Great as integrative architecture in the Silver Creek community,

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Great kivas as integrative architecture in the Silver Creek community, Arizona

Herr, Sarah Alice, M.A.

The University of Arizona, 1994

UMI 300 N. Zeeb Rd. Ann Arbor, MI 48106

GREAT KIVAS AS INTEGRATIVE ARCHITECTURE

IN THE SILVER CREEK COMMUNITY, ARIZONA

by

Sarah Alice Herr

A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the

DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of

MASTERS OF ARTS

In the Graduate College

THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

19 9 4 2

STATEMENT BY AUTHOR

This thesis has been submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for an advanced degree at The University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library.

Brief quotations from this thesis are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the head of the major department or the Dean of the Graduate College when in his or her judgement the proposed use of the material is in the interests of scholarship. In all other instances, however, permission must be obtained from the author.

SIGNED: Q&X^Lk A

APPROVAL BY THESIS DIRECTOR

This thesis has been approved on the date shown below:

i Barbara J.I Mills Assistant Professor of Anthropology 3

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This thesis would not have been possible without the help of many people, at all stages along the way. My tremendous gratitude to them all. Beth Grindell and Sharon Urban of the Arizona State Museum site files made available the computerized and paper site file records for Arizona's Great Sites. • Tim Seaman of the Laboratory of Anthropology in Santa Fe provided me with a list of LA Numbers for Great Kiva sites in New , and his staff helped with questions as I used the paper files. Alan Ferg, of the Arizona State Museum archives located Emil Haury's notes on the ceramics of Tla Kii and made copies for me. TJ Ferguson spent many weekend and late night hours teaching me and helping me with the computer drafting program used to produce Figure 3.1. He also helped me figure out how to plot sites for which I only had UTM information. My committee Bill Longacre, Jeff Dean and Barbara Mills, have helped me immeasurably. They have suggested and loaned me readings, made suggestions as to format and content, and, in editing, made sure that what I wrote was what I really meant to say. I would especially like to thank Barbara Mills for giving me the opportunity to work at the University of Arizona field school and on the field school ceramics, for her editing of substantive and grammatical eccentricities, helping me plot site locations, and for just basically keeping me on track at all stages of this process. My thanks to all of them for their cooperation as the deadlines approached. Thanks to John Taylor, Becky McKim, Michelle Stevens, Ruth Van Dyke, and Trixi Bubemyre for helping me talk through problems and their general enthusiasm, friendship and support. Finally, thanks to my parents, Bruce and Ellen Herr, and my sister, Rachel for teaching me the value of education, always supporting my decisions along the way, and providing just enough parental pride. 4

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES 6

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 7

ABSTRACT 8

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND PROBLEM STATEMENT 9

Communal Architecture 11 The Community 13 Low-Level Integrative Architecture in the Southwest... 14 High-Level Integrative Architecture in the Southwest..15 The Great Kiva and Nonritual Integration 18 Changes in Integrative Architecture in the Southwest..19 Problem Statement 21

CHAPTER 2: GREAT KIVAS OF THE SILVER CREEK COMMUNITY 23

Defining the Silver Creek Community 23 Ceramic Dating 26 Silver Creek Great Kiva Sites: Temporal Variation 33 Silver Creek Great Kiva Sites: Spatial Variation 34 Silver Creek Great Kiva Sites: Formal Variation 35

CHAPTER 3: COMPARISONS AND CONCLUSIONS 38

Collecting Great Kivas 39 A Note on the Dates Assigned to Sites 4 0 A Model Great Kiva Chronology 42 Exploring the Great Kiva Data 49 Evaluation of the Model 62 The Silver Creek Community in the Larger Picture 65 Summary 73 Directions for Future Research 75

APPENDIX A: SITE DESCRIPTIONS 77

Pottery Hill 77 Silver Creek Great Kiva Sites Descriptions 90 AZ P: 16:20(ASM) 90 AZ P: 16:1(ASM) 91 AZ P: 16:153 (ASM) 92 AZ Q: 13:1 (ASU) 93 AZ P: 16:160(ASM) 94 AZ P: 16:112(ASM) 99 AZ P: 16:2(ASM) 105 AZ P: 16:90 (ASM) 109 5

TABLE OF CONTENTS- Continued AZ P:16:65 (ASM) 110 AZ P:16: 9 (ASM) Ill Carter Ranch 112 AZ P:11: 55 (ASU) 113 AZ P:11:124 (ASU) 114 AZ P:11:130(ASU) 114 AZ P:11:157 (ASU) 114 AZ P:12 :76 (ASU) 114 AZ P:12:99 (ASU) 115 AZ P:12:105 (ASU) 115

APPENDIX B: GREAT KIVA SITE DATA ,.116

Rio Grande 116 Eastern Puerco 116 Northern San Juan 116 San Juan 117 Little 119 West Central 121 Gila River Drainage 122 Silver Creek Drainage 122 Provenience Unknown— New Mexico ....122

APPENDIX C: FIGURES OF GREAT KIVA DIAMETERS: BY REGION AND PERIOD 123

APPENDIX D: GREAT KIVA SITES AND REFERENCES 136

REFERENCES 142 6

LIST OF TABLES TABLE 2.1, Silver Creek Great Kiva Sites 24

TABLE 2.2, Ceramic Dates by Collection Area 26

TABLE 2.3, Ceramic Production Dates 27

TABLE 2.4, Ceramic Groups for the Silver Creek Communities 31

TABLE 3.1, Chronologicial Periods used in this Study 41 TABLE 3.2, Beginning Dates of Great Kiva Sites: By Region 52

TABLE 3.3, End Dates of Great Kiva Sites: By Region 53

TABLE 3.4, Great Kiva Frequency by Component and Region...54

TABLE 3.5, Median Great Kiva Size by Component and Region 56

TABLE 3.6, Coefficient of Variation in Great Kiva Diameters: By Component and Region 57

TABLE 3.7, Roofing Data by Component: All Regions 61

TABLE 3.8, Roofed and Unroofed Great Kiva Sites 61

TABLE 3.9, Plaza Frequency by Component and Region 64

TABLE 3.10, Site Size by Temporal Component 67

TABLE 3.11, Ware Distribution by Collection Area 68

TABLE 3.12, Dimensions of Variability: The Silver Creek and Little Colorado Regions 71 7

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 2.1, Side-by-side box plots of Silver Creek Great Kiva diameters (m) 36

FIGURE 3.1, Distribution of Great Kivas 50 8

ABSTRACT

This thesis explores the relationship between circular

great kiva sites in the Silver Creek area and counterparts

in regions across the Southwest. Great kivas, as communal architecture, are important in community integration.

Exploring their distribution through the variables of time,

space and form helps us understand change in community

integration.

The patterns in the temporal and spatial distribution

of the Silver Creek great kivas correspond to the patterning

of these variables in the Upper Little Colorado region. The

majority of Silver Creek great kivas appear in a period of

westward population movement after A.D. 1000. The Silver

Creek great kivas, do not, however, show the same range of formal variation. Since many of the changes in the Upper Little Colorado area are described as resolving problems of

increasing population and aggregation, lower population densities in the Silver Creek area may explain the reduced

formal variability of its great kivas. 9

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND PROBLEM STATEMENT

In sedentary egalitarian societies, integrative mechanisms are important for maintaining internal community stability. Communal architecture and the ritual activities conducted within these spaces help mediate everyday tensions and insecurities. In the close proximities of people in sedentary villages, disagreements and personal conflict may produce instabilities (Hegmon 1989:5). Conflict management in an essentially egalitarian society is vital to community maintenance, particularly since other options, such as fissioning, can be rather drastic. Population movement (Adams 1989:155) also contributes to insecurities. At a more mundane level the need for a larger mating pool, the reduction of subsistence risk, and larger labor pools also explain why inter-site interaction is important (Adams

1991:153; Plog 1989:146).

In Eggan's (1950) classic ethnology on the social organization of the western , one of his main reasons for exploring the kinship and political structures of modern pueblos is to understand integration. Integration is defined as that which binds a culture together; therefore to understand a culture the anthropologist must understand

integration.

Eggan explores kinship terminology, residence patterns, household organization, and clan organization. Other 10 important integrative mechanisms include the sodalities and curing societies (Longacre 1966:97). In the final chapter of the book Eggan extrapolates from what he has learned about the spatial patterning of social organization into the late prehistoric past to discuss the origins of these patterns.

Integration can be considered through studies of kinship, residence, religion, and trade (Longacre 1966:94).

The first two categories are best studied in ethnographic situations. Religion and trade can be studied by archaeologists as well as cultural anthropologists. Trade, for example, can be discussed through analysis of ceramic data; ware categories can be very useful in discussing local versus nonlocal interactions (Zedeffo 1991:11).

While religion is difficult to discuss fully based on what is found in the archaeological record, ritual does have some very material components that can be useful to the archaeologist. Ritual can be defined as the behavioral component of religion, as opposed to the mythical and

"transformation of state" areas of religion that interact less with material culture. Ritual is an enactment of the

"ideal" relations of individuals (Leach 1977:15) — as the cultural ideal is not always met in everyday practice.

Leach states: "Ritual... momentarily makes explicit what is otherwise a fiction" (1977:15). This process occurs through a formalized liturgy whose purpose it to allow little confusion as to what is being conveyed. Messages conveyed by ritual are simplified, formalized, and redundant to increase their effectiveness (Adler 1989:40).

In archaeology some of the most important evidence of integration is communal architecture. Communal structures have a simple and formalized morphology (Hegmon 1989:9).

This morphology, like the simplicity, redundancy, and formalization of the ritual liturgy, is believed to aid information transfer. In fact, ritual is believed to occur in these structures.

(Vnnmiinai. Architecture

Communal architecture is an important material correlate of integrative activities. It both reflects the ideal image of the needs of the community and reinforces ideas of social order and thus the cohesion of the group

(Steward 1937:91).

Communal architecture varies in its integrative capacity. Adler and Wilshusen (1990) conducted a cross- cultural study of integrative architecture in 28 "tribal" societies. They find that there are two levels of integrative structures: low-level integrative facilities and high-level integrative facilities (1990:135). These two types associated differently with life in the community.

Low-level integrative structures are used for both ritual 12

and nonritual activities, including cooking, sleeping, and

craft manufacture. High-level facilities are used almost solely for ritual activities. Low-level facilities integrate only a portion of the community; high level

facilities integrate at the community to intercommunity

level. Both types can exist simultaneously (Adler and

Wilshusen 1990:135-6).

Communal architecture is often defined, at least in

part, by substantial size relative to other structures on

the site (Anyon 1984:9). Many authors believe that the size

of the communal architecture is related to the size of the

community using it (Lipe 1989:54).

In assessing the association of the size of integrative

architecture with size of the community an important pattern emerges. The total floor area of low-level integrative

architecture correlates well with total community size

(Adler and Wilshusen 1990:136). However, high level

architecture does not.

This unexpected pattern can be explained in two ways.

First, the reduction of domestic activities in high-level integrative architecture may be responsible for the

reduction of floor space in these structures. Ideas on

information exchange are also cited (Adler and Wilshusen

1990:136). Information in this more formalized type of 13 ritual may be very streamlined and redundant in order to lessen the confusion of the message being conveyed.

The Community

In discussing the high-level communal architecture, the term "community" becomes important. Social anthropologists might define the community, as Murdock does, as a social group larger than the nuclear family within which face-to- face relationships are maintained (1949:80). The community is "the principal focus of associative life" (1949:82). This social interaction is often associated with some geographically defined territory (ibid). Murdock, who cites ethnographic case studies, also defines some; of the functions of the community. These include social intercourse, cooperative food getting, and social control

(1949:80-90).

These functions of the community are assumed archaeologically, but the actual boundaries of the community are more difficult to discern. In one approach, Andrew Duff

(1993:10-11) looks for signs of economic integration through a compositional analysis of clays from utilitarian ceramics, in order to map domestic consumption and exchange. He models three types of archaeological communities important in the Chacoan period in the Cibola area of the Southwest:

1) roomblocks clustered around great houses; 2) roomblocks clustered, without a great house; and 3) dispersed 14 roomblocks (Duff 1993:9). Within Model 1 the great house is hypothesized to represent a higher tier of the hierarchy within the community. Models 2 and 3 are more egalitarian with exchange more discrete in the first and more loosely present in the second.

Another way to define the community may be by drawing catchments around their integrative architecture. Although

K. Lightfoot uses great kiva sites as political centers

(1984:88), it still may be useful to assume that a dispersed community will cluster spatially around its integrative center. Therefore the use of Thessian polygons to map the community may be possible (e.g., K. Lightfoot 1984:145).

Low-Level Integrative Architecture in the Southwest

Examples of communal or integrative architecture in the

Puebloan Southwest include kivas, protokivas, great kivas, tri-walled structures, plazas, and shrines (Hegmon and Lipe

1989:2). As seen in Eggan's (1950) use of the concept of integration, and Adler and Wilshusen's classification of communal structures, these structures fulfill integrative needs at a number of different levels.

Many authors mention room to kiva ratios (e.g., Steward

1937:96; Lipe 1989:54; Duff 1993:7). Kivas are assumed to integrate one or a small number of households. Kivas are an example of Adler and Wilshusen's low-level integrative architecture. In these discussions the number of kivas is inversely correlated with the scale or level of integration

(Lipe and Hegmon 1989:20). In the evolutionary scheme proposed by Steward as the number of kivas per room decreases it is assumed that the unit/lineage is assuming more autonomy (Steward 1937:99; Lipe 1989:53).

There are several difficulties with using a room to kiva ratio. The most important is that what have been called "kivas" by many archaeologists may be continuous use of domestic pitstructures (Lekson 1988:228). Furthermore, it may be difficult to discern the real "kivas" from the habitation rooms (Ferguson 1989:171).

Another important point is that discussions of low- level integrative architecture ignore the daily integrative effect of the rest of the architectural environment, including doorways, alleys, etc. All architecture has the ability to restrain or permit movement and thus affects community integration (Ferguson 1989:172-3). Hiah-Level Integrative Architecture in the Southwest

The great kiva is probably the best known example of relatively common high-level integrative architecture in the

Southwest. Lekson (1991:36) defines the Chacoan great kiva as a round, masonry-lined pit structure that is generally greater than ten meters in diameter. Fowler et al. (1987) limit discussion of great kiva sites to what they refer to as the gray ware area. Of Lekson's three criteria, I have 16 taken two as my guidelines in the creation of my great kiva database. Masonry construction was not a necessary consideration for inclusion. This expansion of the definition has allowed me to include some early great kivas and some great kivas below the Colorado Plateau in order to discuss the relation of the Silver Creek great kiva sites, as they border on the "brown ware" as well as the "gray ware" areas— a distinction that is more geologically relevant than culturally appropriate.

Variations on the above definition of great kivas exist. Leblanc (1989:341), for example, uses a nine meter diameter in his definition. Anyon (1984:9) prefers to use the phrase "communal architecture" and while acknowledging the importance of size, he defines communal architecture relative to the size of structures in the rest of the community.

Rectangular great kivas are also present in the

Southwest. These are found in the later sequences of sites in the Western area (e.g.: Apache Creek Site (Martin, Rinaldo, and Barter 1957), various sites recorded by Danson

(1957), Foote Pueblo (Rinaldo 1959), Grasshopper

(Graves et al 1982:197; Reid 1989:82-3), Higgins Flat Pueblo

(Martin, Rinaldo, and Barter 1957:15), the Plaza Site

(Gumerman 1988), the Saige McFarland Site (Lekson 1990), and the Sawmill Site (Bluhm 1957)). One D-shaped great kiva is 17

found at Los Golindrinas in Colorado (Brisbin 1988), in the

Northern San Juan region. These sites are not considered in

this study as they are not morphologically comparable to the

majority of sites found along the Mogollon Rim between A.D.

100.0 and 1200. Anyon (1984) and Adams (1991) provide

discussions of rectangular great kivas.

While some authors (e.g., K. Lightfoot 1984:73) believe

that great kivas function as part of a settlement hierarchy,

indicating simultaneous positions of authority, most

hypotheses describe them as part of a sequential hierarchy

(Johnson 1989:378). The latter type of hierarchy would

include Adler and Wilshusen's low and high level integrative

structures. The "sequential hierarchy" is a "structure for

the organization of consensus among basically egalitarian

aggregates of increasing inclusiveness" (Johnson 1989:378).

It is defined through three important aspects: 1) a higher

level unit incorporates 2-15 modular units (e.g.,

households), with an average of six modular units before a new level of hierarchy is created; 2) group membership and size vary as the organizational units choose to join, or fission, from the consensual group; and 3) ritual, and its associated formalized behaviors and social relations, becomes increasingly important as the area of integration increases (Johnson 1989:379). 18

The Great Kiva and Nonritual Integration

Ritual, as implied in the definition of Johnson and stated explicitly by other authors, is the general means of integration associated with these great kivas. Part of the integration associated with the great kiva is the fact that these structures must be built by communal labor (Adler

1990:141; Hegmon 1989:7). While R. Lightfoot et al.

(1988:614) do not specifically discuss this, they do compute the necessary hours for the construction of a great kiva based upon experiments with similar technology. They estimate that the Grass Mesa pueblo great kiva's excavated volume was 680m3. At a dirt-moving rate of lm3 per 5.75 hours this would mean the great kiva took 3900 hours to dig; excluding estimates of roofing time.

F. Plog (1974:125-7) hypothesizes that great kivas are not simply ritual architecture. He believes that the alcove rooms found around many great kivas store subsistence goods rather than ritual paraphernalia (K. Lightfoot 1984:73). He therefore, believes that the great kivas integrate communities as part of redistribution system (1974:125-7; see also Stafford and Rice 1980:179). Similar hypotheses are associated with the ballcourts (Doyel 1991:247).

This argument is strengthened when manufacturing areas are found nearby (ibid). 19 Changes in Integrative Architecture in the Southwest

Archaeological evidence for integrative structure spans

approximately one millennium. Therefore, these structures

cannot be discussed as static pieces of architecture with unchanging purpose. The social contexts in which great kivas are associated across the Southwest vary dramatically

over this long period. Societies range from semisedentary to sedentary dispersed villages (Wills 1991), to large

aggregated, plaza-oriented pueblos.

As mentioned above, kiva-to-room ratios have been one way to study intrasite changes in levels of integration.

Changes in this ratio through time, in which the number of rooms per kiva increases, have been suggested to correspond with changes in (or even origins of) clan and lineage systems (Steward 1937). More recent studies have challenged this type of analysis (Ferguson 1989; Lekson 1988). In an alternative approach, Adams (1991) has used changes in kivas to discuss the origins of the katsina cult.

The circular great kiva form becomes standardized in the Pueblo II period (ca. A.D. 920-1120). Prior to this time there is a large amount of regional variation in great kivas, particularily between the northern and southern Southwest. The appearance of the Chacoan system is marked

by the increased homogeneity of its key architectural

components (the great kiva, the great house, and 20

roads)(Lekson 1991:53). This suggests the emergence of more

formalized links across the region (Fowler et al. 1987:27).

While the great kiva essentially looks the same during and

after this period, it is clear that its association with the

Chacoan system has given it a new meaning: the "ritual

landscape [of the Chaco era] synthesized Conceptual'

elements which had existed in the Anasazi world for

centuries" (Fowler et al. 1987:73). Some of the symbols of

the Chacoan period remain even while the "core" of the

system, Chaco Canyon itself, is in decline (Fowler et al.

1987:73).

As settlement patterns across the Southwest change, so, too, does integrative architecture. Many of the sites with great kivas have a relatively small number of rooms, a

pattern true of even the great houses. Great kivas appear to integrate a number of noncontiguous roomblock structures.

However, when aggregated pueblos become the norm in the late

Pueblo III and Pueblo IV periods, enclosed plazas seem, with some exceptions (e.g., Grasshopper Pueblo), to replace them.

As population sizes increased at these sites and settlement patterns became less dispersed, integration must be viewed in a new way. Integration within the community is now more important than intercommunity integration.

Opinions vary as to the reasons for this change.

Defense is mentioned as a possible reason for the internal focus of these structures (Fowler et al. 1987:103). Reed

(1956:13) suggests that this change represents a new social organization. A.H. Schroeder believes this transformation marks the advent of centralized control (Reed 1956:17).

Problem Statement

The Silver Creek community is on the western frontier of great kiva distribution, yet its great kivas are relatively unknown. In order to understand their position in relation to the rest of the Southwestern great kiva distribution it is necessary to explore their morphological and temporal relation to other great kiva sites across the

Southwest. The goals of this thesis are:

1) To compile information on circular great kivas across the Southwest and explore how they pattern spatially and temporally.

2) To explore hypotheses interpreting the meaning of changes in great kiva patterning in time and space. 3) To compare great kivas from the Silver Creek

Community with surrounding areas to understand changes in community integration in this area better.

In this first chapter I present definitions of integrative architecture and introduce interpretations for why great kivas, as integrative architecture, are important in the Southwest. In the following two chapters I define 22 the great kiva and present data on great kivas across the Southwest and in Silver Creek. Chapter 2 introduces the

Silver Creek community. The chronology of the area and temporal and formal patterning of these sites is presented.

Chapter 3 compiles the data on 292 great kivas in New

Mexico, Arizona, Colorado, and and discusses the chronology as it has been presented elsewhere. The second part of this chapter will discuss the patterns seen in the data collected from these circular great kiva sites and considers how this information verifies or refutes statements made by earlier authors. Finally, it ends with a discussion of how the Silver Creek great kivas correspond or deviate from the patterns seen across the Southwest. 23 CHAPTER 2: GREAT KIVAS OF THE SILVER CREEK COMMUNITY Defining the Silver Creek Community

The Silver Creek area has been identified as an archaeological region encompassing 1500 square kilometers

(Kintigh 1991:21). The definition used here follows Kintigh

(1991), "the drainage of Silver Creek upstream (south) of

Snowflake as well as the mountainous area along the Mogollon

Rim beyond Pinedale towards Heber. Within this area, major tributaries of Silver Creek include Showlow Creek and

Cottonwood Wash" (Kintigh 1991:3). Kintigh (1991:21) also includes the Forestdale Valley as part of the Silver Creek community.

Eighteen sites (Table 2.1) in the Silver Creek drainage have great kivas meeting two of Lekson's criteria identified above (see Chapter 1). The best known of these sites are those forming the basis of Haury's Forestdale chronology of ceramics and great kivas. These sites include: Bluff Site,

Bear Ruin, and Tla Kii (Haury 1985a-e). Further surveys in the Forestdale Valley and along Corduroy Creek located site

AZ Q:13:l(ASU) (Stafford and Rice 1980). Another well known site in the Silver Creek community is Carter Ranch, located in the Hay Hollow Valley (Longacre 1970). Kent Lightfoot has noted seven great kivas in the Pinelawn/Nicks Camp and

Snowflake regions, but detail on these sites is lacking.

The remaining five sites are published in the contract 24

TABLE 2.1 SILVER CREEK GREAT KIVA SITES Site Name(s) Phase Dates Reference

Bluff Site Hilltop/ 300- 400 Haury 1985a Cottonwood

Bear Ruin Forestdale 600- 725 Haury 1985b

AZ P:16:153(ASM) Carrizo 1000-1100 Neily 1991

AZ Q:13:1(ASU) 1000-1150 Stafford fit Rice 1980

AZ P:16:160(ASM) Carrizo/ Linden post 1050 Neily 1991 Linden Mills et al. 1993

AZ P:16:112(ASM) Carrizo/ Linden 1050-1150 Dosh 1991 Hough's Lost Linden Mills et al. Site 1993

Tla Kii Corduroy/ Linden 1080-1115 Haury 1985e AZ P:16:2(ASM) Linden

AZ P:16:90(ASM) Carrizo/ Linden 1000-1200 Dosh 1991

AZ P:16:65(ASM) Linden 1100-1200 Dosh 1991

AZ P:16:9(ASM) Linden 1100-1200 Haury 1985c

Carter Ranch Hay Hollow Valley 1100-1225 Longacre Phase V 1970

AZ P:11:55(ASU) 1100-1250 K.Lightfoot 1978, 1984

AZ P:11:124(ASU) 1100-1250 K. Lightfoot 1978, 1984

AZ P:11:130(ASU) 1100-1250 K. Lightfoot 1978, 1984

AZ P:11:157(ASU) 1100-1250 K. Lightfoot 1984 25

TABLE 2.1 SILVER CREEK GREAT KIVA SITES, con't

AZ P:12:76(ASU) 1100-1250 K. Lightfoot 1984 AZ P:12:99(ASU) 1100-1250 K. Lightfoot 1984

AZ P:12:105(ASU) 1100-1250 K. Lightfoot 1984 literature of the Sitgreaves National Forest. Two of these sites were located by Neily (1991) as part of the Bagnal

Timbersale project on the Sitgreaves National Forest: Sites AZ P:16:153(ASH) and AZ P:16:160(ASM). Site AZ

P:16:176(ASM) may also have a great kiva, but it appears to be rectangular. The other three sites were located by Dosh

(1991) as part of the Fence Timber Sale on the same forest:

AZ P:16:65(ASM), AZ P:16:90(ASM) and AZ P:16:112(ASM). Two of these five sites, AZ P:16:160(ASM) and AZ P:16:112(ASM), were relocated by the University of Arizona Archaeological

Field School in the summer of 1993.

Site descriptions for these eighteen sites are provided in Appendix A. Architectural and ceramic information varies for each. Table 2.2 provides dates, by collection area, of the sites investigated by the University of Arizona

Archaeological Field School, including the site of

Hill. Pottery Hill has no great kiva, but its ceramics were also analyzed. Therefore, it provides a comparative 26

TABLE 2.2 CERAMIC DATES BY COLLECTION AREA

Date Site CMD CMD Context Range Total Total

AZ P:16:112(ASM): Coll. Area 1 1050-1150 3507 1089 141 fAZ P:16:112(ASM): Coll. Area 2 no date 6 N/A 0 AZ P:16:112(ASM): Coll. Area 3 no date 8 N/A 0

AZ P:16:160(ASM): Coll. Area 1 post 1050 378 N/A 1 AZ P:16:160(ASM): Coll. Area 2 no date 2 N/A 1 AZ P:16:160(ASM): Coll. Area 3 post 1050 7 N/A 0

POTTERY HILL: Midden 1150-1280 2517 1174 58 POTTERY HILL: Room 1: Floor 1125-1280 852 1184 30 POTTERY HILL: Room 1: Fill 1125-1280 2738 1180 129 POTTERY HILL: Room 3: Floor 1175-1280 405 1223 76 POTTERY HILL: Room 3: Fill 1150-1280 2181 1207 116

Note: CMD- Ceramic Mean Date; CMD Total - the number of ceramics used to calculate the Ceramic Mean Date assemblage for relative chronological control in the area.

Supplementing the Forestdale Valley information are ceramic summary tables from Tla Kii compiled from information in the Arizona State Museum archives. A discussion of the site dating methods used to provide dates for sites AZ P:16:160(ASM) and AZ P:16:112(ASM) are presented. Following this is a summary of spatial, temporal and formal trends of the Silver Creek community great kivas.

Ceramic Dating As absolute dates are lacking from the survey sites, relative dates have been assigned using ceramics. The typological assignments and date ranges (Table 2.3) were 27

TABLE 2.3 CERAMIC PRODUCTION RANGES

Ceramic Type Begin End Median Date Date Date

Cibola White Vara Kiatuthlanna B/w 850 900 875 Red Mesa B/w 900 1050 975 Puerco B/w 1000 1175 1088 Escavada B/w 925 1125 1025 Gallup B/w 1000 1125 1063 Snowflake B/w 1175 1325 1250 Reserve B/w 1100 1200 1150 Tularosa B/w 1175 1325 1250 Pinedale B/w 1275 1325 1300

Tusayan White Ware Black Mesa B/w 1000 1100 1050 Sosi B/w 1070 1180 1125 Dogoszhi B/w 1040 1210 1125 Little Colorado White Ware Holbrook 'A' B/w 1050 1150 1100 Holbrook 'B' B/w 1050 1150 1100 Padre B/w 1100 1250 1175 Undif. Walnut B/w 1100 1250 1175 Walnut 'A' B/w 1100 1250 1175

White Mountain Red Ware Puerco B/r 1000 1175 1088 Wingate B/r 1050 1200 1125 St. Johns B/r 1200 1300 1250 Pinedale B/r 1275 1325 1300 St. Johns Polychrome 1200 1300 1250 Pinedale Polychrome 1275 1325 1300

Thie table follows that produced in Goetze and Mills (1993b:105-108). The only changes made are the addition of dates for Pinedale Black-on- white (Reid et al., in press), and Pinedale Black-on-red and Pinedale Polychrome (both Carlson 1970:52, 57). Only types encountered at the sites investigated by the University of Arizona are included. based on published descriptions (e.g., Goetze and Mills 1993a, 1993b). Descriptions and dates for Pinedale Black- on-red and Pinedale Polychrome are from Carlson (1970:52- 28 57). Reid et al. (1993) cite Carlson in assigning a date to

Pinedale Black-on-white. Dates for Show Low Red Ware and

Salado Polychromes are, as yet, uncertain. However, suggested dates provided by Reid and Whittlesey (1992) and

Reid et al. (1992) for the Salado Polychromes, and the comments of Andrew Christenson (1993) on Show Low Red Ware, were taken into consideration in the assignment to ceramic groups.

In assigning date ranges to these ceramic assemblages, several considerations should be noted. Low percentages of

Salado Polychromes, and the absence of White Mountain Red

Ware glaze-painted types played a part in assigning pre- 1300 dates to all contexts. Furthermore, the presence of early ceramics was given less weight than that of later types, due to the possibility of heirloom vessels in the assemblage. Ceramic mean dates were computed for all feasible contexts. To use a ceramic mean date a production span must be known for each ceramic type. To compute the ceramic mean date a median manufacture date is determined from the production dates. "In order to use the formula the sherd count for each type is placed in a column beside the median date and these are multiplied, producing a third column, which is a product of the median date times the frequency of occurrence. The sum of the frequency column is divided into the sum of the product column, producing the 29 mean ceramic date for the sample" (South 1978:75). This formula, developed by South, works well with historic ceramics. With prehistoric ceramics the prediction is not quite as accurate due to longer or unknown production spans

(Goetze and Mills 1993).

In prehistoric contexts not all ceramics can be included in a ceramic mean date computation. Few brown and gray wares have tight production spans. Using a type with a long production span increases the chance of error, so these sherds, which make up the greatest part of all of our archaeological assemblages, cannot be used. Decorated wares are more useful, and are chronologically diagnostic. The average production span of the diagnostic types appearing on the Silver Creek sites is 115 years.

While the assignment of ceramic mean dates and date ranges provide a good relative statistic for comparing these assemblages, they are not intended to predict an actual date. There are two problems with these dates in this study. The first is that no systematic attempt has been made to search for joins in these contexts, and so some conjoining sherds could be artificially inflating counts.

Second, as mentioned above, Salado Polychromes and Show Low

Red Wares do not have certain production spans and thus cannot be used to compute the ceramic mean date. Therefore, these dates may be lower than they should, as they do not 30 reflect the presence of these increasingly important red wares.

Assigning date ranges and ceramic mean dates to sites and intrasite contexts give a general idea of when the site dates. Ceramic groups are a more rigorous means of assigning a site a place in the relative chronology and into the larger picture of the culture history of the area.

Problem of counts and unknown production spans are less relevant here. Ceramic groups are "ideal" assemblages (Goetze and

Mills 1993b: 87), which describe ceramics that predominate, as well as the more unusual types. Types are not unique to one "group." A type may be an important variant in several groups depending upon the length of the production span and the refinement in the dating of the groups.

Table 2.4 depicts the ceramic groups appropriate to the

Silver Creek community. This compilation essentially consists of the ceramics found at the Forestdale phase type sites (Haury 1985c). For example, Tla Kii is the type site for the Carrizo phase so the ceramics found at this site form the ceramic group for the Carrizo phase. However, additions to the table have also been made. The Forestdale and Linden phase ceramic groups are supplemented by Hammack

(1969). The Carrizo phase includes ceramics found at AZ

P:16:112(ASM), and the Linden Phase has been augmented by 31

TABLE 2.4 Ceramic Groups for the Silver Creek Communities

Phase/ Date Dominant Types Rare Type Type Site Range Hilltop 200-400 Alma Plain Adamana Brown Woodruff Smudged Gila Plain Unk. R/buff

Cottonwood 400- 600 Alma Plain Adamana Brown Forestdale Smudged Lino Gray Woodruff Red Gila Plain San Francisco Red

Forestdale 600- 800 Alma Plain Woodruff Smudged Forestdale Plain Woodruff Red Forestdale Smudged Alma Neck-banded Forestdale Red Alma Scored White Mound B/w Alma Incised Lino Gray Lino B/gr Lino Smudged San Francisco Red Adamana Brown Gila Plain Gila Butte R/buff Aquarius Br Corduroy 800- 900 Alma Plain Lino Gray Alma Neck-banded Kana-a Gray Forestdale Plain Gila Plain Forestdale Smudged Gila Butte R/buff Forestdale Red Red Mesa B/w White Mound B/w Kiatuthlanna B/w

Dry Valley 900-1000 Alma Plain Holbrook B/w Alma Incised Black Mesa B/w Forestdale Smudged Tusayan Corr. Gr. Clapboard Corr. Br Puerco B/r Indented Corr. Br Wingate B/r Patterned Corr. Br Deadmans B/r Red Mesa B/w Cebolleta B/w Puerco B/w Gallup B/w Reserve B/w Cibola Corr. Gr. Snowflake B/w TABLE 2.4 Ceramic Groups for the Silver Creek Communities, con't

Carrizo 1000-1100 Alma Plain Patterned Corr. Br Forestdale Smudged Clapboard Corr. Br Reserve Smudged Holbrook A B/w McDonald Corr. Holbrook B -B/w Indented Corr. Br Black Mesa B/w Showlow Corr Sosi B/w Red Mesa B/w Dogoshzhi B/w Snowflake B/w White Mound B/w Puerco B/w Kiatuthlanna B/w Escavada B/w Gallup B/w Reserve B/w Puerco B/r Wingate B/r Showlow B/r Deadmans B/r Tularosa Wh/r Tularosa Fillet Gila Plain Aquarius Orange

Linden 1100-1200 Puerco B/w Holbrook A B/w Escavada B/w Holbrook B B/w Reserve B/w Walnut A B/w Tularosa B/w Walnut B B/w McDonald Corr. Gallup B/w Showlow B/r Padre B/w Puerco B/r Mimbres B/w Wingate B/r Salado Red Wingate Poly Pinto B/r Indented Corr. Br. Pinto Poly Plain Br. St. Johns B/r Oblit. Corr. Br St. Johns Poly Springerville Poly Clapboard Corr. Br

Pinedale 1200-1300 Pinedale B/w McDonald Corr Pinedale B/r Pinto B/r Pinedale Poly Pinto Poly Showlow B/r Gila Poly Indented Corr. Br. Jeddito B/y Oblit. Corr. Br. Walnut A B/w Walnut B B/w Clapboard Corr. Br 33

TABLE 2.4 Ceramic Groups for the Silver Creek Communities, con't

Canyon 1300-1400 Fourmile Poly Kechipauan Poly Creek Showlow Poly Pinnawa Gl/w Cibecue Poly Pinnawa R/w Gila Poly Pinedale B/w Tonto Poly Jeddito Br/y Salado Red Gila Redware Obliterated Corr Kinishba Poly Indented Corr. Br. Clapboard Corr. Br

Notes: Sites used in the compilation of ceramic groups are as follows: Hilltop Phase—Bluff Site (Haury 1985a); Cottonwood Phase—Bluff Site (Haury 1985a); Forestdale Phase—Bear Ruin (Haury 1985b), Skiddy Canyon (Hammack 1969); Corduroy Phase—Bear Ruin (Haury 1985b); Dry Valley Phase —Tla Kii (Haury 1985e); Carrizo Phase—Tla Kii, AZ P:16:112(ASM) (Haury 1985e); Linden Phase—AZ P:16:9(ASM) (Haury 1985c), Pottery Hill, Skiddy Canyon (Hammack 1969); Plnedale Phase—Pinedale (Haury 1931), ; Canyon Creek Phase—Canyon Creek Ruin (Haury 1934), Showlow (Haury 1931); All phases—personal communication from Barbara Mills. Dates from the Carrizo through Canyon Creek Phases need to be reevaluated. Suggested dates for these group are: Carrizo Phase (1000- 1150); Linden Phase (1150-1275); Pinedale Phase (1250/75-1350); and Canyon Creek Phase (1350-1400/ abandonment). the ceramics known from Pottery Hill. Although Pottery Hill is supposed to be the type site for the Linden phase it seems to be occupied much later than the original Linden phase dates of A.D. 1100 to 1200 would suggest. The

Pinedale phase ceramic groups are supplemented by materials found by the University of Arizona Archaeological Field

School excavations at Bailey Ruin.

Silver Creek Great Kiva Sites: Temporal Variation

The first great kivas in the Silver Creek community are located in the Forestdale Valley and date between A.D. 300 and A.D. 700. After this, there is a three hundred year 34

hiatus in the use of this type of architecture, although

the area remains occupied.

Silver Creek community great kivas above the Mogollon

Rim are used around the middle of the eleventh century.

During the A.D. llios the great kiva at Tla Kii is built

(Haury 1985e:51). These great kivas seem to extend, if K.

Lightfoot's dates are considered accurate, until

approximately A.D. 1250. An ending date of A.D. 1200 would

be more consistent with the rest of the Silver Creek

circular great kivas.

Silver Creek Great Kiva Sites: Spatial Variation

Haury found three circular great kivas in the Forestdale Valley. Until the Silver Creek great kivas were

found, these great kivas formed the southwest boundary of

known circular great kivas (see Lekson 1991: Figure 3.10,

page 47). While the Forestdale sites are still further

south, the Silver Creek great kivas extend the westward

boundary by approximately 10 kilometers. The Silver Creek great kivas appear in clusters.

Clusters appear along Bagnal and Linden Draws, Cottonwood

Wash, Forestdale Creek, Hay Hollow Creek, and Silver Creek

itself. It is possible that while many of these great kivas

appear contemporaneous, due to the long time spans assigned through use of survey data they may have been used sequentially. Many authors discussing the presence of two 35 or more great kivas on a single site (e.g., Squaw Springs [Marshall 1979: 15], Haystack [Marshall 1979: 166- 168], and Morris Site 39 [ARMS files]), suggest that one is earlier than the other (Anyon and Leblanc 1980:261). if it is possible to mark these clusters as the integrative center of dispersed communities, then five communities may be represented in the Silver Creek area. This interpretation remains to be tested.

Silver Creek Great Kiva Sites: Formal Variation

The early great kivas of the Forestdale Valley, at

Bluff Ruin and Bear Ruin, have no masonry walls, and their interior walls are plastered. The Bluff Ruin great kiva is excavated into the bedrock; Bear Ruin is excavated into the native clay.

When great kivas are used again in the mid eleventh century, for the first time they fit Lekson's definition of the Anasazi great kiva as a circular, masonry structure with a diameter greater than ten meters. Masonry is present at

Tla Kii and AZ Q:13:1(ASU); the masonry berms around AZ P:16:160(ASM) and AZ P:16:112(ASM) are quite high at approximately 95 centimeters each, and suggest full-height masonry walls.

It should also be noted that at least one great kiva in the area at this time appears to be rectangular (AR-03-01-

07-529 [Dosh 1991:A18-A21]). 36

The Silver Creek community great kivas range between 10 and 2 0 meters in diameter in all periods. The distribution of great kiva diameters in the Silver Creek area is illustrated in Figure 2.1. The figure shows an even distribution of sizes by component. There are no anomolously large great kivas that would be depicted as outliers on the graph. After an early increase in size, medians range within a couple meters of each other.

DIMENSIONS OF SILVER CREEK GREAT KIVAS

25

20

5

s 1(_ b 15

•

10

BMII BMW L Pll E Pill L Pill

COMPONENT Figure 2.1: Side-by-side box plots of Silver Creek Great Kiva diameters (m). As will be seen in the following chapter, the Silver

Creek data are not unusual. The patterns seen among the early and late great kivas are patterns that are present across the Southwest. 38

CHAPTER 3: COMPARISONS AND CONCLUSIONS

While general surveys of great kivas have taken place

on foot, through the site files, and through the published

literature, they have all been limited temporally or

spatially. Some studies are limited by modern state lines

(e.g., Fowler et al. 1987), or culture areas (e.g., Anyon

1984; Anyon and Leblanc 1980). Others are less restrictive

but have not explored existing site file data very deeply

(e.g., Lekson 1991; Marshall et al., 1979), and still others

limit themselves temporally (e.g., Adler and Wilshusen 1990;

Kintigh 1991).

I have tried to be thorough about collecting data on

circular great kivas across the Southwest, unlimited by

temporal or spatial boundaries (see Appendix B). However, I too, have limited the study of great kivas as integrative architecture. For a more complete study of west-central New

Mexico, east-central Arizona, and the Gila River regions, rectangular great kivas should be included.

Rectangular great kivas were omitted for several reasons: 1) they are not formally comparable to the majority of those found in the Silver Creek community, 2) their definition seems less standardized and thus would allow more ambiguity into the data base, and 3) it is difficult to discern on survey whether they are great kivas or plazas. 39 Collecting Great Kivas

After establishing the criteria for a great kiva,

information on great kivas was collected. Several sources

have already compiled Chacoan sites with great houses and/

or great kivas, or have done large regional surveys (either on foot or in libraries and site files). However, none of these focused on the entire area of their distribution.

Previous compilations include: Powers et al. (1983),

Marshall et al. (1979), Danson (1957), Lee (1966), Fowler et al. (1987), Anyon (1984), Rohn (1989), and Kintigh (1991). When this stage was essentially complete, a list of LA

(Laboratory of Anthropology) numbers for great kivas sites was acquired. One problem with using the ARMS system at the

Laboratory of Anthropology, Museum of New Mexico, is that for the computer to recognize these sites the recorder or data entry person must have recorded this site as a "great kiva" site. Use of any other terminology would not have resulted in the site being identified for this study (e.g.,

Big Kiva, see Appendix B).

After obtaining site numbers, the original site forms and excerpts of contract projects included in the state site files were consulted for specific information on the great kiva itself and on the surrounding site. The few sites found here with rectangular great kivas weire not included in the compilation. 40

The information from the literature and the ARMS files varies widely in quality. Room count estimates vary from those who give only the count of the main building on the site, to those who estimate counts for an entire community.

In some cases, rooms numbers were not estimated, and only rubble dimensions were recorded. It is also impossible to tell if the lack of mention of a feature, for instance a berm, is due to its actual absence on the site, or lack of recording by the archaeologist. This is also important in the discussion of plazas. Moreover, some information on sites can only be known certainly through excavation — for instance, whether the structure was roofed. Many of the sites recorded here are known only through survey.

A Note on the Dates Assigned to Sites

All sites have been assigned to periods that are labelled by the labels. While the

Pecos Classification may be problematic as developmental and chronological periods (see Table 3.1), it is used here to assign great kivas to one hundred year periods.

Furthermore, it is a means of regularizing the diverse local chronologies in order to provide some pan-Southwestern comparability in site dates.

In the following discussion, sites are often broken down by component. Since many great kivas are on sites that have been assigned long time spans (because many of these 41

TABLE 3.1 Chronological Periods used in this Study

PERIODS ABB. DATES

Basketmaker II BM2 pre 500 Early Pithouse A EPA

Basket Maker III BM3 500- 720 Early Pithouse B EPB

Early Pueblo I EP1 720- 820

Late Pueblo I LP1 820- 920

Early Pueblo II EP2 920-1020

Late Pueblo II LP2 1020-1120

Early Pueblo III EP3 1120-1220

Late Pueblo III LP 3 1220-1320

Early Pueblo IV EP4 1320-1450

Late Pueblo IV LP4 1450-1540

Pueblo V P5 1540-1850

Notes Dates used from the Basketmaker XI through Late Pueblo III are from Goetze and Mills (1993b). Pueblo IV and V dates are from Ferguson and Rohn (1987). The Abb. column is provided as translation for the abbreviated headings in all following tables with period or component headings. are, again, sites recorded on survey), the site is recorded for every period in which it exists. Therefore, while 292 great kivas have been entered in the data base, 635 components appear in Table 3.4. There are also sites in the data base whose dates are unknown, although, since most of the discussion relies on those sites with some kind of temporal control, these do not play a large part in the analysis. 42 A Model of Great Kiva Chronology

The earliest great kivas in the Southwest are found in

the Mogollon regions, in areas with associated brown wares.

One of these, located within the Silver Creek community, is

the great kiva at Bluff Ruin. Others of these early sites

are found in the Mimbres Mogollon region of New Mexico.

Hughes (1954; cited in Anyon 1984:5) and Vivian and Reiter

(1960:97) argue that communal architecture originates in the

Mogollon area and "spreads" to the Anasazi areas where it

develops into great kivas.

These earliest kivas, from the Early Pithouse Period

(A.D. 200-600) look similar to the pitstructures they are

associated with. Like these pitstructures the great kivas

are circular and built of . No clear signs of specialization appear; the main difference between the domestic structures and the communal architecture is their size (Anyon 1984:9; Wills 1991:168).

The Late Pithouse Period, dating between A.D. 600 and

1000, is a period of regional differentiation (Anyon

1984:89). Transitions occur in both communal architecture and site structure in the southern part of the Mogollon region over the course of three phases: Georgetown, San

Francisco, and Three Circle. The northern part of the

Mogollon area lacks the finer temporal control of the south, and thus the sequence is less distinct (Anyon 1984:60). In 43 the south, domestic structures are rectangular in the San

Francisco phase. Communal architecture follows this pattern

in the Three Circle Phase. Masonry first appears in the

Three Circle Phase (Anyon 1984:57).

The communal architecture distinguishes itself from

domestic architecture in other ways as well. Floor grooves

appear sporadically in all time periods. These may be

related to roofing. "Lobing" (the presence of oval or

circular subterranean antechambers attached to the

pitstructure) is first used on communal structures in the

Georgetown Phase, and becomes stylized in the Three Circle

phase (Anyon and LeBlanc 1980). Use of lobing is also

inconsistent (Anyon 1984). Great kiva architecture in the

area continues after A.D 1000, although plazas also begin to

make an appearance at large sites. After this date great

kivas in this area are usually rectangular.

It is generally assumed that the Anasazi adopted the

great kiva from areas in western New Mexico and eastern

Arizona sometime around the seventh century A.D (R.

Lightfoot et al. 1988:671). The earliest great kivas of the

Anasazi area date to the Basketmaker III period. The best

known of these sites is Shabik'eshchee Village on Chacra

Mesa at Chaco Canyon. Like the Mimbres area great kivas, this structure is associated with a pithouse village (Wills

1991). Its features, (or lack thereof— e.g., lobing) do 44 not show its supposed Mogollon connections. Juniper Cove, Broken Flute Cave and 29SJ-42 3 (Dean, personal communication) also date to this period.

In comparison to the amount of consideration Pueblo II and Pueblo III great kivas have gotten through their Chacoan and post-Chacoan associations, the early phases of great kiva development in the Anasazi area have received little attention. However, Adler and Wilshusen (1990) concentrate on these earlier structures. They mention that these great kivas are immense and circular and usually at least one meter deep. Furthermore, they are associated with formative villages (in the ), but are located at site peripheries rather than centers. Construction is ; masonry appears later (Adams 1989:156). Also of interest is the fact that these features are bermed. Adler and Wilhusen note that the back dirt for pit houses is used elsewhere on the site and cannot be found by the archaeologist, whereas for the great kiva the back dirt is piled in a berm around it. There is no mention of this type of feature associated with early Mogollon great kivas.

In the Pueblo II period, the circular great kiva becomes more standardized (R. Lightfoot et al. 1988:318) and is associated with the Chacoan system. While the earlier

Pueblo I kivas were monumental in their own right, particularly relative to their own communities, the scale of public architecture changes dramatically in this period.

Great kivas are found in Chaco Canyon, at Chacoan outliers,

and occassionally are isolated.

Fowler et al. (1987) divide the Pueblo II period into

distinct phases. The first period, dating from A.D. 1050-

1150 is the Chacoan period. The second, is the Transitional

period (A.D. 1150 to 1250). Following this is the Pueblo

III period, which has its own distinctive great kivas. They

describe the Chacoan period as one of "intense architectural

formalization on a regional scale," and architecture in this

period as "a bold interpretation of the cosmological order

in a durable medium" (1987:78). These are the great kivas

we often think of as typical circular great kivas.

In the Chaco region the great kivas are just one part

of the monumental architecture at a site and are often

associated with great houses — another piece of public

architecture, probably built to impress (Fowler et al.

1987:204). Fowler et al. (1987:206) notice regional

variations in site structure at Chacoan sites. This

differentiation makes it easy to understand why the

definition of the "outlier" is problematic.

Some of the important alterations in public

architecture occur in the Transitional period. These transpire at the regional scale and are reflected in site

architecture. New centers, such at Atsee Nitsaa in the 46

Manuelito Canyon area replace the Chacoan centers (such as

Kin Hocho'i) as the regional system shrinks. What is

important in this period is that the features that played a

prominent part in the Chacoan period, such as the great

kiva, have now been imbued with the symbolism of the Chacoan

era (Fowler et al. 1987).

The scale of great kiva features also change. The

great kiva diameters are larger. The diameters may have

been too large to span, and there is evidence that at least

some of these structures were unroofed (although more

excavation is needed to ascertain this). Some of these

structures have been called dance plazas (for example

McGimsey's Site 143, and Allantown [Roberts 1939]) (Fowler

et al. 1987). Furthermore, it seems that masonry may not

stand to full height around these structures (Leblanc

1989:348), as they do around the Chacoan great kivas.

Leblanc (1989) takes a somewhat wider view of great

kivas as his area of interest is the Cibola region and is

not restricted to New Mexico state boundaries. This wider

region may account for the fact that while he acknowledges the findings of Fowler et al. (1987) in the Transitional

period he sees a concurrent second pattern. In this case the great kivas get smaller than they were in the Chacoan

period and they are roofed.

Great kivas in the Pueblo III period are again reduced 47 in size. Whereas earlier great kivas were likely to be built independent of the roomblock, these are more likely to be incorporated into the structure (e.g., Box S Site and

Kluckhohn Site) (Fowler et al. 1987: 96).

While the rate of change in local great kiva sequences seems to vary across the Southwest, at the end of the sequence great kivas in all areas are replaced by plazas, as

Haury (1985d:417) noted long ago. These plazas appear at very nucleated and enclosed pueblos with large populations.

One notable exception to this rule is the great kiva at

Grasshopper. Around A.D. 1350 part of the plaza was converted into a rectangular great kiva.

The incorporation of the late great kivas and plazas within the roomblock may indicate a changing focus of use in these increasingly larger pueblos. Instead of an inter­ community focus, it is possible that the more important arena for integration in these periods is within the site itself. Furthermore, with a larger number of people, it may be necessary to include more in the ceremony. Larger spaces allow more participation in the dispersal and receipt of ritual information.

In sum, we can discuss these great kivas across three dimensions: time, space, and form. Temporally, the earliest great kivas appear at approximately A.D. 300. They play a part in social integration in the Southwest from then 48 through the protohistoric period, although their frequency peaks in between the Early Pueblo II and the Early Pueblo

III periods.

Spatial variability in great kivas is linked to temporal variability. The earliest great kivas, pre-A.D.

500, appear in the mountains of west-central New Mexico and east-central Arizona. They are used between A.D. 500 and

A.D. 720 in nearly all areas of Southwest. Their appearance and disappearance from certain areas is generally associated with the known patterns of population movement and regional abandonment.

Finally, variation in form is, in the above discussion, somewhat limited by the criteria for admission into this data base. Even so, formal variability is present. This variablility appears to be linked to temporal and spatial considerations. The earliest great kivas exhibit many of the same features and exhibit a construction comparable to their pit structure counterparts that were used as dwellings. In the Pueblo II period masonry replaces jacal construction and there is a seeming homogenization and formalization of the great kiva. In the second half of the

Pueblo II period, form again changes and the trend towards unroofed public spaces begins. The unroofed great kiva appears in the Little Colorado and San Juan regions, which is followed in the Pueblo III period by plazas. In the 49

mountainous regions of Arizona and New Mexico, rectangular

great kivas make their first appearance between A.D. 750 and

800 (Anyon 1984: 84). By A.D. 1000 (Anyon and Leblanc 1980:

265) plazas are replacing great kivas as the main form of

integrative architecture in this area. Plazas replace great kivas on the Colorado Plateau in the Pueblo III period.

Exploring the Great Kiva Data

One of the stated goals of this paper is the exploration of spatial and temporal patterning of great kivas across the Southwest. I provide an assessment of what has been presented by others and described above as the great kiva chronology. Figure 3.1 provides a graphic depiction of the distribution of great kivas across the

Southwest. All sites that could be plotted either from published map locations, by known legal descriptions, or by

UTM descriptions were plotted on 1:500,000 topographic maps and then computer drafted. Appendix B presents a listing of raw data on great kiva sites by time and region, and a numeric key to the map.

Sites were assigned to one of seven geographically definable regions, which are presented from east to west and north to south: Rio Grande, Puerco of the East, Northern San

Juan, San Juan, Little Colorado, West-Central New Mexico, and the Gila River Drainage. The Rio Grande area is geographically distinct as the easternmost drainage in which 50

Utah Co Iorado so" Durongo

•«

. ias9ma 170" i 207« f}|I # ••<}Mi i/i iu. •llM -•'* >101 ••• 173 Santa Fe 12* III HI ® 117

Figure 3.1: Distribution of Circular Great Kiva Sites great kivas can be found. The Eastern Puerco region, as it will be designated on the tables, is the area around

Cebolleta Mesa near the modern pueblos of Acoma and Laguna.

The Northern San Juan includes all sites north of the San

Juan River. The San Juan region includes all sites in the southern part of the San Juan drainage, and includes those sites near Chinle Wash and the Mesas in Arizona. The northern boundary of the Little Colorado region begins between the modern Navajo and Zuni reservations and extends just south of the Zuni Reservation. All sites south of the

San Juan basin in the Silver Creek Drainage are part of the Little Colorado drainage (with the exception of the

Forestdale Valley which drains into the Salt River, but is considered part of the Silver Creek community). The West-

Central New Mexico Region is more ambiguously defined. It is the region south of the Zuni Reservation and north of the

San Francisco and Gila drainages. The Gila Region includes sites on the San Francisco and Gila Rivers and generally corresponds to the area of the Apache National Forest.

Following each table describing trends in the seven major regions is a comparable table (the "b" table) characterizing the Silver Creek data. Silver Creek drains into the Little Colorado and thus in the "a" tables is grouped as part of the Little Colorado Region. Tables 3.2a and b, and 3.3a and b, respectively, incorporate information TABLE 3.2a BEGINNING DATES OF GREAT KIVAS SITES: BY REGION

BM2 BM3 EP1 LP1 EP2 LP2 EP3 LP 3 EP4 LP4 TOT EPA EPB

Rio Grande - - - 1 - 1 - 1 2 - 5

Eastern Puerco - - - 3 5 5 - - - - 13

North San Juan - 2 9 3 7 6 15 1 - - 43

San Juan - 9 3 5 17 24 6 - - - 64

Little Colo. 1 7 7 2 25 25 21 9 - - 97

West-Cent. NM 4 1 2 1 12 3 7 - - - 30

Gila River 1 1 4 - 3 4 - - - - 13

TOTAL 6 20 25 15 69 68 49 11 2 - 265

TABLE 3.2b BEGINNING DATES OF GREAT KIVAS SITES: SILVER CREEK

BH2 BM3 EP1 LP1 EP2 LP2 EP3 LP3 EP4 LP4 TOT EPA EPB

Silver Creek 1 1 - - - 6 9 1 - - 18 on the building and abandonment of great kiva sites (the dates for the actual great kivas are generally unknown). In these tables, each great kiva is represented only once.

Tables 3.4a and b synthesize some of this information by region and temporal component (for those whose dates are known). Several general patterns become apparent. The first is that the earliest great kivas, those appearing before A.D. 500 exist only in the western mountains: west central New Mexico, the Upper Gila River drainage and the 53

TABLE 3.3a END DATES OF GREAT KIVAS SITES: BY REGION

BM2 BM3 EP1 LP1 EP2 LP2 EP3 LP 3 EP4 LP4 TOT EPA EPB

Rio Grande 1 - 1 3 5

Eastern Puerco - - - - 1 2 8 2 - - 13

North San Juan - - 1 8 1 5 10 18 - - 43

San Juan - 4 1 6 3 28 16 6 - - 64

Little Colo. 1 2 2 5 - 18 25 39 4 1 97

West-Cent. NM 1 2 - - 1 2 6 17 - 1 30

Gila River 1 - - 2 1 - 9 - - - 13

TOTAL 3 8 4 21 7 55 75 82 5 5 265

TABLE 3.3b END DATES OF GREAT KIVAS SITES: SILVER CREEK

BM2 BM3 EP1 LP1 EP2 LP2 EP3 LP 3 EP4 LP4 TOT EPA EPB

Silver Creek 1 1 - - - 4 4 8 - - 18

Forestdale Valley in the Silver Creek area. Great kivas are

increasingly present in the Basketmaker III and Early

Pueblol periods. Great kivas were constructed in the Eastern Puerco region in the Late Pueblo I period and do not appear in the Rio Grande until Late Pueblo II. The Rio

Grande is never an important area for great kiva activity.

The Late Pueblo II and Early Pueblo III periods mark the greatest extent of circular great kivas across the

Southwest. The Upper Gila River and west-central New Mexico 54

TABLE 3.4a GREAT KIVA FREQUENCY BY COMPONENT AND REGION

BM2 BM3 EP1 LP1 EP2 LP 2 EP3 LP 3 EP4 LP 4 TOT EPA EPB Rio Grande 1 1 1 3 3 9

Eastern Puerco - - - 3 8 12 10 2 - - 35

North San Juan - 2 11 13 12 17 27 18 - - 100

San Juan - 9 8 12 23 44 22 6 - - 124

Little Colo. 1 7 12 12 30 57 60 49 5 1 234

West-Cent. NM 4 4 4 5 17 19 24 18 1 1 97

Gila River 1 1 5 5 6 9 9 - - - 36

TOTAL 6 23 40 50 96 159 153 94 9 5 635

TABLE 3.4b GREAT KIVA FREQUENCY BY COMPONENT AND REGION

BM2 BM3 EP1 LP1 EP2 LP 2 EP3 LP 3 EP4 LP4 TOT EPA EPB

Silver Creek 1 1 - - - 6 11 8 - - regions drop off, in part at least, because their greatkivas are rectangular. Thus, it is impossible to evaluate patterns of community integration in these regions accurately after approximately A.D. 1000. Other areas, such as the Northern San Juan and the San Juan itself, no longer appear on the table because their populations moved elsewhere after A.D. 1300. In the Little Colorado and

Silver Creek area, areas whose populations are somewhat larger in the Late Pueblo III period, people are 55

aggregating, and the enclosed plaza is replacing the great kiva as communal architecture.

As noted above, Fowler et al. (1987: 215) divide the Pueblo II period into two phases — the earlier Chacoan Phase (A.D. 1050-1150) and the Transitional Phase (A.D.

1150-1250). They suggest that there are distinct differences in great kivas between these periods. The earlier great kivas should be smaller (average diameter =

18.5) and roofed, the later examples are possibly unroofed.

The freedom from any physical restraints on size allows these structures to become larger (average diameter = 27.2m)

(Kintigh 1991:6).

Tables 3.5 and 3.6 explore the patterning of great kivas, by component and size, across the Southwest. Table

3.5 shows the median, minimum, and maximum size of great kivas through time and space. The size measured, in meters, is diameter. Where available, interior diameters and diameters at floor level, rather than bench level, were used. See Appendix C for a graphic portrayal of this information. The median rather than the mean was chosen because it is more resistant to the influence of outlying values than the mean. The mean was also computed, and, in all but two areas, the mean closely approximates the median, often within only one meter difference. 56

TABLE 3.5a MEDIAN GREAT KIVA SIZE BY COMPONENT AND REGION

BM2 BM3 EP1 LP1 EP2 LP2 EP3 LP 3 EP4 LP4 EPA EPB

Rio Grande M 13 12 Min 16 16 14 12 11 Max 14 13 N 1 1 1 3 3

Eastern Puerco M — — — 19 17 17 17 — — — Min - - - 16 12 10 10 12 - - Max - - - 24 24 28 28 17 - - N — — — 3 8 11 9 2 — —

North San Juan M — - 14 14 15 15 16 18 — - Min - 11 11 11 11 11 13 13 - - Max - 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 - - N - 2 6 9 11 14 24 16 — —

San Juan M — IS 17 16 17 17 15 15 - - Min - 10 12 12 11 11 11 11 - - Max - 19 19 19 24 24 23 17 - - N - 7 7 10 21 38 20 6 — —

Little Colorado M — 18 16 15 12 16 16 18 21 - Min 13 11 12 10 10 10 10 10 11 11 Max - 24 20 20 20 27 34 35 28 - N 1 3 5 5 15 31 30 27 4 1

West-Central NM M 12 13 — 13 13 17 15 13 - - Min 10 10 13 10 10 10 10 13 - - Max 13 13 20 20 20 20 28 20 - - N 4 3 2 3 4 6 11 3 — —

Gila River M _ - 13 13 14 14 14 - - - Min 10 11 11 11 10 10 10 - - - Max - - 37 37 37 37 37 - - - N 1 1 5 5 6 9 9 — — — 57

TABLE 3.5b MEDIAN GREAT KIVA SIZE BY COMPONENT AND REGION

BM2 BM3 EP1 LP1 EP2 LP2 EP3 LP 3 EP4 LP4 EPA EPB

Silver Creek M - - - - - 14 15 15 - — Min 13 15 - - - 10 10 13 - - Max - - - - - 20 20 17 - - N 1 1 — — — 6 8 4 - —

TABLE 3.6a COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION IN GREAT KIVA DIAMETERS BY COMPONENT AND REGION

BM3 EP1 LP1 EP2 LP2 EP3 LP3 EPB

Eastern Puerco - - - .25 .32 .34 - n H i Northern San• Juan - .11 .29 .19 .18 .19

San Juan .23 .16 .15 .18 .20 .22 .16 • Little Colorado - .19 .28 .31 .30 .35 to

West-Central NM - - - - .28 .32 -

Gila River - - - .29 .21 .21 -

TABLE 3.6b COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION IN GREAT KIVA DIAMETERS BY COMPONENT AND REGION

BM3 EP1 LP1 EP2 LP2 EP3 LP3 EPB

Silver Creek - - - - .28 .22 -

Note: Only regions and periods with greater than five great kivas are included in this table. Both the Upper Gila River and North San Juan regions have an outlier that has been deleted. In the Gila it is one of the great kivas at Woodrow (diameter = 37.4); in the North San Juan it is singing Shelter (diameter = 33). The inclusion of this outlier increases the coefficient of variation by 30 to 40 percent. 58

The means and medians are not equivalent in the Northern San Juan and the Gila River areas. This is due tothe fact that the diameters that appear as a maximum in the Gila River area (great kiva 1 at Woodrow) and the

Northern San Juan (Singing Shelter) are statistical outliers. These great kivas are, furthermore, at sites with a wide date range, thus influencing the statistics across many periods. This disparity affects the computation of the standard deviation and thus the coefficient of variation.

Therefore, these sites are omitted from the computation of the coefficient of variation on Table 3.6. As they do not strongly affect the computation of the median, they are included in Table 3.5. The pattern seen by Fowler et al. (1987) is not apparent from Table 3.5. Two areas with high diameter maxima have just been noted as anomalies. However, there are larger great kiva diameters in the Little Colorado area.

The sites with maximum kiva diameters are less anomalous in this region (and the sample size is large enough in many instances to reduce the effects of this problem). While the diameters of 34 and 35 meters are slightly larger than the others in the region, they are only 6 meter larger than the next largest kiva as opposed to the 18 and 13 meters larger in the Mimbres and Northern San Juan, respectively. The New

Mexico portion of the Upper Little Colorado is the area in which Fowler et al.'s study was conducted. While the extreme differences exhibited in their study (Fowler et al.

1987:215) have not been replicated, there do appear to be more large great kivas in this area between the Late Pueblo

II period and the Late Pueblo III period.

Leblanc (1989) qualifies his use of Fowler et al.'s

Transitional Phase. While he agrees that some great kivas may expand greatly, others decrease in size. While this is difficult to evaluate it does not appear in the figures, as medians change little through time (LeBlanc's area was the

Upper Little Colorado region as well). Because there is an arbitrary lower limit to the size of great kivas, counts should decrease if sizes drop below ten meters in diameter.

Table 3.6 is another exploration intended to evaluate the patterning of great kivas size through space and time.

This table provides the coefficient of variation of great kiva diameters through space in periods with five or more great kivas. Again, the Mimbres and Northern San Juan data are troublesome due to their relatively large standard deviations.

It is interesting to note that great kiva diameters in the San Juan and Northern San Juan regions register only an approximate 20 percent variation even with relatively large sample sizes while elsewhere the size ranges are more disparate. This may be another measure of the homogeneity 60 of the Chacoan system remarked upon by Lekson (1991:53).

Outside the San Juan and Northern San Juan regions, variation increases to approximately 30 percent. For example, many authors discuss the idea that the Chacoan characteristics at the end of the Chacoan and during post

Chacoan periods are imitations or dilutions (e.g., emulation in Kintigh's 1994 peer polity model; Leblanc 1987:349) of the Chacoan system at its climax. This is the time when many of the people outside the San Juan basin built their own great kivas. The increase in variation in the system may indicate that the controls — social or political — responsible for the homogeneity and formalization either were never present in the same way, or were diminished.

One final point that Fowler et al. make about the late great kivas is that these are usually unroofed (See Table 3.7). When this information was available in the literature or in the site files, it was recorded. However, it accounts for less than fifteen percent of the total sample of all great kivas—roofed and unroofed, and is not highly reliable. The table only lists sites for which a definite statement as to roofing status has been made. Those whose position is questionable, such as Bancos Village, have not been included. More excavation is needed to evaluate this potential characteristic of later great kivas, but the table does confirm that some unroofed great kivas, while not TABLE 3.7 ROOFING DATA BY COMPONENT: ALL REGIONS

Roofed Unroofed

BM2/EPA 2 -

BM3/EPB 6 -

E PI 3 -

L PI 4 -

E PII 2 -

L PII 11 1

E PHI 12 5

L PIII 8 5

E PIV - 1

L PIV 1 -

TOTAL 49 12

TABLE 3.8 UNROOFED GREAT KIVA SITE

Site Name Site No. Prov. Period

Tocito LA 7603 San Juan Unknown NA 8014 Little Colo Unknown McCreery Pueblo AZK13041 Little Colo LPII-EPIII Hinkson Site LA 11439 Little Colo EPIII LPIII Los Gigantes LA 56159 Little Colo EPIII-LPIII NA 8013 Little Colo EPIII-LPIII Garcia Ranch AZQ08005 Little Colo EPIII-EPIV Scribe S Site LA 8846 Little Colo LPIII 62

TABLE 3.8 con't ROOFED GREAT KIVA SITES

Site Name Site No. Prov. Period

Hubble Corner LA 8112 W Central NM EPIII-LPIII Pojaque Grant LA835 Rio Grande LPII-EPIII Tenabo LA200 Rio Grande LPIV Blue Mesa Col:B:13 N San Juan Unknown Bancos Village/1 LA 4380 N San Juan EPI-LPI Bancos Village/2 LA 4380 N San Juan EPI-LPI Sambrito LA 4195 N San Juan EPI-LPI Morris Site N San Juan LP1-LPIII Salmon Ruin LA8846 N San Juan EPII-LPIII Lowry LA627 N San Juan EPIII Goodman Point N San Juan EPIII-LPIII Sand Canyon N San Juan LPIII 29J-423 San Juan BMIII Shabik'eschee LA530 San Juan BMIII LA226 San Juan EPII-LPIII Casa Rinconada LA 841 San Juan LPII San Juan LPII Chetro Ketl San Juan LPII Chetro Ketl San Juan LPII Pueblo Bonito LA226 San Juan LPII Kin Nahabas LA152 San Juan LPII-EPIII Juniper Cove Little Colo BMIII Vill of Gt. Kiva LA631 Little Colo LPII-EPIII NA 8013 Little Colo EPIII-LPIII Fort Wingate LA 2690 Little Colo EPIII-LPIII Box S LA 5538 Little Colo LPIII SU Site 1 W Central NM BMII-BMIII SU Site 2 W Central NM BMII-BMIII Bear Ruin AZP16001 Silver Creek BMIII Hough's Lost Site AZP16112 Silver Creek LPII-EPIII Carter Ranch Silver Creek EPIII' replacing the roofed great kiva, are used in this period.

Evaluation of the Model

This analysis generally confirms much of what is already known about great kiva variation in time and space.

The earliest great kivas do appear in the west-central New

Mexico and east-central Arizona and later occur on the 63 Colorado Plateau.

The intriguing hypotheses on changes in great kiva

architecture between the Chacoan and Transitional periods as

stated by Fowler et al. have not been confirmed. The

average or median size of great kivas does not appear to

change in the post-Chacoan period, although the amount of

variation in size does. Larger great kivas are more

prevalent in later periods outside the San Juan basin.

Unroofed great kivas do not appear to be common in the

Transitional (A.D. 1150-1250) period, but they do seem to

introduce another option into the increasing variation found

in great kivas. Two other factors confirm the trend of

increased variation in communal architecture outside the San

Juan region during and after the Pueblo III period: a new

form of great kiva, the rectangular great kiva and

increasing use of plazas.

It is important to note that in the description of the history of great kivas, particularily during and after the

Chacaon period, many authors present changes in communal architecture as "replacements" (e.g., Adams 1991:153; Fowler et al. 1987:86; Leblanc 1989:351). The model seems to be unilineal, even while there is the recognition of variations within the model (e.g., Kintigh 1994:138 mentions Jalarosa as a great kiva of the "usual kind" while discussing Mariana

Mesa, Los Gigantes, and Manuelito Canyon as examples of 64

TABLE 3.9a PLAZA FREQUENCY BY COMPONENT AND REGION

BM2 BM3 EP1 LP1 EP2 LP2 EP3 LP3 EP4 LP4 TOT EPA EPB

Rio Grande - 1 1 2 1 5

Eastern Puerco - - - - 2 5 4 - - - 11

North San Juan 4 3 - - 7

San Juan - - - 3 12 18 12 2 - - 47

Little Colo. - - - - 2 14 11 9 4 1 41

West-Cent. NM - - 2 2 4 5 6 2 - - 21

Gila River - - 2 2 3 3 3 1 1 1 16

TOTAL 0 0 4 7 23 45 41 18 7 3 148

TABLE 3.9b PLAZA FREQUENCY BY COMPONENT AND REGION

BM2 BM3 EP1 LP1 EP2 LP2 EP3 LP3 EP4 LP4 TOT EPA EPB

Silver Creek 1 1 - - - 2 post-Chacoan great kivas replacing the Chacoan variations).

Instead, it appears that new varieties of communal architecture appeared, but they did not directly replace previous forms. There is, at least, a period of cooccurence.

This increased variability in communal architecture is likely due to its changing place in society. Population movement and population increases occurred in those areas depicting this increased variability in communal 65 architecture. Widespread interactions among people may

increase the information that must be conveyed through the

rituals associated with great kivas. Furthermore, there is

likely to be a larger group needing integration. Restricted

space may not function as advantageously with larger

populations. The authors who discuss the possible functions

of unroofed great kivas (Kintigh 1994:137) and plazas (Adams

1989:157) suggest that these open spaces allow more people

to be involved in the dissemination and receipt of ritual

information. Furthermore, the possible secular use of these

open spaces may allow more daily integrative activities to

occur here.

The Silver Creek Community in the Larger Picture

A description of the Silver Creek data is provided in

Chapter 2. Chapter 3, until now, is devoted to the

discussion of change in great kiva form, and temporal and

spatial distributions at the pan-Southwestern scale. The

Silver Creek community, as an area on the westefn frontier, is now discussed in relation to the patterns seen in great kivas across the Southwest.

Some of the earliest great kivas in the Southwest are

in the Silver Creek community. Pitstructure 5 at the Bluff

Site dates to approximately A.D. 300. This corresponds well to the pattern of the earliest great kivas occurring in the

Gila Drainage and the west-central Mountains of New Mexico. 66

Wills (1991) suggests that early settlements in these areas may be related to the exploitation of the wide variety of wild resources available versus more limited varieties of the Colorado Plateau. Settlements with storage facilities and agriculture would help buffer the lean months in the spring. Communal architecture appears in these very earliest villages.

Sites are sparse in the silver Creek community in the years between the abandonment of Bear Ruin and the population expansion around A.D. 1000. When populations do move into the area it seems to be part of an expansion that occurred across the Southwest. Sites at this time tend to be small and dispersed.

Longacre (1970:12) sees a trend of increasing population in the Upper Little Colorado area beginning in approximately A.D. 700. The trend peaks between A.D. 1100 and 1300. The period between approximately A.D. 1000 and

1200, the Carrizo and Linden phases, is one of the most widespread occupations of the Silver Creek area. (Ciolek-

Torrello 1981:25; Greenwald et al. 1990:34; Haury

1985c:388).

The idea of a movement of peoples into the area at this time may be supported by the near doubling of sites occupied in the Carrizo phase as compared with the earlier Dry Valley phase (see Table 3.10). Further support may be seen in 67

TABLE 3.10 SITE SIZE BY TEMPORAL COMPONENT

1 2-5 6-11 12-20 20-50 50+ Unk. Total

N 18 36 13 4 1 0 2 74 Dry Valley % 24.3 48.6 17.6 5.4 1.4 0.0 2.7 100.0

N 42 69 21 8 1 0 7 148 Carrizo % 28.4 46.6 14.2 5.4 0.7 0.0 4.7 100.0

N 17 21 8 6 1 3 2 58 Linden % 29.3 36.2 13.8 10.3 1.7 5.2 3.4 99.9

N 0 2 2 2 1 2 2 11 Pinedale % 0.0 18.2 18.2 18.2 9.1 18.2 18.2 100.1

Total Components 291

This table represents 167 sites of which 78 are single component sites and 89 are multi-component sites. For further breakdown of sites by- component and site type see Van Dyke et al. 1993: 14-16. Site size is represented by the size of the largest structure on the site. The numbers from this table are taken from the site forms from the Bagnal, Blevins, Burton, Colbath I, Colbath II, Dodson, Fence, Heber Habitat, Lon, Outlaw, and Stott timber sales. The information from these forms has been taken with little evaluation of the dates or structure of these sites. This table is meant only to show general trends. More rigourous examination of these sites is necessary for any specific discussion of settlement trends in the Sitgreaves Forest. the diversity of wares at AZ P:16:112 (ASM) shown on Table

3.11. The expansion of great kiva sites in the Silver Creek area and the Upper Little Colorado accompanies this population increase (Kintigh 1991:10).

The Carrizo phase, as described by Haury, is a period of movement of people (1985c:388). Lightfoot (1984:60) explains this movement into the area as the result of a changing climate. Around A.D. 1000 to 1100, floodwater 68

TABLE 3.11 WARE DISTRIBUTION BY COLLECTION AREA

P: 16 P:16 POTTERY HILL 160/ 112 AREA AREA MID­ RM 1 RM 1 RM 3 RM 3 WARE 1 1 DEN FLR. FILL FLR. FILL

Cibola White Ware 17.5 25.5 21.0 28.0 24.3 31.4 25.5

Tusayan White Ware 0.3 1.9 . - - 0.1 0.5 0.0

Little Colorado White 0.3 0.7 0.3 0.4 0.1 1.2 -

Show Low Red Ware 1.6 4.4 5.2 5.5 3.9 12.9 6.5

Salado Red Ware - - 0.5 0.7 0.6 0.2 .9

White Mountain Red - 0.1 0.6 0.6 1.1 4.7 2.6

Cibola Gray Ware 2.4 1.1 0.6 4.0 0.3 0.2 0.4

Tusayan Gray Ware - 0.0 0.2 - - - -

Little Colorado Gray - 0.2 - - - - -

San Francisco Mtn. Gray - 0.0 - - - - -

Prescott Gray Ware - 0.0 - - - - -

Hogollon Brown Ware 78.3 66.0 71.3 60.8 69.5 48.8 64.0

Total 378 3497 2503 847 2728 404 2137

Richness (No. of Wares) 6 11 8 7 8 8 8

Note: the presence of in a cell indicates that this ware is not present at the site; the presence of "0.0" in a cell indicates that this ware is present (usually as a single sherd) but represents less than .01 percent of the assemblage. Total ceramics excludes unknowns. farming and dry farming become difficult due to drought(Adams 1989:155), thus people settle along permanent waterways, such as the Silver Creek drainage. 69

Van West analyzes stream flow data to make environmental predictions on the Middle Little Colorado

River. She finds spatial variability in available moisture between A.D. 1050 and 1150 (1993:4). Her predictive model suggests that in these situations (high temporal variability making crops unpredictable annually) populations tend to mitigate risk through diversifying their subsistence base and increasing interaction and exchange (Van West 1993:3).

The use of great kivas in the Silver Creek area at approximately the same time conforms to Van West's model.

The population expansion between A.D. 1000 and 1100 is accompanied by major cultural change (Longacre 1966:96). In the Upper Little Colorado area, great kivas first appear between A.D. 1000 and 1100, only to disappear 100 years later (Longacre 1970:17). The Silver Creek data suggest that in this area circular great kivas may last into the first quarter of the thirteenth century, but no later.

The form of great kivas in the Silver Creek community changes similar to the patterns established in the greater

Southwest. The two earliest great kivas in the area, in the

Forestdale Valley, do not include the masonry construction found in great kivas after the Pueblo I period. When information is available for the post-hiatus Silver Creek great kivas, these seem to be built of masonry. The post-A.D. 1000 great kivas of the Silver Creek community do not exhibit the same variability as their Upper

Little Colorado counterparts. The Silver Creek community great kiva sites generally date to Fowler et al.'s Chacoan

Era (A.D. 1050-1150), and meet the authors', and Leblanc's

(1989: 348) criteria for great kivas in this period. Great kiva sizes in the Silver Creek area are well within the average range of great kivas in this period. They do not exhibit any of the size expansion of the Little Colorado great kivas. The amount of rubble in berming outside the kivas rerecorded by the University of Arizona Field School suggest that full height masonry is also present. The size range of great kiva sites in the Silver Creek community is tighter. Great kiva diameters in the Upper Little Colorado region between the Late Pueblo II and Late Pueblo III periods exhibit a range of 17 to 25 meters; in the Silver

Creek community Great Kiva diameters vary within 9 to 10 meters of each other. The coefficients of variation in the

Silver Creek area in these periods (LP II = .24; EP 111=

.21; LP III = .21) are lower than those of the Upper Little

Colorado (LP II = .28; EP III = .33; LP III = .40) and certainly do not exhibit the Upper Little Colorado's increasing overall variability through this period.

However, coefficients of variation are higher than those found in the very homogenous San Juan region (LP II=.20; EP 71

TABLE 3.12 DIMENSIONS OF VARIABILITY: THE SILVER CREEK AND LITTLE COLORADO REGIONS

Unroofed G.K. Roofed G.K Plazas Total

Little Colo. N 5 7.0 32 107

% 4.7 65.4 29. 9 100

Silver Creek N 0 18 2 20

% 0 90 10 100

III=.22; L PIII=.17). Plazas at great kiva sites and unroofed great kivas are also less common in the Silver

Creek community (see Table 3.12).

Certainly the movement of populations into new areas, such as is seen in the Silver Creek community in the Carrizo

Phase, can bring instability and a need for social and ritual devices to integrate indigenous and local populations. However, as has been noted earlier in this chapter the great kivas around Chaco Canyon become associated with an ideology in the Pueblo II periods. The great kivas in the Pueblo II period may be integrating the small communities of Silver Creek. They may also be incorporating these areas into a regional system. Both

Carter Ranch and Tla Kii have evidence of Chacoan style masonry. Kintigh (1994) suggests some of the patterning seen in aggregated sites, including those with Chacoan and

Transitional period great kivas, may be due to emulation, 72 rather than political subordination, within a peer polity model.

The same population movement into the Little Colorado region that results in the appearance of the great kivas in the Silver Creek area is also likely a good reason for explaining the variation in great kivas in the Upper Little

Colorado region, while populations are undeniably increased in the Silver Creek community, the density of people in this area may not be as great.

Great kivas are gradually replaced by plazas beginning ca. A.D. 1275. This suggests that the problems resolved by the great kiva as integrative architecture changed with the trend towards greater populations at aggregated and plaza oriented sites.

Communal architecture marks the need to integrate society. Integration occurs at a number of levels. In the prehistoric Southwest, great kivas functioned as high-level integrative architecture to unify a group greater than those at a single site. The morphologic similarity of the great kiva across the Southwest suggests a level of integration on a very large scale.

While the form of the great kiva changes little in its

1300 year existance, the integrative needs seem to change.

The great kiva first appeared with semisedentary village.

The change in meaning during the Chacoan period is associated with a formalization and a large geographic

expansion of these structures. Village life changes again

with population reorganization (Kintigh 1994:132) in the

Upper Little Colorado area, particularly in the peak

population years between A.D. 1000 and 1200. Great kivas

reach their widest geographic spread in these years.

However, as populations continue to grow, and settlement

patterns change from dispersed to aggregated, the

integrative needs of the community change. It is generally

accepted that the appearance of unroofed great kivas and

plazas indicate that the restricted access to information

conveyed in the rituals of roofed great kivas is no longer an acceptable solution to the integrative needs of the village.

The Silver Creek community, as an area on the western frontier of great kiva distribution and the westernmost area of the Upper Little Colorado region, follows the patterns found in the Little Colorado region as well as those of the greater Southwest. However, as a frontier area its populations may be slightly lower than those in the greater Upper Little Colorado area, and as such its integrative architecture does not exhibit, to as great an extent, the wide range of variation in communal architecture that is found in the rest of the Upper Little Colorado area. 74

Summary

The goal of this thesis was to explore the relationship between the circular great kiva sites in the Silver Creek

area and counterparts in the Upper Little Colorado region

and across the Southwest. Great kivas, as communal

architecture, are important in community integration and their distribution helps to understand variation and change in community integration at different spatial scales.

After an introduction to the general concepts in

Chapter 1, Chapter 2 presents data from Silver Creek community great kivas. Chapter 3 provides a model of great kiva development as discussed by previous authors. Parts of this model are tested using a data base of circular great kiva sites from across the Southwest. In particular, Fowler et al.'s (1987) characterization of the Pueblo II period, based on work in the Upper Little Colorado Region, was addressed. While they describe an increasing mean diameter

in the Late Pueblo II period, the data support, instead, a

model in which the size range of circular great kivas in this region increases, while the median remains the same.

The appearance of unroofed great kivas, rectangular great kivas, and an increase in plazas in the Upper Little

Colorado region from the late Pueblo II period through abandonment supports a picture of increased variability.

This variability may result from increased population movement, and a reorganization of social structure in

increasingly aggregated pueblos.

The patterns seen in the temporal and spatial

distribution of the Silver Creek great kivas correspond to

the patternings of these variables within the Upper Little

Colorado region, of which it is a part. The majority of

Silver Creek great kivas appear in a period of westward

population movement after A.D. 1000, although two earlier

sites, in the Forestdale Valley, date to A.D. 300 and A.D.

700. Integrative architecture is important as communities

establish themselves. The high density of great kivas in

the Silver Creek community supports this.

The Silver Creek great kivas do not show the same range

of formal variation as their eastern neighbors. Reduced

sample size may be a factor. Alternately, because many of

the changes seen in the Upper Little Colorado area are

described as resolving problems of increasing population and

aggregation, lower population densities in the Silver Creek

area may also explain the reduced formal variability of the

Silver Creek community great kivas.

Directions for Future Research

The research begun here has been very exploratory. It corroborates hypotheses of some previous researchers and revised others, particularly those of Fowler et al. (1987)

Some directions for future research are suggested below. 76

1) Great kiva sites, and other sites with public

architecture should be integrated into discussions of the

entire settlement pattern in order to discuss how population

movement and reorganization occurred at all sites across a

given region. This would be particularly beneficial for the

characterization of Fowler et al.'s Transitional Period.

2) The inferences about great kivas could be greatly

improved by excavation of features, particularly outside the

San Juan Basin. Excavation would aid discussion as to

whether these structures were roofed. Furthermore, studies

of feature variability within great kivas could be

conducted.

3) Discussions of circular and rectangular great kivas

should be integrated for those regions in which both occur.

4) It would also be worthwhile to test hypotheses on specific integrative functions of these sites. For example, research by Wills on two Basketmaker III/ Early Pithouse villages suggests that great kivas may be found at sites with the higher degree of sedentism that agriculture often requires. Future research might further explore this relationship. Wills' (1991:177) statement that "real reliance on agriculture in the Southwest did not occur until perhaps A.D. 1000" should be tested and the implications for changes in great kivas across the Southwest at this time explored. 77 APPENDIX A: SITE DESCRIPTIONS

POTTERY HILL AZ P:12:12(ASM). Other Site Names: (USFS Number: AR-03-01-07-453) Phase: Linden/Pinedale

Pottery Hill is the type site of the Linden phase.

Little was known of the site when it was chosen for study.

The occupation of the site, based on ceramic dates, ranges

from the latter half of the Linden Phase (approx. A.D. 1150) through the end of Pinedale Phase, at approximately A.D.

1280 (Table 2.2).

The Linden phase is described by Haury as transitional

between the better defined Carrizo and Pinedale phases.

Pottery Hill does seem to show some of these transitional characteristics. It is a 20-30 room pueblo (Mills et al.

1993:11)— slightly larger than the Carrizo phase roomblocks that accompany the great kiva sites, but smaller than the aggregated plaza pueblos at Tundastusa (Haury 1985c:391) and

Pinedale (Haury and Hargrave 1931:44). While great kivas

are common in the Carrizo phase, by the Pinedale Phase

plazas are more common. Pottery Hill does not have a great kiva, but a plaza is likely.

In addition to the main roomblock, some two smaller structures are also present. Both structures lie

approximately 25 meters northwest of the main roomblock, and

both are two rooms. 78 The ceramics from this site were analyzed as part of five separate contexts (see Tables Al-5): midden, Room l fill, Room 1 floor, Room 3 fill, and Room 3 floor. This was done in order to evaluate any potential chronological differences between these areas. Ceramics from the surface of this site (FS 100) are not included as they were not systematically collected.

Overall, the site seems to date between A.D. 1125 and

A.0. 1280. No hiatuses have been detected, but with further work this date range can, hopefully, be refined. The 1280 date, though, seems well supported by the presence of small amounts of Pinedale Black-on-white, Pinedale Black-on-red, Pinedale Polychrome and Salado polychromes.

The floor of Room 3 has the latest date by date ranges, and by ceramic mean date. With the exception of one Red

Mesa Black-on-white sherd, all of the black-on-white ceramics derive from the latter part of the Cibola White Ware sequence: Reserve Black-on-white, Snowflake Black-on- white, Tularosa Black-on-white, and Pinedale Black-on-white.

A two by two meter test pit was excavated in the midden north of the main room block (Mills et al. 1993:24). While no burials were encountered by the excavations there was a relatively large presence of McDonald Corrugated, which seems to commonly appear in burial contexts. This type comprised two percent of the midden assemblage, whereas elsewhere on the site it comprises less than one-half a percent of the assemblage. The excavator, Doug Gann, suggests that this test pit was situated in the backfill from pothunting activity (Mills et al. 1993:25). Greenwald

(1990:68) believes this is this main cemetery of the site. Table A1 CERAMICS FROM POTTERY HILL: MIDDEN Freq. Percent

Cibola White Ware 526 20.9 Undif. Cibola White Ware 238 9.5 Red Mesa B/w 4 .2 Puerco B/w 6 .2 Escavada B/w 3 .1 Undif. Cibola White Ware, PII-III 219 8.7 Snowflake B/w 14 .6 Reserve B/w 17 .7 Tularosa B/w 7 .3 Pinedale B/w 4 .2 Undif. Tularosa/Pinedale B/w 14 .6

Little Colorado White Ware 7 .3 Undif. Little Colorado White Ware 4 .2 Holbrook 'B« B/w 1 .0 Undif. Walnut B/w 2 .1

Show Low Red Ware 131 5.3 Undif. Show Low Red Ware 40 1.6 Show Low B/R, Bold Style 35 1.4 Show Low B/R, Corrugated 5 .2 Show Low B/R, Hatched Style 9 .4 Show Low Corrugated 42 1.7

Salado Polychrome 13 .5 Salado Corrugated, Smudged 10 .4 Undif. Pinto/ Gila Polychrome 2 .1 Gila Polychrome, Salmon Variety 1 .0

White Mountain Red Ware 15 .6 Undif. White Mountain Red Ware 10 .4 Undif. White Mountain Red Ware B/r 4 .2 St. Johns Polychrome 1 .0 81

CERAMICS FROM POTTERY HILL: MIDDEN cont.

Freq. Percent Cibola Gray Ware 14 .5 Undif. Cibola Gray Ware 3 .1 Indented Corrugated Gray Ware 10 .4 Clapboard Corrugated Gray Ware 1 .0

Tusayan Gray ware 6 .2 Undif. Tusayan Gray Ware 6 .2

Mogollon Brown Ware 1785 71.1 Undif. Mogollon Brown Ware, Smudged 14 .6 Undif. Mogollon Brown Ware 128 5.1 Alma Plain 1 .0 Forestdale Smudged 4 .2 McDonald Corrugated 51 2.0 Mogollon R/Br 1 .0 Plain Brown Ware 142 5.7 Plain Brown Ware, Smudged 54 2.2 Incised Corrugated Brown Ware 3 .1 Incised Corrugated Brown Ware, Smudged 8 .3 Indented Corrugated Brown Ware 835 33. 3 Indented Corrugated Brown Ware, Smudged 219 8.7 Clapboard Corrugated Brown Ware 29 1.2 Clapboard Corrugated Brown Ware, Smudged 26 1.0 Obliterated Corrugated Brown Ware 209 8.3 Obliterated Corrugated Brown Ware, Smudged 58 2.3 Patterned Corrugated Brown Ware 3 .1

Miscellaneous 14 .5 Red Ware, Unknown Series 1 .0 Unknown Ware, smudged 1 .0 White Ware, Unknown Series 1 .0 Unknown 11 .4 82

Table A2 CERAMICS FROM POTTERY HILL: ROOM 1: FILL

Freq. Percent Cibola White Ware 664 24.3 Undif. Cibola White Ware 282 10. 3 Red Mesa B/w 10 .4 Puerco B/w 6 .2 Escavada B/w 6 .2 Undif. Cibola White Ware, PII-III 233 8.5 Snowflake B/w 21 .8 Reserve B/w 45 1.6 Tularosa B/w 16 .6 Pinedale B/w 12 .4 Undif. Cibola White Ware, Smudged 1 .0 Undif. Reserve/Tularosa 1 .0 Undif. Tularosa/Pinedale 31 1.1

Tusayan White Ware 3 .1 Undif. Tusayan White Ware 3 .1

Little Colorado White Ware 4 .2 Undif. Little Colorado White Ware 2 .1 Padre B/w 2 .1

Show Low Red Ware 106 3.9 Undif. Show Low Red Ware 51 1.9 Show Low Corrugated 7 .3 Undif. Show Low B/r 4 .1 Show Low B/r, Bold Style 31 1.1 Show Low B/r, Hatched Style 11 .4 Show Low B/r, Corrugated 2 .1

Salado Polychrome 17 .7 Undif. Salado, Salmon Variety 2' .1 Pinto Polychrome, Salmon Variety 11 .4 Undif. Pinto/ Gila Polychrome 2 .1 Tonto Polychrome 2 .1

White Mountain Red Ware 29 1.0 Undif. White Mountain Red Ware 8 .3 Pinedale B/r 3 .1 Undif. White Mountain Red Ware, B/r 9 .3 St. Johns Polychrome 7 .3 Undif. Wingate/ St. Johns Polychrome 1 .0 Undif. White Mountain Red Ware, Polychrome 1 .0 83

CERAMICS FROM POTTERY HILL: ROOM 1: FILL cont.

Freq. Percent

Cibola Gray Ware 8 .3 Plain Gray Ware 1 .0 Indented Corrugated Gray Ware 7 .3 Mogollon Brown Wars 1897 69.2 Undif. Mogollon Brown Ware 99 3.6 Undif. Mogollon Brown Ware, Smudged 14 .5 Forestdale Smudged 2 .1 McDonald Corrugated 6 .2 Plain Brown Ware 58 2.1 Plain Brown Ware, Smudged 15 .5 Plain Brown Ware, Polished 7 .3 Incised Corrugated Brown Ware 5 .2 Indented Corrugated Brown Ware 1099 40.1 Indented Corrugated Brown Ware, Smudged 178 6.5 Clapboard Corrugated Brown Ware 89 3.3 Clapboard Corrugated Brown Ware, Smudged 27 1.0 Obliterated Corrugated Brown Ware 243 8.9 Obliterated Corrugated Brown Ware, Smudged 40 1.5 Patterned Corrugated Brown Ware 15 .5

Miscellaneous 10 .4 White Ware, Unknown Series 2 .1 Red Ware, Unknown Series 5 .2 Unknown 3 .1 84

Table A3 CERAMICS FROM POTTERY HILL:ROOM 1: FLOOR

Freq. Percent

Cibola White Ware 237 27.8 Undif. Cibola White Ware 131 15.4 Puerco B/w 1 .1 Escavada B/w 2 .2 Undif. Cibola White Ware, PII-III 74 8. 7 Gallup B/w 1 .1 Snowflake B/w 6 .7 Reserve B/w 14 1.6 Tularosa B/w 2 .2 Pinedale B/w 1 .1 Undif. Reserve/Tularosa B/w 2 .2 Undif. Tularosa/Pinedale B/w 3 .4

Little Colorado White Ware 3 .3 Undif. Little Colorado White Ware 2 .2 Walnut 'A' B/w 1 .1 Show Low Red Ware 47 5.5 Undif. Show Low Red Ware 22 2.6 Show Low B/r, Bold Style 17 2.0 Show Low B/r, Hatched Style 7 .8 Show Low B/r, Corrugated 1 .1

Salado Polychrome 6 .7 Undif. Pinto/Gila Polychrome, Salmon Var. 5 .6 Gila Polychrome 1 .1

White Mountain Red Ware 5 .5 Pinedale B/r 1 .1 Undif. St. Johns/Pinedale B/r 2 .2 Undif. White Mountain Red Ware B/r 2 .2 CERAMICS FROM POTTERY HILL:ROOM 1: FLOOR cont.

Freq. Percent

Cibola Gray ware 34 3.9 Undif. Cibola Gray Ware 1 .1 Plain Gray Ware 2 .2 Indented Corrugated Gray Ware 31 3.6

Mogollon Brown ware 515 60.5 Undif. Mogollon Brown Ware 14 1.6 Undif. Mogollon Brown Ware, Smudged 4 .5 McDonald Corrugated 4 .5 Plain Brown Ware 24 2.8 Plain Brown Ware, Smudged 5 .6 Incised Corrugated Brown Ware 4 .5 Indented Corrugated Brown Ware 341 40.0 Indented Corrugated Brown Ware, Smudged 69 8.1 Clapboard Corrugated Brown Ware 15 1.8 Clapboard Corrugated Brown Ware, Smudged 6 .7 Obliterated Corrugated Brown Ware 27 3.2 Patterned Corrugated Brown Ware 2 .2 Miseallanaous 5 .6 Red Ware, Unknown Series 1 .1 Brown Ware, Unknown Series 3 .4 Unknown 1 .1 86

Table A4 CERAMICS FROM POTTERY HILL: ROOM 3: FILL

Freq. Percent

Cibola White Ware 545 25.0 Undif. Cibola White Ware 254 11.6 Kiatuthlanna B/w 2 .1 Red Mesa B/w 2 .1 Puerco B/w 5 .2 Escavada B/w 8 .4 Undif. Cibola White Ware, PII-III 141 6.5 Gallup B/w .3 .1 Snowflake B/w 20 .9 Reserve B/w 15 .7 Tularosa B/w 11 .5 Pinedale B/w 15 .7 Undif. Cibola White Ware, Smudged 1 .0 Undif. Tularosa/Pinedale B/w 68 3.1

Tusayan White Ware 1 .0 Undif. Tusayan White Ware 1 .0

Show Low Red Ware 139 6.4 Undif. Show Low Red Ware 50 2.3 Undif. Show Low B/r 9 .4 Show Low B/r, Bold Style 41 1.9 Show Low B/r, Hatched Style 10 .5 Show Low Red 29 1.3 salado Red Ware 20 0.9 Undif. Salado Polychrome, Salmon Variety 1 .0 Pinto/Gila Polychrome 19 .9

White Mountain Red Ware 56 2.6 Undif. White Mountain Red Ware 10 .5 Puerco B/r 1 .0 Wingate B/r 8 .4 St. Johns B/r 1 .0 Undif. White Mountain Red Ware B/r 9 .4 St. Johns Polychrome 25 1.1 Wingate/St. Johns Polychrome 1 .0 Undif. White Mountain Red Ware Polychrome 1 .0 87

CERAMICS FROM POTTERY HILL: ROOM 3: FILL cont.

Freq. Percent

Cibola Gray Ware 9 .4 Undif. Cibola Gray Ware 7 .3 Plain Gray Ware 1 .0 Indented Corrugated Gray Ware 1 .0

Mogollon Brown ware 1367 62.7 Undif. Mogollon Brown Ware 106 4.9 Undif. Mogollon Brown Ware, Smudged 1 .0 Forestdale Smudged 1 .0 McDonald Corrugated 4 .2 Plain Brown Ware 151 6.9 Plain Brown Ware, Smudged 23 1.1 Incised Corrugated Brown Ware 16 .7 Incised Corrugated Brown Ware, Smudged 12 .6 Indented Corrugated Brown Ware 615 28.2 Indented Corrugated Brown Ware, Smudged 197 9.0 Clapboard Corrugated Brown Ware 43 2.0 Clapboard Corrugated Brown Ware, Smudged 34 1.6 Obliterated Corrugated Brown Ware 142 6.5 Obliterated Corrugated Brown Ware, Smudged 13 .6 Patterned Corrugated Brown Ware 9 .4

Miscellaneous 44 2.0 Red Ware, Unknown Series 2 .1 Brown Ware, Unknown Series 2 .1 Gray Ware, Unknown Series 7 .3 Undif. R/br 11 .5 Unknown 22 1.0 88

Table A5 CERAMICS FROM P:12:12(ASM): ROOM 3: FLOOR

Freq. Percent Cibola White Ware 127 31.4 Undif. Cibola White Ware 39 9.6 Red Mesa B/w 1 .2 Undif. Cibola White Ware, PII-III 22 5.4 Snowflake B/w 11 2.7 Reserve B/w 19 4.7 Tularosa B/w 34 8.4 Pinedale B/w 1 .2

Tusayan White Ware 2 .5 Undif. Tusayan White Ware 2 .5

Little Colorado White Ware 5 1.2 Undif. Little Colorado White Ware 5 1.2

Show Low Red Ware 52 12.9 Undif. Show Low Red Ware 26 6.4 Show Low Red Ware, Bold Style 12 3.0 Show Low Red Ware, Hatched Style 14 3.5

Salado Polychrome 1 .2 Undif. Salado Polychrome 1 .2 White Mountain Red Ware 19 4.7 Undif. White Mountain Red Ware 6 1.4 Wingate B/r 1 .2 St. Johns B/r 1 .2 Undif. White Mountain Red Ware B/r 3 .7 St. Johns Polychrome 4 1.0 Pinedale Polychrome 4 1.0

Note: The relatively large percentages of Show Low Red wares in this context are due to the presence of a highly fragmented reconstructible vessel. 89

CERAMICS FROM P:12:12(ASM): ROOM 3: FLOOR cont.

Freq. Percent

Cibola Gray Ware 1 .2 Plain Gray Ware 1 .2 Mogollon Brown Ware 197 48.6 Undif. Mogollon Brown Ware 10 2.5 Undif. Mogollon Brown Ware, Smudged 2 .5 Mogollon R/Br 2 .5 Plain Brown Ware 14 3.5 Plain Brown Ware, Smudged 2 .5 Incised Corrugated Brown Ware 16 4.0 Incised Corrugated Brown Ware, Smudged 1 .2 Indented Corrugated Brown Ware 94 23.2 Indented Corrugated Brown Ware, Smudged 22 5.4 Clapboard Corrugated Brown Ware 3 .7 Clapboard Corrugated Brown Ware, Smudged 6 1.5 Obliterated Corrugated Brown Ware 18 4.4 Obliterated Corrugated Brown Ware, Smudged 6 1.5 Patterned Corrugated Brown Ware 1 .2

Miscellaneous 1 .2 White Ware, Unknown Series 1 .2

Notes: Due to a pothole found in the fill of Room 3 these FS's were not screened (Mills et al. 1993:20). This may (or may not) account for the 5.5 percent difference in Mogollon Brown Hares between the fill of this room and that of Room 1. The high percent of Show Low Red ware on the floor of Room 3 represents a highly fragmented reconstructible vessel. Some of the White Mountain Red ware sherdB also appeared to conjoin. The floor of Room 1 has a high percentage of Cibola Gray wares. All but one of these ceramics come from a single FS. The ceramics from this FS appear to be part of a one plate. 90

Silver Creek Great Kiva Site Descriptions

AZ P:16:20(ASM) Other Site Names: Bluff Ruin Phase: Hilltop, Cottonwood Tree-Ring dates: 238w-322w (Bannister, Gell, Hannah 1966: 35)

Bluff Ruin was first thought by Hough to be an Apache

site. Indeed, there is an Apache wickiup on the site, but

of more interest here is the early occupation circa A.D.

300, This, the earliest site in the Forestdale Valley,

contains at least 23 pithouses. Haury (1985a) estimates

that these pithouses, all of which are excavated, represent

approximately two-thirds of the the community. Pithouses appear to be mostly Mogollon, but Anasazi Basketmaker

characteristics appear in some slab-lined pithouses.

The great kiva, called House 5, is a 10.3 meter

diameter pitstructure. This comprises approximately three times more area than the average pithouse.

Ceramics at the site consist mostly (95%) of Alma

Plain. Other types include Forestdale Plain, Alma Scored,

Smudged Pottery, and unknown Red ware, Adamana Brown, a

variety of Lino Gray, and Gila Plain. Forestdale Smudged

and a neck-banded brown ware appear in the Pueblo I period components of this site, Pueblo III sherds are intrusive on the surface of the site. Apachean ceramics appear with their aforementioned occupation of the site. 91

AZ P:16:1(ASM) Other Site Names: Bear Ruin Phase: Forestdale Tree-Ring dates: A.D.597w-702++w (Bannister et al. 1966:29-30), but ceramics suggest site ends post A.D. 725

Haury (1985b) mentions that although Hough's travels through the region passed him close to this site it is understandable that he missed it as there are no striking surface features. The site is a pithouse village dating between approximately A.D. 600 and 700. While 17 pit structures were excavated Haury estimates that 34 are likely. Fourteen of these structures are domestic (four of which exhibit the lobing seen in Mimbres pithouses), two are for storage and the last is a great kiva.

The great kiva at this site is particularily interesting in that it seems to be shaped like a turtle.

Haury questions whether the shape is intentional, and suggests the head may be a lobe. Otherwise, he cautiously, assigns the great kiva to an Anasazi culture.

While much of the discussion of the architecture of this site revolves around the degree of Mogollon versus

Anasazi influence at the site ceramics do not reflect this interaction as clearly. Ceramics at the site are:

Forestdale Smudged, Forestdale Plain, Forestdale Red, Alma

Plain, Alma Neckbanded, Alma Scored, Alma Incised, Woodruff

Smudged, Woodruff Red, Adamana Brown, Mogollon Red-on-brown,

Lino Gray, Lino Black-on-gray, Lino Smudged, White Mound 92 Black-on-white, Gila Plain, Gila Butte Red-on-buff, and

Aquarius Brown. Also appearing are later undifferentiated

Anasazi types of the Pueblo I to III periods.

AZ P:16:153(ASM).

Other Site Names: (USFS Number: AR-03-01-07-415) Phase: Carrizo Site AZ P:16:153(ASM) (Neily 1991:20-21) is located approximately 125 meters northeast of the head of Bagnal draw and off Forest Service road 140. The site consists of two rubble mounds with a combined estimate of 20 surface rooms, and a great kiva adjacent to the west end of Rubble

Mound 1. The great kiva, with an interior diameter of ll meters and an exterior diameter of approximately 18.5 meters, is surrounded by a great deal of rubble and has a southeastern orientation. The density of small sites around this great kiva site is relatively high.

According to Neily, ceramics at the site include

Escavada style, Sosi style, Reserve Style, Dogoszhi style, and Puerco/Puerco style Cibola White Ware types. Brown wares include indented corrugated, plain, clapboard corrugated, and zoned corrugated. Indented corrugated gray wares are also present. No red wares are mentioned. Neily assigns this site to the Carrizo phase and dates it to approximately A.D. 1000 to 1100. Based upon the absence of Snowflake, Tularosa, and Pinedale styles I would say this 93 site predates the great kiva sites relocated by the

University of Arizona Field School and that the late Pueblo

II date assigned by Neily is appropriate.

AZ Q:13:1(ASU)

Dates: 1000-1150/1200

Site AZ Q:13:1(ASU) is one of the larger sites found by the Office of Cultural Resource Management investigation of areas of the Dry Valley, Corduroy, and Forestdale Creeks

(Stafford and Rice 1980:1, 177-180). The roomblock contains two tiers of rooms, the westernmost of which is believed to be two stories high. A wall connects an isolated room to the southeast. Another low wall encloses a courtyard to the east. The great kiva is located northeast of the room block and has a 10 meter interior diameter; the exterior diameter measures 16 meters. The construction of the great kiva is masonry.

Reserve Black-on-white and Snowflake Black-on-white are the only diagnostic styles on the site. They consider the

44% sand tempered white wares to be chronologically diagnostic. This may be accurate for Cibola White Ware but they do not mention the possibility of Tusayan White Ware on the site. 94

AZ P:16:160(ASM). Other Site Names: (USPS Number: AR-03-01-07-422) Phase: possible Carrizo/ Linden

Site AZ P:16:160 was originally recorded by Neily for the Bagnal Timber Sale in 1991 and was revisited by the

University of Arizona Field School in July 1993. In

September 1992 a fourteen acre fire grazed the east side of the site (including the great kiva). Thus the site has been disrupted, and new roads across the site have appeared since

Neily's visit. The site contains one roomblock, one unknown structure, a great kiva, and a possible pithouse.

The roomblock measures 23 by 17 meters and is 1.2 meters high. Building materials include shaped and unshaped masonry. Disturbance from pot holes and a drag line make identifying rooms difficult although two are clearly visible on top of the mound. Ten rooms are estimated.

The second structure, just south of the first is less mounded than the first. Alignments are visible but it is difficult to assess the function of this structure. Extent of rubble measures 17.5 by 7.4 meters.

A seven meter diameter depression is located north and slightly east of the great kiva. This area is not delineated by any masonry. It may possibly be a pithouse.

The great kiva is located southeast of the main roomblock and is the dominant feature at this site, with a 95

.95 meter high rubble berm encircling the entire structure.

This great kiva has two clearly visible entrances, one to the south, the other to the east. It's maximum exterior diameter, from north to south, is 25.6 meters. A fire road across the west side of the berm now prevents an accurate east/ west measurement. Approximately four meters of wall are exposed on the north side of the kiva, the rest of the kiva is defined solely by rubble.

Ceramics at this site are sparse due to surface collection (Table A6). The firefighters collected some of these ceramics. Furthermore, the site is within a hundred meters of a relatively major forest service road.

Ceramics were collected from three separate collection areas. The first collection area (see Table A7-A9), the densest, was located east of the roomblock. This area measured 85 square meters and contained 378 sherds (sherd density averages 4.4 sherds per square meter). The second collection area, atop the roomblock, contained 2 ceramics in an area of 391 square meters (ceramic density averages .005 ceramics per square meter on the structure. The third collection area was a circular depression, a possible pithouse, with an area of 38 square meters. Seven ceramics were found here (ceramic density averages .184 ceramics per square meter). No artifacts were found in the great kiva. 96

Table A6 CERAMIC DENSITY BY COLLECTION AREA AZ P:16:160(ASM)

Ceramic Sq. Meter Ceramic Density

Collection Area 1 378 85 4.447 Collection Area 2 2 391 .005 collection Area 3 7 38 .184

Dating of this site through surface ceramics is difficult. Diagnostic ceramics are rare (Tables A7 to A9); only two were found: one Red Mesa Black-on-white and one

Snowflake Black-on-white. Ceramic Mean Dates were not useful at site AZ P:16:160(ASM) due to this lack of diagnostic ceramics (ceramics with relatively short, known production date ranges). However, Collection Areas 1 and 3 can be assigned post A.D. 1000 dates due to the presence of many indented corrugated brown wares (indented corrugated gray wares seem to appear around A.D. 1000 — see Goetze and

Mills 1993a:56, 57, 60) and undifferentiated PII-PIII Cibola

White wares. A single Little Colorado White ware sherd is also present in Collection Area 1. This ware is first produced around A.D. 1050 (Goetze and Mills 1993a:41). 97

Table A7 CERAMICS FROM AZ P:16:160(ASM): Collection Area 1

Freq. Percent

Cibola White Ware 66 17.5 Undif. Cibola White Ware 48 12.7 Undif. Cibola White Ware, PII-PIII 16 4.2 Snowflake B/w 1 .3 Plain Cibola White Ware, Smudged 1 .3

Tusayan White Ware 1 .3 Undif. Tusayan White Ware 1 .3

Little Colorado White Ware 1 .3 Undif. Little Colorado White Ware 1 .3

Show Low Red Ware 6 1.6 Undif. Show Low Red Ware 6 1.6

Cibola Gray Ware 9 2.4 Undif. Cibola Gray Ware 2 .5 Undif. Plain Cibola Gray Ware 4 1.1 Indented Corrugated Cibola Gray Ware 3 .8

Mogollon Brown Ware 295 78.3 Undif. Mogollon Brown Ware 27 7.1 Forestdale Smudged 9 2.4 Plain Brown Ware 14 3.7 Plain Brown Ware, smudged 1 .3 Plain Brown Ware, polished 1 .3 Indented Corrugated Brown Ware 204 54.0 Indented Corrugated Brown Ware, Smudged 4 1.1 Clapboard Corrugated Brown Ware 29 7.7 Obliterated Corrugated Brown Ware 1 .3 Obliterated Corrugated Brown Ware, Smudged V .3 Patterned Corrugated Brown Ware, Smudged 4 1.1

Table A8 CERAMICS FROM AZ P:16:160(ASM): Collection Area 2 Freq. Percent

Cibola White Ware 2 100.0 Undif. Cibola White Ware 1 50.0 Red Mesa B/w 1 50.0 98

Table A9 CERAMICS FROM AZ P:16:160(ASM): Collection Area 3

Freq. Percent

Cibola White Ware 3 42.9 Undif. Cibola White Ware 2 28.6 Undif. Cibola White Ware, PII-III 1 14.3 Mogollon Brown ware 4 57.1 Indented Corrugated Brown Ware 1 14.3 Clapboard Corrugated Brown Ware 3 42.9

Neily's site form provides further clues as to the dates of the site. While quantities are not indicated,

Neily lists "Black Mesa style, Dogoshzi (Gallup) style,

Reserve style; Puerco style (Checkerboard design), [and] possible Sosi style" Cibola White wares. In the typology used by the field school, checkerboards are not considered typologically diagnostic beyond being a Pueblo Il-Pueblo III element. The other styles, though, are considered temporally diagnostic. It may be further significant than neither we nor Neily found any White Mountain Red Ware at the site. These appear to become more prevalent in the sites (e.g., AZ P:16:65(ASM) and Pottery Hill, to be discussed below) dating into the thirteenth century. The types that Neily indicates certainly may support a post A.D.

1050 date (Table 2.2) and suggest an occupation into the first half of the twelfth century. I would suggest that this site is contemporaneous with AZ P:16:112(ASM), discussed below. 99

AZ P:16:112(ASM).

Other Site Names: Spier Site 220, (USFS Number: AR-03-01-07- 614) Phase: Carrizo/ Linden

Dosh (1991:A97- A99) is the first known archaeologist

to visit site AZ P:16:112(ASM) since Hough visited the area

and recorded the site in 1901 (Hough 1903:298). Dosh did not recognize this as the site Hough refers to as a "small

site near Linden." Nobody has been able to relocate this

site because Hough's reference places it two miles west of

Pottery Hill (AZ P:12:12(ASM)) rather than the actual two

miles south of Pottery Hill. The site is later mentioned by Spier (1918:361) as site number 220, but there are no

indications that he visited the site.

The three main features at the site include a

roomblock, a great kiva, and a midden. All three features

have been potted. The damage to the structures is not so

severe but the midden has been heavily potted.

Rubble area for the habitation structure measures 2 8 by

17.3 meters and is .85 meters high. No certain room

alignments are visible due to the damage of previous

excavations, but fifteen large rooms (as at Chodistaas) are

estimated. Hough estimated twelve rooms (1903:298) in a

very symmetrical plan (1903:Plate 16), and Dosh estimated 12 to 20. Exposed wall alignments suggest that there may have

been three rows of walls running northeast-southwest. A 100 backhoe trench on the west side of the structure has exposed a burned sandstone wall. Burned daub appears frequently in the midden. This may be from the main roomblock or another unlocated jacal structure on the site (under the midden?).

Hough's illustration of the site (1903:Plate 16) depicts a biwall circular structure with radial walls joining the inner and outer circular walls. He describes this as a "circular-house plan 65 feet in diameter, having a passage through the wall to the central court" (1903:298).

No traces of the radial walls remain today, nor does the passageway. Oosh types the structure, as do we, as a great kiva. The kiva is defined by a rubble mound with a maximum height of one meter to the north. The exterior diameter measures 26.25 meters, and Dosh estimates the interior diameter at 20 meters.

The midden at this site is large and obvious, and as such has sustained a great deal of damage from potting. It measures 23 by 21.2 meters and is at least .45 meters deep.

Most of the collections from the site come from the midden (Collection Area 1) (see Tables A10-11). Due to the large amount of disturbance at the site, we decided not to sample the artifacts on the midden but instead to collect all artifacts on top of the midden both to get a large sample and in the hopes that this would make the midden less noticeable. The high density of ceramics continues to the 101 east of the midden into the trees. This area was less visible and therefore was not collected, although it is included in the site boundaries.

Table A10 CERAMIC DENSITY BY COLLECTION AREA

AZ P:16:112(ASM)

Ceramic Sq. Meter Ceramic Density

Collection Area 1 3507 166 21.127 Collection Area 2 6 488 .012 Collection Area 3 8 541 .015

The roomblock and the great kiva were also searched for surface artifacts. These are Collection Areas 2 and 3

(Tables A12, A13), respectively. As can be seen from Table

A10, artifacts in these areas were sparse with less even than one ceramic per fifty meters searched.

Dates between A.D. 1050-1150 were assigned to this site based on the assemblage found on the midden in Collection

Area 1. Lack of diagnostics also prevented ceramic mean dates or the assignment of relative date ranges in

Collection Areas 2 and 3 at AZ P:16:112(ASM). While this ignores the presence of Tularosa Black-on-white and Pinedale

Black-on-white, on the site, their combined presence accounts for less than .1 percent of the ceramics on the site. This date is supported by the lack of Show Low Black- 102

Table All CERAMICS FROM AZ P:16:112(ASM): Collection Area 1

Freq. Percent Cibola white Ware 893 25.5 Undif. Cibola White Ware 400 11.4 Undif. Cibola White Ware, PI-PII 1 .0 Kiatuthlanna B/w 5 .1 Red Mesa B/w 31 .9 Puerco B/w 5 .1 Escavada B/w 22 .6 Undif. Cibola White Ware, PII-PIII 352 10.0 Gallup B/w 9 .3 Snowflake B/w 25 .7 Reserve B/w 25 .7 Tularosa B/w 2 .1 Pinedale B/w 1 .0 Undif. Cibola White Ware, Smudged 8 .2 Undif. Tularosa/ Pinedale B/w 6 .2 Undif. PIII-PIV Glaze Paint 1 .0

Tusayan Whit* Ware 66 l.S Undif. Tusayan White Ware 23 .6 Black Mesa B/w 3 .1 Undif. Tusayan White Ware, BMIII-PI 2 .1 Sosi B/w 5 .1 Dogoszhi B/w 1 .0 Undif. Tusayan White Ware, PII-PIII 32 .9

Little Colorado White ware 26 .8 Undif. Little Colorado White Ware 20 .6 Holbrook 'A' B/w 2 .1 Holbrook 'B• B/w 4 .1

Show Low Red Ware 155 4.4 Undif. Show Low Red Ware 103 2.9 Show Low B/r, Bold style 3 .1 Show Low Red 4 .1 Show Low Corrugated 45 1.3 White Mountain Red Ware 3 .X Undif. White Mountain Red Ware 2 .1 Puerco B/r 1 .0 103

CERAMICS FROM AZ P:16:112(ASM): Collection Area 1 Con't.

Freq. Percent

Cibola Gray Ware 37 1.0 Undif. Cibola Gray Ware 5 .1 Undif. Plain Cibola Gray Ware 20 .6 Indented Corrugated Gray Ware 12 .3

Tusayan Gray Ware 1 .0 Undif. Plain Tusayan Gray Ware 1 .0

Mogollon Brown Ware 2308 65.8 Undif. Mogollon Brown Ware 221 6.3 Undif. Mogollon Brown Ware, Smudged 4 .1 Forestdale Smudged 104 3.0 Forestdale Red 1 .0 McDonald Corrugated 2 .1 Plain Brown Ware 401 11.4 Plain Brown Ware, Smudged 21 .6 Plain Brown Ware, Polished 57 1.6 Incised Corrugated Brown Ware 1 .0 Incised Corrugated Brown Ware, Smudged 1 .0 Indented Corrugated Brown Ware 1352 38.6 Indented Corrugated Brown Ware, Smudged 9 .3 Clapboard Corrugated Brown Ware 74 2.1 Obliterated Corrugated Brown Ware 10 .3 Patterned Corrugated, Smudged 50 1.4

Little Colorado Gray Ware 6 .2 Undif. Little Colorado Gray Ware 3 .1 Undif. Plain Little Colorado Gray Ware 2 .1 Indented Corrugated 1 .0

8an Francisco Mountain Gray Ware 1 .0 Kirkland Gray 1 .0

Prescott Gray Ware 1 .0 Aquarius Orange 1 .0

Miscellaneous 10 .3 White Ware, Unknown series 1 .0 Gray Ware, Unknown series, Smudged 1 .0 Gray Ware, Unknown series, Indented Corr 1 .0 Red Ware, Unknown series 1 .0 Brown Ware, Unknown series 1 .0 Undif. Brown Ware 1 .0 Unknown 4 .1 104

Table A12 CERAMICS FROM AZ P:16:112(ASM): Collection Area"2

Freq. Percent

Cibola White Ware 3 50.0 Undif. Cibola White Ware 3 50.0 Mogollon Brown Ware 3 50.0 Indented Corrugated Brown Ware 2 33.3 Patterned Corrugated Brown Ware 1 16.7

Table A13 CERAMICS FROM AZ P:16:112(ASM): Collection Area 3

Freq. Percent

Cibola White Ware 1 12.5 Undif. Cibola White Ware, PI-PII 1 12.5

Tusayan White Ware 1 12.5 Undif. Tusayan White Ware 1 12.5

Mogollon Brown Ware 67.5 Undif. Mogollon Brown Ware 1 12.5 Plain Brown Ware 1 12.5 Indented Corrugated Brown Ware 37.5

Miscellaneous 12.5 Undifferentiated Gray Ware, Smudged 1 12.5 on-red, Hatched Style (which, although not dated, appears later than the Bold Style), and the lack of St. Johns

Black-on-red, or St. Johns Polychrome (which otherwise seems to appear consistently in contexts dating in the A.D.

1200s). Two Patayan ceramics, one San Francisco Mountain Gray

Ware and one Prescott Gray Ware, were found on the midden.

No other Patayan ceramics were found at sites visited by the 105

1993 field school. A single Patayan ceramic, an Aquarius

Brown, was found at Bear Ruin in the Forestdale Valley

(Haury 1985b:218), although this site predates ours by 400 years.

AZ P:16:2(ASM).

Other Site Names: Tla Kii Phase: Carrizo/ Linden Tree-Ring Dates: A.D. 1080-1115

Tla Kii (Haury 1985e) is comparable in site plan and tree-ring dates with AZ P:16:112(ASM) and AZ P:16:160(ASM).

In addition to the large circular great kiva (diameter = 19 meters), the site also has a small roomblock with an estimated 21 rooms (and some Chacoan masonry —Haury

1985e:39) and an unfinished kiva. These features comprise the main occupation of the site in the Carrizo Phase.

Features at the site representing early components of occupation include three pithouses (Corduroy Phase), two unit structures (one Dry Valley phase, one possibly Carrizo phase), and fourteen storage pits (assortedly dating in the

Dry Valley and Carrizo phases). The ceramic information from this site, as published, does not allow a reevaluation of the ceramics using relative type frequencies and ceramic mean dates. Haury's discussion of the ceramics at Tla Kii divides the ceramics into local and intrusive pottery types. While counts are available 106 in tables for the intrusive types, only general percentages are available for the local types.

The intrusive types found at the site are: Holbrook

Black-on-white (Little Colorado White Ware), Black Mesa

Black-on-white (Tusayan White Ware), Puerco Black-on-red,

Wingate Black-on-red (White Mountain Red Ware), Deadmans

Black-on-red (San Juan Red Ware), Tularosa White-on-red

(Mogollon Red Ware), and Gila Plain (Hohokam).

Haury considers the Mogollon Brown Ware and the Cibola

White Ware as local. He does not use the term Cibola White

Ware in his discussion, but this seems to be implied as he mentions that the local Black-on-white types have a paint of, "dense black, often with a glaze quality" (1985e:86) which implies the mineral paint that separates Cibola from

Little Colorado and Tusayan White wares. While it is possible for Mesa Verde and Chuska white Wares to have a mineral paint it is unlikely that these are present in the area. Furthermore, the Little Colorado White Ware and Tusayan White Ware types are noted in his discussions of intrusive types.

In order to attain directly comparable ceramic data, I obtained copies of Haury's ceramic analysis tables from Alan

Ferg of the Arizona State Museum archives. I had hoped to be able to use this information to get type frequencies for the Cibola White Ware types; however, the 1940 and 1940 107 analyses of these ceramics seem to be based on a design element analysis rather than a typological system. Few of the elements utilized are diagnostic to a single type.

Ideally, the sherds should be reexamined. Ceramics from Tla

Kii are summarized by ware in Table A14.

Tree ring dates from this site come from inside and outside the roomblock, the great kiva, the smaller kiva, and couple of storage pits. The single tree ring date from the fill of the kiva is questionable as Haury believes the kiva is unfinished, thus it is unlikely this is part of the roof or is therefore, part of this structure—(see Haury

1985e:53-4). All dates from this site as reported in

Bannister et al. (1966:1) have been reevaluated as part of the review and reanalysis project begun by the Tree-Ring Laboratory in 1963.

Bannister et al. (1966:33) comment that all but six dates from the site fall between A.D. 1080 and 1115. The exceptions are all earlier. Tla Kii has a total of 52 dates of which three are cutting dates (r dates) and four more are v dates. The rest are w dates. The cutting dates range from A.D. 1106 to A.D. 1111; the v dates range from A.D.

1093 to A.D. 1100. There are eight dates for the great kiva

(1008, 1069, 1070, 1088, 1102, 1114, and 1115), none of which are cutting dates. Haury (1985e:51) believes 108

Table A14 TLA KII CERAMICS BY WARE Freq. Percent

Cibola White Ware** 3042 43.0

Tusayan White Ware* 9 0.1

Little Colorado White Ware* 14 0.2

Show Low Red Ware*** 105 1.5

White Mountain Red Ware* 12 0.2

San Juan Red Ware* 1 0.0

Hohokam* 1 0.0

Tularosa Wh/r* 1 0.0

Mogollon Brown Ware 3888 55.0

Total 7073 100.0

Notes: *= This type is considered intrusive by Haury. Counts come from his table (6) of Carrizo phase intrusive pottery. General testing counts from this table were not used, as these contexts are not identified and thus are not comparable to the information from the Arizona State Museum tally sheets discussed below.

**= Haury lists Chaco Black-on-white and White Mound Black-on-white as intrusives. I have grouped these two ceramics as Cibola White Ware.

***» Haury lists, on his table of intrusive pottery 2 Show Low Red Ware. However, he discusses another type of red ware in the text (p. 92); this he considers local. The red ware is described as getting its color from slip, as opposed to the natural red of Forestdale Red. I believe the field school would have typed these ceramics as Show Low Red ware, thus the counts from the ASM archive tally sheets have been added to the two identified as intrusive. Also on these sheets is a category for Black- on-red ceramics. As these, too, are likely to be Show Low Red Wares (especially as Haury distinguished the Bold from the Hatched Styles), these are also grouped into here as well.

Wares that are not starred indicate information that has been obtained solely from ceramic tally sheets from the ASM archives. Ceramic tallies from the main structure, the unfinished kiva and the great kiva are used as representative of the Carrizo phase. As it was not known which of the general testing contexts listed on these sheets are considered to be Carrizo phase, these were not included in the sums. 109 the latest date comes closest to the original construction of the site although Bannister et al. (1966:33) do mention that this may be a repair.

Despite the poor quality of the specimens, it is likely that the Carrizo phase elements of the site were constructed in the first decade of the twelfth century (Bannister et al.

1966:33). These dates certainly indicate that the great kiva and the roomblock (and unfinished kiva by association) are contemporaneous with at least the second half of the occupation of AZ P:16:112(ASM), if not the first half as well.

AZ P:16:90(ASM).

Other Site Names: (USFS Number: AR-03-01-07-535) Phase: Carrizo/ Linden Site AZ P:16:90(ASM) (Dosh 1991:A26- A27) is also located on Bagnal Draw. The one roomblock at this site contains between five and nine contiguous rooms. Dosh suggests that the five larger of these are habitation rooms, and the four smaller are for storage. This structure is built of a combination of masonry and jacal. The 13 meter diameter great kiva south of the room block has a slight rock berm on one edge (not apparent from the sketch map on the site form). Two storage cists were located at the site and no middens are visible.

Dosh estimates no greater than one hundred sherds at the site. White ware types include Reserve/Tularosa Black- on-white, Snowflake Black-on-white, Black Mesa style Cibola

White Ware, possible Tularosa Black-on-white, and possible Red Mesa Black-on-white. Dosh tentatively dates this site to the Late Carrizo/Early Linden phase, from approximately

A.D. 1000-1200. While proportions of these ceramic types are not estimated, by evaluating presence and absence this site would seem to be contemporaneous, to slightly earlier than Hough's "smaller site near Linden", AZ P:16:112(ASM). AZ P:16:65(ASM).

Other Site Names: (USFS Number: AR-03-01-07-566) Phase: Linden

Site AZ P:16:65(ASM) (Dosh 1991:A55-A57) is located on

Bagnal Draw. Features at the site include four room blocks containing a total of 12 to 20 rooms, two potential great kivas, and a storage cist. One of the potential great kivas is an 11 meter long rectangular kiva west of the roomblocks.

The second potential great kiva is a 17 meter diameter circular depression southeast of the roomblock. From the recorder's sketch map, this structure does not appear to be well defined, and is not surrounded by rubble. Dosh assigns this site to the Linden phase, with dates at approximately A.D. 1100 to 1200, with the comment that it may be particularly important as few sites of this phase have been found in the area. According to the site form, Ill her chronological assessment is based on the presence of

Reserve Black-on-white, Tularosa Black-on-white, and Wingate

Black-on-red. The other white ware type mentioned on the site is Snowflake Black-on-white. Brown ware types include McDonald Corrugated, indented corrugated, zoned corrugated, and Reserve smudged. While she notes that there are hundreds of sherds on the site, she adcjs that few of these are diagnostic.

This site was probably occupied during and to slightly later than the occupation of Hough's "smaller ruin near

Linden" and may be contemporaneous with the earliest stages of occuapation of Pottery Hill.

AZ P:16:9(ASM).

Other Site Names: Tundastusa, Forestdale Ruin Phase: Linden

Tundastusa (AZ P:16:9(ASM)) is a masonry pueblo site with approximately 75 rooms. This is the only one of

Haury's Forestdale great kiva sites that has not been excavated by Haury. The great kiva is circular, but adjoins the roomblock to the south and west. Many later, rectangular great kivas adjoin their associated pueblos as do Pueblo III great kivas in the chacoan area (Fowler et al. 1987:96). Trash is scattered rather than located in middens. Little is known of other features at the site. 112

Surface ceramics include: Alma Plain, Corduroy Black-

on-white, Puerco style and Tularosa style Black-on-white,

St. Johns Polychrome, Wingate Polychrome, and McDonald

Corrugated. As this site is discussed as a representative

of the Linden phase (Haury 1985d:389) other types that are present, especially earlier types, are not noted, although,

as the site dates from the Corduroy period, they are

present.

Carter Ranch

Phase: Hay Hollow Valley Phase VI— "Established Towns Begin to Converge" Tree-Ring Dates: A.D. 1116-post 1156

Carter Ranch, found in the Hay Hollow Valley, is

located above the Mogollon Rim and further east than the

rest of the Silver Creek great kiva sites described above.

The site is a large masonry pueblo, approximately contemporaneous with Pottery Hill. With 39 dwelling rooms it is slightly larger than Pottery Hill. Other features at the site include an enclosed plaza, a granary pit, a small platform kiva, a D-shaped kiva, and a great kiva.

Decorated ceramics found at the site include: three varieties of Snowflake Black-on-white (Hay Hollow,

Snowflake, and Carterville varieties), St. Johns Black-on- red, St. Johns Polychrome, and Show Low Black-on-red.

Brownwares dominate the rest of the assemblage: Plain brown corrugated, Brown Plain Corrugated with a smudged interior, 113 Brown Indented Corrugated, and Brown Indented Corrugated with a smudged interior, McDonald Indented Corrugated,

Patterned Corrugated, McDonald Plain Corrugated, and Alma

Plain (Longacre 1970:35).

Phase dates for the "Established Towns—Beginnings of

Convergence" range from A.D. 1100-1300 (Longacre 1970:9).

The site itself is dated through a combination of ceramic dates and tree-ring dates. Longacre (1970:26) suggests an occupation from A.D. 1100-1225. The large number of

Snowflake Black-on-white, and the presence of White Mountain

Red Ware St. Johns styles suggest occupation in the last quarter of the twelfth century and into the thirteenth century A.D.

AZ P:11:55(ASU)

Dates: 1100-1250

Lightfoot's survey of the Nicks Camp Timber Sale found this, and the three following sites. This site is documented on an Arizona State University site form, the others are known only from his contract report (1978) and his 1984 publication.

This site contains a 15 to 20 room pueblo and a seventeen meter diameter great kiva. 114 AZ P:11:124(ASU) Dates: 1100-1250

Site AZ P:11:124(ASU) contains both a roomblock and a

great kiva. There is a discrepency in the reports. The

1978 (p. 38) report lists 10 to 15 rooms; the 1984 report

(p. 132) lists 45. No site card exists to help clarify this

question.

AZ P:11:130(ASU)

Dates: 1100-1250

This site contain a more than fifty room pueblo and a

great kiva of unknown diameter.

AZ P:11:157(ASU)

Dates: 1100-1250

Site AZ P:11:57(ASU) is known only from the 1984

publication; it is not described in the Nick's Camp Timber

Sale report. It is described a having 40 rooms and one great kiva.

AZ P:12:76(ASM) Date: 1100-1250

Sites in the Snowflake survey area are described in

Lightfoot's 1984 publication, and have site cards available

at the Arizona State University site files. Much of the

information provided here, and for the following two sites,

is from the site forms.

This site contains between twenty and thirty rooms in 115 four roomblocks. The great kiva is approximately 13 meters in diameter.

Ceramics are not typed on these site forms, although they are used to date the site. From the encoded information on the site form it is possible to determine that there are between 800 and 2000 ceramics on the site of which approximately half are painted and half are plain (utility wares?).

AZ P:12:99(ASU)

Dates: 1100-1250

This is the most complex site described by Lightfoot.

A 65 room, multistory pueblo is present. Also present on the site are a burial area and/or a courtyard and an approximately ten meter great kiva. The scatter is extensive and contains between 400 and 800 ceramics.

Approximately half are painted and half are plain.

AZ P:12:105(ASU)

Dates: 1100-1250

The main features at this site include a 30 room pueblo, a 13 to 14 meter diameter great kiva, and a plaza.

The site form suggests that the great kiva may be unroofed.

The artifact asemblage consists of between 400 and 800 ceramics of which approximately half are plain and half are painted. APPENDIX B: GREAT KTVA SITE DATA

RIO GRANDE Map Site Name Site No. Period Early Late Diameter Alcoves 1 Pojaque Grant Site LA835 LP2-EP3 1000 1150 16.00 0 2 LA12830 LP3-EP4 1200 1350 14.00 0 3 Puye EP4-LP4 1315 1540 0.00 0 4 Abo LA97 EP4-LP5 1315 1600? 12.00 0 5 Tenabo LA200 LP4 1466 0 11.00 4 290 BigKiva LA82B EP4-LP4 1520 0 12.85 0

EASTERN PUERCO Map Site Name Site No. Period Early Late Diameter Alcoves 6 Haystack-D LA12573 LP1-EP2 850 1000 18.50 0 7 Andrews/I LA17207 LP1-EP3 800 1150 15.50 0 8 Andrews/2 LA17217 LP1-EP3 800 1150 23.50 0 9 Haystack/2 LA12573A EP2-LP2 920 1120 19.00 0 10 El Rito LA13831 EP2-LP2 925 1075 12.50 0 11 Kin Tl'iish LA68896 EP2-EP3 920 1220 17.50 1 12 LA17218 EP2-EP3 950 1150 12.50 1 13 Dittert Site LAI 1723 EP2-LP3 950 1320 12.00 0 14 Casamero Community LA8779 LP2-EP3 1000 1125 0.00 1 15 Haystack/1 LA6022 LP2-EP3 1000 1125 18.00 4 16 San Mateo LA12731 LP2-EP3 1000 1125 10.00 0 17 Las Ventanas LA1328 LP2-LP3 1020 1320 16.50 4 18 North Pasture Ruin LAI 1670 LP2-EP3 1050 1200 28.00 0

NORTHERN SAN JUAN Map Site Name Site No. Period Early Late Diameter Alcoves 19 Blue Mesa COL:B:13 0 0 10.80 0 20 Cahone 0 0 0.00 0 83 Cemetary Site 0 0 0.00 0 21 Singing Shelter BM3-EP3 600 1200 33.00 2 22 Morris Site 41/2 LA5631 BM3-LP2 944 1011 11.00 2 71 LA69911 EP1 700 800 0.00 0 23 Grass Mesa EP1-LP1 700 910 22.60 0 24 Bancos Village/1 LA4380 EP1-LP1 720 920 13.60 0 25 Bancos Village/2 LA4380 EP1-LP1 720 920 13.80 0 26 EP1-LP1 720 920 0.00 0 27 Nancy Patterson Site EP1-LP1 720 920 0.00 0 70 Loma Enebro LA78535 EP1-LP2 700 1050 0.00 0 28 Ruby Community LA84304 EP1-LP2 700 1050 15.00 0 29 Sambrito EPI-LP1 720 920 12.90 1 30 Ackmen/1 LP1 855 872 13.20 3 31 Ackmen/2 LP1 855 872 24.90 0 32 Morris Site 33 LP1-LP3 831 1320 19.20 0 33 Morris Site 41/1 LA5631 EP2 944 1011 19.80 0 34 Holmes Group/1 LA1898 EP2-LP3 920 1320 15.00 0 35 Holmes Group/2 LA1898 EP2-LP3 920 1320 16.00 0 NORTHERN SAN JUAN Map Site Name Site No. Period Early Late Diameter Alcoves 36 Holmes Group/3 LAI 898 EP2-LP3 920 1320 15.00 0 95 LA60746 EP2-EP3 975 1150 11.00 0 97 Squaw Springs/1 LA1988 EP2-EP3 1000 1200 17.00 0 98 Squaw Springs/2 LA1988 EP2-EP3 1000 1200 15.00 3 37 Morfield Canyon LP2 1050 1100 0.00 0 38 Chimney Rock LP2 1076 1093 0.00 0 119 LA60002/1 LP2-EP3 1080 1150 13.00 1 112 LA60002/2 LP2-EP3 1080 1150 11.00 0 113 LA60006 LP2-EP3 1080 1150 12.00 1 39 Salmon Ruin LA8846 LP2-LP3 1088 1263 14.00 1 42 Lowry • LA627 EP3 1090 1150 14.30 6 40 Aztec-West Ruin LA45 EP3 1110 1120 12.70 0 41 Ida Jean EP3 1124 0 0.00 0 43 Flora Vista LA2514 EP3-LP3 1120 1320 20.00 0 44 Goodman Point EP3-LP3 1120 1320 17.06 0 45 Lancaster Ruin EP3-LP3 1120 1320 0.00 0 46 Morris Site 39/1 LA1897 EP3-LP3 1120 1320 13.40 0 47 Morris Site/2 LA1897 EP3-LP3 1120 1320 18.20 0 48 Morris Site/3 LAI 897 EP3-LP3 1120 1320 19.50 0 49 Morris Site/4 LA1897 EP3-LP3 1120 1320 19.00 0 50 Morris Site/5 LA1897 EP3-LP3 1120 1320 33.00 0 51 Yellowjacket EP3-LP3 1120 1320 20.00 0 286 LA69892 EP3-LP3 1150 1300 18.00 0 52 House/1 EP3-LP3 1163 1263 0.00 0 53 Yucca House/2 EP3-LP3 1163 1263 13.00 0 54 Sand Canyon LP3 1250 1285 14.00 6

SAN JUAN Map Site Name Site No. Period Early Late Diameter Alcoves 55 LA7292/1 0 0 0.00 0 56 LA7292/2 0 0 0.00 0 57 LA8245 0 0 20.00 0 58 LA40352 0 0 0.00 0 59 LA40423 0 0 0.OO 0 60 29SJ-1642 0 0 0 19.501 61 Tocito LA7603 0 0 0 18.000 62 Twin Trees 0 0 0 0.00 0 138 Juniper Cove BM3 500 720 11.00 0 63 Shabik'eschee LA530 BM3 500 750 12.20 0 64 29SJ-423 BM3 516 557 10.30 0 139 Broken Flute AZE08001 BM3 620 670 18.30 0 65 Tohatchi Basketmaker LA3098 BM3-EP1 500 750 19.00 0 66 Gobernador Comm. LA78861 BM3-LP1 500 900 12.00 0 67 LA83871 BM3-LP1 500 920 17.00 11 68 Central Mesa Comm. LA85331 BM3-LP1 700 900 18.00 0 69 Central Mesa Comm. LA85331 BM3-LP1 700 900 15.00 0 72 Coolidge Pueblo LA17280 EP1-LP1 720 920 19.00 0 SAN JUAN Map Site Name Site No. Period Early Late Diameter Alcoves 73 LA98862 EP1-LP1 750 900 15.00 1 74 29SJ-1253 EP1-EP2 720 1020 0.00 1 75 Skunk Springs LA7000 LP1-EP2 850 950 16.00 0 76 Casa Patricio LA34208 LP1-EP2 850 1000 12.50 3 77 Una Vida LP1-LP2 850 1093 19.00 2 78 Kin Nahasbas LA152 LP1-LP2 863 1050 15.50 1 79 Newcomb LA3223 LP1-EP3 850 1200 0.00 0 80 Penasco Blanco/1 LA255 EP2-LP2 900 1088 17.50 1 81 Penasco Blanco/2 LA255 EP2-LP2 900 1088 19.00 0 82 Penasco Blanco/3 LA255 EP2-LP2 900 1088 14.50 0 84 Penasco Blanco/4 LA255 EP2-LP2 900 1088 24.00 1 85 Figueredo LA2024 EP2-LP2 920 1120 18.00 0 86 Hogback LAI 1207 EP2-LP2 920 1120 16.00 11 87 Muddy Water LA10959 EP2-LP2 920 1120 17.00 4 88 Padilla Well EP2-LP2 920 1120 17.00 1 89 Peach Springs LA10770 EP2-LP2 920 1120 17.50 3 90 Sanostee/1 EP2-LP2 920 1120 20.00 0 91 Sanostee/2 EP2-LP2 920 1120 14.00 0 92 Kin Bineola/1 LA18705 EP2-LP2 942 1120 17.00 1 93 Kin Bineola/2 LA18707 EP2-LP2 942 1120 11.00 7 94 Hungo Pavi LA2463 EP2-LP2 943 1050 17.00 0 96 Standing Rock LAI8232 EP2-EP3 975 1180 15.00 3 99 Pueblo Bonito/1 LA226 EP2-LP3 920 1320 15.85 3 100 Tseyatoh LA40394 EP2-LP3 920 1320 12.00 0 101 Whirlwind LA18237 LP2 1000 1100 10.00 3 102 LA67158 LP2 1025 1120 16.00 2 103 Pueblo Bonito/2 LA226 LP2 1030 1070 13.40 1 181 Tse Chizzi/1 LP2 1050 1125 20.00 0 182 Tse Chizzi/2 LP2 1050 1125 24.00 0 104 Casa Rinconada LA841 LP2 1054 0 19.35 7 105 Chetro Ketl/2 LP2 1062 1090 16.60 1 106 Chetro Ketl/1 LP2 1062 1116 18.20 1 183 This Isn't It LP2 1070 1100 0.00 0 184 Bear Squats/1 LP2 1080 1125 0.00 0 185 Bear Squats/2 LP2 1080 1125 0.00 0 186 Bear Squats/3 LP2 1080 1125 0.00 0 107 Hokinger's Great Kiva LA40015/2 LP2-EP3 1000 1150 22.00 0 108 Coolidge Pueblo LA17280 LP2-EP3 1020 1220 14.00 4 109 Dalton Pass LP2-EP3 1020 1220 14.00 0 110 LA60022 LP2-EP3 1080 1130 11.00 0 111 LA60024 LP2-EP3 1080 1130 15.00 0 114 Kin Ya'a LA8978 LP2-EP3 1100 0 13.50 4 115 Kin Ya'a West Road LA40015/1 LP2-EP3 1000 1150 15.00 4 116 Pueblo Bonito/3 LA226 LP2-EP3 1020 1220 15.25 0 117 Toh La Kai LAI 1234 LP2-EP3 1020 1220 23.00 1 118 Pueblo Pintado LA574 LP2-EP3 1060 1220 17.50 0 120 Skunk Spring/1 LA7000 LP2-LP3 1050 1250 17.00 0 SAN JUAN Map Site Name Site No. Period Early Late Diameter Alcoves 121 Skunk Spring/2 LA7000 LP2-LP3 1050 1250 11.00 0 122 Chetro Ketl/3 EP3 1100 1175 10.60 1 123 Twin Lakes LA51140 EP3 1100 1200 20.00 1 124 LA69891 EP3 1120 1220 0.00 0 125 Red Willow LA51141 EP3 1150 1199 19.00 2 260 LA60021 EP3-LP3 1100 1250 15.00 0 287 LA69909 EP3-LP3 1150 1300 15.00 0

LITTLE COLORADO Map Site Name Site No. Period Early Late Diameter Alcoves 126 AZK1102 0 0 15.00 0 127 AZQ04093 0 0 16.00 0 128 LA82742 0 0 10.00 0 129 NA8014 0 0 0.00 0 130 NMG02002 0 0 0.00 3 131 AR-03-08-45 0 0 17.00 1 132 Badger Springs 0 0 0.00 0 133 Ridge Ruin 0 0 0.00 0 134 Sundown Site 0 0 12.30 0 135 Sunrise Springs 0 0 14.00 0 136 Tse Bee Kintsoh LA51420 0 0 22.00 3 137 Bad Dog Ridge BM3 500 700 24.00 0 140 AZK03042 BM3-EP1 500 750 0.00 0 141 AZK10047NAU BM3-LP1 500 920 0.00 0 142 AZK11030NAU BM3-LP1 500 920 0.00 0 143 Springstead LA67360 BM3-LP1 500 920 18.00 0 144 AZK11020NAU BM3-LP2 500 1120 0.00 0 145 Kin Hocho'i/1 LA6541 EP1 730 800 16.00 0 146 Ram Mesa Community LA89482 EP1-LP1 720 920 15.00 0 147 AZK03003 EP1-LP1 750 950 0.00 0 148 Ganado EP1-LP2 700 1100 0.00 0 149 Springstead LA47119 EP1-LP2 729 1120 0.00 0 150 LA31977 EP1-LP3 720 1320 12.00 0 151 Tse Bee Kintsoh LA51398 EP1-LP3 720 1320 20.00 0 152 LA31914 LP1-LP2 870 1100 10.00 0 153 LA31926 LP1-LP2 870 1100 0.00 0 154 Heaton Canyon LA17219 EP2-LP2 900 1100 17.50 0 155 Hunter Point EP2-LP2 900 1100 0.00 0 156 Danson 184 EP2-LP2 920 1120 0.00 0 157 Ram Mesa Great House LA89484 EP2-LP2 920 1120 0.00 0 158 Thunder Ridge/1 EP2-LP2 950 1100 0.00 0 159 Thunder Ridge/2 EP2-LP2 950 1100 0.00 0 160 LA11410 EP2-EP3 920 1220 11.00 0 161 Springstead LA31933 EP2-EP3 870 1100 0.00 0 162 LA31935 EP2-EP3 800 1100 10.00 0 163 LA67352 EP2-EP3 920 1220 19.00 0 164 Danson 53 LA31982 EP2-LP3 870 1200 10.00 0 LITTLE COLORADO TABLE, CON'T Map Site Name Site No. Period Early Late Diameter Alcoves 165 LA31984 EP2-LP3 870 1200 10.00 0 166 LA31987 EP2-LP3 870 1200 20.00 0 167 LA31995 EP2-LP3 870 1200 10.00 0 168 LA31996 EP2-LP3 870 1200 12.00 0 169 Peggy Landons Site LA76000 EP2-EP3 900 1200 0.00 0 170 LA67326 EP2-EP3 920 1120 19.50 0 171 LA68326 EP2-LP3 920 1320 19.50 0 288 Danson 194 EP2-LP3 920 1320 0.00 0 172 Springstead LA47123/1 EP2-LP3 920 1320 0.00 0 173 Springstead LA47123/2 EP2-LP3 920 1320 0.00 0 174 Springstead LA47123/3 EP2-LP3 920 1320 0.00 0 175 Tse Bee Kinstoh LA51418 EP2-LP3 920 1320 18.50 3 176 EP2-LP3 920 1320 0.00 0 177 Danson 142 EP2-LP3 920 1320 0.00 0 178 Allantown LP2 1000 1100 19.00 0 179 Atsee Nitsaa LA1507 LP2 1000 1100 24.00 0 180 Danson 202 LA56160 LP2 1000 1100 0.00 0 187 AZK08042 LP2-EP3 1000 1200 15.00 0 188 AZK08042 LP2-EP3 1000 1200 20.00 0 189 AZK08153 LP2-EP3 1000 1150 13.80 0 190 AZK08162 LP2-EP3 1000 1150 0.00 0 191 AZK08173 LP2-EP3 1000 1150 0.00 0 192 AZK08173 LP2-EP3 1000 1150 0.00 0 193 ViU of Gt. Kivas LA631 LP2-EP3 1000 1200 15.55 0 194 LA67336 LP2-EP3 1020 1220 12.50 0 195 El Malpais Ruin LA685 LP2-EP3 1050 1150 14.00 0 196 El Malpais Ruin LA685 LP2-EP3 1050 1150 27.00 0 197 Kin Hocho'i/2 LA6541 LP2-EP3 1050 1150 22.00 0 198 Navajo Springs LP2-EP3 1050 1150 15.00 0 199 Petrified Forest 236 LP2-EP3 1050 1150 18.00 0 200 McCreery Pueblo AZK13041 LP2-EP3 1075 1125 18.00 0 201 AZP03079 LP2-LP3 1050 1250 18.00 0 202 AZP03079 LP2-LP3 1050 1250 • 11.00 0 203 Spiers Site 81 EP3 1150 1200 12.00 0 204 LA1341 EP3-LP3 1100 1250 10.00 0 205 Fenced-Up Horse Can. LA16279 EP3-LP3 1100 1250 17.00 1 206 Goesling Ranch LA4026 EP3-LP3 1100 1250 22.00 0 207 NA8013 EP3-LP3 1120 1320 0.00 0 208 ViU. of Gt. Kivas LA631 EP3-LP3 1120 1320 23.77 0 209 Fort Wingate LA2690 EP3-LP3 1150 1250 11.30 0 210 Hinkson Site LAI 1439 EP3-LP3 1175 1275 34.00 0 211 Jalarosa LA3993 EP3-LP3 1175 1275 14.00 0 212 Los Gigantes LA56159 EP3-LP3 1175 1275 25.00 0 213 Garcia Ranch AZQ08005 EP3-EP4 1175 1325 28.00 0 214 Atsinna LA99 EP3-LP4 1100 1400 11.00 0 215 Sanders AZK;15:2 LP3 1200 1250 24.60 0 216 Scribe S Site LP3 1225 1275 0.00 0 LITTLE COLORADO TABLE, CON'T Map Site Name Site No. Period Early Late Diameter Ait 217 Box S Site LA5538 LP3 1225 1290 27.00 1 218 Kin Tiel LP3 1275 1300 0.00 0 219 Kluckhohn 75 LA424 LP3 1275 1310 35.00 0 220 Cienega 82 LA425 LP3-EP4 1275 1375 0.00 0 221 Ojo Bonito LAI 1433 LP3-EP4 1250 1400 15.00 0 222 Showlow AZP12003 LP3-EP4 1200 1384 27.00 0

WEST CENTRAL NEW MEXICO Map Site Name Site No. Period Early Late Diameter Al< 223 Promontory BM2 250 550 11.00 0 224 SU Site/1 BM2-BM3 450 550 10.40 0 225 SU Site/2 BM2-BM3 450 550 12.50 0 226 WS Ranch LA3099 BM2-LP3 450 1325 13.00 0 227 Danson 421 BM3-P2 500 1120 0.00 0 228 Danson 67 EP1-LP3 720 1320 0.00 0 229 Kin Cheops I LA48030 EP1-LP3 720 1320 20.00 4 230 Squaw Canyon LA84657 LP1-EP2 800 950 10.00 0 231 Danson 84 EP2-LP2 920 1120 0.00 0 232 Danson 164 EP2-LP3 920 1320 0.00 0 233 Danson 172 EP2-LP3 920 1320 0.00 0 234 Danson 19 EP2-LP3 920 1320 13.00 0 235 Danson 25 EP2-LP3 920 1320 0.00 0 236 Danson 312 EP2-LP3 920 1320 0.00 0 237 Danson 426 EP2-LP3 920 1320 0.00 0 238 Danson 434 EP2-LP3 920 1320 0.00 0 239 Danson 435 EP2-LP3 920 1320 0.00 0 240 Danson 83 EP2-LP3 920 1320 0.00 0 241 Danson 97 EP2-LP3 920 1320 0.00 0 242 Danson 136 EP2-LP4 920 1520 0.00 0 243 Cox Ranch LA13681 LP2-EP3 1000 1175 20.00 0 244 Tom's Rock LA55366 LP2-EP3 1150 0 10.00 0 245 Hubble Corner LA8112 LP2-LP3 1050 1250 20.00 0 246 Largo Mesa LA14884 EP3 1100 1200 15.40 0 247 Largo Gap/1 LA3918 EP3 1150 0 15.00 0 248 Largo Gap/2 LA3918 EP3 1150 0 10.00 0 249 Medlin Ranch EP3 1200 0 28.00 0 250 Danson 51A EP3-LP3 1120 1320 0.00 0 251 Danson 562 EP3-LP3 1120 1320 0.00 0 252 Horse Camp Mill LA10983 EP3-LP3 1100 1300 0.00 0 GILA RIVER Map Site Name Site No. Period Early Late Diameter Alcoves 253 LA70250 0 0 0.00 0 254 Ojo Caliente LA86310 0 0 17.10 0 255 Winn Canyon LA34813 BM2 300 0 10.10 0 256 Harris Site LA1867 BM3-LP1 624 877 11.30 0 257 Mogollon Village LAI 1568 EP1-LP1 700 900 13.10 0 261 Villareal IV EP1-EP2 750 1000 10.50 0 262 Woodrow/1 LA2454 EP1-EP3 700 1200 37.40 0 263 Woodrow/2 LA2454 EP1-EP3 700 1200 19.10 0 264 TJ Ruin/1 LA54955 EP2-EP3 900 1150 16.00 0 265 TJ Ruin/2 LA54955 EP2-EP3 900 1150 10.00 0 266 Starkweather EP2-EP3 975 1180 11.40 0 258 LA34787/1 LP2-EP3 1000 1150 14.00 0 259 LA34787/2 LP2-EP3 1000 1150 14.00 0 267 LA50548 LP2-EP3 1000 1150 14.00 0 268 Lake Robert's Ruin LA71877 LP2-EP3 1000 1150 12.00 0

SILVER CREEK

Map Site Name Site No. Period Early Late Diameter Alcoves 269 Bluff Site AZP16020 BM2 238 322 13.25 0 270 Bear Ruin AZP16001 BM3 600 700 15.30 0 271 AR-03-01-07-415 AZP16153 LP2 1000 1100 11.00 0 272 AR-03-01-07-422 AZP16160 LP2 1000 1100 15.50 0 273 Tla Kii P16002 LP2 1000 1120 18.20 0 289 AZQ13001-ASU LP2 1000 1150 10.00 0 274 AR-03-01-07-535 AZP16090 LP2-EP3 1000 1200 13.00 0 275 Hough's Lost Site AZP16112 LP2-EP3 1050 1150 20.00 0 276 AR-03-01-07-566 AZP16065 EP3 1100 1200 17.00 0 277 Carter Ranch EP3 1111 1156 17.30 0 278 AZP11055-ASU EP3-LP3 1100 1250 17.00 0 279 AZP11124-ASU EP3-LP3 1100 1250 0.00 0 280 AZP11130-ASU EP3-LP3 1100 1250 0.00 0 281 AZP11157-ASU EP3-LP3 1100 1250 0.00 0 282 AZP12076-ASU EP3-LP3 1100 1250 13.00 0 283 AZP12099-ASU EP3-LP3 1100 1250 10.00 0 284 AZP12105-ASU EP3-LP3 1100 1250 13.50 0 285 Forestdale Ruin AZP16009 LP3 1200 1300 16.80 0

PROVENIENCE UNKNOWN- NEW MEXICO Site Name Site No. Period Early Late Diameter Alcoves 291 LA36407 BM3-P1 500 920 10.00 0 292 LA39261 LP1-LP2 850 1050 12.00 0

Note: This site was located after the map was complete. It's location, in Frijoles Canyon, is approximately 8 km south of the location plotted for LA 12830 -- plot location 2. APPENDIX C: FIGURES OF GREAT KIVA DIAMETERS: BY REGION AND PERIOD

Stem and Leaf Diagrams

The following forty-two figures are stem-and-leaf diagrams of great kiva diameters in meters. The stem-and-leaf diagram displays the shape of the distribution of great kiva diameters, • as does a histogram, while also presenting the numeric data (rounded to the nearest meter). In the following figures the first number on the left represents the tens place (10, 20, 30, etc.)- This is the

"stem" of the stem-and-leaf. The leaves are the numbers on the far right, and each leaf represents a single case (in this case, one leaf represents one great kiva diameter). This is where most of the variation within the diagram is read. The leaves are read together with the "stem" value to give the diameter of the great kiva. For example, at the top of figure two there are three great kivas with a 12 meter diameter, below this is a great kiva of 15 diameter, and below that a 17 meter great kiva. Between the stem and the leaf are the letters "H" and "M". The "H" stands for hinge, and the "M" for median. The median marks the point at which fifty percent of the data is above this mark and 50 percent is

below. The hinges mark the 25 percent and 75 percent points. The distance between the hinges is known as the interquartile range.

When a number is three times the interquartile range from the closest hinge it is called an "outside value" (Hartwig and Dearing

1982:16-19; Leland 1990:167, 189). 124

RIO GRANDE GREAT KIVAS

12H 0 11 0 12M 8 11H 13H 13 12H 0 14 0 12 8

FIGURE 1: Diameter (m) of FIGURE 2: Diameter (m) of Rio Grande Great Kivas: Rio Grande Great Kivas: Early Pueblo IV Late Pueblo IV 125

EASTERN PUERCO GREAT KIVAS 1 5 1H 222 -| 1H 0 1M 8 1M 7 1H 89 2H 2 2 3 2 3

FIGURE 3: Diameter (m) of FIGURE 4: Diameter (m) of Eastern Puerco Great Eastern Puerco Great Kivas: Late Pueblo I Kivas: Early Pueblo II

1 0 1 0 1H 222 1H 22 1 5 1 5 1M 67 1M 67 1H 89 1H 8 2 2 2 3 2 3 '"OUTSIDE VALUES"* "•OUTSIDE VALUES*" 2 8 2 8

FIGURE 5: Diameter (m) of FIGURE 6: Diameter (m) of Eastern Puerco Great Eastern Puerco Great Kivas: Late Pueblo II Kivas: Early Pueblo III 126

LITTLE COLORADO GREAT KIVAS

1 2 1H 1 1H 5 1M 58 1M 6 1H 8 2H 4 2 0

FIGURE 7: Diameter (m) of FIGURE 8: Diameter (m) of Little Colorado Great Little Colorado Great Kivas: Basketmaker III Kivas: Early Pueblo I

1 0 1H 000001 1H 2 1M 22 1M 5 1 1 1 7 1H 8 1H 8999 2 0 2 00

FIGURE 9: Diameter (m) of FIGURE 10: Diameter (m) Little Colorado Great of Little Colorado Great Kivas: Late Pueblo I Kivas: Early Pueblo II 127 LITTLE COLORADO GREAT KIVAS, con't

1H 000000111 1 0001111 1H 2223333 1 22233 1 44555 1M 45555 1M 7777 1 7 1 88899 2H 000 1H 888889999 2 223 2 0000 2 5 2 2 2 7 2 8 2 4 "'OUTSIDE VALUES'" 2 7 3 4

FIGURE 11: Diameter (m) FIGURE 12:Diameter (m) of of Little Colorado Great Little Colorado Great Kivas: Late Pueblo II Kivas: Early Pueblo III

1H 00000111 1 2233 1 45 1M 677 1 889 2 00 1H 15 2H 23 2 45 2 77 2H 78 2 8 3 3 3 45

FIGURE 13:Diameter (m) of FIGURE 14: Diameter (m) Little Colorado Great of Little Colorado Great Kivas: Late Pueblo III Kivas: Early Pueblo IV 128

SILVER CREEK GREAT KIVAS

1H 01 1 0 1 3 1H 333 1M 5 1M 1 1H 777 1H 8 1 2 0 2 0

FIGURE 15: Diameter(m) of FIGURE 16: Diameter (m) Silver Creek Great Kivas: of Silver Creek Great Late Pueblo II Kivas: Early Pueblo III

1H CO CO 1M 1H 67

FIGURE 17: Diameter (m) of Silver Creek Great Kivas: Late Pueblo III 129

GILA RIVER GREAT KIVAS

1M 013 1M 013 1H 9 1H 9 "•OUTSIDE VALUES"* ""OUTSIDE VALUES*" 3 7 3 7

FIGURE 18: Diameter (m) FIGURE 19: Diameter (m) of Gila River Great of Gila River Great Kivas: Early Pueblo I Kivas: Late Pueblo I

1 01 1H 2 1M 001 1M 444 1H 69 1H 6 "•OUTSIDE VALUES'" 1 9 3 7 "•OUTSIDE VALUES"* 3 7

FIGURE 20:Diameter (m) of FIGURE 21: Diameter (m) Gila River Great Kivas: of Gila River Great Early Pueblo II Kivas: Late Pueblo II GILA RIVER GREAT KIVAS,con 1

1 01 1H 2 1M 444 1H 6 1 9 •••OUTSIDE VALUES"* 3 7

FIGURE 22: Diameter (m) of Gila River Great Kivas: Early Pueblo III 131

WEST CENTRAL NEW MEXICO GREAT KIVAS

1M 01 1H 0 1H 23 1H 23

FIGURE 23: Diameter (m) FIGURE 24: Diameter (m) of West Central New of West Central New Mexico Great Kivas: Early Mexico Great Kivas: Early Pithouse A Pithouse B O O o C C 1M 03 1M 1H 1H 2 0 2 0

FIGURE 25: Diameter (m) FIGURE 26: Diameter (m) of West Central New of West-Central New Mexico Great Kivas: Late Mexico Great Kivas: Early Pueblo I Pueblo II 132

WEST CENTRAL NEW MEXICO GREAT KIVAS, con't O O o C C 1H 1H 0033 1M 55 1M 2H 0000 2H 000 2 8

FIGURE 27: Diameter (m) FIGURE 28: Diameter (m) of West-Central New of West-Central New Mexico Great Kivas: Late Mexico Great Kivas: Early Pueblo II Pueblo III CO 1M CO 1H 2 0

FIGURE 29: Diameter (m) of West-Central New Mexico Great Kivas: Late Pueblo III 133

NORTHERN SAN JUAN GREAT KIVAS

1 1 1M 2333 11 0 1 5 12H 9 1 13M 68 1H 9 14 2 15H 0 2 "•OUTSIDE VALUES*" 2 4 33 0 "•OUTSIDE VALUES*" 3 3

FIGURE 30: Diameter (m) FIGURE 31: Diameter (m) of Northern San Juan of Northern San Juan Great Kivas: Early Pueblo Great Kivas: Later Pueblo I I

11 000 12H 0 1 11 13 0 1 14 0 1M 5555 15M 0000 1 67 16H 0 1H 99 17 0 "•OUTSIDE VALUES"* 18 3 3 19 2 "•OUTSIDE VALUES*" 33 0

FIGURE 32: Diameter (m) FIGURE 33: Diameter (m) of Northern San Juan of Northern San Juan Great Kivas: Early Pueblo Great Kivas: Late Pueblo II II 134

NORTHERN SAN JUAN GREAT KIVAS, con11

11 00 13 04 12 07 14H 00 13H 004 14 03 15 00 15M 000 16 0 16 0 17M 0 17 00 ' 18 02 18 02 19H 025 19H 025 20 00 20 00 "•OUTSIDE VALUES"* •"OUTSIDE VALUES*" 33 00 33 0

FIGURE 34: Diameter (m) FIGURE 35: Diameter (m) of Northern San Juan of Northern San Juan Great Kivas: Early Pueblo Great Kivas: Late Pueblo III III 135

SAN JUAN KIVAS

1 0 1 2 1H 22 1H 55 1M 5 1H 7 1M 7 1 89 1H 899

FIGURE 36: Diameter (m) FIGURE 37: Diameter (m) of San Juan Great Kivas: of San Juan Great Kivas: Basketmaker III Early Pueblo I

11 0 12 05 '"OUTSIDE VALUES'" 13 12 05 13 14 14 05 15M 15H 058 005 16 00 16 0 17H 000055 18 0 17 0 19 00 18H 0 20 0 •"OUTSIDE VALUES'" 19 00 24 0

FIGURE 38: Diameter (m) FIGURE 39: Diameter (m) of San Juan Great Kivas: of San Juan Great Kivas: Late Pueblo I Early Pueblo II 136

SAN JUAN GREAT KIVAS, con't

11 000 10 6 12 0 11 00 13 45 12 0 14H 0005 13H 5 15 000258 14 00 16M 006 15M 0000028 17 00000555 16 18H 02 17H 05 19 003 18 20 00 19 0 21 20 0 22 0 21 23 0 22 0 '"OUTSIDE VALUES"' •"OUTSIDE VALUES'" 24 00 23 0

FIGURE 40: Diameter (m) FIGURE 41: Diameter (m) of San Juan Great Kivas: of San Juan Great Kivas: Late Pueblo II Early Pueblo III

11 0 12H 0 13 14 15H 008 16 17 0

FIGURE 42: Diameter (m) of San Juan Great Kivas: Late Pueblo III 137

APPENDIX D:GREAT KIVA SITES AND REFERENCES Site Name Site Number Reference AZK03003 Lee(1966) AZK03042 Lee(1966) AZK08042 Lee(1966) AZK08042 Lee(1966) AZK08153 Lee(1966) AZK08162 Lee(1966) AZK08173 Lee(1966) AZK08173 Lee(1966) AZK10047-NAU Winter(1994) AZK11020 Lee,(1961) AZK1102 0-NAU Winter(1994) AZK11030-NAU Winter(1994) AZP03079 ASM Site Files AZP03079 ASM Site Files AZQ13001-ASU Stanfford & Rice(1980) AZQ04093 ASM Site Files LA11410 Marshall et al.(1979) LA12830 ARMS LA1341 Fowler et al.(1987) LA31914 ARMS LA31926 ARMS LA31933 ARMS LA31935 ARMS LA31977 ARMS LA31982 ARMS LA31984 ARMS LA31987 ARMS LA31995 ARMS LA31996 ARMS LA34787/1 ARMS LA34787/2 ARMS LA36407 ARMS LA39261 ARMS LA40352 ARMS LA40423 ARMS LA50548 ARMS LA60002/1 ARMS LA60002/2 ARMS LA60006 ARMS LA60021 ARMS LA60022 ARMS LA60024 ARMS LA60746 ARMS LA67158 ARMS LA67326 ARMS LA67336 ARMS LA68326 ARMS 138

Site Name Site Number Reference LA69891 ARMS LA69892 ARMS LA69909 ARMS LA69911 ARMS LA70250 ARMS LA7292/1 Peckham(1963) LA7292/2 Peckham(1963) LA8245 Peckham(1963) LA82742 ARMS LA83871 ARMS LA98862 ARMS NA8013 Olson(1971);Dean(1971) NA8014 01son(1971) NMG02002 Lee(1961) 29SJ-1253 Marshall et al.(1979) 29SJ-1642 Marshall et al.(1979) 29SJ-423 Marshall et al.(1979) Abo LA97 Ferguson & Rohn(1987) Ackmen/1) Martin(1936) Ackmen/2) Martin(1936) Allantown Roberts(1939) Andrews(1) LA17218 Marshall et al.(1979) Andrews(2) LA17217 Marshall et al.(1979) Andrews(3) LA17207 Marshall et al.(1979) AR-03-01-07-566 AZP16065 Dosh(1991) AR-03-01-07-53 5 AZP16090 Dosh(1991) AR-03-01-07-415 AZP16153 Neily(1991) AR-03-01-07-422 AZP16160 Neily(1991) AR-03-01-08-45 Fowler et al.(1987) Atsee Nitsaa LA1507 Fowler et al.(1987) Atsinna LA99 ARMS Aztec-West Ruin LA45 Morris(1921) Bad Dog Ridge Winter(1994) Badger Spring Kintigh(1991) Bancos Village/1 LA4380 Eddy(1966) Bancos Village/2 LA4380 Eddy(1966) Bear Ruin AZP16001 Haury(1985b) Bear Squats/1 Gilpin(1989) Bear Squats/2 Gilpin(1989) Bear Squats/3 Gilpin(1989) Big Kiva LA82B Robinson et al.(1972) Blue Mesa COL:B:13 Marshall et al.1979) Bluff Site AZP16020 Haury(1985a) Box S LA5538 Spier(1917);Kintigh(1985) Broken Flute AZE08001 Marshall et al(1979) Cahone Rohn(1989) Carter Ranch Longacre(1970) Casa Patricio LA34208 ARMS 139

Site Name Site Number Reference Casa Rinconada LA841 Vivian & Reiter(1960) Casamero LA8779 Marshall et al.(1979) Cemetary Site Mills (personal comm.) Central Mesa Comm. LA85331 ARMS Central Mesa Comm. LA853 31 ARMS Chetro Ketl Vivian & Reiter(1960) Chetro Ketl Vivian & Reiter(1960) Chetro Ketl Vivian & Reiter(1960) Chimney Rock Eddy(1977) Cienega LA425 Spier(1917);Kintigh(1985) Comb Ridge Rohn(1989) Coolidge Pueblo LA17280 Marshall et al.(1979) Coolidge Pueblo LA17280 Marshall et al.(1979) Cox Ranch Site LA13681 Danson(1957) Dalton Pass Marshall et al.(1979) Danson 136 Danson 1957) Danson 142 Danson 1957) Danson 164 Danson 1957) Danson 172 Danson 1957) Danson 184 Danson 1957) Danson 19 Danson 1957) Danson 194 Danson 1957) Danson 202 LA56160 Dansoni 1957);Fowler(1987) Danson 25 Danson 1957) Danson 312 Danson 1957) Danson 421 Danson 1957) Danson 426 Danson 1957) Danson 434 Danson 1957) Danson 435 Danson 1957) Danson 51A Danson 1957) Danson 53 Danson 1957) Danson 562 Danson 1957) Danson 67 Danson 1957) Danson 83 Danson 1957) Danson 84 Danson 1957) Danson 97 Danson 1957) Dittert site LA11723 Fowler et al.(1987) El Malpais Ruin LA685 ARMS El Malpais Ruin LA685 ARMS El Rito LA13831 Powers et al.(1983) Fenced-Up Horse Can LA16279 Marshall et al.(1979) Figueredo LA2024 Fowler et al.(1987) Flora Vista LA2514 Morris(1939);Wendorf(1956) Forestdale AZP16009 Haury(1985d) Fort Wingate LA2690 Peckham(1958);Marshall et al.(1979) Ganado Gilpin(1989) Garcia Ranch AZQ08005 Kintigh(1991) 140

Site Name Site Number Reference Gobernador Community LA78861 ARMS Goesling Ranch LA4026 Marshall et al.(1979) Goodman Point Marshall et al.(1979) Grass Mesa Lightfoot et al.(1988) Harris Site LA1867 Haury(1936) Haystack/1 LA6022 Marshall et al.(1979) Haystack/2 LA12573a Marshall et al.(1979) Haystack/D LA12573 Marshall et al.(1979) Heaton Canyon LA17219 Marshall et al.(1979) Hinkson Site LA11439 Spier(1917) Hogback LA11207 Marshall et al.(1979) Holmes Group LA1898 ARMS Holmes Group LA1898 ARMS Holmes Group LA1898 ARMS Holsinger's Gt. Kiva LA40015/2 ARMS Horse Camp Mill Site LA10983 Danson(1957) Hough's Lost AZP16112 Hough(1903) Hubble Corner LA8112 McGimsey(1980) Hungo Pavi LA2463 Marshall et al.(1979) Hunters Point Gilpin(1989) Ida Jean Powers et al.(1983) Jalarosa LA3993 Fowler et al.(1987) Juniper Cove Marshall et al.(1979) Kin Bineola/1 LA18705 Marshall et al.(1979) Kin Bineola/2 LA18707 Marshall et al.(1979) Kin Cheops I LA48030 Danson(1957) Kin Hocho'i/1 LA6541 Fowler et al.(1987) Kin Hocho'i/2 LA6541 Fowler et al.(1987) Kin Nahasbas LAI5 2 Vivian & Reiter(1960) Kin Tiel Gilpin(1989) Kin Tl'iish LA68896 ARMS Kin Ya'a LA8978 Marshall et al.(1979) Kin Ya'a West LA40015 ARMS Kluckhohn LA424 . Spier(1917);Kintigh(1985) Lake Robert's Vista LA71877 ARMS Lancaster Ruin Rohn(1989) Largo Gap/1 LA391 Fowler et al.(1987) Largo Gap/2 LA3918 Fowler et al.(1987) Largo Mesa LA14884 ARMS Las Ventanas LA1328 Marshall et al.(1979) Loma Enebro LA78535 ARMS Los Gigantes LA56159 Marshall et al.(1979) Lowry LA627 Martin(1936) McCreery Pueblo AZK13041 Burton(1993) Medlin Ranch Fowler et al.(1987) Mogollon Village LAI1568 Haury(1936) Morfield Canyon Lister & Smith(1968) Morris Site 3 3 Marshall et al.(1979) 141 site Name Site Number Reference Morris Site 39/1 LA1897 Morris(1939) Morris Site 39/2 LA1897 Morris(1939) Morris Site 39/3 LA1897 Morris(1939) Morris Site 39/4 LA1897 Morris(1939) Morris Site 39/5 LA1897 Morris(1939) Morris Site 41/1 LA5631 Morris(1939) Morris Site 41/2 LA5631 Morris(1939) Nuddy Water LA10959 Marshall et al.(1979) Nancy Patterson Fergusoh & Rohn(1987) Navajo Spring Warburton&Graves(1992) Newcomb LA3223 Marshall et al.(1979) North Pasture LA11670 Fowler et al.(1987) Ojo Bonito LA11433 Bandelier(1892) Ojo Caliente LA86310 ARMS Padilla Well Marshall et al.(1979) Peach Spring LA10770 Powers et al.(1983) Peggy Landon LA76000 ARMS Penasco Blanco/1 LA255 Marshall et al.(1979) Penasco Blanco/2 LA255 Marshall et al.(1979) Penasco Blanco/3 LA255 Marshall et al.(1979) Penasco Blanco/4 LA255 Marshall et al.(1979) Petrified Forest 236 Fowler et al.(1987) Pojoaque Grant Site LA835 Stubbs(1954) Promontory Martin et al.(1949) Pueblo Bonito/1 LA226 Vivian & Reiter(1960) Pueblo Bonito/2 LA226 Vivian & Reiter(1960) Pueblo Bonito/3 LA226 Vivian & Reiter(1960) Pueblo Pintado LA574 Marshall et al.(1979) Puye Rohn & Ferguson(1987) Ram Mesa Community LA89482 Winter(1994) Ram Mesa Great House LA89484 Winter(1994) Red Willow LA51141 Fowler et al.(1987) Ridge Ruin Fowler et al.(1987) Ruby Community LA84304 ARMS Salmon Ruin LA8846 Irwin-Williams(1972) Sambrito Eddy(1966) San Mateo LA12731 Marshall et al.(1979) Sand Canyon Bradley(1991, 1992) Sanders AZK:15:2 Marshall et al.(1979) Sanostee(1) Powers et al.(1983) Sanostee(2) Marshall et al.(1979) Scribe S Site Watson et al.(1980) Shabik1eshchee LA530 Marshall et. al(1979); Wills(1991) Showlow AZP12003 Hauiry & Hargrave(1931) Singing Shelter Nelson & Kane(1986) Skunk Springs/1 LA7000 Marshall et al.(1979) Skunk Springs/2 LA7000 Marshall et al.(1979) 142

Site Name Site Number Reference Skunk Spring/3 LA7000 Marshall et al.(1979) Spiers Site 81 Spier(1917);Kintigh(1985) Springstead Comm. LA47119 Winter(1994) Springstead Comm. LA47123/1 Winter(1994) Springstead Comm. LA47123/2 Winter(1994) Springstead Comm. LA47123/3 Winter(1994) Springstead Comm. LA67352 Winter(1994) Springstead Comm. LA67360 Winter(1994) Squaw Canyon LA84657 ARMS Squaw Spring LA1988 Marshall et al.(1979) Squaw Spring LA1988 Marshall et al.(1979) Standing Rock LA18232 Powers et al.(1983) Starkweather Nesbitt(1938) SU site/1 Martin et al.(1940) SU site/2 Martin et al.(1940) Sundown Site Gumerman&Skinner(1968) Sunrise Springs Fowler et al.(1987) Tenabo LA200 Wendorf(1956) This isn't it Gilpin(1989) Thunder Ridge/1 Gilpin(1989) Thunder Ridge/2 Gilpin(1989) TJ Ruin/1 LA54955 ARMS TJ Ruin/2 LA54955 ARMS Tla Kii AZP16002 Haury(1985e) Tocito LA7603 Marshall et al.(1979) Tohatchi LA3098 Marshall et al.(1979) Tom's Rock LA55366 Danson(1957) Toh La Kai LA11234 Marshall et al.(1979) Tse Bee Kintsoh LA51398 ARMS Tse Bee Kintsoh LA51418 ARMS Tse Bee Kintsoh LA51420 ARMS Tse Chizzi/1 Gilpin(1989) Tse Chizzi/2 Gilpin(1989) Tseyatoh LA40394 Fowler et al.(1987) Twin Lakes LA51140 Fowler et al.(1987) Twin trees Rohn(1989) Una Vida Marshall et al.(1979) Vill. of Gt. Kivas LA631 Roberts(1932) Vill. of Gt. Kivas LA631 Roberts(1932) Villareal IV Anyon(1984) Whirlwind LA18237 Van Dyke(personal) Winn Canyon LA34813 Anyon(1984) Woodrow/1 LA2454 Anyon(1984) Woodrow/2 LA2454 Anyon(1984) WS Ranch LA3099 Danson(1957) Yellowjacket Rohn(1989) Yucca House/1 Powers et al.(1983) Yucca House/2 Morris(1921) 143

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IN THE SILVER CREEK COMMUNITY, ARIZONA

Sarah Alice Herr, M.A.

The University of Arizona, 1994

Director: Barbara J. Mills

This thesis explores the relationship between circular great kiva sites in the Silver Creek area and counterparts in regions across the Southwest. Great kivas, as communal architecture, are important in community integration.

Exploring their distribution through the variables of time, space and form helps us understand change in community integration.

The patterns in the temporal and spatial distribution of the Silver Creek great kivas correspond to the patterning of these variables in the Upper Little Colorado region. The majority of Silver Creek great kivas appear in a period of westward population movement after A.D. 1000. The Silver

Creek great kivas, do not, however, show the same range of formal variation. Since many of the changes in the Upper

Little Colorado area are described as resolving problems of increasing population and aggregation, lower population densities in the Silver Creek area may explain the reduced formal variability of its great kivas.