms with one to three deep pit structures to the recent investigators of Cebolleta Mesa (Decker, in south or southeast. The surface rooms were usual- Broster and Harrill 1982:1 19) to group all unpol- ly one room deep and rarely curved (V ivian ished gray sherds with typical early designs in 1990:149). The increased importance of surplus mineral paint with La Plata Black-on-white. These food storage "is reflected in the more frequent use researchers proposed that the early end of the of masonry for above-ground store rooms and phase be modified to correspond with dates associ- essentially equal space being devoted to living and ated with La Plata Black-on-white (A.D. 600 to storage in roomblocks" (Vivian 1990:146). 800). This dif ference in interpretation between Effective moisture decreased and precipitation recent investigators and Dittert and Ruppé may oscillated increasingly from year to year during reflect temporal range within the White Mound Pueblo I. Although most aggregated settlements phase. In this way , dif ferentiation between pol- were dependent on maize-based agriculture, wild

16 plant foods and hunting were probably still very Albuquerque District still shows an emphasis on important in years when precipitation did not per- subterranean structures. mit excess agricultural production to last through the winter. Food remains from excavated sites indi- Pueblo II (A.D. 900–1100) cate mixed reliance on horticulture, gathering, and hunting (Vivian 1990:136, 150, 152). The Pueblo II period is marked by greater seden- Changes in pottery technology occurred dur- tism, increased reliance on cultigens, and the ing Pueblo I. Neck-banding on culinary vessels greater dispersion of peoples (V ivian 1990:167). appeared early in the period and eventually culmi- Pueblo II peoples built small, linear, above-ground nated in totally corrugated vessels. The latter treat- habitation structures or room blocks but still ment increased heat shock resistance while the for- retained the pit structure form as an auxiliary habi- mer decreased incidence of boil over (Pierce tation or religious structure (i.e., ). Initially , 1999). The production of decorated white wares there was a trend for aggregated settlements to be increased (Vivian 1990:146), and regional patterns at higher elevations in riverine settings. By A.D. of scattered specialized production are expected to 1000, in nearly all areas of New Mexico, there was apply to the Acoma area (W ilson and Blinman a reversal in this trend. Higher elevation sites were 1995). Characteristic early Pueblo I (A.D. abandoned in favor of lower elevation basin set- 700–800) pottery types include Lino Gray , tings (Stuart and Gauthier 1984:412). Fugitive Red, Kana'a Neck-banded, La Plata The development of Chacoan communities Black-on-white, and White Mound Black-on- began, marked by the construction of planned, white. Late Pueblo I (A.D. 800–900) pottery types multi-storied "Great Houses" and lar ge "Great include Kana'a Neckbanded, Narrow Neckbanded, ." There was also a continuation of small White Mound Black-on-white, Kiatuthlanna house sites with linear pueblos associated with Black-on-white, and Red Mesa Black-on-white subterranean kivas (V ivian 1990:203–206). The (Goetze and Mills 1993:89). population probably increased throughout the peri- Trade with, or an intrusion of, Mogollon peo- od. Subsistence resource shortfalls may have ples to the south fluctuated during the period. become more common and maize-based farming There is ample evidence of cultural networks in the became more intensive, with water control and early Pueblo I, with a later retraction or decrease in conservation features becoming more common these networks (Vivian 1990:148–149). (Vivian 1990:214–215). An extensive road system The Kiatuthlanna phase (A.D. 800 to 870) is was built, extending in a general radial pattern characterized by a continued emphasis on agricul- from Chaco Canyon to the margins of the San Juan ture and nearly full sedentism. Pithouses were the Basin (Nials et al. 1983) but also serving local rit- dominant architectural form, with the addition of ual access needs (Roney 1992). Candelaria Ruin surface structures arranged in a crescent- (formerly Las Ventanas), just west of the project shaped plan (Ruppé 1966:326). Sites are found on area, on the eastern edge of the malpais, is a secondary benches, mesa tops, and sandy slopes of Chacoan outlier . The Dittert site (LA 11723), tributary drainages. Associated ceramics consist another Chacoan outlier , is south of the project mostly of Kiatuthlanna Black-on-white, Kana'a area (Robinson 1994:80, 82–83). Gray, Lino Gray, and intrusive sherds of San Juan Red Mesa phase (A.D. 870–950) subsistence Red Ware, Alma Plain, and Alma Neckbanded focused on agriculture supplemented by hunting (Dittert 1959:528). Distinguishing Kiatuthlanna and gathering. Jacal architecture continued early Black-on-white from Red Mesa Black-on-white, into the phase, with the addition of coursed-mason- the diagnostic type of the next phase, can be dif fi- ry rooms. Later in the phase, masonry structures cult and may result in erroneous phase designa- appeared; they consisted of straight, double-tiered tions (Decker , in Broster and Harrill 1982:120). room blocks and crescentic and L-shaped units The transition to above-ground structures during (Dittert 1959:534). Occupation of higher topo- the Kiatuthlanna phase coincides with architectur- graphic settings decreased, and site concentrations al trends in the Middle Rio Puerco, while the are found just above the points where canyons con-

17 strict. Other site locations include knolls and low ern ceramics (Cebolleta and Tularosa Black-on- benches on the sides of canyons, and open valley whites and St. Johns and Wingate Black-on-reds). floors. Site types include habitation sites ranging Beal interprets this pattern as evidence of sociocul- from 1 to over 15 rooms and limited artifact scat- tural distinctions, while Tainter and Gillio ters suggesting task-specific activities. Ceramic (1980:60) suggest that the ceramic distributions assemblages consist of Red Mesa Black-on-white, reflect different economic ties of the inhabitants. Socorro Black-on-white, Kana'a Gray, and exuber- Another interpretation would be that they are tem- ant corrugated. Intrusive types include Wingate porally distinct architectural and material cultural Black-on-red, Alma Scored, San Francisco Red, expressions. Forestdale Smudged, and plain brown (Dittert In the Acoma Province, the Cebolleta phase 1959:536). Pilares Banded, a brown ware, marks a transition to lar ger residential sites. appeared late in the phase. Common architecture includes masonry room Socorro Black-on-white makes its appearance blocks with the long axis running north and south during this phase; however , Ruppé (1966:326) and a plaza and kivas on the east side (Dittert feels that the type was derived from Kiatuthlanna 1959:541). Jacal structures are sometimes present Black-on-white rather than Red Mesa Black-on- within a group of contiguous masonry rooms, and white. He describes an early variety of Socorro specialized grinding rooms have been recorded. Black-on-white that displays the blue-gray finish Site locations are similar to those of the Red Mesa and hard, homogeneous paste characteristic of the phase, with a marked increase in the occupation of better known, later variant. The absence of follow- "mountain meadows" and a slight decline of occu- up data for the inception of the Socorro Black-on- pation on flat-topped mesas (Dittert 1959:540). white type has kept later investigators from recog- Late Cebolleta phase ceramic assemblages are nizing it earlier than A.D. 1050 in adjacent areas composed of Cebolleta Black-on-white, Socorro (Burns 1978; Warren 1982; Lang 1982). Decker Black-on-white, Northern Gray Corrugated, and (Broster and Harrill 1982:120) contends that more Pilares Banded; intrusive types include Gallup, up-to-date tree-ring data on the chronological dis- Escavada, and Puerco varieties of Puerco Black- tribution of types make it unlikely that Socorro on-white, Reserve Black-on-white, Kwahe'e Black-on-white and Wingate Black-on-red can be Black-on-white, Wingate Black-on-red, and considered diagnostic of the Red Mesa phase. Puerco Black-on-red (Dittert 1959:542–543). Decker argues that the design styles of these types Dittert (1959:543–545) and Ruppé (1966:327) are more typical of phases postdating A.D. 1050. interpret the wide range of intrusive pottery types Ruppé (1966:326) believes that Red Mesa as evidence of extensive exchange with surround- phase sites in the Cebolleta Mesa area are similar ing areas. An increase in brown wares, especially to those of the Red Mesa Valley, 74 km to the on the southern portion of Cebolleta Mesa, is northwest. He interprets the mixed building forms viewed by these researchers as a Mogollon intru- and influx of brown ware ceramics as evidence for sion. Ruppé (1966:327) reported assemblages three groups of people: indigenous Lobo Complex dominated by Socorro Black-on-white, often asso- populations, immigrant Mogollons, and immigrant ciated with Los Lunas Smudged and Upper Gila northerners (T ainter and Gillio 1980:60). Corrugated, in the Los Veteados area (southern Similarly, but for a later time period, Beal (1976) Cebolleta Mesa) throughout the Cebolleta and sees a dichotomy in the Malpais areas west of Pilares phases. Cebolleta Mesa between jacal structures with 1 to In the northern district, ceramic assemblages 15 rooms and masonry structures of over 15 contain higher frequencies of sherds from the north rooms. Jacal structures produced assemblages (Chaco area) and west (Cibola and eastern yielding higher frequencies of southern (Socorro ). Dittert (1959:545) suggested that the dif- Black-on-white), northwestern (Red Mesa and fusion of traits from the west along the San José Gallup black-on-whites), and southern (brown travel route contributed to similarities between the wares) ceramics, while masonry structures yielded Acoma Province and the Cibola region. Along assemblages with higher frequencies of southwest- these lines, Tainter and Gillio (1980:60) argue that

18 intrusive ceramics may represent processes other Kowina (A.D. 1200–1400) phases. During the than the intrusion of populations, such as changing Pilares phase, site density in higher topographic trade patterns. settings declined. Sites are concentrated at canyon To the east along the Middle Rio San José, late mouths, above and below canyon constrictions, Cebolleta phase ceramic assemblages, which could and on low benches in lower canyons with easy date to A.D. 1140, are composed of a combination access to arable land. Occupations at higher eleva- of Gallup, Puerco-Escavada, Socorro, and tions decreased, and settlement shifted to flat- Cebolleta Black-on-whites. This mix of types sug- topped mesas by the end of the phase (Dittert gests that the Rio San José was used by groups that 1959:548). Continued population aggregation maintained contact with people from a variety of resulted in a dichotomy between lar ger residential pottery-producing areas. Increasing numbers of communities and small seasonally occupied field- Socorro Black-on-white and associated banded house sites (W ozniak 1981:20; Ruppé 1966:329). brown wares suggest increased contact between Typical residential sites consist of masonry room residents of the Middle Rio San José and the blocks containing two rows of rooms. Some sites groups of the Socorro District to the south. have an east-to-west long axis with a plaza on the Presence of southern pottery reflects the position south, and other sites have a north-to-south long of the Middle Rio San José on the northern border axis with a plaza and kiva on the east (Dittert of the "Anasazi-Mogollon" contact zone (Danson 1959:548). construction appears to be more 1957; Mera 1935). common in the southern district (Ruppé 1966:329). The village of Acoma was established Pueblo III (A.D. 1100–1300) during the Pilares phase. Common ceramic types include Cebolleta The Pueblo III period was one of great change in Black-on-white, Tularosa Black-on-white (Acoma the Southwest. As the Chacoan system began dis- variety), Tularosa Black-on-white (T ularosa vari- integrating in the late eleventh century , Puebloan ety), Socorro Black-on-white, Northern Gray development emerged on the edges of the greater Corrugated, St. Johns Polychrome, Pilares Banded, San Juan Basin in several highland areas—Mesa Pilares Fine Banded, and Los Lunas Smudged; Verde, Zuni-Cibola, and Acoma—by the thirteenth intrusive types consist of Puerco Black-on-red, century (Vivian 1990:331). "The twelfth century Snowflake Black-on-white, and possibly Tularosa was, therefore, in many respects a transitional time Black-on-white (T ularosa variety) and S t. Johns between two periods of intense population aggre- Polychrome (Dittert 1959:550). The number of gation and concentration of cultural ener gy in the intrusive ceramic types and the number of sites long sequence of puebloan cultural growth" with trade wares drops sharply during the Pilares (Vivian 1990:331). phase (Ruppé 1966:328). However , the areas of The period was one of population expansion contact are similar to those of the Cebolleta phase. and growth. The Pueblo III period also witnessed a Looking east between A.D. 1100 and 1150, the growth in artistic development and intensive local middle Rio San José ceramic assemblages are sim- specialization in artifact production (Dart ilar to those of the late Cebolleta phase. A dramat- 1982:43). In the Cebolleta Mesa area, the Early ic decrease in Chaco series, Cibola White Wares Pueblo III is marked by the first indications of (Windes 1981), and a corresponding increase of occupation on a year -round basis. Villages occur Socorro Black-on-white and associated plain and along major drainages and on mesa tops (Ruppé smudged brown wares can be found in assem- 1966:328). An increase in site frequency during the blages from this period. The type most indicative Late Pueblo III suggests migration into the area of the end of the Classic Bonito phase, Chaco- from elsewhere. Sites were generally near good McElmo Black-on-white, is absent from Middle farmland, indicating intensive maize agriculture Rio San José sites. Whatever Chacoan influence or (Dittert 1959). contact had previously existed had appreciably Within the Cebolleta Mesa area, the Pueblo III waned by this time (Post n.d.), a pattern that is represented by the Pilares (A.D. 1100–1200) and occurred in Middle Rio Puerco ceramic assem-

19 blages as well (Burns 1978; Irwin-W illiams and cliffs along the Rio San José (Dittert 1959:564). Baker 1991). Sites that are considered to postdate The Pueblo IV period of the Cebolleta Mesa A.D. 1 150 have ceramic assemblages dominated area is represented by the later part of the Kowina by Socorro Black-on-white, Los Lunas Smudged, phase (A.D. 1200–1400) and by most of the Pitoche and Pilares Banded, and sherd-tempered Cubero phase (A.D.1400–1600). During the early gray indented corrugated. Only a very limited Pueblo IV, there was a general abandonment of the range of intrusive types from the middle and north- area, with some parts being occupied longer than ern were present (Post n.d.). Use of the others (Dittert and Ruppé 1951:121). In general, Middle Rio San José by Socorro district popula- however, few sites survived the Kowina phase. tions after A.D. 1150 is suggested. A similar trend, During the Cubero phase, the population was con- southern populations moving north into the centrated at the village of Acoma. Farming sites, Albuquerque area after A.D. 1100, is suggested by however, occurred along the Rio San José. Pottery Lang (1982) and Warren (1980). from the , Zuni, and Rio Grande areas was LA 2639 and LA 2640 are examples of small- introduced at Acoma during the Cubero phase. In er-scale residential sites that were excavated along addition, local glazewares were produced. Key Interstate 40, 12 miles west of Cubero. These pottery types consist of Pinnawa and Kwakina house blocks lacked associated kivas but had liv- glazewares (Dittert 1959:564–566). ing and storage rooms, suggesting seasonal occu- pation and social interaction with larger, aggregat- HISTORIC PERIOD (A.D. 1540–PRESENT) ed villages, which typifies this period. Located only 4 km north of the project area, Cubero Ruin The historic period begins with the first mention of (LA 494) may have been a permanent residential Acoma in Spanish documents in 1539. Only LA village from which households established season- 89019 and LA 149868 have late Territorial period al field residences along the Rio San José and its components reflecting pastoral subsistence pat- tributaries. An example of such a seasonal struc- terns within the shifting sociopolitical boundaries ture is present at LA 149867, which was recorded of and the community of Cubero. during the Acomita Exit 102 interchange inventory (M. E. Brown and K. L. Brown 2005). Pueblo of Acoma During the Kowina phase, the population aggregated into lar ge sites on high mesas and in The earliest reference to Acoma in Spanish docu- wooded areas. Lar ge defensive sites were built. ments occurred in 1539 when Fray Marcos de Niza These large villages have 200 or more rooms and returned from his expedition. Although he had not they also have Great Kivas. Key pottery types con- personally visited the “Kingdom of Acus” sist of Tularosa Black-on-white, Kowina Black- (Acoma), he had heard of its existence from on-white, S t. Johns Polychrome, and other poly- informants while traveling toward the Seven Cities chromes (Dittert 1959:553–554). of Cibola (Zuni). “They [messengers] told me that beyond those seven cities there were other king- Pueblo IV (A.D. 1300–1540) doms named Marata, Acus [Acoma] and Totonteac” (Barclay et al. 1994:49). Upon his “Pueblo IV in the Southwest was characterized by return to Mexico City, Fray Marcos “declared that a constriction of the area occupied and a general I took possession there of all the seven cities and of deterioration from the cultural peak of the Pueblo the kingdoms of Totonteac and Acus [Acoma] and III” (Dart 1982:43). Within the Cebolleta Mesa Marata, and that I did not go to them, in order that area, the Pueblo IV period is characterized by pop- I might return to give an account of what I had ulation aggregation into a few large villages and by done and seen” (Barclay et al. 1994:54). frequent abandonment of these communities The first documented Spanish entry into (Cordell 1979b:146). Small sites overlook the con- Acoma happened in 1540 during the entrada of fluence of tributaries with the Rio San José. In Francisco Vásquez de Coronado. Hernando de addition, small shelters were built against low Alvarado, one of Coronado's captains, was sent

20 east from Zuni and reached Acuco (Acoma) five same year, the Acoma revolted and killed several days later. Alvarado described Acoma as "one of Spanish soldiers, including Oñate's nephew , Juan the strongest places that we have seen, because the de Zaldívar . After crushing the revolt in early city is on a very high rock, . . . The houses have 1599, Oñate exacted a severe punishment upon the three or four stories; the people are the same sort as Acoma and their allies, including amputation of those of the province of Cibola; they have plenty feet and hands (Minge 1991:14). Neglecting to of food, of corn and beans and fowls like those of mention this punishment in a letter to the viceroy , " (W inship 1933:129). Pedro de Oñate did tell of the pueblo's destruction. “As pun- Castañeda, another member of Coronado's entrada, ishment for its crime and its treason against his provides a fuller description of Acoma. Majesty, to whom it had already rendered submis- sion by a public instrument, and as a warning to the Captain Alvarado started on this journey & in five rest, I razed and burned it completely” (Barclay et days reached a village which was on a rock called al. 1994:141). The Spanish forced the surviving Acuco [Acoma], having a population of about 200 Acoma to settle in the valley below the mesa. The men. . . . The village was very strong, because it Acoma, however, soon returned to the top of the was up on a rock out of reach, having steep sides in mesa. The pueblo was rebuilt and repopulated every direction, and so high that it was a very good between 1599 and 1620 (Garcia-Mason 1979:457). musket that could throw a ball as high. There was As of 1621, the Acoma were still unconverted. only one entrance by a stairway built by hand, which began at the top of a slope which is around Father Gerónimo de Zárate Salmerón reportedly the foot of the rock. There was a broad stairway for initiated conversion of the Acoma between 1623 about 200 steps, then a stretch of about 100 narrow- and 1626, but these ef forts were unsuccessful and er steps, and at the top they had to go up about three had been abandoned by 1629. At that time, Estevan times as high as a man by means of holes in the de Perea assigned Fray Juan Ramírez to theAcoma. rock, in which they put the points of their feet, Ramírez remained at the pueblo for 20 years and holding on at the same time by their hands. There either he, or a successor , built a church—San was a wall of lar ge and small stones at the top, Esteban—which still stands on top of the mesa— which they could roll down without showing them- between 1629 and 1664 (Kubler 1990:92, 94). selves, so that no army could possibly be strong Responding to Spanish suppression of their enough to capture the village. On the top they had room to sow and store a lar ge amount of corn, and native religious beliefs and practices, the Acoma cisterns to collect snow and water. . . . They made a joined the Pueblo Revolt of 1680, killing their present of a lar ge number of [turkey] cocks with Franciscan padre, Fray Lucas de Maldonado. very big wattles, much bread, tanned deerskins, Rather than taking an active role in the fighting, pine [piñon] nuts, flour [corn meal], and corn. however, the Acoma primarily provided asylum to (Winship 1933:24) fugitives from other pueblos. In late 1692, Diego de Vargas accepted the peaceful submission of the The Rodriguez-Chamuscado expedition visited the Acoma. The latter, however, participated in a sec- pueblo in 1581 (Bolton 1921:167). Antonio de ond revolt in 1696, once again harboring fugitives. Espejo stayed at Acoma for three days in 1582 and Eventually, the Acoma made peace overtures. noted the presence of irrigated agricultural fields in Governor Pedro Rodriguez Cubero, Vargas's suc- the Rio San José valley (Bolton 1916:183, cessor, performed the Act of Obedience at Acoma 1921:168). “These people have their fields two in 1699 (Garcia-Mason 1979:457–458; Minge leagues from the pueblo on a river of medium size 1991:23–32). whose water they intercept for irrigating purposes, “After the reconquest, Ácoma apparently as they water their fields with many partitions of returned to the old ways. . . . Increasing drought water near this river , in a marsh” (Bolton made farming more dif ficult and the population 1916:183). dwindled as the result of disease” (Minge After establishing the first Spanish settlement 1991:32). As indicated by oral history , the Acoma in New Mexico in 1598, Juan de Oñate demanded reestablished seasonal farming camps along the that the Acoma submit to Spanish rule. Later that Rio San José at McCartys and Acomita. Adobe

21 dwellings increased in size and were built closer to along the middle Rio Grande from Bernalillo to the fields (Garcia-Mason 1979:458). When Fray Socorro (Minge 1991:37–38). “By joining with the Andres Varo visited Acoma as part of a mission Spanish expeditions, the lines of battle were drawn inspection in 1749, he reported that “the Ácoma between Ácoma and her and Navaho had to go seven leagues from the pueblo to irrigate neighbors” (Minge 1991:38). Navajo and Apache their fields along the river [the Rio San José]” raids continued through the Mexican (A.D. (Minge 1991:34). The Acoma also had fields, 1821–1846) and into the U.S. Territorial (A.D. which depended on rain, in the Cañada de la Cruz 1846–1912) periods. 4 leagues to the north (Minge 1991:34). In 1776, During an examination of New Mexico for the despite three years of drought, the Acoma had agri- U.S. military in 1846–1847, Lieutenant Abert cultural fields on arable level ground in cañadas to noted the presence of lar ge flocks of sheep, herds the northwest, north, east, and south of the pueblo. of cattle, and droves of horses in the valley below These fields were completely dependent on rain. Acoma Pueblo. About 1.2 km (0.75 miles) from The Acoma at Cubero, however , irrigated their the pueblo, where Abert and his party camped for fields on both sides of the Rio San José with water the night, the Acoma had dug holes that provided a from the river. As a result, they had a good harvest. constant source of water (Abert 1962:88). By In addition, the Acoma had livestock corrals on a 1850, the Acoma had irrigated and dry-farmed chain of mesas—probably the Cebolleta Mesa agricultural lands north and south of Grants, east- area—to the west and southwest (Adams and ward along the Rio San José, west of the lava flow, Chavez 1956:189, 194). along the northern boundary of the Acoma Grant, In general, the Acoma had peaceful relations and in the Cebolleta Mesa area (Garcia-Mason with the Spaniards during the late Spanish 1979:459–460). “In 1864 Acoma was described in Colonial period (A.D. 1700–1821). In 1768, the the same manner as it was in 1540, with houses in Acoma had numbered 1,1 14 but by 1776, as parallel rows, ladders used for ingress and egress reported during an inspection of the mission by to the dwellings, low arch formation for doorway Fray Francisco Atanasio Domínguez, the popula- passages, and window plates of crystallized gyp- tion had fallen to 530 (Adams and Chavez sum (selenite)” (Garcia-Mason 1979:459). As 1956:195). Navajo raiding decreased, the pueblo began to function primarily as a summer encampment. The reason for this great decrease is that many Smaller settlements were dispersed throughout the have died since then [1768], some from natural Acoma Valley and along the Rio San José (Arany causes in epidemics or from other diseases, others 1982:52). at the hands of so insolent that if this Land disputes with , of ficially pueblo were not by nature defensible, perhaps noth- established in 1699, were an on-going problem. ing would now remain of it. The present missionary The Acoma and Laguna land boundaries were father also states that still others are wandering determined in 1857. At that time, Acoma's territo- about and that some have fled to Moqui for fear of the famines and wars they have suf fered in a few ry was to include the area recognized in 1848, years. (Adams and Chavez 1956:195) when New Mexico was ceded to the United S tates with the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe After the 1780–1781 smallpox epidemic, the mis- Hidalgo at the end of the Mexico War. Congress sion headquarters was moved to Laguna because confirmed the Acoma land claims in 1858 (Garcia- the population of Acoma had decreased tremen- Mason 1979:459). This, however, did not end the dously (Garcia-Mason 1979:458). boundary disputes and land claims. The Acoma When ordered by Spanish and later by Reservation was created in 1928. At that time, the Mexican authorities, the Acoma participated in size of the original grant was increased. The reser- official expeditions against Apache and Navajo vation also increased in size in the 1930s and raiders. The earliest known Spanish campaign with 1940s with the withdrawal of lands—including Acoma allies was against the Navajo in 1774. portions of Cebolleta Mesa—from the public Navajo raids centered on the Rio San José and domain (Arany 1982:54–55).

22 Since that time, the Acoma have been reac- and establish relations with their neighbors to the quiring aboriginal lands as they become available. south and east” (Schroeder 1963:10). Navajo Ácoma purchases since 1972 have more than dou- raiders attacked the Western pueblos, including bled the size of the reservation. The Baca Ranch, Acoma, and settlements along the lower Rio of which a portion of the present project corridor is Grande. a part, was purchased from Pete Baca, Jr ., in 1982 Navajo raids stopped abruptly in 1713, but not (Minge 1991:139, 142). The old ranch, adjacent to as the result of Spanish actions. In 1713, the Ute the western side of the reservation, “had two tracts had advanced into Navajo territory. Consequently, for a total of 291.84 acres and all mineral rights, the Navajo were forced into a defensive attitude water rights, a submersible water pump with resulting in the cessation of raids to the east. capacity for 30 gallons per minute, a concrete Although some Navajo took up fortified positions water storage tank, well, boundary fences, and on mesa tops and among mountain crags, others more” (Minge 1991:142). migrated toward the south. By 1730, the Navajo At present, the Pueblo of Acoma consists of were within 5 leagues of Jemez (Schroeder approximately 966 sq km (600 sq mi), mostly 1963:10). “In 1754, the governor of New Mexico south of I-40, in Cibola County, New Mexico. The reported that the Navajos in lar ge part had aban- 2000 Census indicates the Acoma have 4,712 doned their homes and fled south to Cebolleta, enrolled tribal members, of which 2,802 reside on near Laguna, and to the vicinity of Zuni” the reservation. The principal Acoma communities (Schroeder 1963:10). are Sky City (southern), Acomita (eastern), Fray Miguel de Menchero reportedly convert- McCartys (central), and Anzac (western), but sev- ed more than 500 Navajos to Christianity at eral subdivisions and scattered homes are also Cebolleta (Seboyeta) in 1746. As a result of this present. Sky City, the old Pueblo, has few primary success and in an attempt to stop Navajo raiding, residences and is used primarily for cultural activ- Menchero decided to settle the Navajos in villages ities. The northern portion of Acomita is a com- on Acoma lands. Spanish missions, therefore, were mercial area that includes a casino, hotel, and con- established for the Navajos at Cebolleta and ference center (Indian Health Service 2002:1). The Encinal, northeast of the project area, in 1748 and present I-40 Exit 102 improvement project is asso- 1749 (Hackett in Minge 1991:32–33). ciated with economic development at Acoma Unfortunately, disputes arose between the Navajo Pueblo. and Acoma concerning possessions, territories, waters, and pastures. In 1750, the Navajo at Navajo Cebolleta and Encinal rebelled and drove out their missionaries. Stating that they did not want to live At the time of Coronado's expedition of 1540– in settlements like Christians, they returned to their 1542, Navajo were living along the Chama River former homes along the eastern slopes of Mount and possibly to the southwest in the Mount Taylor Taylor (Minge 1991:33–34). area. The Navajo homeland during this early his- By the 1770s, the Navajo range had stabilized. toric period, however , was probably in the upper Many Navajos settled in the vicinity of Laguna and San Juan drainage, in the vicinity of Canyon Largo Zuni, the southern boundary of the new Navajo and Gobernador Canyon—the Dinetah area (Pratt homeland. Canyon Largo—formerly in the heart of and Scurlock 1990:39, 43). This area remained the Navajo territory—formed the northern border and Navajo homeland until 1692, when documentary was the dividing line between the Navajo and Ute evidence placed them farther west. Prior to the ranges. For the first time, the Navajo and southern Pueblo Rebellion, the Navajo raided south to Apache came into direct contact. In 1785, the Rio Jemez. After the Rebellion, the Navajo began to San José was established as the boundary between raid farther southward and came into increasing the Navajo and Apache (Schroeder 1963:10–11). contact, friendly or otherwise, with the Apache and By 1772, the Navajo and Apache had formed various Pueblo groups (Schroeder 1963:6–7). “The an alliance. Raiding parties of each or both were Navajo were beginning to emer ge from isolation aimed at the Rio Grande pueblos and Spanish fron-

23 tier settlements. As a result, Spanish settlements on nized the Navajo need for more land. Over the suc- the Rio Puerco were abandoned in 1774. Finally , ceeding years, therefore, the Navajo Reservation the Spanish broke the alliance in 1785 and for ged expanded several times to its present size. Some their own alliance with the Navajo. From 1785 to Navajos violated the 1868 treaty by returning to 1796, the Navajo and Apache were alternately at their former homes east of Mount Taylor, along the war and peace. A new alliance between both Rio Puerco. Eventually, this group was assigned its groups was formed in 1796 and lasted until 1807 own reservation, now known as To'hajiile (former- or 1808, when hostilities between both the Navajo ly Cañoncito), northeast of the project area. and Apache resumed (Schroeder 1963:11–12). In the 1820s and 1830s, after Mexico gained EUROAMERICAN SETTLEMENT its independence from Spain, New Mexican troops focused on ending Navajo raids. Consequently, the Although Spanish settlers made repeated attempts Navajo and Apache were allied once again but to settle west of the Rio Grande in the mid-1700s, before the alliance ended in 1852, the Americans the Navajo usually drove back the settlers. After became the new common enemy (Schroeder the settlement of Navajos at Cebolleta (Seboyta) 1963:12). “In 1852 reports reached Santa Fe that failed, Spanish settlers moved into the area, but the the Navajos had begun to retreat northward toward settlement was raided frequently . As protection, Ojo Caliente, Canyon de Chelly, and even the San the Spanish established a military outpost there Juan River country. The reason given was fear of from 1804 to 1808. The settlement was also pro- Apaches” (Schroeder 1963:12). tected by a 3-m (10-ft) high wall. By the mid- The late 1850s and 1860s was a period of great 1800s, the settlement was reportedly a hangout for stress and change for the Navajo. They were Mexican traders dealing in whiskey , guns, and attacked repeatedly by the Ute. In addition, the U.S. slaves (Julyan 1996:329). In 1849, the U.S. mili- Army—aided by Ute warriors—conducted cam- tary built an outpost at Cebolleta to try to halt the paigns against the Navajo in 1858–1859 and illegal trade, but this ef fort proved unsuccessful. 1860–1861. Kit Carson led an invasion of Navajo Consequently, the outpost was abandoned in 1851 territory during the winter of 1863–1864. Although and the troops were transferred to Laguna. As with there were few direct encounters between the the previous post, the Laguna Post's efforts to con- troops and the Navajo, the invasion was very suc- trol illegal trade failed. The post was abandoned in cessful because Carson focused on destruction of 1852 and the troops were transferred to Fort the Navajo economy—sheep and crops—and on Defiance, Arizona (Giese 1995:5). keeping the Navajo constantly on the move. As a Eventually, the presence of the U.S. military , result, nearly 10,000 Navajo had surrendered by the which began with seizure of New Mexico in 1846, end of 1864 and were forced to walk—the “Long subdued the Navajo. Prior to the confinement of Walk”—to Bosque Redondo at Fort Sumner on the the Navajo at Bosque Redondo, which ended Pecos River. Many died along the way and many Navajo raids, the local Spanish population contin- died at the Bosque. A number of Navajos, however, ually shifted back and forth between the Rio eluded capture and were joined by escapees from Puerco area and the Rio Grande valley . After Bosque Redondo (Schroeder 1963:13–14). removal of the Navajo in 1864, Hispanic holdings The confinement at Fort Sumner was a disas- expanded. In addition, Anglos moved into the area ter for a number of reasons—poor management, and established ranches and trading posts. internal strife between the Navajo and Apache, The coming of the railroad to the San José alkaline soils, and drought resulting in repeated Valley in 1880–1881 brought economic and social crop failures (Kelley 1982:32–33; Schutt et al. changes to the area, tying it to the national econo- 1997:23). The Treaty of 1868 ended the Bosque my. In 1880, the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Redondo “experiment” and the Navajo were Railway (A T&SF) and the S t. Louis and San allowed to return to a portion of their former terri- Francisco Railway (SL&SF) agreed to build the tory. The treaty also established a reservation for Atlantic and Pacific Railroad (A&P) from A&P the Navajo. Government officials, however, recog- Junction (Isleta) toward the Pacific Coast. When

24 the route was surveyed in the Laguna Pueblo area, Village of Cubero the Laguna found it entertaining to pull up the sur- vey stakes. Later, they hopped trains, coming and The name of this small community refers to Pero going, as part of their firewood gathering routine. Rodriguez Cubero, who succeeded Diego de By late spring of 1881, the line extended into Vargas as governor of New Mexico and who Arizona and on August 9, 1883, the line—also served from 1697 to 1703. Cubero passed through known as the Thirty-fifth Parallel Trans- the area in 1697on an expedition to Zuni. It is pos- Continental Line—was finished. In 1902, the A&P sible the name originated then, or its also possible was absorbed by the AT&SF (Myrick the name is from a local family, but no one of that 1990:17–20). In 1995, the Burlington Northern name has lived there in recent memory. The village Santa Fe Corporation (BNSF) was created “from appears as Cubera on Bernardo Miera y Pacheco's the mer ger of Burlington Northern Inc. (parent map of the Domínguez-Escalante Expedition of company of Burlington Northern Railroad) and 1776, but as Cubero on most subsequent maps.The Santa Fe Pacific Corporation (parent company of village was located on an Indian trail and was a the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway)” hangout for Mexican traders in slaves, whiskey , (Burlington Northern Santa Fe 2004). and guns. Indian attacks were frequent and in the Historically, the primary economic activity in eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Cubero was a the project vicinity has been livestock grazing, first Spanish military outpost and American troops later of sheep and then of cattle. In the 1890s and early were stationed here. Villa de Cubero, 1.6 km (1 1900s, some of the largest flocks of sheep on Horace mile) west on former U.S. Route 66, is an aban- Mesa were maintained by the Acoma. In the 1920s, doned outlying community. The Navajo name for sheep herding began to give way to cattle raising. Cubero means "water in the crevice," which refers The latter was less labor-intensive than the former. In to a trickling spring here (Julyan 1996:102–103). addition, the national taste shifted towards a prefer- ence for beef (W ase et al. 2000:1.29). The project Town of Cubero Grant area is currently used for cattle grazing. The Town of Cubero Grant was originally granted Village of San Fidel by the Mexican government about the year 1834 (Bowden 1969:1515–1522). The grant was made In about 1868 Baltazar Jaramillo and his family set- to Juan Chaves and the original grantees, who tled at what is now San Fidel. An early name for the numbered about 61 heads of family , on condition locality was La Vega de San José, "the meadow of that they purchase the interest of Francisco Baca, a St. Joseph." This was a reference to the Rio San José Navajo Indian living on the premises. The inhabi- that was just to the south of the community . A tiny tants of the Town of Cubero Grant petitioned residential community about 1.6 km (1 mile) north Surveyor General William Pelham on April 2, of present San Fidel still is called San José and may 1856 seeking possession of the land that had been be the community sometimes referred to as Old San granted to their ancestors. The petitioners José. Another early name for the community was described the grant as a tract of land bounded on Rinconada, "box canyon, or junction." The post the north by the San Mateo Hill, on the east by a office took the name Ballejos, a variant of the long range of hills, on the south by the stone moun- Spanish family name Vallejos. The post office later tains with crosses on them and on the west by the changed its name to San Fidel, honoring the saint, a San José Hills. The grantees claimed that in the name said to have been suggested by the pastor of year 1833 Governor Francisco Sarracino granted the church, Fr . Robert Kalt, O.F .M. (Julyan the described tract, which contained an estimated 1996:312). Today the community is dominated by a 11 square leagues of land. The grant was surveyed church complex (Fugate and Fugate 1989:369). in July 1896 by Geor ge W. Pradt for 16,490.94 acres and was patented on August 27, 1900, although overlaps were subsequently contested by both Laguna and Acoma Pueblos.

25 26 PREVIOUS RESEARCH

Table 1 summarizes archaeological sites listed in farming activities along the Rio San José flood- the New Mexico Cultural Resources Information plain and surrounding tributaries. Few System (NMCRIS) files of the Archeological Basketmaker III and Pueblo I period sites have Records Management Section, Historic been recorded on the Cubero Quadrangle. These Preservation Division in Santa Fe. This records earlier occupations usually appear as diagnostic search was completed in advance of the Acomita sherds appearing with ceramics from later time Exit 102 inventory for an area with a radius of 1.6 periods producing ambiguous long-term km (Brown and Brown 2005) to identify previous- Basketmaker III to Pueblo II artifact scatters. Two ly recorded sites within the vicinity of the pro- nearby sites have Pueblo I occupations and are posed project area. Sites LA 54902, LA 89019, LA recorded as artifact scatters with features, appar- 89020, and LA 108511 overlap the APE and were ently representing ephemeral shelters. Both sites documented by one or more previous inventories. also have later Pueblo II components. LA 104153 Sites LA 145685 and LA 149868 were newly iden- is represented by a wall in a rockshelter situated tified by the Acomita Exit 102 inventory. along the sandstone escarpment about 550 m south Table 2 summarizes archaeological site data of the project area. LA 108511 contains an area of from the NMCRIS files for the Cubero 7.5' burned sandstone slabs and is located in the flats Quadrangle, for which the project area is roughly about 600 m north of the project area. in the center. These summarized data provide addi- The majority of the Anasazi settlement and land tional settlement context and an understanding of use dates from the Pueblo II period from A.D. 900 the range of temporal and functional site types that to 1200. The smaller artifact scatters and artifacts may contribute archaeological material to the proj- scatters with features probably represent short-term ect area. Some 63 projects have been conducted resource procurement sites. The single residence within the Cubero Quadrangle beginning with the sites usually have at least one visible masonry, jacal, pipeline archaeology surveys and salvage excava- or adobe room that indicates more substantial occu- tions of the 1950s (W endorf et al. 1956). The 63 pations and may be broadly characterized as field- projects have recorded 96 sites that represent 109 houses. Nine sites have masonry room blocks that temporal components. No Paleoindian manifesta- may be characterized as full-seasonal multiple tions have been previously recorded on the Cubero household structures. LA 117549, the lar gest site, Quadrangle and the Archaic period is represented has an estimated 12 rooms with an A.D. 1050 to by only six (5.5 percent) components. However , 1100 occupation. This site is located about 800 m diagnostic projectile points found on these sites north of the project area. Four sites have kivas sug- reflect the entire temporal range of the Archaic gesting the presence of more complicated ceremoni- period. The sites are mainly special activity sites al, or social integrative structures. LA 98452 is the probably centered around hunting activities, but nearest recorded site with a kiva. The site is about four components have thermal features in the form 400 m south of the project area and has a broad of hearths or fire-cracked rock concentrations sug- occupation date of A.D. 1100 to 1300. The number gesting a wider range of resource procurement, of kivas ranges from one to six. LA 110240 has six processing, and consumption activities. recorded kivas and dates to A.D. 1050 to 1200. This The NMCRIS Anasazi period is represented site is located about 6 km north of the project area. by the highest frequency of components and the LA 494, the Cubero ruin, is recorded as an Anasazi widest range of site types and features. Just over residential complex/community dating to A.D. half (n=55) of the recorded components manifest 700–1100. The site is about 4 km north of the proj- Anasazi occupations probably centered around ect area and was originally recorded by Bandelier

27 Table 1. Summaries of Previously Recorded Sites within 1.6 km (1 mile) of the Project APE.

National LA NMCRIS Temporal/Cultural Register NMCRIS Number Affiliation Categories Eligibility Reference No. 688 Puebloan A.D. 1539-1993 Marshall 1990 31903 873 Anasazi A.D. 900-1300 None 1342 Anasazi A.D. 1-1600 Marshall 1990 31903 2632 Anasazi A.D. 900-1100 Wendorf et al. 1956 36 5593 Unknown Prehistoric 9500 B.C.- None A.D. 1100-1300 6031 Anasazi A.D. 900-1100 Winkler and Davis 1961 37 54902 Anasazi A.D. 900-1100 Yes, D Moore 1986; 12794; Marshall 1995 48418 89018 Archaic 3000 B.C.-A.D. 900 Yes, D Marshall 1992; 39824; Polk 2000 70890 89019 Archaic 3000-1800 B.C.; Anasazi Yes , D Marshall 1992, 1995; 39824; A.D. 700-1300 Polk 2000 48418; 70890 89020 Archaic 1800 B.C.- A.D. 200 Yes, D Marshall 1992; 39824; Polk 2000 70890 98452 Anasazi A.D. 1100-1300 Yes, D Marshall 1995 48418 99628 Anasazi A.D. 900-1100 Yes, D Condie 1993; 41514; Marshall 1995; 48418; Michalik 1998 62831 104151 Puebloan A.D. 1950-1994 McKenna 1994; 45335; Michalik 1998 62831 104152 Anasazi A.D. 1050–1150; McKenna 1994; 45335; Puebloan A.D. 1945-1963 Michalik 1998 62831 104153 Anasazi A.D. 700-850; Puebloan McKenna 1994; 45335; A.D. 1950-1963 Michalik 1998 62831 106385 Late Archaic 1500 B.C.-A.D. 500; Yes, D McKenna 1994 47210 Historic Pueblo A.D. 1945-1970 108506 Puebloan A.D. 1880-1920 Marshall 1995 48418 108507 Anasazi A.D. 950-1000 Marshall 1995 48418 108508 Anasazi A.D. 900-1100 Yes, D Marshall 1995 48418 108509 Anasazi A.D. 1000-1100 Yes, D Marshall 1995 48418 108510 Anasazi A.D. 1000-1050 Yes, D Marshall 1995 48418 108511 Anasazi A.D. 800-900; Anasazi Marshall 1995 48418 A.D. 1000-1100 108512 Anasazi A.D. 900-950; Anasazi Yes, D Marshall 1995 48418 A.D.1050-1100 114476 Anasazi A.D. 1000-1150 Marshall n.d.; Marshall 53230; 1997 56663 117547 Anasazi A.D. 1000-1050 Marshall 1997 56663 117548 Anasazi A.D. 1000-1125 Marshall 1997 56663 117549 Anasazi A.D. 105-1100 Marshall 1997 56663 117550 Anasazi A.D. 900-1100; Marshall 1997 56663 Euroamerican A.D. 1920-1940 117551 Archaic 5500 B.C.-A.D. 200 Marshall 1997 56663 117552 Archaic 3000-1800 B.C. Marshall 1997 56663

28 National LA NMCRIS Temporal/Cultural Register NMCRIS Number Affiliation Categories Eligibility Reference No. 117553 Euroamerican A.D. 1884-1998 Marshall 1997 56663 131410 Historic Pueblo A.D. 1945-1950 McKenna 2001 72380 131411 Historic Pueblo A.D. 1945-1950 McKenna 2001 72380 140935 Reserved Kenward 2003 85306 145143 Anasazi A.D. 1-1600; Historic McKenna 2004; Reserved 89778; Pueblo A.D. 1945-1950 (Marron n.d.) 94806

Table 2. Recorded Site Components on t he Cubero Quadrangle (October 2005). Component Number Percent ARCHAIC Artifact scatter (5500 B.C.-A.D. 200) 1 0.9 Artifact scatter (3000-1800 B.C.) 1 0.9 Artifact scatter (3000 B.C.-A.D. 900 1 0.9 Features and artifact scatter (5500-3000 B.C.) 1 0.9 Features and artifact scatter (1800 B.C.-A.D. 200) 1 0.9 Features and artifact scatter (1500 B.C.-A.D. 500) 1 0.9 TOTAL 6 5.5 ANASAZI Artifact scatter (A.D. 500-1100) 9 8.3 Artifact scatter (A.D. 1300-1500) 1 0.9 Features and artifact scatter (A.D. 700-900) 2 1.8 Features and artifact scatter (A.D. 900-1200) 8 7.3 Features and artifact scatter (A.D. 1325-1430) 2 1.8 Anasazi single residence (A.D. 900-1150) 6 5.5 Anasazi single residence (A.D. 1375-1400) 1 0.9 Anasazi multiple residence (A.D. 900-1200) 8 7.3 Anasazi residential complex/community (A.D. 700-1100) 1 0.9 Anasazi Unknown (A.D. 500-700) 1 0.9 Anasazi Unknown (A.D. 900-1100) 9 8.3 Anasazi Unknown (A.D. 1100-1300) 7 6.4 TOTAL 55 50.5 HISTORIC PUEBLO Artifact scatter (A.D. 1935-1979) 3 2.8 Simple features (A.D. 1945-1950) 3 2.8 Features and artifact scatter (A.D. 1870-1970 7 6.4 Ranching/agricultural (A.D. 1880-1970) 8 7.3 Residential complex/community (A.D. 1880-1960) 1 0.9 Single residence (A.D. 1870-1980) 6 5.5 Unknown (A.D. 1692-1821) 1 0.9 Unknown (A.D. 1539-1993) 2 1.8 TOTAL 31 28.4 NAVAJO Unknown (A.D. 1500-1993) 1 0.9

29 Component Number Percent HISPANIC Residential complex/community (A.D. 1821-1940) 1 0.9 Artifact Scatter (A.D. 1917-1920) 1 0.9 TOTAL 2 1.8 ANGLO/EUROAMERICAN Simple features (A.D. 1884-1998) 2 1.8 UNKNOWN Artifact Scatter (9500 B.C.-1539) 2 1.8 Unknown (9500 B.C.-1993) 9 8.3 Unknown (A.D. 1539-1993) 1 0.9 TOTAL 12 11 GRAND TOTAL 109 100 and later by Mera in the 1930s. The site contains at ranching and agricultural features, and single resi- least one kiva in a room block, an additional L- dences. Most of the historic Pueblo components shaped room block, and adobe rubble. Seven com- date from around 1880 to the present. ponents show P III occupations (A.D. 1 100 to A few Navajo, Hispanic, and Anglo-Euro- 1300), but the components are all coded as Anasazi american components have been recorded on the Unknown. Lastly , four sites including an artifact Cubero Quadrangle. LA 55998 is a Hispanic resi- scatter, two artifact scatters with features, and a sin- dential complex/community dating from 1821 gle residence show post A.D. 1300 occupations. associated with the Town of Cubero Grant. The site Two sites have apparent masonry structures, but all is located near the town of Cubero about 3 km of the sites are about 4 km north of the project area. northeast of the project area. LA 117553 is an The high number of sites with historic Pueblo Anglo-Euroamerican ranch complex dating from components attests to the close proximity of 1884 and located about 800 m north of the project Acoma Pueblo. A total of 31 (28 percent) compo- area. The remaining sites have unknown temporal nents attest to historic Acoma land use and settle- affiliations and are represented mainly by chipped ment with site types including artifact scatters, stone scatters with no temporal indicators.

30 TRADITIONAL CULTURAL PROPERTIES

Because this undertaking involves Pueblo of of one TCP on the southern end of the project area. Acoma lands and has NMDOT and FHWA fund- No other TCPs were encountered during the sur- ing, Marron contacted Janet E. Spivey , the vey. The project Alternative 3 will have no ef fect NMDOT Native American Coordinator, regarding on the associated TCP since this alternative main- Traditional Cultural Property (TCP) consultation ly focuses on the reconstruction of the existing with concerned tribal entities. The NMDOT has infrastructure with no additional roadways. been evaluating and conducting the TCP consulta- Alternative 5 has the potential to adversely af fect tions. 10 percent of the associated TCP area indirectly The Pueblo of Acoma Historic Preservation through proposed drainage systems and vehicle Office (AHPO) conducted a cultural resource sur- traffic. The AHPO recommends that the associated vey in early 2005 for cultural resources within the TCP be avoided and monitored by AHPO staff dur- proposed Exit 102 project APE (Pueblo of Acoma ing construction on the Exit 102 interchange. No Historic Preservation Office 2005). Emphasis was other protective measures will be instituted so as to on documenting and establishing areas of potential avoid any unwanted attention (Pueblo of Acoma effect on TCPs. The AHPO identified the presence Historic Preservation Office 2005:1–3).

31 32 SITE DESCRIPTIONS

Six archaeological sites, LA 54902, LA 89019, LA fence and a drainage ditch were immediately to the 89020, LA 108511, LA 145685, and LA 149868 north. A sherd and lithic artifact scatter , primarily are within the proposed limits or rights-of-way for to the south and east, was associated with the struc- I-40 Exit 102, Acomita Interchange alternatives 3 ture. A small portion of the site extended north of and 5. The amount of affected site area depends on the fence and ditch (Moore 1986:5–6). The site the proposed limits of Alternatives 3 and 5. For was described as "a small farmstead of limited most sites, less than 25 percent of the site area occupational duration" (Moore 1986:5). Cibola occurs within either design. Complete descriptions Research Consultants (Marshall 1995) revisited of each site are provided as context for the research the site in 1995 and declared the site's condition design and data recovery plan that follows. These unchanged and the1986 inventory record accurate. descriptions were provided by Marron and The new site map, however, showed a hearth in the Associates, Inc. (M. E. Brown and K. L. Brown southeast portion of the site but no description was 2005). provided (Marshall 1995:11, Fig. 5). No evidence of the hearth was discerned during the present LA 54902 project and no artifacts were found north of the fence. Description: LA 54902 is a rubble mound with a Disturbances include wind and water erosion, small, medium-density sherd and chipped stone a former drainage ditch, and a paved truck parking artifact scatter on an open plain. The site was orig- lot. Marshall (1995:11) indicated the site was 100 inally recorded in 1986 by Quivira Research m (328 ft) north of I-40. As recorded during the Associates (Moore 1986). The site is on Town of present project, the northern portion of the site is Cubero Grant land north of the I-40 north right-of- less than 60 m (197 ft) north of the I-40 north right- way, between the north right-of-way fence and a of-way fence. In addition, the northern edge of the property fence bordering the south side of the site corresponds to the property fence along the paved semi-truck parking lot for the Sky City south side of the truck parking lot. This suggests Casino (Fig. 5). The southern edge of the site is 23 the portion of the site north of the fence was m (75 ft) north of the I-40 north right-of-way removed during the construction of the present fence. The site measures 34 by 22 m (112 by 72 ft). parking lot. Artifacts are visible in eroded areas. A drainage ditch is to the east and a gentle slope is The rubble mound suggests the presence of intact on the west. A man-made concentration of lar ge subsurface cultural material, which may extend 40 sandstone boulders, probably associated with the cm (16 inches) below the surface. An estimated 90 construction of I-40, is near the southwestern edge percent of the site remains intact. of the site. The site is eroded and artifacts are visi- ble in eroded areas. The local plant community Features: A single feature, a low rubble mound includes grasses, snakeweed, prickly pear cactus, representing a single-room structure, was identi- and juniper. Ground visibility is 75 percent. The fied when the site was first recorded (Moore soil, a fine sandy loam, is classified as the 1986:5). The rubble mound, which is immediately Hagerman-Bond Association, 1 to 10 percent south of the property fence, was relocated during slopes (Parham 1993:78–79, Sheet No. 31). the present project. It primarily consists of sand- When the site was recorded in 1986, a single- stone but also contains limestone. In addition, room structure, consisting of a low (10–20-cm rocks are scattered around the immediate area. The [4–8-inches] high) mound and a scatter of rock, mound is 1.7 m (5.6 ft) in diameter and 10 to 20 cm was identified in the northern portion of the site. A (4–8 inches) high.

33 South Parking Lot Fence LA 54902 FEATURE 1

site limits

Biface DATUM

Proposed R-O-W

Large Boulders

N

Proposed Road

I-40 North Right-of-Way Fence meters 0 3 6 12 18 24

Figure 5. LA 54902 site map.

34 Artifacts: Chalcedony, basalt, and obsidian chip- indicative of a Pueblo II occupation. Although the ping debris; plain and corrugated grayware sherds; northern portion of the site was removed during and probable Gallup Black-on-white sherds were the construction of the paved truck parking lot noted when the site was first recorded. Based on immediately to the north, the rubble mound and the latter, a Pueblo II component, dating from A.D. most of the associated artifact scatter still remain. 900 to 1100, was identified (Moore 1986:5). The rubble mound suggests intact subsurface cul- LA 54902 contains a small, medium-density tural material is present. The site, therefore, is like- sherd and chipped stone artifact scatter . All arti- ly to provide important information concerning the facts observed on the surface of the site (n=79) Pueblo II occupation of the area. LA 54902 has were recorded during the present project (Table 3). been determined eligible for inclusion on the No artifacts were collected. The chipped stone National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) under assemblage (n=41) primarily consists of chipping Criterion D, information potential (HPD Log debris (n=38, 92.7 percent) but also contains a 48689). biface fragment, a uniface fragment, and a com- plete multidirectional core. No ground stone or Project Impact: Alternative 3 will have no ef fect diagnostic chipped stone tools were found. on LA 54902. Alternative 5, however, will have an Identified raw material types consist of chal- adverse effect on the site. cedony, chert, basalt, and quartzite. All are avail- able locally. The sherd assemblage (n=38) includes LA 89019 Socorro, Cebolleta, and Gallup Black-on-white sherds indicative of a Pueblo II component. Description: LA 89019, a lar ge, medium-density sherd and lithic artifact scatter on a gentle south- Table 3. Surface Artifact Assemblage, LA 54902. facing slope, was originally recorded in 1992 by the NMDOT (Marshall 1992). The site is within Description Total the I-40 south right-of-way and extends south onto Chalcedony biface, fragment 1 Town of Cubero Grant and private land. Most of Chalcedony uniface, fragment 1 the site is on Town of Cubero Grant land. The site Basalt core, multidirectional, complete 1 is bounded on the north by the eastbound exit ramp Chalcedony flakes 15 Basalt flakes 12 at Exit 102 and on the south and east by sandstone Quartzite flakes 7 outcrops (Fig. 6). Lar ge areas of sandstone Chert flakes 2 bedrock occur throughout the site. Low dunal areas Chalcedony angular debris 1 are also present. Artifacts occur on the dunes and Basalt angular debris 1 on the bedrock. A small drainage is on the east, Socorro Black-on-white body sherds 2 below the sandstone outcrop. The site measures Cebolleta Black-on-white body sherd, bowl 1 190 by 110 m (623 by 361 ft). The local plant com- Cebolleta Black-on-white body sherd 1 munity includes juniper , grasses, snakeweed, Gallup Black-on-white body sherd, bowl 2 prickly pear cactus, globemallow , narrowleaf Indeterminate white ware body sherds, bowl 3 yucca, aster, and fleabane. Ground visibility is 95 Indeterminate white ware body sherds, jar 4 percent. The soil, a fine sandy loam, is classified as Indeterminate white ware body sherds, plain 5 the Hagerman-Bond Association, 1 to 10 percent Indented corrugated gray ware body sherds 15 slopes (Parham 1993:78–79, Sheet No. 31). Plain gray ware body sherds 4 Disturbances consist of wind and water ero- Plain brown ware body sherd 1 sion, highway construction and maintenance, and Total 79 grazing livestock. The northern portion of the site was removed during the construction of I-40, and portions may lie under the I-40 eastbound exit Preliminary Evaluation: LA 54902 contains a ramp at Exit 102. Much of the site is deflated. rubble mound and a small, medium-density sherd Although most of the cultural material is surficial and chipped stone artifact scatter with pottery due to the presence of sandstone bedrock at or just

35 fenceline N

LA 89019 LA Proposed R-O-W Proposed meters biface ground stone chopper 0 5 10 20 40 Pole 2

cores Proposed R-O-W Proposed Feature 1 point projectile

original site limits original site Proposed Road Proposed yellow chert biface Feature 2 DATUM

I-40 South Right-of-Way Fence Pole 4 Pole 1 culvert Paleoindian/ Early Archaic projectile point new site limits new site Figure 6. LAFigure 89019 site map.

36 below the surface, the dunes may retain integrity . The depth of interior fill is unknown, but exposed Cultural material may extend to a depth of 30 cm bedrock in the immediate area suggests a maxi- (12 inches) in these areas. An estimated 75 percent mum depth no more than 50 cm. The terrain slopes of the site remains intact. to the south and immediate vegetation consists of snake weed, mixed grasses, and juniper . Low-den- Features: A previous survey by SWCA (Polk sity chipped stone artifacts from the prehistoric 2000:38) identified one feature, a fire-cracked rock component surrounds the locality and a Paleoindian concentration, in the north-central portion of the point base was found about 9 m north of the struc- site. The feature is about 4 m (13 ft) in diameter ture. Alternative 3 would not af fect the historic and was interpreted as a roasting pit. Feature 1 was component. However, the entire historic structure is relocated during the present project. within the planned area of Alternative 5. The original survey identified two artifact con- centrations, a lithic concentration in the eastern Artifacts: Artifacts noted during the original sur- portion of the site and a sherd concentration in the vey consisted of chipping debris; two cores, one of western (1992 site form). A later site visit by which was subsequently used as a scraper; a mano Cibola Research Consultants (Marshall 1995) did fragment; and five sherds, of which three were not discern any changes. The survey by SWCA Gallup Black-on-white. Lithic artifact raw materi- identified three artifact concentrations (Polk al types consisted of obsidian, a variety of cherts, 2000:38). Concentrations 1 and 3 may correspond quartzite, and sandstone. Based on the Gallup to the western and eastern concentrations, respec- Black-on-white sherds, LA 89019 was identified tively, of the 1992 survey. During the present proj- as a possible Pueblo III (A.D. 1200s) camp ect, because the artifact scatter is continuous across (Marshall 1992:5; 1992 site form). The later site the site, the designation of concentrations was con- visit by Cibola Research Consultants (Marshall sidered subjective, arbitrary , and therefore mean- 1995:10) identified the site as a Pueblo II to III cul- ingless. Consequently , no concentrations were tural manifestation. identified. The visit by SWCA identified 56 chipped During the reconnaissance of LA 89019 by stone artifacts, including a projectile point, a OAS for this research design, a previously biface, a uniface, a retouched flake, and three uti- unrecorded historic structure designated Feature 2 lized flakes. Ground stone artifacts included two was discovered and included as a component of sandstone slab metates and a quartzite mano frag- LA 89019 (Fig. 7). The historic component is ment. The recorded pottery assemblage consisted located at Telephone Pole 4, which has been set of three Gallup Black-on-white (local style) sherds essentially in the center of a square masonry struc- and five unidentified local white ware sherds. The ture. The structure was constructed of locally projectile point, identified as San José S temmed available unshaped sandstone. Some lar ger stones dating from 3200 to 1800 B.C., suggested the pres- measure around 50 cm long by 30 cm wide, but ence of a Middle Archaic component. The sherds most average around 20 by 20 cm. The square or were indicative of a late Pueblo II to early Pueblo rectangular structure measures 6.80 m (N-S) by III, A.D.1000 to 1125, component (Polk 2000:38). 6.50 m (E-W). The stones are probably foundation During the reconnaissance of LA 89019 by remnants, since no coursing was evident. Also, no OAS for this research design , a 21 mm long by 20 evidence of the superstructure remains. The south mm wide by 5 mm thick, fine-grained white wall is more scattered and less intact. Ahole-in-top quartzite Paleoindian point base was observed on can and a fragment of purple glass suggest a ca. the surface of LA 89019, 9 m north of the historic 1880–1900 date. Associated refuse is very sparse structure in the expanded west-southwest site area. suggesting a seasonal farmstead rather than a full- The point base exhibited parallel mar ginal and time domestic occupation. The absence of Acoma basal pressure flake scars. Both of the edges of the pottery may suggest a Hispanic occupation related point stem were ground flat. The base was slightly to the town of Cubero. The structure is located on concave with rounded ears. The absence of fluting, a stabilized dune with some depth at this locality . the convex base, parallel sides, and lateral grinding

37 Paleoindian/ Early Archaic N projectile point

estimated wall limits

can lid

Pole 4

purpled glass

0 meters 2

Figure 7. LA 89019 historic structure plan map.

38 suggest that the base could remain from a Midland Table 4. Recorded Artifact Sample, LA 89019. or Plainview style point. Generally , these Description Total Plainview Complex points are assigned date range of 8300 to 7000 B.C. Chinle chert Jay-like dart point, complete 1 LA 89019 contains a lar ge, medium-density Chalcedony chopper, complete 1 prehistoric artifact scatter. Due to the large quanti- Opaque obsidian biface, fragment 1 ty of surface artifacts, only an arbitrary representa- Chert biface, fragment 1 tive sample (n=283) was recorded during the pres- Chalcedony biface, fragment 1 ent project (Table 4). No artifacts were collected. Chalcedony scraper, fragment 1 Chert uniface, fragment 1 The recorded chipped stone assemblage (n=254) Chert core, unidirectional, conical, complete 1 primarily consists of chipping debris (n=245, 96.5 Chert core, unidirectional, fragment 1 percent) but also contains a projectile point, a com- Opaque obsidian biface thinning flake 1 plete chopper , three biface fragments, a scraper Opaque obsidian flakes 89 fragment, a uniface fragment, and two unidirec- Chalcedony flakes 73 tional cores (Table 4). One of the latter is conical Chert flakes 32 and complete. Many flakes are small, suggestive of Smoky obsidian flakes 12 the later stages of chipped stone tool production Quartzite flakes 10 and of tool maintenance. The projectile point is a Basalt flakes 8 complete Jay-like dart point (T urnbow Chinle chert flakes 2 1997:170–172). The specimen, made of Chinle Banded obsidian flake 1 chert, is 53 mm long and 36 mm wide. It has a con- Silicified w ood flake 1 tracting stem with a convex base and slight shoul- Quartz flake 1 ders. The blade is triangular with convex edges and Chert angular debris 3 has been resharpened. The Jay-like point is sugges- Chalcedony angular debris 2 tive of an Early Archaic, 5500 to 4800 B.C., com- Smoky obsidian angular debris 1 ponent. The chipped stone assemblage represents a Opaque obsidian tested pebbles 2 variety of activities, including stone tool produc- One-hand sandstone mano, complete, 1 use surface 1 tion and maintenance, hunting, animal carcass pro- Basalt mano fragment, 2 use surfaces 1 cessing (i.e., butchering), and hide processing. Sandstone fragments, 1 use surface 5 A variety of raw material types—opaque, Kiatuthlanna Black-on-w hite rim sherd, bow l 1 smoky, and banded obsidians; chalcedony; Chinle Kiatuthlanna Black-on-w hite body sherds, bow l 4 and other cherts; quartzite; basalt; silicified wood; Red Mesa Black-on-w hite body sherd, bow l 1 and quartz—are represented in the recorded Gallup Black-on-w hite body sherds 3 chipped stone assemblage (T able 4). The smoky Cibola White Ware body sherd, plain 2 obsidian contains fine white and black inclusions Indeterminate black-on-w hite body sherds, narrow lin 2 that give it a smoky gray or cloudy look. The Indeterminate black-on-w hite body sherd, solid 1 smoky and banded obsidians and the Chinle Indeterminate w hite w are body sherd, eroded 1 Clapboard corrugated gray w are body sherds 3 chert—a yellow-brown spotted chert (V ierra Indented corrugated gray w are body sherd 1 1993:163)—are exotics. The smoky obsidian is Plain gray w are body sherds 10 probably from the Polvadera Peak area of the Total 283 Jemez Mountains and the Chinle chert is from the Lookout Mountain area in the Zuni Mountains. fragment has use-wear on two faces. All of the The presence of exotic lithic materials suggests metate fragments exhibit use-wear on one surface. trade networks or seasonal rounds, or both. The metate types were not determinable. The The recorded ground stone assemblage (n=7) ground stone tools represent plant processing. contains manos and metate fragments (T able 4). The incidence of pottery visible on the surface Except for a basalt mano fragment, all of the of the site is low . Compared to the rest of the ground stone is sandstone. The complete one-hand recorded artifact assemblage, the sherd assemblage mano exhibits a single use surface and the mano is small (n=29, 10.2 percent) (T able 4). The

39 Kiatuthlanna and Red Mesa sherds represent 1992 by the NMDOT (Marshall 1992). The site is bowls. The presence of Kiatuthlanna Black-on- within the I-40 south right-of-way and extends white, Red Mesa Black-on-white, and Gallup south onto Town of Cubero Grant land. Most of the Black-on-white is suggestive of a Pueblo I to early site is south of the highway right-of-way . The site Pueblo III component. is bounded on the north by an I-40 road cut and a The reconnaissance of LA 89019 by OAS for rest area is on the west (Fig. 8). An intermittent trib- this research design noted a single piece of purple utary of the Rio San José is to the south. Flower glass and a hole-in-top can fragment associated (Cubero) Mountain is to the southeast. Lar ge areas with the historic structure. The artifacts suggest a of sandstone bedrock occur throughout the site. Low date of around 1880 to 1900. dunal areas are also present. Artifacts occur on the In summary , the LA 89019 surface artifact dunes and on the bedrock. The site measures 435 by assemblage indicates the presence of late 105 m (1427 by 344 ft). The local plant community Paleoinidan/Early Archaic (Midland/Plainview- includes grasses, snakeweed, juniper , prickly pear like and Jay-like dart points), Middle Archaic (San cactus, narrowleaf yucca, globemallow, rabbitbrush, José Stemmed point), Pueblo I to early Pueblo III four-wing saltbush, Indian paintbrush, aster , flea- (Kiatuthlanna, Red Mesa, and Gallup Black-on- bane, and Russian thistle. Ground visibility is 90 white sherds) components, and late Territiorial percent. The soil, a fine sandy loam, is classified as (1880–1912) components. In addition, previous the Hagerman-Bond Association, 1 to 10 percent research in the Acoma area (Prince 1982:99–100) slopes (Parham 1993:78–79, Sheet No. 31). suggests the preponderance of obsidian artifacts, When the site was initially recorded, a small reflecting Archaic occupations. The intensive use area north of I-40 was included within the site of obsidian by Archaic groups is probably a func- boundary (1992 site form). A later survey north of tion of high mobility (Prince 1982:100). I-40, however , did not support this delineation. “An inspection of the area revealed a very dif fuse Preliminary Evaluation: LA 89019 is a lar ge, scatter of artifacts over a wide area (Locality 44) medium-density sherd and lithic artifact scatter with no focus of cultural activity” (Marshall with diagnostic artifacts indicative of late 1997:4). During a later site visit by SWCA (Polk Paleoinidan/Early Archaic, Middle Archaic, 2000:42), no artifacts were found in the I-40 north Pueblo I to early Pueblo III, and late Territorial right-of-way. During the present project, LA89020 Period (1880–1912) components. Although the was considered to be entirely south of I-40. northern portion of the site has been disturbed or Disturbances consist of wind and water erosion, removed by the construction of I-40, most of the highway construction and maintenance, and grazing site is probably intact, and the low dunal areas may livestock. The northern portion of the site was contain buried cultural deposits. The site, there- removed during the construction of I-40. Much of fore, is likely to provide important information the site is deflated. Although most of the cultural concerning late Paleoindian/Archaic, Puebloan, material is surficial due to the presence of sandstone and historic occupations of the area. The site has bedrock at or just below the surface, the dunes may been determined eligible for inclusion on the retain integrity. Cultural material may extend to a NRHP under Criterion D, information potential depth of 30 cm (12 inches) in these areas. An esti- (HPD Log Nos. 48689 and 61423). mated 75 percent of the site remains intact.

Project Impact: Alternatives 3 and 5 will have an Features: No features were found when the site adverse effect on the site. was initially recorded (1992 site form). Alater visit by SWCA (Polk 2000:42) identified a fire-cracked LA 89020 rock concentration in the I-40 south right-of-way , at the edge of the road cut. This feature was not Description: LA 89020, a large, very diffuse, low- relocated during the present survey but a possible density sherd and lithic artifact scatter on south- hearth, consisting of a 1-m-diameter (3.3 ft) soil and west-facing slopes, was originally recorded in stain with charcoal and possible fire-cracked rock,

40 I-40 N

LA 89020 meters biface 0 30 60 120 180 240 projectile point

ground stone

I-40 South Right-of-Way Fence FEATURE 1

DATUM 3 core 1

mano uniface 2

site limits rest area east fence

Figure 8. LA 89020 site map. was found near the edge of the road cut. A sand- facts. The component represented by the lithics stone mano is nearby. was classified as unknown prehistoric. The Acoma/Laguna-type sherds were suggestive of a Artifacts: When the site was originally recorded, a post-1700 Puebloan component (Marshall 1992:5; light but nearly continuous scatter of artifacts was 1992 site form). noted across the site, with a slight concentration in When SWCA revisited the site, 67 chipped the eastern portion. Observed artifacts included a stone artifacts, a hammerstone, a mano, and a chert side scraper, a tested quartzite cobble, chip- manuport were recorded within the I-40 south ping debris, plain gray ware sherds, and historic right-of-way. No pottery, however, was found. The Acoma/Laguna-type polychrome bowl sherds. The chipped stone assemblage included a lateral frag- sherds were primarily in the western portion of the ment of an apparent Jemez obsidian En Medio cor- site. A variety of lithic raw materials—clear and ner-notched point, a chert biface, a chert scraper , opaque obsidians, chalcedony , cherts, quartzite, three irregular cores, two tested pieces, and chip- and basalt—were identified. The presence of two ping debris. Identified lithic materials included components was discerned on the basis of the arti- opaque, Polvadera, red-banded, Jemez, and clear

41 Table 5. Surface Artifact Assemblage, LA 89020. flakes are small, suggestive of tool maintenance and the later stages of chipped stone tool produc- Description Total tion. Of the point bases, two are from dart points Chinle chert En Medio-like corner-notched base 1 and the third is from an arrow point. One of the Smoky obsidian dart point base, corner-notched 1 dart bases is an En Medio-like corner -notched Opaque obsidian arrow point base 1 specimen (Turnbow 1997:182–186). It is made of Chert biface, complete 1 Chinle chert and has an expanding stem with a Opaque obsidian biface, fragment 1 slightly convex base. Only one corner notch Smoky obsidian biface, fragment 1 remains. The specimen is 23+ mm long and 24+ Chalcedony biface, fragment 1 mm wide. Due to their fragmentary condition, the Chert uniface 1 projectile point types represented by the other two Basalt uniface 1 point bases are not determinable. The dart point is Chert core, multidirectional, exhausted, complete 1 smoky obsidian and the arrow point is opaque Chalcedony flakes 92 obsidian. The En Medio-like point base is sugges- Chinle chert flake 1 tive of a Late Archaic, 1000 B.C. to A.D. 200, Chert flakes 19 component (T urnbow 1997:185). The chipped Opaque obsidian flakes 15 Smoky obsidian flakes 8 stone assemblage represents a variety of activities, Quartzite flakes 5 including stone tool production and maintenance, Quartz flake 1 hunting, and hide processing. Chalcedony angular debris 3 A variety of raw material types—opaque and Chert angular debris 2 smoky obsidians, chalcedony , Chinle and other Opaque obsidian angular debris 1 cherts, quartzite, basalt, and quartz—are represent- One-hand sandstone manos, complete, 1 use surface 2 ed in the recorded chipped stone assemblage Sandstone slab metate, fragments, 1 use surface 2 (Table 5). The smoky obsidian contains fine white Tularosa Black-on-w hite body sherd 1 and black inclusions that give it a smoky gray or Indeterminate PII/PIII body sherd, bow l 1 cloudy look. The smoky obsidian and the Chinle Indeterminate w hitew are body sherd, bow l 1 chert—a yellow-brown spotted chert (V ierra Indeterminate w hitew are body sherd, plain, bow l 1 1993:163)—are exotics. The smoky obsidian is Indeterminate w hite w are body sherd, plain, jar 1 probably from the Polvadera Peak area of the Indeterminate red w are rim sherd 1 Jemez Mountains and the Chinle chert is from the Indeterminate red w are body sherd 1 Lookout Mountain area in the Zuni Mountains. Indented corrugated gray w are body sherds 3 The opaque obsidian is probably from the Mount Indeterminate gray w are rim sherd, everted 1 Taylor area, possibly Grants Ridge or Horace Total 172 Mesa. The presence of exotic lithic materials sug- gests trade networks or seasonal rounds, or both. obsidians, chalcedony, chert, quartzite, basalt, and The recorded ground stone assemblage (n=4) sandstone. Based on the En Medio point, a Late contains metate fragments and one-hand manos. Archaic component, dating from 1000 B.C. toA.D. All are sandstone. Both manos are complete and 200, was identified (Polk 2000:42). exhibit use-wear on one surface. The metate frag- LA 89020 contains a very diffuse, low-density ments are from slab metates with one use surface. sherd and lithic artifact scatter . All artifacts The ground stone tools represent plant processing. observed on the surface of the site (n=172) were Compared to the rest of the artifact assem- recorded during the present project (T able 5). No blage, sherds are rare (n=11, 6.4 percent) (Table 5). artifacts were collected. The chipped stone assem- Although the sherd assemblage is very limited, the blage (n=157) primarily consists of chipping presence of a Tularosa Black-on-white sherd is debris (n=147, 93.6 percent) but also contains suggestive of an early Pueblo III component. The three projectile point bases, a complete biface, red ware sherds may also be associated with this three biface fragments, two unifaces, and an component. None of the historic Acoma/Laguna- exhausted multidirectional core (T able 5). Many type sherds noted during the original recording of

42 the site in 1992 was found. Most of the sherds, tion. The terrain is flat and the site is open on all however, including the red ware, are in the western sides. The site measures 108 by 84 m (354 by 276 portion of the site. ft). The local plant community includes grasses, In summary , the LA 89020 surface artifact snakeweed, fourwing saltbush, aster , and Russian assemblage indicates the presence of two prehis- thistle. Ground visibility is 80 percent. The soil, a toric components. A Late Archaic component is sandy loam, is classified as the Penistaja-Oelop indicated by the presence of two En Medio-like Association, 0 to 5 percent slopes (Parham corner-notched projectile points, one of which was 1993:81, Sheet No. 31). recorded by SWCA (Polk 2000:42). The sherd As originally mapped, the drainage ditch and assemblage suggests the presence of an early embankment formed the northern boundary of LA Pueblo III component. The paucity of sherds, how- 108511 (Marshall 1995:18). The site consisted of a ever, suggests this occupation was very limited and hearth with an associated artifact scatter (south- ephemeral. Although the surface of the site was east), a concentration of about 20 sherds from a thoroughly examined, the presence of a historic reconstructible Kana'a Neckbanded pot on the (post-1700) Acoma/Laguna component was not ditch embankment (north-central), and a dif fuse verified during the present project and is not sherd scatter (west). Spatially, two distinct compo- included herein. nents were identified. The hearth and pot drop, both relocated during the present survey, represent Preliminary Evaluation: LA 89020 is a lar ge, a Pueblo I component and the pottery scatter in the low-density sherd and lithic artifact scatter with western portion of the site is associated with a diagnostic artifacts indicative of Late Archaic and Pueblo II component. During the present project, a early Pueblo III components. Although the north- low-density artifact scatter , primarily sherds, was ern portion of the site has been destroyed by the found north of the ditch and was incorporated into construction of I-40, most of the site is probably the site boundary . The presence of the recon- intact, and the low dunal areas may contain buried structible pot on the embankment dirt excavated cultural deposits. LA 89020, therefore, is likely to from the drainage ditch suggests that substantial provide important information concerning Archaic and intact cultural materials may be below the and Puebloan occupations of the area. The site has present surface. This also raises the possibility that been determined eligible for inclusion on the the site boundary as defined by surface observa- NRHP under Criterion D, information potential tions will be incomplete when subsurface data are (HPD Log No 61423). available. Disturbances include wind and water erosion, Project Impact: Alternative 5 will have no ef fect grazing livestock, and the drainage ditch. Although on LA 89020. Alternative 3, however, will have an just outside the site limits, the gravel road and gas adverse effect on the northwestern portion of the pipeline are also possible site disturbances. No cul- site. tural deposits are visible in the ditch, but the pot- tery concentration on the ditch embankment and LA 108511 the hearth suggest the presence of intact subsurface cultural deposits. The vertical extent of cultural Description: LA 108511, a multicomponent, low- material, however, is unknown. An estimated 80 density sherd and lithic artifact scatter on an open percent of the site remains intact. plain, was originally recorded in 1995 by Cibola Research Consultants (Marshall 1995). The site, Features: A single feature, a hearth (Feature 1), which is entirely on Pueblo of Acoma land, is 400 was identified in the southeast portion of LA m (1,312 ft) north of I-40 and 180 m (590 ft) west 108511 during the 1995 survey (Marshall 1995:17) of SP 30 (Fig. 9). A gas pipeline borders the site on and was relocated during the present project. The the south and a gravel road lies along the south- hearth, a burned area with a concentration of 15 eastern edge of the site. A drainage ditch and ditch pieces of fire-cracked sandstone and basalt, is 1.5 embankment cut through the site's southern por- m (5 ft) in diameter and about 15 m (49 ft) north of

43 meters

0 5 10 20 30 40 N

LA 108511

site limits

DATUM ditch bottom

ditch berm ceramic concentration gravel road FEATURE 1

pipeline

proposed R-O-W

proposed road

proposed R-O-W

Figure 9. LA 108511 site map.

44 the intersection of the gas pipeline and gravel road. side of I-40, at Exit 102. The northern edge of the No ash or charcoal is visible. Alow-density artifact site is 2 m (6.6 ft) south of the I-40 south right-of- scatter surrounds the hearth. way fence. A picnic shelter is to the southeast and the northern portion of the rest area loop road is Artifacts: LA 108511 contains a low-density sherd just to the south. Exposures of sandstone bedrock and lithic artifact scatter . The lithic assemblage occur throughout the site. Low dunes are also pres- recorded during the 1995 survey consisted of a ent. Artifacts occur in blowouts and on and around chalcedony flake, a quartzite flake, and a ground the bedrock. The site measures 44 by 13 m (144 by sandstone slab. The recorded pottery assemblage 43 ft). The local plant community includes grasses, included plain and exuberant corrugated gray juniper, snakeweed, prickly pear cactus, four-wing ware, Kana'a Neckbanded, Gallup Black-on-white, saltbush, and daisies. Ground visibility is 95 per- and unidentified white ware sherds. The Kana'a cent. The soil, a fine sandy loam, is classified as sherds, representing three vessels—including the the Hagerman-Bond Association, 1 to 10 percent reconstructible vessel—are indicative of a Pueblo I slopes (Parham 1993:78–79, Sheet No. 31). (A.D. 800–900) component. The Gallup Black-on- Disturbances consist of wind and water ero- white sherds in the western portion of the site rep- sion, a rest area, and highway construction. The resent a Pueblo II (A.D.1000–1 100) component construction of I-40, especially the eastbound (Marshall 1995:18). No artifacts were recorded entrance ramp, destroyed the northern portion of during the present site visit. the site. The construction, maintenance, and use of the rest area have also disturbed LA 145685. The Preliminary Evaluation: LA 108511 is a multi- presence of innumerable fragments of broken glass component—Pueblo I and Pueblo II—low-density obscures artifact visibility . Wind and water have sherd and lithic artifact scatter with a hearth exposed and buried various portions of the site. (Feature 1) and pot drop. Although no cultural Portions are deflated and eroded, and low dunes deposits are visible in the drainage ditch, the pot cover other areas. Artifacts are eroding downslope. drop on the ditch embankment and the hearth sug- Although most of the cultural material is surficial gest the presence of intact subsurface cultural due to the presence of sandstone bedrock at or just deposits. The vertical extent of cultural material, below the surface, the dunes may retain integrity . however, is unknown. Because the existence of Cultural material may extend 20 cm (8 inches) buried cultural deposits remains unverified, testing below the surface in the dunal areas. An estimated is necessary to determine the site's nature and 75 percent of the site remains intact. extent. As part of the review of the 1995 survey report (Marshall 1995), the BIA has required test- Features: No features were found. ing to confirm the eligibility of LA 108511 for inclusion on the NRHP . Currently, the eligibility Artifacts: LA 145685 contains a low-density status remains undetermined. chipped stone artifact and sherd scatter . All arti- facts observed on the surface (n=58) were record- Project Impact: Alternative 3 will have no ef fect ed in the field (Table 6). No artifacts were collect- on LA 108511. Alternative 5, however, may have a ed. The chipped stone assemblage (n=54) primari- direct or indirect adverse ef fect on the site, given ly consists of chipping debris (n=52, 96.3 percent) its proximity to the apparent site boundary and the but also contains a uniface fragment and a likelihood of more extensive subsurface deposits. retouched flake. No diagnostic chipped stone arti- facts were found. The sherd assemblage (n=4) is LA 145685 very small. The gray ware sherds represent an unknown Puebloan component. Description: LA 145685, a small, low-density sherd and lithic artifact scatter, is on a gentle north- Preliminary Evaluation: LA 145685 is a small, northwest-facing slope (Fig. 9). The site is on low-density sherd and lithic artifact scatter with NMDOT property within a rest area on the south plain gray ware sherds representing an unknown

45 N I-40

LA 145685

I-40 South Right-of-Way Fence

DATUM site limits

meters

0 2.5 5 10 20 picnic shelter rest area road edge

Figure 10. LA 145685 site map.

area. LA 145685 is recommended eligible for Table 6. Surface Artifact Assemblage, inclusion on the NRHP under Criterion D, infor- LA 145685. mation potential. Description Total Chalcedony uniface, fragment 1 Project Impact: Alternative 5 will have no ef fect Retouched obsidian flake 1 on LA 145685. Alternative 3, however, may have Obsidian flakes 27 an adverse effect on the site. Chert flakes 9 Chalcedony flakes 8 LA 149868 Basalt flakes 4 Quartzite flakes 3 Description: LA 149868, a multicomponent pre- Obsidian angular debris 1 historic and historic structural site, is on an east- Plain gray ware sherds 4 facing ridge slope southwest of I-40 Exit 102 (Fig. Total 58 11.) The site, which is on both Town of Cubero Puebloan component. Although most of the cultur- Grant and private land, is 200 m (656 ft) south of al material is surficial due to the presence of sand- I-40. Most of the site is on private land. The south- stone bedrock at or just below the surface, much of west corner of the private property fence passes the site is probably intact and the low dunal areas through the southern and western portions of the may contain buried cultural deposits. The site, site. Small, shallow drainages dissect the site. The therefore, is likely to provide important informa- site is open on the east. Eolian deposits blanket tion concerning the Puebloan occupation of the portions of the site. The site measures 130 by 30 m

46 proposed R-O-W

site limits

FEATURE 1 LA 149868

DATUM

projectile point FEATURE 4

FEATURE 3

FEATURE 2 N

mano

fenceline

choppers

meters ad proposed ro 0 3 6 12 18 24 30 proposed R-O-W

Figure 11. LA 149868 site map.

47 (426 by 98 ft). The local plant community includes southwest corner, which is two courses high, the juniper and a relatively sparse understory of grass- foundation consists of a single course of unshaped es, snakeweed, rabbitbrush, and fourwing saltbush. sandstone slabs, the lar gest of which is 50 cm (20 Ground visibility is 90 percent. The soil, a sandy in) long and 30 cm (12 in) wide. loam, is classified as the Hagerman-Bond Feature 3, a small formed by a low Association, 1 to 10 percent slopes (Parham earthen berm that is open on the southwest, is west 1993:78–79, Sheet No. 31). of the foundation (Feature 2). The reservoir is 6.1 The prehistoric component consists of a dense m (20 ft) long northeast-southwest and 5.9 m (19 concentration of rock rubble in the west-central ft) wide. The berm is 20 to 25 cm (8–10 inches) portion of the site, near the west fence line, and a high. The reservoir contains an L-shaped area with very low-density sherd and lithic artifact scatter mud cracks, suggesting it still holds water occa- across the site. The historic component is in the sionally. southern portion of the site and consists of a sand- Feature 4, a circular concentration of unmodified stone rock foundation and a small pond or reser- sandstone, is northwest of the foundation (Feature 1). voir. A rock concentration near the house founda- The concentration, which is partially obscured by a tion is probably associated with the historic com- juniper, is 4.5 m (15 ft) in diameter . The function of ponent as well. Feature 4 is unknown but it is most likely historic. Disturbances include wind and water erosion and construction of the fence. The former has Artifacts: The prehistoric component of LA exposed, displaced, and buried cultural material. 149868 contains a dif fuse, very low-density sherd Artifacts are visible in eroded areas. Rocks from and lithic artifact scatter , with a concentration in the prehistoric structure are eroding downslope. the vicinity of Feature 1. A 20 percent arbitrary Intact subsurface cultural deposits may extend 50 representative sample (n=48) was recorded in the cm (20 inches) below the surface. Overall, the site field (Table 7). No artifacts were collected. The appears to be in good condition. An estimated 95 recorded chipped stone artifact assemblage (n=17) percent of the site remains intact. primarily consists of chipping debris (n=12, 71 percent) but also a complete corner -notched chert Features: LA 149868 contains four identified fea- tures, of which one—a dense concentration of rock rubble (Feature 1)—is prehistoric and three—a Table 7. Surface Artiface Assemblage, LA 149868. sandstone foundation (Feature 2), a small reservoir Description Total (Feature 3), and a small rock concentration Chert projectile point, complete 1 (Feature 4)—are historic. Feature 1, the remains of Basalt choppers 3 a prehistoric structure, consists of a dense concen- Chert core fragment 1 tration of sandstone rubble in eolian deposits on Chalcedony flakes 4 the upper portion of the ridge slope, just east of the Obsidian flakes 2 west fence line. The feature also contains basalt Basalt flakes 2 cobbles. The main portion of the concentration is Chert flakes 2 11.5 m (38 ft) long northeast-southwest and 9.4 m Quartzite flakes 2 (31 ft) wide. Most of the sandstone is about 10 cm Quartzite mano 1 (4 inches) or less. A shallow drainage is on the Unidentified ground stone, sandstone 1 north and south and rubble eroded from the feature Gallup Black-on-white body sherd, jar 1 is in both drainages. Artifacts are scattered Tularosa Black-on-white body sherd, jar 1 throughout the area. Feature 1 probably represents Indeterminate white ware sherds, bowl 2 the remains a multiroom jacal structure. Indeterminate white ware sherds, jar 2 Feature 2, a rectangular sandstone foundation Indented corrugated gray ware body sherds 20 in the southeastern portion of the site, is associated Clapboard corrugated gray ware body sherds 2 with the historic component. The foundation is 4.9 Plain gray ware body sherds 1 m (16 ft) long and 3 m (10 ft) wide. Except for the Total 48

48 projectile point, three choppers, and a core frag- gests building abandonment prior to 1955. ment. The projectile point has a triangular blade with straight edges, a broad neck, broad corner Preliminary Evaluation: LA 149868 is a multi- notches, and a broad expanding stem with a slight- component site. The prehistoric component con- ly convex base. The choppers are near the south sists of a dense concentration of rock rubble—a edge of the site. The sample contains a variety of probable multiroom jacal structure (Feature 1)— raw material types—chalcedony , chert, basalt, and an associated very low-density sherd and lith- obsidian, and quartzite. Except for the obsidian, ic artifact scatter representing a Pueblo II to early which may be exotic, the various lithic material Pueblo III occupation. The historic component—a types are available locally . The recorded ground sandstone foundation, small reservoir, and a sand- stone assemblage (n=2) consists of a quartzite stone concentration (Features 2–4)—probably mano and a ground sandstone fragment. Although dates to the first half of the twentieth century . limited, the recorded lithic artifacts represent a Eolian deposits blanket portions of the site and cul- variety of activities, including stone tool produc- tural material is eroding downslope. The presence tion and maintenance, hunting, animal carcass pro- of prehistoric structural remains suggests the pres- cessing (i.e., butchering), and plant processing. ence of intact subsurface cultural deposits. The The recorded pottery assemblage (n=29) primarily site, therefore, is likely to provide important infor- consists of indented corrugated gray ware sherds mation concerning the Pueblo II to early Pueblo III (n=20, 69 percent) and includes Gallup Black-on- and early twentieth-century settlement of the white and Tularosa Black-on-white sherds indica- Acomita area. In addition, ceramic and lithic arti- tive of a Pueblo II to early Pueblo III component. fact analyses may provide important information The historic artifact assemblage is very small, regarding pottery and tool technology and trade consisting of two pieces of unidentified metal, a can networks. LA 149868 is recommended eligible for fragment, and a flattened can. The latter is probably a inclusion on the NRHP under Criterion D, infor- small matchstick filler type (milk) can. The chrono- mation potential. logical indicators are extremely limited and only indi- cate that the historic component dates after 1905. The Project Impact:Alternative 3 will have no effect on LA absence of the building, represented by Feature 2, on 149868. Alternative 5, however , may have a direct or the 1957 USGS 7.5-minute Cubero quadrangle sug- indirect adverse effect on the site, given its proximity.

49 50 RESEARCH DESIGN AND DATA RECOVERY PLAN

Six archaeological sites, LA 54902, LA 89019, LA LA 54902 is located west and along the north 89020, LA 108511, LA 145685, and LA 149868 right-of-way limit of the current Acomita are within the proposed limits or rights-of-way for Interchange Exit 102. The site covers a 606 sq m I-40 Exit 102, Acomita Interchange Alternatives 3 area, of which none will be affected by Alternative and 5. The amount of affected site area depends on 3 and 202 sq m or 33 percent of the site area will the proposed limits of Alternatives 3 and 5. This be affected by Alternative 5. The site area within data recovery plan is being submitted in advance Alternative 5 is south of the main artifact concen- of the selection of design alternatives and in tration and possible structure foundation. The pot- advance of final design and construction plans. tery types, including Cebolleta, Gallup, and Areas of effect will be reviewed once final design Socorro Black-on-whites, suggest a Pueblo II or information is available, and field strategies will be Cebolleta phase (A.D. 1000–1 150) occupation. revised as necessary . For most sites, less than 25 These surface components are near the existing percent of the site area occurs within the limits right-of-way fence that bounds the site on the proposed for either design alternative. The follow- north. Within the Alternative 5 limit, the site con- ing research design and data recovery plan is sists of a very dispersed artifact scatter with fewer divided into an introduction and probable scope of than 10 sherd and lithic artifacts observed during work, research design, data recovery field meth- the OAS site visit. The surface indications suggest ods, and artifact and sample analyses and research that LA 54902 may contribute to research focused issues. The intent of the research and data recovery on Pueblo II or Cebolleta phase occupation of the plan is to propose field investigations and analyses middle Rio San José. However , the nature and consistent with the data potential of the site areas extent of subsurface deposits within the site area that will be af fected by each design alternative. within Alternative 5, and their potential to con- Research directions will focus on site-specific and tribute to research, is unknown. regional issues as may be relevant to the site LA 89019 is the lar gest and temporally most remains to be affected by the project. complex site in the project area. The elongated site exhibits high density lithic artifact concentrations INTRODUCTION in deflated or blow-out areas and dispersed low density artifact distributions in the more stable Site information used in this research design and dune areas. There are temporally diagnostic pro- data recovery plan is derived from surface obser- jectile point styles from late Paleoindian and Early vations made by multiple archaeologists over the and Middle Archaic periods. Pueblo I and Pueblo last nineteen years. No testing or subsurface obser- II pottery types include Kiatuthlanna, Red Mesa, vations have been conducted. Various commercial and Gallup Black-on-whites, emphasizing the and transportation-related developments in the Cibola Ware tradition, rather than an Acoma project area have changed, removed, or obscured Province tradition. A hole-in-top can and purple- some of the surface indications and exposed new glass bottle fragment are associated with a sand- remains. This plan is based on the most recent stone slab foundation that probably dates to the information provided in the inventory report com- late nineteenth or early twentieth century. Soil and pleted by Marron and Associates, Inc. (M. E. cultural deposit depth and the condition of the cul- Brown and K. L. Brown 2005) and on site visits by tural deposit may be highly variable depending on OAS staff in October 2005. The six sites are briefly the intensity, extent, and frequency of dune defla- summarized relative to the area that may be affect- tion/stabilization over the last 8,000 years. Ground ed by Design Alternatives 3 and 5. stone artifacts and scattered oxidized sandstone

51 slabs suggest that plant or thermal processing of or less than 1 percent, is within Alternative 5. Field foodstuffs or raw materials occurred at various observations indicate that the majority of LA times. Alternative 3 will affect 1,200 sq m of a pre- 108511 consists of buried cultural deposits. The dominantly deflated portion of the north limit of low-lying setting and potential for alluvial soil LA 89019 as currently designed. Alternative 5 will accumulation reinforce this observation. affect 8,030 sq m of the 12,230 sq m site area with- Therefore, the surface artifact distribution may not in the north half of the site limit. This area com- indicate the full extent of the site. Backhoe trench- bines deflated and stabilized areas that do not ing within the planned access road right-of-way is encompass the majority of the ground stone or pot- recommended with at least one trench location tery identified during the inventory and OAS site passing through or near the LA 108511 south site visit. Given the size of LA 89019, Alternatives 3 limit. The potential buried cultural deposits may and 5 excavations will encounter artifact distribu- remain from seasonal use of this area. Small pit tions, features, and possible structure remains from rooms or structures are commonly located in seasonally occupied Archaic base camps, seasonal- potential agricultural locations during Pueblo II ly occupied small-scale Pueblo I–II limited activi- and III periods. It is expected that LA 108511 or ty or fieldhouse sites, and seasonal historic pastoral the adjacent non-site areas may have limited activ- or ranching activities. ity or seasonal residential components from the LA 89020 is an elongated multicomponent site Pueblo I and II periods. located along the south side of the eastbound on- LA 145685 is a small Pueblo I sherd and lithic ramp of Acomita Interchange Exit 102. Surface artifact scatter located along the south side of the artifacts indicate occupation during the Late eastbound on-ramp of Acomita Interchange Exit Archaic and late Pueblo II or early Pueblo III peri- 102, west of LA 89020. LA 145685 and LA 89020 od. Artifact types include projectile points, ground share a similar site setting and have been af fected stone, and pottery and suggest activities associated by the same natural and manmade processes of with a Late Archaic seasonal base camp or late erosion, deflation, and drainage. Roughly 25 sq m Pueblo II or early Pueblo III limited activity site. of a 385 sq m area, or 6 percent of LA145685, may LA 89020 will not be af fected by Alternative 5 be af fected by Alternatives 3 and 5. During the construction and only a small portion of the north- OAS site visit the 25 square meter area within west site area will by af fected by Alternative 3 NMDOT right-of-way contained lithic artifacts slope modification. The OAS site visit indicated that could remain from Pueblo I site use, but the that little or no intact cultural deposits occurred artifacts may also be contemporaneous with other within the NMDOT right-of-way or proposed temporal components described for LA 89019 and slope modification. This area will be re-examined LA 89020. If this limited cultural deposit has any during data recovery to determine if intact cultural depth and spatial integrity, excavation and artifact deposits exist within the proposed construction recovery may provide comparative data for the zone or right-of-way. If present, it is expected that Archaic and Pueblo period limited activity , base these deposits will be shallow and will provide camp, or seasonal residential site studies proposed limited information on the organization and nature for other sites within the project area of Late Archaic or late Pueblo II–early Pueblo III LA 149868 is an elongated multicomponent subsistence activities. feature and artifact distribution within intermittent- LA 108511 is a multicomponent, Pueblo I and ly stable and deflated dunes. The site is located Pueblo II, low density sherd and lithic artifact scat- west of the current Acomita Interchange Exit 102 ter with a hearth (Feature 1) and Kana'a Gray ves- Interchange along the south I-40 right-of-way . sel fragments that may have been unearthed from Observed components include a Pueblo II-early an intact subsurface context. The site is located Pueblo III rubble and artifact concentration (possi- north of the Sky City Casino parking lot and will bly a deflated fieldhouse) and three historic era not be affected by Alternative 3. A narrow section foundations. LA 149868 is outside planned of the site limit may be af fected by Alternative 5. Alternative 3 limits, but the northern site limit is LA 108511 covers 7,170 sq m, of which 40 sq m, crossed by the planned eastbound on-ramp for

52 Alternative 5; 284 sq m of a 3,656 sq m area, or 8 especially exists north of the I-40 right-of-way percent of the site area, is within Alternative 5. The west of the current interchange. North of I-40, gen- majority of the artifact distribution and all structur- tly sloped surfaces are covered by colluvial and al features are outside the construction zone. The alluvial deposits of unknown age and depth. site area within Alternative 5 is a generally stable Artifacts were unearthed during utility line excava- but shallow dune that may encase or cover buried tions near the Casa Blanca casino and parking lot. cultural deposits. An excavation plan consisting of Therefore, it is expected that buried cultural exploratory and data recovery phases may yield deposits may exist in adjacent areas. These areas artifacts and features from Pueblo II–Pueblo III will be examined by monitored backhoe trench seasonal occupation of this area. Earlier compo- excavation. Buried archaeological deposits will be nents may be hidden that will provide additional recorded, dated, and interpreted relative to the data for Archaic and Pueblo period limited activity, research design and data recovery plan. Artifact base camp, or seasonal residential site studies that distributions, features, or other cultural deposits are proposed for other sites within the project area. similar to those found at sites within the project Non-site areas within Alternative 5 need to be area will be addressed according to existing field considered for this data recovery effort. The poten- data recovery methods and the data will be inte- tial for buried Archaic or Pueblo period deposits grated into the analysis and research ef fort.

53 54 RESEARCH DESIGN AND ORIENTATION

Archaeological investigations in the Acoma settlement patterns are the nearby Rio San José, the Province have been sporadic and scattered over the broken-land mesas of the Acoma Region, and the last 40 years. In the 1950s and early 1960s, disser- mesa and montane volcanic environments of tation research and highway and salvage archaeol- Mount Taylor. Diverse faunal and floral resources ogy projects provided, and still do provide, the would have been available seasonally , annually , bulk of excavation data for the area (Danson 1957; and across centuries as changing climatic condi- Dittert 1959). Scattered inventories have been con- tions shifted ecotones and microecological zones. ducted more recently in compliance with federal Populations adjusted their economic patterns and and state laws governing cultural resources man- social relationships in response to these changes as agement and commercial, mineral, land, and trans- they moved across the regional landscapes. It is portation development. As outlined in the Previous against this backdrop of environmental diversity Research section, only 96 sites with 109 temporal and temporal longevity that the material culture and spatial components are listed in the NMCRIS patterns may be studied and explained. Therefore, files for the Cubero Quadrangle. These include 6 this research design and data recovery plan will Archaic components, 55 Anasazi or Pueblo com- address issues of time, technology , economic ponents, 31 historic components reflecting Pueblo organization, and change from the archaeological of Acoma and Town of Cubero Grant land use, 1 perspective of sites left by populations with recog- probable Navajo component, and the remaining 16 nizably dif ferent social and economic or ganiza- were temporally non-diagnostic sites or of tions that periodically occupied the same space for unknown affiliation. The latter site class is mostly the same and different reasons. lithic artifact scatters. The component density can Survey recording has documented the poten- be expressed as 1.5 components per sq km, a tial for cultural materials, features, and deposits grossly underestimated component density for an spanning from late Paleoindian–Early Archaic, area that undoubtedly has a rich culture history . Middle Archaic, Late Archaic, Pueblo I through When it is compared with the 13 sites comprised of early Pueblo III, and late Territorial or early 20 to 25 temporal components found in the 1 sq km Statehood periods. The research design will focus of the project area, the magnitude of the difference on the distinct chronological divisions of late suggests that the Exit 102 Acomita Interchange Paleoindian–Archaic, Pueblo, and historic period project area and its vicinity possessed qualities that components with the intent that data and interpre- attracted occupation. tations from these disparate chronological periods A combination of local and regional physio- may be examined from a diachronic perspective to graphic, topographic, geologic, and geomorpho- better understand the long-term implications of the logical characteristics supported a wide range of changing social, economic, and land-use patterns changing and flexible land-use behaviors for up to and behaviors. 10,000 years. The evidence for some of the tempo- ral components, late Paleoindian-Early Archaic for LATE PALEOINDIAN–ARCHAIC PERIOD example, is limited and may actually reflect scav- enging and curation behaviors by later people. Late Paleoindian–Archaic period components are However, the overall impression of the component represented by six projectile points recorded at two distribution and inferred settlement pattern is that sites, LA89019 and LA89020. At LA89019, a late the project area was an important place within a Paleoindian–Early Archaic point base, an Early regularly inhabited region. Some of the major Archaic Jay-like, and Middle Archaic San José- regional features that may have influenced past like point were each recorded by a dif ferent team

55 of archaeologists. LA 89020 had two Late Archaic al-ecological/adaptational approach. They state En Medio-style base and lateral fragments record- that, "Southwestern Archaic as an adaptation to ed by SWCA (Polk 2000) and MAI (M. E. Brown local environmental and demographic conditions is and K. L. Brown 2005). Biface manufacture debris marked by a high degree of residential mobility , and ground stone implements may also reflect lack of permanent or semipermanent residential Archaic occupation, but may also remain from nodes, and dependence on hunting and gathering Pueblo period forager-hunters. for subsistence needs. The use of pottery and spe- Identified projectile point styles are assigned cific weapon systems do not enter into the equa- to the Oshara Tradition classification scheme for tion. Limited horticulture may have been used to chronological control (Irwin-Williams 1973). That supplement food resources, but domesticates did the projectile points reflect Oshara (Anasazi ances- not represent a subsistence focus"(J. Moore and try) or Cochise (Mogollon ancestry) culture group Boyer 2002:53). By following this perspective, boundaries more than the wide distribution of archaeologists expend less ener gy on determining commonly employed projectile point styles by which culture group may have occupied an area intermountain, basin and range, and plateau pre- and focus more on how and why occupations Pueblo hunter -gatherer groups is clearly rejected occurred at dif ferent times. The approach com- by most Archaic period researchers working in the bines cultural-ecological and processual orienta- northern Southwest for the last 25 or 30 years tions and methodologies. (Matson 1991; J. Moore and Boyer 2002; Hogan This orientation is especially appropriate for 1986; Holmer 1986; Turnbow 1997; Vierra 1994). the Exit 102 Acomita Interchange project because Vierra (1994) summarized the history of the it is located in an area that could be ar gued as cul- Archaic tradition observing that there were inher- tural and geographically transitional between two ent difficulties in rectifying the researchers' differ- long accepted culture areas, the Oshara and ent emphases on cultural-historical constructs and Cochise or Anasazi and Mogollon. While useful cultural-ecological frameworks based on interpre- for categorizing sites according to material culture tive models of adaptation (J. Moore and Boyer trait lists and chronological assignments, these 2002:53; Vierra 1994:17). Wills (1988:10) charac- archaeological culture group assignments are not terized this cultural-historical approach by the useful for understanding or explaining how and statement, "Underlying this belief in preceramic why occupations occurred and under what envi- cultural boundaries is a series of unstated assump- ronmental conditions. By limiting the ef fort spent tions about hunter-gatherer organization and about on studying culture groups and interaction through the role of style in egalitarian societies. The funda- material culture, assemblages recovered from loci mental tenet is that material culture varies spatial- within a dune field may be more productively ly with social and cultural corporateness." Cultural examined using processual models developed for entities are assigned spatial limits based on the investigating and interpreting hunter-gather activi- geographic distribution of diagnostic artifacts or ties, sites, and systems. traits. In the case of the Acoma Province, which can be conceived as transitional between Oshara Research Orientation and Cochise culture areas, ascribing occupations to a particular culture group is a tenuous exercise at LA 89019 and LA 89020 have Archaic period best. Importantly, defining culture groups based on components as determined by the presence of pro- material culture and settlement patterns limited jectile point styles observed on the sites' surface. interpretation of archaeological sites that did not fit Since a lar ge proportion of LA 89019 will be the models and obscured the important variability investigated, it is most likely to yield suf ficient necessary for understanding human-to-environ- data to address most of the research issues outlined ment/landscape relationships. in the following research orientation and expecta- J. Moore and Boyer (2002:53) recently recog- tions. Depending on the integrity and preservation nized the cultural-historical framework limitations of the contexts and associated artifact and feature and opt for the more flexible and workable cultur- assemblages (if any are present), LA 89020 data

56 may be used to address one or more of the research collector site structure and settlement patterns issues. Because the proposed hunter -gatherer were based on ethnographic studies, which were model may be applied to the full temporal range of then extrapolated to distributions of artifacts and Archaic phases, it is also expected that this features across a landscape. research design will be ef fectively applied to any Briefly summarized, foraging strategies unexpected or currently unknown Archaic period describe the collection of resources that would contexts that may be encountered in the course of then be returned to a residential site for processing the data recovery ef fort. Much of the following and consumption. Resource extraction locations research design has been adapted from J. Moore were distributed around the residential base camp and Boyer (2002, 2003). within a round-trip distance that could be traveled in a day. This strategy would work best in an envi- A Hunter-Gatherer Model ronment where most resources were evenly distrib- uted across the landscape, with residential camp Archaic period populations derived their subsis- locations determined by the most critical resources tence mainly from hunting and gathering. Even like water . Residential camps were moved as with an increasing reliance on farming, ancestral resources were depleted or the camp became unin- and historic Pueblo populations also depended on habitable. With this strategy , many base camps hunting for protein and gathering as a seasonal would be scattered across the landscape. There supplement. The hunting and gathering strategies would be few or no intermediate sites between the employed would have been dictated by the envi- residential site and the resource extraction loca- ronment, demography , and social and economic tions (Binford 1980:5–10). dynamics like trade alliances and marriage prac- Collecting strategies describe the pattern in tices. Models have been presented for groups that which people would collect and partly process rely mostly on hunting and gathering and trade for resources at distant locations, returning them to the subsistence (Binford 1980). The models have been base or residential camp for further processing, applied to archaeological sites in an attempt to consumption, and storage. Residential camps understand temporal and spatial variability in arti- would be located at or near critical resources, like fact patterns, and identified patterns have been water, fuel, and seasonally abundant plant and ani- applied to temporally nondiagnostic sites, espe- mal resources. Stays at collector residential camps cially in the San Juan Basin (Reher 1977; Vierra would be longer than for occupation length at for- 1980, 1985; Elyea and Hogan 1983). ager camples, with some resource procurement Sites were classified as functional units indica- occurring as a multistage process. The residential tive of different organizational elements of hunter- site might have structures and storage and produc- gatherer settlement and subsistence strategies tion facilities. Most resource extraction locations (Binford 1980; J. Moore 1989; Vierra 1980; Elyea would be distributed within a one-day round trip and Hogan 1983). Site types most commonly from the residential site. More distant, but critical defined were residential sites, base camps, field resources would be procured from temporary base camps, and resource extraction locations. The fre- camps that might have production, processing, and quency and distribution of dif ferent site types was consumption facilities, but no long-term food stor- determined by the subsistence strategy, which was age facilities or structures. The temporary base conditioned by temporal and spatial periodicity in camps would be surrounded by resource extraction biotic and geologic resources. Binford (1980) pro- locations. Long-range resource procurement posed two major hunter -gatherer strategies–for- would be supported by short-term storage facilities ager and collector–that have been applied widely or caches of raw materials and processing imple- throughout the northern Southwest to study and ments (Binford 1980:10–12). interpret Archaic period sites and examine region- The Archaic components at LA 89019 and LA al settlement patterns (Hogan 1986; Hudspeth 89020 can be studied from a hunter -gatherer per- 1997; Lent 1991; J. Moore 2001; S tiger 1986; spective. The following are relevant research ques- Vierra 1985, 1994). Expectations for forager or tions and data sources.

57 Site Dating (1999) assessments of radiocarbon sample preci- sion and accuracy , we will tar get carbonized What are date ranges for Archaic period com- remains of annuals or the outer layers of construc- ponents that may be identified at LA 89019 tion elements, should these types of samples be and LA 89020? Do differ ent dating sour ces available. Charcoal from fuel wood will also be support one another allowing for diachr onic collected for analysis, especially from features. interpretation of Archaic settlement and sub- However, we realize that dates from these types of sistence patterns r elative to br oad tr ends in samples often represent decades, sometimes cen- environmental data? turies, of wood growth prior to fuel use. As a last resort, we will collect bulk soil samples containing Chronological control is critical to understanding powdered charcoal from features and paleosols, where LA 89019 and LA 89020 fit in the occupa- for dating only if no better materials are available tional sequence of the middle San Rio San José for sampling. and Acoma Province and for building site occupa- Archaeomagnetic samples will be collected tion histories as diachronic frameworks for under- from suitable burned contexts. Currently, archaeo- standing how LA 89019 and LA 89020 functioned magnetic measurement results from Archaic sites within the long-term seasonal mobility patterns of have limited dating potential since curve develop- Archaic populations. Accurate dating of Archaic ment for the Archaic period is in its infancy , but components at LA 89019 and LA 89020 will also sample collection may help build a curve, especial- be necessary to support site structure analyses, ly if reliable radiocarbon dates are obtained from identifying and unmixing multicomponent con- associated contexts. While we do not expect to be texts and strata. Obviously , the more absolute or able to date features at the two sites using archaeo- chronometric dates that are obtained, the more magnetic samples, they will help expand the cur- confidence there will be in diachronic analyses and rent data base and may be comparable to the small interpretations. Furthermore, the Archaic period is array of samples already obtained from other so poorly understood in this area that any absolute Archaic sites (Cox and Blinman 1999). Artifacts dates will provide a baseline for future studies. with temporally defined stylistic variation may Within the dune setting it is probable that tem- also help provide dates, though it is more likely porally unrelated components may be collapsed that dates currently assigned to specific artifact and mixed, resulting in features from one occupa- styles will be evaluated and refined in light of tion co-occurring with artifacts from another com- radiocarbon dates. ponent. The potential for mixing and conflation of Obsidian hydration can be useful for dating but components will need to be considered. Therefore, the error estimates tend to be lar ge (200 to 400 as early as possible, a geomorphologist will be years), which provides poor resolution. The quali- employed to assess the site stratigraphic integrity ty of the hydration dates depends on the sample relative to intact paleosols, mixed strata, and dune depth, the length of time it was subjected to corro- formation processes. Geomorphological study will sive processes, and the care with which samples aid in assessing the reliability of associations are selected. Clearly , surface samples or samples between artifact and feature distributions and the that were on the surface for a long time are suspect contexts of chronometric samples. because of rime deterioration. The deeper the con- In order to maximize contextual control over text, the better the chance for a "good" date. Care chronometric dating and so that cross-dating by in samples selection is important because obsidian multiple methods is most ef fective, features and in certain situations may have a very long "use- their surfaces of origin will be the primary focus of life." Recycling and scavenging of artifacts at res- sample collection. Radiocarbon assays will be the idential, base camp, and quarry sites may result in most appropriate dating method for the Archaic reworked edges or flake scars of very dif ferent period. When possible, multiple samples will be ages. Each will have its own rime thickness and the obtained from each feature and surface. average of an Archaic and Pueblo period date is Considering Smiley's (1985) and Dello Russo's really no date. Obsidian hydration may provide rel-

58 ative dating, if rime thickness corresponds to tem- lectors is necessarily clear-cut. poral sequence suggested by stratigraphy , radio- Early, Middle, and Late Archaic occupations carbon dates, or specific projectile point styles. appear to be represented at the project area, as indi- Indirect dates or associated dates may be cated by the projectile points reported at LA89019 derived from temporally diagnostic lithic artifacts. and LA 89020. Therefore, excavation of these sites Projectile points will provide only a general date may provide an opportunity to evaluate the change that will only reinforce occupation sequences rela- from forager-dominant to collector-dominant sub- tive to existing cultural-historical frameworks. sistence strategies and settlement patterns. However, the combination of radiocarbon dates Excavation may also provide the opportunity to and projectile points may allow for some adjust- examine changes in settlement or ganization ment of cultural-historical framework dating, par- through time, if components display artifact and ticularly if transitionally early or late date ranges feature variability. The structure of an Archaic site, are obtained. the range of artifacts found there, and the activities reflected by the assemblage can provide informa- The Archaic Settlement System tion on the type of use pattern represented. While it is probable that sufficient data will be recovered What part of the Archaic settlement system is from LA 89019 and LA 89020 to evaluate compo- represented by the occupations at LA 89019 nents relative to forager and collector organization, and LA 89020? Does the r ole played by the the ability to make diachronic interpretations will sites change through time? depend on the condition and integrity of the arti- fact and feature associations across the sites. Considering the types of Archaic sites identified in Forager and collector site types are commonly the vicinity of the middle Rio San José and the broken down into two basic categories, though Acoma Province, a range of possibilities exists for there may be considerable variety within each cat- what will be uncovered at LA 89019 and LA egory. Residential sites (base camps) tend to be the 89020. Hunter -gatherers use dif ferent site types most common type of Archaic site found, repre- and occupational strategies to exploit the land- senting locales where a band lived for a variable scape encompassed by the territory through which length of time depending on the season and the dis- they range. Two basic hunter-gatherer subsistence tribution and abundance of subsistence resources. strategies have been proposed, and each associated Resource extractive locales are places where biot- with somewhat dif ferent types of sites. Binford ic resource and geological materials were gathered (1980) defines two basic hunter-gatherer organiza- or procured, perhaps partly processed or reduced, tional systems—one in which consumers move to and then transported to a base camp. Since most resources (foragers), and a second in which activities that extract resources from the environ- resources are moved to consumers (collectors). ment leave few material remains behind, the actu- Data presented by Irwin-Williams (1973) suggests al resource extractive locales may be archaeologi- that Early Archaic hunter-gatherers were foragers, cally invisible. Exceptions to this include quarries, with the transition to a collector -organized system where debris was generated during the extractive beginning during the Middle Archaic and dominat- process. Locations where floral or faunal foods ing by the Late Archaic. For example, Vierra were collected and processed for transport may (1990:63) feels that Southwestern Archaic hunter- only be marked by a low density scatter of chipped gatherers "may have implemented a foraging strat- stone artifacts and perhaps a thermal feature. egy from spring to fall, and a collector or ganized Repeated harvesting or processing over a long strategy during the winter . That is, groups were period may result in accumulations of artifacts and residentially mobile from spring to fall, mapping features, thereby increasing the site visibility , but onto exploitable resources; while during the winter also blurring the distinction between limited base they utilized stored foods, making logistical trips camp and resource gathering or procurement sites. to food caches and for hunting." However , neither This last scenario is acknowledged by Fuller this sequence nor a division into foragers and col- (1989:18), who suggests that field camps are an

59 important intermediate site type that were essen- should be ephemeral. tially short-term residential locales used by task- A potential problem in applying this model specific groups while collecting resources that will involves separating foraging camps occupied for be returned to the base camp for storage. short periods from field camps used by collectors. Resources were sometimes cached at field camps Both should exhibit evidence of short-term occu- for later recovery and movement to the base camp. pation, and the range of activities visible in the This type of site may be very dif ficult or impossi- artifact assemblage might be quite limited for both. ble to distinguish from short-term base camps used In many cases, these types of sites may be indistin- by foragers. guishable. One way the problem can be dealt with In general, foragers inhabit base camps for a is through analysis of the chipped stone assem- short period, ranging out from them to exploit blage. resources on an encounter basis. Collectors inhab- The manufacture of general purpose bifaces it base camps for longer periods, exploiting sur- reflects a mobile lifestyle, and more commonly rounding resources through day trips and some- occurs at residential base camps than at field times through the use of short-term field camps. camps or resource-extractive locales. Kelly Collectors use storage features to cache resources (1988:731) defines three types of bifaces: (1) those at their base camp in preparation for seasons of used as cores as well as tools; (2) long use-life limited food availability , a strategy that is not tools that can be resharpened; and (3) tools with employed by foragers (who simply move on). specific shapes and functions. Each type of biface Thus, small Archaic sites containing few or no may be curated, but for dif ferent reasons and in thermal features, no evidence of structural different ways. Use of bifaces as cores is condi- remains, and a small array of chipped and/or tioned by the type and distribution of raw materi- ground stone artifacts may be indicative of a forag- als. When suitable raw materials are abundant and ing focus. More extensive sites containing an array tools are used in the same location as the raw mate- of thermal and storage features, small temporary rials they are made from were procured, an expedi- structures, and a comparatively lar ge amount of ent flake technology can be expected, with little debris may be indicative of a collector strategy. use of bifaces as cores (Kelly 1988:719). When Three theoretical forager and collector site local raw materials are scarce or of poor quality , types were identified above—residential base bifaces can help overcome the difficulties involved camps, field camps, and resource extractive in using materials that are obtained at a distance locales. The last of these is presumed to be archae- from the location in which they are used (Kelly ologically invisible except under certain rare cir- 1988:719). When raw material scarcity is extreme, cumstances. A foraging residential base camp mobility is low , or a specific bifacial tool is should reflect a wide range of maintenance, pro- required for activities performed away from the duction, and food-processing activities without a residential base camp, there may be some use of heavy investment in habitation or storage features. bifaces as cores as well as extensive rejuvenation Structural remains, if present, should be ephemer- of bifacial tools (Kelly 1988:720). al and indicative of short-term use. Collector resi- Bifaces with long use lives may be manufac- dential base camps, on the other hand, should not tured under a variety of conditions, "[i]n particular, only contain evidence of a wide range of activities, tools designed for use on long search-and- they should also demonstrate a corresponding encounter (as opposed to target specific) logistical investment in habitation and storage structures, forays will be under greater pressure to be indicative of a comparatively lengthy occupation. designed to meet a variety of needs and tasks (e.g., Field camps associated with a collector adaptation cutting or scraping tools) and thus will need to be should reflect temporary occupancy by a small bifacial. This requirement can be relaxed for the group engaged in specialized activities. Therefore, equipment of tar get-specific forays" (Kelly a few specialized activities should be represented, 1988:721). Bifaces may also be manufactured as storage features should be absent (unless the site by-products of the shaping process, and illustrate was used as a cache), and structures (if present) the importance of the haft to which the tool was

60 attached (Kelly 1988:721). This type of biface the artifact assemblages, we will consider the pos- might be more frequently maintained or replaced sibility that field camps associated with a collect- at residential rather than logistical sites (Kelly ing strategy are represented. As this discussion 1988:721). suggests, a wide range of data will be needed to Using these concepts, Kelly developed a address this research issue. Information on how model to aid in distinguishing between residential structures and features were built and interrelated and logistical or field camp sites. The model has will be needed, as will detailed data on artifact type not been rigorously tested, but it does provide a and function, and the types of foods that were con- series of predictions that can be applied to a sumed. chipped stone artifact assemblage. When com- bined with other data sets such as feature type and Archaic Site Spatial Organization and Function placement, the number and diversity of activities represented, and the types of resources being If discrete temporal or occupation compo- exploited, the applicability of the model to a site nents are identified at LA 89019 or LA 89020, can be assessed. For example, if residential fea- what can their spatial organization tell us tures are present but chipped stone analysis sug- about how these locations were used through gests that the site served as a logistical site or field time? How does data from spatial organiza- camp, the model may be incorrect. However, if the tion inform on generalized Archaic site struc- residential pattern predicted by both Kelly's model ture and occupation patterns? and site structure are in agreement, the model may be tentatively accepted as valid. The artifact distributions within the deflated areas The assemblage diversity and potential pres- of LA 89019 and LA 89020 have the potential for ence of features at LA 89019 and LA 89020 sug- examining factors that influenced selection of par- gest that these locales may have primarily served ticular locales for occupation and conditions under as residential base camps. The potential for a late which repeated occupation may have occurred Paleoindian to Late Archaic date for the sites sug- over a long period. The extensive distribution and gests that a both forager and collector subsistence multicomponent nature of LA 89019 and LA strategies should be found if Irwin-W illiams's 89020 suggests that the sites were repeated occu- (1973) reconstruction is correct. However , if pied by small microbands or commensal units. Vierra's (1990) evaluation of the Archaic subsis- While larger or macroband size groups may have tence strategies is more accurate, the type of strat- occupied these locales, there is no immediate indi- egy identified will be dependent on the season of cation of larger-scale cooperative resource gather- occupation. We expect that our studies of LA ing and processing or hunting preparation. The 89019 and LA 89020 will provide baseline data on amount and variety of artifact types is consistent flexible subsistence strategies and shifting settle- with repeated, but discontinuous, long-term occu- ment patterns as late Paleoindian and Archaic pation by smaller groups. Investigations of sites hunter-gatherers responded to the long-term cli- located in dune settings in the Grants area to the mate changes that occurred between 7500 B.C. and west (Bryan and Toulouse 1943; Agogino and A.D. 700 (Wills 1988). Hester 1956) and at the Moquino site 15 miles to If the sites or portions of the sites represent a the east (Beckett 1973) indicate that stratigraphi- foraging focus, we would expect to find evidence cally and spatially discrete components may be for warm-season use. This may include ephemeral intermingled with highly mixed deposits for base shelters lacking internal heating features. There camps and logistical sites. How and why the sites will be no evidence of storage features, and a wide were reoccupied through time may be addressed range of activities should be reflected in fairly through the association and distribution of arti- small artifact assemblages. The types of floral and facts, features, and structures. The following dis- faunal materials recovered should also reflect cussion of occupation behaviors should be useful warm-season use. If storage features are present for distinguishing repeated occupations by the and a limited range of activities is represented in same group by sequential occupation by dif ferent

61 or unrelated groups. tions over a considerable time period" (Eschman Vierra (1985) has examined the process of site 1983:379). Thus, when camps were reused, the reoccupation using ethnographic and archaeologi- exact locations were rarely reoccupied. New cal data. In summary , several factors appear to camps were instead placed in adjacent areas, at affect the decision to reoccupy previously used times overlapping earlier deposits. This produced sites. Sites might be reused if the selection of suit- sites of lar ge areal extent with artifact densities able alternate locations is limited: "Certain site similar to those of single occupation sites. functions demand much more specific require- In the cases cited above, Archaic strata were ments. The more specific the requirements are, and mostly deflated and compressed, forming areally the more limited the number of locations which extensive but thin deposits. LA 89019 and LA meet those requirements, the more frequently these 89020 should be similar in structure to those sites, advantageous positions will be reused" (V ierra as is suggested by the investigations by Bryan and 1985:64). Toulouse (1943), Agogino and Hester (1956), and In general, logistical sites tend to be reoccu- Beckett (1973). Variation in the type of remains pied more often than residential locations, espe- occurring in each potential occupational zone iden- cially when hunting is dependent on the planned tified at LA 89019 and LA 89020 could indicate intercept of game rather than unplanned or unan- that repeated uses of the same general area ticipated encounters (V ierra 1985:64). Locational occurred during different seasons and do not repre- requirements for residential sites are often more sent the same site function. If dif ferent site func- flexible, resulting in less need to reoccupy the tions are suggested for locales that reflect the same same spot (V ierra 1985:65). There were also two season of use, a basic forager pattern might be rep- very good reasons for not reoccupying old residen- resented in which site use and longevity were tial locations: hygiene or health and resource dependent on the array of resources available in a depletion (Vierra 1985). Old camps contain unsan- particular year. itary debris and garbage that can cause infection Locational information and data on artifact and sickness as well as parasitic infestation. The type and distribution will be needed to address this zones around them have also been depleted of use- research issue. By imposing a system of grid units able resources, and may require several years to over the sites we will be able to control for location recover suf ficiently to allow successful exploita- and artifact distribution, providing data amenable tion to again occur. When the same area is reused, to a variety of analytical methods. Analysis of all new camps tend to be located near , even adjacent recovered artifacts will provide information on the to, rather than on top of old camps (V ierra types of activities they represent, which can be 1985:65). combined with the distributional analysis. In addi- This pattern is replicated archaeologically . tion to these data needs, information on seasonali- Vierra (1985:183–184) found that multicomponent ty (discussed later) and dating (discussed earlier) sites containing Archaic and Pueblo materials in will be critical. the San Juan Basin did not represent a blending of materials, as might be expected when specific Archaic Subsistence areas were reoccupied. Rather , later occupations were structurally distinct, and appear to represent What was the subsistence focus during the use of adjacent areas. Camilli (1989) found evi- Archaic occupations at LA 89019 and LA dence of similar site reoccupation patterns on 89020? Did the subsistence activities change Cedar Mesa in southeast . While smaller sites as might be expected in response to long-term appear to represent single-use locales, lar ger sites climate change from late Paleoindian to Late contain evidence of overlapping occupations. Archaic times? Eschman (1983) studied site structure at LA19374 in the San Juan Basin, and concluded that, "The Surface artifact classes observed at LA 89019 and overall extent of these cultural deposits . . . appears LA 89020 indicate that a relatively broad spectrum to be the result of multiple, overlapping occupa- of subsistence activities occurred. Projectile points

62 and evidence of biface manufacture and mainte- Seasonality is an important structuring variable for nance suggest hunting and potentially meat pro- occupation type, length, and activities. Based on cessing, packaging, and consumption. Ground the surface artifact information, we expect that LA stone implements indicate gathering and process- 89019 and LA 89020 were primarily occupied dur- ing of the wide variety of plants and plant products ing late summer and fall when a variety of plant that would have been seasonally available. The foods were available and fall hunting in prepara- Late Archaic projectile point leaves open the pos- tion for overwintering would have occurred. sibility that limited horticulture was practiced, If LA 89019 and LA 89020 sites were occu- although there is no evidence for early corn from pied during cold seasons, one or more definable any of the local and regional Archaic site investi- structures should be present. Given the lar ge por- gations (Agogino and Hester 1956; Beckett 1973; tion of LA 89019 that will be investigated one or Bryan and Toulouse 1943; Lentz 2004). more structures may be encountered. At LA89020, We expect to recover data suggesting a gener- only a small portion of the site may be investigat- alized hunting-gathering subsistence system ed and it is less likely that any structure remains involving the consumption of locally available will be encountered. Instead, activity areas or rub- wild plant and animal foods. It is expected that bish disposal debris from residential occupation direct evidence of subsistence activities will be may be encountered in the deflated deposits locat- obtained from three sources. Faunal remains will ed within the right-of-way . If structures occur at hopefully provide information on the types of ani- either site, they will probably be ephemeral and mals that were exploited for subsistence needs. difficult to define because they should have been Macrofloral materials should be recoverable using built in shallow pits without formal floor or walls. flotation analysis, and all contexts that appear able One or more thermal features should occur within to provide this type of information will be sam- each structure, there may be evidence of post holes pled. Finally, pollen analysis may provide a more for interior roof supports, and interior storage pits limited view of the subsistence system. In particu- may be present. The occurrence of structures that lar, pollen washes from ground stone artifacts may lack internal thermal features and storage pits may provide subsistence data that will augment infor- be evidence for occupation during the warm sea- mation provided by flotation analysis. son, counter to our expectations. Indirect evidence of subsistence may be Information on the season of occupation may obtained from artifacts and features. Artifacts will also be obtained through study of macrofloral be analyzed for morphological and technological remains recovered from flotation samples. If a attributes that may reflect manufacture, function, cold-season occupation took place, evidence for and use. Feature morphology and content should the processing of plant foods available in late sum- provide information on the range of processing mer or fall is expected. Plant foods available in the activities. Different analytical orientations that will spring or early summer are not expected, unless be applied to artifacts and features are further dis- there is evidence that they were stored in anticipa- cussed in the Analytical Methods section that fol- tion of future need. In particular , we expect corn lows. macrofossils to occur, providing that this domesti- cate was available for use by site occupants. Archaic Seasonality and Mobility Some evidence for seasonality may also be available from faunal remains, provided enough During what season(s) were LA 89019 and identifiable bone is obtained to allow analysis of LA 89020 occupied and did the seasonality subsistence patterns. If a cold-season occupation is pattern change through time? What mobility reflected, we would expect evidence of 6-month- patterns are suggested by the lithic raw mate- old artiodactyls, an absence of hibernating species rials? Do the lithic raw material distributions like prairie dogs, and perhaps the presence of bird indicate changing mobility patterns through species that winter in the area. However , Archaic time? sites rarely yield well-preserved faunal remains, and the bone recovered from this type of site is

63 usually either burned or very small unidentifiable areas. While precise source locations may not be fragments. Thus, faunal analysis may augment determined given the vagaries of long-term effects information available from structural remains and of geomorphological and geographical processes macrofloral fossils, but by itself fauna is unlikely on geological materials, we should be able to to provide data that are strongly indicative of sea- source some raw materials to geographically dis- sonality. crete regions. X-ray dif fraction will be used to LA 89019 and LA89020 represent one compo- source obsidian artifacts from all temporal and nent of extensive annual or lifetime territories that spatial components. Comparative lithic collections were occupied by mobile populations over the last available at the Of fice of Archaeological S tudies 8,000 years (Binford 1982; Kelly 1992). It is prob- and other institutions will be used to identify the able that the middle Rio San José was an important varieties of Zuni, Chinle, Narbona Pass, Brushy stop as hunter -gatherers moved between low and Basin, and Morrison Formation cherts and other high altitude resource areas, and as indicated cryptocrystalline materials that may be recovered. above, may have been primarily occupied during late summer to late fall months. THE PUEBLO PERIOD (A.D. 700–1200) Mapping hunter -gatherer mobility or settle- ment patterns has been especially productive for Pottery identified on the surface of LA 54902, LA the San Juan Basin. For example, Vierra (1990) has 89019, LA89020, LA108511, LA145685, and LA suggested populations moved into and out of the 149868 indicate that these sites may have temporal San Juan Basin during the warm weather months components dating from A.D. 700 to 1200. This with fall and winter camps occurring in well- period spans much of the prehistoric Pueblo occu- watered higher altitude settings, similar to the mid- pation of the Acoma District, the middle Rio San dle Rio San José. We might further expect that José to the east, the San Juan Basin to the north, Archaic populations may have moved between and eastern Red Mesa Valley to the west, and the lowland settings of the middle Rio Grande to the Zuni-Mogollon Highlands to the west-southwest. south and east and upland settings of the Mount The project area is more or less centered within the Taylor–Acoma area. While moving between these geographical region ascribed to the Eastern different areas, local lithic resources may have Anasazi culture area and Anasazi-Mogollon cul- been used to produce tools or portable cores or ture area transition. Previous studies in this area large bifaces that were brought to and reduced at have focused heavily on identifying and explaining LA 89019 and LA 89020 resulting in their dispos- material culture variability that at different times in al or production of waste products from their the past exhibited more similarity to Anasazi or reduction. These behaviors could result in a wide Mogollon or mixed Anasazi/Mogollon or range of low frequency non-local lithic raw mate- Mogosazi, as is it has been termed by some rials deposited at the sites as a reflection of the researchers (Cordell 1979a; Danson 1957; Dittert long distance aspect of the hunter -gather settle- 1959; Eidenbach 1982; Tainter 1982; Tainter and ment pattern. Obviously, the tracking of non-local Gillio 1980). These predominantly cultural-histor- raw material type distributions has long been used ical studies provide good descriptions and compar- to infer trade, travel, long-distance exchange or isons of material culture trait lists. They document interaction (Matson 1991; Vierra 1990). For LA the variability that stems from a long-term season- 89019 and LA 89020, which were intermittently ally and residentially mobile agriculturally focused occupied by Archaic occupations for 5,000 to adaptation that predominantly relied on locally 8,000 years, analysis of lithic raw materials may be available resources for producing the objects particularly fruitful. employed in quotidian activities. Some choices Lithic raw material studies will be included in resulted in differential distribution of material cul- the chipped stone analysis outlined in the Analysis ture across a vast physiographically and ecologi- Methods section of this report. During the analysis cally diverse region and may have reflected cultur- special attention will be focused on identifying al difference or identity. However, it has also been exotic raw materials to known and potential source demonstrated that much of the variability , at least

64 before A.D. 1000, may reflect distribution and activities consistent with seasonal occupations. availability of resources. These environmentally LA 54902 and LA 108511 have few artifacts influenced attributes were manifested in pottery of and no features within the proposed limits of a different paste color or different house forms that Alternatives 3 or 5, with larger site areas outside of were used in essentially the same way across the the proposed construction zones. However , the region (W ilson 2002). Later in the temporal sites are located north of Interstate 40 in a geomor- sequence, variability could be partly attributed to phic setting where there is potential for deep soils long-distance social or economic interactions that that may contain buried cultural horizons. The sur- resulted in movement of goods rather than people. face artifacts in the site areas outside of Sites with Pueblo components within and near Alternatives 3 or 5 include pottery from Pueblo I the project area are evidence of a long-term use or White Mound phase and Pueblo II or Cebolleta pattern that appears to focus on arable land and phase occupations. Data recovery will focus on available water sources that occur in mesa canyon determining if buried deposits exist in these deep bottomlands and the middle Rio San José and its alluvial soils within and adjacent to the LA 54902 tributaries. Distribution of sites and the activities and LA 108511 site limits. they represent may be partly conditioned by the LA 89019, LA 89020, LA 145685, and LA distribution of dif ferent soil types and depths 149868 are located on the south side of Interstate across the project area. North of Interstate 40, deep 40 in stabilized and deflated dunes interspersed alluvial soils that may have been suitable for farm- with exposed sandstone bedrock. LA 89020 and ing cover a large area. These deep and stable soils LA 145685 lack Pueblo period ceramics in the pro- also may contain buried cultural deposits. South of posed Alternative 3 and 5 limits. The small site Interstate 40, the soil is more typically dune field areas that may remain within the construction with deep alluvial deposits farther south and up the zones should have limited depth with mixed-age side canyons. These shallower , less stable dune deposits. It is unlikely that these sites will con- soils could have been farmed as garden patches or tribute more than basic artifact data to the study . they may have been foraging loci that supported LA 89019 has a greater area of stabilized dune different seasonal plant species than were available within the Alternative 5 limit, but with few ceram- in the deeper alluvial soils. Therefore, the project ics present on the surface. Buried, but ephemeral area may have been suited to two farming strate- or light duty architectural remains and collapsed or gies, as well as a source of seasonally diverse plant deflated features may be present in low numbers. products. Segregating Archaic and Pueblo period compo- The Exit 102 Acomita Interchange sites repre- nents in the dunes may be difficult. LA149868 has sent only a small part of regional culture history a well-defined Pueblo II or Cebolleta phase com- and social and economic interaction and change ponent with possible architectural remains and a that will be investigated from the further limited midden or refuse concentration that are probably perspective of site areas within Alternatives 3 and the remains of a fieldhouse. The artifact distribu- 5. The site areas that fall within the alternatives tion from the fieldhouse does not extend into have relatively few surface artifacts or visible fea- Alternative 5. Therefore, the site area may contain tures from which data may be recovered for this scattered artifacts and ephemeral features that may study. The low frequency of surface materials ini- be contemporaneous with the fieldhouse occupa- tially suggests limited Pueblo period occupation tion or small-scale resource procurement and pro- within the project area. However , surface artifact cessing activities. and feature distributions may not be the best indi- cators of the extent and density of subsurface Research Orientation deposits. Shifting dunes and aggraded alluvial deposits mask some of the past occupation evi- The archaeological remains at these sites reflect dence, but nonetheless, the low frequency of sur- broad trends in prehistoric Pueblo subsistence face ceramics from any period suggests that buried practices, settlement, land-use patterns, and identi- deposits will reflect small-scale and short-duration ty and social or ganization. The sites represent an

65 accumulation of material from discontinuous occu- History and Native American Ceramics sections of pation episodes that occurred between A.D. 700 this report. Recognizing that ceramics from two and 1200. Initial evidence suggested that the sites phases may represent a discrete temporal compo- played multiple roles within seasonal subsistence nent allows for transitions between cultural phases, strategies that changed through time in response to such as a transition from Cebolleta to Pilares population growth and movement and climatic phase, which may be represented by the co-occur- variability. Based on the survey evidence it is like- rence of Socorro Black-on-white, Los Lunas ly that the Pueblo II period or Cebolleta phase will Smudged, and Gallup Black-on-white pottery . be best represented by the surface and buried arti- Also, some pottery types, such as Socorro Black- facts, features, and cultural deposits. The following on-white, have a long manufacture span in addition research design focuses on dating the site Pueblo to wide geographic distribution. components and studying them in terms of season- The co-occurrence of Archaic projectile points al subsistence strategies. and prehistoric may indicate mixed deposits or Pueblo collection and reuse of tools exposed in deflated dunal areas. Probable Pueblo Identifying and Dating Pueblo Period period deposits or contexts that have one or two Components Archaic period projectile points, especially if they are from dif ferent phases, will be treated as Are discrete or identifiable Pueblo period Puebloan. Multiple Archaic projectile points in components present at the sites? association with a predominance of biface manu- facture debris, and one-hand manos and basin Identifying and dating Pueblo period components metate fragments in association with Pueblo pot- are crucial to implementing the research design. tery are more likely to represent post-occupational Surface evidence at the six sites suggests that the mixing. These contexts will be sampled and the project area was intermittently occupied from A.D. recovered artifacts and samples may be used to 700 to 1200. However , except for the LA 149868 examine site function and subsistence strategies fieldhouse component, the temporally diagnostic from a general or non-temporal perspective. LA sherds that date the sites occur in low frequency 89019 and LA 89020 should have the greatest and may reflect ephemeral or brief occupations. potential for mixed deposits because of their dune Two sites are mixed with Archaic period materials setting and presence of deflated and probably (LA 89019 and LA 89020) and the other four (LA mixed surface deposits. 54902, LA 108511, LA 145685, and LA 149868) Chronometric samples will be collected when have no temporally diagnostic artifacts within appropriate contexts or deposits are encountered. Alternatives 3 and 5. Therefore, the initial data The number and range of contexts or features that recovery ef fort will focus on determining if dis- may yield chronometric samples should be condi- crete or intact Pueblo period components exist at tioned by the length and intensity of the occupa- the sites. tion(s). Limited activity sites consisting of low fre- Field assignment of site occupation dates will quency artifact assemblages and one or two ther- rely on established ceramic typologies for the mal or pit features will have less chronometric Acoma Province and Cibola and Mogollon potential than seasonal residential sites, which may Highland regions (Carlson 1970; Dittert 1949, have a greater number and variety of intramural 1959; Gladwin 1945; F . Hawley 1936; Ruppé and extramural thermal features and pits and 1953, 1966; M. Marshall 1991). The well-docu- burned or unburned structural elements or activity mented white and red ware and less temporally spaces. Permanent residential sites would be diagnostic brown and gray ware traditions will be expected to have sources for chronometric samples employed to assign broad temporal ranges. similar to seasonal residences, but perhaps in Unmixed Pueblo period deposits or contexts will greater abundance. White Mound, Kiatuthlanna, be represented by ceramic types from one or two Red Mesa, Cebolleta, and Pilares phase occupa- of the temporal phases outlined in the Culture tions may be represented within the project area by

66 one or more site types or occupation patterns. Later and facilities should also increase in proportion to phase residential sites occur near but probably not occupation duration and intensity . Therefore, it is within the project area. These different site types expected that when discrete or discernible Pueblo may yield contexts or samples for radiocarbon, components are encountered, their excavation will archaeomagnetic, and dendrochronological dating. inform on the relationship between site structure, Obsidian was observed in the field and may be human behavior and activities, and environmental recovered from subsurface contexts. In the absence and social influences. of ceramics or other chronometric samples, obsid- Previous researchers have developed criteria ian hydration may be considered as a means for for recognizing occupation patterns that were asso- obtaining relative dates. Collection procedures and ciated with dif ferent facets of Pueblo subsistence justifications are provided in the Chronometrics organization (B. Moore 1980; J. Moore 1989, section of this document. 2001, 2003; Post 2002). These studies focused on modeling seasonal residence, fieldhouse and limit- Farming and Foraging along the Middle Rio San ed activity sites relative to length and intensity of José occupation, range of activities, proximity to eco- nomically important resources such as agricultural What is the nature of the occupations at LA fields, diverse or abundant biotic resource patches, 54902, LA 89019, LA 89020, LA 108511, LA and distance from a primary or permanent resi- 145685, and LA 149868? Do the artifacts and dence. Criteria were suggested and are of fered features represent seasonal fieldhouse occu- below for unpacking site structure and artifact pations or repeatedly used gathering base assemblage variability relative to different types of camps? What subsistence strategies are rep- seasonal occupation. Utility of these criteria on a resented and did they change through time? site-by-site basis will be determined by the amount Did these sites function as seasonal resi- and kinds of remains found at each site. dences or limited activity camps? Fieldhouses or Seasonal Residences The project sites are expected to consist of multi- ple components of Pueblo period settlement and The following are criteria and discussions of occu- subsistence systems. Activities and behaviors that pation pattern and site structure for fieldhouses or are associated with semi-permanent or seasonal seasonal residences. residences and foraging, hunting, and travel camps may be represented by the artifact and feature dis- 1. Structure. Structures consisting of one to three tributions. While the project area has been divided rooms may be present, with one room large enough into archaeological sites as administrative units, it to permit occupation by one adult. Floor area may is more likely that this area, which evidences per- be consistent with the average for contemporane- sistent, if intermittent occupation, functioned as a ous habitation-village sites within the same settle- more integrated spatial component of local and ment system or cultural tradition. S tructures may regional settlement and subsistence systems. be above ground or subterranean. Occupation duration and intensity and the tenden- Initially, fieldhouses were recognized as one- cy to reoccupy the same location were conditioned or two-room masonry structures on or near arable by distribution, availability , viability , and abun- land (Haury 1956; Woodbury 1961). Haury (1956) dance or extent of critical resources, and distance considered the occurrence of fieldhouses or farm- to primary residence, if seasonal occupation houses after A.D. 1000 to be a result of settlement occurred. Site architecture is sensitive to these fac- nucleation and population aggregation. Because tors, in addition to its possible function as land- single-room masonry structures were not common scape or claim marker, as population increased and prior to A.D. 1000, fieldhouses were also pre- viable agricultural land grew in importance late in sumed to be uncommon. More recently, fieldhous- the prehistoric sequence (Kohler 1992; Schlanger es and their purpose within prehistoric settlement 1992). Abundance and variety of tools, containers, and subsistence systems have been more broadly

67 and probably more accurately defined (Burns es may be established near arable land and occu- 1978; B. Moore 1978; Burns and Klager 1979; pied for dif ferent lengths of time depending on Sebastian 1983; Miller 1985). geographic (distance to site) and social factors B. Moore (1978:9) describes fieldhouses as the (participation in seasonal rituals or ceremonies). largest class of architectural prehistoric site span- Seasonal fieldhouses may consist of above-ground ning Basketmaker III to Pueblo IV times; they are masonry or jacal structures or small pitstructures the most frequent site type during Pueblo III and may be employed. Obviously, the latter are archae- Pueblo IV times. Fieldhouses were used on a daily ological invisible without excavation. Multiple basis, as seasonal camps, and as way-stations for small pitstructures, contemporaneous with the hunters and wayfarers (B. Moore 1978:10). The Cebolleta phase, were found at LA 3558 about 30 factors most often affecting fieldhouse use are dis- km to the east in the middle Rio San José Valley. tance from the primary habitation and time of year. Small pitstructures are more widely known from Ethnographic data show that field locations may the Rio Grande valley near Belen (Wiseman 1995) range from direct line of sight to 8 miles distant (B. and Santa Fe (Hannaford 2000). Small pit structure Moore 1978:10). invisibility leads to artifact scatters being charac- Fieldhouses or seasonal residences will have terized as limited activity sites in survey data. It is site structure and artifact assemblages distinct probable that many of the small Cebolleta phase from limited activity sites. Known site structure sites have pitstructures reflecting a trend toward a attributes are briefly summarized by time and then more land-extensive settlement pattern. general expectations for occupation patterns are provided. 2. Site location. Land potentially suitable for agri- During the White Mound phase, seasonal resi- culture should be near the site. Such land should be dences primarily consisted of subterranean in a direct line of sight with the structure. Based on dwellings or pitstructures in association with a soil characterizations and on-site visits, the area range of storage, processing, and thermal features north of Interstate 40 within the project limits and light-weight jacal or brush shelters or shades. includes arable land. Additional arable land is Late spring to early fall residences were located available immediately to the south of the project near arable land and water with distance to most area. Field locations may be verified by pollen other resources more variable and less critical. analysis and presence of water control or irrigation During the Kiatuthlanna and Red Mesa phases, features. subterranean pitstructures may have continued in use, but they have not been documented for the 3. Pattern of Use. Three limited-use patterns are region surrounding the project area. Seasonal resi- proposed. dences continued to be formal and substantial con- sisting of jacal-walled structures with slab founda- Daily use would occur during crucial parts of the tions. A similar suite of extramural features have agricultural cycle, such as planting, early sprout- been present when areas outside the structure have ing, preharvest, and harvest. Daily-use fieldhouses been investigated. Residences continue to be locat- were primarily near the residence but out of direct ed following the White Mound phase pattern. view. Sporadic visits to the fields for maintenance During the Cebolleta and Pilares phases, per- and inspection would also be similar to daily vis- manent residences consist of formal above-ground its. Sporadic visits would involve limited activities room blocks divided into suites of rooms used as and therefore have limited visibility in the archae- residences and for storage. Walls are masonry with ological record (B. Moore 1980:85; Sebastian room suites suggesting household or suprahouse- 1983:404). Brush structures and lean-tos would be hold or ganization ( sensu Wilshusen 1988). the most common architectural feature. Food con- Residences may not be located near arable land sumption and preparation would be represented by used by all site residents. Such a residence is rep- bowl vessel fragments or one or two storage ves- resented by LA 148687, which is located immedi- sels for water . Breakage of these vessels would ately south of the project area. Seasonal fieldhous- probably be a rare event because of low traffic and

68 infrequent use. Hearths, if present, would be structure with an interior hearth and a concentra- expected to be extramural. tion of trash reflecting a full range of domestic A daily-use pattern, with overnight stays activities. The actual length of occupation, the restricted to preharvest and harvest conditions, number of occupants, and the number of times they should produce the sparsest remains. Tools and or their descendants return may be extremely vari- containers used in food procurement, preparation, able. Substantial fieldhouses are also known as and consumption may be present, with processing farmsteads (Wilcox 1978; Haury 1956). tools rare or in low frequencies. Hearths, if present, In addition to habitation, masonry fieldhouses should be exterior, used for food preparation rather may have served as storage units (W ilcox than heat. Repeated use over a long period of time 1978:28). Such fieldhouses would have allowed may result in greater artifact frequencies and diffi- the farmer to transport the harvested crop on culty in segregating daily use from biseasonal use. demand rather than immediately after harvest. This Seasonally used fieldhouses would be located would be desirable if the distance between the near fields that were too distant for daily travel. fieldhouse and winter residence was great. Another Use would occur during planting, preharvest, har- reason for more seasonally intensive use of field- vest, and when the crops were threatened by bird houses could be the need to build and maintain or animal foraging. Full-time surveillance of the water and erosion control devices (Wilcox 1978; J. fields could be necessary. A household with a sub- Moore 1985). stantial structure could be established (B. Moore Fieldhouses may have functioned as rest sta- 1978:12), which would minimize the inconven- tions or base camps for hunting and gathering for- ience created by distant field locations. This ays and trade trips. These activities might increase behavior pattern would result in more highly visi- artifact frequencies without being separable in the ble archaeological remains. Early surveys and archaeological record. Binford (1980) observed a research projects in the Southwest were often less great amount of variability and overlap in site use concerned with artifact scatters not associated with by mobile hunters and gatherers. B. Moore architecture. As a result, earlier fieldhouses were (1978:14) and Sebastian (1983:404) suggest that not identified by Haury (1956). residents of seasonal or full-time fieldhouses Biseasonal use with continual occupancy dur- would also have relied on hunting and gathering ing the growing season will be dif ficult to distin- for food. Processing and cooking of gathered foods guish from year -round occupation. An artifact and stored grains at a habitation would result in an assemblage reflecting nearly a full range of food artifact assemblage that virtually masks hunting preparation, tool production, and maintenance and gathering activities. activities should be present. Characteristics of full- Besides acting as shelters and part-time time residency , which should not be present, homes, it is possible that masonry or well-main- include interior hearths for heating and cooking; tained jacal structures may have served as bound- ritual features, such as kivas; stratified midden ary markers or symbols of ownership (Kohler deposits; and other features from which evidence 1992). A maintained structure would be visible of nonseasonal occupation may be derived. proof of field ownership. This might have been Occasional use by travelers or wayfarers might important as population in the Acoma Province not be distinguishable from other uses. Use of increased and primary farmland became more existing hearths, tools, and containers is likely, and valuable. Primary farmland would be close to the introduced objects may not be distinguishable settlement, well watered, and proven productive. from existing items. Greater competition for fields could have made the Repeated occupation of a fieldhouse would marking of ownership necessary especially after result in mixed deposits. Annual or periodic reuse the Red Mesa phase. of these more substantial fieldhouses would result This brief overview of fieldhouse attributes in an artifact assemblage that is very similar to that demonstrates that there is much variability in form of a residential site. Sebastian (1983:411) classifies and function. These two main attributes, artifact full-time or substantial fieldhouses as a substantial assemblages, and archaeological visibility are con-

69 ditioned by distance from primary habitation, rea- should occur with single or limited resource pro- son for occupation, length of occupation, number curement. Small numbers of vessels for consump- of occupations, number of occupants, and types of tion and processing and short-term storage vessels activities performed. These variables are by no would be expected. Reworked vessel fragments means mutually exclusive, and each depends on used as scoops or plates may also be present. the others. Survey recording of LA 54902, LA 89019, LA 89020, LA 108511, LA 145685, and LA 149868 Gathering sites. Gathering sites, when used only suggest that they could have been fieldhouse or for that purpose, may have characteristics that are foraging locations. Excavation and recording of different from those of fieldhouses. These charac- architectural and feature remains should provide teristics are mostly derived from attributes of site structural information that can be related to the Archaic period sites and from studies that included intensity and duration of the occupation, as well as so-called gathering sites (Sebastian 1983; Reher the range of site activities. By analyzing the sur- 1977; Moore and Winter 1980). Gathering sites rounding area for agricultural potential it should be may be present for temporal components suggest- possible to assess the spatial relationship of the ed by the site data. sites to potential fields or gathering resource areas. Recovery of floral and faunal remains from fea- 1. Structure. Structural evidence may be absent, tures and trash deposits should provide informa- or if it is present, it should be insubstantial. tion about the range of activities performed at the Examples of insubstantial structures are lean-tos or sites. Depending on specimen preservation, index- wickiups. Evidence of these structures may es of seasonality using plant remains may be include shallow , saucer -shaped depressions or developed. Recovery and analysis of artifacts will postholes. Structures would be used primarily for also provide information about the activities per- shelter against wind and rain and for very tempo- formed, and artifact distributions may lead to infer- rary seasonal use. ences about intensity of occupations and potential for repeated occupations. Field and analytical 2. Site location. Gathering sites should be located methods, frameworks, and ancillary research in environmental transition zones where plant directions are provided in the following section. diversity may be high, allowing for exploitation of a wide range of plant species. Alternatively, site HISTORIC PERIOD COMPONENTS locations may be near an area where one seasonal plant could be harvested in abundance. Sites may LA 89019 and LA 149868 are multicomponent or may not be located near potentially arable land. sites with prehistoric and historic features and arti- facts. The historic era features probably date from 3. Pattern of use. Use should be seasonal and the late Territorial period (A.D. 1879 to 1912) and short term. Overnight stays are implied, and the most likely reflect aspects of a pastoral subsistence length of stay corresponds to the amount of time it pattern. Grazing was the primary subsistence takes to collect a suf ficient supply of a given activity in the local rural landscape throughout the resource. Depending on the distance from the habi- historic period beginning with sheep and changing tation and the nature of the resource, the length of to cattle around the turn of the century (Polk stay may include processing time. Features may 2000:12–13; Tainter and Gillio 1980:142–143). include interior and exterior hearths, and fire- Hispanics were centered in the Town of Cubero cracked rock discard piles or scatters. Artifact Grant with domestic residences at the town of assemblages would reflect a focus on processing, Cubero several miles northwest of the project area. including grinding implements, scrapers, and ham- Pueblo Indians were centered at the Pueblo of merstones. The types of seeds or nuts gathered Acoma and smaller villages such as Acomita. Both would dictate the types of ground stone. Diversity Pueblo Indians and Hispanics practiced a grazing in ground stone may be expected when transition- economy within the checkerboard pattern of land al zones are exploited. A more restricted tool kit ownership that characterizes the project area.

70 LA 89019 contains a single rectangular sandstone from the rather ephemeral features and low-fre- structure foundation measuring about 6.8 m by 6.5 m. A quency artifact assemblages present at the sites. hole-in-top can fragment and a single fragment of purple Therefore, two basic questions will be addressed to glass were the only historic artifacts noted in the area.The better understand the place of the sites in the site occupation date range is based on the artifact manu- regional settlement pattern: temporal context and facture dates. The low-frequency artifact assemblage and site function. lack of midden argues for a seasonal rather than full-time domestic occupation. The site is located on a private Temporal Context grantee parcel (Baca) within the Town of Cubero Grant. Alternative 5 would af fect 60 percent of LA 89019 What is the temporal context of the historic including the entire foundation of the structure. era features? Alternative 3 would not affect the historic component. LA 149868 contains three historic features The sites are currently dated to around 1900 based including a similar rectangular sandstone structure on five artifacts. Dating of the sites is the first step foundation measuring 4.9 m by 3.0 m, a concentra- in understanding regional patterns of social and tion of unmodified pieces of sandstone measuring subsistence or ganization, and the relationship of about 4.5 m in diameter, and a reservoir measuring the site to lar ger social aggregations. Minimally , about 6.0 m in diameter . Historic artifacts were the recovery and analysis of the artifact assem- limited to two pieces of unidentified metal, an blages will supply temporal information. A search unidentified can top, and a small spot-solder (milk) of documents in the state archives centered around can. The site was given a date of ca. 1900 based on the Cubero Town Land Grant may provide an addi- these few artifacts. The small reservoir suggests a tional source of temporal information. Lastly , concern for grazing activities, but the small num- interviews with members of the Town of Cubero ber of artifacts again ar gues for a seasonal rather Grant association and Acoma tribal members with than a full-time domestic occupation. The site has help from the Acoma Historic Preservation Of fice general Town of Cubero Grant land status. may provide oral testimony unrecorded in public Alternative 3 would not affect the historic compo- documents. nent. Alternative 5 roads would af fect the north and south edges of LA 149868, but the historic era Site Function features would not be impacted. At the most, a few scattered historic era artifacts may be in the site What is the site function? Are the sites actual- area affected by Alternative 5. ly related to an aspect of a seasonal grazing LA 89019 and LA 149868 are only about 60 m economy? Were the sites associated with apart suggesting that the historic era features on sheep or cattle grazing? Is the feature at LA the two sites may actually be related or contempo- 89019 the remains of a structure or some kind raneous. The low frequency of surface artifacts of animal pen or corral? Is it possible to argues for a seasonal pastoral subsistence pattern delineate whether the site occupants were of within the shifting socio-political boundaries of Hispanic or Pueblo cultural affiliation? Acoma Pueblo and the Town of Cubero Grant. Acoma land parcels are just to the south and east of Again, the recovery and analysis of the artifact the Town of Cubero Grant parcels containing the assemblages will supply baseline information on sites. Some nine historic pueblo residential and the range of activities, duration of occupation, and ranching components have been recorded showing possibly identity, which will begin to shed light on rather extensive Pueblo local land usage. The site settlement and subsistence. The presence or area is still currently utilized for grazing. absence of manure may inform on the function of the LA 89019 feature. However , Cattle et al. Research Questions and Data Needs (1977) concluded that the best mitigation of sites attributed to Laguna herding was through ethno- It is unrealistic to draw far -reaching conclusions logical rather than archaeological fieldwork.

71 Archaeology will complement an understanding of Town of Cubero Grant may provide an additional site function, but an examination of documents and source of documentary information. Similarly , oral interviews will most likely provide informa- interviews with members of the Town of Cubero tion critical to understanding site function of the Grant association and Acoma tribal members with ephemeral archaeological remains. As with the help from the Acoma Historic Preservation Of fice question of temporal af filiation, a search of docu- may provide oral testimony unrecorded in public ments in the state archives centered around the documents relevant to site function.

72 DATA RECOVERY FIELD METHODS

This section provides a general overview of the elevations will be recorded relative to the site main techniques that will be used during data recovery datum. Since it is often difficult to provide vertical investigations. Because each site has unique char- control for an entire site with one datum, subda- acteristics, specific work plans for each site are tums will be established as needed. Horizontal and provided in the next section. The methods, which vertical control of these points will be maintained are tailored to data recovery at the six sites, are in relative to the main datum. part adapted from Boyer et al. (2003:67–72) Before it is possible to delimit the extent and nature of soil or sediment strata, it is usually nec- GENERAL FIELD METHODS essary to examine them in cross section. This requires the excavation of exploratory units, which Horizontal Provenience will consist of 1-by-1-m grid units excavated in arbitrary 10 cm vertical levels. When natural divi- The first step in excavation will be to establish a sions—soil or sediment strata—have been defined, Cartesian grid system across the site. The main site they will be used to delimit the boundaries of a datum, usually designated as the intersection of level. Outside exploratory grid units, strata will be 100 N and 100 E or 500 N and 500 E lines in the used as the main units of vertical excavation. In grid, will be used to reference all horizontal and general, stratigraphic control for any feature will vertical measurements. A plan of the site will be be established through controlled excavation of prepared, illustrating the locations of excavation part of the feature to provide a profile. The profile areas, structures, and features. will then guide removal of the remaining fill in Surface collection and excavation units will be natural stratigraphic units. Fill immediately above linked to the grid system. These units will be iden- defined use surfaces (formal floors or other activi- tified by the grid lines that intersect at their south- ty surfaces) will be removed as single units of 10 west corners. The basic excavation units will be 1- cm or less, leaving floor artifacts in place for plot- by-1-m grid units, but naturally defined horizontal ting. Floor artifacts and samples will be numbered and vertical units are considered optimal. sequentially (point proveniences or pp numbers), Therefore, areas with probable features visible located horizontally and vertically , and indicated from the surface will first be cleared using grid on feature maps. Subfloor tests will be placed in control until a unit such as a structure, or other fea- any excavated architectural feature to ascertain ture type is defined, at which time they will whether cultural deposits continue; all excavations become independent excavation units. Very large will be taken to sterile soil. features (such as structures) will be subdivided, usually into halves or quadrants, to increase the Mechanical Excavation precision of horizontal provenience control. Point proveniencing within these horizontal subdivisions Exploratory backhoe trenches are planned for the will use the Cartesian coordinate system. data recovery plan particularly in the area north of the interstate highway where deeper soils are Vertical Provenience expected and surface development may mask buried cultural deposits. Backhoes will be Just as the grid system will be linked to the main equipped with buckets between 32 to 36 inches (81 datum, so will all vertical measurements.All meas- to 91 cm) in width, and trenches will be excavated urements will be made in meters with 10.00 m as to a minimum width of 35 inches (90 cm) and to a an arbitrary elevation for the site main datum. All maximum depth of 4 ft (1.2 m).

73 An archaeologist will monitor the excavation associated spatial information from excavation of each backhoe trench (BHT). Functionally or through analysis and curation. temporally diagnostic artifacts will be opportunis- Most artifacts will be recovered by systemati- tically collected from trench backdirt as they are cally screening soil and sediment removed from observed. After excavation, loose and smeared soil excavation units. All soil and sediment from will be cleaned of f of the trench walls with hand exploratory grids and features will be passed tools, and all trenches will be closely examined for through screens. Two sizes of screen, 1/4-inch and exposed cultural deposits or features. The strati- 1/8-inch mesh, will be used. While many artifacts graphic character and cultural content of each are usually lar ge enough to be recovered by 1/4- backhoe trench will be documented on a standard- inch mesh, some, such as smaller biface flakes, are ized excavation form. Artifacts found in situ in too small to be retrieved by that size screen. These trench walls may be point-provenienced. artifacts can provide important clues about the Horizontal provenience of trenches will be main- activities that occurred at a site. However , there is tained at each site by assigning each trench a a trade-off in gaining this additional information. unique number. As the size of mesh decreases, the amount of time Mechanical scraping will be employed when required to screen soil and sediment to recover Phase I hand excavation fails to encounter cultural artifacts increases. Sampling is a way to balance deposits. Scraping will also be used to remove these concerns; thus, smaller mesh will only be non-cultural overburden from above cultural used under certain circumstances. Rather than deposits, or to explore for horizontally extensive establishing specific guidelines for sampling by cultural deposits or features. Mechanical scraping 1/8-inch mesh screens, it is considered better to may be accomplished with a wide, smooth-edged leave this to the discretion of the site supervisor . bucket or scraping blade. Soil will be removed in However, as a minimum, all soil and sediment in 5- to 10-cm-thick layers to minimize disturbance certain types of features (such as hearths and ash or displacement of features, deposits, or artifact pits) should be screened through 1/8-inch mesh, as concentrations that may be exposed. An archaeol- should all soil and sediment at floor or living sur- ogist will monitor and direct all scraping activities face contacts. Other potential applications of this with the goal of identifying and exposing use sur- recovery method include culturally deposited stra- faces, features, or stratigraphic breaks as the scrap- ta and activity areas. ing proceeds. Other cultural materials, such as macrobotani- cal samples, will be recovered from bulk soil or Recovery of Cultural Materials sediment samples. In general, samples for flotation analysis will be collected from culturally deposited Most artifacts will be recovered in two ways: visu- strata and features. Where adequate material is al inspection of levels as they are excavated, and available within a provenience, samples should screening though variable-sized mesh. Other mate- contain at least 2 liters of soil. Macrobotanical rials may be collected as bulk samples that can be materials like corn cobs, piñon shells, wood sam- processed in the laboratory rather than the field. ples for identification, charcoal, etc., will be col- Regardless of how cultural materials are collected, lected as individual samples whenever found. All they will all be inventoried and recorded in the botanical samples will be cataloged separately and same way. Collected materials will be assigned a noted on pertinent excavation forms. field specimen (FS) number which will be listed in Field collection of pollen will be determined a catalog and recorded on all related excavation by feature or stratigraphic context. First priority forms and bags of artifacts. FS numbers will be samples will br taken from lower structure and fea- tied to provenience, so that all materials collected ture strata and floors. Preferred collection points from the same horizontal and vertical provenience should not exhibit evidence of post-occupation dis- units will receive the same FS number . The FS turbance or mixing. Second priority samples will number will be the primary tool that will maintain come from upper feature fill or proveniences that the relationship between recovered materials and exhibit limited evidence of disturbance. A control

74 sample will be collected from an of f-site location strata. This method will provide a sample of mate- to allow the pollen analyst to account for sample rials associated with these strata, allowing for a contamination with modern pollen. Sample con- more comprehensive understanding of the fill texts will include burned and unburned contexts sequence. Recognizing that quadrants are rarely and stratigraphic contexts in possible field or agri- equal in size, the quadrant(s) selected for sampling cultural locations. will usually be the largest, in order to maximize the Up to ½ cup of soil will be collected from all number of artifacts recovered from each stratum. features or internal feature strata for pollen or other However, a smaller quadrant may be chosen if macrobotanical analyses. These samples will be defined strata are better represented. Factors deter- collected in coin envelopes and labeled with mining quadrant selection include the presence of provenience information. Samples will be sealed representative strata, obtaining a representative in the field. They may be opened in the laboratory sample of associated materials, and the discretion to determine if they have dried suf ficiently for of the site supervisor. For example, if a structure is repackaging according to analyst instructions. filled with cultural deposits that address specific research questions, more than one quadrant may be SPECIFIC FIELD METHODS: STRUCTURES, sampled. Remaining fill will be removed without FEATURES, AND EXTRAMURAL AREAS screening, though artifacts will be collected when observed. All roof fall, floor fill, and floor deposits Most excavation will be accomplished using hand will be screened. tools. Methods of excavation will vary depending Following complete excavation of a structure, upon whether a structure, a feature, or an extramu- architectural details will be recorded on a series of ral area is being examined. forms. Building elements encountered during excavation will be included. In particular, any roof Structures elements found during excavation will be mapped and described. Samples of roof material, if encoun- Individual numeric designations will be assigned tered, will be collected for species identification. to structures on a site, as well as to the rooms they Descriptions of individual rooms will include contain. Excavation within rooms or single-room information on wall dimensions, construction structures will begin by digging an exploratory materials and techniques, and associated features. trench, in 1-by-1-m grid units, from one wall to the In addition, scaled plan and profile maps of each center of, or completely across, a room. Soil and structure will be drawn, detailing the locations of sediment in each unit will be screened through 1/4- rooms and internal features, artifacts found in inch mesh. Due to safety concerns, exploratory direct contact with floors, and any other details trenches will not exceed 1.3 m in depth. Below 1.3 considered important. A series of 35-mm black- m, adjacent unit(s) or quadrant(s) may be removed and-white photographs will be completed for each to guard against collapse. Exploratory trenches structure showing its overall form, individual will be excavated by grid units to provide con- rooms, construction details, and the relationship of trolled samples and cross sections of the deposits. features with other architectural elements. In addi- In some cases, this procedure will be repeated, per- tion, photographs may be taken during excavation pendicular to the initial trench, to provide addition- when warranted and 35-mm color slides may be al information on the filling processes. The taken at the discretion of the site supervisor. exploratory cross section(s) or profile(s) will be mapped and the nature of the fill defined. Features Remaining fill will be excavated by quadrant. Quadrant boundaries will be determined by the Features will constitute individual horizontal locations of grid lines or exploratory trench(es) provenience units. Features will be assigned and, thus, may not always be the same size. sequential numbers as they are encountered at a At least one quadrant, whether cultural or non- site. Feature numbers will be recorded on a feature cultural in nature, will be excavated by the defined log. Feature information will be recorded on a fea-

75 ture form describing, in detail, its shape, content, tion units may be placed in the midden area to use history, construction detail, and inferred func- recover additional information, if warranted. tion. All features will be photographed, using 35- mm black-and-white film, documenting the exca- SPECIAL SITUATIONS vation process. Other photographs, including 35- mm color slides and digital images, showing con- Sensitive Materials struction or excavation details may be taken at the discretion of the excavator. This category pertains to the discovery of cultural- After defining the horizontal extent of a fea- ly sensitive materials or objects of religious impor- ture, such as a hearth or ash pit, it will be bisected. tance. At this time, the only special situations we To efficiently define internal stratigraphy, one half can prepare for are human burials, but no burials of the feature will be excavated in a single level are expected given the apparent non-residential and fill screened using 1/8-inch mesh. A scaled nature of the sites. Appendix 2 presents a plan for profile of internal strata will be drawn. The second treatment and disposition of human remains, half will be removed by internal strata. Flotation should they be encountered at the sites. Specific and pollen samples will be recovered from each procedures are determined by land ownership sta- associated stratum and remaining fill will also be tus and associated statutory and regulatory require- screened through 1/8-inch mesh. After all the fill ments. has been removed, a second cross section, perpen- In accordance with the plan, consultations dicular to the soil profile, will be drawn illustrating would be initiated upon the initial recognition of the feature's vertical form. In addition, a scale plan fragmentary or articulated human remains. Human of the feature showing the grid location, size, and remains would be excavated using standard location of profile lines will be drawn. archaeological techniques, including definition of the burial pit, use of hand tools to expose skeletal Extramural Excavation Areas materials, mapping and photographing the posi- tions of the skeleton and grave goods, and the col- Areas outside structures or around features like lection of appropriate nonosteological samples. hearths, were often used as work areas. Thus, cer- While human remains or other sensitive materi- tain zones may be examined to determine whether als are being excavation, no person will be allowed work areas can be defined. Excavation in these to handle or photograph them except as part of data zones will proceed by grid unit. Most soil and sed- recovery and repatriation ef forts. Photographs of iment encountered during these investigations will sensitive materials related to data recovery ef forts be screened through 1/4 or 1/8-inch mesh depend- will not be released to the media or general public. ing on the circumstances. Plans of each extramural area investigated will be drawn, detailing the exca- Unexpected Discoveries vation limits and location of any features. Midden deposits can be extensive and deep. If There is always a risk of finding unexpected midden deposits are encountered, depending on the deposits or features during an archaeological exca- depth below surface, overburden will be removed vation; this is especially true for the project outlined by hand or mechanical equipment to expose the in this plan since it is based solely on survey obser- feature limit. Once the midden extent is known, a vations. Procedures that will be followed in the trench consisting of contiguous 1-by-1-m units will event of an unexpected discovery will vary with the be excavated across two axes. If internal features nature and extent of the find. Small features, struc- are present, excavation units will be expanded to tures, or cultural deposits that were not anticipated define them. Features will then be excavated as out- will be excavated according to the procedures out- lined above. Following excavation of the two cross lined above. On the other hand, finds that have the trenches, the midden excavation may halt depend- potential to significantly alter the scope and intent of ing on the field archaeologists' judgment as to this plan will require consultation with the NMDOT, whether suf ficient data has been recovered to the State Historic Preservation Division, the Bureau address the research questions. Additional excava- of Indian Affairs, and the Pueblo of Acoma.

76 DATA RECOVERY STRATEGIES FOR LA 54902, LA 89019, LA 89020, LA 108511, LA 145685, AND LA 149868 FOR ALTERNATIVES 3 AND 5 Our knowledge of LA 54902, LA 89019, LA project limits. 89020, LA 108511, LA 145685, and LA 149868 is 3. Preliminary site map locating features, tempo- limited to surface materials, some of which may rally diagnostic artifacts and artifact concentra- have been unearthed by recent construction activi- tion locations. ties. Consequently , data recovery excavations at 4. 100 percent artifact collection employing an the sites will proceed in phases oriented toward: electronic total station for point-proveniencing in low density areas and 1-by-1-m collection 1. Assessing the nature, depth, and extent of units in higher density areas. Site boundaries deposits at each site, and will be redefined following this stage, if war- 2. Recovering data from the components rep- ranted. resented at each site. 5. Excavate a 1 percent sample of subject area using 1-by-1-m units placed where field obser- Because the scope of the data recovery ef fort will vations suggest there is the most potential for be determined by the selected design alternative, providing preliminary information on stratig- data recovery strategies for each site will be organ- raphy, artifact distribution, and cultural deposit ized by Alternatives 3 and 5. As already stated, the extent and integrity. design alternative ultimately selected will af fect 6. If subsurface cultural materials, features or which sites and amount of site area that will deposits are encountered, excavations will be require data recovery . Any modifications of the expanded and follow Phase 2 strategy. design alternatives will be within the overall scope 7. If scattered, low frequency artifact distribu- of the research orientation, and strategies will be tions and no features are encountered, up to amended as necessary to accommodate the modifi- five areas 5-by-20- m in dimension will be cations. mechanically scraped to noncultural material- bearing levels. ALTERNATIVE 3 8. If no subsurface cultural materials, features, or deposits are encountered, then the investiga- LA 89019 tion will be halted. 9. If artifacts, features, or cultural deposits are LA 89019 covers a 12,230-sq-m area, of which exposed, then excavation will follow Phase 2 1,400 sq m is within Alternative 3. Temporally strategy. diagnostic artifacts indicate late Paleoindian-Early 10. Final site recording and mapping will be com- Archaic, Early and Middle Archaic, Pueblo I and pleted, if no subsurface artifacts, features, or Pueblo II, and historic period components are pres- cultural deposits are encountered. ent. Prehistoric surface artifacts are most visible and abundant in deflated or blow-out areas that Phase 2: Excavation of features and deposits and cover the site area within Alternative 3. Cultural recovery of artifacts and samples. deposits are expected to be of mixed age and shal- 11. Phase 1 hand or mechanical excavation will be low depth. expanded to define and fully excavate the fea- tures or define the extent and depth of artifact Phase 1: Site preparation and preliminary investi- distributions or cultural deposits (i.e., mid- gations. den). Excavation around features will be 1. Establish site grid and main datums. expanded to expose associated surfaces, fea- 2. Systematic surface artifact location within tures, or deposits.

77 12. Features, structures, and deposits will be exca- 6. If subsurface cultural materials, features or vated using hand techniques and documented deposits are encountered, excavations will be following procedures outlined in Data expanded and follow Phase 2 strategy. Recovery Field Methods. 7. If scattered, low frequency artifact distribu- 13. Site map will be annotated to show excavation tions and no features are encountered, the areas and features or cultural deposit extent. investigation will be halted. 14. Once hand excavation and documenting of 8. If artifacts, features, or cultural deposits are artifacts, features, or cultural deposits has been exposed, then excavation will follow Phase 2 completed, up to 500 sq m will be mechanical- strategy. ly scraped to ensure the exposure of any other 9. Final site recording and mapping will be com- horizontally or vertically extensive occupation pleted, if no subsurface artifacts, features, or components. If no additional features or intact cultural deposits are encountered. cultural deposits are encountered, work will be halted. Phase 2: Excavation of features and deposits and 15. If additional features or cultural deposits are recovery of artifacts and samples encountered, the Phase 2 procedures will be 10. Phase 1 hand or mechanical excavation will be repeated. Mechanical equipment may be used expanded to define and fully excavate the fea- to remove non-cultural material-bearing over- tures or define the extent and depth of artifact burden to advance the hand-excavation effort. distributions or cultural deposits (i.e., mid- 16. Final site mapping will be conducted. den). Excavation around features will be expanded to expose associated features or LA 89020 deposits. 11. Features, structures, and deposits will be exca- LA 89020 is a multicomponent artifact scatter vated using hand techniques and documented located primarily outside Alternative 3. Within following procedures outlined in Data Alternative 3, few artifacts were observed during Recovery Field Methods. the OAS site visit and the deflated and water - 12. Final site mapping will show excavation areas scoured surfaces seemed to have little or no poten- and features or cultural deposit extent. tial for intact, subsurface deposits. The site area will be re-examined and, if areas with potential are LA 145685 observed, then Phase 1 and 2 excavation will be completed. LA 145685 covers a 385-sq-m area, of which 25 sq m is within Alternative 3. Artifacts occur on a shal- Phase 1: Site preparation and preliminary investi- low eolian dune remnant overlying sandstone gations. bedrock. There are no temporally diagnostic arti- 1. Establish site grid and main datums. facts within the subject area, although the lar ger 2. Systematic surface artifact location within site potentially has Late Archaic and Pueblo period project limits. components. 3. Preliminary site map locating features, tempo- rally diagnostic artifacts, and artifact concen- Phase 1: Site preparation and preliminary investi- tration locations. gations. 4. 100 percent artifact collection employing an 1. Establish site grid and main datums. electronic total station for point-proveniencing 2. Systematic surface artifact location within in low density areas and 1-by-1-m collection project limits. units in higher density areas. 3. Preliminary site mapping including feature or 5. Excavate one or more 1-by-1-m units placed artifact concentration locations. where field observations suggest the highest 4. 100 percent artifact collection within the proj- potential determining cultural deposit extent ect area. and integrity. 5. Placement of two 1-by-1-m excavation units

78 within the 25-sq-m area. centrations are identified, then excavation 6. If subsurface cultural materials, features, or units will be spaced at systematic intervals deposits are encountered, excavations will be across the site. expanded and follow Phase 2 strategy. 6. If subsurface cultural materials, features, or 7. If no artifacts are encountered, the investiga- deposits are encountered, excavations will be tion will be halted. expanded and follow Phase 2 strategy. 8. If artifacts, features, or cultural deposits are 7. If no artifacts are encountered, then three 14- exposed, then excavation will follow Phase 2 m-long backhoe trenches will be excavated at strategy. 5 m intervals across the site area constituting a 9. Final site recording and mapping, if no subsur- 20 percent sample. face artifacts, features, or cultural deposits are 8. If no subsurface cultural materials, features, or encountered. deposits are encountered, the backhoe trench stratigraphy will be profiled and pollen sam- Phase 2: Excavation of features and deposits and ples collected from each major stratum. recovery of artifacts and samples 9. If artifacts, features, or cultural deposits are 10. Phase 1 hand excavation will be expanded to exposed, then excavation will follow Phase 2 fully excavate 25 sq m within Alternative 3. strategy. 11. Cultural deposits will be excavated using hand 10. Final site recording and mapping, if no subsur- techniques and documented follow procedures face artifacts, features, or cultural deposits are outlined in Data Recovery Field Methods. encountered. 12. Site map will be annotated to show excavation areas and features or cultural deposit extent. Phase 2: Excavation of features and deposits and 13. Once hand excavation and documenting of recovery of artifacts and samples artifacts, features, or cultural features has been 11. Phase 1 hand or mechanical excavation will be completed, the investigation will halt. expanded to define and fully excavate the fea- 14. Final site mapping conducted tures or define the extent and depth of artifact distributions or cultural deposits (i.e., midden). ALTERNATIVE 5 Excavation around features will be expanded to expose associated surfaces, features, or LA 54902 deposits. 12. Features, structures, and deposits will be exca- LA 54902 covers a 606-sq-m area, of which 202 sq vated using hand techniques and documented m is within Alternative 5. Artifact frequency with- following procedures outlined in Data in the project area is low. Potential for soil depth is Recovery Field Methods. high because of the gentle slope and probably 13. Site map will be annotated to show excavation long-term geomorphological stability. A Cebolleta areas and features or cultural deposit extent. phase component is indicated by the pottery types. 14. Once hand excavation and documenting of artifacts, features, or cultural features has been Phase 1: Site preparation and preliminary investi- completed, backhoe excavation of two or three gations. trenches across the excavation area will be 1. Establish site grid and main datums. used to determine if other features or intact cul- 2. Systematic surface artifact location within tural deposits are present at similar or deeper project limits. stratigraphic levels. If no additional features or 3. Preliminary site mapping including feature or intact cultural deposits are encountered, work artifact concentration locations. will be halted. 4. 100 percent artifact collection within the proj- 15. If additional features or cultural deposits are ect area. encountered, the Phase 2 procedures will be 5. Placement of four to eight 1-by-1-m excava- repeated. Mechanical equipment may be used tion units in artifact concentrations. If no con- to remove non-cultural material-bearing over-

79 burden to advance the hand-excavation effort. area will constitute 10 percent of the more sta- 16. Final site mapping conducted. ble dune area within Alternative 5. 8. If no subsurface cultural materials, features, or LA 89019 deposits are encountered, then the investiga- tion will be halted. LA 89019 covers a 12,230-sq-m area, of which 9. If artifacts, features, or cultural deposits are 8,030 sq m is within Alternative 5. Temporally exposed, then excavation will follow Phase 2 diagnostic artifacts indicate the presence of late strategy. Paleoindian–Early Archaic, Early and Middle 10. Final site recording and mapping will be com- Archaic, Pueblo I and Pueblo II, and historic peri- pleted, if no subsurface artifacts, features, or od components. Prehistoric surface artifacts are cultural deposits are encountered. most visible and abundant in deflated or blow-out areas that cover the north half of the site area. The Phase 2: Excavation of features and deposits and south half is covered by dune deposits of varying recovery of artifacts and samples stability with fewer prehistoric artifacts visible. 11. Phase 1 hand or mechanical excavation will be The historic component is in the southwest portion expanded to define and fully excavate the fea- of the site area to be investigated with few associ- tures or define the extent and depth of artifact ated artifacts. distributions or cultural deposits (i.e., midden). Excavation around features will be expanded Phase 1: Site preparation and preliminary investi- to expose associated features or deposits. gations. 12. Features, structures, and deposits will be exca- 1. Establish site grid and main datums. vated using hand techniques and documented 2. Systematic surface artifact location within following procedures outlined in Data project limits. Recovery Field Methods. 3. Preliminary site map locating features, tempo- 13. Site map will be annotated to show excavation rally diagnostic artifacts, and artifact concen- areas and features or cultural deposit extent. tration locations. 14. Once hand excavation and documentation of 4. 100 percent artifact collection employing an artifacts, features, or cultural features has been electronic total station for point-proveniencing completed, mechanical scraping of up to 500 in low density areas and 1-by-1-m collection sq m will be completed within the most stable units in higher density areas. dune areas or peripheral to excavations areas 5. Excavate a 1 percent sample of subject area that had horizontally or vertically extensive using 1-by-1-m units with half of the units dis- occupation components. If no additional fea- tributed systematically across the investigation tures or intact cultural deposits are encoun- area to provide preliminary information on tered, work will be halted. stratigraphy, artifact distribution, and cultural 15. If additional features or cultural deposits are deposit extent and integrity . A geomorpholo- encountered, the Phase 2 procedures will be gist will examine strata exposed in a sample of repeated. Mechanical equipment may be used the hand excavation units. The geomorpholog- to remove non-cultural material-bearing over- ical assessment will be used to guide Phase 2 burden to advance the hand-excavation effort. excavations and mechanical scraping. 16. Final site mapping conducted 6. If subsurface cultural materials, features or deposits are encountered, excavations will be LA 108511 expanded and follow Phase 2 strategy. 7. If scattered, low frequency artifact distribu- LA 108511 covers a 7,170-sq-m area, of which 40 tions and no features are encountered, five sq m or less than 1 percent is within Alternative 5 areas 5-by-20 m in dimension will be mechan- as indicated by surface artifacts. Artifact frequency ically scraped to non-cultural material-bearing within the project area, which passes through the levels. The 500-sq-m mechanically scraped southernmost site limit, is low . The potential for

80 soil depth is high because of the gentle slope and 12. Features, structures, and deposits will be exca- probable long-term geomorphological stability . vated using hand techniques and documented White Mound and Cebolleta phase components are following procedures outlined in Data indicated by the pottery types. Further , subsurface Recovery Field Methods. deposits have been unearthed by recent construc- 13. Site map will be annotated to show excavation tion and utility installation activities. areas and features or cultural deposit extent. 14. Once hand excavation and documentation of Phase 1: Site preparation and preliminary investi- artifacts, features, or cultural features has been gations. completed, one or more backhoe trenches 1. Establish site grid and main datum. across the site will be excavated across the 2. Systematic surface artifact location within excavation area to determine if other features project limits. or intact cultural deposits are present at similar 3. Preliminary site mapping including feature or or deeper stratigraphic levels. If no additional artifact concentration locations. features or intact cultural deposits are encoun- 4. 100 percent artifact collection within the proj- tered, work will be halted. ect area. 15. If additional features or cultural deposits are 5. Placement of two 1-by-1-m excavation units to encountered, the Phase 2 procedures will be determine the depth of the cultural deposit repeated. Mechanical equipment may be used within the project area. to remove non-cultural material-bearing over- 6. If subsurface cultural materials, features, or burden to advance the hand-excavation effort. deposits are encountered, excavations will be 16. Final site mapping conducted. expanded and follow Phase 2 strategy. 7. If no artifacts are encountered, then one back- LA 149868 hoe trench will be excavated across the site area. Also, one 50-m-long backhoe trench will LA 149868 covers a 3,656-sq-m area, of which be excavated within the planned access road 284 sq m are within Alternative 5. Artifact frequen- limit adjacent to LA 108511. This trench will cy within the project area is low . Alternative 5 be part of a series of backhoe trenches that will incorporates the northernmost site area, which is be excavated to ensure that buried cultural predominantly a deep stabilized dune deposit. deposits are not within non-site areas. Most of the cultural material and features occur in 8. If no subsurface cultural materials, features or the southern three-quarters of the site area. Surface deposits are encountered, the backhoe trench artifacts within Alternative 5 may represent limited stratigraphy will be profiled and pollen sam- site activity or distribution through post-occupa- ples collected from each major stratum. tion disturbances or processes. 9. If artifacts, features, or cultural deposits are exposed, then excavation will follow Phase 2 Phase 1: Site preparation and preliminary investi- strategy. gations. 10. Final site recording and mapping, if no sub- 1. Establish site grid and main datums. surface artifacts, features, or cultural deposits 2. Systematic surface artifact location within are encountered. project limits. 3. Preliminary site mapping including feature or Phase 2: Excavation of features and deposits and artifact concentration locations. recovery of artifacts and samples 4. 100 percent artifact collection within the proj- 11. Phase 1 hand or mechanical excavation will be ect area. expanded to define and fully excavate the fea- 5. Placement of four to eight 1-by-1-m excava- tures or define the extent and depth of artifact tion units in artifact concentrations. If no con- distributions or cultural deposits (i.e., midden). centrations are identified, then excavation Excavation around features will be expanded units will be spaced at systematic intervals to expose associated features or deposits. across the site.

81 6. If subsurface cultural materials, features, or that are not represented or are poorly indicated by deposits are encountered, excavations will be the surface materials. Therefore, to minimize the expanded and follow Phase 2 strategy. potential for unexpected discoveries during 7. If no artifacts are encountered, then two 2-by- Alternative 5 construction, a series of backhoe 20-m areas will be mechanically scraped to the trenches is proposed for the open or non-site bottom of potential cultural-material bearing spaces north of Interstate 40 and west of the exist- deposits, as defined by geomorphological ing Exit 102 Acomita Interchange. A work plan is examination of LA 89019 site stratigraphy. provided for the backhoe trench placement and 8. If no subsurface cultural materials, features, or excavation. If subsurface cultural deposits are deposits are encountered, the investigation will found, the nearest site limit will be expanded to be halted. incorporate the new finds. 9. If artifacts, features, or cultural deposits are To the west and northwest of LA 54902, is a exposed, then excavation will follow Phase 2 30,000-sq-m area of stable colluvial deposits. Up strategy. to eight backhoe trenches ranging in length from 10. Final site recording and mapping, if no subsur- 25 to 75 m long and spaced at 60 m intervals will face artifacts, features, or cultural deposits are be excavated to a minimum of 1.3 m deep. The encountered. backhoe trenches constitute a 1 percent spatial sample of the area. We expect that a 1 percent sam- Phase 2: Excavation of features and deposits and ple should be suf ficient to determine if extensive recovery of artifacts and samples buried cultural deposits or features are present. If 11. Phase 1 hand or mechanical excavation will be cultural deposits or features are encountered, expanded to define and fully excavate the fea- Phase 2 excavation will be implemented. If no evi- tures or define the extent and depth of artifact dence of cultural deposits or features are encoun- distributions or cultural deposits (i.e., midden). tered, then the backhoe trench stratigraphy will be Excavation around features will be expanded profiled and pollen samples will be collected from to expose associated features or deposits. the major strata visible in each trench. 12. Features, structures, and deposits will be exca- An access road is planned for the area to the vated using hand techniques and documented south and west of LA 108511. The road corridor following procedures outlined in Data passes through the south site limit. As previously Recovery Field Methods. mentioned, one 50-m-long backhoe trench will be 13. Site map will be annotated to show excavation excavated parallel to the current site limit. Three areas and features or cultural deposit extent. other 50-m-long backhoe trenches will be spaced 14. Once hand excavation and documenting of at 50-m intervals along the length of the proposed artifacts, features, or cultural features has been road corridor. We expect that these trenches will completed, work will be halted. expose any extensive cultural materials or features 15. Final site mapping conducted that may be encased by potentially deep alluvial deposits. If cultural deposits or features are Non-site Areas encountered, Phase 2 excavation strategies will be implemented. If no evidence of cultural deposits or LA 54902 and LA 108511 are in an area with the features are encountered, then the backhoe trench potential for deep, stable alluvial or colluvial stratigraphy will be profiled and pollen samples deposits. These stratified deposits may contain or will be collected from the major strata visible in overlie cultural materials, features, and deposits each trench.

82 ARTIFACT ANALYSES AND RESEARCH ISSUES

CHRONOMETRICS dating (see, for instance, Thoms 1977; Turnbow JAMES L. MOORE 1997). Unfortunately, dates for specific projectile point styles are usually not well anchored. In most Accurate dates are needed in every archaeological cases they can only be assigned to time spans study to place sites in the proper context, both measured in centuries or millennia rather than locally and regionally . Inaccuracies are built into years or decades. Some styles were used for long many chronometric techniques, or perhaps more periods of time, often overlapping a wide range of properly phrased, some methods may not actually ceramic types and styles. In addition, projectile reflect the age of the cultural event they are being points were frequently collected from earlier sites used to date. In order to assign accurate occupa- and reused, "contaminating" later sites with earlier tional dates to a site, it is usually desirable to styles. Thus, this artifact category can only be used obtain as many types of chronometric data as pos- to provide very gross dates. sible. That way they can be used to cross-check Certain chipped stone materials are somewhat one another and permit the researcher to identify more useful for dating sites. The physical proper- and eliminate faulty dates. Several categories of ties of obsidian allow it to be dated, but the results chronometric data are potentially available from are often questionable and open to interpretation. the sites, including dateable artifacts, radiocarbon This type of analysis is based on the tendency of samples, archaeomagnetic samples, and tree-ring obsidian to absorb moisture at a relatively constant samples. Each category can provide useful and rate, depending on certain factors. The first of important temporal information, but there are also these factors is source. Obsidians from dif ferent problems associated with each. Various types of flows vary in composition and absorb moisture at samples will be collected under dif ferent circum- different rates. This problem can be overcome by stances, as detailed below. certain tests (such as x-ray fluorescence) that pro- vide information on the elemental makeup of Artifact Dating obsidians, allowing them to be assigned to sources with known hydration rates (if a match exists). Several categories of artifacts have the potential to Temperature and soil moisture also af fect the rate provide dates, including pottery , chipped stone, at which obsidian absorbs moisture. By placing Euroamerican artifacts and bone. It is likely that sensors on or next to sites to monitor variations in only pottery will provide the dating resolution soil moisture and temperature over time, enough needed to address research issues posed for information can be gathered to take these ef fects Puebloan remains. Ceramic types that have been into consideration. dated by tree-ring correlations can be especially However, even when obsidians are sourced useful, and an attempt will also be made to seriate and environmental information gathered, this dat- the local ceramic sequence. If any of the compo- ing method is fraught with potential problems. nents yield independent and high-precision Foremost among them is determining what event is chronometric results, this should help fine-tune being dated. Obsidian is perhaps the best material both the prehistoric and historic ceramic sequence, available in the Southwest for production of and may improve the accuracy of dates assigned chipped stone tools, and it does not occur natural- by pottery associations. ly in the immediate project area. Obsidian had to Some chipped stone artifacts also have the be imported (the nearest sources are associated potential to provide relative dates. Projectile with Mount Taylor), and it therefore represented a points, in particular, are often used for this type of desirable resource when found on abandoned sites.

83 Collection and recycling of high quality raw mate- lowing death, 14C begins decaying into 13C at a rials in antiquity, especially obsidian, can result in known rate. Ideally, by simply measuring the pro- much of the obsidian on sites having been salvaged portion of each carbon isotope it should be possible from earlier sites in the area. Depending on where to determine how long ago that entity stopped an artifact is sampled, hydration dating analysis absorbing radioactive carbon. Since plant parts are could date either the original period of use or a sec- often available on sites, this technique is usually ondary or tertiary period of use. applied to those types of materials. However, more Given the problems that are associated with recent research has tossed a few bugs into the sys- obsidian hydration analysis, this method is best tem. For example, some plants use carbon in differ- used when other types of chronometric data are ent ways. This variation can be taken into account available for corroboration, or it can be used cau- by determining the type of plant being dated. tiously when it is the only dating technique avail- A more serious problem is encountered when able. Since it appears that obsidian found on the wood or wood charcoal is submitted for dating surface or at shallow depths hydrates at dif ferent (Smiley 1985). Only the outer parts of trees contin- rates than specimens that are deeply buried where ue to grow through the life of the plant, hence only soil temperature and moisture content are more the outer rings and bark actively absorb new car- constant, analysis of samples from less than a bon. Samples of wood submitted for dating may meter deep is considered undesirable. If deep cul- contain numerous rings, each representing growth tural deposits are encountered, it is unlikely that in a dif ferent year, and each "aging" in terms of obsidian will be the only temporally sensitive isotope ratios with each passing year . Thus, rather material present. This material will be used to pro- than measuring a single event (when the tree died vide chronometric information judiciously or in or was cut down), the radiocarbon assay of a series extreme cases. of growth rings averages isotope ratios from the Euroamerican artifacts are another source of entire span of growth represented in the sample. dating information. Manufacturing techniques, This often tends to overestimate the age of the brand names, and other technological attributes material. Smiley (1985:385) notes that a large error can be very sensitive temporal indicators. Various in age estimation can occur in arid or high-altitude earthenwares often have very long temporal spans, situations, where tree-ring density may be high and but a few types have fairly limited production dead wood can preserve for long periods of time. spans and can provide useful temporal data. Disparities as large as 1,000+ years were found in Bone is another category of artifact that can dates from Black Mesa, and there was an 80 per- potentially provide temporal information. Like cent chance that dates were overestimated by over wood, bone contains a radioactive isotope of car- 200 years and a 20 percent chance that the error bon that is amenable to accurate dating. However , was over 500 years (Smiley 1985:385–386). floral specimens are better suited for this type of The disparity in dates was even greater when analysis, and it is unlikely that we will need to sub- fuel wood rather than construction wood was used mit any bone for radiocarbon dating. for dating (Smiley 1985:372). This is because res- idents sought out dry wood for fuel, wood that Radiocarbon Dating could have been lying on the surface for several hundred years before it was burned. Again, the Radiocarbon analysis has been used to date archae- event being measured is the death of the plant, not ological sites since the 1950s. While this process when it was used for fuel. Also, wood combusts was initially thought to provide accurate absolute from the outside in, eliminating younger carbon of dates, several problems have cropped up over the the outer rings and preserving the older carbon of years that now must be taken into account. The the inner rings for dating. three most pervasive problems have to do with the One other problem with the use of this method ways in which wood grows and is preserved. Both is caused by solar activity. Sunspots cause fluctua- animals and plants absorb a radioactive isotope of tions in atmospheric 14C levels, and hence in the carbon (14C) while they are alive. Immediately fol- amount of radioactive carbon absorbed by living

84 entities. This introduces error into the calculations, Archaeomagnetic Dating which is currently corrected by using a calibration based on decadal fluctuations in atmospheric 14C Archaeomagnetic dating analyzes the remanent as measured from tree-ring sequences (Suess magnetization in materials that were fired prehis- 1986). While this problem may no longer be as sig- torically. Those materials must contain particles nificant as the others mentioned, it indicates that with magnetic properties (ferromagnetic minerals), we are still learning about how this isotope is usually iron compounds like magnetite. absorbed and decays, and that it is af fected in Ferromagnetic minerals retain a remanent, or per- many ways that were not originally considered. manent, magnetization, which remains even after Even considering these problems, radiocarbon the magnetic field that caused it is removed analysis can provide relatively sensitive dates (Sternberg 1990:13–14). When ferromagnetic when properly applied. For example, annuals or materials are heated above a certain point (which twigs from perennials represent short periods of varies by the type of compound), the remanent growth and can often be confidently used for magnetization is erased and particles are remagne- radiocarbon dating. Construction wood can also be tized (Sternberg 1990:15). Samples of that materi- sampled in a way that measures the approximate al can be analyzed to determine the direction of cutting date rather than a series of growth years. magnetic north at the time of firing. Since magnet- This can be accomplished by submitting only bark ic north changes location over time and the pattern and outer rings instead of sending in charcoal that of its movement has been plotted for about the last contains inner rings. This is often difficult and time 1,500 years in the Southwest, comparison with the consuming, but this cautious practice provides archaeomagnetic plot can provide a reasonably dates that are much more reliable. accurate date. However, it should be remembered We will only submit radiocarbon samples in that only the last event in which the material was certain circumstances. Samples of fuel woods will heated to the point where remagnetization could not be submitted unless there are no other tempo- occur is being dated. Thus, a feature could have rally sensitive materials available. Construction been in use over a span of decades, but only the wood is the best type of material for radiocarbon last time that it was fired to the proper heat can be dating, especially when it comes from small ele- dated by this method. ments like latillas and lintels. Lar ge elements, like Archaeomagnetic analysis can potentially con- vigas and posts, may be sampled, but it must be tribute good temporal data for sites, providing the remembered that they were often salvaged from proper fired materials are encountered. When a older structures and reused. Thus, they may be dat- structure burns it occasionally attains the necessary ing the occupation of another structure and not the heat for remagnetization to occur, and these events one being investigated. Construction wood would can also be dated. However , as noted above, one be sampled as outlined above. Only bark (if avail- must keep in mind the event that is actually being able) and outer rings will be segregated for submit- dated. An archaeomagnetic date from a pithouse tal. In general, these materials are more accurately hearth can not be used to place the construction of dated by dendrochronology. However, deteriorated that structure in a temporal perspective because wood often does not survive the process of that is not the event being dated. Thus, archaeo- removal in good enough shape or with enough magnetic samples can provide dates for the last use rings to make that type of analysis possible, and of certain features at a site, but cannot be used to not all types of wood can be used for tree-ring dat- determine when they were built. ing (such as cottonwood). The principal source of Archaeomagnetic samples will be taken when- radiocarbon samples will be plant parts that can be ever possible. In most cases only hearths will be given botanical identifications, that can be demon- amenable to this type of analysis. However , if strated to include one or only a few years of carbon other burned soils are found in situ, samples of accumulation, and that can be linked to the cultur- them may also be taken if they appear related to al event that is the target of the dating effort. events that occurred during the time of occupation.

85 Tree-Ring Dating Since building materials were often salvaged from pithouses at the time of abandonment or soon after This method was developed in the early twentieth that event, few tree-ring samples will probably be century, and is based on the tendency of growth available from these sites. rings in certain types of trees to reflect the amount of moisture available during a growing season. In Documentary Sources and Local Informants general, tree-rings are wide in years with abundant rainfall and narrow when precipitation levels are Documents can be particularly productive sources low. These tendencies have been plotted back in of temporal information and yield data on site time from the present, in some cases extending occupants, when they arrived in the area, when over several thousand years. An absolute date can they left, how they lived, and their relative social be obtained by matching sequences of tree-rings position. Documents in the state archives in Santa from archaeological samples to master plots. This Fe pertaining to the Town of Cubero Grant may be is the most accurate dating technique available a productive source of information on the sites because it can determine the exact year in which a with historic period components. tree died (was cut down). However, once again it is In addition to a documentary search, an ethno- necessary to determine what event is being dated. historian will conduct interviews with members of Because the reuse of wooden roof beams was the Town of Cubero Grant association and Acoma common in the prehistoric and historic Southwest, Pueblo concerning the Historic period compo- it is not always possible to determine whether a nents. This approach can be particularly useful date derived from a viga is related to the construc- when descendants of site occupants can be located tion of the structure within which it was found, or and interviewed. Information obtained in this man- to a previous use. Clusters of similar dates in roof- ner is often an important adjunct to documentary ing materials are usually , but not always, a good sources because informants may know details that indication of the approximate date of construction. do not appear in public records. Isolated dates may provide some information, but are often of questionable validity. CHIPPED STONE ARTIFACTS Another problem associated with tree-ring dat- JAMES L. MOORE ing concerns the condition of the sample being analyzed. In order to represent the year in which a The primary contributions of chipped stone analy- tree stopped growing (was cut down), the outer ses derive from data on material selection, reduc- surface of the tree is needed. Evidence that the tion technology, and tool use. These topics provide outer surface is present can include the bark cover- information about ties to other regions, mobility ing of the tree, beetle galleries that can occur under patterns, and site function. While material selec- the bark (either causing tree death or coincident tion studies cannot reveal how materials were with tree cutting), or outer rings that are continu- obtained, they can usually provide some indication ous around the circumference of the sample. In of where they were procured. One of the most addition, enough rings must be present to allow an important concerns for economic and social organ- accurate match with the master sequence. It is ization is residential mobility, or how often people often possible to provide a date when only inner moved around the landscape. Hunter -gatherers rings are present, but this will not be a cutting date. tend to move their camps often, occupying many Even considering the potential problems asso- residential sites during the course of a year. In con- ciated with this technique, it represents the best trast, farmers tend to occupy a single residential method available for dating sites in the Southwest. site for one or more years at a time, though they Samples of construction materials that appear to may also use logistical camps to collect resources contain enough rings for analysis will be collected. that occur at some distance from the main village. Latilla and lintel fragments would be the best spec- Analysis of chipped stone assemblages should imens for collection, since it is less likely that they allow us to examine mobility patterns exhibited by were salvaged from earlier dwellings and reused. the occupants of these sites and to define degrees

86 of residential mobility . By studying the reduction for a wide range of tasks in both prehistoric and strategies employed by each component, it should historic contexts. The variety of formally designed be possible to compare how dif ferent cultural tools and used edges in an assemblage provides groups approached the problem of producing use- information on the range of activities performed at able chipped stone tools from raw materials. These a site, and an assessment of these data can help comparisons can contribute to discussions of eth- determine how a site and its structures and features nic group af filiation. The types of tools in an functioned in the settlement and subsistence sys- assemblage can be used to help assign a function, tem. The distribution of various classes of chipped and to aid in assessing the range of activities that stone artifacts across a site often provides clues occurred at a site. Chipped stone tools provide concerning how different areas were used and can temporal data in some cases, but unfortunately augment data provided by other analyses. they are usually less time-sensitive than other arti- By tracking the occurrence of local and nonlo- fact classes, like pottery and wood. cal raw material use, we should be able to define All chipped stone artifacts will be examined some of the ties this population had to other using a standardized analysis format (OAS 1994a). regions. Such ties can include indirect acquisition This analytical format includes a series of manda- of lithic raw materials through exchange or direct tory attributes that describe material, artifact type procurement by logistical expedition. The condi- and condition, cortex, striking platforms, and tion of materials when they were brought to sites dimensions. In addition, several optional attributes (early reduction stages) can provide information have been developed that are useful for examining that will allow us to determine which of these specific questions. This analysis will include both processes is most likely , but such interpretations mandatory and optional attributes. will be strongest if they are augmented with data Each chipped stone artifact will be examined from other classes of artifacts. using a binocular microscope to aid in defining An assessment of strategies used to reduce morphology and material type, examine platforms, lithic materials at a site often provides evidence of and determine whether it was used as a tool. The residential mobility or stability . Two basic reduc- level of magnification will vary between 20x and tion strategies have been identified in the 100x, with higher magnification used for wear-pat- Southwest. Efficient (also termed curated) strate- tern analysis and identification of platform modifi- gies entail the manufacture of bifaces that served cations. Utilized and modified edge angles will be as both unspecialized tools and cores, while expe- measured with a goniometer; other dimensions dient strategies were based on the removal of will be measured with a sliding caliper . Analytical flakes from cores for use as informal tools (Kelly results will be entered into a computerized data- 1985, 1988). Technology was usually related to base to permit more ef ficient manipulation of the lifestyle. Efficient strategies tended to be associat- data, and to allow rapid comparison with other ed with a high degree of residential mobility, while databases on file at the OAS. expedient strategies were typically related to Attributes that will be recorded for all flakes, sedentism. The reason for this type of variation is angular debris, cores, and tools include material fairly simple: type, material quality, artifact morphology, artifact function, amount of surface covered by cortex, Groups on the move tended to reduce the risk of portion, evidence of thermal alteration, edge dam- being unprepared for a task by transporting tools age, and dimensions. Other attributes are aimed with them; such tools were transportable, multi- specifically at examining the reduction process, functional, and readily modifiable. Sedentary and can only be obtained from flakes.They include groups did not necessarily need to consolidate tools platform type, platform width, evidence of plat- into a multi-functional, lightweight configuration. (Andrefsky 1998:38) form lipping, presence or absence of opposing dor- sal scars, and distal termination type. Of course there are exceptions to this general state- Chipped stone artifacts should have been used ment. Highly mobile groups living in areas that

87 contained abundant and widely distributed raw Most ground stone artifacts in Southwestern materials or suitable substitutes for stone tools assemblages are related to grinding foodstuf fs or would not need to worry about ef ficiency in lithic other raw materials. The design of passive and reduction (Parry and Kelly 1987). Where lithic active grinding implements is assumed to be con- materials suitable for chipping occurred only in the ditioned by the type of material being ground, the form of small nodules, ef ficient reduction may importance of grinding within the food preparation have been impossible and another strategy would tasks, the intensity of episodes of grinding, and the have been used (Andrefsky 1998; Camilli 1988; J. mobility of the subsistence adaptation. Moore 1996). Neither of these exceptions applies Residentially mobile Archaic hunter -gatherers to the study area. tended to use one-hand manos, basin or slab Southwestern biface reduction strategies were metates, and mortars. These are fairly generalized similar to the blade technologies of Mesoamerica tools that can be used to grind a variety of general- and Europe in that they focused on efficient reduc- ly fine-grained wild and domestic plant foods. tion with little waste. While the initial production However, these forms were not designed to rapid- of large bifaces was labor intensive and resulted in ly and efficiently process large quantities of food. much waste, the finished tools were easily and effi- Ground stone tools used by Southwestern farmers ciently reduced. Ef ficient strategies allowed flint were more specialized toward the processing of knappers to produce the maximum length of use- corn and usually included trough or through- able edge per biface. By maximizing the return trough metates and two-hand manos. Such tools from cores, they were able to reduce the volume of allow lar ge quantities of foods like corn to be raw material required for the production of infor- processed more rapidly and ef ficiently (Lancaster mal tools. This helped lower the amount of weight 1983). Mano surface areas may also provide quan- transported between camps. Neither material waste titative information concerning the degree of or transport cost were important considerations in reliance on cultigens (Hard 1986). Coupled with expedient strategies; flakes were simply struck other evidence, data on grinding surface area may from cores when needed. Thus, analysis of the support comparisons of the degree of agricultural reduction strategy used at a site allows us to esti- dependence of dif ferent components. Although mate whether site occupants were residentially there is a general trend toward more ef ficient mobile or sedentary. grinding tool design through time, the trend is not unilinear, and the introduction of small-seeded GROUND STONE ARTIFACTS cultigens (such as wheat and barley) in historic JAMES L. MOORE period mission settlements appears to be accompa- nied by an increased use of one-hand manos (Eric The primary but not exclusive contribution of Blinman, pers. comm. 2003). ground stone analysis data will be through support Formally designed grinding tools are assumed of functional inferences. Ground stone artifacts to be related to the processing of seeds, especially usually are not abundant, but they provide unique corn. In the latter case this has been confirmed in data on subsistence. Such information can be many cases by both contextual evidence and derived either indirectly or directly . Tool size, residue studies (pollen and starch). However , form, and other general design characteristics are grinding surfaces are multipurpose and can be used commonly used to infer function. However , many for both other food and nonfood materials. Items assumptions are made when such attributes are such as cholla pollen, clay , and pigments have used to assign function to an artifact. An addition- been found on grinding surfaces as well as corn. al perspective on how ground stone tools func- Residue samples will be collected from grinding tioned is to collect data that are directly related to surfaces from secure contexts and from items with use. The most commonly used methods of doing macroscopic evidence of residue presence. this include the analysis of wear patterns on sur- The ground stone artifact category is defined faces and the recovery of residues (especially by manufacturing technique as well as by the pollen). grinding function, and there are many diverse arti-

88 fact types that can fall within this class. Axes can different uses during their lifetime, even after occur as either ground stone or chipped stone being broken. Several attributes are designed to implements, and items such as polishing stones provide information on the life history of ground and ornaments can also fall within this class. stone tools, including dimensions, evidence of Although theoretical bases for interpretations are heating, portion, ground surface sharpening, wear poorly developed for most of these other types of patterns, alterations, and the presence of adhe- artifacts, morphological and functional classifica- sions. These measures can help identify post-man- tions are useful for component and feature inter- ufacturing changes in artifact shape and function pretations. Residue analysis may also be carried and can describe the value of an assemblage by out in some cases to either confirm or explore pos- identifying the amount of wear or use. Such attrib- sible interpretations. utes as material type, material texture and quality , Ground stone artifact assemblages, especially production input, preform morphology , plan view grinding stones, can also contribute to questions of outline form, and texture provide information on occupation duration and abandonment. Grinding raw material choice and the cost of producing var- implements can break and can routinely wear out ious tools. Mano and ground surface cross section through use and resurfacing. Discarded ground are specialized measures aimed at describing stone or ground stone that is reused in architecture aspects of form for manos and metates, since as can provide an indication of site longevity and these tools wear they under go regular changes in reuse. Similarly, formally designed tools are often morphology that can be used as relative measures heavy and represent a significant investment of of age. time and ener gy in manufacture. The decision to Pollen washes will be conducted in the labora- remove or to cache or abandon ground stone can tory, necessitating certain precautions. Ground contribute to interpretations of residential mobility, stone tools from trash deposits will be placed in residential stability (relocation distances), and the plastic bags after removal from the ground and will social context of structure abandonments be lightly brushed to remove loose soil. A thin (Schlanger 1991). cover of dirt will be left on tools found on floors Ground stone artifacts will be analyzed using a until they are ready for photographing. Loose dirt standardized methodology (OAS 1994b) which will be removed prior to photographing, and the was designed to provide data on material selection, artifacts will be placed in plastic bags as soon as is manufacturing technology, and use. Artifacts will feasible after that procedure is completed. be examined macroscopically , and results will be Laboratory processing will proceed as follows: the entered into a computerized database for analysis entire surface of tools will be brushed before sam- and interpretation. Several attributes will be ples are collected. Using distilled water and a tooth recorded for each ground stone artifact, while oth- brush, grinding surfaces will be scrubbed to collect ers will only be recorded for certain tool types. embedded materials. The size of the area sampled Attributes that will be recorded for all ground will be measured and noted. Wash water will be stone artifacts include material type, material tex- collected and packaged for storage until samples ture and quality , function, portion, preform mor- are selected for analysis. phology, production input, plan view outline, ground surface texture and sharpening, shaping, NATIVE AMERICAN CERAMICS number of uses, wear patterns, evidence of heating, C. DEAN WILSON, JAMES L. MOORE, AND ERIC presence of residues, and dimensions. Specialized BLINMAN attributes that will be recorded in this assemblage include information on mano cross-section form Data recorded for pottery from individual compo- and ground surface cross section. nents, structures, and features include ceramic type By examining function(s) it is possible to and descriptive attribute categories. Information define the range of activities in which ground stone regarding distributions of various type and attrib- tools were used. Because these tools are usually ute categories contributes to the overall research large and durable, they may under go a number of goals by providing insights relating to the produc-

89 tion, area of origin, decoration, and use of the asso- brown ware types may also be present in some ciated pottery. One of the most important uses of assemblages (Dittert 1959; Ruppé 1953, 1966; ceramic data is the determination of the time of Marshall 1991). Ceramics are assigned to Cibola occupation represented at various sites and con- types based on the presence of sand and sherd tem- texts, through the comparison of ceramic distribu- per and mineral paint, and in some cases by stylis- tions at a particular assemblage with those from tic traits (Gladwin 1945; Hawley 1936). Pottery dated proveniences in the region. Examinations of exhibiting characteristics of Cibola types dominate distributions of ceramic types and attributes from assemblages occurring over a very wide geograph- dated proveniences may provide information ic area covering most of the Southern Colorado regarding trends in ethnic af filiation, patterns of Plateau including the Cebolleta Province or Acoma pottery production and exchange, and the use and District. This district has been characterized as a function of pottery in various activities. distinct expression of the Cibola region (Dittert 1949, 1959). Some investigators dif ferentiate Ceramic Attributes ceramic types thought to be unique to this district, while others do not. This has resulted in some Attribute categories used in these investigations inconsistency in the ceramic typology used for this will be similar to those employed in recent OAS area. Our strategy of analysis will involve mainly studies. These categories include temper type, using ceramic type categories utilized for the entire paint type, surface manipulation, post-firing modi- Cibola tradition, as well as a few type categories fication, and vessel form. Other types of data that defined for the Cebolleta variants, if deemed appro- will be recorded for smaller samples of sherds will priate. Such distinctions are often based on subtle involve more detailed characterizations of pastes differences in paste, slip, and decorative tradition. through refiring and petrography. Design style and Cibola tradition gray ware types are usually vessel construction methods have the potential to defined by the presence of white to gray pastes, contribute to both refined dating inferences and to and the absence of polished or painted decorations. ethnicity discussions. If whole or substantially The great majority of gray wares from sites in the reconstructible vessels are recovered, vessel attrib- Acoma District dating to all temporal periods utes (such as volume and use wear) will be record- exhibit combinations of light gray to white pastes ed in addition to the sherd attributes described and sand or sherd temper indicative of Cibola Gray above. Wares. These gray wares will be assigned to spe- Basic ceramic classification encodes a lar ge cific types based on exterior surface treatments amount of information. Ceramic types refer to such as plain, neckbanded, and corrugated. groupings identified based on various combina- Cibola White Ware types are decorated with tions of paste and surface characteristics with black mineral paint and exhibit light gray to white known temporal, spatial, and functional signifi- pastes. Types produced early within the tradition cance. Sherds are initially assigned to specific tra- (pre-A.D.1000) are tempered with sand but were ditions based on probable region of origin as indi- tempered with crushed sherd during later periods. cated by paste and temper. They are then placed in Cibola White Ware types are defined by a progres- a ware group on the basis of general surface sion of design styles, which in temporal order manipulation and form. Finally they are assigned include La Plata Black-on-white, White Mound to temporally distinctive types previously defined Black-on white, Kiatuthulanna Black-on-white, within various tradition and ware groups. Red Mesa Black-on-white, Escavada Black-on- white, Gallup Black-on-white, Reserve Black-on- Ceramic Traditions and Types white, Cebolleta Black-on-white, Tularosa Black- on-white, and Klagetoh Black-on-white. Most of the pottery from the Acoma area resemble White Mountain Redware types represent a types defined for the Cibola Gray Ware, Cibola specialized technology that developed in areas of White Ware, or White Mountain Redware tradi- the Southern Colorado Plateau (Carlson 1970). tions, although low frequencies of Mogollon Such pottery was produced within a fairly limited

90 area in west-central New Mexico and east-central phases will provide an opportunity to examine var- Arizona but was widely traded throughout much of ious synchronic and diachronic issues and trends. the southwest. White Mountain Redware is charac- terized by a white or gray to orange paste, crushed Trends in the Production and Exchange of sherd temper and a deep red slip. Surfaces are well Ceramic Vessels polished, and painted decorations are usually exe- cuted in a black mineral or organic paint, although Temper and paste characterizations, along with any polychrome effects are sometime achieved through direct evidence of production (raw materials, tools, the additional use of a white clay paint. Examples unfired pottery , or firing failures) provide an of White Mountain Redware types that may be opportunity to examine issues associated with identified include Puerco Black-on-red and poly- trends in the production and exchange of vessels. chrome, Wingate Black-on-red and polychrome, Binocular microscope observations of temper and St. Johns Black-on-red and polychrome, paste will be the basis for most source evaluations. Springerville Polychrome, and Heshotautla Glaze- Petrography will be used to confirm and refine on-red. resource and characterizations. Depending on sam- It is likely that all the previously discussed tra- ple characteristics, more precise paste characteri- ditions could have been locally produced in the zations may be warranted to distinguish regional Acoma area. The most common intrusive pottery is production tracts. These patterns in turn will sup- represented by Mogollon brown ware types domi- port inferences of social interactions within and nating sites in the southwestern part of New between communities, both in terms of formal Mexico. Mogollon brown wares are made from self- models of production and consumption and in tempered clays derived from redeposited volcanic terms of social networks and alliances. These sources common in the Mogollon highlands issues are relevant to the reconstruction of prehis- (Wilson 1994). These clays are high in iron content toric cultural patterns. Embedded within produc- and contain igneous and sandstone inclusions. tion and exchange interpretations are issues of the Mogollon brown wares were assigned to previously ethnicity of pottery production. While some stud- defined types based on differences in textured deco- ies have attempted to distinguish similar pottery ration, coil patterns, and smudging (Haury 1936). forms produced by dif ferent ethnic groups though Other intrusive ceramic types or traditions that may rim shape, surface manipulation, or temper size, be represented include Socorro Black-on-white and there is considerable overlap in such attributes. San Juan and Mimbres White Ware types. Ultimately, detailed examination of pottery resources and manufacturing techniques will be Ceramic Dating required to ar gue any ethnic af filiation of pottery recovered from the site collections. The relatively wide variety of pottery types noted Trends in production and exchange networks during initial survey indicates a very long temporal may be most obvious in changes in total frequency sequence, covering the Pueblo I through Pueblo III of pottery assigned to various traditions. Shifting periods. Some investigations have attempted to patterns in production, exchange, and cultural define a series of temporally distinct phases for the association of utility ware vessels will be reflected Acoma region (Dittert 1949, 1959; Ruppé 1953, by changes in the total frequency of Cibola Gray 1966; Marshall 1991). Based on pottery types Ware to Mogollon Brown Ware types. For exam- noted during the initial survey, phases that could be ple, an increase in the frequency of Mogollon represented in sites that will be tested include the Brown Wares would reflect increasing ties and Early Cebolleta phase (A.D. 950 to 1050); Late interactions with "Mogollon" groups to the south. Cebolleta; Early Wingate phase (A.D. 1050 to For decorated ware vessels, changes in frequency 1125), Pilares or Late Wingate phase (A.D. 1125 to of Cibola White Ware, White Mountain Redware, 1200), Early Kowina or Tularosa Phase (A.D. 1200 as well as Socorro Black-on-white, and San Juan to 1275), and Late Kowina phase (A.D. 1275 to White Wares reflect geographic distribution of 1325). The assignment of pottery to these various social and economic ties.

91 Trends in the Use and Function of Ceramic excavation. Charred seeds can tell us what plants Vessels were included in the diet, both domestic and wild. Charcoal from hearths and trash deposits can be Functional qualities of vessel assemblages can be used to examine fuel wood gathering activities. inferred from sherd distributions in ware as well as Floral materials contained in architectural materi- form categories that reflect the shape and portion als can be used to augment other types of botanical of a vessel. Vessel form identification is generally data, and samples from historic corrals provide based on rim shape and the presence and location information on the diet of livestock. These types of of polish and painted decorations. It is often easy data not only tell us what plant foods site occu- to identify the basic form (bowl vs. jar) of body pants were gathering, growing, or trading for, they sherds from prehistoric vessels for many also provide important information on what the Southwestern regions by the presence and location local environment might have looked like. of polishing. Pollen analysis should be considered comple- Rim sherds will also contribute functional mentary rather than parallel to macrobotanical data information through measurement of rim diameter. from flotation samples. Pollen is preserved in very Rim diameter correlates with vessel size in many different contexts than carbonized seeds, is usually forms, and simultaneous measurement of rim arc dominated by environmental rather than cultural (in degrees) can help quantify vessel assemblages. sources, and has different contributions to make to The former measure can contribute to interpreta- the biological data corpus that informs on subsis- tions of the nature of economic activities for each tence and environmental parameters. Whereas pri- component, as well as the size of social groups mary and secondary deposits from thermal features involved in food preparation and consumption. make up much of the useful flotation record (along The latter measure is the most ef ficient means of with far less frequent catastrophic burn events), quantifying vessel contributions to components, pollen does not survive burning or deposition in and it can support interpretations of occupation alkaline, water-holding features. Pollen's particular duration as well as the intensity of dif ferent func- contribution lies in characterizing plant utilization tions that result in vessel breakage. activities that do not involve burning, such as Detailed analysis of any whole vessel that milling bins, ground stone artifacts, storage fea- might be recovered will provide more specific tures, coprolites, and living surfaces. On well-pre- information about the use of pottery containers. served interior floors, systematic intensive sam- Attributes that will be examined include shape, pling (such as alternate grid units) of pollen and overall size, thickness, and wear and sooting pat- flotation can work well together to produce rela- terns. Attempts will also be made to compare and tively detailed mapping of activity areas of house- relate patterns noted in sherd and vessel-based dis- hold space. The potential contributions of pollen tributions. While sherds often reflect the context of analysis are more restricted from strata such as pottery discard, the occurrence of complete vessels trash fill, roof fall, and middens. may provide information concerning actual loci of Prior to submitting pollen samples for analy- use. sis, they will be evaluated by the project director according to their potential to contribute informa- BOTANICAL REMAINS tion on research issues. The project director will MOLLIE S. TOLL, PAMELA MCBRIDE, AND JAMES L. rely on context evaluations provided by the exca- MOORE vators. Pollen analysis may be used to address issues of seasonality , environmental change, sub- Macrobotanical materials recovered from sites sistence mix, post-depositional mixing, and social provide direct evidence of subsistence practices. practices (as might be associated with human inter- Most of these floral materials will be recovered ments). The pollen analyst will need to determine from flotation samples, but preserved vegetal the quality of the sample in terms of preservation, material (such as charcoal, seeds, or even textile intermingling of modern, post-depositional, and fragments) also can be recovered directly during subject pollen (pollen related to feature use).

92 Sample suf ficiency for addressing the range of deterioration are recorded to help in determining related research questions will also be assessed and cultural affiliation vs. post-occupational contami- evaluated. nation. Relative abundance of insect parts, bones, The potential contribution of botanical analy- rodent and insect feces, and roots help to isolate ses is necessarily limited by the sampling universe sources of biological disturbance in the ethnob- of provenience types and preservation conditions otanical record. that is encountered within the sites. Interpretable All macrobotanical remains collected during samples require confidently defined temporal and excavation will be examined individually , identi- behavioral contexts. Prime among dif ferentiated, fied, repackaged, and cataloged. Condition (car- potentially informative contexts are intact interior bonization, deflation, swelling, erosion, damage) floor surfaces protected by fill and roof fall. will be noted as clues to cultural alteration, or Sampling multiple locations on interior floors con- modification of original size dimensions. When tributes data for mapping cultural activities involv- less than half of an item is present, it will be count- ing plant materials. This patterning informs on the ed as a fragment; more intact specimens will be organization of economic and cultural behavior on measured as well as counted. Corn remains will be a household level. Analogous exterior surfaces, treated in greater detail. Width and thickness of such as extramural work areas with associated kernels, cob length and mid-cob diameter, number cooking and storage features, are of equal interpre- of kernel rows, and several cupule dimensions will tive interest but tend to have very poor preserva- be measured following Toll and Huckell (1996). In tion of perishable remains, and consequently do addition, the following attributes will be noted: not merit intensive sampling. Primary deposits overall cob shape, configuration of rows, presence within features, architectural deposits, and refuse of irregular or undeveloped rows, and post-discard strata provide specific sampling opportunities. effects. Botanical studies of archaeological deposits will include flotation analysis of soil samples, EUROAMERICAN ARTIFACTS species identification and (where appropriate) CHARLES HANNAFORD morphometric measurement of macrobotanical specimens, and species identification of wood LA 89019 and LA 149868 have late Territorial specimens from both flotation and macrobotanical period components seemingly reflecting pastoral samples. Flotation is a widely used technique for subsistence patterns within the shifting socio-polit- separation of floral materials from the soil matrix. ical boundaries of Acoma Pueblo and the Town of It takes advantage of the simple principle that Cubero Grant. Historic period artifacts were very organic materials (and particularly those that are sparse around the structural remains at LA 89019 nonviable or carbonized) tend to be less dense than and the primary historic component at LA 149868 water, and will float or hang in suspension in a should be avoided by the proposed construction water solution. Each soil sample is immersed in a projects. The historic component at LA 149868 bucket of water. After a short interval allows heav- may represent extramural activity areas associated ier sand particles to settle out, the solution is with the structural remains at LA 89019, which is poured through a screen lined with "chiffon" fabric only about 60 m away . However, historic artifacts (approximately 0.35 mm mesh). The floating and recovered from LA 149868 will probably be con- suspended materials are dried indoors on screen fined to stray items from the north and south site trays, then separated by particle size using nested edges and away from the primary activity centers. geological screens (4.0, 2.0, 1.0, and 0.5 mesh), Abundant historic artifact assemblages are not before sorting under a binocular microscope at 7 to expected from either site, but recovered artifacts 45x. should contribute information as to how the sites This basic method has been in use since 1936, functioned in the settlement-subsistence system. but did not become widely used for recovery of Euroamerican artifacts will be examined using subsistence data until the 1970s. Seed attributes a standardized analysis format developed by the such as charring, color , and aspects of damage or Office of Archaeological S tudies (OAS 1994c).

93 The main emphasis of this analysis is the identifi- abundance of some taxa found in archaeological cation of artifact function. One of the major bene- assemblages is the direct result of farmers hunting fits of this type of analysis is that "various func- in gardens and cultivated fields. Disturbing the pri- tional categories reflect a wide range of human mary vegetation for agricultural plots not only activities, allowing insight into the behavioral con- attracts and increases the biomass of some animals, text in which the artifacts were used, maintained, but hunting in fields eliminates seasonality and and discarded" (Hannaford and Oakes 1983:70). scheduling conflicts while protecting fields from This is especially relevant in understanding the crop predators. As horticultural activity increases, function and use intensity of the structure at LA so do the habitats that support higher densities of 149868. The function of each artifact is described small mammals and their availability for human by a hierarchical series of attributes that classifies procurement. When communities become lar ger, it by functional category , type, and specific func- more residentially stable, and more committed to tion. These three attributes are all closely related horticulture, large animals increase in importance and provide a chain of variables that will specify as hunters turn to scheduling hunting activities. the exact function of an artifact, if known. Reliance on maize, which is low in two essential Eleven functional categories are used, includ- amino acids and niacin, increases the need for ing economy/production, food, indulgences, high-quality animal protein, at least seasonally domestic, furnishings, construction/maintenance, (Speth and Scott 1989:71, 74). personal ef fects, entertainment/leisure, communi- Sedentary groups generally exploit a wider cation, and unassignable. Other variables are variety of animals than do mobile ones. They also recorded to amplify the hierarchy of functional depend more on smaller animals, and use more variables and provide a more detailed description traps, ambushes, and long-distance hunts (Kent of each artifact. Included in this array of attributes 1989:3). When hunting close to home, a wider are those that provide information on material range of animals is taken, including less-preferred type, dating, manufacturer , and what part(s) are smaller animals. To maximize their return, the far- represented. Chronological information is avail- ther a group travels to hunt, the narrower the range able from a variety of attributes, as are data on of species and the lar ger the size of the animal manufacture, and physical descriptions. sought. Once the locally available lar ge game has The Euroamerican assemblage should provide been depleted, hunters must travel greater dis- information on critical areas including chronology, tances to acquire these resources, relocate their set- activities performed at the sites, site function, trade tlements closer to more productive areas, or reduce contacts, and social standing. their commitment to horticulture (Speth and Scott 1989:75, 78). FAUNAL REMAINS In areas where the garden hunting model fits NANCY J. AKINS well, artiodactyl indices (a measure of relative pro- portions of lagomorphs and artiodactyls calculated Faunal remains have the potential to contribute by dividing the combined counts of artiodactyls information on the kinds of animals present in the and probable artiodactyls by this sum plus the local and regional environment, strategies used to count for lagomorphs) start low and increase over take these animals, relative dietary contribution, time, presumably with respect to agricultural com- and food preparation techniques. If occupations mitment. For Chaco Canyon, the indices begin at are determined to be nonresidential (such as field- 0.13 in early Basketmaker III assemblages and houses), the assemblages can contribute to our increase to 0.39 in Pueblo III assemblages (Akins understanding of the seasonal logistics of the sub- 1999:11). For the Dolores Program sites from sistence economy, including an assessment of the southwestern Colorado, the index starts much garden hunting model. higher at 0.58 for the A.D. 600 to 720 period, falls A growing body of data indicates that the ini- dramatically to 0.20 between A.D. 720 and 800, tial strategy of Southwestern farmers was one of and eventually rises to 0.42 (Neusius garden hunting. The garden hunting model, as pro- 1986:214–253). Sites excavated in San Juan Basin posed by Linares (1976:331), suggests that the and Rio Puerco drainage for the Transwestern

94 Pipeline Project have indices that fall between 0.00 Even farther west near Interstate 40, sites test- and 0.03 for all periods (Brown and Brown ed as part of the Elena Gallegos land exchange 1993:354–366). On the West Mesa of Atrisco sites generally produced small samples of Albuquerque, Basketmaker sites have low indices fauna. Sample sizes are not always given and data (0.04) increasing to 0.08 and 0.32 at the Coors are generally presented as MNIs (minimum num- Road site (Akins 1986a, 1986b; Sullivan and ber of individuals). From earliest to latest, a Late Akins 1994:141). Unlike these sequences that fit Archaic to Pueblo I site (1A) with a sample of 150 well with a garden hunting model, Late pieces of burned bone had squirrel, jackrabbit, and Developmental period (A.D. 900–1 100) sites cottontail identified; an Early Basketmaker III site between Santa Fe and Pojoaque Pueblo, where (31C) had jackrabbit, cottontail, and woodrat; a groups appear to have been more mobile and less Pueblo I–II site (15C) with a sample of about 500 committed to agriculture have indices that dif fer bones was mainly cottontail and jackrabbit with significantly from all but the earliest Dolores some woodrat and artiodactyl; a Pueblo II artifact assemblages. In four sites with sample sizes scatter and hearth (38C) had artiodactyl and between 1,273 and 3,507 specimens, the artio- jackrabbit-sized bones; a Pueblo IV lithic and dactyl indices are much higher , between 0.71 and ceramic scatter (12B) had jackrabbit, cottontail, 0.73 for LA 388, LA 391, and LA 3119 and some- woodrat, rodent, and domestic sheep; and a lithic what lower for LA 835 (0.55). Thus, with adequate scatter with no ceramics (36C) had burned bones samples, these simple indices can reveal a great of cottontail and jackrabbit (Bertram 1995a:11–76, deal about mobility and subsistence within a given 1995b:94–195). region. While the data are scant, there is a hint that the Preexisting data on animal subsistence in the Basketmaker and Pueblo assemblages from the gen- Acomita area is scant. Either the sites investigated eral area are consistent with the garden hunting produced little or no bone or the reports are from model outlined above. Only a small number of taxa eras when the standard for reporting fauna was to have been reported and nearly all indicate exploita- simply list the species recognized without any tion of the immediate environment. The abundance indication of even relative quantities. Excavations and consistent presence of cottontail rabbits, which at two nearby PII–PIII pueblos (LA 2639 and LA are the hallmark of the Southwestern garden hunting 2640) with 10 and 15 rooms produced unknown strategy, and the near absence of artiodactyl remains quantities of fauna. Species lists for the two may suggest a primarily agricultural subsistence include deer, fox, jackrabbit, and cottontail from strategy for prehistoric groups inhabiting this gener- LA 2639 and deer , turkey, jackrabbit, cottontail, al area. Because subsistence data are so rare, any gopher, and hawk from LA 2640 (Olson and information recovered from the excavation of these Wasley 1956:305, 317–318). Relatively recent sites will add considerably to our knowledge of the excavations have been conducted along Interstate past. If suitable samples of bone are recovered it 40 at State Road 6 west of the project area. Small may be possible to suggest how the area was used faunal assemblages were recovered from two sites and how this may have changed over time. focused on agriculture with permanent or seasonal Specimens recovered by project will be identi- occupations between A.D. 750 and 900 (Post fied using the Of fice of Archaeological S tudies 2002:187–188). The assemblage of 57 bones from comparative collection supplemented by those at three features and general fill at LA 70163 had the Museum of Southwest Biology , at the more cottontail rabbit (n=18) than any other University of New Mexico. Recording will follow species. Other taxa include a variety of mice, an established OAS computer coded format that jackrabbit, artiodacyl, and bird. A larger sample identifies the animal and body part represented, (n=291) from nine features and general fill was how and if the animal and part was processed for recovered from LA 3558. However, much of the consumption or other use, and how taphonomic sample (n=191) was from a single dog burial and a and environmental conditions have af fected the partial toad (n=41). Otherwise, identified taxa are specimen. Variables for the analyses include a suite rare, single prairie dog and cottontail bones and 16 of provenience descriptions, taxon, element, com- from jackrabbit (Mick-O'Hara 2002:263–266). pleteness, a series of taphonomic observations,

95 burning, butchering, and modification. Quantifi- under this definition, the type of permit required cation conventions record elements and groups of must be determined by whether or not the site is conjoined elements in order to minimize the infla- known to contain or is reasonably expected to con- tion of counts that can result from fragmentation tain human remains. If the site is known to contain and partial carcasses. burials, an individual permit is needed to exhume any human remains. When the presence of human HUMAN REMAINS remains is unanticipated, they will be treated as NANCY J. AKINS discovery situations and excavated under an annu- al burial permit. Because human remains are not Land status determines which laws and regulations reasonably expected at any of the project sites govern the treatment of human remains recovered located on state or private land within the project from archaeological sites. Some of the project sites area, any that are encountered will be excavated are located on Pueblo of Acoma land, invoking the under the annual burial permit issued to the Of fice Native American Graves Protection and of Archaeological S tudies. Following the permit Repatriation Act (25 U.S.C. 3002, 1990). This Act provisions, if human remains are discovered the states that human remains and associated funerary intent to use the annual permit, including a legal objects, sacred objects, or objects of cultural patri- description of the location of the burial, the written mony belong to the lineal descendants or if the lin- authorization to remove the burial from the eal descendants cannot be ascertained, to the tribe landowner, a description of the procedures to be on whose land the objects were discovered. Acoma implemented to identify and notify living relatives Pueblo and other groups that could be lineal of the burials, certification that the law enforcement descendants must be consulted before any items agency having jurisdiction in the area has been are excavated or removed. The criteria for deter- notified, a list of personnel supervising and con- mining lineal descent (43CFR10.14) are fairly rig- ducting excavations of the human burial, and the orous. Lineal descendants are individuals who can NMCRIS LA Project/Activity Number for the per- trace their ancestry directly without interruption by mitted excavation will be submitted in writing to means of the traditional kinship system of the the S tate Historic Preservation Division (HPD) appropriate tribe. Consultations will be completed before excavation of the burial begins. The local with Acoma Pueblo as the land owner and any law enforcement agency with jurisdiction over the other groups who may reasonably claim to be the area will be notified to contact the state medical lineal descendants concerning any human remains, investigator who will determine if the burial is of funerary objects, sacred objects, or objects of cul- medico-legal significance. Within 45 days of com- tural patrimony that might be encountered on pleting the permitted excavation, recommendations Tribal land. All aspects of discovery , recovery , for the disposition of human remains and funerary analysis, and final disposition will be agreed on objects will be made to the HPD. These recommen- before excavation begins. dations will take into consideration the comments On state and private land, state law (NMSA § of living persons who may be related to the burial 18-6-11.2, 1989 and HPD Rule 4 NMAC 10.1 1) and the wishes of the landowner. The plan will pro- requires a permit for excavation of unmarked buri- vide a proposed location for reburial or approved als. As defined in the regulation, an "unmarked curatorial facilities and an inventory of funerary burial ground" is "a location where there exists a objects, other artifacts found in association, or col- burial or burials of any human beings that are not lected in the course of excavation. The HPD, after visibly marked on the surface of the ground in any consulting with the State Indian Affairs Department manner traditionally or customarily used for mark- (IAD), will determine the appropriate disposition of ing burials and includes any funerary object, mate- the human remains and associated funerary objects. rial object or artifact associated with the burial or If a final report cannot be completed within a year burials" (4 NMAC 10.1 1.7G). Since virtually of the completion of fieldwork, an interim report every archaeological and historic site has the will be submitted along with an estimated comple- potential to be an unmarked human burial ground tion date for a final report.

96 In addition to the provisions of the State Burial invasive or destructive analyses. Law, the draft Department of Cultural Affairs In addition, mortuary treatment places the Policy Regarding Tribal Consultation requires that individual into a social context adding valuable OAS make a good faith ef fort to consult with information concerning social, demographic, and Native American governments when actions could economic conditions (Brown 1995:7; Larsen affect Native American human remains. Under this 1995:247). Recent mortuary analyses have policy, in a discovery situation, OAS will augment approached a variety of topics, ranging from indi- the HPD and IAD consultations with information- vidual, gender, ethnic, political, and social identity, al letters to pueblos, tribes, or nations who have to interpersonal conflict, resource control, labor made a claim or have a history of interest in the and or ganization, ritual and meaning, social geographic area where the human bone was dis- inequality, trade, population dynamics, and resi- covered. If any of these groups expresses an inter- dential patterning (Larsen 1995:260). est in making a claim to the remains, OAS will Few human burials have been recovered from assist them in initiating contact with the HPD/IAD. the vicinity of the project area. The four None of the project sites are of the size and Basketmaker III–Pueblo I burials found in the duration of occupation that we expect to encounter Interstate 40 S tate Road 6 sites were all adults human remains as either isolated pieces or intact found in a possible pit structure (LA 70163) or burials. If any are found, it is unlikely that the num- extramural pits (LA 3558) (Mick-O'Hara ber will be lar ge, and the primary objective will be 2002:142–146; Post 2002:48). All have extensive to provide life history information that can be inte- dental wear, tooth loss, and caries (Mick-O'Hara grated into broader research perspectives on topics 2002 :199–211) suggesting that maize comprised a such as subsistence, diet, and demography (e.g., large part of the diet. Rates of dental caries gener- Martin 1994). Even in small samples, the basic ally increase along with the horticultural compo- analysis of human remains has the potential to con- nent of the diet (S todder 1989:181). Yet, femoral tribute significant information on life during prehis- indices (a mean of 1.04 for the three females and tory. Human bones and teeth record conditions dur- 1.23 for the male) suggest that at least the male ing life as well as at death (Goodman 1993:282). (and the female from LA 70163 at 1.2) may have Several indicators of physiological stress are used to maintained a degree of mobility. Femur shaft shape address general health. These include adult stature, is an indication of strength and of mobility . which may be related to nutrition, and subadult size, Smaller, more circular indices (midshaft anterio- which can indicate the timing of stress events. posterior diameter divided by the midshaft medio- Defects in dental enamel (hypoplasias or pitting) are lateral diameter) are associated with decreased associated with specific physiological disruptions mobility while higher ratios are characteristic of and can be relatively accurately assigned an age of hunter-gatherers (Bridges 1996:118). onset. Dental asymmetry begins in utero and reflects One of the primary issues to be addressed by developmental stress, while dental crowding can be this project concerns the nature of the prehistoric nutritional or genetic. Dental caries reflect refined occupation. Were these sites the product of small carbohydrates in the diet and can lead to infection groups of settled agriculturalists who moved fre- and tooth loss. Dental abscessing can become sys- quently, fairly mobile groups who were seasonally temic and life-threatening. Osteoarthritis and osteo- sedentary, or camps or fieldhouses built by resi- phytosis can indicate biomechanical stress. dents of more settled agricultural communities Osteoporosis, related to calcium loss and malnutri- using the area on a seasonal basis? If human tion, can be acute to severe during pregnancy and remains are recovered, the information collected lactation, and can also af fect the elderly . Porotic could aid in answering these kinds of questions. hyperostosis is related to iron deficiency anemia and This will be done by examining the evidence for leaves permanent markers. Periosteal reactions mobility or the degree of sedentism and agricultur- result from chronic systemic infections (Martin al commitment of the groups who lived at the proj- 1994:94–95). Although limited by the quality of ect area sites. Mortuary practices, simple metric preservation of bone and the integrity of the inter- measurements, demographic structure, indications ment, all of these observations can be made without of general heath and nutrition, and dental wear and

97 carries frequencies all can give us some indication the pelvis and cranium. Age changes are docu- of the diet and mobility . Other methods, that mented on the pubic symphysis using two sets of require destruction of small pieces of bone, can standards, on the auricular surface of the ilium, provide fairly accurate indications of the diet of and through cranial suture closure. For immature prehistoric populations. S trontium/calcium ratios remains, the age-at-death is determined by scor- characterize the amount of meat consumed by indi- ing epiphyseal union, union of primary ossifica- viduals, as does a broad spectrum of trace elements tion centers, and measurements of elements. found in bone. Stable carbon isotope ratios in bone and tooth apatite are used to measure the dietary 3. Recording of dental information includes an importance of maize (Buikstra and Ubelaker inventory, pathologies, and cultural modifica- 1994:168–169). Basic data will be compared to tions. Each tooth is coded and visually indicat- other populations, particularly those from the ed for presence and whether it is in place, Southwest, to assess the relative success of these unobservable, or damaged, congenitally individuals and this particular adaptation. absent, or lost premortem or postmortem. Burial excavation procedures will meet profes- Tooth development is assessed, occlusal sur- sional archaeological standards. This generally face wear is scored, caries are located and includes the identification of a burial pit and care- described, abscesses are located, and dental ful removal of fill within the pit. When possible, hypolasisas and opacities are described and half the fill will be removed to provide a profile of located with respect to the cemento-enamel the fill in relation to the pit and the burial. The pit, junction. Any premortem modifications are pit fill, burial goods, and burial will be examined described and located. The secondary dentition and recorded in detail on an OAS burial form with is measured and dental morphology scored for special attention paid to any disturbance that may a number of traits. have taken place. Plans and profiles and photo- graphs will further document the burial and associ- 4. Measurements are recorded for the cranium ated objects. Flotation and pollen samples will be (n=35), clavicle, scapula, humerus, radius, taken from all burials. Disarticulated or scattered ulna, sacrum, innominate, femur , tibia, fibula, remains will be located horizontally and vertically, and calcaneus (n=46). Nonmetric traits are drawn, and photographed. Any associated materi- recorded for the cranium (n=21), atlas verte- als and the potential cause of disturbance or evi- bra, seventh cervical vertebra, and humerus. dence of deliberate placement will be recorded in detail. 5. Postmortem changes or taphonomy are record- Analysis methods will follow the procedures ed when appropriate. These include color, sur- and conventions set out in S tandards for Data face changes, rodent and carnivore damage, Collection from Human Skeletal Remains and cultural modification. (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994). This comprehensive protocol collects the maximum amount of informa- 6. The paleopathology section groups observa- tion by recording a standard set of attributes using tions into nine categories: abnormalities of the same criteria. A series of 29 forms and dia- shape, abnormalities of size, bone loss, abnor- grams of skeletons and anatomical parts allow for mal bone formation, fractures and disloca- illustrating the extent and location of observations. tions, porotic hyperostosis/cribra orbitalia, Another form codes commingled or incomplete vertebral pathology , arthritis, and miscella- remains. The process for recording includes: neous conditions. The element, location, and other pertinent information is recorded under 1. A coding procedure for each element that makes each category. up a skeleton is provided. Diagrams of skeletons and anatomical parts allow for the location of any 7. Cultural modifications such as trepanation and observations concerning these parts. Another artificial cranial deformation are recorded in form codes commingled or incomplete remains. another set of forms. 2. Adult sex is determined by examining aspects of

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