The diffusion of shell ornaments in the prehistoric Southwest

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Authors McFarland, Will-Lola Humphries, 1900-

Publisher The University of Arizona.

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Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/553574 THE DIFFUSION OF SHELL ORNAMENTS IN THE PREHISTORIC SOUTH-FEST

by

V/ill-Lola McFarland

A Thesis

submitted to the faculty of the

Department of Anthropology

in partial fulfillment of

the requirements for the degree of

Master of Arts'

in the Graduate College University of Arizona

1 9 4 1

Approved: I - 2- C--V/ Director of Thesis ~ Date 4

'-V- - *- l.

ACKKO mLKIXjj IrJTT

I wish to expro: s appreciation to my cat Liable advioar, Mrs. Clara Lee Tanner, for her inspiration and untiring effort in assisting mo with the preparation of this thesis.

I also wish to thank Dr. iSwil ... Haury, head of the Anthropology Department, and Dr. 3d ward W. jplccr for giving nu the benefit of their exper­ ience in their very helpful guidance and suggestions. ;,.L HOF.

1 3 < t b b l TABLE OF CONTENTS

CflAPT^£R : . • . ' PACE

32ITRODUCTIOH...... i I. STATUS OF SOXJTHV/NSTCULTURE.. ^ • 1 Gopgraphleal Distribution and General Outline...... 1 Ilohokaa...... 3 Anasazl...... 9 Mogollon...... 16

II. SHELL TYPES AI!D THE EORKINa OF SHELL. .... 22

Forms of Shell Work...... 36 Beads ...... v...... 38 Bracelets...... ;..-.....;,...... 42 Rings .and -finklets...... 44 Pendants...... 44

Mosaic ’.York and Ihlays...... 50 Painted Shell...... 51 Miscellaneous...... 52 Methods of ’working Shell.;...... 53 Methods of'Attaching"Beads and Pendants 59

III. . /dL'iLYSIS OF SHELL ORHAMENTS...... 61

- - . r ■■ ‘ ■ ■ . - ' Hohokom..•...... 61 Standard Traits...... 61 Pioneer Period...... 62 Colonial Period...... 65 Sedentary Period...... 74 Classic Period...... 86 Cultural. & Chronological Values.... 107 /oiasasi; ...... 112 Standard Traits•...... 112 Basketraaker...... 112 Modified Baskotnaker...... 117 Developmental Pueblo...... 121 Great Pueblo...;...... 127 Regressive Pliablo...... 153 Cultural & Chronological Values..... 176 CHAPTER PAGE Mogollon...... 181 Standard Traits...... 181 Cultural & Chronological Values...... 199

IV. INTERPRETATION: TIB DIFFU3I0IT Aim DIAGNOSTIC VALUE OF TLB STODY OF SH3LL 0RNA- 1ISNT3 IN TIB SOUTIUBST .CULTURES...... '. 200 Conclusion. •...... 221

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 228

- r - -■» * - -S.’ *-

v YABL3 OF CHARTS

CILXKT HO. p a g :: Charts Showing Diatribution, F o m a , and Toohniqu© in the Hohokaa Area I. Baads...... 102 II. Bracelets...... 103 III. Mosaics...... 104 IV. Peiidants...... 105 V. Rings...... 105

-Charts Showing Distribution, Jforas, and .. Techniques in tho Anasazl "/area" VI. Beads...... 171 VII. Bracelets...... 172 VIII. Mosaics...... 173 IX# P e n d a n t s . . . . V ...... 174 X. Rings...... 175

■ ’ Charts Showing Distribution, Forms, and . Techniques in the llogollon Area XI. Beads...... 194 XII. Bracelets...... 195 mi. Mosaics,...... 195 XIV. Pendants...... 197 XV. ; Rings...... 198 Diagnostic Charts Showing Distribution of , - Shell Ornaments" In the Prehistoric South- ' ■■ i west Culture . . XVI. Shell Species...... 202 XVII. Beads...... 203 XVIII. Bracelets...... 204 XIX. Mosaics...... 205 XX. Pendants.•••••••••...•..••...... 206 XXI. Rings...... 207 i

. ' - . IKTHODUCTIOII : : . - .STAT^SHT OF THE PROBLEM- ■

A plethora of recorded material exists on tho re­ search pertaining to tho prehistoric'Indians of the

Southwest as reconstructed from the exhaustive studios of their pottery, their skeletal regains, their arohiteo- ture, and their various village typos. By a classifica­ tion within each field mentioned, researchers have defined tha phases characteristic of the development of the three groat cultures comprising the general"culture of the Southwest Indian, namely: tho Hohokam, the

Anasasi, and tho Hogollbn. ‘llore or less extensive reports are available embracing the classifications of tools, baskets, textiles, sandals, types of ornaments, and the relations existing between the development of these articles and the development of the cultural phases in which they existed. But a dearth of material exists"as

to the study of shells. The"adst notable work on shell

to date has been a chronological treatise by’Baury in

his report on the Snaketown "and Los Muertos ruins. Un­

doubtedly the study of "shells, their diffusion and use,

is as important in determining the historical phases

througli which the three cultures passed as are the .

studios of pottery, skeletal remains, architecture, and ii

house types.

The writer will attempt to show in the following dissertation by an .analysis of the shell work and orna­ ments, and by an analysis of the distribution of shells

through the various phases in the growth and extension of the throe great cultural patterns#that shells have a

diagnostic value with reference to the cultural and

chronological levels of these civilizations. The analysis will be built up by an examination and classification of

the shell ornaments in the Arizona State Museum. Further, the above prime facia evidence will be supported by a

study of the most available archaeological reports of

recognized authorities in the field.

Through these two sources an effort will be made

(1) to establish the standard traits of shell beads,

bracelets, pendants, rings, geometric forms, and inlay

work; (2) to show how the rise of one particular type of

ornament defines the phase of culture in which it

existed; and (5) to show how the culture of the people

paralleled in continuous development the use of shells as

they progressed from, the elementary.state (i.e., small

whole shells pierced for beads) to the more complex stage

(i.e., the use of shells for painted Intaglios and inlay

work). The writer also will attempt, in the analysis

above mentioned, to determine the distribution of shell

traits through the cultures, showing how the Hohokam ill

playod the important role as distributing agent to those cultures on the north, the east, and the southeast. This premise will be confirmed by the use of detailed classifi­ cation, maps, and graphs. From these maps, graphs, and classification an effort will be made also to determine the chronological and cultural values of shells. KEY TO MAP

liohokam Mogollon Anasasl

1 • S.jartz 20. Tuzigoot L, Mattocks 21. Kings Ruin 3. Harris 22. Blden Puoblo 4. Three Circle 23. Winona Village 5. Cameron Creek 24. Sikyatki 6. klogollon 25. Kayenta Area 7. Jnnketown 26 DuPont Cave 8. Casa Grande 27. Lovelock Cave 9* Grewe Site 28. Lost City of Kevada 10. Roosevelt 9:5 29. Gypsum Cave lie Los Guanacos 30. Chaco Area 1&# Los Muertos 31. Pueblo Bonito IB. Kiniohba 32. Chetro Ketl 14. Kiatuthlanna 33. Aztec 15. Four Miles Ruin 34. Mesa Verde Area lu. Chaves Pass 35. dfemez 17. Homololi 36. Pecos 18. Chevlon 37. Big Bend 19. llonanki 38. Casas Grandee, Chihuahua _l____

___ L l----

Sco\e \*\ OQMUes CHAPTER I

STATUS OF • SOUTH'.'/SST CULTUHIS

The Southwest area encompasses the present day political domains of Few Mexico, Arizona, Colorado, Utah,

eastern Nevada, the extreme western borders of Oklahoma

and Texas, and the great inland basin of northern Mexico.

Located within this area are prehistoric Indian village

sites, caves, rock shelters, and ruins of groat urban cen­

ters which represent different stages in the development of 1 a sedentary, agricultural, pottery-making culture.

For purposes of designation and facility in archae­

ological study, the vast stretches of the Southwest are

somewhat exemplified in the natural divisions of Arizona:

the desert, the mountain, and tho plateau. Those regions

In turn are likewise divided into the three cultural pro­

vinces referred to as Kohokan, Anasazi, and 1'ogollon.

The ilohokaia, or the ancient ones, occupied the desert

region extending from the Colorado River on the west almost

to the Few Mexico line on the east; from Flagstaff, Arizona

in tho north to northern Sonora on the south, with the

middle Gila Basin as the center. The northern boundary

swings southeastward across Arizona following the "Verde

1. Roberts, F.H.K., Jr. 1937, p. 4. 2

Breaks” or the ’TZocollon Ein", thanoe oontinulnn alone the

Gila •jOURtalna an far as Oafford, Arizona. The eastern boundary extends southeastward from Safford to the 3an

Pedro Valley, and to the Santa Graz Valley south of Tucson.

The Anasaal (or, as better known, the Boskotnakor and the Pueblo culture) are the people, as the I'.avajoa say, uho built and lived in the ruins which dot the plateau.

This plateau division includes the four drainage aystens of the San Juan, Little Colorado, Eio Grande, and Upper

Gila-salt River# which include the greater part of Arizona and I:o% Mexico, the southern two-thirds of Utah, south­ western Colorado, southeastern Horatio., a snail section of west Texan and a portion of the Panhandle rollon along the

Canadian River of that state, and the northern parts of

Chihuahua and Sonora, Old lioxloo.

In-the.Vordo Valley and Flagstaff districts the

Anasazi and Hohokam culture patterns scoa to have•coalesced s3 to f o m a sub-pattern. -

The Mogollon. the region'Just east of the Hohokan, takes its came from the prominent rang3 of mountains in the district where the remains are found. It centers in tho

Ban Francisco and Miabres River valleys in southwestern haw Mexico and southeastern Arizona, and stretches south­ ward into northern Chihuahua, Mexico. Its influence has

"Sol^srts"^ X'.Ei.a. , or. l9«3b, p. bid* ' " ' ".. ... 3

spread in all directions, with its culture pattern over­ lapping with the Hohoktun on its western frontier, and with the /masazi area on its eastern and northern boundaries.

Both plateau and desert ole.aents comprise its civilization, but the plateau influence predominates.

H0I10KAM

The Hohokara, from the earliest known phases, have boon agricultural. Certain archaeologists have been unable to find the beginning of the culture patterns in the Kohokam. area, and for this reason surmise they entered the South­ west as an already established people who continued to evolve in the new locale. On the other hand, sorao archae­ ologists have been unable to find any trace of their origin outside of the Hohokum region, and many investigators are now regarding the Hohokaia culture pattern as an indigenous development. Lack of evidence is no doubt the result of 3 the very small amount of work done in the area.

The Hohokan culture seems to have reached its highest development in the Gila Basin where its remains are most abundant.

The Hohokara chronology has been worked out on a 4 period-phase basis as follows;

3. Roberts, F. 11,11,, Jr. 1937, p. 16. 4. Gladwin, H.S. and others, 1937, pp. 247-269. 4

Modern 1700 to the present

Beoent 1400-1700 Classic 1100-1400 (Civano) (Soho)

Sedentary 900-1100 (Santan) (Socaton)

Colonial 500-900 (Santa Cruz) ‘ ' (Gila Butte)

Pioneer -500 (Snaketown) (Sv.’oetxmter) (Estrella) (Vahkl)

From what little Is known, in the Pioneer Period or earliest stage, there was probably a widespread distribu­ tion of small villages situated in broad seal-arid valleys of the province. These people lived in vary large, squar- 5 ish houses with shallow pits for floors.

The walls wore constructed of poles, brush, and mud plaster, supported by four main posts. The people raaue a fine, thin, plain pottery and toward tho end of the period a finely decorated red-on-buff ware made its appearance.

As early us the Pioneer Period thin, fragile shell brace­ lets and shell disc beads, whole Ollvella shell beads, cut 6 shell pendants, and carved bracelets were being manufactured.

5. Roberts, F.it.ii., Jr. 1957, p. 1G. “ 6. Gladwin, 11.S. and others. 1937, pp. 254-256 5

Crops were Irrigated with flood water, and cremation of the

dead was universal, the ashes being placed in trenches or

pits.

The next period, the Colonial, seeas to have been

somewhat transitional and was the beginning of the ridge

pole house with widespread distribution. The houses were

still of the shallow pit type but were smaller and more

rectangular, with rounded corners and other new features.

A rather highly developed irrigation system of canals and

ditches was introduced full fledged from some source. The dead were cremated and the ashes placed in pits. Pottery with painted decorations was manufactured and there was con­

siderable advance in the ceramic, stone, and shell 7 industries. The Introductions of shell into the Hohokan

area were probably much earlier in the case of every genus

originating from western waters than in the other two 8 culture areas.

There was a great deal of enthusiasm for shell orna­

ments such as medium weight bracelets, rings, pendants,

beads (bi-lobed and cylindrical), and pieces of shell

shaped for use in mosaic work. An orgy of widespread

Interest in shell carving reached an extreme height of 9 development in the Colonial Period, unifying and

7. Roberts'," P.tl.H., Jr. 1937, PP« 16-17. 0. Brand, B.D. 1938, p.7. 9. Gladwin, K.3. and others. 1937, p. 258 6

standardising tho artifacts. The Hohokaa culture vas ' 10 carried as far north as Flagstaff during this period.

Later, in the Sedentary Period, there was a tendency towards a greater concentration of people In a smaller area and a withdrawal from the more outlying precincts

Into villages enclosed in a compound wall. Two forms of houses are characteristic of this period. One was a rectangular shallow pit with roof entrance; and the other 11 was a surface rectangular house. Greater skill and pre­ cision marked the building of these dwellings, and from the various devices found in their ruins they Indicate a 12 people yearning for creature comfort. Ball courts were of a smaller type. The irrigation system was Improved and enlarged. Pit cremation was replaced by urn cremation.-

There was a marked change in pottery, especially In forms. The Gila shoulder made Its appearance, along with a greater variety of designs and a narked increase in the number of vessel shapes.

Heavy bracelets of shell, shell beads, shell trumpets, and carving and painting of shell were most abundant In the Jedentary Phase. Of particular Interest at this time is the discovery of shell with designs and figures etched 13 on with acid. Shell carving shows greater elaboration, and lb. Roberts, F.tl.H., Jr. 1937, np. 10-17. 11. Ibid., p. 17.. 13. Roberts, F.K.H., Jr. 1935, p. 523. 13. Gladwin, H.G. and others. 1937, p. 26. 7

the shell-working industry seems- to have reached its maximum development.

Toward the end of the Classic Period, around 1050 to

.1100 A.D., some of the Hohokam people moved into the 14 Flagstaff or plateau area, and around 1300 the Hohokam

province was invaded by the Anasazi people from the. plateau

region to the north. These invaders built great pueblos

in the Hohokam communities similar to the pueblos thoy

had just deserted, and they continued to practice Inhuma­

tion just as they had done throughout the entire span of

their cultural history. The two tribes lived side by

side for a brief period, each group continuing to manufac- 15 tuna Its own distinct type of pottery, and each keeping its 16 own cultural pattern distinct.

The Hohokam continued to build shallow pit structures

and one-story surface houses using poles, brush, mud, and sometimes inclosing the house In compound walls. They

developed to the highest efficiency the great Irrigation

system of the Gila and Halt River Valleys during this

stage. Oholl carving and turquoise, especially in

mosaics, persisted and. the latter was introduced to the 17 Salatio people by the Hohokums.

After a time the Anasazl withdrew from the Hohokam

14. Hargrave, L.L. 1937b, p. 56. " 10. Roberts, Jr. 1937, p. 18. 16. Gladwin, H.3. and others. 1937, p. 260. 17. Usury, 2.'.,V 1954, p» 38. 8

area* Thoir entranoo and withdrawal have been placed at 18 1300-50 and 1400-50 A.D. Where they went and why they left is not known* But it is known that at this tJUae a group of Salado people moved eastward along the Gila, and southwestward into Chihuahua, Their remains, sherds and house ruins, are found in eastern Hew Mexico mingled with sherds of other cultures, showing a period later than their stay in the Gila Basin, The Hohokam. did not leave with these Salatio people for no Hohokam sherds or other 19 remains arc found in these eastern sites.

.Vhot happened to the Hohokam at this period is not known. It has been postulated by some that the Pima and

Papago are the descendants of the Hohokam for these present-day people bury their dead, build pole, brush, ana clay houses, and make mostly plain pottery as did the 20 Hohokam,

Timbers used in the houses of the Hohokam province were of the type of wood not adapted to tree ring studies; thus the determination of Hohokam periods depends largely upon pottery types. Recently other evidence such as tools, shells, and house types has. augmented these elements and has east a light on the better understanding of the material culture of these people, showing the

IB. Roberts, P.H.li., Jr. 1937, p. 18. ' 19. Gladwin; H.S. and others. 193?, p. 17. 20. Roberts, F.II.H., Jr. 1937, p. 18. s

21 difference in the various stages.

Correlations between sites and districts are being worked out through the study of trade objects and their 22 position in the sequence of locales.

In his thorough work done at Snaketown and Los

Muortos, Maury has furnished abundant reliable and conven­

ient raeans of identification of the chronological stages

through classification of village types, bone, stone, and

shell implements, kinds and styles of ornaments, and architecture.

ANASA2I

The Anasazi group is considered indigenous in its

growth to the area in which it settled from nomadic wan­

derings. As a cultural unit it extended through various

stages in its development.

These several developmental stages in the Basketmakor-

Pueblo culture have been designated by the Pecos classifi­ es cation and Roberts* classification as follows:

Pecos Roberts Pueblo V 1700-on Historic 1700-on Pueblo IV 1300-1700 Regressive 1300-1700 Pueblo III 1100-1300 Great Pueblo 1100-1300 Pueblo II 900-1100 Developmental Pueblo I 700- 900 Pueblo 700-1100 Qasketnakor III 500-700. Modified Basket-, Basketaaker II ? -500 maker 500- 700 Basketmaker I ? Basketmaker *?- 500

21. Roberto, Jr. 1937, p. 18 22. Ibid. 23. Spicer, B.H. Classroom notes, 1940. 10

Roberts states that several diagnostic traits are used in identifying the various stages, such as skeletal material and the more reliable material culture traits as village types, architecture, textiles, baskets, sandals, plctographs, stone and bone implements, styles 24 of ornaments, and pottery. To this list tho writer would like to add shell ornaments which may provide data con- • 25 earning prehistoric customs, techniques, and trades, and help to show correlations between sites, districts, and areas through a study of these as trade objects and their position in the local sequence.

The first occupants of the plateau, Baoketmaker I, were nomadic people. The second wave. Basket-maker II, were the first agriculturalists, having obtained knowledge of how to plant and cultivate corn. Some think that corn was introduced from the Hohokam area, while others say it 20 was received from the Mexican area to the south. Our first definite knowledge of these people comes when they were abandoning their nomadic mode of life and beginning to use caves for shelter and storage places. Granary oaves often served as sepulchers. With the deceased the

Anasazi Indians placed tho objects the departed one used in life. Articles found in these graves, supplemented by

24. Roberts, i'.H.H., Jr. 1937, pp. 12-lb. 25. Brand, D.D. 1938, p. 3. 26. Roberts, F.H.E., Jr. 1937, p. 5. 11

those found in other repositories, supply valuable infor­ mation on the physical characteristics of the people, their arts, and their industries* Artifacts found indi­ cate skill in basketry, woven bags, ropes, head bands, 27 game snares, and large nets for catching small animals.

They downed their game and protected themselves with short javelins hurled by means of curved clubs of wood, stone knives, and clubs made from ©Ik antlers. They used wooden planting sticks, wooden scoop-like implements for digging, curved sticks for dressing skins, and bona tools 20 for weaving. Dwellings at this stage were so flimsy in construc­ tion that few remains have been preserved. Development and erection of substantial granaries wero the first 29 attempts at building of which we have any actual knowledge.

Beads, bracelets, and pendants were manufactured during this period but were not abundant.

The next stage, Basketmaker III or Modified Basket- maker, is known as the house building and pottery making phase. The first houses ware circular, oval, or rectangu­ lar excavations with truncated pyramidal superstructures of polos, brush, and piaster serving as a roof. Four upright posts, embedded in the floor near the sides of

27. Roberts, F.H.R., Jr. 193V, p. 5. 28. Ibid.. p. 6. 29. TEH., p. 7. 12

30 the pit supported the roof superstructure. Stone slabs or a wainscoting of snail poles reinforced the walls of the excavation. An open fire pit marked the center of the room, and a hole in the center of the roof permitted 31 the smoke to escape.

In time the bow and arrow appeared. Later several varieties of corn and beans ware introduced in the area.

Olivella beads, disc beads, disc ear pendants, and some

beautiful mosaics ware manufactured during this era.

Olivella. Glyoymoris. Ualiotis. Oliva, and Conus ware present in the Southwest from Basketmaker time. It has

been noted that Olivella aayana. a species of Atlantic

origin, was not found in Basketmaker time. This would

imply that all early trade routes in marine shells were 32 from the Pacific and Gulf of California coasts.

At the end of Modified Basketmaker a new group of

people began drifting into the area. It is thought by.

some that these people came from the north, but there is

no evidence to indicate from where they came. But it is

presumed they were a broad-headed type, for the long­

headed typos began to disappear and the broad heads to

appear at this period.

307 Roberts, i-'.il.i:., Jr. 1937, p. G. 31. Ibid. 32. Brand, D.D. 1930, p. 7 13

Early Developmental Pueblo, Pueblo I, is a transi­

tional period, or ait evolutionary sta^e of development.

During this , period no\i groups continued to arrive. The

infiltration of this new ethnic group added virility to

the race and gave their culture an impetus toward more

refined evolution. They seemingly brought tho bow and arrow, as mentioned above, possibly the full-grooved axe,

and definitely a capacity for cultural development.

The bearers of these new traits were characteristic Mongoloid broadheads, and they eventually become the pre­

dominating type. In some areas these immigrants mingled

with the old Basketmaker people, introducing to thorn a

new type of carving and new tools. In addition they shed

a more ingenious light on the skill and arts of the

Buskotmaker, thus forming new culture traits. Cotton was

Introduced, wild turkey domesticated, and pottery making

greatly improved. Shell ornaments were not plentiful in

the pueblos of the Little Colorado, but in certain other

areas shell ornaments were both abundant and elaborately

worked. During Pueblo I and II species of the genera

Curdium, Cerithlden, Strombus, and Turritolla were

introduced.

Gradually tho single roomed, semi-subterranean

33. Brand, D.D. I9e8, p. 9. : 14

dwellings vjere replaced by structures with only slightly depressed floors Instead of pits. These had several con­ tiguous rooms with walls of poles and plaster (jacal) construction, or with horizontally laid stones for walls.

These evolved into houses, containing six to fourteen rooms with masonry walls, built entirely above ground and of one story in height. They wore L-ahaped, U-shaped, or 34. in a long row of rooms, or double tiered. The later part of the period witnessed a widespread occupation of snail village sites above ground, and is known as the Small

House Period In the Southwest. During this stage the in­ dented corrugated fora of pottery, which is considered typical of the area, developed.

Throughout this period there is a gradual development up to the peak attained In the Great Pueblo Period

(Pueblo III) that followed, a period characterized by its large cosaunal house and urban centers. Anasazi develop­ ment reached its climax in the Great Pueblo Period and was characterized by the erection of great terraced buildings with many rooms; soma had as many as five stories, Pueblo

Bonito and Cliff Palace are typical great village centers.

Each culture center had its own definite fora of pottery.

Ollvella shells were universally used through all

34, Roberts, F.1I.H., d'r. 1937, p. 9. 15

the phases. Mosaics were very extensively m d e during this period and shell work was more abundant than at any period of the Anas&zi culture. The number of genera in- 35 creased very considerably.

Toward the end of the period Internal decay caused a marked cultural decline. Large towns which had once thrived began to collapse. Many wore finally abandoned, either as a result of prolonged drouth or of invasions by plundering nomads. The villages along the 3an Juan and its tributaries were among the first to be deserted.

About the same period new villages and communities began to develop along the Rio Grande and Little Colorado to the 36 south, giving rise to the belief that these people were the founders of the new villages. Some pushed south from the Little Colorado and Tonto Basin into the Rohokam. area.

Pueblo IV, or the Regressive Pueblo Period, is a period of redistribution and shifting of community centers.

This period can be divided into two phases. The first extends from the end of Great Pueblo about 1300 A.D, down to the time immediately preceding the arrival of the

Spaniards. Again there was a general exodus of the people from, the San Juan area to the Rio Grande and the

Little Colorado. The second part of Regressive Pueblo jb." Brand, D.B. 1938, p. ¥ 7 ! 36. Roberts, F.II.H., Jr. 1937, p. 11. 16

dates from tha arrival of the Spaniards to the end of the conquest of the Pueblos (1696), and represents the early Historic Period.

Pueblo V, or Historic Pueblo, dates from the last stage in Anasazi development to the period of the modern villages, or from about 1700 to the present. This period shows the gradual breaking down of pueblo life under the 37 influence of the white man. The progress of development through the Basketaaker-Pueblo area was not a steady, smooth one. This of course is true of all the other cul­ tural regions. Undoubtedly there wore periods of advance­ ment followed by static phases when there was little or 38 no improvement.

MOGOLLOH The Mogollon people were agriculturalists and hunters, the hunting interest being more pronounced than in either the Hohokam or Anasazi. They used the atlatl and bow and arrow for weapons at an earlier data. So little is known of the historic development of the Mogolion that archaeologists have taken the available material as 39 it is and tried to trace it step by stop back to antiquity.

Local development as well as outside Influence is

Roberts, F.H.H., Jr. 1931, pp. ll-l2. 38. Hill, G.F., 1938, p. 28. 39. Eaury, 3.U. 1936, p. 1. 17

shown in the I/.ogollon culture pattern; but flaury proved definitely,through the culture obtained from the excava­ tion of the Mogollon and Harris villages and by a com­ parison of the elements of these cultures and similar ones in other localities, that the Mogollon culture was of a type separate and distinct from either the Anasazi 40 or Hohokaa.

Like the Anasazi and the Hohokaa, the Mogollon* s culture pattern passed through several phases or stages 41 which are known as:

Animas 1300-1400 Cultural mixture Break 1200-1300 Blankperiod Miabres 1000-1200 Three Circle 900-1000 San Francisco 700- 900 San Lorenzo) Postulated phase, but not Georgetown ) definitely established.

The Georgetown and San Francisco phases represent the true Mogollon culture pattern. .In.'the'Georgetown phase the dwellings were deep, rounded pithouses with a pole, brush, and plaster superstructure supported by a single post In the center and a ring of upright posts around the edge. Thera was a long, sloping, side entrance.

Storage pits adjoined the houses. The Mogollons practiced inhumation, scattering the graves among the houses. Some cremation was practiced and the ashes were placed in pits.

4U. Haury, B..,. 1930, p. 1. 41. Ibid., p. 3. 18

Pottery was mad® by the coiling method and there were variations in the different stages. Ko data exist on 42 shell for this phase.

Later, in the San Francisco phase, some of the dwell­ ings became rectangular, and a ridge pole or gable type of superstructure was developed. Shell work makes its appearance in this period, but was not abundant and few species were represented. There were a few Olivolla and

Yermetua shell beads, saucer-shaped beads, and a few 43 Glycymerls bracelets.

It is thought there might have bean a phase between

Georgetown and San Francisco, the San Lorenzo, because of the abrupt change in house types and the narked difference 44 in ceramics.

Zarly. traces of the Anasazi and Hohokam domination begin to show up in the Three Circle phase. In this phase we get a third type of dwelling. It was rectangular, and the superstructure was supported by upright posts placed near the corners and side.walls. Ceremonial kivac similar to those found in the Anasazi area were built during this period. Inhumation was still in vogue and sons of the graves were placed beneath the floors. Some cremation was 45 still practiced but the ashes were placed in urns.

42. Haury, Z.'J. 1930, p* 3. 43. Ibid., p. 108, Fig. 30. 44. Tbid., p. 82. 45. Roberts, Jr. 1937, p. 23. 19

The anoiont Mlmbrenoa v.-ere doubt loos a more or less paaoe-lorino people who engaged in the pursuit of agri­ culture and gave little time to warfare, as Is shown by the dearth of war Implements In the graves and rooms*

They were a people given to trade and commerce, Expedi­ tions were sent to distant places to secure turquoise, shell, and other commodities, as is shorn at the Galox ruin which seems to have been the commercial center of the 46 entire valley.

Shell work was abundant but relatively few species were used during this phase* The bi-lobed beads were the 47 most characteristic. Pottery showed the greatest varia­ tion in the painted vessels, nnd external influence was becoming apparent*

In the Mimbres Phase there is a culmination of the

blending of the Anaaazi and Hohokaa influence which re­

sulted in the disappearance of the basic Mogollon Culture,

at the end of which era the province was deserted. After

1200 A.D* the Mimbrenos apparently moved south into northern Mexieo and became the nucleus for the later

Chihuahua culture which contributed to the development of 48 the Casas Grandes.

During the Mimbrea phase there were several new

40. .Nesbitt, •P.Iu 1901, p. 45. 47. Haury, IS.IV. 1936, p. 108. 48. Kill, G.F. 1938, p. 105. 20

house forrasi masonry-lined gits, contiguous masonry- lined pits, and houses with shallow pits* These were short lived and were followed by mny-rooaed, single-storied pueblo type houses* Storage pits were rare. There was a decided change in ceramics. The amount of shall and the number of species increased, and the objects ware more 49 diversified. Carving of life forms was plentiful. Broad, heavy type bracelets evidently appeared for the first time in the Lliabrea Phase.

after the disappearance of the Mimbrenos the district was abandoned for a time. A little Inter a new group of pueblo-building people with a mixture of culture traits entered the province about 1300 A.D. This is known as the

Animas Phase. During this time the dead were buried be­ neath the house floors. Some cremation was still in vogue.

To the south, in the Chihuahua culture area, the prehistoric culture has been divided by Saylos into the 50 following phases:

Lipan - extends into historic times; represents southern Apache penetration of area. Conchos Carrotas Animas Kamos, 1300-1450 A.D. - Classic period. Casas Grandes the type site; absorption of Salado people? Babioora, 1200-1300 A.D. - Klmbres influence from the north Hedanos - Temporary camp sites in sand dune areas

49. Ilaury, D.U. 1936, p. 109. 50. Saylos, 2.B. 1936, p. 04, Table I. SI

Shell was quite abundant In Chihuahua during the

Ramos Phase. There has not been a sufficient amount of work done In Chihuahua to warrant very definite conclusions or comparisons. It is hoped that in the near future some scientific excavations may be carried on there. The writer has placed the discussion of this region under the Mogollon culture.

The Mogallon and the Anasasi culture patterns seem to have a closer relationship than the Mogollon and the 51 Hohokam.

5lY Roberts, R.u.H., Jr. 1337, p. 25. CHAPTER II

3HSLL TYPZ23 MID THS WORKING OF SHELL

I'rom tho number and varioty of narlna shells found in the Southwest region it is evident that they were highly valued by the ancient dwellers. They wore widely dis­ tributed, being found in ruins north as far as Cave Du

Pont in Utah, Gypsum Cavo in Nevada, Mesa Verde in Colorado, and south of Casas Grandes in Chihuahua. Shells are found in every typo of ruin from. Basketnaker oaves, oavatc dwellings, and pithousos into great pueblos.

Greater numbers occur in the ruins along tho Gila and Salt 1 Rivers in southern Arizona,

Practically all species of shell found in ruins of the Southwest belong to the mollusoan fauna of the Pacific coast and the Gulf of California, A very few have their origin in the Gulf of Mexico, and most of these are found in the Mogollon region. Fawkes adds that not a single specimen has been found which could be traced to the ■ Z . Atlantic watershed. At Los Uuertos a number of shells from the Gulf of Mexico wore obtained, and at Pecos the

1. Fawkes, J.M. 1896c, p. 307. 2. Fawkes, J.'V. 1904, p. 93. 23

genera from the Gulf of California and from the Gulf of

Mexico are about equal in numbers.

Brand states that from 132 arohaeologio sites reported there were obtained GG different identified species, 38 of which O0uld have been obtained only from the Gulf of

California; 10 species could havo been secured from either the Gulf of California or the Pacific coast of

California, or both; while 9 species could have cotao only from approximately the present southern California coast.

Thus 57 species were of general Pacific coast origin, and 3 the remaining 9 case from Atlantic waters.

To obtain these shells from the Gulf of California, which is about two hundred miles from the Hohokam area,

these prehistoric people must have endured great hard­

ships and privations on the long perilous journeys. These

wore made on foot, and portions of the journey were through

Arizona and California deserts where there was no living 4: water. If the natives followed the Gila River westward to

the Colorado then down.the Colorado to the Gulf of California, their route would have been longer but un­

doubtedly easier and they would have been assured of a 5 water supply. Every evidence seems to favor the Gila

route for Gladwin states, “There is no sign of any foreign

3. Brand, D.JJ. 1936, p. 5. 4. Pinkloy, P..and E.T. 1931, p. 21. 5. Moorehoad, E'.K. 1906, p. 7. %

or unsuspectod people having entered, the Papaguerla. The culture Is remarkably uniform, and no Intrusive sherds have been found. This point deserves consideration, as it has been supposed that the northern Pueblos were accustomed to send expeditions to the Gulf of California for shell and probably salt, which can bo obtained in vast quantities beyond the Pinaoates, If this were true one would expect 6 to find traces of such intercourse, but none is found,"

Another good evidence of this bartering for shell is shown in the excavation of the Lost City of Mevada, a site dated in Great Pueblo times. Hero is a large salt mine with ancient working back throe to four hundred feet

into the mountains. Harrington states:

wSo much of this salt was mined that it seems hardly possible it could all have been used at home; some, at least, must have gone into trade with other tribes. Maybe some of the pretty beads and pen­ dants wo found in the Lost City, made of Pacific Ocean shells, had boon bought with lumps of rock salt from tribes living far to the west,

Some think that shell may have reached the Southwest

ss a commodity of trade and may have been bartered several

times or may oven have passed through a number of hands

before reaching the ultimate owner. Others think that

shell was brought directly into the Southwest by Indians 8 of the coastal tribes. According to a well-established

i. Gladwin, ;*• and 11.3. 1983-80, "p. 127. 7. Harrington, M.E, 1927a, p. 308. 8. Roberts, P.H.H., Jr. 1930, p. 155. 25

tradition among tho Pueblos, It would sees that the

people of the Southwest wont to the coast themselves to

secure shall. This tradition tells of a pilgrimage to the

"sky blue water" during which the participants made a

"Journey of death" over the desert. Of course there would

be a definite reason for the journeys, and no doubt they

brought back quantities of marine shell for distribution 9 among those remaining behind. Unfortunately their exact

story may never be known; but we do know that in the

llohokam and Anasazi areas shell was known from tho earliest times on, and in the Classic and Great Pueblo periods

shell trade was at its height, providing more species t© 10 work with than at any earlier time.

Moorehead states that "♦....evldenc® seems to point

to the Phoenix region as a *middle ground* between the

11 . Cliff, Ocean, and Aztec tribes", for shell distribution.

On the other hand, Brand says that evidence seems to point to the Altar and Sonora drainages as places of

primary elaboration of some of the larger and heavier

' : 12 shells.

Brand states:

"Seemingly there were two main western routes (one from the California coast, the other from the

9. $eancon, J.A. 192d, p. S6, ~ * 10. Haury, #.%*• Report in preparation on Los Muertos, p. 383. 11. Uoorohoad, V.K. 1898, p. 208. 12. Brand, D.D. 1938, p. 9. 20

Sonora coast) that converged upon the Middle Glia area. The northern route carried mainly Hallotls op. mid Qllvella blplloata; the southern route provided the bulk of the shells found in the Southwest. From the Middle Gila-Lower Salt area routes diverged northward and eastward into the drainage basins of the Little Colorado, San Juan, and the western affluents of the Rio Grande. The natural setting was such as to make the shores between the Colorado and Yaqui deltas the chief Gathering grounds, nearby sites (principally in the Altar and Sonora drainage) places of primary elaboration of some of the larger and huavior shells (e.g., Qlycymarls), and settle­ ments in the Gila Valley (near the crossroads afforded by the Santa Cruz-Salt and Lower and Upper Gila) the final alaborators, arbiters of style in shellwork, and middlemen for both worked and un- viorked goods going northward and eastward. Sub­ sidiary routes up the Sonora and Yaqui rivers probably delivered the bulk of shells received in the interior drainage basins of northwestern Chihuahua, and continued to join with the Gila routes in feeding the Mlnbres and Rio Grande areas. Trade routes up the Brazes, Colorado, and Rio Grande-Pecos brought in the bulk of Gulf of Mexico shells which wore principally Ilasaarlus vlhex. Oliva sayana. and Stronbus sp. The vicinities of Pecos Pueblo, 0jinuga, and Paso were in strong crossroads position, which strength of location was expressed^ in comparative richness of :aarina shell material."

Shells were held In such high esteem possibly because of their supposed magic power to bring rainf and partly because of their natural attractiveness as the great brilliance of the pearly layer of certain genera made them especially desirable as ornaments or led to considerable 14 elaboration in their use. Likewise, shell is both easily worked and readily subjected to several techniques of*

13. Brand, D.JJ. 1938, p. 9. 14. Fawkes, J.b. 1912, p. M 3 . * This idea has been expressed many tines by living Indians. 27

v/orkraanship. Shell in found as used, whole or out Into

various ornamental forms in imitation of birds, roptllos, 15 frogs, and other animals, or out in geanatrio forms.

Tho chief reason for such extensive use of shell work

was the proximity of the Gulf of California and tho

Pacific Coast, tho ease with which the material might be

transported, and the adaptability of shell to carving,

grinding, and other methods of working. The recovery of

shell ornaments in wastage and broken specimens from rub­

bish and in burials and rooms of all phases gives an excellent opportunity to trace changes in the preference -

for certain snecios, the number of species used, and the 16 typos of objects made at any one time.

kvidencos of commerce and trade of shell among the

people of the Southwest are extensive. Perhaps no other

trade material was so much in demand. Evidence of this is

shown in the mosaics and inlaid pieces found throughout tho

region. Hot only have people traveled groat distances to

obtain tho shell, but also to get other materials used in conjunction with shell. For example, experts claim that

"tho turquoise used with some shell work at Casa Grande

came from mines located south of Santa Fe, Haw Mexico and 17 from lievada.

15. Fawkes, 'Jm'iU 1912, P* 145% 16. Gladwin, H.3. and others. 1937, p. 135. 17. Pinkloy, F. and E.T. 1931, p. 21. as

In tho Anaaazi ration shells were’not abundant during the Basketraaker period. Obeli ornaments v?ero abundant and elaborately worked in certain areas in the Develop­ mental Pueblo stage. During tho Groat Pueblo stage shell work was nore plentiful than at any other tine, and very beautiful mosaics were manufactured during this period.

Brand states that the Olivella. Glycynerls, Hallotis.

Oliva, and Gonug have been present in tho Southwest since

Buskotaakar cultural time (possibly since 1500 years ago).

Cardlum. Gerlthidea, Stroabus and Turritolla were intro­ duced during tho Developmental Pueblo with a very consid­ erable increase in tho number of genera in the succeeding tino. In tho Hohokam area introduction of every genus 18 originating from western waters was probably much earlier.

In tho Liogollon province there is no data on shell in the Georgetown phase; the San Francisco period had little shell work and few species of shell; In tho Three

Circle phase shell work was abundant but there were few species; in the Mimbres the amount of shell and the number of species increased and the objects made were more diversified. The species and genera which have boon found and identified in the throe culture areas of the Southwest

18. Brunei, D.iJ. 1950, p. 7. ' ! ' ' 29

ha.vo boon listed under the following sohexo, alphabotioally arranged: £ placed before tho genera found in all three areas; 0, before tliose found only in tho Ilohokori; O-.l when in Hohokua and Anasasi; and O-il for Hohoknn and Ho rollon.

19 H0H0KAM liar in e Shells 0 Acimoa fascicular is Menko 0 Araronla- 'liiatuia Gaol. ; ;/ Alectrioh vibox Say (native to Gulf of Hexico. Overlaps with Ilass-arius froa Gulf of California fourid 'ln Chihuahua region) 0 Alotea Bnuamip.onua Carp . • 0 /uiachis cororeita "eiow ' - 0 Avicula sp. (also Gulf of Mexico) 0 CarifTEa 0-A Cardluia d a t u m eow. (used as paint containers and for making cut shell pendants) 0-A Corlthldea albonodoaa Carp. 0 Cerithi'ufi sEarGus-musearum Valena. & ■: 0 CoAakli:r~nunc tat a . 0-A Coluiabella major 3ow. (used for whole shell beads) '-■if' Conus sp* (used as tinklers, bracelets, beads) 0 Dentalium 0 Donas fiouldl ' . 0 Dosin La ponderosa Gray 0 Galoodca patula Brod. ;f Olycynoris bicolor Keevo (used as bends and penuantoT ~ x Glycyaoris mcnlatns Brod (quite abundant. Used us pordarrb'snrnlcto, rings, also for carvings and overlays) ,} Hallo t is rufescans (Gray-red ha Ho t is. First recorded instance from an archaeological horizon. Not found in either I logo11on or ftnasasi) 0 Macrocallista squallda Sow 0-A Melongana patula l l r o d V (used an trumpets in ceremonials) ." 0-A liurax (used for trumpels in ceremonials) 19

19. The following were used for s)iell identification: • a. Haury, S.‘V. Report in preparation on Los Muertos, n. 303 nnd Haury, S.A. 1932. b. Gladwin, 11.S. and others. 1937, pp. 135-G. o. Fawkes, J.A. 1912, pp. 115-177 30

0 Ilaaaa lenoops Pils. and Lows 0-A lfa¥aarlu[s tabula Roe (several hundred. Used - as whole shell beads. From. Gulf of California; similar in appearance to iileotrlon from Gulf of Hexioo) 0 Ilerlta bernKarti Reoluz. 0-A Meri'^ina.plotalTow. 0 hue ala ii 01 lva"hlatula Gruel (used as beads; both ends truncate^)' ,/ Olive 11a biplicata Sow. (used as whole shell . bonds "and pendants. These were used from the earlier through the latest period. Most abundant of all shell) ‘ Peotec excavatus Anton ir Fo'eten excavates Turton Pecten subhodosus Sow. 0-A Fee timoulus g'l'ralntaus Re ova (Pacific coast ...clan cut Into aral'ets, wristlets, pendants, and beads) ((^ty^r***** > 0 Polinioos lewIasi Old. (British Columbia and Santa Barbara Island) 0 - Pollnlees reclualaniis Posh. 0 Pterla peruviana Reeve 0-21 Bpendylus ilrabatus Sow. (also Gulf of Mexico)

m m a ^ - . « s 0—

Freshwater Shells 0-A Anadonta sp. ■ • . - - - - ' 0 Physa sp. ' ■ ■ ■ 0 Unionidae

As is noted, only a few freshwater mussel shells were used and they were not so common as salt water shells because they were not so adaptable to the manufacture of ornaments.20 hoTliuury, 2..v. lOoh, p. Xob. ' “ 31

Land Shells 5 WelTsona sp. Q-A SoloroITa sp.

21 ANASAZI

Marine Shall ' ' J Aloolrlon (Nassa) vibex (fairly abundant as beads. Gulf of Mexico) Amphlsoa ? A Area pondorosa (Pendant. Gulf of Mexico) A Area tuSo'rouTosa (scarce. Gulf of Mexico) Bursa ? 'O-k Jnrdlum~elatun Sow. (scarce; found first in Tusayan In 1896) 0-A Cardlum robustwa (Gulf of Mexico) 0-A GorltETdoa sp. of albonodosa Carp. A . SHono aSil (for pendants) ‘ 1 .. 0-A uoluaSella' Conus I'dr^usonl Sow. tr . Conus prlnceps~3lnn. ( fairly abundant; used as "Tinklers) k Conus purpuraacons Brod. jt . Conus - refularis' Sow. ' A Cypreae sp. ■ A MaMoolaria dlstans (Gulf of Mexico) \ •v' (fly^^^rXF'^^ T a X u s Bros, (abundant; pendants x and bracdXets) $ Ballotls eracherodll (cut for pendants; found ■ as aarly'" as" "Baskataaker II) y Kallotls fulran Phil# (Abalone; a pearly shell prised for ceremonials; used for re­ ceptacles and for mosaic incrustation) _,A Laevlcardium elatun Sow. 0-A Meionaona 'patula' Bo\v. (scarce; used in c o r eii on iaTs’) 0-A Mure:: (principally for trumpets) 21

21. All Anasazl species and genera taken I'Torn the following: a. Brand, D.D. 1937, pp. 63-115 b. Caywood , L.R and Spicer, B.II. 1935, p. 87. c. Fawkes, J . it# 1904, pp. 17-195. a. Fawkes, J.V.. 1896c, pp. 359-367. 0. Fewkcs, J.v;# 1696a, pp. 557-580 f. Fawkes, J.,. 1898c, pp. 517-539 £• Kidder, A.V. 1932, pp. 183-184 h. Lockett , II.c, 1933, pp. 76-82. i. Spicer, B.II. 1933, pp. 78-79 32

Ilassarlus coiaplanalus Powp. Berlt'Ina"picta Sox?. Ilo'rlt'ina rocllVata (for beads) Oliva angulata jLa.ci. (fairly abundant; used as tinklers) . . Oliva annitata Lan. (used for rattles) Oliva blplicata Sow. (this and species listed below are nost abundant of all marine aollusca in Tusayan ruins. Ends were truncated and nude into beads; used for necklaces and for adornment of cements) Oliva hlatula Gaelin. Oliva sayana (used as tinklers; Gulf of Mexico) Olivella of Dana Wood (very abundant, 2000 at Pecos; used whole as beads or cut to form saucer-shaped beads) Olivella of Dana Gray i f Pec ten s'p. £\ 0—A I’ectunculus nlyantoua Reeve cfy*?*** *******’ 0-A Dtronbus caleatus Wood (used mainly for trumpets; used in ceremonies) 0-A Strombus nlyas (from Florida Keys)- 0-A Strombus 'ryaollior Sow. 0-A Stro.mbus pu~ilisTGulf of Mexico) 0-A Trivia fSAuZ?) 0-A Turrltella ticrina Kloner.(unaltered; perfor- atea for suspension) Freshwater Shells 0-A juiadonta (Varlaty of mussel found in swampy country) A Lampsilia purpurata (beads and pendants) A LTcurala ""racta latlssiraa (pendants) A Unlo sp• (beads or small pendants) Land Shells A BuXIaulus sohiedeanus A Oerlon Tncanun (soutEem Florida) 0-A Sonorelia sp. 33

22 MOOOLLON

§' Aleotrlon noastus Hinds •} Conus sp. Glycynarls sp. ' ii Hallotls sp. - Qj-Ivs. spocata homphilll Johnson ' ,r Ulivolla sp. Pocten O-ll ^pondylus 0-11 Vo'rribt'i.uT*

As noted In the shove list, the great scarcity of both spocies and genera In tho Mogallon area is no doubt duo to the small amount of investigation in the region in question. There are no species at liogollon which are not listed in the other areas. The Hohokaa shows the greater variety of species and ;aany which are not found in either of the other tv;o provinces. This would indicate that perhaps the Hoholmm was the distributing center for shell, or it nay raean merely that they were closer to the geograph­ ical centers of origin of the material in question. Various sites in northern Sonora show this strongly, as was previously stated. Another location, a camp site in

Growler Valley west of Ajo, examined by Cunnings, might have been a trade center. .There was little evidence of any structures hare; but the ground was sbrown with a great variety of shells ranging from whole specimens to

22. gourdes for the species and genera for Lfogollon are.* a. Draafiold, \7. 1931, pp. 9-124. b. Cosgrove,. II.3. and C.3. 1932, pp. 1-G7. c. Usury, 3.A. 1936, pp. 109-116. 54

fragments of bracelets, armlets, beads, rings, and pendants In all stages of manufacture. This site possibly could have boon a trading center between the coast, the 23 Hohokaa region, and the northern Pueblos. To be sure, this last statement Is but a supposition.

It seems quite evident that there vjas considerable trade through barter between the Anasazi province to the north and the llohokan to the south. There are very few genera in the former not found In the latter. On the other hand, there are nineteen species found In the Hokokam but not in the Anasazi. Only six species have been identified

In the Anasazi which are not known to the TTohokan; three of these are from the Gulf of Mexico.

/mother significant fact is that the art and symbolism of the shell work of the Anasazi area are identi­ cal with the same on pottery of the ancient sedentary 24 peoples of southern Arizona, Fawkes states:

"It nay be said that the simple existence of those shells in the ruins from the Gila valley to the modern Tusayan can be explained on the theory of barter, and that their distribution does not prove racial kinship of former owners is self- evident.

This same thought is expressed by Haury: "Once shell was

acquired by the Hohokara, it is not improbable they were 252324

23. Lockett, H.C. 1953, pp." 80-81. 24. Fawkes, J.;,'. 1904, p. S3. 25. Ibid., p. 09. 35

largely instrumental in its diffusion over a large part 26 of the Southeast,w It night bo added that, "If they did not make pilgrim-ages thonoclvos for the material, they v/oro sufficiently near coastal tribes to have obtained shells by barter without difficulty..*.., whence shells could easily have been carried up the Verde, Tonto, and 27 halt to distant points reached in the Pueblo area."

It should also be borne in mind that the use of shell is lass prevalent as one moves to the north from the

Hoboken area. Lockett states: "The number of prehistoric mortuary shell objects increases as we go south from, the 20 present Hopi pueblos.*

At Pecos to the east, as will be noted in the above list, marine shells from the Gulf of Mexico were as plen­ tiful as those from the Gulf of California. Hero the itio Grande served as a thoroughfare for the trade in shell and supplied the villages at the upper portion of the river. Obviously, there was less opportunity for these shells to be bartered westward.

The above facts are corroborated by the findings of

Brand in his Postulated Trade Routes:

"The absolute and relative amount of shell trade from the Gulf of Mexico to the Southwest was small. *2627

26. Gladwin, II.3. and others. 1937",' p* 136. .... 27. Ibid. 23. Lockett, H.C. 1933, p. 76. 36

Only ruins along the Pecos River> in northern Chihuahua, and in the Lilabres dralnnG0 posnosa any appreciable number of Gulf of Mexico shells. All such areas aro eaat of the Continental Divide# Two cites in Pacific drainage have had^ono species each reported from the Gulf of Mexico.**29

"Raliotis sp, and possibly OlivollQ blplicata into southwestern Colorado, and ifal'i'otfs sp. into the Panhandle of Texas constitutea the most north and eastward spread of Pacific Coast shells. Also, other than these two ronera, no shells of purely Pacific Coast origin have been reported east of the Rio Grande; nor have any Pacific Const shells boon reported from Sonora or the Big fiend region of the Rio Grande."^0

Forms of Shell Work Very Interesting is the fact that unveorketi shell in the Southwest was quite rare in proportion to worked shell.

Unworked shell was most frequently found In refuse, while the worked shell ocoursmoot corraonly in inhumations and 31 with cremations. The genera found unworked were usually 32 Ollvolla blplicata« Glycymeris aaculatus. and Cardium.

It is very evident that shell was the popular and prevalent material worn for decoration, and it was exten­

sively manufactured into various objects for personal 33 adornment.

The marine mollusca in the south were not used for

dye, textiles, or currency. Although both worked and 333132*30

"GO." Brand, D.D. 1938, pp. 7-9 30. Ibid., p. 9. 31. TbHT, p. 7. 32. "Gladwin, H.3. and others. 1937, p. 138 33. Roberts, F.H.H., Jr. 1931, p. 160. 37

umvorked shells were highly prized, they were valued primarily for ornamentation and ceremonial usage. It

should also be observed that the peoples of the interior

Southwest did not use the various marine molluscs for

food. Ninety per cent of the marine shells found in

arohaoologio sites have been worked in some fashion which

Indicates shell was used principally for ornamentation.

Of the twenty-five genera' most'commonly used for food by

aborigines along the coasts, only Glycymerls. Hallotis.

Cardium. and Pecten are at all common in the Southwestern

ruins. Only infrequently were shells used for tools such 34 as noodles, awls, and hooks.

These ornaments may bo classified by their node of 35 wearing. Some few pieces will not fit into such a class­

ification, and these have been listed under miscellaneous: 1. Beads a. ..hole shell - Glycymorls, Conus, Amphissa, Trivia solandri. Ooiumballa. Ollvolla.' Oliva, AlectrIon. "Kassarius b. Disc, concave, rectangular, square, dioooidal, spherical c. Cylindrical or tubular - Ollvolla. Yermatns d. Saucer-shaped, concavo-convex o. Llassive

2. Bracelets, or armlets. or wristlets a. " Plain, heavy, thin, intermediate b. Carved c. Inlaid d. Painted ' *35

54. Brand, D.D. 1933, p. 6. 35. Gladwin, II.3. and others. 1937, p. 137 38

3. Rings . • a« PTain be Carved c. Inlaid

4. Anklets aT~FIaIh - b« Carved 0 , Inlaid

5e Pendants a. dhole shell - Turritalla. Cerlthlum, Pecten. Glycyaerls. Waclolaha. Cerion.'"'Unid, Lampsllls. Li^umia. C'hione, CorithTdea. Conus, oTlve'lIa. Oliva b. Tinkler pendants c. Ground shells d# Cut shells - Cardiun, Hnliotis, Abolone, Gtrombus. Lai.ips 111sT~Unlo, Unioniaae - e. Geometric fores

0, illsoollanaous a. Uosaio work and inlay# b. Painted shell c. dtched shell

Beads: Whole shell beads were made up of small uni­ valve or bivalve marine shells. These most commonly used were Ollvalla. Oliva. Conus, Hallotls. sjnall Glycymerls.

/uaphlssa. Turritalla. Carithldea. Vermetus. Alectrion, Passarlun, Trivia, and Colunbolla. Olive11a shell beads prevailed and were used over a longer period of time than any other species of shell in the Southwest. They ara found in the earliest period in the Hohokam area, and in­ creased in abundance during tho Sedentary Period. In the

Anasazl region they ware plentiful during Basketzaaker times, but declined during Pueblo phases except in the

Pecos region where they Increased in the latter period.

In fact, the greatest finds at Pecos were from chambers 39

36 of post-Columbian timas, A few Qlivella beads were found in early burials in the Mogollon region.

Qlivella and most other whole shell beads were pre­ pared by grinding away the apex and base of the shell.

Thus a suspension cord could be passed from end to and with tha massive portion of tha. shell forming the bead, usually circular in fora. Or, in other cases, an aperture wna made in the outer wall to permit the passage of a 37 string, thus producing a drop-shaped or bell-like bead.

Often both ends of the Qlivella shell were broken or ground off and the center portion strung as beads.

In the Anphlssa beads the hole for stringing was pro­ duced by grinding the shell near the margin of the aperture until it was worn through. These shells are so shaped that when they are strung they fit over each other in such a way that the spires swing out from the string, and they ' '■ : ' 38 arc alternated in opposite directions.

Not only were whole shells used for beads, but also the prehistoric Indian expressed genius In manufacturing minute disc beads from portions of shells. Foras so worked include concave discs, rectangular, square, dis­ co idal, spherical, or irregularly shaped pieces. Fora is

36". Kidder, A.7. 1932, p. 136. 37. Hough, 1907, p. 23. 38. Spicer, H.H. 1933, p. 76. 40

Important for "The type of disc bead with a vary large per­ foration is a diagnostic of the Snoaton Phase in the 39 Rohokam area"* Disc beads vvera not plentiful in tho pit- house period, but were vary abundant in the Pueblo Period of the Anaaazi area*

These disc beads are quite variable in size and thickness, ranging from 3/32 to 3/8 inches in diameter and varying from 1/8 to less than 1/32 inch in thickness, and with centrally-located perforations as small as 1/32 inch* Some of these beads were fairly large .and of coarse make, while others wore very minute* The extreme skill and accuracy necessary in making such minute beads leads one to appreciate the ingenuity of these ancient people,

Fawkes states: ... .

"It Is a marvel bow these people could have manufactured such minute beads with the rude imple­ ments used, many of the perforations were so minute they were but a trifle larger than the diameter of a fine needle, and the beads themselves not over one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter and as thick as a sheet of paper."40

Cylindrical or tubular beads were made from the

heavy section of a shell, both ends being out or ground

off and the central section of the shell only being used.

Those wore never abundant in the Southwest. They wore 41 found mainly in the Colonial period at Snaketown.

39. Gladwin, 11.3. and others. 1937, p. 140." 40. Fawkes, 1904, p. 93. 41. Gladwin, E.3. and others. 1937, p. 140. 41

42 Kidder found a few at Pecos, and a few others were found in the An&sazi region. 43 Massive shells were reported by Kidder from Pecos and were apparently cylindrical. ITo other finds have been reported; hence these shells seen to be very scarce.

The bi-lobed type beads have beer, described ns two- lobed, double drop, and figure eight. The beads are cut in the shape of a figure eight, the perforations for suspension being drilled through the upper and smaller parts.

",,’hen strung they give the effect of two strands rather than 44 one. These had a very wide distribution in both time and area, fron Baskotmaker through late Pueblo, and in all 45 throe areas. Haury states;

"In the Santa Crus Phase, the type was usually small, averaging less than five mra. in length, while in the Saoaton Phases the average length was approximately one cm.

They were found in the Mogollon In the Three Circle phase, 47 an average of seven mm. Roberts states that this fora is 48 characteristic of Pueblo III times in the Anasazl.

The saucer-shaped or concave-convex fora is very rare in the Hohokam area, but it is the prevailing typo in the 49 Anasazl area during the early period. They were found

4A. Kidder, A.V. 1952, p. 13b". 45. Ibid...... 44. SoEerts, F.H.H., Jr. 1931, p. 161. 45. Kluckholn, C. and Reuter, P. 1939, p. 141. 46. Gladwin, II.3. and others. 1937, p. 140. 47. Haury, 2.A". 1930, p. 78. 46. Roberts, F.H.H., Jr. 1931, p. 102. 49. Gladwin, H.3. and others. 1957, p. 140. 42

in tha Magollon area during 3an Francisco times. 3o::ie of the specimens appear to have been cut from the lower part of an Olivolla shell. In section they were concave- convex, while in outline they are oval or round. When 50 strung they give a "crinkly" appearance.

Bracelets: Glycymaris was one of the favorites used for ornamental purposes among the ancient people of the

Southwest. They were cut into armlets for the upper arm or as bracelets or wristlets for the wrists. Usually the bracelets are sore abundant but are smaller, slighter, 51 and as a rule loos carefully worked.

Bracelets and armlets were manufactured by cutting away the body of the shell, leaving a narrow ring which was then ground down to the desired thickness. The char­ acteristic fluting of the shell was often left. All of the bracelets probably represent the maximum diameter of the shell employed. Many times the knob or beak was left on for decoration. This knob was often quite elaborate, being worked into various motifs such as varied geometric designs, heart-shaped or triangular forms, or in animal shapes as frogs, snakes, horned toads, human figures, or ■ 52 birds.

50. Kidder, A.?. 1932, p. 185. 51. Fawkes, J.'.V. 1896c, p. 361. 52. Hanna, L'..** 1931, p. 49. „ 43

Tho thin, fragile type of bracelet waa found in the

earliest phases of the three areas. The very thinnest

type was found only in the Hohokara regions. Tho inter­ mediate type was most abundant during tho Colonial Period of the Kohokam, • and at tho corresponding tlno in the

other areas. The heavy type is characteristic of the later

phases In the Southwest, making its appearance in tho 53 Sedentary Period and carrying through the Classic. The

thickness of the bracelet varied according to individual

workmanship, or according to whether the bracelet was 54 large or small.

Usually the surfaces of the armlets are smooth and

without ornament, but there are many specimens beautifully

decorated with incised frets which often cover tho entire

outer surfaces. Specimens have been found where the .

twined bodies of rattlesnakes formed the m i n parts of 55 the bracelets. Tiaury believes that shell carving among the

Holiolcum antedated that of the neighboring Anasazi or

ilogollon people, and that it had its origin among the 55 Hohokaiii in the Colonial Period.

Painting of bracelets was- also practiced. Some of

the incised figures had colored paints, as red and yellow.

53. Gladwin, B.3. and others. 1937, p. 142. 54. Bradfield, V/. 1932, p. 58. 55. Hanna, M.:<. 1931, p. 48. 55. Gladwin, 11.3. and others. 1937, p. 144. 44

57 rubbod Into them. ,

Inlaying of shell was also in vogue .about the same period. Small turquoise were set in pitch or gum in an incision on the outer surface of the shell.

Strings of whole shell beads were also used for bracelets or anklets.

Rings and Anklets: Finger rings were made from the small specimens of Qlycymeris or Poctunculus glganteus

Reeves by grinding and decorating them, in the same m y as were the armlets and bracelets. However, the rings were less abundant. Because of their narrowness, the carving, painting, and Inlaying were delicate treatments of 58 geometric or life motifs. Rings went through the same evolutionary stages as the armlets. The broad band ring,

cut from the Conus shell, was an innovation of the Classic

Period. Carving and Inlaying wore more easily done on these rings. As a rule rings wore not finely made; they

were always pierced at the umbo. They seem to have been

worn on all fingers, and sometimes two rings have been taken 59 from one finger.

Pendants: wHoie iiholl: The difference between whole shell beads

57. Hesbitt, KlI. 1951, p. 95. ■ 58. Gladwin, if.u. and others. 1937, p. 145. 59. Fawkes, J.A. 1896c, p. 202. 45

and whole shell pendants is often determined solely by the use of the ornament, but a few other distinctions can be made to aid one in their classification. A whole bead, whan strung, has Its long axis parallel with the string while the pendant, when strung, has its long axis at riaht 60 angles to the string.

As in the beads, both bivalve and univalve shells viere perforated for suspension, with few alterations being made. Pendants were chiefly of Kallotls, Glycyierls, Pooten. Sardinia, and Turrltolla.

The large wings and long hinge.lines of the Pecten, a bivalve shell, wore usually reduced. V/hen the concave valve was used in this shell a hole was drilled; the per- 61 foration was broken whan the convex valve was used. The smallest Glyoymaris or Pectunculus shells were perforated by rubbing down the point of the beak until a small open­ ing was made.. A second type of pendant was produced by grinding or cutting away the entire top of the shell, as in a bracelet, and thus was suspended by the large perfor- 62 ation. Many of the armlets are perforated near the umbo, which would allow them to servo equally well as pendente.

60. Upicer, A.II. 19db, p." 7B. 61. Gladwin, II.S. and others. 1937, p. 141. 62. Bartlett, K. 1934, p. 62. 46

Many tiraas these pendants bear beautiful Incised designs.

Many fragments, usually in orasoent form, of the above genera ware ground down and drilled through the beak for suspension. These might have once been bracelets and when 63 broken were so worked and used as pendants.

Tinkler Pendants: The Conus. a univalvo shell, was prized for the manufacture of tinklers or pendants. It

is a beautiful, pinkish shell with longitudinal rod-brown 64 markings and with wavy, thin walls. The spire was ground away at right angles to the lip, thus making a conical

boll which was open at the side. The shell was perforated 65 at the apex for suspension. The Oliva is a heavier, more

solid shell than the Conus, and is white or pink with

brown raottlings. It is worked in the same way as the

Conus, but because of its shape the cutting is above the

aperture.; this tinkler Is more oval than conical and 66 emits a loss resonant sound. These tinklers were attached

to the end of a stick and served as rattlers; or they were

tied to the garment close enough together to strike

against one another and thus produce a tinkling sound. Or,

perhaps, they might be used as pendants, forming part of a

necklace as they wore strung at Intervals with shell beads.

Gb. McGregor, J.C. 1937, p* 5V. 64. Kidder, A.V. 1932, p. 190. 65. I’ewkos, J.’,7. 1096c, p. 365. 66. Kidder, A.V.■ 1932, p. 190. 47

Ground Shell: The distinction between ground and out shell pendants is based on the position of the perforation:

’’In beads this Is centrally located.*...; in pendants It 67 is near one edge". Ground shell pendants wars made by grinding down the ua'oonal parts of the shells. The genera cannot be identified because the essential features have been removed. They have no standard fora, due to the irregularities of the material; but specimens of bracelets, pendants, and beads have been found used as pendants.

They are not abundant at any period, but are more apparent 68 in the Plohokam at an early date.

Gut Shell: Many of the genera used in the manufacture of out shell pendants have not boon Identified for, like the ground shell, the work necessary to produce the de­ sired ornament often removed features essential for iden­ tification. The majority of those identified wore fashioned from the "flattest portion of the thin, uniform walls of the Cardlua, Hallotis, or Strombus. A few were natie from freshwater shells as Leaps 11 is. ITnlo. and

Unlonldae. Hallotis was a favorite because of its irrides- cent coloring.

There are many distinct forms of pendants* In

G7. Kidder, A.f. 1952, p. 190. ^ ^ - 68. Gladwin, H.5. and others* 1937, p* 141 48

geometric shapes there are all variations: circles, 69 elongated rectangles with rounded corners, triangles, squares, pentagonal and hexagonal shapes. The commonest shape perhaps is the oblong form with rounded corners, one end being slightly narrower than the other. In these the perforations are in the narrow end. 'In many specimens there wore double suspensi&n holes drilled at ono edge or one and. Sometimes there ware small marginal incisions.

There is no evidence of inlays or incrustations in this 70 work.

In thin specimens the drilling was from one side only,

the opposite side being slightly reamed. In thicker

pieces the drilling was from both sides. Usually, though

not always, the perforating was done after the pendant had 71 been roughed into shape.

Some specimens have notched rims or short incisions 72 radiating from the edge toward the center.

A great elaboration of life forms is found in pen­ dants of the Southwest. Various animals as frogs, birds,

ssrnents, lizards, rabbits, and other small creatures 75 served as motifs. A very artistic example of shell

carving represents a frog cut from a whole Pectunculus

09.~ ikirrington, M. 11, 1935, p. 155. 70. Kidder, A.V. 1932, p. 193. 71. Herrington, II.R, 1932, p. 153. 72. Haury, K.IV. 1934, p. 394. 73. Hanna, Li.;,. 1931, p. 49. 49

shell• The head, legs, and body arc in relief. Both the hind and foro logs are well outlined, the hind logs being folded in a ro.-.liztlc nanner. The head, situated at the umbo, has two beveled holes which suggest sockets for eyes. The inset eyes ware probably made of spherical stones. A hole at the umbo for suspension indicates this, was a pendant. Shells carved in imitation of frogs, iden­ tical with this one have been found in both the Annsazi and 74 Hohokam provinces.

All the other life forms were carved from nearly flat pieces of shell. On those the distinguishing features are not so carefully worked out and are difficult to identify.

A very common pendant fora is the bird with outstretched 75 wings.

Common in the early Kohokarn period is an elaborate bone, stone, and shell carving with the bird-serpent motif.

The bird is shown pecking at or swallowing a snakel Two 76 shell bracelets with this motif were found at Mimbres.

Los Luertos pendants were found show in r evidence 77 of blue and green paints.

Many small shell carvings classified as fetishes have been found. These are often perforated as if for

74. itewko:.-, J.„. 18960, p. 502. 75. Haury, E.Report in preparation, p. 390. 76. Ibid., p. 397. 77. T E f T d .. p. 398. 50

auupenslon* They m y have been worn about the neck, 78 fastened to the ear, or attached to sons part of the body.

Mosaic T/ork and Inlays

It is hard to divide ornaments into groups according

to material because some pieces are made from two or per­

haps even three materials. For example, soma shells arc 73 covered with turquoise mosaics and have an inlay of some

•other stone or perhaps even a piece of shell for the center

decoration. In some cases, too, a necklace max' be com- • GO posed of both stone and shall beads.

One of the most interesting and highly developed arts

in the Ocuthv/ost war, that of incrusting or overlaying or

of Inlaying objects for ornamental purposes. The most

outstanding shall work is a combination of engraving, inlay, and painting. These ancient mosaic places show

skill in workmanship and taste in design. Descriptions

of some of these pieces will be found in Chapter III.

To prepare the object for the reception of the inlay

or overlay, a groove was cut in part of the base with a

stone knife, rinon gum was usually the medium for seal­

ing the small pieces of stono or shell. A layer of the

gum was spread upon the bottom of the cut and base, and

W . Fawkes, jy,,v 1912, p. 144. • • • 79. Distinction between the processes of inlay and overlay: an inlay. is used when portions of foundation material are cut out to receivo mosaic pieces; overlay and incrustation used when mosaic is laid on a base. 00. Caywood, L.Iu and Spicer, S.B. 1935, p. 87. 51

upon this foundation the nosalo pattern was developed.

These inlays and overlays were composed of carefully shaped

places. Llnterials usually employed include turquoise,

jadoito, malachite, quartz, beryl, obsidian, and vari­

colored shells. These were CQ.aantod to a base of bone,

wood, or shell by moans of a tenacious vegetal pitch of 81 local origin.

Many tines the minute pieces of turquoise were so

accurately squared and perfectly fitted and their edges

beveled in such a "way that the gun in which they were laid 82 was invisible between than. In many pieces of mosaic the

turquoise fragments were neatly fitted together in rows to

fora various animals or birds, especially frogs or toads.

That those mosaic pieces were often worn as pendants

is not doubted, for a largo number have perforations for

suspension.

Painted Shell

The painting of shell has already been mentioned in

the discussion on bracelets and pendants. Ho doubt many

painted specimens are not available since the pigment

lacked permanent sticking qualities; hence much of the

evidence has not been preserved. Red and black were used

01. Popper, G. 1920, pp. 70-71. ~ 02. I’owkos, 1096c, p. 362. 52

Ohiofly In incised designs.

Miscellaneous

Hair Ornajients: At various sites throughout the

Southwest discs with double perforations have been found.

Usually only one or two will be found at a site. Loud classifies then a a hair omanents. He says:

MV/liun shell objects have two holes, they are intended as omanents to be tied to braids of the hair, leathers can bo lashed against the shell between the holes."83

Atohod Shell: For the first tine in Korth /vaerioa tho technique of acid etching has baen recorded by TIaury at Gnakatown. Tool narks are lacking on those pieces of shell, and the edges of tho designs arc decidedly differ­ ent from the edges of designs in carved shell. Also,

greater fineness of detail is possible in tho etching pro­ cess. Another noticeable feature is the retention of the natural ridging or rippling both on the interiors and ex­

teriors, and extending from the umbo to the margin of the 04 Cardiuia shells.

A laboratory test showed that the same results can

be obtained by using fomented sahuaro fruit juice for the

acid. Etched specimens are not abundant and have been 05 recorded only by H&ury. This scarcity of specimens night

Bo. Louci, L.L.' and Harrington, M.n. 1929, p. 149. 64. Gladwin, H.O. and others. 1937, p. 150. 85. Usury, Lu. 1937, p. 150. 53

ba accounted for in that the process waa.quite complicated and■the method was not commonly known. Of course it is possible there are many etched pieces which have not been 86 recognized as such by many collectors.

■ . Imitation Shallwork: As has been stated many times, sea shells waro held in high esteem. Because of their scarcity in the northern settlements, many of the people there manufactured imitation shell ornaments out of clay.

Peotunculua was the type usually emulated.

Methods of "..'orIcing Shell

Raw shell showed working by cutting, grinding, break­ ing, drilling, chipping, sawing, abrading, carving, in­ cising, and etching. The methods most commonly used wore

grinding, cutting, breaking, and drilling.

The amount of labor involved in manufacturing beads was enormous, especially in the minute disc types, ‘..hole

shell beads were prepared by merely grinding or breaking

off the spire and drilling a hole or holes for stringing.

The very minute disc shell beads required extensive cut­

ting, grinding, abrading or polishing, and drilling.

Their materials, methods, and tools were very simple. They

consisted of thin masses or shoots of shell of uniform

thickness, ground smooth on a gritty lap stone. These

80. Gladwin, II.V. and others. 1937, p. 150% 54

shoats wore' marked off into squares or blanks, and the squares were drilled and broken or out apart with sharp atones. These bits were then taken between the thumb and

finders and the-edges' rubbed. By turning tho shell bits at intervals, a polygonal figure of six or more sides was produced. These pieces were then strung tightly and

drawn over a grinding surface, perhaps rubbed to and fro

by hand or drawn through a groove between two fine-grained

stones. They were then polished by rubbing on skins, ' 87 using fine gritty dust as an abrasive medium.

Those tiny discs ranged in size from 5/32 to 3/8 of

an inch in diameter, and from 1/8 to less than 1/32 of an

Inch in thickness, while others grade upwards in size to

chunky discs 1/4 of an inch in diameter and 1/8 of an inch 88 in thickness.

Tho first tools used for drilling were made of bone,

stone (flint or obsidian), grass, cactus thorns, wood, and

other similar material available at the time. Oorao drills

had "wings** or a marked widening at one end; these ware

probably hafted in the end of a wooden or bone shaft. The

instruments for drilling such small apertures would no

doubt be extremely fine tools.

87. Hough, 1914, p. 261. 88. Kidder, A.V. 1932, p. 185. %

A perforation unifora in diameter throughout the 09 thickness of the disc is the most common form. This was made by using a long slender drill oot in a straight shaft and revolved in alternating directions between tho hand®.

If the shaft were hold horizontally it could be rolled up and down the thigh with the right hand, the point of the

drill being pressed against the object held in the left hand. After the boring, the discs were rotated on n long

slender device to obtain a uniform diameter.

Some beads have a conical perforation which was pro­

duced by a sharp, abruptly tapering instrument. Another type is a biconics! perforation which is drilled from 90 both sides of tho disc with a tapering instrument.

As yet no instrument has been found which archaeolog­

ists can definitely say was used In the drilling of small

beads. Small reads and tough grass stems were used with

grinding media as drilling devices by primitive people,

but it sooms doubtful if such a method could produce the

exceedingly small apertures in some of these beads. They

may have used a very sharp splinter of bone, but it would 91 have required a great deal of bone to supply these drills.

Usury states: "The instruments required must have

09. Maury, g.W. 1931a, p. 85. 90. Ibid. 91. Tola. 56

boen sharp, touch and slender, readily obtainable and 92 plentiful". He than suggests that the spires of several species of cactus could have served as such tools. The sahuaro (Gamegioa gigantea) and bianaga or barrel cactus

(3chinocaotus wiohzeni Sngaliaan) produce the likely spires which could be adapted for drills. The noodles of the sahuaro are useable only from the young specimens, for on the more mature plant they tend to become woody and con­ sequently are of no value. The bisnaga spires are arranged in clusters along the vertical ribs of the plant. The largest ones are bast suited for drill points. They are very sharp, slender, and extremely tough, and range in 95 length from 1 to 2 inches.

Haury carried out an experiment to prove the service­ ability of cactus needles as drills. He used a fine­ grained pall tic rock, light red in color, and when finished the beads measured 3.39 mm. in diameter, 1.13 ram. in thickness, and had a perforation of .94 m . in diameter.

It took approximately fifteen minutes to pierce the frag­ ment of stone with a drill made by setting a bisnaga spine in a notch in the end of a small stick. The drill was set in notion by rotating between the palms of the hands and

§2. Haury," 1931a, p. 85. 93. Ibid.. p. 06. 57

was aided in the grinding nroeess by the addition of fine 94 sand and water*

The experiment with cactus spines was made on stone, but the same method could be applied to making shell beads*

Such spines appeal to the writer as the most logical instru­ ments to be used by the prehistoric bead maker for the drilling of rainuto holes in tiny shell beads.

Nowhere in America, and probably nowhere in all the 95 world, was such a great proficiency in beadwork displayed as here in the Southwest. Haury states:

"It may be said that the ancient Pueblo bead- maker* s art is unique in several respects. It boars no analogous development in the Archaeological areas to the north, east, south, or west. It was carried to a perfection difficult to grasp when we consider the primitive stage of manufacture...... It is evi­ dent that the art of making beads underwent an inde­ pendent and uncommon development.

Apparently the same technique was employed in the work­ ing of pendants as in the shell beads. Harrington says:

"A study of the edges shows that in forming the pendants the process most commonly used was a kind of battering; but grinding or cutting, or rather groov­ ing from both sides and then breaking were practices.

Cutting was used in shaping either geometric or life forms from flat pieces of shell, also in bringing out details of 90 the latter, as the wings and feet. Carving was also

94. Haury, g.V/. 193la, p. 86. 95. Hough, 1914, p. 24. 96. Haury, g.V/. 1931a, p. 07. 97. Harrington, 1,1.R. 1933, p. 153. 98. Gladwin, H.3. and others. 1937, p. 138 58

employed and a full round effect was almost attained. Eye sockets and the formation of pits suggesting the rough skin of reptiles wore depicted by a drilling technique.

Drilling (the commonest technique), grinding, and break­

ing were employed In making perforations. In thin pieces of shell the drill was used from one side only, the opposite side being slightly reamed; but in thicker speci­ mens the drilling was from both sides and was usually done 99 after the pendant was roughed into form.

The method of manufacturing bracelets was very simple.

The Glyoymeris and Pectunoulus shells were circular and

convex, and the walls thick enough to be substantial. The

convex side was ground down on a grinding stone to the de­

sired thickness. The thin edges were then broken or

chipped off. The inner surfaces were smoothed by the use

of sandstone or schist reamers.

Rings were made from the small Glyoymeria shells. The

same methods employed in the making of bracelets were

applied to the manufacture of rings.

Painting of shell was done both on smooth surfaces in

elaborate designs, and on carved or Incised surfaces, in 100 the latter used as a filler. Colors most frequently used

wore black, rod, and yellow.

Shells served mainly as the base material in mosaic

99. Harrington, Ll.R. 19bS,’ p. 6'S. 100. Gladwin, II.S. and others. 1937, p. 147 59

work. The base shell was out or ground Into the desired gooaiotrie or life fora, and thus served as the background of the overlay. A layer of gun or tenacious vegetal pitch was then spread over this foundation, and in the gun the mosaic pattern was developed. Materials used have been previously mentioned.

The technique of etching shell was quite complicated.

The process was somewhat as follows: The design on the shell would be covered with a substance which was a resist to the acid. The shell was then placed in the acid and allowed to remain in the solution while the etching was carried to the desired depth.

Methods of Attaching Beads and Pendants

An interesting ornament which has been found is a

"choker" or tight necklace made of leather or fiber string and adorned with a few Qlivella shells. The method of attaching the Qlivella shells to the string is quite com­ plicated. Two strings are used as a base, with a single string passed through a shell and knotted to the double string. A number of shells have been attached in this way with a knot between each two shells; all are then drawn tightly together so that the knots are covered by 101 the lip of the shell.

101. Orchard, u.Q. 1923, p. 23. 60

In a second string the shells are assembled in a crochet-like stitch. The thread Is made to pass through one loop after another. The shells are attached by pass­ ing the thread through from point to tip between loops.

The shells are not close together but are separated by two or three loons. The threads are well made and of some 102 fiber.

Another type is found in which flat beads are used.

The beads are rectangular and have center grooves cut deeply through and across the convex side of the pieces of shell Instead of circular perforations. The beads are tied with u strand of sinew, one overlapping the other, to a pair of fiber cords with a knot between each two beads. 103 A shell pendant is attached at one end.

Another technique is Illustrated in a string of discoidul beads 3/16 of an inch in diameter and with cir­

cular perforations. They are threaded on a fiber cord in

such a manner that they overlap each other, and they are

held in place with a stitch similar to the crochet-like 104 stitch described above.

X02. Orchard, k.U. 1929, p. M . 103. Ibid., p. 24. 104. XEH. CHAPTER III

ANALYSIS OF SH3LL ORNAK3NT3

Hohokam

Standard Traits: In the Hohokam province cremation was practised almost exclusively during the Pioneer, Colon­ ial, and Sedentary Periods and continued among the

Hohokam inhabitants during the Classic stage along with inhumation which was the form practised by the Invaders, the Salados, from the north. Because these people cre­ mated their dead and because most of the shell ornaments recovered have gone through the crematory fire, nearly all of the available specimens have been so badly damaged that it is quite difficult to determine the exact nature 1 . of their characteristics. A hint of the real accomplish­ ments of the Hohokam in shell carving exists in an 2 occasional unburned piece. Rubbish mounds have also given up fragments of shells broken during manufacture as well as thoso broken while in use as ornaments. By carefully piecing together the bits of broken shell and laying them alongside the burned burial tokens and the stray unburned

1. Gladwin, II.S. and others. 1937, p. ±67, 2. Ibid. 62

shells, the researcher is able to make deductions that place a fairly clear picture.of the Hohokam culture as it pertained to the use of shell*

The great elaboration of shell ornaments v/as known to the Hohokam from the Tory beginning of their occupation of 3 the region as is now known. Haury states: **3hell carving, for instance, during the Colonial and Sedentary Periods was 4 never surpassed in realism or skill in later tinea*.

Ploneor Period: In the Hohokam area marine shells wore utilised as ornaments during all the phases from Vahkl 5 times on down to the historical period.

At Snaketown a cache of 53 Qlyoymerls maculatus was unearthed in the cremation mound in Block 60. Scattered throughout the soil were several hundred unworked Qllvella biplloata. also a few stray pieces in other rubbish or on 6 house floors. The examination of cremations produced un­ worked shell but twice - once prior to the Snaketown Phase 7 and again in the Santa Cruz Phase.

The small marine univalve whole shell beads were

manufactured during all phases, but were not abundant in

the early phases at Snaketown; however, they increased 8 noticeably in the later stages.

3. ilaury, 3.IV. Report on Los ihiortos in "propnration,p.382. 4. Ibid. 5. Gladwin, H.3. and others. 1937, p. 139. d. Ibid. 7. ibid. 6. Ibid. 63

The Olivella, listed but once in the Snaketown Phase, 9 occurred twice in the Estrella Phase. This medium-sized shell had the spires ground off. The Qomis differed from the Olivella in that it was perforated at the spire in­ stead of being ground off. It occurred one® in the

Estrella Phase. In the Sweetwater Phase the Vemetus, a casing of n marine worn broken into sections of desired length, occurred once as did the Oolurabella. a shell with " ..' ' 1%^""™ the spire removed and the tip perforated. Of the shells uncovered the Olivella biplicata predominated, indications showing that it was used over a longer period than any 11 other species in the ITohokam area.

At Snakotown the flat discoidal fora of beads appears

three times in each of the Sweetwater and Snaketown Phases,

but the type occurred only once in each of the Vahki and

■ , 12 . . Estrella Phases.

Shell pendants likewise extended through practically

tho entire series of phases. The whole shell, as well us

the conventionalized bird and mammal forms, were found as

early as the Sweetwater Phase. At Snaketown one conven­

tional bird form and one mammal fora were listed for the

Sweetwater phase; whereas two conventional bird forms are 13 listed for the Snaketown Phase.

9. Gladwin, H.3. and others. 1937, p. 152, Fig.Ciill. 10. Ibid. 11. TbiiT,. p. 139. 12. Ibid., p. 140. 13. Ibid.", p. 141, Fig. CX7I. 64

Plain bracelets made from GlycymerIs shell (Chart II) were the most abundant shell ornaments manufactured at

Snaketown* In referring to then. Haury says:

"The thin fragile type with angular unperfor­ ated umbo is charaoteristic of the Pioneer Period. The intermediate type had its beginning in the late phases of the Pioneer Period...... The thin, fragile type is rarely found outside of the Hohokam araa.nA4

The thin, narrow, angular typo (2-5 am.) with an

imperforated, small umbonnl projection, no abundant in the

Pioneer Period, will be listed by number of occurrences

under the following phases: Vahki - 2, Estrella - 4;

Sweetwater - 3; Snaketown - 5. k second type had a thicker

band and a width of 5-10 mm. and a diameter of 1.4 cm.

which could be either angular, pointed, or rounded, all

with the uabonal projection less reduced than in the thinner

models. About half of the specimens were perforated. This

type is identified three times with the Sweetwater Phase and 15 four times with the Snaketown Phase.

At Snaketown ruins carved shell bracelets and a

carved bird appeared during the Snaketown Phase in the ■ ' ■ 16 late Pioneer Period. No rings have been recovered dating 17 back to this period.

I'i. Gladwin, II.S. and others. 1937, p. 142. 15. Ibid.. p. 147, Plate GJCVII. 16. Ibid.. 1930, p. 142. 17. ibid.. p. 145. 65

Ho specimens of shell mosaic, -or overlay work have been recovered from the Pioneer Period, although turquoise

Incrustations seam to revert to the Sweetwater Phase of 18 the Pioneer Period.

The only shell object,other than shell bracelets, found in the Vahki Phase was a disc of nacreous fresh­ water shell with serrated edges, doubly perforated in the 19 center. These discs are supposed to bo hair ornaments which were tied to the braids of hair in such manner that feathers could be tied against the shell between perfora- 20. tions, leaving the feathers standing upright.

A type of ornament which Haury lists ns perforated shells is unlike beads in the size of the perforation and 21 in the size of the shell. One occurrence of a Pocten shell with a large perforation near tho beak was recovered 22 in tho Sweetwater Phase. Also characterizing those shells in tho Pioneer and Colonial Periods are the large perfor­ ations near the beak.

Colonial Period: As has been mentioned, at Snaketown there were but two occurrences of unworked shell found with cremations. One has been listed under tho pre-

Snaketown Phase and the other dates back to the Santa Cruz

18. Gladwin,""ti.d*.and others. .'1938, p. 129. 19. Ibid., p. 147. 20. Lou'iii, L.L. and Harrington, M.E. 1929, pp. 149-150. 21. Gladwin, H.3. and others. 1937, p. 14G. 22. Ibid.. p. 146, Plate CXVIII. m

Phase. Crlyoynerla . Oardlum, and Olivella are the species most frequently found in the Santa Cruz and Sacaton Phases

(Chart XVI).

Abrasion or reaming tools shaped from sandstone and 23 schist appeared In the Colonial Period.

Ho whole shell beads have been listed in tho Gila

Butte Phase at Snaketovrn, but a larger number and greater

variety of forma' have been recovered from tho Santa Cruz

Phase. An Olivella v.'ith the spire ground off occurred

twice, while each of the following occurred only once: a

very small Olivella with tho spire and base removed; n

Haaaa with a hole through the lip; a Colurabella with the

spire removed and lip perforated; an Oliva with the spire 24 removed by breaking.

Prom the Grew Site (Sacaton 914), a Colonial ruin near

the Casa Grande National Monument, Woodward reports that

about six or seven hundred Pecton ornaments were found in

cremation area II and from two to three deposits in the

offoratory area, with only about forty or fifty of them

unbroken. The greater number of the specimens were of

tho left valves or of the thin, flat plates of the Pecton

which were drilled at the center. Almost all of this find 2423

23. Gladwin, 1!.S. and others. 1937, p. 138. 24. Ibid., p. 140. 67

was badly burned, and some of the pieces had been cal- 25 eined to lime leaving only an impression.

Very small disc beads beoaae quite prevalent during the Santa Cruz Phase at Snaketown. The smallest of this 26 type, from 2 to 4 mm., date from the above phase. Three occurrences of flat diacoldal beads, with a diameter range of .2-2.5 oa., are reported from the Qila Butte Phase; while forty occurrences of the same type of bead are listed in the Santa Cruz Phase with one occurrence of discs with 27 large perforations, diameter .8-1.3 cm. The bl-lobed beads ware classified according to size; the earliest typo in the

Santa Cruz Phase, usually small 3-4 ma. in length, are listed twelve times. The large bi-lobad beads occurred only twice in the sane phase.

At Snaketown the cuboldal beads, a lata innovation of this period and never abundant, occur only four times

(diameter range of .5-1.5 cm). Roosevelt 9:6, a

Colonial site near Roosevelt Dam, produced fewer ornaments 28 than the other Hohokam sites of tho samo period. Only one 29 bead was found and it was on the surface of the ruin.

V.holo shell pendants, in addition to the one found

in the dwoetwatar Phase, occurred in the Santa Cruz Phase.29 28262725

25. Woodward, A. 1931, p. 19. ' ” ' 26. Gladwin, H.3. and others. 1937, p. 140. 27. Ibid.. Fig. 54. 28. Haury, 3.Vi, 1932, p. 107. 29. Gladwin, H.S. 1937, p. 140, PlateCXIV. 66

One Turrltella, 7.22 cm. long, and three Pecten specimens — g g are listed. Also at Roosevelt 9:G-a single gastropod

(Turrltella)31 was found having a hole broken through for suspension.

Ground shell pendants are very Irregular and have • 32 no standard forms. Two types appear in the Santa Cruz

Phase in more abundant numbers. There are' two of the small

shells (6-2.0 cm.) rather uniformly finished with the sur­ faces extensively ground down; and seventeen of the bulky 33 irregular and roughly-finished shells, measuring 1-3.0 cm. At Snaketown no out shell pendants are reported for

the Gila Butte Phase (Chart IV), but in the Santa Cruz

Phase geometric forms make their first appearance (1.0-

8.0). Only one circular disc resembling a perforated ring

or bracelet is listed. At this tine also we find for the

first time four occurrences of birds in profile and in

flight, and one occurrence of amphibian and reptile forms 34 (1.5-6.0). There are five of the conventional bird forms

and one mammal, the latter like one found in the Sweetwater 35 Phase.

It is interesting to observe that the conventional flying bird forms were extensively used in the painted

30. Gladwin, K.S. 1937, p. 107. ~~ 31. Ibid., p. 141. 32. THTcT. 33. Gladwin, II.8. and others. 1937, p. 146, Plate CXV 34. Ibid., p. 153, Plate CXVI. 35. Ibid. 69

30 pottery of the Gila Butte and Santa Cruz Phases.

At Roosevelt 9:0 excavations revealed a striking shell pendant carved in the image of a pelican. According to Haury:

. "The Hohokam wore valley dwellers who built their villages along the banks of the larger streams in the southern part of Arizona; and no doubt the pelican was a resident of the same territory* At the present time, it is an all year resident on Roosevelt Lake, often being soon along the Salt River prior to the construction of the dam."3 ' lie says further:

"Pelicans were often painted on pottery or carved in shell in unmistakable likeness and tho motifs were one of apparent importance andmvlde distribution during the Colonial Period."38

At Los Homos, called la Cuidad do Los H omos (The

City of the Ovens), located near the eastern spur of the

Salt River Mountains and five miles northwest of Los

Muertos, the following artifacts wore recovered: a pelican with wings carved in high relief; a frog of an outstanding conventional pattern; an excellent representation of a rattlesnake; and a fragment of other familiar forms of 39 reptile pendants, one fragment with shallow drilled pits on tho back, suggestive of the Gila monster.

Many fragments of bracelets broken during manufac­ ture or from use were found in all rubbish, and also in

SO. Gl'a'dwln, tf.S. and others. 1937, p. 141. 37. Haury, :5.7;. 1932, p. 108. 38. Ibid. 39. Haury, IC.M. 1934, p. 402. 70

40 the cremations of the late phases at Snaketown.

The thin fragile type, described under the bracelets of the Pioneer Phase at Snaketown, had only two occur­ rences in the Gila Butte Phase and none in the Santa Crus 41 Phase.

'worked Glyoyaeris shell bracelets, incomplete or 42 damaged, were found at Roosevelt 9:6. They were ground thin and the beaks were treated in several ways. For instance, one beak was carved to simulate a precious stone netting accentuated by the natural cutting of that part 45 of the shell.

At Snaketown the intermediate type, described under

the Pioneer Period and begun in that period, reached its 44 greatest density in the Santa Crus and Sacaton Phases.

Hone of this type was listed under the Gila Butte Phase, 45 but eighteen were reported from the Santa Cruz Phase. The

heavy band bracelet with the umbo unchanged and unperfor­

ated, made its appearance in the Santa Cruz Phase, two 46 being listed at Snaketown.

40. Usury, S.h. 1954, p. 462. 41. Gladwin, K.3. and others. 1957, n. 142. 42. Ibid., p. 142, Plate 0X711. 43. lluury, K.V/. 1932, p. 107. 44. Gladwin, II.S. and others. 1937, p. 142. 45. Ibid., Plate 0X711. 46. Ibid. 71

Carved shell bracelets tsere used in the Snaketovm

Phase (Chart II), having one occurrence. They increased considerably in both number and types in the Colonial 47 Period. During the Gila Butte Phase two occurrences of bracelets with the umbonal sections carved into frogs wore 48 recovered. One of this type is listed for the Santa Cruz

Phase. One each of tho following was recorded in the Gila

Butte Phase and two each in the .lanta Cruz Phase: a brace­ let, on tho band of which are serpents carved in relief with intertwining bodies; a bracelet with the band repre­

senting the undulating body of a rattlesnake. At the

bezels a bird holds the back of the serpent's head in its

beak. One band fragment, sharply indented, was found in

the Gila Butte Phase, three of the same type being found

in the Santa Cruz Phase. Two band fragments, one in each

of the Colonial Phases, were found showing paired bird- 49 serpent arrangement. Bracelet fragments bearing the rep- 50 tilian motifs wore also found at Los Homos.

At the Grewe Site many fragments of bracelets were

found. In one type twined rattlesnakes formed the bands,

while at the bezel were two birds seated back to back

attempting to swallow the snakes. The heads of the

47. Gladwin, H.\/. and' others. 1937, p'. 145, Fig. 48. Ibid. 49. Ibid1. 50. Himry, !i.,V. 1934, p. 462. 72

roptiles were in their mouths, and fcho serpents* tails in their claws. Other fragments of bracelets bore represents- 51 tions of human figures, horned toads, and rattlesnakes.

In the Roosevelt Site in the Tonto Basin, according to Gladwin, shells were ground down, large ones for brace­ lets, smaller ones for rings and earrings, which were 52 carved in the image of snakes, lizards, and small emblems.

At Los H o m o s , in the same period, Haury reports the 53 finding of bracelets with motifs of frogs and reptiles.

A type of bracelet not found in any of the previous phases appeared in the Santa Crus Phase at Snaketown

(Chart II). On its band the serpents were carved in relief

but not intertwining. Three of this type were found in 54 the Bacaton Phase.

The bird-serpent combination, as described above,

occurs most frequently (Chart III). It is found on rings

and earrings of shell and bone, on palettes, and painted 55 on pottery. Haury suggests it might have been of some 56 special symbolical meaning to the Hohoimm people.

Rings made their first appearance during the Santa 57 Cruz Phase and were never very abundant.. At Snaketown the

finds all show small Glyoyaerls shells. During this period

Woodward, A. 1031, p. 19. Gladwin, ». and H.5. 1923-35, p. 216. Ibid., p. 462. 54. Gladwin, H.3. and others. 1937, p. 143, Fig. 55. 55. Ibid.. p. 144. 56. IbH7 57. 1513. 73

two were listed which were made by removing the back of the shell and reaming the Interior surfaces.

No specimens of carved shell rings were recovered at

Gnakatovra during the Gantn Cruz Phase, but Haury states that "Carving of rings probably began in the Santa Cruz 58 Phase, paralleling the beginning of bracelet carving".

At the Crewe Site Woodward reports the finding of two

finely-carved finger rings, perfect in every detail and

identical in motif. The bands of the rings were the bodies

of twined rattlesnakes; the bezels were carved into two

birds seated back-to-back, each holding a serpent*0 head 59 In its beak and a tail with its claws.

In the perforated shell, described in the Sweetwater

Phase where one was listed, one of the same type was re­

covered in the Gila Butte and two during the Santa Cruz

Phase, and one was recovered which is considered an un- 60 placed occurrence.

Mosaic work or overlay work appeared in the Santa

Cruz Phase and became very plentiful during the Saeaton

Phase at Snaketown (Chart III). •'

During the Roosevelt Phase in the Tonto Basin

Gladwin reports that shells were carved to resemble frogs

58. Gladwin, 11."g. 'and others. 1937, p. 145. 59. woodward, A. 1931, p. 19. . 60. Ibid., p. 146, Plate CXVTII. 74

and were then covered with turquoise chips which were bevelled on the under side and worked with meticulous 61 care.

Sedentary Period: As in the Colonial Period at Snake- town , the most abundant unworked species in the Sacaton 62 Phase were the Glyoymerls» Cardium, and Ollvella. Tho high cutting, abrasive and reaming tools introduced in the 63 Colonial Period became very common in the Sedentary Period.

It was during this stage that manufacturing of shell orna­ ments reached its hoighth, developing a number of new tccimiques for shell working and introducing new articles of shell. Those types carried over from tho previous 64 phases continued to flourish and increased noticeably.

During this period the number of species also increased.

Thus a natural deduction is that now species and now types of articles called for an increase in manufacturing and in 65 newer and better methods of workmanship.

It will be noted that the Ollvella shell beads were used during all tho previous periods, but sparingly in the early phases; while in the Sedentary Period there was a marked increase in the frequency of their use* The frequency chart (Plate CXIII) at Sn&ketown shows a

61. Gladwin, UV and H.3. 192U-35, p. 216. 62. Gladwin, H.3. and others. 1937, p. 138* 63. Ibid. 64. Ibid., p. 152. os. .TOT. 75

notlooublo increase of the Olivella nholl with the apire ground off over the use of the same type in the previous phases. Bight are listed for the Sabaton Phase, two for the Santa Cruz Phase, one for Snaketown, two for the

Bstrella Phase, and two were unplaced.

The small Olivella with the spire and base removed had only one occurrence in the Saeaton Phase, with one un­ placed; the Veraetus. a casing of marine broken into sections of desired length, had two occurrences with two unplaced; one Kassa perforated through the lip, with two unplaced; and one Turbo, centrally perforated, and one un­ placed. This species made its first appearance during this phase; one unplaced Colutabella with the spire removed and the lip perforated, and two unplaced Oliva with spire 60 broken off.

At Los Guanaeos, a sedentary site located two miles north and slightly west of Los L’uartos near the Salt

River, whole shell and disc beads are notably lacking, pro­ bably due to the fact that the cremation plots were not 66a discovered.

Small disc beads, like those described In the Santa

Cruz Phase, continued to be used in the Saeaton Phase; but

the larger beads, more than 1 cm. in diameter, seemed to

"56V Gladwin, li.u. and others. 10o7, p. 159, Plate 0X111. 66a.Ibid., p. 152. 76

be the people*a choice and oeeurred more often during the later phases. From, the frequency chart (Fig. 54) at

Snnketovm the flat discoidal beads ^ith diameter 2-2.5 cm. v/ith small perforations occurred forty times during the

Santa Cruz Phase, thirty-two times during the Sacaton

Phase, with twenty-eight unplaced.

The flat discoidal beads, with diameter from .8-1.3 cm. and a large perforation, occurred once in the Santa

Cruz Phase and four times in the Sacaton Phase, with two unplaced. The cylindrical, ranging from .5-1.5 cm., occurred four times in the Santa Crus and twice in the

Sacaton Phase, with five unplaced. The small figure 8, measuring from .8-1,3 cm., occurred twelve times in the

Santa Cruz and three times in the Sacaton Phases, with five unplaced; while the largo bi-lobod, .8-1.5 cm. in length, occurred twice in the Santa Cruz and seven times 67 in the Sacaton Phases, with five unplaced.

It will be noted that the disc beads with a large perforation are more abundant during the Sacaton Phase.

Usury concludes that the type of disc bead with a large 68 perforation is a diagnostic of the Sacaton Phase. The

cylindrical beads appeared in the Santa Cruz Phase and

show a decrease in the Sacaton Phase and were never

67. Gladwin, fi.S.' - and "others. looY, p. 140, Fig. 5*1. 68. Ibid. 77

abundant# The small bi-lobed beads were more numerous in the Junta Cruz Phase; whereas the large bi-lobed were 69 more plentiful in the Jacaton Phase#

V/holo shell pendants are confined almost entirely to the Santa Oruz and Sacaton Phases nt Snaketown (Chart IV), with a greater frequency during the latter# The

Turritalia occurs once In the Santa Cruz and three times

in the Saoaton Phase, with seven remaining unplaced. The

Corlthlum occurred twlco in the Saoaton Phase and once in

the Sweetwater Phase, with one unplaced. The Pootan

occurred seven times in the Saoaton and but three times In 70 the Santa Cruz Phase.

Ground shell pendants were found only in the Santa-

Cruz and the Saoaton Phases. The number of occurrences

were about the same in both, although the Saoaton has a

greater variety of forms. In the Saoaton Phase one frag­

ment of a shell bracelet was drilled for suspension.

There are three small (ranging from .6-8.0 on.), rather

uniformly and extensively-ground pendants in the Saoaton

Phase, and two of the oar.io type from the Santa Cruz. Seven­

teen bulky, rough, and irregularly-shaped pendants, measur­

ing from 1.0-3.0 cm., are identified with the Santa Cruz

Phase; whereas but eleven of this same type were found in

69. Gladwin, H.S. and others. 1957,p. 140" Fig. 54. 70. Ibid. , 78

the Sacaton Phase, with fourteen unplaced. Five bulky, ellipsoidal pendants, ranging from 1.5-2.0 cm. in length, some with two perforations, were found in the Saoaton Phase, with one unplaced. Thus the Santa Cruz Phase has two types represented, while the Saoaton has four types.

Both whole shell and cut shell pendants and fragments of shell bracelets drilled for suspension were found at 71 Los Guanacos. These cut shell pendants consisted of the already familiar forms of reptiles, mammals, and birds.

The conventionalized bird form and the portrayal of a pelican showed the greatest popularity.

At Pueblo de Las Canopas, late Sedentary site located six milos west of Loo Hornos ruin and three miles south of

Phoenix on the south bank of the Salt River, whole shell pendants and several broken effigy pendants were recovered.

Most of the shell work done here was similar to that dono 72 at Los Guanacos, A small number of geometric pendants similar to those of Los Muertos were found at Pueblo de 73 Las Canopas. Geometric pendants were an innovation of the

Saoaton Phase, but never enjoyed the popularity that the 74 life forms did. At Snaketown there are two occurrences

of the oblong type with six unplaced, and two of the

square type with three unplaced during the Saoaton Phase.

91. llaury, 3.V. 1934, p. 451. 72. Haury, 2.V/. 1934, p. 471. 73. Ibid. 74. Gladwin, 11.3. and others. 1937, p. 141. 79

A third ceomatrio pendant, cut into complete■circles with the center removed leaving a thin rim for perforation and 75 suspension, is among this group. Thoro aro five occurrences of this type, with one in the Santa Cruz Phase and nine of unplaced origin. These geometric forms range from 1.0 to

8.0 ora. Seven conventional bird ferns, 2.0-0.0 cm., are listed in the Sacaton Phase and one of unplaced occurrence. Other occurrences during the above phase are as follows: four birds in profile and in flight, measur­ ing 2.0-5.0 ora., with five unplaced; four mammals, measuring 2.0-8.0 era., with three unplaced; four amphibian and reptile forms, measuring 1.5-6.0 cm., with one unplaced; 76 and one human fora.

The thin narrow, angular bracelets, 2-5 mm., with a small unperforated urabonal projection, were very rare in the Saoaton Phase at Snaketown, only one being listed; but the intermediate type, described under the Pioneer Period, was very abundant during the Saoaton and Santa Cruz Phases, twenty occurrences being listed for the former and eighteen for the latter, with thirty-six remaining unplaced.

The heavy band, 1-3 cm., with the umbo unaltered and unper­ forated, was listed in the Santa Cruz Phase and became more

75. Gladwin, H.8.' and "otliers. 1937, p." 141, Plate 0/^YI 76. Ibid., p. 143, Fig. 55...... 80

abundant during the Saoaton Phase (five ooourrenoes) and 77 five unplaced. . .

Carved shall bracelets ware most prevalent during the

Sedentary Period (Chart II). Ho great difference existed in the type of carving or in the patterns or designs during the various phases. Proof of this is in the fact that at Snakatown the Sacaton Phase shows only one now 78 type, an incised geometric pattern. As has been previously stated, the geometric design in shell carving was initiated in the 3aoaton Phase. There is only one occurrence of the 79 type In this phase and four of unplaced origin. The following occurrences are listed for the :3a cat on Phase: one bracelet with the umbonal sections carved into frogs, with seven unplaced; three bracelets with reptiles carved in relief on the band but not intertwining, and two un­ placed; three bracelets with the intertwining serpents carved in relief on the band, three unplaced; two with the band of the bracelet composed of an undulating serpent body and at the bezel the back of the serpent’s head is held by a bird, with seven of this type unplaced; five bracelet band

fragments, sharply indented, with the unplaced; and two

fragments of a paired bird-serpent design, with five of

these unplaced.

W.(^affw£n,'' il.uVrand.other's. 1937, p. 142, Plate''6£ff¥Z 76. Ibid. 79. TOT., p. 143, Fig. 55. 81

Kuaerous bracelet frayaents cam# from Pueblo do Las Canopaa. A particle of a broad, carved bracelet having a figure resembling a rattlesnake was recovered. It is very 80 similar to a carving found in the Grew© site by Van Bergen.

At Los Guanacos bracelet fragments .were plentiful, 81 but were not described in detail.

An interesting fact in comparing stone and shell carv­

ing in that stone carving seems to have reached its peak

during the Santa Crus Phase, while shell carving reached

its height during the Saoaton Phase and lasted well into

the Classic Period, a time when stone carving had pric­ es tically disappeared.

As was previously stated (Chart V), shell rings first

appeared in the Santa Crus Phase at Snaketown, two examples

being reported. In the Saoaton Phase the following types

are listed: one ring made by removing the back of the

shell and then smoothing the interior without working the

outer surfaces, one unplaced occurrence; five with the

band rubbed smooth and tho umbo very prominent, four un- 83 placed occurrences; two rings with geometric designs

similar to those on the bracelets; two rings similarly made

of the serpent motif, one showing the double intertwined

serpent, four specimens unplaced. These rings are also

80. Ilaury, A. 10oi, p. 471•' 81. Ibid.. p. 451. 82. Ibid".', p. 144. 83. Ibid';, p. 145, Fig. 57. 82

84 very much like the' carved bracelets from. Snakdtov.-n. Ilaury states, "Beonusa the rings were narrow bands, the

oarviny m s a delicate treatment of geometric or lifo form 85 motif, usually snakes”,

At Snaketown none of the broad bund type rings made 85 from the Oonus shell was found# But at Los Guanaoos Haury

reports the finding of the thin type Gl^oyaeris shell

rings and the band type of gonna shell. In the bond of

Conus shell rings there are two fragments with engraved

patterns, the designs being accentuated with red and

black paint. This would Indicate that the broad band

Conus shell rings wore common, and painting of bracelets

was practiced during the Sedentary Period. Haury also

reported the finding of a complete ring with turquoiso inlay

and a design in red paint, the whole forming an interlock­

ing key pattern. It was very similar to those found at

Los Muertos. Such a circumstance indicates that inlaying 83 was also practiced during the Sedentary Period$ this is

■ no doubt the earliest appearance of this art in the Hohokam

Province.

Perforated shells have been discussed previously in

84. CladwlnV 11.3.' and others. 1937, p. 145, Pig. 577 85. Ibid., p. 145. . 06. %EIu. 87. Haury, E.V,'. 1934, p. 451. 88. Ibid., p. 452. : 83

the Pioneer and Colonial Periods j but those rooovered in the Sacaton Phase are of a little different type, the holes being more centrally located in the valve than in 09 those of the earlier phases, A list of the finds tab­ ulated for this phase follows: three Glyoyaeris shells with various types of perforations, and one unplaced; three large Cardluxa with a large central perforation, and gg seven unplaced.

A study of the data on the use of shell overlay or mosaics indicates that it first appeared in the Santa Crus Phase, but the greatest use of turquoise on shell 91 overlay occurred in the S&oaton Phase,

At Snaketown several hundreds of fragments of overlay were found in the cremation mound in Block 6G. Many had gone through cremation fire and were robbed of much of their color and detail, A majority of the fragments of shell wore oblong, rectangular, square, triangular, or circular and probably-formed the base of the complete mosaic. Life forms, especially the bird and frog, held 92 their appeal for the aboriginal artisan,

Gome very interesting broken pieces of Glyoymeris shells averaging about 5 cm. wore found in the cremation mound of Block GG at Snaketown, and in the Saoaton Phase.

58. Gladwin, ll.3. and others. 1937, p. 140, Plato CXVlil. 90. Ibid. 91. Ibid. 92. Ibid. 84

The edges on the concave sides were ground, flat so they could rest on a flat surface; while , in nany oases the convex surface had carved grooves or scalloped edges, or in sone instances the bezel of the shell was accentuated by carving. Maury believes these wore doubtless used in 93 some way in mosaic work.

At Gnaketovm all the painted fragments of shell dated from the Sacaton Phase (Chart 7)• .Designs painted

ill rad and black on the smooth convex surface of Cardium

shells rather than an all-over wash were characteristic 94 of this site: whereas at Los Quanaoos the red and black 95 paint accentuated the engraved, designs. Six fragments of

painted shell were recorded at Snaketown, one being a

Cardium shell decorated with black circles with red dots

on the inside, while the second is a Sardinia shell with a 95 scroll design in black.

The Hohokam area employed an entirely different

method or technique of shell ornamentation by acid etch- 97 lug during the 3aoaten Phase. Ho examples of etching have

been recorded from Casa Grande or Los Muertoe nor In any

other area in the Southwest region or anywhere in the 98 world among aboriginal people. The etched pieces show no

§5. iiaury, 3..,. 1934, p. 452. 94. Gladwin, 11.3. and others. 1937, p. 147 95. Maury, 3.V/. .1934, p. 452. 96. Gladwin, II.3. and others. 1957, p. 148, Plata CX7III. 97. A description of the technique has been given in Chapter II. 90. Gladwin, 11.3. and others. 1937, p. 148. 85

tool marks and the edges of the pattern, with the back­ ground eaten away, are very different from those in the carved shells*

Five examples of etching were recorded from Snaka- tovm, one from the Tucson Mountains and now to be seen in the Arizona State Museum, and another found southeast of Casa Grande on the Santa Grub River and now in the 99 South-west Museum, Los Angeles. Geometric patterns as '.veil as life forms were used. The best specimen recovered M s a horned toad pattern etched on a Cardinal shell measuring

10.2 cm. in diameter. The head of the toad fills the umbo of a Card lira shall and the tail extends to the opposite edge. The natural ripples of the etched back- 100 ground have been preserved.

Another innovation of the Sacaton Phase at Snaketown is a shell trumpet. It is not classified as an ornament it but is interesting to note its appearance during this

Phase in which the shell industry reached its peak of development. The trumpet was of the large Strombus galeatus and was unworked except where the tip of the spire had been removed. One other occurrence was un- 101 placed. The Southwest ruins revealed very few specimens.

From the above material it is evident that the

99. dladWln, ‘ii.S. and others, 19Ay, p. 149. 100. Ibid., p. 151. 101. T5Id.. p. 147. 86

shell working industry reached a riaximuzi of skill in the

Sedentary Period, with the etohdd and painted types belong­ ing especially to this period.

Glassio Period: At Los Muertos, as at Snaketown, the relative number of unworked shells m s snail in comparison to those that were worked. The species most froq,uontly found unworked at Los Muertos were Olivella, Ilaosarlua. and Conus with a few Codakia and Donax. Many of the larger shells such ns the Cardiua and the Dosinla {5 inches in diameter) remained unmodified. They had been used as paint containers. A few shells show ranch handling from being carried in medicine outfits or pouches, or from being used for personal charms. They were chiefly Qlycymorls and Yermetus varieties.

As in the earlier phases the small univalve and bi­ valve shells were used as whole shell beads, with the use of the Olivella predominating. Second in Importance was the small rough-surfaced Nassarlua tegula averaging about 1/4 inch in length. The following were also used as beads at Los Muertos: tho Columbolla and Trivia solandri. both small bivalve; Glyoymaris 1/2 inch in diameter; twelve Conus shells with spires worn down; three Oliva

shells about 1 1/2 inches in length.

At Casa Grande Fawkes found several specimens of

Pootuncuius that were perforated In the middle, but wore 87

102 not sufficiently ground down to make bracelets or armlets„

These nay have been worn as necklaces for they ware found near the base,of a human skull. Similar ones have been 103 found in northern Arizona. In the catalogue of shell specimens from Casa Grande a number of whole shell beads were listed. Two occurrences, twelve and twenty-eight each, of whole shell beads made from, ffaaaa were listed.

The Conus, Olyoyaeris. and Olivella were also used as — Y04 whole shell beads.

Disc beads at Los Muertos were very similar to those

found at Snaketown. Both varied in diameter from 3/52 to

3/8 of an inch with an average of about 3/16 inch, with 105 thickness varying from 1/0 to less than 1/32 of an inch.

The largest disc beads were usually of a pinkish

color, quite flat, with well-smoothed faces and of uneven

thickness, the smaller discs being white, irregular, and 106 with large bl-conical perforations.

At Casa Grando the small, spherical, or oval disc

beads were abundant. In Hoorn 2 of the northeast building

was found a cliche with 980 shell beads which apparently

had been burled under the floor for safe keeping. The

beads were of red sea shell, were hard and well worked.

102. Fewkes, JY..V 1916-1917, p. 144. 103. Ibid. 104. TKId., p. 161. 105. lEury, 2..V. 1934, p. 391. 105. Ibid. 88

Thoy were probably strung on two strings for the beads ware of ti’o different sizes, one slightly less than l/l inch

in width and the other slightly more. • Found with the 107 beads wore two well-matched turquoise pendants.

Pinkley reports from Gasa Grande that several

strings of beads were found, some of which were quite 108 small, and a number of them made of shell. In the Santa

Cruz region near Santa Rosa on the Papago reservation

(Tucson Phase) excavation produced a three-foot strand of

disc-shaped shell beads, and a second strand composed of

fifty-one otoliths separated by shell beads. These were 109 in a plain red Jar hidden under a large rock.

At Loo Muertos were found two true saucer-shaped 110 beads, concave-convex, and less than 1/4 inch in diameter.

Hot a single saucor-shaped bead was found at Snaketovvn;

however, a string of this type from Casa Grande is on 111 exhibit in the Peabody Lluseum.

Cylindrical beads were not found at Los Muertos, but

Ilaury reports the finding of two irregular specimens that 112 are like some found In the Chihuahua area. These wore

usually pink and made of the thick portion of an

unidentified shell, ranging from 1/2 to 3/4 of an inch in

107. Huffman, J .u. 198b, p. 84. ” ' ~~ 108. Pinkley, F. and S.T. 1931, p. 4. 109. Hill, G.F. 1938, p. 103. 110. Haury, 3.V,. 1934, p. 391. 111. Gladwin, Ti.8. and others. 1937, p. 140. 112. Haury, 2.*7. 1934, p. 391. 89

length# The first was cut to resemble a claw, while the 113 second was a flat piece which was drilled lengthwise.

Ko bi-lobod shell beads were recorded at Los Muertos, and only one has been reported from el Pueblo de Las

Pledras. It measured about 5/8 of an inch long and was not of uniform thickness. This form of bead is more char­ acteristic of the northern Cliff and Pueblo ruins than of 114 the sites in the Gila-Salt area.

As in the beads, both univalve and bi-valve shells were used with little modification as whole shell pendants; the Glycyaeris from a fraction of an inch to about 3 inches in diameter was used predominantly as pendants. The per­ forations, about 3/4 inch in diameter, ware not perfectly round and wore made by rubbing down the back of the shell, 115 thus leaving a flat area around the opening.

At Casa Grande Glycyiaerls shell pendants similar to those described above vinro found, associated with seven fecten exasperatus from the Gulf of Mexico and two Pecten exoavatus from the western coast. However, these were 11G found in larger numbers at Snaketown.

Twenty-five occurrences of Turrltella tlgrina, varying from 1 1/2 to 4 inches in length, were recovered from

"11 v. Haury, S.'wV 1934, pp. 391-392. 114. Ibid.. p. 475. 115. Ibid., p. 392. 116. Gladwin, H.3. and others. 1928, p. 141. so

Los Muertos. Many of these were rubbed down on the three sides which exposed the spiral chamber between the divid­ ing walls. Likewise Ccrithiden and Cerlthlum wore foynd hero. Those last four were the chief snocios used for 117 118 pondanta at Snaketown and also at Casa Grande.

More than fifty specimens of the shell tinkler pen­ dants, of the genus Conus, averaging about 1 inch in 119 length were found at Los Muertos. One end of the shell was out off and the pointed end perforated near the apex. It thus became a conical bell open at the side and was used In various ways, When fastened to a stick it became a rattle which was used in ceremonials. Often they were attached to the edges of garments or were strung around the neck. When these attached shells struck against one another they gave a tinkling sound. In the Reaenway

Collection is a Conus tinkler pendant with a band 1 Inch wide Inlaid with small, carefully-trimmed turquoise and red shell fragments. The band of shell and turquoise Inlay extended entirely around the bottom of the shell* In this complicated band paired turquoise and shell triangles arc

separated by the key motifs. The keys of the upper row 120 are painted black, while those of the lower row are rod.

The black vegetal pitch in which the inlay, is placed forms

117. Haury, S.W. 1934, p. 395. ; 113. Fawkes, j.',V. 1912, pp. 161-178. 119. Haury, 3.Y,'. 1934, p. 393. 120, Haury, 3.Y,'. Report on Los Muertos in preparation, pp. 405-406. 91

a black border around each piece.

At Casa Grande the Conus tinkler pendants were like­ wise favored and were found in abundant numbers* More than eighty worked and mrworked Conus shells were recorded by 121 ~~ " i’ewkes.

Ground shell pendants were rare in tho Classic Phase 122 for only two were found at Los Muertos.

llaury considers that the out shell pendants at Los

Muertos, from Cardium d a t u m . Hallotis. and Glycyiaoris zi spondylus.1 were by far the most interesting and character- 123 istlo of shell productions. Geometric figures were more 124 abundant at Los Muertos than at 3naketown while the discs, varying from 1/2 to 1 1/2 inches in diameter and par- 125 foratod near the edge, were the most characteristic. These wore often notched at the edge, with many of the incisions running in toward the center. Other types of geometric pendants from Los Muertos are: one semi-lunar pendent 1 3/4 inches in length; six rectangular pendants; two diamond shaped; a few similar to animal pendants. Thero is a group of long narrow pendants made from tho fresh water clam

Unionldae which apparently came from east or northeast.

Texas. They are unique and did not resemble the other

Id.l.'owkes, J.,7. 1912, pp. 161-176. 122. Gladwin, II.3. and others, 1957, p. 141. 123. llaury, U.'.'.Y 1934, p. 393. 124. Gladwin, U.3. and others. 1937, p. 141. 125. llaury, 3.W. Report on Los Muertos in preparation, p. 394. 92

pendants produced In this area; nor were whole shells of this genus found at Los Muertos ruins. This fact may indi- 126 cute that the Unionldae shell were obtained through barter.

A large number of those geometric pendants are exhibited in 127 the collection at Casa Grande.

This period produced some of the finest shell engrav­ ing of life forms (especially reptiles), indicating clearly that the reptile form was of predominating interest in all the sites belonging to this era. Fragments found in­ cluded those curved to represent the whole gamut of animals commonly known to everyday Indian life such as frogs, lizards, birds, serpents, rabbits, toads, Gila mon­

sters, and other creatures not clear enough for certain 128 identification. Gomo small effigy pendants also exist.

Practically all the life forms, except the frogs, were carved from the almost flat pieces of large marina

shells such as Cardlua and ITallotls. The whole Glyoymerls

shells averaging from 3/4 to 2 inches in length were

favored in the manufacture of the frog. Many specimens of

these were found at Los Muertos, and from all indications

the frog held the most important place in the carving of 129 shell during the Classic Period. .

126. liaury, 3..,. 1934, p. b95. 127. Fo;vkes, J.W. 1912, pp. 161-178. 128. Haury, ii.'.V. Report on Los Muertos in preparation, p. 395. 129. Ibid., pp. 395-396. 93

At Casa Grande a very artistic example of the frog „ vaiB cut from a Pectunculus. The head, legs, and body stand in relief and the eyas are especially artistic. i’owhos considers it one of the best ho has seen in the 130 Southwest.

Two effigy pendants were found at La Ciudad. One was an animal, and the other a pelican similar to the one from

Los Linertos. This would indicate a relationship between the two cultures. Haury also believes this to be true, saying "i'rom all indications Las Pueblitas must have been 131 closely allied to Los Muertos".

Excavations at Casa Blanca, a site of the Classic

Period located two miles northeast of Phoenix, revealed a

broken pendant of undetermined fora. A very interesting

shell specimen from this site is a reptile made over from

a bracelet fragment and may have been intended to be worn

as a pendant.

Among a number of interesting pendants from Los

Muertos arc the excellent representations of Gila monsters, 132 one being made of a piece of orange colored shall. Other

portrayals of the above are recorded at Los Pueblos 134 133 Arribos, north of Tempo, and at Los H o m o s .

Bird pendants, especially with the outstretched wings.

ISO. Fawkes, JV.;. 19l2, p. 144. 131.. Haury, .3.*.;. 1934, p. 474. 132. Haury, B.'.V. Report on Los Muertos in preparation, p. 397. 133 and 134. Ibid., pp. 462 and 476. 94

wore also very popular during the Classic Period (Chart TV) at all altos dating In that period. Tho pelican still held a prominent place among bird forms. All the bird pendants were perforated at the head for suspension.

Tho bird-serpent combination, described in bracelets in earlier phases, became a pendent design at Los Muertos.

Although it had been very extensively used on bracelets 135 and rings, this is its first occurrence in pendants.

Many of the pendants from Los Muertos showed evidence of having been painted; an all-over covering accentuates the anatomical features. Blue and green pigment were 136 visible on some.

Shell ornaments wore painted In larger numbers than 137 the few specimens recovered would indicate. Besides the painted animal, pendants found at Los Muertos there are two other examples: frlycyaarls shells with a narrow red band painted about the perimeter, and a Cardium shell painted

in u complicated design. Incised designs wore usually 130 painted in black and red. ■

lob. liaury, S.*/. Report on Los Muertos inpreparation, p. 397. 130. Ibid.. p. 396. 137. Ibid., p. 404. - 130. H b H . 95

Some of the most artistic and skillful shell workers at Los Huertas produced a ring, a bracelet, and a tinkler pendant made of a combination of engraving, painting, and 139 inlay. These will be described more fully under the various headings. The same combination was found in brace- 140 lets and rings at Casa Grande.

Some very elaborate mosaic and inlay work was found at both Casa Grande and Los Muertoa. While overlay shell work was quite abundant, inlay objects were relatively scarce. At Los Muertos only five objects of shell inlay were recovered.

Exceptionally fine pieces of overlay work are found

In the Casa Grande national Monument. During repair work on its walls Compound A yielded three of the very finest turquoise and shall mosaics yet found. In the south east corner of the northeast building lay a cache contain­ ing two overlaid shell mosaic bird designs apparently representing eagles or perhaps parrots, a shell mosaic turtle, two large pendants of well-matched turquoise, and 141 ninety-eight red shell beads already described.

The larger of the two birds measured 4 1/2 inches from tip to tip of wings and 3 1/2 inches from end of

139. [luury, "s.'.V. Report on Los Muertos in preparation, p . 404. 140. Fewkes,'J.V,-. 1912, p. 143. 141. Huffman, J.V,'. 1925, p. 84. @6

head to bottom of tail* The base was of wood covered with wax or the gum of some tree* In the center was a carved bird, with outstretched wings, in raised design of pink shell. Around this were overlaid 492 pieces of turquoise, arranged in four rows, each individual piece averaging

3/50 to 12/50 of an inch square; these were beveled on their four bottom sides, forming pyramidal shapes. The turquoises in the lower border of the tail were cut in 142 triangular fashion.

The smaller bird measured'2 3/4 inches from tip to tip of wings, and 2 1/4 inches from top of head to bottom 143 of tail. The bird forming the center of the effigy was made of four pieces of pink shell. Around this center motif were three rows of cut turquoise containing approx­ imately 250 pieces. The tail is finished in a fashion similar to that of the larger bird. This base also was made of wood covered with wax or gum#-

The turtle had a large round sea shell measuring 4 1/4

inches in diameter as a base, and this was covered with pitch. There is an oblong Inset of pink shell in the

center of the back, around which 1,129 bits of turquoise

are overlaid. The mosaic pieces are somewhat larger than 144 those used on the birds.

142. Huffman, J.,V. 1925, p. 83. 143. Ibid. 144. IblS1. 97

During his exonvations at Casa Orande Fewkes found shell fragments with the renains of roits of turquoise on the back; and a great many small squares of the same material, showing evidence of having boon used as mosaics, 145 appeared in the "fill of ono room. Likewise, shell and bits of turquoise wore deposited under the stone in the center of the ball court north of Compound A.

Evidence of mosaic work was also reported from Los 146 Pueblos Arriba.

At Los Liu onto s many geometric forms wore found,

probably used in overlay work. Many of these discs are of 147 Cardium, Haliotla. and haoreous fresh water shell. The only overlay fragments of turquoise uncovered at this site

were found In Ruin III and XIII. In one, shell was used

as the base; in the other, the base is of undetermined

material.

At a site near Tempo, Cushing found a prairie dog

carved from white shell with eyes of inlaid turquoise; and

a second piece of sea shell, fashioned to represent a frog, 148 was encrusted with mosaic of turquoise and garnet.

145. Fewkes, J.'.V. 1912, p. 144.1 146. llaury, 3.V. Report on Los Muertos in preparation, p. 476. 147. Ibid., p. 403. .... 143. Pogue, JVjA 1912, p. 435. 98

Glyoymarla Is fcho universal shell used for bracelets

and armletn. The average diameter of the bracelet at

Los Muertos is about 2 1/2 inches, and a few could have

been classified as armlets. There wore only sixteen whole

bracelets and hundreds of broken specimens which had 149 passed through the crematory fires.

In the thin type of bracelet the beak is often worn

down to a point and the sides are cut away so as to pro- 150 duce a squarish projection. The broader band bracelets,

soae 1 inch in width, were raoro abundant during the Classic

Phase. In these the uabonal region of the shell was often

embellished. The most popular type of ornamentation was 151 that in which the umbo was carved•into frogs. Some of the

most characteristic decorations of the band were zigzag

wave effects, incising in triangle patterns, and oonven- 152 tionalized forms such as intertwined serpents.

This site also produced a fragment of a bracelet with

a drilled inlay pit on the umbo of the shell. The original

set, probably of turquoise, is missing. A second shell

bracelet had three small, carelessly-shaped turquoise chips

set into drilled holes. They were set in a black pitchy 153 substance. The third bracelet is quite elaborate, having

149. Haury, I5.V«. Report on Los Muortos In preparation, p. 399. 150. Ibid.. p. 401. 151. T O T . 152. TKIdV. p. 402. 153. Ibid.', p. 404. I3Sb51 99

been made by employing the three techniques known to the

Indians of that time « engraving. Inlay, and painting.

The band of the bracelet was 3/16 of an inch wide. It bears a carved decoration of small Incised rectangles con­ nected with diagonals. From one to three turquoise Inlay fragments wore In the center of uaoh rectangle. Tho In­ cised lines are filled with black paint, while the two short lines forming an angle on the right of the central

inlaid area are painted rod. The umbo of this bracelet is 154 undeooratod. '

From. Casa Grande Fewkes reports the finding of painted bracelets, saying "Gome of the armlets and brace­

lets were ornamented exteriorly with incised lines into 155 which were rubbed red or yellow paint".

At La Ciudad numerous shell fragments were recovered,

one with a frog design. Also a section of an engraved

bracelet was found at Casa Blanca.

Shell rings were never overly abundant. In the

Classic Phase as in the previous phase the most prevailing

type was made from the small Glyoymerls shell, ranging

from 1/2 to 1 inch in diameter. Five whole specimens and 156 thirty-five fragments are attributed to Los Muertos. A

154. Haury, '2.1/. ' 'Report on Los Muert'os in preparation, p • 405. 155. Fawkes, 1912, p. 143. 15G. Haury, S.’J. Report on Los Muertos in preparation, p. 401. 100

iiti'w broad band type, varying in v.’idtb from 1/4 to 1/2 inch, made from the Oonus shell, m s introduced in the Classic

Period. First the spire is cut off and then a section is removed from the large and. This.broad band offered new possibilities in carving of geometric patterns and new life forms. These were sometimes combined with inlaying# liight complete and seven fragmentary examples exist from Los lluertos.

The lloaenway Collection contains a very elaborate

Conus shell ring. It has a, decorative band 7/1G of an inch wide. One edge of the pattern is bordered by a black paint-filled groove, while the opposite edge has a red groove. Between grooves is an interlocking key pattern, each key supporting triangles which fall opposite each other in such a way as to cause the intervening space to fora a zigzag line. The triangles suspended from the upper line are formed by small worked pieces of turquoise less then

1/0 of an inch in length. Those in the lower line are out

into the shell and painted red# The mouth of the shell 157 breaks into the design.

Fewkes discovered another very beautiful ring at Casa

Grande. Red figures representing rain clouds and lightning

157. ilaury, iS.'ii., Report on los Muertos in preparation, p. 401. 101

comprised the surface. This ring is largo enough for the ■ ■ ■ , ■ . ' 158 . . '; . . middle finger of an adult. -•

A third type of ring found at Los Huertos v:as one

cut from the flat section of Cardiuni. Thin is also an. - ...... : ■ . - * . 159 • innovation of the Classic Phase, neither Casa Grande nor

■ ...... - : : 160 Los Muartos, Classic cites, show any examples of etching*

ICB. fewkus, J.w. 1912, p. 143. ““ ; ' -— 159. Haury, 3.W. Report cm Los Muertos In preparation, p * 403• ; 160. Gladwin, H.3. and others. 1937, p. 151. WHOLE SHELL CUT SHELL CHART I : 1 cd o HO HO KALI •H A BEADS "d •H •H i—1 shaped Discoidal Bi-lobed 1 Vermetus Columbella Other Conus Olivella• Alectrion Kassarius O o j j Trivia I i riaucer- diassic Los Linertos " XX X XX X X X, X XX X Casa drande XX 3?, XX ' .

Sedentary Criaketown xx; X _ x_ % XX X X Los Guanacos 102 Colonial Snaketown X 1 X X X X ' . X x Grewe Site • Roosevelt 9:6 -

- Pioneer ■ Snaketown X % X X X

r — CHART II 1 o c H0H0KAM *r- nd A za +34. r>r- 0+: oo £ o] c (D+: BRACiiLlSTS S3 1 o c WE u ra 'd £, Bracelet *5! o 0 0 Plain V Bead Bead „ ^ Inlaid No Data a HD CO Painted ------IT i

JClaasiQ___ _— ... - Los L'uertoa X yx X XX % (lasLa Clrwrifln % X X

Sedentary

Snaketovm XX X 'CX X X X X 103 Los C-n°.no cos X, x rr

Colonial ..Snaketown..... XX X XX X X X --.G-rewo.Site T- X X .. Roosevelt 9:6 DC ■ X •

Pioneer x TTT T 7T • *

CHART III ) ^4 44 o 3 H0H0KAM Vi 4 +3 "H ) 11 I 'dr 4 r 3 MOSAICS 3 a ; Or 4 »dr G)+: A i 1 +: ; 0 ,Vith Shell Base to rd O < j J3 P;5r ) OC 1 4^ 4^

8 1 O O & n Shell and ; ' Classic .. _.J4QS..JJ.u.ert.or» . _; % - X XX X X Casa Grande X X X X X

Sedentary Snaketovm J XX X X X XX 104 Los Guanacos X

.

* Colonial Snake, town X X X X Growe Site uooucvext 'j: o

Pioneer - .— Sneikotovm WHOLE SHELL CUT SHELL

CHART XV

1 0)

•H — .

h o h o k a m fe­ imAv

ll ■■■-— n O

PENDAI'TS e 11 Rent ?>> rH &. &. ... Turritella Conus Conus 1 Tinkler Pendants Pecten Geom.Discs

O Misc. Circular or Semi—1 Convention- *3 1 T a rl T) 4 T) rl a 1 T *3 Amphibian 1 Frog Form Animal Form . Olivella- . Cerithium k ------j Human j 1 iPainted Inlaid ! r"""— — Form Isird — - I— Llosaio

Classic iLos Muer.tos X XX X y; X X XX X 3CT X 2 X 066a Crdnae X ZX XX X X XX X XX X I X KX X X X X

-

Sedentary Snake to vJn X X X T X T X X , X X X ....LSS'Cuanacoa X X X X X X 105

Colonial Snaketovm X x X X XX X % Y CrAWe Site XX

Roosevelt 9:6 X II X X X >

Pioneer Snaketown X X

■■V) CHART V

U0H0KAI.I

R I II G S $ a OJTH Conus Incised Inlaid G.1 vfrrmeiM.q G.1 Broad Band Painted Plain Plain V Harrow Band !§

Classic Los Muertos X X X X X X x Casa Grande X X X X

..

Sedentary 106 Snaketown X : X X X ■ Los Guunacos X X X X XX

Colonial Snakatown :c :c i Gra’.vo Site X Roosevelt 9:6 :

Pioneer Snaketown -

‘ 107

Culture and Chronological Values; A fairly complete view of the various types of articles made and their dis­ tribution as to both area and time is given in the survey just completed of the Hohokaia Province. V/ith the in­ crease in the number of species used and in the abundance of certain of these species over those used in each pre­ ceding period it may be noted that there also developed a greater variety of form and technique In each succeeding period.

In the Pioneer Period four spocies of whole shell beads wore used in small amounts (Chart I). Disc beads were used much more extensively. In the Colonial period two now types of cut beads were manufactured - the cylindricalj a heavy, solid bead perforated from both ends by two conical drill holes which moot at the center, and the bl-lobod. neither of these was very popular in the

Hohokaa area, each having been an innovation of the

Colonial Period at Snaketovm and lasting only through the

Sedentary Period. They have not been reported from any of the other sites in the region.

During the Sedentary Period few new types of beads were added to those inherited from previous periods, but

there was a great increase in the quantity of shell used

and a marked increase in the use of Qlivella as a whole bead. 108

In the Classic Period a number of now species were added to those already in use. Disc beads were manufac­ tured abundantly (Chart I)* These varied in size and structure somewhat in the different periods. Discs of the Santa Cruz Period \mvo the Smallest, having a small perforation and averaging 2-4m. in diameter. The largest discs, more than 1 onu and with a large perforation, were characteristic of the Sacaton Phase. In the Classic Period there is more irregularity of the faces of the discs, and the discs have large, bi-oonical perforations.

The Cerlthiua shell was the only species used in the

Pioneer Period for whole pendants (Chart 17)» However, there was one out shell type, tho conventionalized bird form. As indicated in the pendant frequency Chart IV, there was a great impetus in the carving of realistic life forms throughout the Colonial Period. In the Santa Cruz

Phase, the very last phase of this period, the circular and semi-lunar pendants made their debut; and in the Sacaton

Phase of the Sedentary Period tho true geometric forms came

into use. Thus it would seem that the conventional form preceded the geometric. Haury suggests that from indica­

tions tho conventionalized forms were first on shell 161 ornaments and later wore used as designs on pottery. Also

101. Gladwin, U.L3. and others. 195'?, p» X42. 109

in this last period, we £-3 1 the beginning of human forms.

It is interesting to note the large number of species available and the huge amount of shell used, as well as the groat variability of forms and techniques employed during the Classic Period (Chart IV). Glycymeris shell was used extensively and, for the first time, as a whole pendant. The specimens from Los Muertos showed a flat area around the perforation duo to the process of grinding down the back of the shell. The Conus tinkler pendant makes its entrance during this last period.

Cut shell pendants were very abundant and a profusion of forms and techniques aro noted. As in the Sedentary

Period the life forms were even more:plentiful in the

Classic Period, but the geometric pendants w^-re relatively more abundant. The most popular of life form, pendants is the frog carved from the whole Olyoyaeris shell, with the bird fora perhaps taking second place CChart IV).

Overlays of turquoise and shell were started in the

Santa Crus Phase, but tho greatest amount of mosaic work is produced in the Sedentary and Classic Periods. The frog and bird motifs seem to bo the favorite life-form designs. Most of these mosaics were perforated and used as pendants. Some very fine pieces have been produced.

Painted and etched shell appeared in the Saoaton

Phase. The technique of painting shell was quite no

widespread, while etching has not boon found outside of

Snaketovm*

Although bracelets wore very plentiful throughout the

Ilohokari region, there were no bead bracelets (Chart II).

The plain Qlycyaeris bracelets are abundant from the

Pioneer Period on through the Classic, and are extrenely numerous during the Sedentary and Classic Periods. The thin narrow type is abundant only in the Pioneer Period..

The medium wide types came into use at the end of the

Pioneer and were very abundant during the Colonial and

Sedentary Periods; while the heavy type had its beginning in the Sedentary and was nost popular during the Classic

Period. Only one example of carved bracelets was found in the Pioneer Period; but in the Colonial Period there were the life forms such as frogs, snakes, and birds.

The bird-serpent combination was the favorite motif. The engraving of bracelets was employed most frequently during the Codontary and Classic Periods. Painted and inlaid bracelets were not in use until the Classic Period and were never abundant.

Rings did not appear until the Santa Cruz Phase

(Chart V), with only a few specimens being found. They were more abundant during the Sedentary Period and also

carried over into the Classic. The broad-band Conus ring

had its beginning late in the Sedentary, if Los Guanaoos

is a true Sedentary site, and became the outstanding type Ill

for the Classic Period. Rings "were carved, in auch the o a m nannar as the bracelets, and when the broad-band type was introduced carving was moro easily done and naturally the output increased*

Again if Los Guanaoos is a true Sedentary site, the painting and inlaying of rings was at an earlier period than the zeaio on bracelets* The first finds of this technique on bracelets ware in the Classic Period, while both of these were produced on rings at Loo Guanaoos. 112

Anasazi

Standard Traits:

Basketaaker: An yet no hunan remains or artifacts specifically belonging to the Indians of the B&sketmker I era have been identified* They arc still known by the broad terra of pre-agrioulturnl, nomadic, and hunting people.

However, from Baeketmkor II sites sufficient .material has been obtained to give a diagnostic interpretation of the arts and crafts of that time. This group of Indians occupied a very extensive territory reaching from the northern edge of

Utah to west Nevada, southward down Into southern New

Mexico and along the Rio Grande to Big Bond. A similar cul­

ture is found in the caves of Coahuila, Mexico. Th the

east, Daskctmakor II strains are noticed as far as Oklahoma 162 and perhaps Arkansas. The highest cultural development of

this epoch extends throughout the San Juan drainage basin

covering all of southern Utah and northern Arizona east of 163 the Colorado River.

Uhatovcr scientists have learned of this material cul­ ture has come almost entirely from burials, inhumations

having been practiced, and caches being made in caves and cliffs.

162, Morris, K.H. 1939, p. ll. : 163. Ibid. 113

The Baskatmakors, although they dressed themselves scantily, adorned themselves with a variety of simple jewels and trinkets. Beads and necklaces of Ollvella and

Haliotia shells in considerable quantities were among the 1G4 things found in the graves of this period*

In the San Juan Area, beads and necklaces of shell were profuse. A very characteristic ornament consisted of a cord made of leather or fiber string, fron which hung from one to'many pieces of shell in the shape of pendants 135 or as large beads. These were sometimes worn os a sort 1GG of Mchokern or tight necklace. Also, strands of beads wore worn about the neck like a loose collar, while other nook- laces were longer and hung down upon the breast. Short

. • - • : . strands of beads or single pendants were hung from holes In 167 the nether lobe of the ear. The whole Olivolla shells were used extensively as beads and pendants which were often strung in clusters and In masses upon the breast.

Small shell discs, many of which were saucer-shaped, war© ,168 plenteous.

In northern Arizona, in the Kayanta region, Guernsey

reports finding in a Basketmakor II site one bend bracelet

consisting of seven disooidal shell beads strung on a

104. Morris, g.il. 191S9, p. 13. 105. Ibid. 16G. AasSen, C. 1930, p* 211. 167. Morris, 3.H. 1939, p. 13. 168. Ibid. 114

coarse fiber string; another with four shell beads and on® 169 stone bead; likewise small sanoer-shsped bone fragments cut to look like beads made from the curving walls of the 170 Olivolla shells; and a roughly-shaped triangular pendant 171 carelessly cut from a section of a Haliotis shell.

Another site belonging to Basketmakor II times is

Lovelock Cave in the Humboldt mountains near Lovelock,

Levada, From this site seven specimens were found as 172 follows: one necklace of Olivolla biplicata; two strings

of Oliva shells; one Haliotis earring; one Haliotis hair

ornament; two mussel shell ornaments,

Olivolla shell beads strung in a very interesting

manner wore found about the neck of a partially-mummified

child 5 1/2 years old. Two cords laid parallel fora a

flat background against which one side of tho beads rests.

A third cord is passed through a shell and knotted to tho

double cord, A number of shells have been attached in this

sane manner, with a knot between each two shells. All are

then drawn tightly together so that the knots are covered 173 by the lip of the shell.

Two other Interesting strings of Olivolla beads, pro­

bably used as necklaces or bracelets, were found at this

169. Guernsey, G.I, 1920-23, p. 68, ' “ 170. Ibid.. p. 69 171. T5T&*. p. 68. 172. Loud, L.L. and Harrington, M.H. 1929, p. 105. 173. Ibid. 115

site. The nathod of attaching the shell to the ntrlngs lo quite as complicated as that described above. In the first string of unidentified fibre the shells are fitted together in a orochet-like stitch. The thread is nude to pass through one loop after another, then, attaching the shells by passing the thread through from point to lip be­ tween the loops. Tho shells are ntit close together but 174 are separated by two or three loops. The other type necklace was strung on strips of leather or on fibre cords, with the points of all tho shells ground off to permit the 175 passage of the string.

Other shell objects found during the excavation near 176 Lovelock and from site 13 wares one Olivolla shell bead; five perforated Oilyalia shell discs, roughly circular In fora; one tlaliotis earring; four Hal lot la hair ornaments

(Loud states that nV«hen shell discs have two holes they are intended ns ornaments to be tied to braids of hair. Feathers can bo lashed against the shell between the holes”); one fragmentary ornament; and one mussel shell hair ornament.

Orchard reports on the bead work from Lovelock Gave and lists the stuae specimens as those described above from

tho report of Loud and Harrington. He comments: "It is

174. Loud, L.L. and Harrington, M.R. lh29, p. llo5. 175. Ibid., p. 149. 176. TSId. 116

evident from the quantities recovered that Ollvella shells V 177 ■ , • ;; — — More very popular".

Two other strings of beads wore found made from the

outer walls of the Qlivolla. Also found were two strings

of flat bauds, one of rectangular beads with a groove cut

'across tho convex side and deeply through the center of

the curve of pieces of shall Instead of circular perfora­

tions. The beads are tied with a strand of sinew, on©

overlapping the other, to a pair of fibre cords, with a

knot between each two beads. A pendant of mussel shell is 178 at ono end of tho two strings. Another technique is shown

in a necklace of eight fragments which when put together

measured 21 inches. The beads were discoidal, 3/16 inch

in diameter,with circular perforations. These are

threaded on a fibre cord in such manner that they overlap

1 ' •. ■ , ouch other and are held in place with a stitch similar to 179 the orochet-1ike stitch described above.

Kusbaun reports on another cave in Kane County belong­

ing to tho same period. Cave De Pont. One very interesting

thing concerning this site is tho fact that it was not

visited by humans after abandonment by the Basketaakers, 180 and was not occupied by the Cliff House people. Two beads

177. Orchard, 1929,' p. 23. 138. Ibid., p. 24. 179. Ibid. 180. SusEaun, I.L. 1922, p. 80. 117

were found in cave one. The first v:as a land snail with the spire broken off; the second, a saucer-shaped bead 181 from the aide wall of a largo Olivolla, '

In this same period at Robinson Ranch in Cave Lake

Canon, Kane County, Utah, in 01st 30, -ware recovered two beads, one tha shell of a land snail and the other a very small saucer-shaped bead made from the side wall of a large

Olivolla, The latter type is particularly characteristic of 182 the Basketniaker culture,

Modified Basketmaker; The Modified Basketmaker* s cul­ ture has somewhat the same range as the Bnskotiaaker, It extended northward Into Utah almost as far as Salt Lake, westward Into southeastern Mevada, southward into Arizona including the drainage of the Little Colorado, and south- 183 ward in now Mexico slightly beyond Zuni.

In the La Plata region of the 5an Juan Area ornaments wore fairly abundant during the Modified Basketaaker 184 Period, according to Morris. Some of the beads found were of whole shell Olivella, massive or ouboidal, enucer-

shapsa, and disc-shaped. There were also some shell pen­

dants , shell bracelets, and mosaic ornaments of shell and 185 turquoise.

In the San Juan Region proper in a burial near Mummy

lOl. liushaum, J.t. 1922, p. 68. 182. Ibid., p. 80. 183. l^rris, E.H., 1939, p. 19. 164. Ibid., p. 45 185. Tbld. 118

Gave, Canyon del Muorto, probably of Basket:aal:er III age, the remains of three individuals wore recovered# One lay above the other# On the breast of one skeleton reposed a magnificent turquoise mosaic pendant, with a large roo- 100 tangular piece of irrldesoent Haliotis shell in the overlay.

In another cavern not far from llurmy Cave In the debris eighteen burials wore found, four in a vary largo basket.

Two of these had bracelets on the loft ara. Each bracelet was made of a strand of white beads, interspersed with 187 pendants of Haliotis shells# On the withered loft wrist of a mummified female from the same cave rested an orna­ ment, a cuff, 5 inches wide made of two hundred perfectly- matched Ollvella shells, with an exceptionally fine sot 188 of«

In another region of the same cave in "The Burial of the Hand M was exhumed an adult with a small basket full of long, crescentric beads of white shell# Tho wrist was encircled by three neck cords, one with a single pendant of Haliotis shell as large as the palm of one's hand. A second bore two smaller but colorful, irridescent.Haliotis

shells; while tho third, a breast ornament, was a master­ piece. It was comprised of eighteen shell rings, 3 inches

186. horris, d.H. . 1925, pp." 272-873; ' ~ 187. Ibid., p. 874. 188. TEH., p. 291. 119

in diameter, bound to the neck oord and overlapping like links of armor. They reaohod from shoulder to shoulder, 189 forming a tinkling white collar.

. At Cliff. House, Guernsey,records the finding of one

Hallotis bead, and a broken bracelet from Ruin 5* The latter he states is tiie nano type as bracelets found in the Lower Gila and Pueblo Bonito, also similar to those found in the Little Colorado by Fowkcs and the Upper Gila 190 by Hough. .

■ iron Marsh Pass eetaetsrios ho records the. finding of Ollvella whole shell beads, unworked other than for the 191 rubbing off of the tips of the spires to permit stringing.

From the neck of skeletons found in White Dog Cave several necklaces of bonds were found, one a string of fourteen

Ollvella shells which had formed a sort of "dangler”; a second composed of one hundred little s&uoer-ahaped shell beads made from the curving walls of the large Olivolla; seventy-five thin, irregular disc-shaped shell beads 7/16 inch in disaster; and eighteen Ollvella shells, ono being decorated with incised zig-zag lines grouped together. Long strands of Ollvella were also made to wrap once or

twice around the nook* One very striking necklace con­

sisted of ninety-five beads placed, in the following order:

138. Morris, L.ll. 192b, p. LOl. : 190. Kidder, A.Y. and Guernsey, 5.J. 1919, p. 129. 191. Ibid. 120

ona of lignite, seven Olivella shell, oca of seed, one of bone, one of red shale, on© of green shale, one of rod shale, 192 and eighty-one of white linestone* The majority of the shell bands are from Olivella, unworked other than for the cut- !93 ting off of the end of the spiro. Only four shall pen­ dants were found in this cave. The first two are largo round disco 2 inches in diameter* Four arras of an incised cross figure radiate from two central perforations, and other holes are around the edge; near the lower edge is a 194 carefully-fitted inlaid piece of Hallotla shell.

Guernsey again reports on the same region and on specimens obtained during the field work of 1920-1923*

From a Basketmaker III horizon they unearthed a string of bright and pearly whole Olivella beads strung on the original eleven-strand cord of cottony-looking fibre. The string is 42 feat long and contains 1,720 Olivella shells, ten of which are practically whole, only the tip of the

spire being removed to allow for stringing while the lower halves of the remainder are cut away. The removed por­

tions, tho thin outer lips, wore used to make saucer-shaped 195 disc beads.

Under Basketmaker III at Chaco, Judd found among

192. Guernsey, 3.J. and Kidder, A.V. 1921/ p. 47. 193. Ibid., p* 49. 194. Ibid. 195. Guernsey, S.J. 1931, p. 75. 1*1

196 othor artifacts a fra^.iont of a shell braoelet.

Devolopittental Pueblo: It is often hard to place the shell iiiaterlal definitely within n certain period for .iany sites have been dated since the material was obtained, and when a site covers more than one phase it in impossible to determine to what phase the particular material belongs.

In Gypsum Cava, Nevada, sixteen miles east of Las

Vegas, a late Pueblo II or early Pueblo III site, orna­ ments ware very scarce, especially shell ornaments. The only shell specimen was a single Olive11a shell bead found in liooa I at a depth of three inches. It is a typical specimen of this widely distributed type, an entire shell with the apex rubbed off to provide a passare for the 197 string.

From the San Juan drainage basin in northeastern

Arizona, from sites of Pueblo II and III times, come three

strands of a necklace of fine disc-shaped stone beads from

which dangled a pendant of much worn Olivella shell beads 193 and a Pectunoulus valve. Also from these sites came

shell ear ornaments made of thin discs of irrideeoent

shell, probably Kallotls. 1 7/8 inch in diameter with 199 perforations placed near the edge for suspension.

190. iudd, K.LU 1924, p. 411. 197. Harrington, I-I.R. 1953, p. 152. 198. Guernsey, G.J. 1931, p. 102. 199. Ibid., p. 104. 122

At Pine Tree House in the San Juan drainage basin

Cuaniings found hundreds of beads - of bone, jet, slate, agate, turquoise, shell ~ buried beneath the sand and 200 scattered dovm the slopes for several foot*

In the aone drainage in Chaco Canyon, northwestern I«evv Mexico, is located the site of Teeh So, a small house ruin excavated by the University of Rew Mexico. The upper rooms of the main occupation, belonging to Pueblo II ago, rest on the mound of an earlier structure of the pra- 201 ceding period (Pueblo I).

Several fragments of shell bracelets made from

Glycyaoris shell were found in refuse heaps. These were the.most- numerous shell remains from the Chaco site. The sane typo of bracelet Is common In practically all the other culture areas of the Southwest. Also a single small conical, well-worked shell plug about 1/2 inch long, tenta­ tively identified as a nasal plug, was recovered. One remnant out from the ria of Glyoyneris shell may have been used as a pendant, -• -

A number of Olivella shell beads, found sporadically on the surface and in the ant hills of the vicinity, come from Tseh So. In Ruin 51 was found a-single circular pendant of Strombus. It had one perforation and showed the

200. Cummings," Byron. 101b, p. 280. 201. Brand, D.D, and others, 1957, p. 01. marks of the abrading tool upon Its surface. A largo number of shell disc beads arc unidentified. Many may have boon out and perforated from sections of Glycymeris, while others apparently belong to larger species because 202 of their thickness.

At Leyit Kin, another small house ruin in Chaco Canyon, ornaments were rare* However, more ornaments of 203 shell than of any other material were found. Only two whole specimens were found, Glycymeris shell bracelets being the most numerous, for only a few shell beads were

recovered.

During Pueblo I times in the Pueblo Ruins of the

Piodra District in southwestern Colorado few objects of

shell were found. Roberta states: *Examples are only

occasionally found as far north and east as the Piodra dis- " ■ 204 trict". The only specimens of shell found here were four

bracelets on the arm of an adult person, and these are of

the type found throughout the Southwest.

A cache of jewelry from a Pueblo I pitcher in the

La Plata district,found in site 34, shows practically the

whole■range of shell and turquoise from this region. The 205 shell ornaments are enumerated as follows: one strand

202. Brand, D.D. and’ others. 1937, p. 96. 203. Dutton, B.P. 1930, p. 71. 204. Roberts, F.H.IL, Jr. 1930, p. 155. 2P6. Morris, E.II. 1939, p. 142. 184

of nine Qlivella shells, spires ground off; one Oliva shall, tip ground off; one complete valve, probably

Glycyaarls, smoothed by war; four curved pendants, massive sholl, largest 4.2 an. across the curve; one rectangular pendant of Haliotla; ono oval pendant of Ifeliotis; two flat thin discs, highly polished, massive shell; ninety-five shell disc beads, 3-8 mm. in diameter.

On the Long H Ranch in Apache County, eastern Arizona, and twenty miles north of St. John, is the ruin of Kiatuth- lannu which has yielded remains of early and middle Pueblo

II and early Pueblo III. Shell was the popular and pre­ valent material worn for decorative adornment in both horizons. Pendants of different shapes, beads, and brace- 206 lots were the most important objects fashioned from Haliotis. qlivella, and Glyoymeris which were the shells most fro- 207 quently used.

The simplest form and largest number of beads in the

Pithouso of Pueblo I period were of the Qlivella shells

(Chart 71). They were used in necklaces and bracelets, and

in one burial at Kiatuthlanna it was apparent the person 208 had worn some sort of girdle composed of over 300 of them.

The flat circular or disc beads made from shell were not 209 plentiful in the Plthouse Period. Haliotis was used in

the manufacture of pendants, with the geometric form of

206. Roberts, Jr. 1931, p. 174. 207 and 208. Ibid. 209. Ibid., p. 161. 125

pendant being the most Important type found at Kiatuthlanna in Pueblo I Period. A pair of Haliotis shell bracelets, . 210 rectangular in form, was found In the Pithouse horizon.

At tills site the Glyoyaerls shell bracelet or armlet was one of the most common forms of ornament made by the pithouse dwellers, none being found in the Pueblo horizon.

They were recovered in varying numbers on the arm. bones of many of the skeletons, two being the smallest number worn by any one Individual and twenty the most found on one arm, with four as the average in the majority of burials. One very elaborate specimen had a frog carved in the umbo. 211 Carved bracelets were found in great numbers.

Shell ornaments during the Pueblo II times in the . 212 Flagstaff urea were not abundant (Chart VI ). From a

burial in site N A 1500, a pra-eruptivo sito, was recovered

a necklace containing 370 beads of stone and Ollvolla

shell, slightly ground at one end (Chart VI). These are

characteristic of similar beads from later period sites 213 throughout the Southwest. From this same site came two

seal-lunar type pendants smoothed at the ends. They

appear to have been deliberately made in this form. They

~2i0. Roberts, F.H.K., Jr. 1931, p. 150. 211. Ibid., p. 162. 212. McGregor, J.C. 1936, p. 43. 213. Ibid.. p. 4=5. are not the full round shells of the bracelet form, as ' S14 ' scoins aore typical of the later periods* Mo whole bracelet specimens ware found in Slta KA 1524, but sixteen good- sized fragments of bracelets of Glyoyraarls, varying in width from 4*5 mn* to 9.5 am* and from 52 m * to 65 mm* In diameter, were recovered* The point of the beak has been rubbed off, forming a small perforation* They are all of small diameter, and as no bracelets have been found in place on a skeleton it seems possible they may have been 215 used as pendants instead of bracelets*

From K A 662 and II A 1975 come whole shell pendants of Glycyiaerls shall* The perforation for suspension on the smallest one was made by rubbing down the point of the beak until a small opening appeared. The largest pendant was made in the name way as a bracelet, without a small 216 perforation.

At site M A 2098 was found one large tinkler pendant of Turrltells shell with a perforation for suspension in 217 the wall near the aperturo. From this same site came four 218 specimens of cut shell pendants: one rectangular of

Hallotis shell; one figure eight type of Cardium; one carved to represent a bird, the body being square with

Eld. lie Gregor, J.C. 1956, p. 45." 215. Bartlett, K. 1932, p. 61. 216. Ibid.. p. 62. 217. ‘ Ibi'cu 218. i H o T long projections on each side and Incised parallel lines to indicate wing feathers; one fragment of an odd-shaped pendant; ono large cylindrical bead iaade from. Olivolla shell was found in this same site.

In Pueblo II of the San Francisco Mountain region the niost coLTaonly used shell was Slyoymuris. with Cardluia second. Other shells - Turrltella. Hallotis. Olivolla - wore scarce and were not found except in Late Pueblo II 219. sites.

Great Pueblo: In the northern periphery of the

Anasaai region is Pueblo Grande of ITevada, also known as

"The Lost City of Levada". It belongs to Great Pueblo

tines. Hero the Olivella shells served In the manufacture

of several types of beads. Often the shall beads and tur­

quoise wore strung together. Pendants were made from 220 Ilaliotls and from massive, solid white marine shells.

In the Middle Gila Culture Area has been found a

copious supply of shell artifacts in both the Pueblo III

and Pueblo 17 Periods. From this region wero found offor­

atory deposits of carved shell, among which wore several

large shell bracelets. The bezels, or settings, are quite

elaborate, having as their motif birds, human figures,

horned toads, and alligators. The twined bodies of

219. Bartlett, K. 1932, p. 04. : 220. Harrington, M.R. 1927, p. 272. 128

rattlenskes formed many of the bodies of the bracelets.

Two perfect finger rings with the bird and rattlesnake motif were found also* The hu/re Cardium shell from the Gulf of

. ~ 221 California appears to bo the favorite shell for this work.

Hundreds of Pecton plates made into pendants were scattered

throughout the area. Conus tinkle pendants were also 222 found. Very excellent turquoise mosaic work of intricate

designing came from this region. It seems that neither

time nor skill was spared for on one shall article there 223 were 1,175 pieces of turquoise overlay.

In Pueblo II or Rectangular Pithouse stage, the sane

types of ornaments are represented but were not abundant.

A greater use of turquoise for pendants and beads is . 224 apparent in Great Pueblo times. Throughout the region of

the Upper Gila and Salt River Valleys necklaces of shell

beads, armlets, wristlets, anklets, finger rings, and pen- 225 dents of shell occur in all localities.

In the region of the Upper Gila Cave No. 24 in the

Huntack fountains north of Pinia County, Arizona, shell

beads were found in profusion. The record does not state ■ . . . ■ 226 what types of shells were used.

221. Hanna, M..;. 1931, p. 48. 2 2 2 . Ibid.. p. 49. 223. ibid.« p. til. 224. Ibid., p. 49. 225. lough, ;Y. 1907, p. 20. 225. Ibid.. p. 40. • 130

were found from many of the rooms. Fossil shells are often found. The following are those listed under the various rooms: Room 4 - a pendant of a bivalve shell, and fossil shell of splrlfers family; Room 6 - fossil shells,

Ollvella shell heeds, a fragment of a largo bracelet, a 230 circular shell head and two shell pendants; Room 6a - a triangular shell inlay, a penoant of Haliotis shell, and . 231 fossil bivalve shells covered with rad ocher; Room 9 - tv.onty-five fragments of Llurex and Strorabua shell, and 232 fifty-eight fossil shells of splrlfers and other bivalves;

Room 12 - of the many objects in the room fossil shells were the most plentiful, there being over a thousand, many covered with rod and yellow ocher, only one was worked.

Another popular fossil shell was the cricoid stem of which there were over 300 fragments. Tkoy also had a coating of red and yellow ocher. There was also a small shell inlay 233 possibly from a mosaic, and an Ollvella shall; Room 13 - 234. fragments of 3trombua shells and one small Ollvella shell;

Room 14 - three Ollvella beads; Room 16 - shell objects 235 found in the cylindrical opening of the burned supports;

Support No. 1 - ten Ollvella shell beads, five shell

h3o. Pepper,' 'o.H. 1920, p. 46. 231. Ibid.. p. 47. 232. TEH., p. 50. 233. Ibid., pp. 62-68. 234. Told., p. 09. 235. Tbld.. p. 70. -

129

Morris says oonoerning tho La Plata country:

"The inhabitants of the La Plata country v;ore notoriously poor in beads and ornaments*..... The entire number of ornaments in the La Plata Collection is so snail that to lend brevity to description I 227 shall not consider beads and pendants separately." In the debris beneath tho Mesa Verde level at Site 36 was uncovered a very interesting set of six curved shell pendants• They were cut from the longitudinal curve of the Glycynoris shell, tho lonr'or' t being 6 on. across the 228 chord of the arc.

A small hoard of Jewelry cached in a tiny corrugated pot was recovered from a Mesa Verde burial by P. T. Hudson and Mr. and Mrs. L.P. Brewer of Aztec, Mew Mexico. The writer will enumerate only tho ornaments of shell which it 229 contained: twenty Olivella shell beads, spires ground off one claw-shaped shell pendant 2.7 cm. long; one rectangular white shell pendant; three very thin disc beads of

laminated shell, probably Hallotis, 7.9 nm. in diameter.

Throughout most of the San Juan region there is a

relatively small amount of shell ornaments present in the

Great Pueblo horizon, with the exception of Pueblo Bonito

where shell was quite plentiful. Turquoise was the most

outstanding type of jewelry used. A few shell ornaments

227. Morris, Jf.H. 1939, p. 141 228. Ibid., p. 142. 229. Ibid. . . 131

pendants; Support Ko» 2 - seven Ollvolla shell beads, three shell pendants; Support Ho. 5 - twenty-four bi-lobad beads, seventeen Ollvolla shell bonds, soven irregularly-shaped shell pendants; Support Ho. 4 - fourteen Ollvolla shell

beads; Support Mo. 5 - one Ollvolla shell bead, one shell pendant; Support Mo. 6 - fragments of two Ollvolla shell beads, two shell pendants. On the bench between supports

Mo. 3 and Mo. 4 were ten Ollvolla shell beads and ono shell pendant. Others found In the Room 16 were two Olivella and three shell pendants.^

It would appear that certain forms of shell beads were selected in ceremonial Room 16 for a definite purpose.

The Olivella and bi-lobed beads were found in other rooms, but other than this last room the irregular shell beads 23% were found only In Burial Room 3.

From the debris in Room 28 were obtained: sixty- eight bi-lobed shaped beads; forty-three Olivella shell beads; nine fragments of bracelets, two perforated for suspension; 105 Olivella shells; 152 bi-lobad form; sixty-

seven flat circular and irregular disc beads of Ollvolla;

five carved Oilvalla shell beads with a band around the 238 center.

Shall was employed to make mosaics for turquoise and

237. Popper, G-.H. 1020, pp. 81-04. 233. Ibid.. pp. 125-126. 236. Ibid., p. 70. 132

shell ornaments, shell bracelets, pendants, and beads of various kinds. At Pueblo Bonito most of the shells ob-

- - . . : - : - 239 : : tained wore from, caches and not from burials.

In Hoorn 33, a Burial Chamber In the northwest portion of Pueblo Bonito, was found a ceremonial cache• Prom it was obtained a copious number of outstanding objects. One of the most striking was a cylindrical basket covered with

1*211 pieces of turquoise overlay set irregularly Into the . . . ■ ■ - ■ . 240 : uomonting material and very closely fitted together. Below the mouth of the cylinder and partially filling It was a mass of turquoise and shell beads and pendants, 2150 flat disc turquoise and shell beads* The shell beads and pen­ dants found with the mass of turquoise (not listed hare) have depressions for the reception of inlays. Some spoci- 241 mens had the precious stone still intact*

In addition to the turquoise beads and pendants there were 3,317 shall beads and small pendants* A few beads wore made of Olivolla shell but most were disc-shaped.

Seventy were of cylindrical form, and eight of theso had holes drilled in the side, possibly for a turquoise inlayl

Other objects found were: sixty-eight largo, regularly-

shaped pendants, most of them flat*’ nineteen of them had

holes in the side for an Inlay of turquoise, one still

retaining’the turquoise sot* Two were carved In the

239. Pepper, C.H. 1920, p. 379. 240. Pepper, G.TI. 1909, pp. 227-230. 241. Popper, 0.11. 1919, pp. 227-230 shape of moooaolns and all viere drilled for suspension.

Within the same group were three other oyllndrloal beads averaging 5 021. In length and 0 mm. in diameter; each had a bird bone through the central opening. Four pendants of life fora, one with a turquoise inlay, were recovered; while another pendant, geometric in form, had a groove for 242 a turquoise just below the suspension hole.

At a short distance from the above find, but not associated with it, was recovered another mosaic on basket work measuring about 1 5/8 inches in diameter and 2 inches

in length. "Turquoise beads were strung on n cord and placed

on edge against the body of the cylinder, in parallel rows

separated by two rows of the thin shell pieces (ovoidal) 243 which overlapped like shingles." :Sach transverse row con­

tained six or seven turquoise beads.

The fill of the same room contained a large bird form

of shell, measuring 2 7/16 inches from the head to the end .

of the tail. It no doubt was the base for a mosaic figure 244 and was apparently covered with turquoise.

The aesthetic arts of the Bonitians was obviously at

its peak when the burials in Room 33 wore made. Their

proficiency in turquoise work was perhaps the highest in

242. Popper, G.H. 1920, pp. 1V3-174. 243. Ibid.. p. 230. 244. Copper, G.H. 1909, p. 242. 134

tho oouthvioat, with their aos&le work In turquoise and 245 oholl beiiic equal to any done in tho entire region.

An overlay of turquoise, shell, and jet on a Hallotls shell base, and an imitation shell trumpet with a turquoise-

Inorustod mouth piece ware found in Boom 38 at the west end of rueblo Bonito, together with a quantity of turquoise 246 material. The same room containod a ball of meal, imbedded in which was a string of minute jet, white shell, and tur­ quoise beads suggestive of the prayer aeal used so exton- 247 sively by tho £uni.

From Hoorn 13 came a bird form of horaatita. Starting from both sides of the neck there are two bands of tur­

quoise inlaid flush with the surface down the canter of the

back, dividing it into two parts. In each wing are three

deep grooves inlaid with, turquoise. The tail is uado of a

piece of shell inlaid with three bits of turquoise, and

tho eyes are formed of half-round pieces set in holes. In- ' " 240 laid turquoise encircles the neck in a narrow band.

From the roof support of Hoorn 26, a ceremonial chamber, 249 camo. a deposit of turquoise matrix and two Olivalla shells.

In the kiva. Room 67, located in the west court of

245. Pepper, G.H. 1000, pp. 246-247. 246. Ibid., pp. 239-240. 247. Y F E L , p. 258. 248. Pepper, G.H. 1920, pp. 134-135. 249. Ibid., p. 14. 135

Bonito, which apparently was abandoned and, later used as a duap, there was a bench 2 foot high and 2 foot 2 inches wide. It completely surrounded the walls of the chamber.

The roof support of pilasters, made of rectangular blocks of sandstone set In adobe, rested on the bench and a log

extended from the edge of the bench to a point several

feet beneath the kiva wall. A carefully-worked cavity

about 2 inches in diameter and closed with an adobe plug was discovered on the western side in the north end of the

log. Upon opening it there lay exposed a deposit of tur­ quoise and shell beads, turquoise matrix, and pieces of

crudely-worked shell. There were six roof supports, and 250 each contained a log in which there was an offering.

Deposits from the Great Sanctuary at Chctro Kotl were

similar to those found In the Pueblo Benito kivas, and both

are considered to be sacrificial In nature. This structure

underwent several periods of building. The first was in

the fora of an amphitheater. This was later abandoned and

filled. Thus the ceremonial deposits of this earlier

period were preserved. Toward the bottom of the terrace

excavation revealed a crypt which contained a 6 foot strand

of 1,045 jet and white shell beads. A deposit close by

contained 1 , 000 bits of turquoise which were nrobably in- 251 tended for a mosaic.

2Sti. Pepper, G.H. 1899, pp. 3-4. 251. Hewett, B.L. 1932, p. 149. 136

In the vortical walls of tho aiddla torraco were ten sealed niches, five on either side of the east-west axis of the Sanctuary, and wore similar to those of tho upper level. Upon opanin5 these it was discovered that each contained an offering of bands and other ornaments of tur­ quoise and shall. Outstanding in each cache waa a bead. necklace of white shell discs alternating with bonds of similar form mad#:from Mexican onyx and.an undetermined black material. The strands of beads in each of tho first 252 five niches opened numbered as follows: Mo. 1 - 1,130 beads; Ko. 2 - 1,910 beads; Ho. 3 - 1,761 beads, strand

13 1/2 feet long; No. 4 - 1,923 beads; Ko. 5 - 2,113 beads.

From the ten crypts wore taken a total.of 17,430 beads of shell, Mexican onyx, and an unidentified black material; the number of each was not stated. Sorno of these necklaces arc 17 foot long. %ith then wore about 100 recr 253 tangulur pendants of turquoise and numerous buttons:

Articles of shell In the Aztec Ruin, northwestern New Mexico, were only fairly abundant, being employed quita extensively in mosaic work. In the collection is a bead of 254 Turritolla and two peleeypod shells. One of tho finest specimens of shell work recovered at Aztec was a thin 255 Glycyaerls bracelet inlaid with turquoise at the umbo.

232. Hawett, M.l. 1932, p. 149. 253. Hewett, E.L. 1934, p. 56. 254. Morris, M.1I. 1915, p. 604. 255. V.isulor, C. 1921, p. 53. 137

Another fine spec intern frora a burial was one set with a 215 G rectangular piece of turquoise half an inch long*

Ho sale work on the convex surface of sholl was a fair­ ly con.-on practice. Lying on the front of a skeleton, fron the mortuary chamber in the east wing, wore twenty shell disco resembling large buttons which bore mosaics of tur- 257 quoiso, gilsonltc, galena crystal, and other materials*

A popular form of mosaic ornament was a circular pen­ dant of sholl, usually terraced for the application of the design, with a central disc surrounded by four rings made of rectangular or sonatinas triangular bits of mosaic set 258 in pitch or gum.

The prehistorica of the Mesa Verde were sadly de­ ficient in ornaments. Few specimens, even of turquoise, were recovered. Reporting on Spruce-tree House in the

eastern side of Spruce-tree Canyon, spur of Navajo Canyon,

Fevvkes states: "Shell work is practically lacking; no 259 objects naclo from marine shell have been found." It Is

possible that ouch objects of adornment which were placed

with the dead ware removed long ago by vandals, since this

region has been thoroughly vandalized before archaeologists

carried on scientific excavation of the area. There in

2£g . Horris, H.II. 1919, p. 161. 267. Aisler, 0 . 1921, p. 53. 250. Morris, S.H. 1919, pp. 102-3. 259. Fawkes, J... 1909a, p. 53. 138

almost conclusive evidence that these people migrated south and west to the Aztec and Chaco area. If this is true they probably took their personal belongings such as jewelry with there. Those two facts nny account for the scarcity of orna­ mental objects from this area.

From one of the ruins near Cortez in the Llontezuma

Valley came a mosaic bird with a base of hematite. The wing feathers were formed by four strips of rectangular

turquoise inlay pieces; the eyes and neck band are also of

turquoise, with a turquoise hourglass-shaped figure in 260 the center of the back, while the tail is a bit of shell.

On the oast bank of Chinleo ,7aah in southern Utah is

a Pueblo III site from which came one of the finest mosaic

specimens of the Southeast. It was found in a small red

seed jar at a depth of 5 feet in a debris-filled room. The

base is of dark flint, 4 1 / 2 inches long, 2 1/0 inches

wide at the widest part, and 3/16 inch thick, covered, with

an overlay of turquoise, shell, and lignite, and shows

evidence of having been encrusted on both sides. At the

larger end was a perforation which extended through both 261 foundation material and mosaic.

Across the Utah-Arizona line stands the Sun Priest

House in Chitchint&boko, Hiislo Canyon, northeastern

£60. Fawkes, J.... 1909a, p. 27. ' 261. Guernsey, S.J. 1931, pp. 103-104. 139

Arizona. Froza it oaaxa a akin poudh containin'; a pair of circular car pendants of pale blue turquoise with a round

202 ' inlay of red shell in the center.

The writer listed all of the objects dated by Guernsey as Pueblo II and Pueblo III under Pueblo II, but no doubt uany of them should be placed under the Great Pueblo. It is quite difficult to segregate the material until more diagnostic work in shell has been done.

Southwestern Utah yielded few shell objects. From.

Beaver came specimens of longitudinal halves of some

species of Ollvella shell, drilled in the centers for

strings; from V/illard came shell discs 5/8 inch in diameter not perforated; from Grantvillo came a side of a small

Qlivolla shell drilled at the center with a hole 4 mm# in

diameter; with specimens from Konosh were the same type of 263 shall as were found at Grantvillo, Ho direct mention is

made of shell ornaments from the ruins of St. George and

Kanub, but Plate 46 shows four geometric rectangular-shaped

shell pendants and a fragment of a bracelet, perforated

for suspension, which probably was used as n pendant; also

a whole ring and a fragment, but evidently those were not 264 plentiful.

The Pueblo III horizon at Kiatuthlanna (Chart 71)

262. Arizona utato museum Collection. 263. Steward, 1936, p. 33. 264. Judd, H.M. 1926, p. 26. 140

produced a great deal of shell notarial* The flat circular disc beads were the style aosfc In use among the dwellers

In the pueblos. In a Pueblo III burial was recovered an unusually fine necklace containing both Olivolla shells with both ends out off thus forming a tubular bead which differed from the Olivolla beads of tho Pithouse, and large flat disc beads. These Olivolla shells were the only ones attributed to the Pueblo horizon. In addition to the beads just described this necklace has one large turquoise bead and two snail turquoise pendants of poor quality. Tho string of the original necklace had disappeared, but the

beads were lying in the earth as though strung, which made 265 it possible to restore the necklace in its original form.

A string of the bi-lobeu beads out from Glycymerls

shell were also recovered from the Long E Ranch. This form 266 may be considered as characteristic of the Pueblo III Period.

No bracelets were found at Kiatuthlanna from the pueblo

horizon, but they are present in this period at other sites

in the region.

A number of pueblo ruins are near Adamana on the

Puareo River in the Petrified Forest region. Northeast of

the largest pueblo, at a depth of 7 feet, was a cist

containing a very rich burial. Included with the other

26o. Roberts, i’.li.H., Jr. 1951, p. 161. 256. Ibid.. p. 162. 141

267 artifacts wore/beads and bracelets of shell. Largo quan­ tities of shell beads and zoomorphic carvings of shell were 2 GO recovered from this region.

Kinishba, a site near Fort Apache oil the White Moun­ tain Reservation, northeastern Arizona, has Its beginning in the last of Pueblo III and extends into Pueblo IV.

Eiere the traits from the Gila-Salt and Little Colorado drainages blended, forming something distinct and apart 269 from each. Turquoise was used freely by these people.

Shell beads from this ruin arc of the two main typos, the flat and disc types and the whole shell, consisting of 270 Olivella (Chart VI), Conus, and Glycyaorla (Chart IX).

The discs are not particularly common but the whole shells occur quite frequently.

In a burial seventy-five perforated Olivella shells wore found under the log of a child. They evidently had been a decorated band around the anklo. Rocklaoes often were made of turquoise, stone, and shell beads interspersed with turquoise pendants. Pendants of shell were rather plentiful. An outstanding specimen, now on exhibit at the

State Museum at the University of Arizona, is a mosaic

consisting of a large clam shell bearing an overlay

207. Rough, 1902, p. 900 200. Hough, 1914, P. 35. 239. Hill. G.F. 1938, p. GO 270. Baldwin, G. 1934, p. 85. 142

composed of oG7 clam pieces of carefully cut and polished turquoiso set in gum. A rectangular piece of red shell £71 fomod the central piece.

Large Glycyaorla shells, usually drilled, at the top, were also used as pendants (Chart IX)• Two or three had a second rather large hole through the center of the shell which nay have been for decorative purpose or may have been used for an Inset of wood or some other material giv­ ing added decorative value. Other pendants were cut from

Uallotis shell well smoothed and polished and shaped very much like stone pendants. They usually were square, slightly oval, or rectangular. Occasionally some were narrower at the top than at the bottom. Conus and Olivolla shell were used most frequently for this typo of pendant.

The fact that life forms of birds and animals were drilled loads us to believe they were used for pendants, and

those specimens found imperforated may have been used as £72 insets in decoration.

Bracelets cut from clams or Glyoynerls shells wore

rare, preference having been for those formed of strands 273 of beads. Pings also were scarce.

Ruins near Plnedale and Snowflake, sites of the 274 little Colorado, produced few ornaments of sea shells.

£71. Baldwin, G. 1934, p. 85. £72. Ibid., p. 8 8 . 275. Ibid., \ . ... - 274. iiaury, 12.5. 1931, p. 51. A snail shall band was found at the wrist of a child’s skeleton in Site 228, which is in the .White Mountains, 275 ■ southeastern Arizona.

Hough, in giving a general cultural survey of the

Upper Gila and Galt Valleys, listed objects from a few ruins in the area. Throughout this region a feu necklaces of shell beads, armlots, wristlets, finger rings, and anklets of shell in a small nonsure occurred in all ' - ' 276 - _ , , localities; however, there is a noticeable lack of o m a - 277 merits and fetishes.

In ruins of the Uppor San Francisco River Wore found finely-worked ornaments of shell as well as discs and bi­ lobe d beads, together with a few other shell objects.

The prehistoric dwollers of Ho* 111, Puoblo Period, at S U Ranch, one-half railo below Old Fort Tularosa, were comparatively wealthy if we would judge by the remains of shell carving, shell beads, mosaics, and other typos of 278 ornaments recovered.

From a rudoly-f ashionod, brown piece of pottery which was removed from beneath the floor of a prehistoric ruin on the Spur Ranch near Luna, Kaw Mexico, with other very remarkable finds was a very accurately cut and perforated 279 shell pendant representing some unidentified animal.

275. Spier, L. 1919, p. 377

276. Hough, V* e 1907, p. 2 0 . 277. Ibid., p» 23. 278. ibid., p. 74. 879. liough, • • # 1914, p. 27. 144

A string of boads 5/16 inch in dianoter with perfor­ ation 1/52 inch in diameter, and a v.Gll-oarved bird amulet were removed from Dear Creek Cava on Dluo River. This loot specimen is rare but not unique for similar ones have boon found. It is carved to represent tv;o life forms and by inverting it changes in appearance from a bird to a small mammal, then back again to a bird on inversion.

Other objects include Qllvolla shell beads; shell pen­ dants of square fora having a square opening in the center for decoration or to reooivo an inset; whole Glycynerls shall pierced for susnonaion; whole Conus shall tinkler 280 pendants; disc shell boads.

"Shell carved in the shape of a frog are rather common in tho Little Colorado Valley and on the Lower Cila, but nro rare in the Blue River Region.

The region of Flagstaff lies in the western part of the Anaaaai province. Hero divorso. cultural influences mingled. It is hard to place this region definitely as an

Anasasi Culture since it linn absorbed so much of the

Hohokam Culture from the south, the outstanding traits such as ball courts, pottery types, and certainly much of tho shell technique (Chart VIII).

From hinona Village, located eighteen miles oast of

280. hough, ... 1914, D. 29. 231. Ibid., p. 37. 145

Flagstaff, Arizona, lata Pueblo II and Pueblo III

Cultural stage, ooaea a large and gratifying supply of shell material. Quoting from tloGragor:

"In all of tho ruins of this area which, show the suiao general culture complex of the A'inona Village site, there is a relatively great abundance of shell. This abundance is noticeably greater at V/inona than in earlier sites, and igugven slightly more abundant than in later sites."*1'3*'

As far as can be determined, no attempt was ever node to carve or etch tho shall in this particular site at this particular stage. Plate XVI, Figure 26, shows the various kinds of shell pendants found at Winona Villare. There 283 were: parts of shell ground down and drilled through the beak, obviously used for pendants; many crescents drilled through tho bank with the ends of the arc ground down to points and carefully polished; fragments of bracelets drilled for suspension, but not so popular as the orescent; fragments of Ilaliotis shall, geometric in form.

Shall beaus were of two types. 'Whole Qllvalla shell

beads with the points ground off ware plentiful in many sites of this area. Tho wall made, carefully drilled,

ground and polished shell disc beads are much rarer than

tha first type for only two were found.

Shell bracelets and necklaces were uncovered in the

burial ground at Sides Pueblo, one and one-half miles east

282. ItcGregor/ 1957, p. 3Y. 203. Ibid. 14 G

of Flagstaff, A very largo noeJrlaco. coapoaod of beads of shell and turquoise surrounded the neck of one skeleton. Shell fragments covered with turquoise mosaics were also found. Six incised shell bracelets of Pectunoulus 3 3/8

Inches in diameter uero recovered from the left forearm of a skeleton along with various mortuary offerings, from 284. the burial in Figure 213.

From one of the cliff shelters in .Valnut Canyon came two excellent objects of turquoise mosaic work. The first has a shell base out in the form, of a frog which is entirely covered with an overlay of fine blue turquoise with a center place of red stone or shell. Thu second is on a wood foundation and is carved to represent a conven­

tionalized bird. The wings, head, and tail are covered with turquoise, with two central strips of cither shell or 285 stone.

A strand of Olivella shell beads interspersed with

two groups of rectangular turquoise pendants, two pendants

to the group, and two groups of largo, flat, light green

turquoise disc beads, four beads to each group, ware in 286 Burial 11 at hew Caves (San Francisco Mountains 14:G).

From Burial 2 at the Hubbard Flat Site (San Francisco

284. Fewkcs, J.17. 1927, p. 210. 285. Hill. G.F. 1938, p. 65. 286. Ibid. Mountains 16s25) visa recovered another necklace of llassarlus and. Ollvolla shells with two oarelessly-mde reo- 287 . . tangular turquoise; matrix pendants.

A number oi' grave sites in Young1 s Canyon near flagstaff were checked by Fawkes in 1926. Those yielded a 288 considerable amount of shell. Grave 6 - one-half of a bivalve shell 51/4 inches long by 4 1/2 inches wide;

Grave 9 - this must have been the grave of an important personage for the burial contained some very elaborate specimens. A "dog collar* necklace consisting of 565 mussel shells was about the neck of the skeleton. Another shell necklace had short strings of shells attached to it, while at the right side of the waist wore twenty-one per­ forated Qllvelln shall beads* About half way between the hip and the knee was another cache containing, among other objects, a conical shell 1 3/4 inches long, the end being ground off. Grave 11 - eleven shell bracelets en­ circled the lower left arm bones of a child; Grave- 17 - a burial urn containing the bones of a child also held several pieces of broken shell bracelets with five whole ones.

At King’s Ruin, thirty-five miles northeast of

Prescott on the east bank of Chino Creek, upper Verde

drainage, there are two phases of culture. The earlier

2137. Kill, G.F. 1958, p. dd. “ “ 210. Fawkes, J.V. 1926, pp. 4-7. 148

pha:;e prooedes 1026 A.D. while the later begins about

1020 and near 1 200 A.D. Tim manufacture of orntv'ionts at

King’s Ruin raaohed perhaps the highest dcvoloprionts of 209 any of tho arts tiiere. The shell ornaments nnnufaotured. wore beads, pendants, bracelets, nrnlets, and mosaic pieces from eight different genera of shell, with Olivo11a and Conus the most important.

In Room 5 fifty-one unworked Olivella and twelve

Qllvella beads were unearthed. In practically all of theso there were two or three small quartz grains wedged very tightly into the natural aperature of the shell, possibly done to keep the beads balanced on the string. Within the same room, wero twenty-three Amphissa. Many of this genera wore found In burials, also Conus shall with tho spires completely out away which were probably used as beads. Tho roost important shell for manufacturing beads was the 290 Olivella.

Pendants of Conus, Oliva, Hallotla. and Pectunculus shell were among those found, with Cohns the most numerous.

Those recorded are: one large Oliva, bright brown and white enamel; one irridcscent Hallotis pendant 3/4 inch long and 3/3 inoh at the widest part with a hole drilled at the narrower end.

239. "Spicer, JsUifT 1935, p. TbZ 290. Ibid., pp. 77-78. 14#

Three types of Fectunculua eendante, nlnilar to those " ■ 291 doseribod in previous sites, v;erc found* All bracelets were unde from Feotuneulus and wore made in three different

styles: a plain type usually flat on the upper and lower

surfaces and slightly convex on the interior and exterior

surface, and undecorated; a decorated type with pairs of

incised lines, some shaped as the plain bracelets, some

decorated with triangles carved partially in the round and 292 partially in relief; and a third type found in a burial

were the setae as above but a portion of the beak was

carved into a triangle 5/8 inch on a side with one point

toward the end of the beak, with the upper portion extend- 293 ing into the ring of the bracelet and standing in relief* Most of the shell material was only moderately well 294 worked and with not a very high standard of skill* These

people displayed their greatest skill in their mosaic work.

A mosaic frog 21/2 inches long, carved from a Pectunoulus

shell, came from a burial. It was completely covered with

an incrustation of turquoise except for the space between

the body and legs where pitch had been applied but no

turquoise put on* The center of the back had an inset of 295 pinkish stone*

291* Spicer, 2.H. 1955, p. 79. 292. Ibid., p. 0 0 . 293. Ibid. ' 294. Ibid., p. 01. 295. Ibid., p. 04. Both Kin^1 o Ruin, and ritnrnnurioo Ruin, a alto on

Lynz Crock coven alios cast of Proocott, dcvcloncd shell 29Q carving. But only a small amount cf shell v?ork wis re­ covered from the latter site. In a burial v:oro two large

Cardiua shells measuring 5 5/1 inches in diameter. Parts of pendants out in the shape of lizards wore found, also 297 shell beads and geometric pendants*

Tuzigoot, a site on the Verde River near Clark&alo,

Arizona, begins in Pueblo III tines and extends into

Pueblo IV. Those people did an abundance of beautiful work

in turquoise mosaic on shell and wood. Two outstanding

pieces of turquoise overlay are cxcelleBt representations

of frogs carved from shell. Both had central Inlays of real

pipostona. The rectangular and square bits of turquoise

in both wore wall cut and polished. Tho smaller was made 290 into a pendant. Another pendant was a disc of shell over­

laid with turquoise and a circular piece of yellow shell

on a shell disc which wag superimposed on a much larger

background of pink and white Pcoten shell. A third speci­

men of mosaic on shall was a triangular pendant with

rounded corners which was hun:* at the lower end of a 299 strand of flat disc shall beads. - - ■,

fifteen species of shell were used in the manufacture

"—9b» hpioer, h• li* lOaa, p» lid. ■ ■ 297. Spicer, 2.H. and Cayvfood, L.R. 1936, p. 114. 290. Gaywood, L.R. and Spicer, S.TI. 1935, p. 67. 299. Ibid. of the ornaments at the above ruins HandrefiG of broken

shell ornaments and over a thousand broken shell fragments 300 M v e been recovered here. In addition there were:

fifty-four complete shell bracelets; eight complete shell

rings; sixteen Qlycyaeris shell pendants; six shiny Anadonta

pendants; four Hallotis shell■pendants; twenty strings of

shell beads or shell and stone beads,

A very interesting engraved Glyeyucris shell bracelet,

with frets designed of interlocking hooks, wan found.

hear Camp Verde on Beaver Creek is Montezuma Castle,

a late Pueblo III and early Pueblo IV site. Hero some

very Interesting turquoise mosaics on shell were found.

In cyst Grave 8 was recovered a pendant in the form of a

thundorbird carved from a strip of bark and overlaid with

oighty-tliree pieces of turquoise glued to the shell base 301 presumably with mosquito gum.

From Burial 88 at Rye Creek Ruin (Vordo 15:30), a

transitional site between Pueblo III and Pueblo IV, cano

a short strand of flat disc beads of shell, probably a

wristlet, with two rectangular pendants of turquois matrix.

Another small wristlet from the same site consists of five

Nassarius shells, disc-shaped red- stone beads, and twenty 502 turquoise pendants.

5G0V Cuy.'/oddL.h. and' Bp'iber, 3.11. 1955,' p. ST* v 301. Ibid., p. 89. 302. Li.8. Dept, of Interior, Natl. Park Service, 1934, p. 42. 152

Oho of tbo test specimens of aosalc work in tho Rye

Greek Ruin is a sraall shell with the odi-o bordered by a single row of flat dlsooidal turquoise beads, a unique finish. Th© shell is overlaid, with irregular bits of tur­ quoise, including a tiny pendant, wh.Ho in tho eontcr of the shell toward the lower edge are two rectangular pieces 303 of fine-grained red stone.

. . Humorous sites in the Oak Creek Verde Rivor drainage have yielded many beautiful pieces. Blake tolls of an ancient cross of claw shell bordered with turquoise mosaic which comas from a cliff dwelling on Oak Creek near Jerome, 304 Arizona. Means says of Oak Creek: "Bor wero ornanonts lacking such as armlets of shell and rings of bone and 305 shell". "

i’ro.n Verde 4:1, a sito on the road from Meteor Moun­

tain to Stonoman Luke, cane a mosaic with a G-lycynoris

shell foundation with turquoise overlay set in a thick

layer of pine gum. In tho center of this mosaic is a largo

rectangular overlay, with rounded corners, made from shall

and having a tiny square turquoise inlay near the upper 500 edge* An unusual mortuary offering from Burial 9 at

u03.•Hill, G.f. 1958, p. 70. 304. Pogue, J.3. 1915, p. 456. 305. Poet, 3.B. 1899, p. 36. 306. Ebl6, B.D. 1958, p. 71. 153

Llmeatoiiti Ruin (Verde 5:11) on the south bank of Oak Greek, is a frog craved from' Glyoysaarls shell. Extending from the umbo of the shell to its lower edge and down the middle of the back is a broad band of turquoise overlay, while in the center is a rectangular, fin®-grained red stone. Tha remainder of the foundation material not covered by the overlay is stained blue with aaurite.

There is a perforation for suspension in the beak of the 307 shell.

iristlets of disc beads made from shell, turquoise, or pottery were very popular in the Globe area. From

Besh-ba-gowoh, of Pueblo 111 and Puoblo IV age, many 308 strings were reported, especially with infant burials.

In Burial 198 of the BeSh-ba-gowah Site was a wrist­ let made up of 218 turquoiso disc beads of various sizes and colors, 733 black pottery beads, 158 of red stone, and 309 10 of shell with a broken turquoise pendant in the center.

In Room 51, Burial 60, was uncovered a long necklaca of nasoarius shall with twelve graduated turquoise nondants of 510 sky blue tint.

Regressive Pueblo: As has been previously stated,

shell artifacts prevailed in the Middle Gila Area. A great

50V. Peet, O.D.- 1930, p. 7%. 50G. Hill, G.F. 1938, p. 72. 309. Ibid., p. 73. 310. TEId.. p. 74. 154

elaboration of forms is detected in the pendants or omulsto of the Late Pueblo periods. Various animals such as fro^s, serpents, birds, lizards, and other small crea­ tures served as motifs, as wall as geometric forms of various patterns. They were worn about the neck as pan- 311 tiants or hung from the ears. Bracelets and armlets of

Foctunculus were numerous. Borne were ornamented with incised lines, often painted red or yellow. .Vida shell finger rings made from tho Conus shell show excellent work- . 312 nanship in bas-relief and Incised decoration.

Globe 6:1 (ca* 1300-1400 A.D.), perhaps better known us Gila Pueblo, is a pure Salad© ruin of Pueblo IV tines.

Found in hocm 38 was a strand of Oliveila and tiny

Glycymeris shell beads with one oval and one rectangular 315 dark ere on1sh-bluo turquoise.

' -V Cliff Dwelling on Oak Creek, a Pueblo IV site,

yielded a bird form in turquoise overlay resembling the mosaic piece from Casa Grande. The base material was un­

determined; it measured 3 5/0 Inches In length and 3 1/4

inches- in width. In the center was a cruciform shaped

overlay of shell resembling a bird. This shell object

apparently had bean used as a pendant before it became part

311/ Hanna, LlJ'Jl 1031, p. 40. 312. Ibid. 515. Ibid.. pp. 76-77. 155

of tho mosaic. As a center ■niono it was surrounded by a 314 band of rectangular pieces of turquoise 3/4 inch wide.

Honanki, '*3aar House’’j and Pntatki, "Rad House", in

the valley of Oak Greek in Zed Rock country on Schumann

Ranch lie under a left buttress of rock westword' fro:.i 315 Lloyd*s Canyon. Vary few oholl objects wore found in these

ruins. Only ono shall fragment of a bracelet made from

Peotimculus. several shall and turquoise beads, and a 316 single wristlet of Pectunculns wore recovered.

Some very interesting ;.

Mountain House on Pinal- Creek, southeastern Arizona. Three

mosaic objects with the bases earved to represent f r o m 317 were covered with an overlay of turquoise.

In east central Arizona, • around Roosevelt Lake and tho

Pleasant Valley country and in Tonto country to the north 318 were the Salad© people belonging to the Anasazi complex.

Shell was fairly abundant in this region. From loosevolt

2:20 (Otto Malone Ranch, Tonto Crook) cones a strand of

Olivella shells with five turquoise pendants mid one flat ■

disc turquoise bead.

A necklace composed of flat disc bonds of shell and

twelve fist disc beads of turquoise matrix, six large and

oi/i. ■"llahii&,r lii'.'K« iOo!, RD* 77. 315. Fewkes, J.A. 1800a, p. 558. 515. Ibid., pp. 572-573. 317. lEwTdy, F.M. 1932, p. 227. 310. Hill, G-.F. 1938, p. 78. 15G six small forming the center section, was found in Burial

43 at Roosevelt 5:10, a site on the east sido of Tout© 319 Crook.

Salad© sites in this area manufactured quite a number of mosaic pieces, many of them bevel-cut. Roosevelt G:5 yielded a fine specimen with n backing of n small

Glyeyraaris shell overlaid, with palo greenish-blue atones and a rectangular overlay of red stone In the center of the back. A worked groove in the center of the bottom edge of the base is flanked by long fragments of overlay, sot horizontally and vertically. The mosaic pieces are bavel- cut, well smoothed and accurately Joined. This shell is 320 perforated at the umbo.

In the region, fifteen miles southeast of "Yinslow,

Arizona and south of Hardy in Cakwabaiyakl, "Blue running

water house", or better k n o w as Chevlon, on the left bank

of Chevlon Creek. A large number of ornaments made from marine shell were found in this ruin. Chevlon Ruin has

produced the greatest variety of mosaics (ChartVIII) of all

the pueblo peoples. From hero comas a vary beautiful

elongated gorget pendant of wood, 2 inches in length, in-

crusted with turquoise and shell. The turquoise forming

3 1 9 . Hill, G.i: 1938, p. 78. 320. Ibid., pp. 78-79...... 157

the central place was originally a nondanL, the hole for 321 suspension still intact and showing oonaidorable v;oar.

Broad bracelets of Glycyraoris, very oinilnr to those found in the later phases of the Hohokam, wore inlaid with

bits of turquoise set in gum, some still intact. One a m - let had a small turquoise set in gun in a diagonal incision 322 on the outside.

Artists often worked these bracelets Into m n y

different foms. In many specimens the region of the shell

near the u:abo m s cut into a heart-shauod elevation, often 323 beautifully rounded. Others were carved into shell-shaped

elevations. In a majority of specimens the surface was

smoothed and had no decoration. But one specimen was

beautifully decorated with an interesting incised fret, a

series of lines interlocking at the extremities though not

joining and covering the whole outer surface. This char­

acteristic decorative notif is widespread over the whole

pueblo area. It also appears as two crescents turned in

opposite directions with two horns adjacent. This sane

figure is found painted on the breast of certain

Katchinas, shields, or cut in pictographs, while in pottery

it reaches its highest complication in many elaborate 324 figures. .

321. i'awkos, 1004, P. 86. V w & w # Ibid., p. 30. 323. fewkos, J.J. 1896c , P. 360. 324. Powkoa, J.A.- 1904, P- 89. Throe species of Conus (0. fornusohi, C« Princops. and C. rcrnlaris) and a number Of smaller shells v#ero used

in the manufacture of tinkler pendants at Chovlon. One v.’hole shell pendant of Turrit alia and a crescentrlc shell 3 2 5 ' ■“ . pendant navo found. One unique pendant was a nicely

carved Imitation of a toad or frog. A Strombus shall with “326 a rin£ of pigment about the umbo was also found.

Many hundreds of shell beads (Chart fl), some large 32? and course, others very minute, wore found. Tcubkwitoalobi,

"Antelope, notch place of", or Chaves Pass is a southern­

most ruin of the Little Colorado and is thirty-five miles

southeast of V.’inslow on the hills in Chavos Pass. Hero

the finest mosaic work and most excellent shell curving

were produced, while Chovlon left to posterity the greatest 528 variety. Five beautiful specimens and many fragments of

mosaic work were obtained. One very beautiful specimen

was found on the breast of a skeleton. It was a worked

shall of Pectunculus carved to resemble a frog, which was

incrueted with turquoise embedded in pitch. The minute

pieces of turquoise were so accurately squared that they

fitted perfectly, their edges being so beveled that the

gum or pitch in which they were sot was invisible between

thorn. In the center of the back was a rectangular piece

S'iib. i-'ewkes, J . 1901, up. bl-#2. 326. Ibid., p. 92. 327. I H d . , p. 93. 328. Ibid., p. 05. 169

of red jasper. The lers of the fro£ are accentuated by single rows of turquoise pieces, separated from the remain­ ing mosaic by dark linos of the pitch in which they were 529 set. It was perforated at the umbo.

Fewkeo found more than twenty-nine complete specimens of wristlets and armlets at Chaves Pass, nine on the loft aria of a single skeleton. These were usually more care­

fully worked than the bracelets which were of the same 330 genus but were smaller, slighter, and more abundant. L'any

of the bracelets are perforated at the umbo, and the valves

are so ground down that there is no space for the heart-

shaped elevation. As at Chevlon the plain bracelets were

the most commonly used, but they also had practically the

same typo of carved bracelets as at Chevlon. One of the

boot was beautifully decorated with an. incised pattern. One

specimen was an armlet, inlaid with turquoise. A number of 331 finger rings made from Pectunoulus wore found.

A largo number of tinkler pendants made of Conus

prlncaps ware found. There were a few specimens of carved

life forms. One of the best was a Pectunoulus cut in the 332 shape of a frog which had perforations for eyes. Two very

329. I'cwkoa, J.A. 1901, "pp. 86-87. 330. Ibid.. p. 90. 331. Ibid. 332. XbTd., pp. 91-92. 1*0

interestInc objects were carved to represent sona animal 353 with head, four legs, and a tail* An abundance of shells, practically the sate as those 334 from Chovlon, was found at Chaves Pass*' Four MilosRuin is south of Chaves Pass but is situated off the direct line of contact with the people who obtained the shell from the sea by barter or otherwise* Chaves was

in the direct line of this trade and produced several hundred specimens of shell ornaments, whereas Four Miles 533 produced only a few fragments* - . ...

Pueblo Viejo is a ruin south of Pinedale between fit,

Graham and the Bonito Mountains, From this ruin were

several specimens carved out of Hallotis, Conus. or

Pactunculus shells* Both armlets and wristlets were found.

Forms of animals cut from shell are quite abundant in this

region. They resemble the characteristic objects of the

Gila-dalado ruins. Animal forms such as lizards,.birds,

rabbits, and snakes as well as geometric forms of circles,

crosses, and rectangles were found. The animal forms wore

all perforated at the heart or aye and no doubt v;aro used 336 as pendants.

liomolobi is on the right bank of the Little Colorado

333. Fewkos, J.w* IbOBc, n. b34. ~ 334. Fawkes, J.V,'. 1004, p. 33. 335. Ibid., p. 163. 335. TbH., p. 187. 161

about three miles from Y.'inslow, Arizona and tie vent y-fivo miles due south of Oraibl, A considerable number of speci­ mens Mere collected from the ruins of the Homolobi group, but perhaps not quite so many as at Chevlon and Chaves.

Five specimens of perforated Pectunculua shells v;ere found here. These artifacts v;ere very similar to those from 337 Chevlon and Chaves Pass. Fawkes states:

"Shell bracelets, armlets, and finger rings made of Pectunculua and other marine shells were very common in graves at Homolobi, Chevlon, and other ruins on the lliddle Little Colorado, and ware probably ob­ tained from, the Pacific Coast Tribes."

Sea shells in the ancient province of Tusayan were

held in such high esteem that they were made in clay imita­

tion by the northern settlements because of their scarcity

there. Poctunculus was the only species imitated. I "any of

these were found by Fewkss at Avvatobi, Old Y.alni, and 330 Cunopavi. .

The people of Sikyatki, about three miles north of

v.'alpi, burled their dead adorned with necklaces and other

ornaments which were worn when the person lived, as did most of the dwellers of the Southwest. The Pectunculua was

the most commonly used; finely-made turquoise and shell

beads were highly prized, lot a large number of marine

307. Powkes, 19<26, p. 10. " 338. Fawkes, J.V;. 1090c, p. 360. 162

shells were found, only tlio more cor.nor genera used in the 339 ancient pueblos.

Many imitations of merino shells rondo of clay and

often painted red were obtained at Axvatobi, the fartherest west of the Joddito Valley pueblos• ■These ranged from the

si::e of half a dollar to that of the thumb nail. On the

convex surface were etched parallel lines, and a hole vras

drilled for suspension. Clay images of birds with wings 340 outstretched wer© made to resemble the carved shall birds.

A considerable number of shell and turquoise beads wore found. .

Bracelets, armlets, and rings were found in both, ruins.

As a general rule they were polished smooth and were with­

out ornament. One .specimen was beautifully decorated with.

the characteristic incised fret, previously described,

covering the whole outer surface. In some the umbo van

cut into a heart-shaped elevation and beautifully rounded.

In one or two instances a small turquoise was set in gum.

in a diagonal incision on the outside. In most instances

the bracelets were perforated artifically near the umbo 341 which would make them, serve equally well as pendants.

The rings as a rule wore not so finely made, but were

339. ifovkes, J..,. 1898a, ppi 733-739. 3-10. Ibid., p. 638. 341. FmTEos, J.„'. 1896o, pp. 260-302. 163

always perforated at the u:abo* 'Diey Deem to have been worn on all fingers, and an nany as two were taken fron the same 342 digit.

The Peetunoulus shell was also used in the manufac­ ture of panclanta. One striking oxanplo was cut to resemble a frog, similar to those found in the Gila Talley. The hind and forelogs were mil- outlined and the head, situated near the umbo, had two beveled holes which suggested, sockets for eyes; the eyes wore probably made of spherical stone. Pendants of different shapes and sizes were quite numerous. These ranged fron whole perforated shells to finely-carved imitations of birds and frogs strongly sag- 343 gesting those found in the rains of the Hohokam Province.

The art of encrusting stone by inlaying and overlaying was practiced among people of the Tusayan Province. Both ear pendants and necklaces show their skill. The centers of those pondants wore, sometimes formed by a rectangular

fragment of HallotIs shell but as a general rule the mosaic

is rather clumsily made, the blocks are not neatly fitted

and the workmanship is inferior in all respects to the frog 54% found at Chaves Pass*

Throe species of the Conus have boon found. Those

seam to have been one of the favorite shells used for

342. 'l^owkos,' J'.g. lOCocY p‘. "302. ' 343. Ibid., pp. 362-363. 344. Ibid. 184

345 pendants in this region.

In Canyon Creak Ruin (C:2:8), dated by the tree-ring 34G chronology as 1326-1340, shell objects wore not abundant.

Four generaCardium, Siyeyaaris. Conus, Kasaariua - were those used in tha manufacture of the articles uncovered.

In Burial 37 was u small round disc of shell usad in a mosaic object which was encrusted with turquoise. Other 347 material uncovered included: a fragmentary bracelet of

Glyoyiaerls: three Glycyhiorls shells with round perforations in the center of the valves; a tinkler Conus shell pendant; an eight-inch string of rtaaaarlus shell; a sixteen-inch

string of disooidal shell beads, 1/8 inch in diameter.

Going eastward we come to the site of Hawlkuh, Mew

Mexico, dating from Pueblo III times until Coronado cap­

tured it in 1540. Quite abundant mosaic work on wood and

occasionally on shell expres od their most outstanding

artistic endeavors. The host example was a fragment of

a shell covered with alternating bands of turquoise and 348 jet, found on tha breast of a skeleton.

Shell ornaments in tho Jomez Pueblo of TJnshagi were

extensively rare even in connection with burials; there

were practically none from the rooms and only the smallest

345. i'owkes, J. V. 1896c, p.‘ 365. 346. Baury, 2.V.*. 1934, p. 121. 347. Ibid.. p. 128. 348. EoHge, F. .V. 1921, pp. 16-18. t m

of shall fragments oamo from refuse deposits. Two-thirds of all ornaments recovered were of shell,, and all but two

•were quite small. Two complete Oilvella, were found. 549 Pendants were the noat popular.

How going southward we find at Jcnez Gavo, ono mile from the village of James Spring, How Mexico, in the west

Canyon on Rio Can Diego de Jones, a lone Qlivolla shell bead and a cut shell pendant perhaps of Haliotln - the only specimens of shall reoovorsd there. The tip of the spire 350 of the Olivella was ground away.

At Po-shu in Chama Valley cultures of Rio Orando and

Jernes Plateau a small amount of shell was uncovered. One was a Pectunoulua pendant with a perforation at the top and through the hinge of the shell. Several varieties of

Conus shell pendants were found.

From, the Texas Panhandle Culture Ruin 55 were obtained shell pendants and beads. A number of Olivella and other

Pacific Coast shells were found, in burials and within the rooms. Here, as elsewhere, the Olivella shells with the tips ground off for string wore used whole as beads. Also, mussel shells were quite a common form of ornament. 351 Several wore polished and pierced.

Artifacts of sea shell from the Rio Grande Delta Region

&49. Reiter, P. 1933, p . 160. 350. Alexander, H. and Reiter, P. 1955, p. 35. 351. Studer, F.V. 1934, p. 91. were mostly tinkier poiulantn, beads, discs, pendants, and band ornaments. Incised, and Plain gorgets and a fuv; beads 352 ware found.

From caves of the EJl Paso district havo come beads of 353 shell and pendants of highly polished Haljotis shell.

Among the artifacts collected by Fcv.-kea from the lUL Paso

district were Haliotis shell pendants and fragments from

two combs with shell mosaic ornamentation, and beads of

Qllvella. Haliotis. and clan. 1-lost of the beads, except 354 those of the Qllvella, arc of the flat disc shape.

Pecos on the Pecos River, San Miguel Oounty, Rev;

Mexico, on the extreme eastern edge of the Pueblo area, is

a frontier community. It was the largest village of its

time and was continuously occupied longer than any other

Southwestern site known. Settled during Pueblo III (1000 355 or 1100 A.2.), it was not abandoned until 1838.

Very interesting is the fact that from this ruin thore

are almost an equal number of shell species from the Gulf

of Mexico and from the Pacific Coast, nine being listed from 356 the Idler and eight from the Gulf of Mexico.

Large quantities (Chart VI) of whole shell Qllvella

beads wore found at Peooa from all periods an well as in

itnderson, A.L. 1920—31, pp. 29^%!'." 353. Alves, Mrs. E.S. 1930, p. 65. 354. Roberts, F.H.H., Jr. 1929, p. 15. 355. Kidder, A.V. 1932, pp. 1-2. 356. Ibid.. p. 183. 16?

pra-Pecos sites in the Valley. The largest single find was in Eiva XVI (post-Coli#blan) in a oint of a sub-floor. It consisted of a string of nearly a thousand shells, 58 feet long, wound around a peculiar-shaped atone. Sight other burials, the larger number being of children, yielded 322 357 beads. Kidder records about 2000 Ollvclla shells that were used whole as beads or cut to fora saucer-shaped beads, the 358 latter cut from the side of the lower part of the shell.

The oval specimen of the saucer-shaped beads averages 3/8 inch long by 1/4 inch across; while the round average l/*i

inch in diameter, with a relatively large perforation.

These beads when strung give a "crinkly” appearance. This typo is not abundant at Pecos nor apparently in any of tho 359 sites in the Southwest.

Whole beads were made from a tiny univalve shell from

the Gulf of Ucxico. A hole was drilled in the lip, and

when strung they have a bunchy appearance. One string of

over two hundred was found in an infant burial. These beads

are quits common In Chihuahua, and in graves and caches in 360 tho ilinbres Valley.

Shell disc beads ranged from 1/10 inch to 1/4 inch in

diameter, by 1/16 to 1/8 inch thick, with holes drilled

&'?. Kidder, A.V. 19J2, p. 18G. 358. Ibid.. p. 183. 359. Ibid.. pp. 185-186. 360. Ibid.. p. 186. 168

1/1S Inch in diameter. The lar-ar type are not abundant, but the small disc beads were very popular. In graves at

Forked Lightning Ruin several large strings wore recovered.

One string measured 48 feet and contained over 5,000 beads.

This type of bead was also found strung with turquoise 351 beads.

One of the striking discoveries at Pecos was the burial of a prominent "Indian Lledicine Han":

"This old doctor's prominence is judgedohiofly by one remarkable possession; a string of 5,700 shell beads. The beads v.-jro not hung about his neck but were turned about tho matted pigtail at the back of his head. The labor involved in completing such an ornament and the value of it nay be imagined from the fact that each of the 5,700 beads was drilled by hand with a hard drill, and each little disc of shell was polished. ***««

Massive beads, cylindrical in form, wore scarce, only 363 six specimens being found. hole shell pendants of Crlycvmoris were the most

popular (Chart IX) at Pecos; one hundred wore uncovered by

Kidder. Host specimens were unworked except for a perfor­

ation at the beak. Seven of these pendants had a single

circular hole 7/16 to 3/8 inch in diameter cut in the

highest part of the back, and were purely ornamental. These

have been found in a number of sites in the Southwest. One

iS61. Kidder, A.Y. 1932, pp. 184-185. 362. Magoffin, R.7.D. and Davis, 12.C. 1929, p. 228 363. Kidder, A.V. 1932, p. 188. 36*1 of tho above was set with tv;o small turqmoise. Other whole shell pendants ware: Yurrltolla, ten specimens: 365 Ghiono, one specimen; Area, one specimen.

Tinkler pendants wore fairly abundant (Chart IX) and wore in use from Glaze I until the site was abandoned* forty specimens of Conus. forty of Oliva, and eight Oliva 366 sayana (Gulf of Mexico) were uncovered* About fifty specimens of out shell pendants ware found, and fow appear in craves. Most of these ware geometric in form, being round, oval, vaguely rectangular, or triangular. They range in length from 1/2 inch to 5 inches, most being under 2 1/2 inches. Some have a small incision on the edge. A few have two holes for suspension.

The Kaliotis, Strombus. and Cardlum were3C7 tho shells from which most of these pendants were cut.

Mosaic work is noticeably lacking (Chart VIII), espec­

ially in tho graves and ceremonial deposits, and no out­

standing pieces are associated with shell. Castaneda, when writing of Coronadofo expedition of 1540-42, makes mention 368 of the abundance of turquoise at the pueblo. V/hat then

364. Kidder, A.V. 1932, pp. 188-189. 365. Ibid.. pp. 189-190. 366. Ibid.. p. 190. 367. Ibid.. pp. 193-194. 368. Unship, G.P., Jr. 1896, p. 491. 170

_ - y - - T. < - - - ' : : baoama of the plenteous supply, As was stated, this" material did not find Its way into the craves* A logical

conclusion would be that it was disposed of by trade; or

: - ' ^ : perhaps the Spaniards relieved them of a considerable amount; and a third oostulation is that some was removed "

from.burials and caches after the site was abandoned in ' : ■ : ’ : 1830...... •... - ...... ' '

ho doubt the same can be said of other typos of shell

ornaments. ' •. . i ... ' . ■ -

work in tha SI Paso and . Panhandle regions has boon

so scanty that it is hard to make any definite statements

concerning this .area during Pueblo TV and 7 tines. C d p H C. AlIAoiLGI 5 c r- c 'C ; c r- . fC 1 T . B J5 A D 3 . «r» ; i t pr J ' F* ' 4" c * 11 c (D 4 ! i c . +3 p 4» c O i *r- pH • ■ ■ g g 1 M 3 ( i W § • l 4i *H !' > ; g G , C>. a til !; a Qlivolla'v bonus ITiotnrin

Rooao.vtilt-Tonto 7 • x X y X . .. x... ? ■ V<‘, 'ir. XT X : T T ,' Peoos XX XX X X •X • j • " -....•,- • , .* , * • .. .. , TV V T -• ■

' — 171 . :._. V % 11V • * ••- •- ' . . . * -

. • • ■yv , . . : , r . T ;T._ ; ' • • • .A — : ■- . • • • L-l ^ — i ’ : ,

T ;*r • :r . -

■

x x - 1—" . X x - — » ^ ------

• kur ______L__ ~ San Juan yrainuGO xx CHART VII

o % ' ANA3A.il :■ - +] . . , . (D •> - ' A 5 r4 GW '

.... 172 >r • y * • * I'la^tnjT .%,n IT "T jIr v ■ ' - ' • "" • *" ’ • • . , " • - - - - ■ •'. Pn^hl n IF^pp itm. - * ’ ;• . y * - ■ 1 - - •• • • ' , . m - f?-- — ■ ■- ■ . . - - Gila ^ ' § .... ^ ' • • - • • .. ' ■ '* -infS- ' "*r . - Flntnt.hlnnm, • v . • • • V'%-.. T •4.m .Tnnn i^nlr.-wr,, ! . • • - -- • - • • ■ Tz, mnt.n ' ' ■ '• : • . . - , ■ ■ ■ ' - ■ ’ ' < .. j _ * . ... • ' ■ ' K -- , . • k * .;odlj’led B-'.fikotnaknr : ■ ‘ j il b ^ i ^ *i- ' ( ■ * ' . ■» • 1 | Tf f • # *»T' * r . 1 S * •• 1 ..... J , •• - -' - J -

-A i CHART 7III

1 ' ANASAZI MOSAICS •H.rf ' * ... . Developmental Pueblc 1 . . 1 Flagstaff Area - • ■ "rr"1JI" - . ’ Kiatuthlanna ■ , « . ■ . . : . | • '

- la Plata X - ■ j --- ? - . ’ Modified Dasketmakei r ■ , ■ Chama Valley I | | . I : ' . - Utahtiand Revaia^ J I ... ' . ______J ' F 1 1 Basketmaker II 1 •» 11 « i % V I ’ ....J-l..-1 1J -L ZC OUT SHELL P5NDAHTS CHART IX vmoiu SHELL p-^HD^lfra .174 CHART X — F tr ilnasazi a c i $ #4 o m 1 R I N G 3 XS t/J 2 6 g 3 o Historic and O G o m U O •H Plain •... Inlaid Regraasivo Pueblo KOII n o Ho Data s s Painted tiOOSOV ol t-Ton tn I x Verde Valley ^jjatarr^irea __Vhevlcn &..Gha%a&. :% % Tusa-mn $ % POCQ'l.______, *

Great Pueblo Verde. Valley ' X X . *

ia:.!--Starr Area 175 Kinishba ? T Tf ______1 _P»10hlo. 'lor 11n _ ^ * . .^.*r IJlivilo firmer % % X • k * Lrll& Dovolopaontul Puoblc .._ Pinrstaff Aron .. kiatuthlanno , ,

. HI MI. E« Pcyado " . La riots - • modified Saoketnakerl .

e/JOiria Valley i •

« ut iii iievuaa if • D r a i r m < - n 3an Juan _ .

3uskotsiaker - _ Saa Juan lira inage 176

Cultural and Chronological Values: The first begin- nings of shell usage in the Anasaai Area are noticed in

Basket:aai:er times. Few species other than the Olivolla whole shell beads mark the era, 5one disc and some cylin­ drical beads wore made, but the whole shell Olivolla seems to have been particularly characteristic of .the Anasa-zi culture at that time, and it extended In numerous quanti­ ties on up through the Great Pueblo times* The Olivolla whole shell bead became scarce in the following era, the

Regressive; vary few,. according to the Bead Frequency

Chart, Y.-ere in circulation outside o f . Pecos whoro they were very plentiful. In fact no mention of the Olivolla was made for the Regressive Period in the Tusayan Province or at

Chaves Pass and Chevlon. The people of theso settlements seemed to prefer the Oliva, thought to bo a kindred species to the Olivolla (Chart 71)•

The Indians at Pecos were fond of the AlectrIon

(Nassa), u shall found in the Gulf of Mexico, as the very numerous specimens recovered would indicate, lo other sito

in the Anasazl region produced specimens of the Aleotrion.

From this fact one would Infer no bartering took place be­

tween the Pecos and other Indians of nearby settlements*

A shell resembling the Aloctrlon in appearance but some­

what .larger, the F :ssarlus indigenous to the Gulf of

California and the Pacific Ocean, found its way into the

Tusayan Area and from there on into the Verde Valley and 177

Flagstaff Area during the Great Pueblo Period. Out shell usage flourished In Modified Basketmuker tlides (Charts VI and VOT) # especially in the San Juan Drainage. Four forms v/oro manufactured there - the disc, the saucer-shaped, the cylindrical, and the bi-lobed. The

2’evada and Utah regions yielded saucer-shaped specimens for the same period, but none was found either there or at any of the other dated sites until the Progressive Period where they were noted at Pecos. The cylindrical heads were found in all of the Periods (Chart VI) and over a wide range of territory. During both of the Baskotmakor

Periods they were found In the San Juan Drainage; In the

Flagstaff Area they wore found In Developmental Pueblo

times; and at Pueblo Bonito, Kiatuthlanna, and in the 2.iiddle and Upper Gila Areas they wore noted in Great

Pueblo times. Peoos and Roosovolt-Tonto legions yielded

them during the Progressive Pueblo Period. The birlobed

beads were not in circulation until Modified Basketnaker when they were found in the Flagstaff Area. They were

very abundant during Grout Pueblo times and appear to bo a

diagnostic of that Period, but they became scarce again

during Regressive Pueblo times.

A great deal of diversification was indicated In the

Pendant Frequency Chart IX. Pendants were scarce in

Basketmaker times, only Ollvolla whole shell and geometric

discs being reported. In Modified Baskataakor no mention 178

is made of Olivella, but G-lycyaorin and Conus u’oro the favorites for whole shell pendants. There is a decided increase in the use of disc pendants (Chart IX). The circular and seal-lunar typos were Introduced,

During Developmental Pueblo in the Flagstaff Area, a periphery region. Turritalia and tinkler pendants arc made use of; and there is a noticeable increase in the use of

geometric discs and circular soui-lunar pendants. Life

forms introduced are represented by bird forms in the

Flagstaff Area and animal forms at Kiatuthlanna, During

Great Pueblo and Regressive times pendants Increased sub­

stantially, both in whole shell and cut shell. The number

of specius increased two-fold and the quantity of each

species seemed to double.

At the same time there is a noticeable increase in

the complexity of the articles made of shell, and it is

evident the adaptation of new species led to the manufac­

ture of new articles. This is noted in all types of orna­

ments. Cut shell during the Great Pueblo Phase assumed n

great impetus and the people manufactured all typos of

life forms in addition to the plentiful amount of geometric,

especially circular and semi-lunar, forms (Chart IX).

The following types are conspicuously lacking; the conven­

tionalized. bird forms, being found only in the Middle and

Upper Gila; and human forms, which are mentioned only once 179

at a site near Snowflake and in connection with a high degree of artistic skill in the Great Pueblo ruins.

The diagnostic trends just mentioned for the Great

Pueblo Period carried over into the Regressive Period, although the larger number of shells v;as found in the

Great Pueblo Period.

Mosaic overlays are diagnostic (Chart VIII) of the

Great Pueblo and Regressive Pueblo times. They were found only in the San Juan Drainage in Modified Basket- maker , and in the La Plata District in Developmental Pueblo times. They were most plentiful in the Verde Valley and

Flagstaff Areas, periphery regions to the Hohokam and Anasazi.

Bracelets were first found in Modified Basketraaker

times (Chart VII) in both the San Juan Drainage and Utah- ilevada Region. Bead bracelets were found in early Basket- maker with an increase in numbers up .to the Regressive

Pueblo In which period they are found only at Pecos.

After the Modified Baaketsaker Period Glyoymaria shell

bracelets increased considerably in each succeeding period,

and in Great Pueblo and Regressive Pueblo bracelets ware

very plentiful. Little if any data exist concerning .the

type; i.e., whether they were narrow, medium, or wide. No 180

! carving on bracelets is reported prior to Developmental

Pueblo tines, and this is noted only at Kintuthlanna during that period. All forms of curved bracelets wore found in the Middle and Upper Gila Region during Great Pueblo times.

This is the only region where life forms are reported. In this Period incised geometric designs were found in the

Verde Valley and Flagstaff Area. This sane type is found

in uost of the districts listed in Progressive Pueblo

times. Inlaid bracelets were found from Developmental

Pueblo through Regressive. Painted bracelets were not re­

corded. outside the Middle and Upper Gila Arens. It is inter­

esting to find that neither Glycvnorls shell bracelets nor

rings were found at Pecos. Rings wore an innovation of

Great Pueblo times, both the narrow Glycynoris and broad

band Conus being reported. These same types were found

during Regressive Pueblo. Carved rings were listed only

in the Middle and Upper Gila Valleys. 181

IfoGollon

Standard Traits; The pure Mogollon Culture Is repre­ sented in the first txvo definitely known phases, George­

town and San Francisco, as has been stated in Chapter I.

Anosazi intrusion occurs in the Three Circlo, while in the

1,Umbrao both Hohokam and Anasazl Influences are complete with a fading out of true Mogollon Culture.

The Georgetown and San Francisco Phases are both

represented in the Mogollon Village, a site in Catron

County, Kaw Mexico, on the east bank of San Francisco

River about ten miles north of Glenwood. There are no

data on shell work for the Georgetown Phase. Shell work

wan not abundant during tho San Francisco Phase (Chart XI) 369 at Mogollon. Whole shell Qlivolla beads with tho spires

broken off and not ground off in the usual way were

found here. These beads have one perforation in the side

wall. A second type of whole shell bead wan made from,

tho Vernetus. broken into segments. some being an long as 370 . 4 cm.

Other beads xvoro greatly modified. Some were tho

flat discoidal beads which were concave-convex with the

359. Haury, 2.W. 1936, p. 109. 370. Ibid., p. 40. 'whorls marked; some were saucer-shaped. Many of the pen­ dants were pear-shaped or oval, and others wore in the form of eorgot pendants of Hallotls with two perforations on the long side. The bracelets were all of Glyoymsris and were of the thin fragile typo. Soma squares of shall which were centrally pierced wore found. It is not 371 known whether they wars bonds or pendanta.

Harris Village, a site seventy-fivo nilos southeast

of Mogollon Village on the east bank of Minbroo River, 372 one-fourth mile east of lliabras Post Office had its be­

ginning in the Georgetown Phase end extended through San 373 Francisco and Three Circle. Shell material was a little

more plentiful and of greater variety. Fine Olivolla,

like those from Mogollon, and 184 disooldal beads were

found at Mogollon; also one each of two new types - a

bi-lobed bead 7 mm. long, and a hollow hcnispherloal bead - 374 war® recovered. ■ ■ ■

All bracelets were found with burials. Twenty-three

ware recovered, twenty-one of which were on one individual.

These were all of the thin type but perhaps not so fragile,

and were worn graded and with the concave side toward the 375 hand.

371. riaury, k.w. 1935, p. -iC. 372. Ibid., p. 49. 373. I F H . , p. 79. 374. Ibid., p. 78. 375. 'ibid. 183

At both sites shell work was not plentiful and few speclas were represented in tho San Francisco Phase; while in the Three Circle Phase shell became nore abundant

(Chart XI) with an increase of species and a creator 376 variety of objects. ft

Cameron Creek Villace is twenty-five miles northwest of Hurley on a ridge oxtondlng into the eastern side of

Cameron Creek Valley, a site probably bolonglnc to the 377 Throe Cirolo and Mlmbros Periods. Ornaments wore notice­ ably more abundant hero than in the two previous sites.

Ornaments of some tvoo wore found with forty-two skeletons, 378 41.6 per cent of which were infants.

Bracelets ranged from 1.875 to 3.5 inches in diameter,

while the majority were around 2,875 inches• The general

thickness was less than ,2 inches. The majority of these

were found with the earliest burials of plthouse times,

with a few from the first surface but none aro associated 379 with the later surfaces. Forty complete specimens and

twenty-two fragments were recovered. Most were plain but 380 somo were nicely carved. Two finely-carved bracelets by

the side of the skull of an adult female measured 4.06

inches from umbo to opposite side, and were 4.74 inches

376. llaury, E.W. 1956, p. 76. 377. Bradfiald, V/. 1932, p. 9. 378. Ibid., p. 56. 379. Ibid., p. 58. 300. Ibid., n. 59. 184-

in diameter and #145 Inoii fchiolc. The diagonal and v.’avy edges give the appearance of a continuous twist or cord.

The umbo is left for carving# It is m d e to stand out in relief by cutting three narrow sections out of each side. The umbo is carved to resemble the valve of a bi~ symmetrical shell. The two triangular sections between the band and carved umbo arc also incised. The triangle

is divided by a diagonal lino and below is a square, above 381 are short vertical lines. Another interesting bracelet was carved to display a twist or coil, but the direction

of the twist is reversed one-half inch off the center

point opposite the umbo, and the umbo is carved in the sa-no

manner. Short strings of beads were often used as brace- 382 lets on children.

The flat disc beads, varying in color from white to ivory with some a slightly pinkish tone or sometimes with

a dark red streak on one side, arc found throughout the

whole period of occupation and especially in burials with the carved bracelets. These range from .115 in diameter

and .024 inch in thickness to .3125 inch in diameter to .1895 inch in thickness. Turquoise disc beads and tur­

quoise pendants are often found with shell beads, and are

dal. Bradfield, \i. 1932, p. 58. 382. Ibid.. pp. 59-GO. 185

scattered as thougii they v/ero spaced at intervals along the string. In early burials flat black beads or very dark gray stone beads wore associated with the flat shell 503 disc and Olivella shell beads.

In a burial in Room. 71 were located twelve or more shell disc beads which evidently had been strung, with red and black stones filling the bore of each* Brndfield states that the black beads were used as buffers inside the flat shell beads* The rod ones have ground surfaces on both sides, with full sharp corners. In another burial in the same room were 1,050 small univalve spiral shell beads,

Hassarlua. a shell found in abundance near the mouth of the.Colorado River and at Guaymas. Two holes were broken through the spiral and evidently the shells were used in a 384 necklace.

The Olivella whole shell beads were more abundant in earlier pithouse occupation (Chart XI) and only a few were 585 found in the first surface room occupation.

Flora the late occupation are derived specimens of 386 387 Oliva. A few of the shell necklaces from Plate XCVTII are:

480 white shell beads; 1,140 large white shell beads, pit room 115; 600 white shell beaus; 01 Olivella shell,

335. Brndfield, 1932, pp. 59-60. 384. Ibid., p. 61 505. Ibid.', pp. 61-62. 306. Ibid., p. 62. 307. 151a., p. 122. %a&

pit room 120; 172 Ollvolla shell, spires rround off» 538 Listing of shall beads from Plate Cl: twenty-seven

white shell discs beads, burial pit; seven thick white shell

beads and 295 black stone beads; v;oll preserved large white shell beads, pit room 115. 389 Listing of shell bracelets Plate CII: four plain

shell bracelets, fluting on lower edges, upper edges thin and one carved, found in pit room. 121 on loft arm above

elbow; ten plain bracelets, fluting prominent on lower

edge; worked flat and thin, on left arm of skeleton. 390 Listing of pendants and shell beads Plata GUI:

100 spherical beads, pit room 105; 1,050 small Alectrion,

two holes broken through the first spiral, very fragile;

three discoidal beads from end of Oliva; Oliva, upper end

of spire broken or cut and smoothed, carved lunar-shaped pendant section of Glyoymoris. edge well smoothed, and one

Conus, pit room 118; oval shell pendants, notches out in

edge below hole, pit room 120; Becton shell pendant,

room 52; lunar-shaped pendant of Glycymoris with notch end

squared, surface smooth and flat; shell ornament incrusted

with turquoise beads, edges rounded.

Another site probably representing late Throe Circle

Bradfiold, \L 1952, p. 182. ' 389. Ibid., p. 125. 390. T E H . 167

and Miabres Phases is Swartz luln in Hinbres Valley, south­ western liev.’ Mexico; however, it is Imoxvn as the typical

Minbras site. Quite a rev; ornanonto were used horo and shell was well represented. There was a crest diversity of snail carved stone anti, shell emaaamt#. On the skeletons of sixteen children and twelve adults there were Glycynerls

shell bracelets; front one to eight were found on the 391 children, while the adults 'wore as nany as twenty-sevene

One hundred twenty-five complete and more than one hundred

fragments of G-lycymeris shell bracelets wore found, measur­

ing from 1 1/2 to 3 3/d- inches in diameter. Some of these 392 were decorated with Incised lines.

In burial 339 on the arm of an early period adult were found twenty-six Olycymorls shell bracelets; and in

the same grave were thirty-nine roughly drilled pieces of

apondylus shell and 10-1- irregularly-shaped turquoise beads.

In another early period burial, 442, were thirty-nine

Glycymerls shell bracelets, sixteen drilled pieces of

Opon&ylus shell, a turquoise pendant, and 273 rough tur- 393 quoise beads. There were a few shell rings but they were

not plentiful* The most popular beads {Chart XI) wore disc shaped,

a91. Cosgrove. lirs. H.3. and Cosgrove, C.B. 1932, p. 22. 392. Ibid., pp. 65-66. 393. TGTZr. 188

made from Slyoymerla. Thoy v;sre not so snail as the stone

beads, averaging 5/32 to less than 13/6*1 inch. The dls-

coidal stone and shell beads were used separately and also

alternately, Seven■Yeraetua shells and fifty-five

fragments of pink Spondylus shell were taken from early 394 burials. The Qlivella, whole and reduced, were not common

at Swartz Ruin, although a few nore found in the early 395 burials.

Eleven bl-lobed shall beads were found, both hero and

at lliabrss Ruin, belonging to the Mimbres Phase. The

Alectrion shell was not used at this village so extensively 396 as in the Cameron site where a quantity was found.

In an adult burial of a late period v/ore found 308

Conus shell tinkler pendants 1 1/8 to 1 5/0 Inch long,

and over five thousand dlseoidal shell beads with four 397 turquoise pendants. Fron fragments of Oiyoyaaris shall

bracelets were carved twonty-ono pendants and gorgets which

were either left plain or carved in the forms of lizards,

ruttlenskes, or pairs of conventionalized birds. A couple

of pendants' were carved to face right and loft and h a d

been used in pairs. There wore nine specimens of pendants

of bird forms, and a very fine one out fren a glossy brown

"594, Cosgrove,1 'iirs. H.3. and Cosgroves, 0.3. 1932, p. 64. 395. Ibid. «-,9G. join. o97 , I old», p • 65, 189

590 shell representing a lizard.

The mosaic art was not extensively practiced 399 (Chart XIII), but a for? turquoise inlays were uncovered.

Another Mirabres site is M.A.A. Ranch Ruin, three alias below the Swartz Site. Some very fine inlays were

unearthed here. I'rc'i a child1 s burial camo two very

strikingly-carved shell birds, both resembling a pelican.

An inlay of hemispherical-shaped pieces of turquoise was

sot in the base, with the flat side flush with tho shell,

and shell beads were cemented to the head for even. In

addition, two shell gorgets or conventionalized bird forms 400 were uncovered.

Twelve miles above Swartz Ruin in an arroyo near a

ruin in Aneheta Canyon, a tributary to the I'intros, a bowl

containing a medicine man’s outfit was unearthed. Besides

the other objects it contained there were two very long

strings of beads, one of Alectricn shell and the second of 401 reduced Olivalla shall, with some places of shall bracelets.

A third typical Ltinbros Phase site was the Mattocks

Ruin, one mile south of Llimbres Post Office in the Upper 402 Llimbros Valley. This site yielded few ornaments from the

burials but a fair number was obtained from caches. The '

399. Gosgrovo, Mrs. H.3. and Cosgroves, G'.iJ. 193'h, 'p. '0b.' 400. Ibid., p. 07. 401. jib Id. 402. lidsbitt, P.1I. 1931, p. 15. 398. Cosgrove, Mrs. H.S. and Cosgrove, C.B. 1932, p. 66. 190

shell objects consisted of shell bracelets, shell rings, beads, and pendants. Fully 0O£ of. the burials had no ornaaents, and only one or two objects were found with the 403 other 2Q£» Many of those found showed a groat deal of artistic skill*

A few shell beads and pendants were found, also a necklace composed of eight bi-lobed beads, and twenty circular flat beads. Of especial interest was a "thunder bird" carved of shell and highly polished. The details 404 of the head and tail arc brought out by fine Incisions.

Other pendants of shell were 'carved in the form, of lizards, 405 animals, and some unidentifiable forms.

Shell bracelets (Chart All) wore quite common, and

sown of the exteriors are decorated with incised lines. 400 Forty specimens were found by Nesbitt.

In the region of southeastern Arizona there is a

decided cultural overlapping between the MogoUon people

and the Hohokam* The Fulton Cite on the Double F Ranch

in Texas Canyon near Dragoon, Arizona, gives an excellent

picture of this meeting and consolidation. In the Fulton

Collection there are a number of shell objects obtained

from this ruin. There has not been a very largo supply,

403. hosbitt, P.II. 1931, pp. 44-45. 404. Ibid., p. 93. 405. TSIa. 406. r’b'ia. . 191

although Fulton states that the percentage of personal ornaments made from varbus types of shell Is surprisingly large. There ware some found in nearly every trench, the majority being bracelets, earrings, pendants, bird 407 types, cross-shaped, and rings.

There wore eight pointed shell pendants in the form of a conventionalised lizard. Other shells v;ere carved to represent birds, possibly road runners. There were brace­ lets, a necklace of tiny shell bonds, snail pierced pen­ dants of irrldeaoent shell, and six large pendants found 403 on the floor of 3ita II. In Block R v.-us found n large number of bracelet fragments. In Block Q. there v.ar, a very interesting shell pendant, a small square v?ith fourteen dots drilled partially through and one hole drilled entirely through for suspension. The same block contained an eight- 409 pointed star, one point broken off.

Caywood states that not a great deal of shell work has been found in Sulphur Spring Valley. Bracelets similar to those found in the Middle Gila area and two pieces of carved shell representing bird forms were among the few 410 objects of shell found.

Little scientific archaeological work has been done

467. Fulton, a.S. 1934, p. 20. 408. Fulton, Vi.3. 1938, p. 15. 409. Ibid., pp. 18-19. 410. Caywood, L.R. 1933, p. 33. 19*

in the Chihuahua region to the south of the Hogollon and

Anasazi. It is really an extension of these tv;o areas and no doubt will yield much Important information. Casas

Grandes is the typical site for the culture of the region.

It is dated about 1500-1450 A*D. The Stato Museum at

Tucson bought up the Ledwlg Collection of material from

Casas Grandes, Chihuahua. There has boon a great quantity of shell removed from the region.

These people manufactured shell extensively and a groat quantity of excellent specimens has been unearthed.

A vast amount of shell beads,both whole Olivella (not plentiful) and various types of cut beads in necklaces, have been found. Both whole shell and carved, geometric and life fora pendants were recovered, also bracelets and rings, plain and carved. Some turquoise, clay, stone, and bone beads were often combined with shell to form necklaces; beautiful turquoise and shall mosaics were 411 found.

On exhibit in the Arizona State Museum is an inter­ esting mosaic Inlay. The Glycymerls shell foundation measures 1 5/8 inches in diameter. A horseshoe pattern composed of nineteen small pieces of turquoise forms the

inlay. There are sixteen rectangular turquoise pieces,

4.11. :3peoliaan Catalog, University of Arizona. 193

averaging 1/4 Inch long and 1/8 inch wide* Three pieces of the inlay are circular, one is set at each end of the horseshoe, and the other is cot in the center of the horseshoe-shaped inlay. f V/IIOLS SHELL BEADS CUT SHELL CHART XI r-4 ' (3 J MOCOLLON a ’ CO 1 BEADS hd s • 5 CO -p OXD > m 5 •H ti H o g I

Ramos DIO O Bi-lobed Kassarius Oliva

O O Alectrion Columbella Trivia > Others Discoidal | unmuQiiua XX XX XX X XX Mimbres - • n" j X X XX xx " If T X XX x X X ' ' • X • , X X • . ,/U . ., Fulton S1tft n . . x ' ' " ' ' . " . * - t ■ ■ ; Three Circle : ': , : ' Harris Es • XX - '*• X - ' ^. ' ’ ■ i X $ 194 .Camaron Crook XnDC" X X X - - ' ' • ■ . " • • ■ •- ‘ " - -■ : , ■ ■ ' : 1 . . ; 11 ■ - 1 * • : : ■' 1 -** * , 1 , . San Francisco ' • ' ‘ L__ Mogollon .... X X X X -‘ ’ Harris ■ — '

• • .. . ' 1 1 ‘ ‘ ■

• ‘ f"— - — J I r

CHART XII . . .

} MOGOLLON - ■g .

" .

B R A O ^ m T U . 3 t .

. 4 Cl 3 l J O D i e i : - j . 4 4 O £T 1\ 4 s s (3 1 r > O S & Incised Ramos Narrow ■ liraoalots l * 31 i-: ; cn i l Motif i ii ^ i x xiiu aiiu a y.

, , ......

“IXCauros. , : ' CSnSTSIFUT^olc X X ’ ;cx -r~ X X , 1 : ■ y my* ...... i^tWcjssxWiii. ' ;'. X , ■ Mrroiramr— — % , X : • - . * 1. ' ” . : T ^ . Tlireo Cirolo . - . . ' : • ! ! r uSI,I*lt>ri".....‘T.. X .' 1 ' 1 vtu.iuPbii vl'ubk ’ A X X . ■ , w i . : . ______^ 1 1 - : * ’ • . . # , ; . : “I>aa ifx’aiioisco . • ■ - 1 ,: ■ .11 t*b'^OTIblll ;T '• 1 'A '; , “ Ilarrla ' : “ ■ ......

, ..... -...... ' ...

■ ■ . r • i • ' " : ■ ,

1 f

CHART XIII

1 MOGOLLON T i d MOSAICS G ^ cd *f~ , C h : ( H C

. ' ;- *

3 ! MOGOLI,ON G? i «« 1 4 o r s ' ' -PSKD.UITS ■ -f3 Ml 3 I -H : g. 1 r- O ,> - ' s! ( +) < w. 4 i r: 3 - f ,o.u , "H 4 r :g r D , *r > ) 2 ) O # ^ t a C l *rJ 8; \a iis:. 4 # .5 MM 'n I ! 1 \} ,r\r j : s : f t: s 1 ?■ c % Tif T T *r X , : , - % *? ' ' * ; ^ * ?c X, x' F ' T • ' . yv;?irtr,..HiLin... _ . > - X x X L ,r uwemi X x - IT . . ! Fill f-onr, ^ Hif.n ^ ,L „ y. - . 'I TT !' ■' ' .■■■.■■ • . ' • ■ ■ ' ; ' Three Oirclo •_L . ■ Tfarri n ' | x . — - r— 1 s Jan rranoioco .• Harris k/M.. ■ - ■ :. .... • . • • ■ L.

■ ■ -fT,. ^ • .• ,.... , . , " ‘ 3 = ■ CHART XV

MOGOLLON > RINGS 'd - cj Glycvmeris Incised Broad Band Conus Narrow S Geometric h No Data Life Life Forms Ramoo Painted 3 CMhuatoa ■ 3q X f {.. . . . Aiimbres . ' - // - ■

... '' • V dv,art>z R u m I % ' . : - 1 • • . | : I X , - J *- • ■ ' 1'uiton Site J r 'Xj111% ■ , . 6 •• . • : - • . ■' * Three Circle * ' * _ • • i. • ■' . . - f. " '* . ■ -* ' ■ __ Cameron n______r ‘ • e ' • • # ■ . • * • ' ■ - - » . • ' . * • ■ Sari Francisco . ; : i _ ---Harris :------r. • - , * I mi ■ 'ii i ii m ii i • . ' / - ' ‘ * ..„i_ ■ • * ' - ' . ' • ■ T . / - ' ■ ■ * • Iff

Cultural and Clironolorrlcal Values: From the material herein presented showIn£ the survey of shell found in tho

L10£ollon Region the eonoluslon is reached that there ivoro very few species used, and those were not worked to any great extent. In the earliest known period, the San

Francisco, the scarcity of certain types is reflected by the fact that there has been but one listing of saucer- shaped beads for the entire region, that whole beads are represented in but three spades of shall, and that only throe forms of cut shell wore laanufsotured - the disc, the cylindrical, and the bi-lobed.

In the Three Circle Phase there was a slight increase

in the number of species used for whole beads (Chart XI).

Tho Olivella and Oliva were used extensively for whole

beads in the pithouso periods and continued to be used in

like quantities throughout the Xinbres Phase. The

Alectrion shell was introduced in the Three Circle Phase

and became very plentiful in the Miabres Phase and ex­

tended on into Chihuahua during the Ramos Phase.

Cylindrical beads increased during the Three Circle

Phase and became oven more plentiful during the Miabres

Phase. They were moderately abundant in Chihuahua in the Ramos Period.

The bi-lobed bead was found in the Three Circle Phase

and was very much in vogue during the Miabres Phase 200

(Chart XI), but reached its greatest usefulness in

Chihuahua during the Ramos Phase. The disc beads were plenteous in the Three Circle Phase, and there vras a very decided increase in the supply during the Miabres Phase.

They were found in oil the sites of that phase, and were especially abundant at Canoron Greek and Swartz Huin.

Disc beads were also found in large nunbars in the

Chihuahua region in the Ramos Period.

Pendants were scarce in the San Francisco and Three Circle Phases (Chart XIV), there being but one mention of an animal fora at the Sorollon Site. In the Three Circle

Phase both whole and out shell were used in moderation.

Tinkler pendants wore found made of whole Conus, and pen­ dants of whole Olivolla and Giycymoris. Pendants of geometric forms and of circular soni-lunar shapes were found in small quantities, but seemed to bo used more In the Mirnbres Phase than in the Tiiroe Circle. Pendants de­ picting human forms, or those of inlaid turquoise and shell or stone were found only at the Swartz Ruin during the Liimbrea Phase. Likewise, mosaics of turquoise and

shell were reported only from the Swartz Ruin with but few specimens recovered. This fact would Indicate a

scarcity in this type of shell work in the L'orollon region.

Pendants of animal forms - such as the lizard, frog,

reptile - and conventionalized bird forms were found in *01

all tho sites of tho lliubros Phase in fairly abundant quantities. / ", : ...... -

Painted pendants or painted shell of any kind vens not recorded for this region. ;•

. The type of shell work most consistently found was

in bracelets. Of those listed tho medium., plain type was mentioned nost often. A large -number -was -referred- to

just as bracelets with no further specific information as

to type-or size. Bead bracelets were found at only ono

site, Cameron Creel: Ruin.

Incised and geometric bracelets (Chart XII) are

identified with both the Three Circle and Lllmbres Phases; .

whereas-the frog carved umbo and the bird-serpent motif

were found only in the lllmbres Phase. Of those, none was

painted or inlaid. h . ; .

ilo shell rings are reported as1 having been .found prior

to the ICiabres .Phase*. They were scarce and those class-*.1

ifled were of the narrow band type, but a number, are listed

only as rings. Later during the Ramos Phase the broad

band Conus was found at. Chihuahua. a g

. ./> ' . . . . s k c • o t t a M AHASAZI HOHOKAM noee- ionto " noosevei-L ' rusAydh; rusAydh; ' Pida t c i r t s i D iedra • P * ~ - i j r r a H ~ „ - unevlon&GiiavesFass b6et y:b bbs6Veit K \ • M S tln-nranna • •tln-nranna S M ' Verde'‘ Vaire— o Luro “ • Liuertos Los n o l ^ ^ o l f z t r a w S Creec n o r e m a C a d a v e L ElPaeo & e l d n a h n a P liib " Klnisiiba Pecos Pecos a uuan Drainage n a u u oan h una ; nuanua i n u -asal ^ r-iaestail1 onaicelovvn rw_ ie: , urewd_(: oipe asa Grande' e d n a r G a s Ga !)! ! ) 1! eea Species e i c e p S - Genera * . *hnn ■ SHELL SHELL .• # .• ’ « ...... ------th ~ Utah . . ---- •' ------, ~ * m m —

K . m m ■mm mmm mmm mmm m m mm mmm m m m m mmmmmm mm mmm ------mm tildOTAV m m m m m m , m m 7 X X X X X X % X C a r d i u m — mmm MM m m MM MMM £ *— m m """ m m m m mm m m m m m m m m xl m m M M Cerithidea EL H M m m m m X MM# _ I dHuni mmm m m m M HM 0* wmm mmm m m mmm -H m m -P J3 (D A 2 i M M M M m m m m mm MM m m m m — m m H m M m m m m m _ - X ,» A (D O iMiM _X MW m m m m - m m M T" M M Lm m m vj X g C cd _ i t E pm ip *" - mm MHM 'mm m m m m - mmm M M — (D 01 X X ! s M M mm M M X o X X w mmm i X B x. X mmm X l # D) 1 MMM S m m m, M W M m M m M - *mm . m m — CO X ■ l L mm L HMH = : “ - £ : MM z mmm r K P CT | •H rH •H _ *" 1 — — - - - Z z (0 0 O cd f f *r4 r4 Tl 8 "V M M - mmm m m - (D a o |z X K = z c 3 .,. L (PMMtfj 1 Z M J£ J£ X JE J mm X X . s mmm £. 2L 1 _ x 2L •H S. 3L m m ]CJ HtfVPM# mmm z E 0 CO 1.^1 — mm mmm ...... _•,,... mm mm s 2 — M M z MMMN r-4 *m .* mmm M M Lm r4 o f4 d CO cd o o i — m m 2 2L mm _ z m m £ MM, m m 2 2 m m 2 MM 2 H X od 2L m m ' - m m m m %. (0 , m L — m m MW M H M M M M m m CO m m 0 5 cd _ 2£ icd 3 m m - m L mmm M — m m m m M H m m mm mmm (0 I CO X m m m m 3 mmm & m m E m m - mm & 2 , H M — -* m 2 <0

« m - m m M m Z mmm w m m m mmm m M m M ■E m m mmm M H MM 5 CD P . •H H O m m M M 2 JS I b# m m M M X 2. m m — x £ £ ZL m m M M x x g 1 L Lz JC J m I M M JC JC JS X . M M M 1 JC C-1404-44-4- 4 - 4 4 - 4 0 4 1 - JC J£ JC i X x lOlivella MM L mmm M M m 5 JC M M mm L L L m M E mmm w m m x — - •P O cd r* A MM m m MM m m L MMM m m M M MM J 2L m m , w m m m 1 i 1 f .O m m 2L MMM M M — 1 MMM M M MMM ..1T.. 0 0 .

mmm JC jd m m mmm mmm JC JC JC — JC JC X JL JX mmm m m m m %

f P ) P P a cc M M sn%&mj9Aj MMm t * ftm , m m n r m J5 M M m 4 * .Z % 2 - w % m m - . MMM m - Mm, MMM m m m m MMM m m M M — _ MM MMM MM _ _ MM i-nr MMM M M — — MMM MM k m m m M M —M m m M* — M M — MMM MM. m m m m mmmm MMM ______— MMM *. m MM mmmm MMM mmmm ______- - — _ 30LL0N AKASA.,1 HDHOKAK Bilsketmaker IEI A e i f l d o U Raaoo . . . i . ; ; u r a a Historic ] a t n o m p o l e v a b Groat Pueblo Groat Jodentary Jan Fran­ Jan Classic Chihuahua Rcirrco.i'uoblc Pionoer Colonial u U i , : . ; , v n Y ‘ u lcg

Pueblo H a l a t i ' . ' a K e r cisco .1A ^ __ Gicolo D

S X c n X XX xz X X z z XX z z X X Olivella :c X Conus ______zz % X z z 0) X 3 CO 0 52 1 :: :: 1 1 X X X X X X z X Oliva . z zz X zz Alectrion Hassarius z z > 1 ' X x" ; X Columbella ' ______| " _

J Trivia

| 1 ! ! 1

______------i - ______fm XX XX X z x ^ \ .XX.. X XX X X X z XX A XX X XX Discciclal . g _ X a rrJ X avr k 0 vj o fA 1

1 ! ~ X z X X X X Vw X z X j ~ T Cylindrical “xcr c x ■“ 1 z X x X X :CX~ W r4 rq o 0 1 i OH' i RT11711 v I X X X X

. . _ CII\P.T XVIIZ Painted

X X

Motif Serpent X X X X X o t, 1 0 nd 1 1 x x 1 X X X % X

f Geometric Incised

X X X X % X X X

1

Bracelet " Bead- X X X X X X

” x ”

* * ...... L Ho Data Ho X x“ X X X X X © t> © X X XX X r: ™ r: 3 § ] I i X XX X X X X X XX X X X X XX X i ______X cc( sr 5 y; JCX xx X X XXX X XX X XX Lo ;cx

olaco Pueblo Usktmakor .Midori tury .Midori i Pueblo i :3r:;o:;Ljru Glassio Jnihuaiiuu u t c ^ A H r HlsLorio 6 Ool.oni.jii dor.ros, l-xiou dor.ros, Groat Hamos oan oan Pran- Plonoer Develops. i.-iuorua Saaketmak’er ThreeGircle SodlHod IOIOHOK ITVf'■•IIY ^ o t t o c -o: S 1

W 3 A 6 I-Groat vm.'blo Ramos San ii’anciocoSan Bankotaiker UuvGlopnisntal r i L - c G .Ulmbrao o _ c i i : o i c Historic & & Historic Gin n r - . 1 . 0 Colonial Sedentary E©£U- Baktnvilror 3u:.-i.i\nr Pioneer HOSAICS Puoblo r.reo.Paoblo R<3~ ^4 a X m ^ 0 4^ % ^ r o X % X

. . 3C X X X . Frog Motif X X x % Bird Motif .H or° M X . A Q o g. ! x z x. , X % I X x :c Painted Shell I

X Staked Shall X X X X X X X X x X Shell and Turquoise

cllAyiT xrc 205 ! I HOIWKA^ BlmSrea E E o l I I r ' n u l Chihuahua Iteunoa uanFran- atae X Saktaaker UCirolo boiomar J o v o l o p i i l , Historian Jrua v PENDANTS iloheep. -•cuontary oisoo iUUblo rir.lunker Puublo Rc^roofi, Clucsic dui :.;, X X uiy X X X X X r4 r 4 O > c: XxcXXX X X x:c XX - X X , X ;: X X X X X X o "H s K CO X X X X "H r- r4 •T- A 0) ^ O O ^3 d s f JZ XX X X XX X

i m Ix“ i X c X ;c{ X 5 5 s r-ia, ^ u A 3 G X X X X X X X X 1 g I X z :c X a o # X 'X x' X o X s I X X X X X X X 6 O 05 o di *H U S:iZLL CUT X XX X X •11 X o o n X g-f X X X § § • o o a X X X X X X S > N 0 %) h 5 § 1 cn h rO

% X XX X X XX XX cXX X :c ■S ii X X X 3, a, :■: X •H *H jn r4 S I C 0 3) i X XX X X lE e ° j X :■: X X X X X X X •5 g .5 ' X S 2 X X X X X X 5 £ 43 D :; X X X X t CO a o

1 i ! 206 siMtiARY - ______!______oha::t a a. j C3 1 o i RINGS i . Q) QO o 4^ O +) 3> Z: '1 CQ .H a n o S o Conus Broad Band Plain u o a s s 3 S 3

Glaaoic :c XXX X X X >d op'odontar/ % X % X X X X Colonial 1 X X x Pioneer

Historic & Re­ press. Pueblo :c X X 603 Groat Pueblo X X :: X ■ PefelbpiaeUal Pueblo _;. Modified Sue- ketmaker ilasketaaker

Rt- r;o:> Ghilmahu'-i % ^Umbrae __ % __ X $Eree Oirola Span i',2*aricisco CHAPTER IV.

BIT^RPlcmTIONi TII3 DIFFUSIOK AIID DIAGNOSTIC Y.'xLUR OF Til 12 STUDY OF LuiDLL ORIiY UFTS HI TI13 GOUTir.A’FT CULTURES

Shell ornm-ientc wore of vital importance in the cul­

tural schema of the Southwest. Throughout prehistoric times shell was one of tho prized possessions of these

people. Shells were used extensively as a medium of ex-

chango, for personal adornment and, from tho nu ibor found

anioriy the paraphernalia of the medicine men, they were no

doubt of great significance in the religious and ceremonial

life of the people#

Shell ornaments were placed with their owners in the

grave, perhaps to be worn and cherished in the spirit

world, or to act as a symbol of wealth and prestige.

The recovery of shell wastage and broken specimens

from tho rubbish, burials, and caches of the various phases

gives an ideal opportunity to trace the changes in the

preference for certain species, the number of species, and

the type of objects made at various periods.

Chart AVI on shell species of tho three culture areas

shows that Glycymeris and Qlivolla were used throughout

the entire Southwest# Ollvella appears to have been the

most abundant of all species# In the Anasazi region it w s a m

more popular in Buskotnakor times and ciccroanoa in usa -o in Pueblo tines, v.iierear. in the Ilchokaa area tho opposite is true; its uoo increased in the Sedentary Period and 1 was most popular fiurinr* the Classic Phase. An exception is found at Pesos, a Pueblo site of the Annsani region, 2 where the Olivolla wore very abundant.

Haliotis shared favor with Olivolla and Glycynerls.

It is found in nearly all sites of the Anasazi and in throe sites of the Holiokam, but its popularity waned in the

Moyollon where it was found in only two sites.

The Conus, Cardinn. Oliva, and Turritolla wore very abundant in all /inasazi, beinc found in more than three- fourths of thu sites. The Cardinn and Turritolla were equally as popular in tho Ilohokan where they were found in all but one site. Neither of the species was found in the

Mogollon region* The Oliva was found In throe sites of tho

Jioyollozi, and only in the Classic Period of the Ho hokum.

The Conus shell was used as beads in the Bstrolla phase and was not reported again until the Classic Period when it was used in large numbers, both as beads and tinkler pendants. It was found in two sites of the Mogollon. It was also very popular in Great Pueblo times at I'.inishba,

1. Roberts, F.u.H., Jr. 19el,p. 101. 2. Kidder, A.V. 1932, p. 1GG. 210

Verde Valley, and in the Flagstaff area. All throe of

these regions were in direct contact v.-ith the TTohokam

Province., being within reach of the direct trade routes

of the Gila-3alt River drainage. It is very interesting to note that the Conus shell was used as beads or tinkler

pendants from Modified Baokotnakor tL*:ics, with a percep­ tible increase in quantity through each succeeding period.

They were also found in tho llogollon province where they

likewise becane nore popular from Three Circle Phase on,

and ware very abundant in Chihuahua at a later date.

The Alectrion from the Gulf of Mexico was very popular

in the MogoUon region, being found In both the Three

Circle and Mintbres Phases# They wore very abundant in the

later phase. These shells were plentiful at Pecos, the

only place they were found in large nunbero outside of the

Llogollon region* A very few were recovered at Onaketown

in the Hohokaa region, and wore probably obtained by

barter. They no doubt were carried up the Rio Grande to

Pecos, for they finally disappear fren sites uncovered

near the headwaters. The Alectrion wore very abundant also

in Chihuahua.

llasaarius. a shell from the west Coast very similar

to the Alectrion of the Gulf Coast, appears in the

Colonial Period and is found in large numbers in the

Classic Period in the Ilohokan region. It is likewise

found in the Anasazi region during the Great Pueblo Phnso 211

and continued to bo used throughout the Regressive Phase.

A perceptible infiltration of the Rassarius is noticed

among the effects of the tribos v;ho lived along the Gila

and Salt Rivers. The number of specimens, howovor, fades

out as the settlements near the source of the rivers,

indicating trade and counter-trade among tribes, each

tribe keeping a certain supply for its own use and barter­

ing with a more distant tribe the surplus shell. Both

Kasaarius and Aloe i,rion shells, distributed in the same

manner, were used by the Indians of widely-separated settle­

ments in the sane way and were very similar in appearance

although they c&ao from sources far distant from each other.

Chart AVI indicates that the Hohohan possessed almost

all of the different species of shell found in the three

culture areas. Thirty-six different species are reported

from the Hohokan area, eighteen from the Anasazi, and nine

from the Ifcigollon regions. Eighteen more species were un­

covered in the Hohokan than in either of the other two

regions. This fact is not surprising when one considers

how favored the Hohokan people were geographically. They

were near the Pacific Coast and the Gulf of California,

and they lived along a natural trade route - the Gila and

Little Colorado on down to the Gulf of California. Their

great advantage in trade was that of accessibility.

The distribution of shell and shall work throughout

the Anasazi and Kogollon regions points to the Hohokan as 212

the center of diffusion# This is indicated by the fact that

the araount of shell used bcconos less prevalent the far­

ther north and east the settlements v/oro from the Rohokan horizon. Fawkes in 1896 stated that as the excavations

extended south from, the ruins near Tuaayan pueblos the number of prehistoric shell objects increased; that few marine shells were found at Awatobi, but at Homolobi more

were uncovered; and in tJie ruins at Chaves Pass and Chevlon 5 the relative number of specimens was much greater.

In the La Plata and Piedra districts and west into

southern Kovatia and Utah, shell objects are exceedingly scarce.

The Gila-Salt Valleys were obviously the trade lanes

to the northern and eastern tribes, for sites not in

direct contact with the Gila-Salt basin possess few shell

objects. A good example of this is found at Four Mile

and Chaves Pass. In the latter, shell material was abun­

dant ; while at Four Mile, a site located in about the same

latitude, shell was rarely found, './hen one realizes that

Chaves Pass was in the direct line of trade, being located

on the Mogollonos Pass between the Gila and Little Colorado

Rivers to the north, it is easily soon that those people

were in a more direct contact with the Hohohan people who

«S. FeWfees'J .,«. ■ lb96c, pp« •3u0—86V . 213

obtained the shell Iron the sea or by barter. Those tribes living at Four Hile v;orc off the trade route, and they would not have been reached by other bartering tribes except with difficulty. The people of Pecos apparently uaed the Rio Grande as a trade route, for n largo number of marine shells from tho Gulf of Mexico were uncovered there. The Aloctrion was found in largest numbers among the shell objects pro­ duced in the upper Rio Grande. Few similarities existed between the artifacts produced by the Pecos tribes and 4 those of the Hohokaia Province. This fact would indicate that the trade in Aloctrion shell was confined to the Rio

Grande basin.

After studying the charts there is no doubt that shell work in the liohokan region was more highly developed and was

in use at an earlier period than was the shell work of the other two culture areas. It in obvious that the Hohokam

influence in the shell industry was felt by practically

all people of the Anasazl and Mogollon provinces. 'Vo know

this because many of the designs and much carring upon the

shell ornaments in these two regions are identical with

that on shell work done in the Hohokam area, and often these

same designs wore found on pottery of these neighboring

4. Gladwin, H„:J. and others". 193'/, p. 136 214

regions. The similarity oi’ tiic Anasazi and Mogollon to the Hohokam culture will he shown more clearly as the writer discusses the various artifacts made in the difier- ent areas.

The above statements arc affirmed bv Brand in his 5 Postulated Trade Routes• He states:

’•Arizona and northern Sonora have the largest number of sites with reported marine shell; next in order are northern Chihuahua and I Toy; Mexico, with western Texas, Utah, Nevada, and Colorado in descending order. This distribution is probably due to three factors: distance from the sea, amount of archaeolocic work carved out and reported upon, and the nearness of the areas to routes of communica­ tion. The sites with the greatest number of reported species or genera are given in the following order: *Gnaketown and Los 1,'uertos in the Middle Gila drain­ age, Pecos on the upper Pecos River, Chaco Canyon (five sites within a radius of one mile) on a trib­ utary of the Coloredo-fan Juan, Tuzigoot (on a tributary of the Gila-3u.lt), Aztec Ruins (in San Juan drainage), and Cameron Crock Village in Miabres drainage.• All of the above sites but two, Pecos and Cameron Creek, are in Gulf of Califomla- Colorado River drainage. The two sites richest in species (Snaketown and Los Muertos) are located near a confluence of Pacific and. Gulf of California trade routes. The third richest site (Pecos) is situated at an cut.out of Rio Grando Pueblo culture against the High Plains and on Pooos-Rio Grande- Gulf of Mexico drainage.*

In the Hohokam areas shall also beads (Chart XVII) and

plain shell bracelets (Chart XVIII) appear in small

numbers in the Vahki Phase of the Pioneer Period, while In

the late Colonial and Sedentary Phases they bocoao very

bV Brand, B.P. lUSo, p. ?. conmon. Tho small dlso beads ooourrod first in the Santa. Grun Phase, but the largo disc beads wore found more often

in tho Sacaton Phase. The discs with large norforations 6 wore diagnostic of the Sedentary Period. Disc beads were

the most universally used of all the forms, occurring in

all phases of all three areas, and Increasing in frequency

from, tho early phases to the later phases. Tho Sedentary

Phase produced the greatest variety of forms.

'..hole shall beads made their appearance during the

Jstrollu Phase of tho Pioneer Period, and became more

abundant in each succeeding phase with an increase In the

number of species. Tho;/ are found In all phasas, but are

much more common than the disc beads. Tho Olivolla wore

used as beads in all phases of the three culture areas. In

tho Ilohokaa province they were used sparingly in tho early

periods but increased in use during the Sedentary Period

and were quite .plentiful In the Classic Period.

The saucer-shaped bead is the least popular of the four forms of out beads. Only two were found at Los Muertos

in tho Classic Period. Those may have boon obtained by

barter. A few were found at Pacos in Regressive Pueblo

times; and in the San Juan Drainage and Nevada-Utah

Regions in Modified Basketaaker times. Just ono specimen

G. "Gladwin, 11.S. and other's. IBS'/, p. 140. is reported from the Mogolion province in the San

Francisco Phase nt Llogollon Ruin* The cylindrical and bi-lobod bonds share equally in importance (Chart XVTI) as to number oi occurrences in sites and phases In the three culture areas. In the ilohokaia they appeared late in the Colonial and were never abundant. The bi-lobod was quite abundant in the Great

Pueblo Phase of the Anasasi, and in both llimbrea and Ramos

Phases of the Mogollon region.

The Olivo11a was not used so frequently for pendants as it was for beads. In the Hohokaa region Olivolla served

ae pendants for the first tins in the Classic Period; while

in itogollon it was utilized as pendants in Three Circle

and iiim.bros Phases. „ In the Anaaazi region, whore Olivolla

mis used abundantly for beads in Dashetimkor times, it also

served as pendants in Bnskot.uakor through Regressive Pueblo

times.

The Pendant Frequency Chart (:Ci) shows some very

interesting comparisons of whole shell pendants. Olycymoris

shall used as whole pendants appeared for the first time

during the Classic Period in the Hohokam. region. In the .•vnnoazi whole Glyoyaarlo shell pendants had their beginning

in Modified. Baaketmakor times and the use extended through

Regressive Pueblo. In the Mogollcn It did not appear

until the Lilmbras Phase. They were also found in tho Ramos Phase in Chihuahua. 21?

Turritolla and Gorithiua v.'holo shell pendants appeared in Development,-.1 Pug bio tines end extended on through the succeeding periods, and uoro found in all phases in the

Hohokara area. .

Cut shell pendants (Chart I CD) were found in the earliest periods in both the Hohoka-i and Anasanl regions, but they were not noticed in the itogollon until the Throo

Circle Phase. Gut shell pendants are very scarce in the

Dan Francisco Phase, only one being reported. In the

Three Circle Phase the geometric and circular seal-lunar are the only types of pendants found; whereas in the iAimbres Phase all typos are found except those of human forms which ere not listed. Turquoise and shell mosaic appear in this phase.

In the Hohokam horizon the carving of pendants of various forms was introduced late in the Colonial Period and was abundant in the Sedentary and Classic Periods. Only a few examples of tho conventionalized bird forms and animal forms occurred in the Pioneer Period, Thus it is soon that life forms such as bird,maia;ral, and reptilian, appeared rather late. Geometric pendants dating from the 3acaton

Phase ware loss popular than life forts.

Both Baskatmakor Periods In the Anasazi area did not

produce any life forms, but in the Developmental Pueblo

Phase bird forms appear in the Flagstaff area and animal forms are introduced at Kiatuthlanna, In the Great

Pueblo and Regressivo Pueblo those two forms are found in a number of sites of tha Flagstaff region, the Middle and

Upper Gila, and at Kinishba ruins. Amphibian and reptile forms appear in the Verde Valley. Since these areas arc contiguous to the Hoboknn province and the above traits are so very similar to those of the Hohokan pendants, and since they appeared at a later date in these regions than in the Hohokun, it is rather conclusive evidence that the various types of shell pendants diffused from the Hohokaa.

Those two forms were also found at Pueblo Bonito during the

Great Pueblo Phase. The fact that shell carving appeared in so widely divergent areas would indicate that the development of shell reached its height in the Sedentary and

Great Pueblo Periods.

Practically tha same thing can be said of the skill in mosaic art and painted shell. Those arts began in the late Colonial Period (Chart XIX) and were not abundant until the Sedentary and Classic Periods; while in the

Anas&zi region the better examples of mosaic work and

painted shell were not found earlier than the Croat Pueblo

horizon, with the best places coming from Regressive

Pueblo ruins. Inlaying and painting of bracelets did not

appear until the Classic Period in tha Hohokaa region.

Gome inlaid bracelets were found at Kiatuthlanna in the £19

late Developmental Puoblo name, but tho beat of this work war. produced in Great Pueblo and Hccressive Pueblo tines in tho Anaoazi area; neither typo has been reported from the llo(rollon region. Inlaid and painted rings ooourred in Sedentary and Classic times of tlia Tiohokun area. Mono has been reported from either the Anasazi or 1'ogollon regions. Likewise it nay be noted that animals, birds, and reptiles used as designs in mosaics v;ero found only in the middle and Upper Gils, tho Vordo Valley, and tho Flagstaff areas of the .inasasi region. Again there is no doubt that these traits diffused into those regions from the

Hohokam. Puoblo Bonito Ruin produced painted shell, in­

laid work, and a fine specimen of a mosaic bird during the

Great Pueblo Period. Etched shall is diagnostic of tho

Sedentary Period of tho Hohokaa area, for it vns found only

in tills area.

Plain Glycy-qoris shell bracelets (Chart XYIII) wore

numerous in all three culture areas. Tho only phase in

which they aro not recorded is Baskotnmkor. They show a substantial increase from the early to tho Into periods

in onoh area. Due to the meticulous care with which work

was done at Snaketown. and Lon P.uertos it is possible to 220

classify the bracelets rather accurately in the Hcho3:an reyion. The Pioneer Period, where the thin fragile type of bracelet is Most abundant, also introduced the nodinn type bracelet. It in very plentiful in the next two phases; the wide heavy type appeared in the dedentary Period and was diagnostic of the Classic Period. In the bull: of the material oonpllcd fro::: the Anasasi ruins no data concern- ins the type of bracelets found are given. Haury, however, states that the above general order in the evolu­ tion of bracelets is carried out in other sections of tho

Southwest, rev: examples of carving on bracelets are found in any of the regions. In tho Hohoknm sono very inter­ esting life forms were produced. Curving of bracelets was at its peal: in the Sedentary Period and continued into the

Classic. The most popular motif was the bird-serpent combination. A very similar combination was found at

Cameron Crook Village in tho Mogollon province. An with pendants tho Hohokam. produced carved shell bracelets

before the nnasazi, with those regions on the periphery

copying the life forms and reproducing the nano typos in

later phases.

Bead bracelets aro definitely an Anasazi product.

Hone has been recorded from the Hohokam (Chart XVIII) but

this lack may have boon duo to the fact that the Hohokam. 221

pooplo practiced cremation, and when excavated it v»as in- ponniblc to tall whether the boride found had formed neck­ laces or bracelets. Bead bracelets were very abundant from Dasketaaker times, through Regressive Pueblo. They were also found in Three Circle and 1'irabrec Phases,

Kings were lata innovations in all throe cultural areas (Chart .BIX). Thu narrow G-lycynoris ring appeared

in Colonial times and extended through Classic, while the

broad Conus typo was first found in Sedentary at Los Guanacoa, if this is a typical Sedentary site. It was

the characteristic typo in the Classic Period. Both the

narrow and broad types were found in Great Pueblo and

Regressive times.

CONCLUSION Giioil, in its natural state and combined with other shells or turquoise or stone to make ornamental objects,

was a prize possession of the pre-hlstorlc Indians in­

habiting the arid Gouthwsst region, hater was so scarce

that it was the vary symbol of life to them. In self

preservation each tribe sought the most enduring oasis in

the desert and settled down by it,Y/bre "ita spring, river,

or irrigation ditch. Without water they could not live,

and being in close proximity to it in the above suggested

fashion they could not help fiotieing the animals which

woro so closely identified with water as to bo living In 222

It constantly. Therefore, email anlzinls had significant meaning to then.

Shell coning Iron the ocean nynbolinoc; the Spirit of the Big Viator, and the Indians nay have felt that possession of it connected then in so.uo \;ay v;ith the Water Spirit, or at least Incurred its beneficent protection. To show gratitude for past favors and to invoke further benevolence, the Indians sought to reproduce the ferns so closely allied with the springs and streams with which he was familiar. The frog, toad, snake, lizard, and other forms found on so much of the shell work are water symbols. The bird effigies used wore of water fowl, perhaps the duck or the pelican or both* Natural shell and shell worked into ornamentation wore often placed in the beam caches of the klvas as a religious offering* Shell was also always in­ cluded among the burial accompaniments of the dead* An article which held such prominence in the life of a people has values too important to overlook in the study of that people•

In connection with the study of the prehistoric

Southwest Indians, certain diagnostic interpretations may

be made from this study of shell concerning tho appearance

and duration of certain outstanding types of shell work

and shell species which, because they were used for so

short a time, stand out nr. a characteristic phase criteria.

Itched shell and human fora pendants are the best examples to oita. They wore round in the Sedentary Period only in

the liohokaa province end are therefore diagnostic of that period. Likewise, the saucer-shaped beads which are found

in the Classic Period within the Uohokan areas are diag­ nostic of that period. A for; wore found in the "Repressive

Period in the Anusasi region, and a few were found in the

:.3an Juan and ITevada-Utah drainage basins during the

Baskotmkor Periods. Baucor-shaped beads \;oro found only

in the Jan Francisco Phaoo in the ilogo 11 on area.

Very noticeable is the fact that sorae for-is of pen­

dants progressed fro:a the sLnplo types which were easy to

siake, to the no re complicated forma requiring greater skill.

In the category of pendants which wore replicas of living

forms, the conventionalised bird forms preceded the design

for more realistic birds. The bird forms preceded the

frog, the frog preceded the nioro complicated geometric,

painted, and mosaic- forma. Tiio human form pendant appeared latest of all and only in the Hohokan area. Each form appeared later in each succeeding period in each area.

Bi-lobod beads were used after the discs, the discs

after the whole Olivolln bends perforated for stringing. Carved shell bracelets were late in all areas, and rings

were developed later yet.

The difficulty encountered in an attempt to work out

cultural sequences from the variation in forms of shell ornaments springs chiefly from the fev; radical changes natio frou one period to another. One change faced no

gradually into another that there is no definite line of

demarcation, hut rather an evolve:cent. Quito conclusive, however, in the inference that the diffusion of shell came

from, the Hohokaa region; hut the use of a certain typo of

shell - vi 1th the exception of the etched shell - does not

place it in a definite cultural level for what was used

in the Itohokmn province in m e level was used in the

Kogollon and Anusasi at later levels, indicating diffusion

at some time but not necessarily during the same cultural

level.

Several of the most Important problem's suggested" by

the writer after completing the foregoing dissertation on shell ornaments, their manufacture and diffusion, are:

1. That the field of .research dealing with shell alone has

barely been pioneered by this study and needs ..lore detailed work than has been given to it in the broad

sweeps herein presented;

Z. That future excavations dealing with shell objects

should be carried out with more precision, the excav­

ator taking into consideration, the minutiae presented

in the broken bits of the waste heaps, as well ns

the finished products or whole shells in their natural

state. Much of the shell material pertinent to the 2*

very careful analysis of the noat ancient phases of

the cultures is fra^nentary because the earliest archaeologist attached little importance to t:ie uso

of broken bits and umornanentod shells. V

lucid picture of the pant night have been supplied by

the reconstruction of this missing data;

5. That the chronicler of such excavations should sat down

the record and classification of the finds in the same

painstaking B a n n e r that Kaury and dlad’/in used at Snaketovai so that all evidence may be preserved for

future studies of shall;

4. That a more careful analysis and comparison of the

manufacturing technique used by the Southwest Indians

in making their ornaments be nude to determine whether

or not the development of creator artisanshlp augured

a greater cultural development among the tribes;

5. That a further and more detailed analytical study of

each form of shell ornament nay reveal a diagnostic

value of similar quality to that resulting from the

painstaking work accomplished in the study of pottery; o. That a comparison of the shell specimens on exhibit in

various museums and collections be made to determine

what diagnostic interpretation may be mydo from certain forms appearing in various culture areas; i.e., the

study of discs, their thicknesses, the size of the 226

perforations, the typo of decoration, and tho various

sizesof discs used for pendants and beads;

7. That e. study should be nade to determine whether the whole shell or the manufactured articles from shell

wore bartered by one tribe with the no tribes residing:

in adjoining areas;

0. That an analysis and comparison of the life ferns in

shell be mado to dotoiMino what type vna most char­

acteristic of each area and each culture period;

9# That a comparison of fcho designs used on shell ernn-

raontn bo made with those appearing on pottery, baskets, and other artifacts in each cultural urea to

determine whether the designs originated with the shell

worker or whether they were borrowed fron the other skills;

10. That a comparison of shell, bona, and stone ornaments bo

made as to form, types and designs as appearing in

the various areas;

11. That a study be made showing comparison and analogy of

tho shell ornaments used by the Indians of prehistoric

times to and through tho historic age to determine

evolutionistic trends;

Ik. That sou shells occupy an Important role in reconstruct­

ing the ancient trade routes from the Pacific Coast,

the Gulf of California, and the Gulf of Mexico, 227

particularly so if correlated by means of tho chronology supplied by tree-ring dating and strati­

graphy which v/ill possibly contribute toward supplying

dates for the involved trade as well.

Although there is still nuoh needed investigation to bo carried out regarding shell, Brand states that future work will no doubt add new species and genera v.nd fill in details of distribution, but there will be little change in proportion of Atlantic to Pacific shells, major trade routes, or relative imoortance of the species already 7 identified*

V. Brand, D.D. 19B0, p. 9. 236

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A* Books

1. Davis, 2.0. Ano 1 ant Araer loans . Honrj Holt & Go., Hov.' York, 1931.

2. Forrest, 2»R* Missions and Pueblos of the Old Southwest. Artinir H. 6lark bo., Clovoland, 1929. 3. Hewett- 2.L. Ancient Life in tiio /enerican Southwest. Hobbs l.lerrill Go., Indianapolis, 1930.

4. Magoffin, R.V.D. and Davis, 2.0. Ikinio Opados. the Honance of Archaoolonv. Henry iiolt a Co., l:eW York," '1909.

5. Parsons, Mrs. 2.2.0. The Pueblo of Jctios. Yale university Press, Few Ilnvcn, 1925.

d. Pinkley, 2.T. Casa Grande, the Greatest Valley Pueblo of Arizona. Tlhrivately print;edplace not civen), 1931.

B. Theses

7. Baldwin, 0.0* Tho Prehistorlo Puoblo of Kinishba. University of Arizona ikinter’n1 thee is, 1934.

ti. Uaywooa, ju.^v* The ArohaoolQriy of the Sulphur Sprlnr Valley. University of Arizona.Master's Thesis,' lOoUT

9. Oaeel, $i. Martinos Hill Ruins, an 2:ca:iple of Prehistoric Culture or the Middle oila; University of Arizona Masier*s thesis, 1931. 10. Getty. H.T* Cultures of the Upper Gila. University of Arizona.Master's thesis, 1938,

11. liunna, 1.1. U. An Aroliaeolonical Review of Lllddle Gila Culture. University of Arizona Master's thesis," 1951.

12. Hill, G.F. Turquoise: Its History and Significance in the Southwest. University of Arizona li'inter’s thesis, 1938.

1«3. Lockett, h.C. Tho Prehistoric TTopi. University of Arizona Master*s thesis, 1933.

C. Periodical Articles

li. Alexander, II,A. and Reiter, P. "Report on the Excavation of Jones Cave, I'&m Mexico. I.:onorxauh of University of Rev; Mexico and School of Ainerioan Research, 1935. 15. Alves, Hrs. '12.K, "Shelter Cares of the 21 Paso District.'' Texas Archaeological and Paloontolorical Society Buliet'i'n"Zol. 2," "(Soptozbur, 1930) . 10. /cosdon, 0. "The Ancient Basketaaker." The Masterkey. Southwest Museum, Los Ansolos, California^ (I.ovoMber, 1950).

17. Anderson, A.A. "Artifacts of the Rio Grande Delta Region." Texas Archaeological and Paleontological Society, Bulletin 4. 1929.

16. Dandelion, A.F. "Final Report of Investigations among the Indiana of the Southwestern United etateo. ” Parts I II. Papers of the Archaeological Institute of America, American Berios III and W . Cambridge, 1090-1892.

19. Barber, 2.A. "Otone Implomenta and Ornaments from the Ruins of Colorado, Utah, and Arizona.M American Naturalist. Vol. XI. Cambridge, 1077. 20. Bartlett, K. 1933 "Life in Pueblo II"(oa. 700-1000 A.D.). Muaoua Notoe. Yol. G, No. 3. Liusema of Northern Arizona, Flagstaff.

1934 "The Material Culture of Pueblo II in the Ban Franclaco Mountains, Arizona." northern Arizona Society of Bcience and Art Bulletin No. 7. Llusctm of Northern Arizona, Flagstaff.

1935 "Prehistoric Mining in the Southwest." Museum Notes. Yol. 7, Ho« 10. Museum of Northern Arizona, Flagstaff.

21. Blaokioton, A.H. 1905 "Cliff Dwellers of Northern Mexico." Records of the Past, Yol. 4. 'Washington. 1900a "Cliff Ruins of Cave Valley, Northern Mexico#" Records of the Past, Yol. 5. ’Washington.

190Gb. "Ruins of the Cerro do Montezuma." American Anthropologist. Mew Series, Yol. VIII. Lancaster.

22. Blake, "W.P. "Mosaics of Chulchuite." American iintiquarian. Yol. 22, Mo. 2, (March-April, 1900).

23. Boekelman, H.J. "Shell Trumpet from Arizona." American Antiquity, Yol. II, Mo. 1, 1936. llenasha.

24. iiourke, J.G. "The Medicine-men of the Apache." ninth Annual Report, Bureau of American Sthnology, " 1687-88..Washington. 231

25. Dradflbld, l,'. "Gaaoron Creek Village." School of Morlcan Jvoooarcli, Santa To, Hev; Moxlco, SI Pnlacio Pronr,, 1931.

26. Brand, D.D. 1937 "Tseh So, a S:iall Ilouno Ruin, Cha^o Canyon, Now Soxlco." Univorslty of How Mexico Bulletin, Anthropological Series, ..hole Ho."306,‘'Vol." 2 ' No. 2. Albuquerque.

1938 "Aboriginal Trade Routes for Sea Shells in the Southwest." Yearbook of the Association of Pacific Coast Oeortraphors. Vol. 4. Choney. 27. Brow, J.O. "The First Two Seasons at Awatovi." .American Antiquity Society for American Archaeology. Vol. Ill, Bo. 2 (October, 1937).

28. Bryan, B. "The Galaz Ruin in the LTinbros Valley." B1 Palauio, Vol. 23, ITo. 12, 1927. Santa he.

29. Campbell, S.V.'.C. 1931 ’’/in Aroimeologicnl Survey of the Twenty-nine Palms Region." Southwest Buscum Papers, No. 7. Loo Angelas.

1936 "Archaeological Problems in Southern California Deserts." American Antiquity, Vol. I, Bo. 4. Bcnasha.

30. Caywooti, L.R. and Spicer, 3.H. "Tuzgoot, the Excavation and Repair of a Ruin on the Varda River near Clr.rkdale, Arizona." Rational Park Service, Field Division of Education. 1935. Berkeley.

31. Colton, H.S. 1932 "A Survey of Prehistoric Sites in the Region of Flagstaff, Arizona• ’’ Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 104, 1932. ’Washington. ■ Colton, H»8* 1933 "Puoblo II in the Gun Francisco I'ountuins, Arizona." Museum of northern Arizona Bulletin 4. Flagstaff.

1935 "8tares In Korthern Arizona Prehistory." Museum notes, V'ol. 8, 2!o. 1. lluneurn. of northern ArizonaPla^staff.

32. Coscrove, C.B. "Two Rivas at Treasure Hill." nl Palacio, Yol. 15, Ho. 2, 1923, Santa Fe.

33. Cosgrove, Lira. II.3. and Cosgrove, C.B. "The Swarts Ruin: A Typical Llimbres Site in Southwestern I'ov; Mexico." Papers of the Peabody I.useun of .Xnerioan Archaeology and''SthnolOGy, Vol." ’/A/, 1» 1932. Cambridge.

31. Cumings, B. 1915 "Rivas of Jan Juan Di'ninage." American Anthropologist, n.s. Yol. 17, Ho. 4. Lancaster. 1927 "Ancient Canals of Cana Grande." Prorrosslve Arizona, Yol. 3, Ho. 5. Tucson. 35. Douglas, A.2. "The Secret of the Southwest Solved by Talkative Tree Rings." national Geographic I.Ianaalne, Yol. 58, Ho. G, (December, 1929).

30. Duff, F. "The Prehistoric Ruin of tho Rio Tularosa." American Archaeologist, Yol. 2, Part 7, 1893.

37. Duffield, M.3. "Aboriginal Remains in Nevada and Utah." American Anthropologist, n.n. Yol. G, No. 1, 1901. Lancaster.

38. Dutton, B.P. "Leyit Kin, a Jr,mil House Ruin, Chaco Canyon, Hew Mexico." Monograph of University of How Mexico and School of American Research, 1938 233

39. Few ken, 3V.7. 1896a "Preliminary Account, of an Expedition to the Cliff Villajoc of the Rod Rock Country and the Tusayan Ruins of Gikyatki and Awatobi, Arizona, in 1895." Annual Report of the Cuithooni&n Institute. Washington. _ .

1896b ' , ■ : - ■ ' "The Prehistoric Culture of Tusayan." American Anthropologist. o.s. Vol. 9, ITo. 5.

1896c "Pacific Coast Shells from Prehistoric Tusayan Pueblos." American Anthropolonist o.s. Vol. 9, No. 11.

1896d "Two Ruins Recently Discovered in the Red Rook Country, Arizona." American Anthropologist o.s. Vol. 9, I;o. 5.

1898a "Archaeological Rapedition of Arizona In 1895." Seventeenth Annual Report of Bureau of American iSthnology, Part II, 1095-96, 1898b "Preliminary Account of Archaeological Field Work in Arizona in 1897." Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institute, 1897. 1890c "Preliminary Account of an Expedition to the Pueblo Ruins near Winslow, Arizona, in 1096." Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institute.

1900 "Pueblo Ruins near Flagstaff, Arizona." American Anthropologist n.s. Vol. 2, ITo. 3.

1904 "Two Summers' Work in Pueblo Ruins." Twenty-second Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part I. Washington. 234

39. i'ewkes, J.„. (coat.) 1906-09 "Antiquities of the Upper Verde River ana Walnut Creek Valleys, Arizona." Bureau of Aaerioan Stimolocy, Vol. 23. Uashinyton.

1907 "lixcavations at Casa Gran do, Arizona, in 1906-09." Salthaonian Miscellaneous Collections, Vol. 50. .vuarterly Issue, Vol. 1, Part 3. "ashLayton

1909a "Antiquities of the Llesa Verde national Park: 3pruce-treo House." Bureau of American Athnoloy/ Bulletin 41. Washington.

1909b "Prehistoric Ruins of the Gila Valley." Gnlthsonian Uisccllaneous Collections, Vol. 52. quarterly issue Vol. b. Part 4.

1910 "Cremation in Cliff Dwellings." Records of the Past, Vol. Ik, Part III. 'Washington.

1911a "Proliiainnry Report on a Visit to the I lava ho Rational Llonuaent, Arizona. ■' Bureau of American Bthnology Bulletin 50. 'Washington.

1911b. "Antiquities of the Rasa Verde Rational Park: Cliff Palace." Bureau of American Stbnology Bulletin 51. Washington. 1912 "Casa Grando, Arizona." Twenty-eighth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Sthnology. Washington.

1914 •hdrchaaolocy of the Lower Klmbros Valley, Ro\? I'oxico." Smithsonian hliscollansous Collections. Vol. 63, Ho. 10

1916 "Prehistoric Remains in Arizona, Rev; ’".oxico, and Colorado." Smithsonian Misoellaneous Collections. Vol. 66, Ho. '3. Washington. 39. Fcwkes, J *'.V. (cont.) 1920 "An. Arehaaolocioal Collection fro# Younf/s Canyon near Flagstaff, Arizona. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. Vol. 77, No. 10% WasHiiigion. 1927 "Archaeological Work in Arizona." Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Yol. 87, lioT""?’. ATiisMngtonZ 40. iXilton, W.S. 193-la "Arohaologioal Notes on Texas Canyon, Arizona." Contributions fro# the Museum of the American Indian, Iloyo Foundation. Hen* York. Yol. XII, No.l "Archaeological Notes on Texas Canyon, Arizona." Contributions from the Liu soma of the Amor loan Indian, ileye Foundation, Yol. XII, I!o. 2. New York

1938a "Archaeological Notes on Texas Canyon, Arizona." Contributions from the Lluaoum of the American Indian, Yol. , No. , Ileye Foundation, New York.

1930b "Culture of the Ancient Pueblos of the Upper Gila River Region, Mow Llexico and Arizona." United States National Museum Bulletin 07. 41. Gladwin, Vi, and H.3. 1928 "The Ancient Civilization of Southern Arizona, Sastorn Range of Red on Buff Culture." Medallion Papers, Gila Pueblo. Globe.

1920-30 "A Method for Designation of Hulas in the South­ west. " Medallion Papers. Globe.

1929 "The Red-on-Buff Culture of the Gila Basin." Medallion Papers, No. III. Gila Pueblo, Globe. 236

42. Gladwin, H.3. 1928 HExcavations at Casa Grande, Arizona." Southwest I’uceun Papers, Mo. 2. Los An epics.

1930a "An Archaeological Survey of the Verde Valley." Medallion Papers, Ho. VI. Gila Pueblo, Globe. 1950b "An Outline of Southwestern Prehistory." Arizona Historical Review. Vol. 3, Mo. 1. Phoenix. 1954& "A Method for the Designation of Culture and Their . Variations.^ Medallion Pacers. Mo. XV. Gila Puoblo, Globe.

1934b "The Archaeology of the Southwest and its Relation to the Cultures of Texas.* Texas Archaeological and Paleontological Society Bulletin, Vol. 6.

43. Gladwin, II.S. and. Others. 1937 "Excavations at Snaketown: Material Culture." Medallion Papers, Mo* XXV. Gila Pueblo, Globe.

44. Guernsey. 3.J. and Kidder, A.V. "Basket-Maker Caves of northeastern Arizona.” Papers of the Peabody Mascm: of American Archaeology and Xthnolory, Vol. VIII, Mo. 2. Harvard University, Cambridge. 1921.

45. Guernsey, 3.J. "Expeditions in Northeastern Arizona." Report on the Archaeological l-'ieldxvork of 1920-23. Papers of the Peabody Museuja of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol. XII, Mo. 1. Harvard University, Cambridge.

46. Hargrave, L.L* 1930 "Prehistoric Earth Lodges of the Gan Francisco Mountains.” llusaum Motes, Vol. 3, Mo. 5* Museum of northern Arizona, Flagstaff. 46. Hargrave, L.L. (oont.) 1931 "The Muoeura of northern Arizona Arohaeologloal Expedition,"1931#. iMugoiuu Hotes, Vol. 4, Kc. G. I'.uaouii of Northern Arizona, flagstaff.

1932 "The Museum of Northern Arizona Archaeological Expedition." Museua Notes, Vol. 5, Ho. 5. Museum of northern Arizona, ilarntaff.

1933 "Pueblo II House of the San Francisco Mountains, Arizona." Museum Kotos. Vullotin 4. Museum of Northern virizonn, Flagstaff.

1935 "The Jeddito Valley and the First Pueblo Towns in Arizona to bo Visited by Europeans." Musoui.i Notes, Vol. 0, Ho. 4. Museum of Northern Arizona, Flagstaff.

1937a "Sihyatlci: ’.Vera the Inhabitants Hop 17” Museum Rotes. Vol. 9, Ho. 12. Museum of Northern Arizona, Flagstaff.

1937b "A 3ub~3ulture in Arizona." Southwestern Loro, Vol. 3, Ho. 3.

47. Harrington, M.F. "The 'lost City* of Nevada." 3clentiflo American, Vol. 133, (July, 1925). 1927a "On the Trail of the First Puablos.” The Outlook. Vol. 145, No. 10, (March)

1927b "A Primitive Pueblo City in Nevada.” American Anthropologist, n.s. Vol. 29, No. 3 (July)

1953 "Gypsum Gave, Nevada." Mouthv.ost Museum Papers. Southwest Museum, Los Angeles. 48. Haury, 1931a "Lllnut-e 13 on da from. Prehistoric Pueblos. " American Anthropologist, n.s. 7ol. 33, Po. 1. lleiiaaiia.

1931b '•Recently Dated Pueblo Ruins in Arizona." oralthaonian l.liscellanoona Collections, Vol. 82, Ho. 11. Auuhin^ton.

1932 Roosevelt 9:5, a Hohokura Site of the Colonial Period." Medallion Paoors, No. XI. Gila Pueblo, Globe,

In preparation, "The Excavations at Lon lluertos and Neighboring Ruins in the Galt River Valley, Arizona." Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and ethnology, Vol. XVII, I!o. I. Harvard University, Cambridge#

1984 "The Canyon Creek and the Cliff Dwellinrs of the Sierra Anchu." Medallion Papers, Do. XIV. Gila Pueblo, Globe.

1086 "The Mogallon Culture of Gouthwesiern New Mexico.* Medallion Papers. Mo. XX. Gila Pueblo, Globe. 49. Hawley, F.M. "The Dead Mountain Pueblos of Southern .Arizona." Art and Archaeclo.-v. Vol. 33, Mo. 5, (September and October, 1982.)

30. Hayden, I. "Mesa House; in Archaeological Explorations in Southern Nevada." Southuaat Museum Papers, No. 4. Los Angeles.

51. liewett, S.L* 1905 "A General View of the Archaeology of the Pueblo Region." Smithsonian Report for 1904. V/aohington 239

51, IJewett, 12,L. (cont.) 1906 “Antiquities of the Jones Plateau, I:ov; llexieo.” Bureau of Anerican ^thnoloczv. Bulletin 32* Washington*

1907 “Archaeology of Rio G-ran.de Valley.T’ Papers of the School of American Archaeology, Ho.4

1908 “The Bzcavation at Tyuonyi, Hew Itoxioo." Papers of the School of American Archaeology.

1909 “The Excavations at El Rito do Los Frljoles in 1909." Papers of the School of American Archaeology, Ho. 10.

1932 *Tha Chaco Canyon in 1932." Art and Archaeology, Vol. 53, Ho. 3. (Hay-Juno).

1934 "The Excavation of Chotro Kotl, Chaco Canyon, 1932-33." Art and Archaeology, Vol. 35, ITo. 2, (IZar,-April).

1936 "The Chaco Canyon and Its Idonunonts." El Palaclo, Vol. /XI, lion. 21-26, (Dueember)

52. Hodge, F.V;, 1912 "Handbook of the American Indians north of Mexico." Bureau of American Ethnology, Bullotin 30. Washington.

1920 "Hawikuh iionework. " Contributions from the Musoun of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, Indian Notes and Monographs, Vol. Ill, Ho. 3.

1921 "Turquoise Work of Hawikuh, Haw Mexico." Leaflet of the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, Ho. 2. Hew York. 55* Hold.sixf V# • 0 * 1932 "Sxcavation at Tecolote during lliv.r.ior of 19ul.w Texas Archaeological and Paleontological Society Bulletin Ho* 4, (September). 1933 "Excavation of Saddleback Ruin." Texas Archaeological and Paleontological Society Bulletin Ho. 5, (September). 54 * Holmes, ,**H* "Handbook of Aboriginal American Antiquities." Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin GO, Part I. 1919. 55. Hoover, J "The Indian Country of Southern Arizona." geographical Re vie:?. Vol. XIE, Ho. 3. 1929. 56. Hough, i*. 1903 "Archaeological Field V/ork northeastern Arizona: the Museum Gates Expedition of 1901." National Museum, Report 901. Washington. 1902 "Ancient People of the Petrified Forest, Arizona." Harpers Ha pan ine, Vol. C.V. (ITovembor) •

190? "/antiquities of the Upper Gila and Salt River Valleys in Arizona and Hew Mexico." . Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 35. Washington.

1914 "Culture of the Ancient Pueblos of the Upper Gila River Region, I?ov.* Mexico and Arizona." National Museum Bulletin 87. Washington*

1919 "Exploration of a Pit House Village at Luna, Mew Mexico.* Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Vol. 55. Washington. 241

56. Hough, (Conte) 1950 "Explorations of the Ruins in tlu '..'hits Uountuins Apache Indian Reservation, Arisons." Procoodings of the United States Rational Iluseun, Vole 42, Art. IS. Washington. 57. Howard, S.B. "Caves Along the Slopes of the Guadalupe Mountains." Texas Archaeological and Palconologioal Society, Bulletin 4. Abilene3 1932.

58. Huffraan, J • • "Turquoise Rosales Iron Casa Grandei" Art and Archaeology. Vol. 20, Ro. 2, (August),1925. 59. Jackson, V.’.H. "Ruins of Southwestern Colorado and Adjacent Territory." Tenth Annual Report of the United States Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories. 1896 60. Jeanoon, J .%*. 1923 "Excavations in the Ghana Valley, Ru\.' Roxico. ’’ Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 81. 1931 "Pueblo Beads and Inlay." Denver Art Ruseiua, Department of Indian Art, Leaflet Ro. 30, (August). 61. Jenks, A. IS. "The Mimbrea Valley Expedition." Bulletin of the Hinnoapolis Institute of Arts, Vol. 17, Ro. 31, (December, 1928).

62. Judd, li.M. "The Pueblo Bonito expedition of the Rational Geographic Society." Rational GoorTaphic Ragazino. (March, 1922).

1924 "Two Chaco Canyon Pit Houses." Siaithsonlan Report for 1922* Washington 242

62. Judd, 11.11. (Gout.) 1925a "Archaeological Investigation at Pueblo Bonito, Kaw Mexico." Smithsonian Investigation, Exploration and Field Work of the Saithsonian Institution in 1921. Miscellaneous Collections, Vol. 77, Ho. 2. 1925b "Everyday Lifo in Pueblo Bonito.** national Georraphic Magazine, Vol. 4.8, Ho. 5, (September). 1926 "ilrohaeologioal Observations North of the Rio Colorado." Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 02. 1930 "The Excavation and Repair of Botatukin." Proceedings of the totted States Rational Museum, Vol. 77, Art. 5. 63. Kiddor, A.V. and Guernsey, 3.J. 1919 "Archaeological Explorations in northeastern Arizona." Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 65. 1921 "Basket-Maker Caves of northeastern Arizona." Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol. VIII, Mo. 2. Harvard University, Cambridge.

64. Kidder, A.V. 1924 "An Introduction to the Study of Southwestern Archaeology. '* Papers of the Phillips Academy Southwestern Expedition, Department of Archaeology, Phillips Academy, Andover, Hass* 1932 "The Artifacts of Pecos.* Papers of the Phillips Academy Southwestern Expedition, Ho. 6. Mow Haven. 60* Kidder, A*V* and Shepard, A.O. "The Pottery of Pecos, Yol. II: The Glaze-Paint, Culinary and Other Bares* * Papers of the Phillips Academy Southwestern expedition, I!o. 7. I'ev; Haven, 1936. 66. Kroeber, A.L. 1916 "Zuni Culture Sequences." Proceedings of the national Academy of Science, Yol. 2.

1923 "Hative Culture of the Southwest*" University of California, Berkeley. American Archaeology and Ethnology. Yol. 23.

67. Kluckholn, C. and Reiter, P. "Preliminary Report on the 1937 Excavations (33. 50-01) Chaco Canyon, KTev; koxico." University of H oy.’ Mexico Bulletin. Albuquerque. 1939.

68. Loud, L.L. and Harrington, I.I. R. "Excavations and Culture Interpretation of Lovelock Cave." American Archaeology and Ethnology. Yol. 20, Ho. 1. University of California, Berkeley. 1929. 69. Lumholtz, C. 1891 "Report of Explorations in Northern Mexico." Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, Ho. 3. 1912 "Hew Trails in Mexico: An Account of One Year’s Exploration in northwestern Sonora, Mexico, and Southwestern Arizona," Kew York.

70. Mason, J.A, "Mirrors of Ancient America." The Museum Journal. June, 1927. lluseura of the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. 71* McGregor, J.C. 1936 "Cultures of Cites ‘.Vhicli wore Occupied Shortly Before the eruption of Sunset Crater." Museum Motes, Museum of Northern Arizona, Vol. 9, Ilo. 11. flagstaff.

1937 " .’inona Tillage, a Xllth Century Settlement *:ith Ball Court near Flagstaff, Arizona." Museuiu Motes. Bulletin 12. Museum of Northern Arizona, Flagstaff. 72. McGuire, J.D. "A Study of the Primitive Methods of Drilling." Rep. United States National Musoun for 1894. 73. Mera, H.P. "Reconnaissance and Excavation in Southeastern Nov.1 Mexico." Memoirs of the American Antliropoloxical Association. Mo. 31. 1930. 74. Miller, C.F., Jr. "Reports on Dates on the Allentown, Arizona, Ruins." Tree Ring Bulletin. Vol. I, Mo. 2. Flagstaff. 1934.

75. Mindeleff, V. "A 3 tudy of Pueblo Architecture: Tusayan and Cibola." Eighth Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. 1091. 76. Mindeleff, C. 1895 "Cliff Ruins of Canyon do Ohally, Arizona." American Anthropologist, o.s. Vol. 0, No. 2. : (April).

1896a "Aboriginal Remains in the Vordo Valley, Arizona." Thirteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology.' Washington.

1895b "Casa Grande Ruins,w Thirteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of /uaerican Ethnology. Washington. 245

77. lloorehoad, W.K. 1896 "Some Objects fro:;i the Salado Valley, Arizona." American Anthropologist, Vol. II, :lo. 8. Columbus.

1906 "A narrative of Explorations in Vsv; Mexico, Arizona, Indiana, etc." Department of ^urehnoolocy, Phillips Academy, Bulletin III. Andover. 78. Morris, £.li. 1911-12 "Cliff Ruin of Johnsan Canyon." Bureau of American Almoloyy, Vol. 33. 1912 "Preliminary Account of the Antiquities of the Region Between the Llancos and La Plata Rivers in Southwestern Colorado." Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 33. 1915 "The Excavation of a Ruin near Aztec, San Juan County, Lav; Mexico.” American Anthropologist, n.s. Vol. 17, Mo. 4.

1917 "Specimen Catalog, Aztec Ruin: Discoveries at the Aztec Ruins." American Museum Journal. Vol. 17, Mo. 3.

1919 "The Aztec Ruins." Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Batumi History, Vol. JCXVI, Part I. 1925 "Exploring in the Canyon of Death." Geographic Magazine, Vol. 43, I’o. 3, (September).

1939 "/archaeological Studies in the LaPluta District, Southwestern Colorado and Northwestern Mew Mexico." Carnegie Institution of Washington, Publication No. 519. 24G

79. l!orae, K. "The Ancient Culture of the Ircnont River in Ut:;h. ” Papers of the Peabody llusauu of Aaorican Archao- olocy and Atiinoloo% Yol. X U , I:o. 3. Harvard University, Cambridge). 1051.

80. I'esbltt, Pell. ’’The Ancient KiLibronos.” The Login liusemi, Bulletin llo. 4. Beloit. 1951. 81. Rordlnskiold, G. "The Cliff Duellers of the Mesa Verde, South­ western Colorado." Translated by D.L. Morgan, Stockholm and ChicaQo. 1893.

85. Rusbaum, J.L. "A Basket-Maker Cave in Kano County, Utah, with Notes on the Artifacts by A.Y. Bidder and :>.J. Guernsey.” Indian Notes and Monographs, Musouii of the American Indian, Hoyo foundation, I'ev; Tork, 1922.

85. Orchard, Vi.C. "Beads and Beadwork of the Aioricun Indians.* Museum, of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, Now York, 1929.

04. Parsons, lirs. S.V.’.C. 1932 "Islata, JTovj Mexico.” Forty-sovonth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Bthnolocy. Washington. 1953 "Borne Aztec and Pueblo Parallels." American Anthropologist, n.s. Vol. 35, No. 4. Menasha.

85. Patrick, H.R. "The Ancient Canal Syr;ten and Pueblos of the Salt River Valley, Arizona." Phoenix Free Museum, Bulletin Mo. 1, Phoenix, 1903. 2-%7

8 6 . Pepper, O.Tl« 1899 "Ceremonial Deposits Found in an Ancient Pueblo Dstufa in liorthorn ::ow lloxioo." Monumental Records. VA1.1, No. 1, (July). 1902

"Tho Ancient Basket Fakers of Southeastern Utah *CQ * Supplementary to American Fuseuni Journal. Vol. Do. 4, Guide Leaflet i'o. 6 , {AprilT. 1905 "Ceremonial Objects and Ornaments from Pueblo Bonito, I;ev; ilexico. " American Anthronclomist, n.a. Vol. 7, I'o. 2 . (Apr11-June).^

1909 "The Exploration of a Burial Room in Pueblo Bonito, Hew Mexico." Putman Anniversary Volume. 0*3. Strobert Co., Nov# Mexico. 1920 "Pueblo Bonito." Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Uatural History, Vol. AiVII. uov; York. 87. Poet, o.D. "The Social and Domestic Life of the Cliff Dwellers.M The American Antiquarian and Oriental Journal. (Jiinuary-Fobruary), iS’^O.

08. Pinkley, 3.T. "Casa Grande, the Greatest Valley Pueblo of Arizona." Arizona Archaeological and Historical Bociety. Tucson.

39. Pinkley, i-’.H. 1935a "Geventeen Years Ago." Southwestern Monuments Monthly Report for Novaiaber, Casa Grande rational Monument.

1935b "Geventean Years Ago." Bout)iwestern Monuments Monthly Report for December, Dasa Grande rational Monument. 248

90. Pogue, Jo2. "The Aboriginal Use of Turquoise in north Anorica." Aaorloan Anthropologist, n.r.., Yol. 14, Ho. 3, Or uly-iiopt QMbor) 1921. 91. Prudden, T.M. "The Prohiotorio Ruins of the Gan Juan Watershed in Utah, Arizona, Colorado, and ifew Mexico." American Anthropologist, n.s., Yol. 5, Ho. 2,

92. lioiter, P. "The Jc::ioz Pueblo of Unsiiagi, lieu Mexico." University of How Mexico Bulletin, Part II. Monographs of University of H oy; Mexico and School of American Research. 1938.

93. Roberts, F.il.H., Jr. 1925 "Report on Archaeological Reconnois saneo in Southwestern Colorado in Sumner of 1923." Colorado Magazine, Ycl. 2, Ho. 2. Beaver.

1929a "Recent Archaeological Developments in the Vicinity of SI Paso, Texas.* Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Yol. 81, .Kb'.' 7. 1929b "Ghabik eschoo Village: A Late Basket Maker Site in the Chaco Canyon, Hew Mexico." Bureau of American ethnology. Bulletin 92.

1930 "Marly Pueblo Ruins in the Riedra District, Southwestern Colorado*" Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 96.

1931 "The Ruins at Riatuthlanna, Eastern Arizona." Bureau of American At lino logy, Bulletin 100.

1932 . . "The Village of the Great Rivas on the Zuni Reservation, New Mexico." Bureau of American litlinology, Bulletin 111. 93. Roberts, P.H.H., Jr. (cont.) 1936 "A Survey of Southwestern Archaeology*" Snithsonian Institute, Annual Report, 1935.

1937 "Archaeology in the Southwest." American Antiquity, Vol- 3, lio. 1.

94. Savior, C. and Brand, D.D. "Aztatlan, Prehistoric Mexican Frontier on the Pacific Coast." Iboro Araoricana, Ho. 1. University of California Press, Berkeley. 1932. 95. Jaylus, S.B. 1955 "An Archaeological Survey of Texas." Medallion Papers, Jio. XVII. Gila Pueblo, Globe. 1936 "An Archaeological Survey of Chihuahua, Mexico.w Medallion Papers, Ho. .CHI. Gila Pueblo, Globe.

96. Schellback, L., 3rd. "dvn Unusual Burial in Mesa House Ruin, Overton, Clark County, Hevada, 1926." Southwest Musoura Papers, 2;o. 4. Lon Arv-olen.

97. Sckaidt, J.F. "The Mrs. Million Boyco Thompson expedition." I'atural History, Vol. 26, Me. 6 . Mew York, 1927.

98. Snow, O.H. "Turtiuoise in Southwestern Mew Mexico." American Journal of Science, 3rd Series, Vol. 41, (Juno),1891.

99. Spicer, 2.11. "The Prescott Black-on-Gray Culture, Its Mature and Relations as exemplified in Ming’s Ruin, Arizona*" University of Arizona Master's thesis, 1933. 250

3-00. Opiocr, jl.ll. a:id Caywood, L.H. "Two Puoblo Ruins in West Central Arizona,:T University of Arizona, Bulletin Yol. 7, Mo. 1. Social Science Bulletin Mo. 10. Tucson.

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