<<

TOTAH

TIME AND THE RIVERS FLOWING: EXCAVATIONS IN THE LA PLATA VALLEY

VOLUME 5

HARMONY AND DISCORD: BIOARCHAEOLOGY

Debra L. Martin Nancy J. Akins Alan H. Goodman H. Wolcott Toll Alan C. Swedlund

ARCHAEOLOGY NOTES 242

OFFICE OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDIES SANTA FE 2001 NEW

ADMINISTRATIVE SUMMARY

In connection with improvements to NM 170 by the Highway and Transportation Department (NMSHTD), the La Plata archaeological project stretched over ten years, from 1981 to 1991. This work, conducted by the Research Section of the Museum of New Mexico (MNM), which later became the Office of Archaeological Studies, included survey and testing, resurvey and further testing conducted in 1988 and 1989, and excavations in 1985 and 1988-1991. The NMSHTD has widened and realigned 14 miles of the La Plata Highway between Farmington and La Plata, northwestern New Mexico. This report concerns human burials encountered during excavations in 1988-1991 at the following sites: LA 1897, LA 37591, LA 37592, LA 37593, LA 37594, LA 37595, LA 37598, LA 37599, LA 37600, LA 37601, LA 37603, LA 37605, LA 37606, LA 60751, LA 65029, LA 65030, and LA 65031. The text provides a detailed description of the methods used for data collection and the analytical techniques for processing the information. Skeletal remains from the project fall into two main categories: articulated burials and disarticulated remains. Sixty-seven individuals were collected and analyzed as intact burials, and at least 68 additional individuals are represented by disarticulated remains. The major objectives of the research include the construction of demographic and health profiles for the burial population. The mortuary complex is described and discussed particularly as it relates to delineating the full range of vari- ability in burial and interment practices. Baseline data on age, sex, pathologies, morphological measure- ments, and other kinds of data are presented in a way that will contribute to the growing database on bio- logical remains from the Southwest. Vital to the analysis of the disarticulated remains was determining the numbers of individuals and taphonomic processes resulting in deposition. Comparisons between the La Plata Valley population and other contemporaneous groups, particularly groups within the Chaco Canyon and Mesa Verde regions, are made whenever possible. The analysis and reporting were done as a cooperative effort between contractors Debra L. Martin and Alan Goodman (Hampshire College); Alan Swedlund (University of Massachusetts); and Nancy Akins and Wolcott Toll, staff members of the Office of Archaeological Studies. The NMSHTD provided the funding for this project.

NMSHTD Project ST[S]-1331[201], CN 1496 MNM Project 41.419 (testing), 41.454 (data recovery) Permits SE-37 (testing) SE-46 (data recovery)

iii

CONTENTS

ADMINISTRATIVE SUMMARY ...... iii

CHAPTER 1. LA PLATA VALLEY HUMAN REMAINS: A BIOARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDY. . . . 1 Raison d'Être ...... 1 Modeling the Effects of Stress and Change Using Skeletal Remains ...... 7 Populations at Risk in La Plata Valley ...... 9 Integrating Demography and Health with Archaeological Reconstruction in the Southwest . . . . . 10 Research Objectives of the La Plata Highway Human Remains Analysis ...... 11

CHAPTER 2. FIELD AND LABORATORY METHODS ...... 13 Excavation and Curation of the La Plata Human Remains ...... 13 Studies of Human Remains and Contract Archaeology...... 14 Methods Used in the Analysis of the La Plata Human Remains ...... 15 Summary ...... 27

CHAPTER 3. MORTUARY AND DEMOGRAPHIC CONTEXT OF THE LA PLATA VALLEY HUMAN REMAINS ...... 33 Mortuary Patterning of the La Plata Burials ...... 33 Demographic Features of the La Plata Skeletal Population...... 37 Discussion ...... 41

CHAPTER 4. HEALTH PROFILE OF THE LA PLATA VALLEY COMMUNITIES ...... 65 Porotic Hyperostosis ...... 65 Periosteal Reaction and Other Infections ...... 67 Linear Enamel Hypoplasias and Other Developmental Defects ...... 71 Subadult Growth ...... 75 Anthropometry of Adults ...... 76 Osteoarthritis ...... 77 Metastatic Cancer ...... 78 Trauma ...... 82 Discussion ...... 93

CHAPTER 5. DIET AND RELATED HEALTH ISSUES IN THE LA PLATA VALLEY POPULATION...... 105 Stable Isotopic Analysis ...... 105 Diet and Dental Health...... 106

CHAPTER 6. DISARTICULATED HUMAN REMAINS ...... 121 Methodological Considerations ...... 121 Damage and Breakage in the Burial Sample...... 123 Site by Site Information on the Disarticulated Human Remains ...... 132 Assemblage Comparisons ...... 165 Discussion ...... 168

CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSIONS ...... 191 Health and Demography ...... 191 Patterns in Trauma ...... 192

v Culturally Modified Disarticulated Assemblage ...... 193 The La Plata Health Profile ...... 195 Comparing Health Profiles of La Plata, Mesa Verde, and Chaco Canyon Populations...... 196 The Ethical Aspects of What We Do ...... 197

NOTES ...... 201

REFERENCES CITED ...... 205

Appendix 1. Site Location Information (removed from copies for public distribution) ...... 223 Appendix 2. Human Skeletal and Dental Remains Data Management...... 231 Appendix 3. Burial Inventory ...... 245 Appendix 4. Postcranial Measurements ...... 277

Figures

1.1. Map of the greater Southwest, showing locations mentioned in this report ...... 2 1.2. Map of the La Plata Valley, showing greathouses and communities ...... 3 1.3. Map of the Totah region, showing Totah greathouses...... 4 1.4. General model for integrating human remains with archaeological context ...... 8 2.1. Moderate unremodeled porotic hyperostosis in the orbital region of a subadult with a midpoint age of two years. LA 37592, B1 ...... 18 2.2. Moderate unremodeled periosteal reaction on the right tibia of a subadult with a midpoint age of nine years. LA 37601, B8 ...... 18 2.3. Threshold model for understanding the formation of LEHs. Defect formation is modeled as an all-or-none phenomenon. Unknown etiological factors, diet, and morbidity combine to disrupt enamel development to a degree that an LEH may occur ...... 21 2.4. Distinctive LEH formation on maxillary anterior permanent teeth. LA 65030, B6 ...... 22 3.1. Survivorship (lx): La Plata and other southwestern groups...... 43 3.2. Survivorship (lx): La Plata and later southwestern groups ...... 43 3.3. Probability of dying (qx): La Plata and other southwestern groups ...... 44 3.4. Probability of dying (qx): La Plata and later southwestern groups ...... 44 4.1. Distribution of osteomyelitic lesions. LA 37601, B4 ...... 69 4.2. Osteomyelitis of the sternum. LA 37601, B4 ...... 70 4.3. Osteomyelitic and normal humerus. LA 37601, B4 ...... 70 4.4. Vertebrae showing tubercular involvement. LA 65030, FS 510 ...... 71 4.5. Prevalence of LEH by tooth: La Plata and other southwestern groups ...... 73 4.6. LEH per tooth (mean): La Plata and other southwestern groups...... 73 4.7. LEH by age at formation: La Plata ...... 74 4.8. Femoral distance curves (ages 0-7): La Plata and comparison groups ...... 74 4.9. Distribution of lesions due to metastatic cancer. LA 37601, B2 ...... 79 4.10. Left femur showing osteolytic lesions of metastatic cancer. LA 37601, B2 ...... 80 4.11. Right innominate showing osteolytic lesions of metastatic cancer. LA 37601, B2 ...... 80 4.12. Parietal showing large and small lesions due to metastatic cancer. LA 37601, B2 ...... 81 4.13. Cervical vertebrae demonstrating osteolytic lesions. LA 37601, B2 ...... 81 4.14. Lumbar vertebrae demonstrating osteolytic lesions. LA 37601, B2 ...... 82 4.15. Depression fracture on the right parietal. LA 37599, B5 ...... 83 4.16. Multiple traumatic lesions on the frontal bone. LA 37601, B4 ...... 83 4.17. Cranial trauma on parietals and occipital. LA 65030, B9 ...... 83

vi 4.18. Depression fracture of the occipital region. LA 65030, B6...... 84 4.19. Approximate location and size of injuries on the combined female crania ...... 86 4.20. Female, age 25, no trauma, Pit Structure 1, upper fill. LA 37595, B1...... 86 4.21. Female, age 20, cranial and postcranial trauma, Pit Structure 1, lower fill. LA 65030, B8 . . . . . 87 4.22. Female, age 33, cranial and postcranial trauma, Pit Structure 1, lower fill. LA 65030, B9 . . . . . 87 4.23. Age 10.5, no trauma, Pit Structure 1, lower fill. LA 65030, B7 ...... 88 4.24. Female, age 38, cranial and postcranial trauma, Pit Structure 1, lower fill. LA 65030, B6 . . . . . 88 4.25. Female, age 28, cranial trauma, Pit Structure 8, lower fill. LA 65030, B16 ...... 89 4.26. Female, age 25, cranial and postcranial trauma, Pit Structure 2, middle fill. LA 37601, B4 . . . . 89 4.27. Male, age 25, cranial trauma, Pit Structure 2, middle fill. LA 37599, B5 ...... 90 5.1. La Plata dental wear: maxillary and mandibular teeth ...... 107 5.2. Molar attrition gradients: La Plata versus Black Mesa ...... 107 5.3. Scatterplot of age and attrition: La Plata and Black Mesa ...... 108 5.4. Molar attrition gradients: males versus females ...... 108 5.5. Percent abscessing...... 109 6.1. Humerus broken by backhoe. Note remaining plasticity and peel on this eroded bone. LA 37601, B1 ...... 122 6.2. Erosion of surface of right parietal (cf. White 1992: Figs. 7.7, 7.21). LA 37601, B8 ...... 125 6.3. Crisp breaks produced by backhoe. LA 37601, B5...... 125 6.4. Recent peel on mandible. LA 37601, B3 ...... 126 6.5. Natural deterioration of mandibular margins. LA 37601, B1 ...... 126 6.6. Weathered clavicle. LA 37601, B5 ...... 6.7. Carnivore-damaged ribs. LA 65030, B13...... 127 6.8. Erosion of tibia shaft (cf. White 1992: Fig. 6.29). LA 37601, B1 ...... 128 6.9. Old and fresh spiral breaks on the same fibula. LA 37605, FS 201-1 ...... 128 6.10. Carnivore punctures on left ilium. LA 65030, B13...... 130 6.11. Carnivore-damaged ascending ramus. LA 37595, B2 ...... 130 6.12. Carnivore-damaged long bones (hole in fourth element from top is a sample location) LA 37595, B2 ...... 131 6.13. Carnivore damage on remains of a burial . LA 37599, B0.1...... 131 6.14. Placed long bone and cranial elements in Layer 1 of Pit Structure 1, LA 37592 ...... 133 6.15. Cranial elements. LA 37592, FS 229 ...... 134 6.16. Altered bone: humerus, radius, ulna, and miscellaneous long bone fragments. LA 37592, FS 315 ...... 134 6.17. Altered bone: femora, patella, hand, and foot elements. LA 37592, FS 315 ...... 135 6.18. Altered bone: femur, rib, ulna, tibia, and long bones. LA 37592, FS 326 ...... 135 6.19. Occipital with cut marks from a two-year-old child. LA 37592, FS 216-6 ...... 137 6.20. Damage to inferior border of mandible. LA 37592, FS 241-1 ...... 137 6.21. Frontal with abrasions and possible bite marks. LA 37592, FS 327-6...... 138 6.22. Mandible with peel. LA 37592, FS 227-4 and FS 327-9...... 138 6.23. Detail of cuts, frontal inferior broken edge. LA 37592, FS 229-15...... 139 6.24. Frontal cuts near sagittal suture. LA 37592, FS 229-15 ...... 139 6.25. Peel on an immature proximal ulna. LA 37592, FS 326-13 ...... 140 6.26. Right orbit with many small linear marks. LA 37592, FS 70-1...... 140 6.27. Left humerus with cut marks, distal and posterior. LA 37592, FS 327-7...... 141 6.28. Crushed proximal femur. LA 37592, FS 315-2 and 315-3 ...... 141 6.29. Ectocranial release. LA 37592, FS 216 ...... 142 6.30. Parietal fragments with external vault release. LA 37592, FS 563-48 and FS 563-49 ...... 142 6.31. Right parietal and occipital with impact notch. LA 37592, FS 216-14 ...... 144

vii 6.32. Cut marks on a clavicle. LA 37592, FS 315-1 ...... 144 6.33. Cut marks on femur neck. LA 37592, FS 315-15 ...... 145 6.34. Tibia with crenelated edge. LA 37592, FS 315-4 ...... 145 6.35. Unusual breakage/alteration patterns on clavicle, humerus, and tibia. LA 37592, FS 326 . . . . . 146 6.36. Child's clavicle with cuts or rodent gnawing. LA 37592, FS 326-45 ...... 146 6.37. Bite marks in cervical vertebrae. LA 37592, FS 326-13 ...... 148 6.38. Burned fragments of bone. LA 37593, FS 551-30 ...... 148 6.39. Child cranium in situ. LA 37593, FS 528...... 149 6.40. Cranial break, possibly caused by rock. LA 37593, FS 528-33...... 149 6.41. Child cranium in situ. LA 37593, FS 520...... 150 6.42. Left parietal with breaks. LA 37593, FS 563-70...... 150 6.43. Breaks above the left orbit. LA 37593, FS 564 ...... 151 6.44. Bone layer with numerous cobbles. LA 37593...... 151 6.45. Bone layer with cobbles. LA 37593 ...... 152 6.46. Problematic break. LA 37593, FS 563-54 ...... 152 6.47. Gash in a metacarpal. LA 37593, FS 852-4 ...... 153 6.48. Left femur shaft. LA 37601, FS 403 ...... 156 6.49. Breaks caused by waterline trenching. LA 37601, B5 ...... 156 6.50. Fresh backhoe breaks on femur and humerus. LA 37601, B5...... 157 6.51. Burned human bone. LA 37603, FS 169 and FS 178 ...... 157 6.52. Fresh spiral break on fibula, unusual damage on femur midshaft, probably by carnivore. LA 37605, FS 82 ...... 159 6.53. Carnivore-damaged elements. LA 65030, FS 516 ...... 161 6.54. Burned elements. LA 65030, FS 513 ...... 161 6.55. LA 65030, FS 13 and FS 14. Burned femur, maxilla, and mandible ...... 162 6.56. Healed trauma on right parietal. LA 65030, FS 511-11 ...... 162 6.57. Parietal fracture along suture, endocranial release. LA 65030, FS 509-20 ...... 163 6.58. Breakage. LA 65030, FS 514-38 ...... 163 6.59. Fine abrasion along temporal and parietal. LA 65030, FS 514-38 ...... 164 6.60. Location of abrasions on frontal. LA 65030, FS 509 and FS 514-32 ...... 164 6.61. Right parietal with abrasion. LA 65030, FS 514-33 ...... 165 6.62. Left parietal percussion pit. LA 65030, FS 514-28...... 165 6.63. Frontal impact and radiating crack on exterior (with vessel impressions). LA 65030, FS 516-43...... 167 6.64. Endocranial vault release. LA 65030, FS 516-43 ...... 167 6.65. LA 65030, FS 514-10. Temporal with unusual breakage ...... 168 6.66. Percentage of element counts: LA 37592, LA 37593, LA 65030, Mancos ...... 169

Tables (following each chapter)

2.1. Summary of skeletal and dental indicators of stress ...... 28 2.2. Summary of La Plata burials ...... 29 2.3. Regression equations for estimation of age for linear hypoplasia formation ...... 32 2.4. Assessment of dental wear...... 32 3.1. Subadult burials by age, location, and ...... 45 3.2. Male burials by age, location, and grave goods ...... 46 3.3. Female burials by age, location, and grave goods ...... 47 3.4. Adults of unknown age or sex by location and grave goods ...... 48 3.5. Subadult burial position...... 48

viii 3.6. Male burial position ...... 49 3.7. Female burial position ...... 50 3.8. Adults of unknown age or sex by burial position ...... 50 3.9. La Plata burial location ...... 51 3.10. Burial position of La Plata burials ...... 51 3.11. La Plata Valley burials reported by Morris (1939) ...... 53 3.12. Mesa Verde burials (A.D. 900-1300) ...... 59 3.13. Chaco Canyon burials ...... 59 3.14. La Plata burial goods...... 60 3.15. Distribution of age-at-death ...... 60 3.16. Summary by age and sex...... 61 3.17. Age composition of New World prehistoric sites ...... 61 3.18. Life table: La Plata burial population...... 62 3.19. Life expectancy at birth values for Southwest series ...... 63 3.20. Ranked comparisons of mortality and fertility estimates ...... 64 4.1. Subadults: presence of lesions indicative of anemia and infection ...... 94 4.2. Males: Presence of lesions indicative of anemia and infection ...... 95 4.3. Females: Presence of lesions indicative of anemia and infection ...... 95 4.4. Porotic hyperostosis: Comparison across Southwest groups...... 96 4.5. Periosteal reactions: Comparison across Southwest groups ...... 96 4.6. Frequencies of LEH per tooth ...... 97 4.7. Percentage of males and females with one or more hypoplasias by tooth...... 97 4.8. Frequency of LEH per tooth and by half-year development periods...... 98 4.9. Adult metrics for upper extremities: males and females ...... 99 4.10. Adult metrics for lower extremities: Males and females...... 99 4.11. Adult stature and robusticity: Males and females ...... 100 4.12. Stature of select Southwest populations ...... 100 4.13. Female osteoarthritis ...... 101 4.14. Male osteoarthritis...... 102 4.15. Trauma ...... 103 4.16. Frequencies of healed trauma ...... 103 4.17. Gender differences...... 104 4.18. Frequencies of traumatic injury in project area population samples ...... 104 5.1. Stable carbon isotope values ...... 113 5.2. Attrition score by tooth for the total sample ...... 114 5.3. Attrition gradients for maxillary and mandibular molars ...... 114 5.4. Dental abscessing by tooth type for the total sample ...... 115 5.5. Frequencies of grades of alveolar resorption by dental quadrant...... 115 5.6. Frequency of caries by tooth type, maxillary teeth ...... 116 5.7. Frequency of caries by tooth type, mandibular teeth ...... 117 5.8. Frequency of occlusal and nonocclusal caries for total sample ...... 117 5.9. Frequency of premortem tooth loss by tooth type for total sample ...... 118 5.10. Frequencies of dental caries...... 119 5.11. Frequencies of premortem loss...... 119 6.1. Summary of La Plata disarticulated human bone ...... 172 6.2. Parts missing from La Plata burials ...... 172 6.3. Summary of parts missing from the La Plata breakage study burial sample ...... 174 6.4. Fracture form of old and fresh breaks in the La Plata burial sample...... 175 6.5. Number of individuals represented by element, LA 37592...... 176

ix 6.6. Summary of altered bone by element, LA 37592 ...... 177 6.7. Summary of alteration by age, LA 37592...... 178 6.8. Burned human bone, LA 37592 ...... 178 6.9. Number of individuals represented by element, LA 37593...... 179 6.10. Alteration type by element, LA 37593 ...... 180 6.11. Alteration by age, LA 37593 ...... 180 6.12. Elements probably from the same individual and elements in articulation, LA 37593 ...... 181 6.13. Comparison of clustered, altered, and carnivore-damaged proportions, LA 37593 ...... 182 6.14. Number of individuals represented by element, LA 37595 ...... 183 6.15. Number of individuals represented by element, LA 37598 ...... 183 6.16. Number of individuals represented by element, LA 37599 ...... 184 6.17. Number of individuals represented by element, LA 37600 ...... 184 6.18. Number of individuals represented by element, LA 37601 ...... 185 6.19. Number of individuals represented by element, LA 37603 ...... 185 6.20. Number of individuals represented by element, LA 37605 ...... 186 6.21. Number of individuals represented by element, LA 37606 ...... 186 6.22. Number of individuals represented by element, LA 65030 ...... 187 6.23. Alteration type by element, LA 65030 ...... 187 6.24. Alteration type by age, LA 65030 ...... 188 6.25. Comparison of bone assemblages from LA 37592, LA 37593, and LA 65030 ...... 188 6.26. Percent of elements, La Plata sites and Mancos ...... 189 7.1 Age composition of selected Southwest burial populations compared to age composition of disarticulated remains...... 199 7.2 Comparison of La Plata with selected Southwest skeletal populations ...... 200

x CHAPTER 1 lation. The mortuary complex is described and dis- cussed particularly because it relates to delineating the LA PLATA VALLEY HUMAN REMAINS: full range of variability in burial and interment prac- A BIOARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDY tices. Baseline data on age, sex, pathologies, morpho- logical measurements, and other kinds of data are pre- sented in a way that will contribute to the growing data This report summarizes information obtained from base on biological remains from the Southwest. human skeletal material retrieved during the La Plata Comparisons between the La Plata Valley population Highway Archaeological Project. This skeletal popula- and other contemporaneous groups, particularly groups tion is important for several reasons. It represents pre- within the Chaco Canyon and Mesa Verde regions, are contact people living in the La Plata Valley in northwest made whenever possible. New Mexico, a region that has been underutilized in the This project represents a collaborative approach interpretation of precolonial local and regional between archaeologists and biological anthropologists. political-economic dynamics in the region Although this is not unprecedented in the American (Figs. 1.1 and 1.2; Sebastian 1992:151; H. Toll 1993). Southwest, the great majority of skeletal reports are cul- The burials include 67 different individuals and addi- tural resource management documents that are difficult tional disarticulated remains representing at least 68 to locate, brief appendices attached to larger reports, others. Demographic representation in the collection is monographs with limited readership, and unpublished good, and the sample size is sufficient to make observa- papers on file (many written by people no longer work- tions about patterning in mortuary behavior, demogra- ing within this field). Thus, human biological remains phy, dietary adequacy, and health status. are almost always separate from other aspects of archae- The osteological analyses demonstrate that this ological interpretation and synthesis. Many of the more population was unique in several ways. Although the interpretive studies of human remains from the mean age of death at birth is 24.5, the collection repre- Southwest have focused on adaptation to scarce sents a rather youthful population, with relatively few resources and marginal environmental conditions individuals in the oldest age categories. This is not (Martin et al. 1991; Palkovich 1980; Stodder 1987). The unlike the sample from Grasshopper Ruin, studied by La Plata context provides an alternative view. Resources Hinkes (1983), where subadults were over-represented. for a time may have been adequate, with permanent However, in the La Plata sample, the relative abundance water and abundant crop land (M. Toll 1993). The addi- of young adults may be a function of the large propor- tional recovery of individuals in disarticulated (nonbur- tion of females dying under the age of 40 (versus good ial) contexts suggests that some elective modes of cul- representation of males over the age of 40). The pat- tural and mortuary behavior were operating within this terning of traumatic lesions and pathologies suggests region, and for this reason it warrants special attention. that A.D. 1000-1200 was a dangerous time to be female in the La Plata Valley. These data, combined with the RAISON D’ÊTRE finding of a mass burial with signs of violent death and dismemberment, leave little doubt that there was strife Human remains represent a uniquely rich data set within the La Plata Valley region (Figs. 1.2, 1.3). for a wide range of investigations emanating from sub- Another intriguing feature of this collection is the disciplines such as archaeology, biological anthropolo- low prevalence of pathological lesions indicative of gy, forensic medicine, disease ecology, and public nutritional problems and a moderate prevalence of those health. The passage of the Native American Graves indicative of infectious disease. That is, as a population, Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990 (25 U.S.C. § frequencies for many of the nonspecific indicators of 3001) provides an opportunity for the descendants of stress usually associated with malnutrition and/or high indigenous people to participate fully in decisions rates of transmissible infectious diseases are moderate regarding the retrieval, analysis, curation, and ultimate when compared with other Southwest groups. However, repatriation of all ancient human remains in North good health was not universal, as demonstrated by a America. In accordance with this legislation, the La severe and advanced case of carcinoma, a serious case Plata Highway Project is indebted to the Native of systemic osteomyelitis, and at least two cases of Americans and Museum of New Mexico officials who tuberculosis. worked out a mutually agreeable plan for the excava- This report provides a detailed description of the tion, curation, and analysis of the human remains.1 methods used for data collection and analysis. The Archaeologists have begun to work more collaborative- major objectives of the research include the construction ly with the Native American community (Barrios 1993; of demographic and health profiles for the burial popu- Coughlin 1994; Echo-Hawk 1993), and biological

1 Figure 1.1. Map of the greater Southwest, showing locations mentioned in this report.

2 Figure 1.2. Map of the La Plata Valley, showing greathouses and communities.

3 Figure 1.3. Map of the Totah region, showing Totah greathouses.

4 anthropologists have moved in this direction as well condition of native populations is arguably more press- (Cameron 1994; Martin 1993). ing? Why not concentrate efforts on people living today, Native American scholars have rightly criticized because the need there is so great? Our reply is that the treatment of human remains by archaeologists often, the ultimate cause of poor health and maladapta- (Deloria 1989). Especially in the American Southwest, tion is not proximally located; rather, it is an “upstream” burials found in archaeological contexts were rarely manifestation of a situation displaced temporally and/or appropriately curated, systematically studied, or inte- spatially (McKinlay and McKinlay 1974). Furthermore, grated into a research program (Martin et al. 1991:5-6). bioarchaeologists have the methods to extract informa- Historically, biological anthropologists worked in isola- tion about the past that encompass environmental, cul- tion on their analyses of human biological material, and tural, and biological factors. Disease can be located in archaeologists were infrequent or random consumers of time and space, and an examination of the interrelated- the resulting data. However, as pointed out by Edmund ness of ecological, behavioral, and biological variables Ladd, a Zuni anthropologist (see Coughlin 1994:A16), can be made (Goodman et al. 1984a; Larsen 1987). and Richard West (1993), director of the National It has only been through the archaeological record Museum of the American Indian, biological remains that anthropologists and historians have come to under- represent a data base with the potential to bring impor- stand how changes over time in environment, political tant information to Native Americans and new research and economic structure, subsistence and diet, and settle- agendas to biological anthropologists and archaeolo- ment patterns can and do have profound effects on pop- gists. In an attempt to rectify certain misunderstandings ulation structure and rates of morbidity and mortality. A (on all sides) of what the potential of biological data is, particularly commanding set of examples for this can be bioarchaeology as a field of study has emerged as a way found in Paleopathology at the Origins of Agriculture, to integrate human remains into research programs that which focuses on relating changes in health to shifts in are responsive to Native American concerns, as well as subsistence economy in many different locales around into scientific investigations that are multidisciplinary the world (Cohen and Armelagos 1984). and synthetic. Disease has greatly affected the course of human The study of the La Plata Highway human remains history (Armelagos and Dewey 1970). Colton (1936) was guided by analytical approaches that have emerged and others (Jett 1964; Kunitz 1970; Kunitz and Euler from bioarchaeology. Briefly, bioarchaeology took 1972) have argued that disease may have played a major shape in the early 1980s as processual archaeology role in the rise and fall of populations in different parts began to provide a set of scientific principles and to of the Southwest at different times in prehistory. Few focus on ecological explanations (Binford and Binford models of culture change in the Southwest currently rely 1968). Concurrently, human adaptability developed on disease as a primary causal factor, but empirical within biological anthropology as a means of combining demographic and disease data analyzed on regional lev- interests in evolutionary change with concern for the els do suggest the role of poor health, dietary inadequa- various adaptive problems faced by humans today, espe- cies, or differential mortality during periods of stability cially those living in limited and ecologically marginal and centralization, or instability and abandonment environments (Buikstra and Cook 1980; Huss-Ashmore (Martin 1994; Nelson et al. 1994). et al. 1982; Larsen 1987; Goodman et al. 1988). With There is little doubt that depopulation in some areas questions focusing on how humans manage to survive of the Southwest and aggregation in other areas and adapt (behaviorally, physiologically, developmen- occurred throughout the precontact period. Regional tally, or genetically) to environmental constraints and populations grew steadily until about A.D. 1000, fluctu- stressors, human adaptability clearly shared an ecologi- ated, then declined rapidly after A.D. 1200 (Dean et al. cal perspective with processual archaeology. 1994:73). A variety of factors, none of which explain the Bioarchaeology is a de facto interdisciplinary research phenomenon entirely, have been offered. To name but a program, that is, it ensures that data collection and, more few, droughts, internal warfare, cultural and climatic importantly, data interpretation will be scrutinized and changes affecting the landscape and the amount of till- challenged by people from a number of backgrounds able soil, attacks by Athapaskan raiders, disease, and a with a variety of viewpoints on the appropriate use and shortening of the growing season brought on by a drop meaning of data derived from human skeletal remains. in the mean temperature have all been postulated as While working on this project, the biological causes of this decline (Hevly 1988; Dean et al. 1994). anthropologists involved were repeatedly asked by Early scholars, in the absence of empirical data, onlookers: Why is it important to use ancient skeletal visualized the precontact past relative to historic and remains to document patterns of health and disease for contemporary Pueblo Indians. For example, Colton indigenous precontact groups, especially if the current (1936) was heavily influenced by his stay in a Hopi vil-

5 lage, where he witnessed communities with a high den- centralization and illness, the impact of population reor- sity of people living in close proximity to trash and con- ganization or collapse on mortality, and the relationship taminated water. Using ethnographic analogy, he sug- between social stratification, differential access to gested that settled village life in prehistory must have resources, and health. These kinds of problems demand been fraught with disease and sickness. Titiev (1972), a a multidimensional approach because they cross over cultural anthropologist living in a Hopi village in 1933, numerous disciplinary boundaries. repeatedly mentioned the unsanitary conditions and The interpretation of data derived from human generally poor health of many of the inhabitants, often skeletal remains requires an evaluation of the individ- relating contemporary attitudes about health and sick- ual’s resistance to stressors (by examining the presence, ness to earlier ancestral conditioning to such a lifestyle. severity, and status of skeletal lesions), the source of the Interestingly, Colton felt that because are sick stressor (environmental or cultural), and the effect of the today, they must have been sick in the past. Titiev buffering systems. For analysis of human biological thought that it is because they were sick in the past that adaptation in the precontact Southwest in general and they are sick today as well. Colton’s and Titiev’s obser- the La Plata Valley in particular, we are fortunate to vations may be relevant to our understanding of the have an abundance of information on many of these fac- Hopi experience as well as ancestral Pueblo peoples, but tors (volumes in this series). The ecological, behavioral, these hypotheses need to be tested against all available and cultural factors most crucial for understanding empirical evidence of disease and death, which must dietary and disease stress are known, and hypotheses come largely from analysis of human remains. concerning the range of expected skeletal responses and Another requirement of empirical data on health changes can be generated and tested. and disease in the Pueblo past is to reevaluate the early The concept of adaptation to stress is complex. and entrenched idea that although life was harsh for Stodder (1987) points out that some archaeologists are ancient Pueblo people, there was an intuitive under- critical of the use of stress as a catch-all for population standing of complex ecological systems. Morris worked change and decline in the Southwest. We use the term in in the La Plata Valley from 1915 for almost fifteen a very specific way and agree that it is not useful as a years. He, along with other archaeologists (such as simple cause-effect explanation. Linear models, which Holmes and Prudden), systematically surveyed and rely on stress as the impetus for change, often end up excavated numerous large sites ranging from with a circular explanation that “stress causes stress.” Basketmaker II through Pueblo III occupations We argue that as a concept, adaptation to stress can be (Hannaford 1993). In the publication of his work from used to define the parameters of possible responses, and this region, Morris states, “Originally there existed a it sets in motion a series of testable hypotheses by which delicate natural balance which, as long as it remained empirical data can be analyzed. Stress, as we use it in undisturbed, permitted the land to be vastly more pro- bioarchaeology, is the physiological disruption that ductive than it is today” (Morris 1939:6). These senti- results from any insult (Goodman et al. 1988:177). Most ments, expressed by Morris and others, even today grow importantly, stress can be measured and evaluated based out of the assumption that precontact people were on empirical evidence garnered from human skeletal exceptionally good preservationists and ecologists. remains. In addition, Minnis (1985) presents a thorough Embedded even deeper in these ideas rests the assump- and detailed account of indirect measures of food stress tion that politics, economics, and ideology were deem- in the Mimbres population. Although Minnis did not phasized or nonoperational in precontact times. have access to skeletal remains to test his hypotheses Although one could argue that many archaeologists regarding food stress, he does provide a theoretical today do not subscribe to Morris’s romanticized view of model that considers many aspects of food production the Pueblo world, there is often a tendency to reduce the and distribution. These kinds of strong inference from Pueblo experience to ecological variables (e.g., Euler et the archaeological record, combined with skeletal al. 1979; Dean 1988). Thus, in the absence of empirical analyses, can provide a more useful way to get at the data about the effects of environmental change on mor- underlying factors that create and maintain responses to bidity, fertility, and mortality, it is difficult to test stressful conditions. hypotheses regarding the availability of food and For the La Plata Valley, the impact of changes in resources to precontact Pueblo people. social and ecological spheres, combined with demo- The linking of demographic, biological, and cultur- graphic shifts, were most likely complex and produced al processes within an ecological context is essential for some stressors. They need to be carefully explored. For dealing with the kinds of questions that interest archae- example, the area where the San Juan, Animas, and La ologists and biological anthropologists today. These Plata Rivers meet (referred to as the Totah) may have include understanding the relationship between political supported a substantial population that peaked during

6 the late Pueblo II and Pueblo III periods. With tillable compromise individual responses but also can have an land and permanent water, this region may have been impact on activities at the household and community relatively luxuriant when compared with surrounding levels. Thus, the analysis of health and disease can serve areas. Changes in population size, density, and distribu- to link biological and social consequences of change in tion probably had a significant impact on the disease human groups. Using a biocultural model of health and load and the ability to buffer individuals from conta- disease is an amplification and modification of simpler gions such as bacteria. models used in epidemiology and considers the interac- Degree of sedentism, subsistence regime, and tion of the stressor (insult), the host (individuals and demographic composition are major factors in under- populations), and the environment. standing the adequacy of the diet and the availability of We must remind ourselves that those events we high-quality nutrients for subgroups that are most vul- regard as demographic or epidemiological on the aggre- nerable. Likewise, changes in the relative proportion of gate scale are life-history events on the individual level meat to cultigens and wild plants have bearing on the and are important to members of a social group availability of the full range of micronutrients necessary (Swedlund 1994). Births, puberty, sicknesses, mar- for optimal health. For example, analysis of the botani- riages, and death are biological transition points that cal remains from the La Plata Valley reveal an intensifi- find expression through ritual and behavior in virtually cation of maize agriculture over time, with concomitant all cultures. They provide the timing for generational decreases in the productivity of maize, giving way to histories and points of focus for kin and group identities. corncobs that were more underdeveloped and irregular Taken in their cumulative context, they provide the data (M. Toll 1993). for estimation of those larger processes of growth and The La Plata Valley, situated within the Totah regulation, population density, structure, composition, region, was juxtaposed between Chaco Canyon and and the epidemiological profile; they also provide a tan- Mesa Verde, long considered political-economic cen- gible and graphic reminder of how a society perceives it ters. The intriguing question here is to what degree com- is doing. The loss of an infant to a family, an epidemic munities in the La Plata Valley were participating and episode to the larger group, each presents a concrete supporting ritual and economic activities at Chaco experience requiring ideological and adaptive adjust- Canyon. H. Toll (1993) suggests that the archaeological ments. evidence at La Plata supports a model of self-sufficien- cy with an autonomous political-economic base. He fur- MODELING THE EFFECTS OF STRESS AND CHANGE USING ther states that it is possible that “there were numbers of SKELETAL REMAINS local populations making their own adaptation to the general pattern” (H. Toll 1993:7). The combined influ- To deal with the complex issues of demography and ences of political autonomy, economic stability, and health of precolonial southwestern societies, several favorable living conditions present numerous hypothe- approaches are useful. In order to focus more clearly on ses regarding adaptation that can be tested against data major spheres of interaction, a systematic analysis is from human remains. Were people better off living in called for. Methods for the analysis of skeletal remains this area than in contiguous areas of the region? Was the have advanced tremendously in the last ten years, and diet adequate? Was this area a magnet attracting immi- this has increased the capacity for researchers to obtain grants from other areas (and thus resulting in a multi- biological information on diet and health that was pre- ethnic population)? Is there evidence of interpersonal viously unavailable. Historically, skeletal analyses were strife? Does health decline over time? Can interment primarily descriptive, with the goal of identifying the practices be linked with other behaviors or features of geographic distribution and evolution of disease through Pueblo adaptation? Evidence from the human remains time, and establishing genetic relationships between can be used to clarify the boundaries of adaptability in groups (Brothwell and Sandison 1967). Recent empha- these kinds of circumstances. sis on the interactions between biology and culture in Biological anthropologists have long used disease the disease process has proven to be extremely useful as one measure of human adaptability, particularly dur- and yields direct information concerning human health ing stressful periods of rapid change or instability. (for examples, see chapters in Cohen and Armelagos Goodman et al. (1988), in a review of the literature on 1984; Merbs and Miller 1985). “biocultural” approaches to stress and adaptation as The study of dietary and disease stress in ancient used in anthropological analyses, define disease as a populations requires an understanding of skeletal state of disrupted biobehavioral functioning in which responses to stress and change within the context of the effects of the stressors have overridden the capacity variables that affect the skeletal system’s ability to of individuals to respond effectively. Disease states respond. Quantifiable changes in the skeleton and denti-

7 tion reflect disturbances in growth and development, as in which food and other resources could be shared. well as in bone maintenance and repair (Ortner and Alternatively, communities could become stratified, Putschar 1981; Steinbock 1976; Ubelaker 1978; some members having unequal access to food and other Zimmerman and Kelly 1982). The cultural and noncul- resources. This would place some members of the group tural stressors that cause observed bone changes can at a higher risk for morbidity and early mortality and often be inferred. Occurrence of stress markers at dif- could lead to increased strife among competing or ferent stages in the life cycle can be examined and com- oppressed members of the group. pared to the mortality rates of the group as a whole. Although cultural and behavioral responses may A model (Fig. 1.4) provides a systematic frame- have effectively buffered inhabitants during some envi- work for integrating information regarding human ronmental perturbations, it can be argued that the adaptability and health with the larger biocultural and Southwest was environmentally marginal enough to ecological context. In this model, the physical environ- produce stressors of a magnitude that could not be effec- ment is viewed as the source of resources essential for tively buffered. For example, if cultigens were relied on

Figure 1.4. General model for integrating human remains with archaeological context. survival. If there are constraints on the resources, then increasingly through time, it would make it difficult to the ability of the population to survive may be limited meet dietary requirements should there be crop failure accordingly (Fig. 1.4, box 1). The adaptation of human several years in a row. This problem would be com- populations is enhanced by a cultural system that buffers pounded if the group size was growing and if there was the population from environmental stressors (Fig. 1.4, an investment in a rigid set of adaptive strategies. On the box 2). The technology, social organization, and even other hand, increased sharing, storage capacity, trading, the ideology of a group provide a filter through which and redistribution of limited resources along with a flex- environmental stressors pass. A variety of other cultural ibility in resource type and procurement could offset the and behavioral responses most likely operated in the stress produced by crop production. Thus, reliance on Southwest. For example, during periods of low popula- cultigens is perceived as both a buffer during ecologi- tion density, Plog and Powell (1984:213) suggest that cally favorable times and a stressor during periods of the mating networks of given communities were proba- drought. bly quite large and widespread. As communities became Through archaeological reconstruction, many of the more sedentary and densely populated, social and mat- variables important in the interpretation of health (such ing networks would have become more proximally as food resources, water, settlement patterning, housing, located. This may have increased cooperation and social trade, and cultural buffering) are available for the La integration within villages. At the same time, local Plata Valley. Archaeobotanical (M. Toll), faunal exchange between villages may have become more (Blinman), and ceramic data (Wilson), along with analy- important as a buffering aid by increasing productive ses of production and exchange (Blinman and Wilson), variation. Thus, as population size and density increased regional dynamics (H. Toll), and other important fea- (through a combination of increased fertility and immi- tures of the La Plata Valley cultural landscape, have gration), groups at La Plata may have been forced to been explored and interpreted (volumes in this series). organize themselves into cohesive social networks with-

8 POPULATIONS AT RISK IN THE LA PLATA VALLEY develop. If nutrition is inadequate, then these defenses will be further hindered. Thus, it is not unusual to see In light of the complex interaction of ecological and weaning-age infants and children undergoing repeat cultural/behavioral factors operating through time at La bouts of chronic diarrhea, upper respiratory disease, and Plata, hypotheses concerning the biological responses to malnutrition (McNeish 1986). these interactions can be generated. Host resistance fac- Sometimes infants and children rebound from ill- tors (Fig. 1.4, box 3) refer to the fact that not all indi- ness and make it through these high-risk periods. viduals within a group are equally at risk. Stresses orig- Despite recovery, the repeated insults may have a last- inating from ecological and cultural stressors most seri- ing adaptive cost in terms of functional abilities such as ously affect infants, weaning-age children, reproduc- growth, reproduction, activity patterns, cognition, tively active females, and individuals with compro- behavior, and social performance (Allen 1984). Today, mised immune systems (such as those already ill or in poor communities where resources are limited, the heavily parasitized). These groups are immunologically, chances are less than 50 percent that children will sur- metabolically, and nutritionally the most at risk during vive to adulthood (Dyson 1984). times of food shortage and high disease loads The inability of an individual to resist a stressor (Population Reports 1975). In addition, conditions such results in physiological disruptions (Fig. 1.4, box 4). as an inadequate diet or physical abuse could worsen the The severity of the disruption depends on many factors. health of those individuals most at risk. Age, sex, health status, genetic composition, and nutri- Individuals in good health can often meet the chal- tional constitution are especially critical factors. For lenge of even a severe stressor. On the other hand, an example, a nutritional deficiency that occurs during a individual who is suffering from trauma and not in good critical phase of growth may affect several biological health may find it difficult to resist even a relatively systems. Decreased activity, increased use of fat stores, minor stressor. For example, an infectious disease and decreased skeletal growth are a few of the possible resulting in gastroenteritis will have a much greater responses (Allen 1984). A similar deficiency that occurs impact on a poorly nourished individual than on one after growth ceases may have little lasting effect on the who is well nourished (Keusch and Farthing 1986). biological system. Certain segments of the population may be at greater Target organs must be considered in studying the risk because their biological requirements are not impact of stressors. For example, the adult human skele- matched by biological resources. Newborns, for exam- tal system is relatively immune to mild and short-term ple, have very immature immune systems, and they nutritional stress (Garn 1970). However, the skeletal must rely on immunity conferred during their time in system is in constant communication and cooperation utero and transferred via breast milk from the mother with other systems. The primary functions of the skele- (Chandra 1975). Because of their biological immaturity, ton are support and locomotion, storage and regulation infants are frequently unable to rally from stressors that of minerals (especially calcium and phosphorus), pro- have only mild effects on a more mature individual. tection of the brain, spinal cord, and other organs, and Mortality is particularly high during the first year in the production of red blood cells (White 1991). The many marginal communities (Chavez 1985; Chavez and diversity of functions in this one system indicates the Martinez 1982). Indeed, Colton (1960:114) states that degree to which the entire body dependents on the “the mortality of Hopi children under two years of age skeleton. Thus, a careful “reading” of subtle morpho- is very great, especially after the summer rainy season. . logical changes can be very revealing of physiological . . [V]ery many of the children under the age of two disruptions. years died of infantile dysentery at Shungopovi.” Although the record is far from complete, many Adair et al. (1988) present historical and contempo- stressors leave markers on bones and teeth. These mark- rary information on morbidity and mortality in Indian ers can be used to reconstruct the history of morbidity groups living in the Four Corners area (primarily Hopi experienced during infancy and childhood. From this and Navajo). They find that most of the deaths under the record of the type, severity, frequency, and distribution age of one were from the pneumonia-diarrhea complex. of ill health, we can begin to draw inferences about the They state: “Thus, the most prevalent disease among the presence of stress and its functional and adaptive effects living was also the leading cause of death” (Adair et al. on the individual and on the group. The adult skeleton 1988:187). Once weaning begins, a second peak in both may not show effects of mild stressors, but the growing morbidity and mortality is frequently seen in Third bones and teeth of children often are altered in measur- World groups (Gordon et al. 1963, 1967). Infants and able ways (Adams 1969). Specifically, chronic or young children become dependent on their own natural episodic physiological stress can disrupt growth, and defenses when these defenses are just beginning to these disruptions often leave permanent markers on

9 bone and teeth, which persist into adulthood (Huss- (nutritional, infectious, degenerative) is also an essential Ashmore et al. 1982; Larsen 1987). These retrospective part of the osteological analysis. The patterning and fre- indicators of previous physiological insults are among quencies of nutritional diseases such as iron deficiency the most useful indicators of diet and disease in skeletal anemia are documented for many precontact popula- remains. tions and have obvious implications for understanding Multiple stress indicators are used to determine the adequacy of diet. Infectious diseases, likewise well doc- degree and patterning of the stress. Stress can be acute umented for many skeletal series, provide an indicator or chronic. Patterns differ for age and sex subgroups, as of demographic patterning, population density, and does the severity of stress and response to pathogens in degree of sedentism. the environment. Understanding physiological disruption and the INTEGRATING DEMOGRAPHY AND HEALTH WITH impact of stress on the population feeds directly back ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECONSTRUCTION IN THE SOUTHWEST into the understanding of cultural buffering and envi- ronmental constraints. It is presented in the model as a In the course of human occupation in the feedback mechanism (Fig. 1.4, box 5). It is extremely Southwest, there have most likely been dramatic important to understand how disease and death have changes in disease ecology that relate to cultural trajec- important functional and adaptive consequences for the tories as they have been played out in terms of social community. Poor health can reduce work capacity of organization, subsistence, and resource use. adults without necessarily causing death (Leatherman et Agriculturalists experience a distinctly different disease al. 1986; Leatherman 1987). Decreased reproductive ecology from nomadic gatherer-hunters, and for the pre- capacity may occur if maternal morbidity and mortality contact Southwest, agriculture has been documented as is high in the youngest adult females (Population an important part of the subsistence base since at least Reports 1988). Individuals experiencing debilitating or 1000 B.C. (Wills and Huckell 1994). Increased seden- chronic health problems may disrupt the patterning of tism, population size and density, and the social interactions and social unity and may strain the of animals would all increase disease load. It is estimat- system of social support. ed that a population of about 300,000 (such as in We propose that the documentation of patterns of Mexico at Teotihuacan) is required for a disease such as disease in prehistory should ultimately be channeled measles to become endemic. The lower population sizes back into the discussion of human behavior and culture and densities estimated for the American Southwest change. In modern society, health of infants and chil- (i.e., and New Mexico) indicate that this level dren is delicately linked to the function of mothers, fam- was never reached (Thornton 1987:29). However, when ilies, and communities. We can assume similar dynam- populations are in continuous contact with groups of ics for all human groups, and these interrelated issues this size, it is possible for the so-called “crowd diseases” must be explored for precolonial communities. The (measles, smallpox, etc.) to be maintained. archaeologist is in a unique position to monitor the In the precontact Southwest, turkeys (domesticated dynamics between changes in the ecological and cultur- by at least A.D. 200 during Basketmaker II at Canyon de al environment and changes in human response. Chelly) may have been a source of ornithoses, shigella, In order to address these hypotheses, the demo- and salmonella (Kunitz and Euler 1972). Sedentism graphic and biological impact of stress must be meas- associated with agriculture brings populations in close ured by skeletal indicators of growth disruption, disease, contact with their own wastes. Often, disposal of excre- and death. Pathological alterations on bone are assessed ment in or near the source of potable water increases the primarily thorough the systematic description of lesions. potential for contamination. Studies of coprolites from Patterns of growth and development also provide infor- archaeological settlements reveal at least eight species mation on stress. Typically, a great majority of the of helminthic parasites (Reinhard 1988). human remains recovered from archaeological sites are The aggregation of populations in the Southwest under the age of 18, and we are able to document growth created the potential for contagious diseases. Woodbury and development of both dental and skeletal tissue dur- (1965) suggests that at , dogs, rabbits, and ing critical stages and compare this to known values for coyotes carried tick-borne fevers, Q fever, rabies, well-nourished and healthy groups, as well as modern tularemia, giardiasis, and sylvatic plague. Van Blerkom groups living in similar environmentally stressed areas. (1985) provides a comprehensive list of bacteria and Identifiable, age-specific disruption in growth yields viruses thought to have been present in the precontact important information on patterns of childhood devel- Southwest, including staphylococcus, streptococcus, opmental disturbances and physiological disruption. some forms of herpes and hepatitis, poliomyelitis, per- The distribution and frequency of specific diseases tussis, and rhinoviruses.

10 Agricultural populations have a tendency to reduce understanding of environmental changes, we can identi- their birth spacing. The sedentary nature of their subsis- fy biocultural adjustments made by human groups on a tence system allows them to wean infants earlier. regional scale. There are a number of specific questions Reduction in birth spacing can be an adjustment to an that would benefit from regional analyses: Is there a pat- increase in mortality in order to maintain or increase tern of disease in the Southwest and has it changed their numbers. By contrast, zoonotic disease in hunters though time? What has been the process of sedentism, and gatherers may have been more socially disruptive, and what is the relationship of sedentism to health? since it is more likely to strike the producers who are in What has been the impact of sedentism on population contact with animals that are the carriers of disease. It growth? What has been the process of aggregation, and thus also has the effect of reducing potential fertility how has it affected the pattern of disease? If there has through loss of reproduction. been an increase in disease, how have the populations Empirical studies support the impact of change in responded to the increase in disease load? What was the subsistence on the health of precolonial populations (for impact of disease with European contact? examples, see Cohen and Armelagos 1984). Analyses of The answers to these questions will require cooper- the transition from gathering and hunting to primary ation in the selection and evaluation of the indicators of food production in prehistory suggest that with the onset health and disease. There will have to be agreement as of sedentism, there is an increase in infectious disease, to the evaluation of specific indicators. The applications whether the population is involved in primary food pro- of chemical analysis (trace mineral analysis, stable iso- duction or not. Furthermore, as groups intensify agricul- topes and DNA analysis) should be undertaken in the tural production and begin to rely on single-crop diets, context of a set of problems that can be solved in a sys- health in general deteriorates. tematic fashion, with input from archaeologists and bio- In summary, our interest in the inhabitants of the La logical anthropologists. Plata Valley is not to learn about specific health prob- This report on the La Plata Highway remains con- lems in the precontact Southwest so much as it is to tributes to the standardization of reporting by using learn about humans in general and their unique ways of objective data categories and more subjective narrative coping with change over time. Human skeletal analysis summaries, and makes the data more widely accessible. used as anthropological inquiry takes advantage of Raw data from the skeletal remains are provided in a dietary and health data to provide time depth and geo- way that will be useful in building large comparative graphic variability to the understanding of short- and databases. Appendix 3 contains a detailed systematic long-term consequences and mechanisms of adaptation listing of important features of each burial that may be to change. useful to other researchers, as well as a narrative sum- mary of each burial that highlights interesting or unusu- RESEARCH OBJECTIVES OF THE LA PLATA HIGHWAY al features. This analysis was completed before Rose et HUMAN REMAINS ANALYSIS al.’s (1991) Paleopathology Association Skeletal Data Base Recommendations standards were published. This biocultural study emphasizes the interaction of However, raw data from the skeletal remains are pro- many variables and their effect on morbidity and mor- vided in a way that will be useful in building large com- tality. The underutilization of skeletal remains by parative data bases. archaeologists in the past has contributed to the poverty Skeletal analysis used as anthropological inquiry of studies that integrate interpretations of precolonial takes advantage of dietary and health data to provide adaptation with the biological consequences of that time depth and geographic variability to the understand- adaptation. The archaeological evidence in the ing of short- and long-term consequences and mecha- Southwest suggests a variety of strategies were used, nisms of adaptation to change. Studies on the health and including agriculture, use of wild plants, and hunting disease of Southwestern groups must incorporate skele- throughout the major portion of the occupation. tal remains to address health status over time and pro- Several major points need to be emphasized in the vide indisputable evidence of aspects of diet, health, and analysis of demography and health. First, human bio- death. We focus on the La Plata skeletal population as a logical remains are essential to an understanding of the means to generate data that will complement and extend adaptation of populations in the American Southwest. our understanding of health and coping mechanisms of Second, biological remains can provide important populations enduring stress. It is difficult to assess how insights into the adaptation of human groups for the last thoroughly human groups perceive the deterioration of 5,000 years, but their full potential has yet to be real- health, but the question of changes in human behavior to ized. Third, with the development of good chronologies, cope with disease and death is an intriguing one. Our recognition of changes occurring over time, and an analysis of the La Plata remains permits us to enter into

11 the larger debates concerning human adaptability in adaptation within the archaeological context; (3) to terms of patterns of morbidity and mortality and compare the findings with other skeletal series, as well changes over time. as Southwestern populations in general, to fit La Plata To summarize, this bioarchaeological study of the into a regional model of adaptation in the American La Plata Valley was guided by five major objectives: (1) Southwest; (4) to assess the degree to which these to define demographic, paleopathological, and paleonu- groups may have been stratified by class and/or gender; tritional trends based on the data available from the and (5) to provide baseline data that are comparable and skeletal remains; (2) to use these data to look at group readily available to other researchers.

12 CHAPTER 2 Farmington, New Mexico. The sites were in two distinct locales, near Jackson Lake and at Barker Arroyo, a few FIELD AND LABORATORY METHODS miles north. Most of the burials date between A.D. 1000 and 1300, although one burial is from the Basketmaker III/Pueblo I period. Given the restricted nature of the Skeletal material is a very distinctive part of the excavation boundaries, it is difficult to assess how archaeological record because it is the only chronicle of biased the skeletal collection is relative to an actual liv- humans as biological entities influenced by their cultur- ing population. Because only those portions of the site al and natural environments. Larsen (1987:340-341) within the highway construction zone were excavated, it discusses the cumulative nature of skeletal series, sug- is unlikely that all burials associated with these sites gesting that a record of events reflecting a variety of cir- were retrieved or that all segments of a given population cumstances such as diet, disease, population size, mobil- are represented. ity, physical exercise, and demographic variables are The skeletal remains were excavated and given represented in the skeletal material. However, as with detailed in situ observation and examination by archae- other aspects of the archaeological record, the recovery ological personnel in the field. The remains were placed of skeletal remains is forever hampered by differential in labeled bags or boxes and sent to San Juan College or preservation, archaeological recovery techniques, cul- the Office of Archaeological Studies in Santa Fe for turally mediated mortuary practices, problems with tem- cleaning. Individuals carrying out this initial part of the poral assignment, and a host of other cultural and non- curation process used a variety of techniques that cultural circumstances associated with when, where, included cleaning with brushes and dental picks. and how deceased individuals are deposited in the natu- All of the skeletal material was then assembled at ral environment and how they come to be analyzed in the Museum of New Mexico OAS osteology laboratory. the laboratory. Here the material was handled and analyzed by Nancy Multiple processes need to be explicitly dealt with Akins and Linda Mick-O’Hara, each conducting sepa- in any analysis of archaeological human remains. rate analyses. Mixed, commingled, articulated, and dis- Clearly, site formation processes affect the ultimate articulated bone was sorted and catalogued according to recovery of human remains. For La Plata, rooms and pit the different research agendas by Akins (demography structures were altered in modern times by the construc- and paleopathology) and Mick-O’Hara (taphonomy of tion of ditches, trenches, and roadways, and by vehicles. disarticulated remains). Because the remains were unla- Water damage was introduced by proximity to arroyos beled, some confusion occurred when the entire assem- and topographic features. Taphonomic processes (ani- blage was reanalyzed by Martin, Akins, Goodman, and mal, water, root, and other natural agents) operating Swedlund. This team conducted a thorough and detailed through time had an impact on the overall preservation paleo-epidemiological analysis of the discrete burials, of the skeletal remains. Excavation processes, although Akins conducted a detailed and systematic analysis of meticulous and well documented, introduced bias breakage patterns in the burial sample, and Akins and through artificial boundaries within sites, limiting the Swedlund analyzed morphological features in the disar- number and kind of human remains retrieved. Finally, ticulated assemblage. A portion of the disarticulated laboratory procedures involving cleaning and analysis assemblage was also examined by Christy and of the remains further introduced processes that con- Jacqueline Turner in June 1992, and they have since tributed to the loss of elements and information. These published these data (Turner 1993; Turner and Turner influences are addressed throughout the report, particu- 1999). larly as they relate to the analysis and interpretation of Although the multiple analyses caused some com- the disarticulated and fragmentary human remains plications, the problems have all now been rectified for (Chapter 6). the La Plata human skeletal material. The Museum of New Mexico Office of Archaeological Studies now has EXCAVATION AND CURATION OF THE LA PLATA HUMAN a policy of supervised cleaning, immediate curation, and REMAINS appropriate storage for all human remains. This study, like many others before, demonstrates the need for sys- Between March and December 1988, March and tematic curation to avoid loss of information or the December 1989, March and June 1990, and February introduction of postmortem damage to the material. For and June 1991, La Plata Highway excavations were con- this assemblage in particular, and for southwestern col- ducted by the Museum of New Mexico’s Office of lections in general, this is a critical protocol, given that Archaeological Studies (OAS). The sites excavated the analysis of perimortem alteration of skeletal materi- were adjacent to New Mexico Highway 170, north of al is part of an emerging research agenda (Turner 1993).

13 Collections which employ sequential multiple ate contingencies regarding how skeletal material is researchers need to ensure that elements will not excavated, curated, handled, and ultimately analyzed. In become damaged or reassembled in different ways after some instances, time and budget constraints created by each analysis. construction-related projects present researchers with For the La Plata collection, in an attempt to prevent further challenges. loss of information, major elements were labeled with Data collected under these conditions exhibit a provenience information. We located and reassembled wide range of presentations. Minimally, most skeletal all of the material and established a procedure whereby reports present a description of the human remains and discrete burials and disarticulated elements could be a careful listing of pathological conditions. Stodder’s found, analyzed, photographed, seriated, compared, and (1989) review of the skeletal populations excavated and otherwise handled without confusion over where ele- reported on in the literature for the Albuquerque District ments belonged. Much of the initial work on this collec- of the Army Corps of Engineers (New Mexico, a portion tion involved the discovery of discrepancies in the pre- of southern , and a small portion of northeast- viously reported inventory and analysis, and rectifying ern Texas) showed that at least 3,339 precontact Pueblo the problem of misplaced and lost elements. skeletons have been excavated and reported upon. In We are confident that most if not all of the problems published accounts of these remains, she found that age were adequately resolved. Factors affecting the materi- was reported for 59 percent of the skeletons, sex for 44 als available for analysis are complex, and there are percent, pathology for 25 percent, cultural modification many unknowns. They include post-depositional for 22 percent, craniometry for 21 percent, postcranial processes and conditions of recovery. A significant pro- metrics for 20 percent, cranial nonmetric traits for 15 portion of the burials demonstrates weathering, root and percent, skeletal anomalies for 13 percent, postcranial rodent disturbance, and water and carnivore damage nonmetric traits for 8 percent, and radiography for 7 per- (see Chapter 6), processes that lead to missing elements cent (Stodder 1988:9). Thus, about a quarter of the and elimination of observable features. Pothunting, pre- human remains excavated have been descriptively ana- vious highway and utility line construction in the area, lyzed for pathologies and other important observations. and erosion of some areas added yet other dimensions to Stodder (1988:9) further estimates that synthetic the preservational qualities. Many of the burials were and integrated studies have been conducted on only 12 discovered during backhoe trenching, and thus they percent of the skeletal collections. Historically this has were retrieved in poor condition and with many missing led some archaeologists to have low expectations elements. Working within the project corridor leads to regarding the analysis of the skeletal remains, thereby incomplete excavation of sites and unquantifiable sam- creating a generation of skeletal biologists who did not pling fractions. These problems make statistical analysis feel it necessary to integrate and synthesize the human difficult. To counter this, the data are described as fully remains into the larger research program. Descriptive as possible and interpretations made with attention to listing of forensic observations and metrics in a theoret- the areas where the introduction of error would be great- ical and analytical vacuum do little to link the work to est. In view of these practical considerations, the pat- anthropology. These detached and sterile data-driven terns of health and disease discussed in this report clear- reports must surely contribute to the misunderstanding, ly need to be regarded as provisional. misinterpretation, and misconceptions that helped fuel Counterposing some of these problems, the skeletal the feeling among Native Americans that there is little to remains used in this study have excellent documentation be learned from the scientific community regarding and site provenience information. Site reports describ- human remains. ing the excavations, feature and burial forms and notes Another problem with descriptive skeletal reports is filled out at the time of excavation, assigned field spec- that only rarely do they contain background information imen numbers, field notes on the structures and features on how decisions were made regarding the collection of from the site, photographs of the burials in situ, and per- data, or the theoretical and methodological concerns sonal accounts of the excavation by one or more of the regarding the interpretation of these data. That is, few archaeologists have all enhanced our understanding of researchers provide the theoretical and methodological the archaeological context of the skeletal remains. framework within which they are working. Because much of the work in paleopathology, paleodemography, STUDIES OF HUMAN REMAINS AND CONTRACT and paleoepidemiology is based on a combination of ARCHAEOLOGY subjective and objective criteria, it is critical for others to know what protocols were employed, how decisions The pace and context of most contemporary archae- about scoring were made, and how studies could be ology and the protocols negotiated under NAGPRA cre- repeated using exactly the same methodologies. Thus, it

14 makes it extremely difficult to use much of the descrip- skeletal material. It is not meant to be an exhaustive tive burial reports in comparative studies (Martin overview of the techniques, but rather an introduction to 1994:96-97). the topic, highlighting the areas where problems in In order to rectify some of these problems, we pres- reporting can occur. This overview of methods will ent a detailed rationale and theoretical background for allow future researchers to evaluate the data collection the methods and procedures used in this study of the La and decision-making processes that went into the inter- Plata Valley human remains, and background informa- pretation and reporting of the skeletal and dental find- tion on how decisions about subjective analytical tech- ings. niques were handled. It is hoped that by providing this more detailed introductory section to the report, other Assessment of Age and Sex researchers will understand how the data can be used comparatively. Assignment of age for all individuals and sex deter- mination for adult individuals is critical to any analysis METHODS USED IN THE ANALYSIS OF THE LA PLATA that involves interpretations of demography, illness and HUMAN REMAINS death, and differential susceptibility of subgroups in the larger population. Age and sex form the basis for all The bioarchaeology community has long been con- subsequent analyses, and errors or biases at that level cerned with the inconsistent and ultimately noncompa- have an impact that multiplies as one begins to do more rable ways that skeletal data are collected, analyzed, and statistical manipulations of the data. Most analyses of reported. In an effort to encourage consistency and com- death, diet, and disease involve the partitioning of indi- parability, the Paleopathology Association published viduals by age and sex according to a variety of guidelines for the collection of data (Rose et al. 1991). observed conditions such as pathologies or metrics. These standards simply list the most commonly used Skeletal populations are more readily diagnosed for metrical and observational analyses. A more thorough age and sex than individuals. Errors are minimized by treatment of the topic with a team of bioarchaeologists use of multiple methodologies. Accuracy of age and sex (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994) and a computer software estimates is also greatly improved by understanding the package for complete data collection from human skele- range of variability of a population. Arranging individu- tal remains were completed after the La Plata analysis als in order of increasing relative age or similarity in was completed. This project, referred to as the “Chicago dimorphic features (referred to as seriation) is one way Standards,”1 will revolutionize the manner in which data of minimizing errors. Whole skeletons within a given are collected if researchers are properly trained in the population can be used as references for partial skele- methodology and if they have the time and resources to tons. Differences in morbidity and mortality between collect the information. In light of these developments, males and females have important implications for the we designed a data-collection sheet that approximates maintenance, longevity, and social organization of the Paleopathology Association Skeletal Database human groups. The correct determination of sex of Recommendations and the Standards for Data skeletal remains is very important to the study of ancient Collection from Human Skeletal Remains (Appendix behavior and population dynamics. 2).2 Data on mortuary context, the condition and status For the La Plata study, establishment of age and sex of the skeletal remains themselves, the location, severi- provided the foundation upon which every single analy- ty, and status of pathological and nonpathological sis relied. Using multiple methodologies and the most lesions, metric and nonmetric observations, and demo- recently established criteria, the collection was inde- graphics are systematically recorded for each discrete pendently aged by at least two researchers (Akins and individual. The data were analyzed using SPSSx, a sta- Martin) and often spot-checked and reaffirmed by two tistical software package. others (Goodman and Swedlund). When possible, all In general, our interest in reconstructing diet, available specimens were seriated so that the range of demography, and disease focused our attention within variation for a given set of criteria could be best evalu- the larger data base on the indicators of stress outlined ated. in Table 2.1. These indicators provide maximum com- Because many of the La Plata burials contained parability with other published studies and conform to fragmented or partial skeletons, three major areas were the standardization of skeletal and dental indicators of evaluated to assure that some significant measures for stress (Goodman et al. 1984a; Martin 1994). The fol- assessment of sex could be obtained for almost all the lowing section briefly overviews the rationale and adults: the pelvis, cranium, and femur. The observations methodology behind the major categories of skeletal from the pelvis include the angle of the sciatic notch, the and dental data collected for the La Plata Highway presence or absence of the preauricular sulcus, the mag-

15 nitude of the subpubic angle, the width of the medial inquiry are united. aspect of the ischio-pubic ramus, and the ischio-pubic Because differential diagnosis is often difficult and index. The cranium was measured and observed for the requires multiple confirmations, the collection of data length of the mastoid process, the degree of prominence on pathological lesions was based on a thorough of the muscular ridges (temporal line, nuchal crest, description of the condition. This method, pioneered by supraorbital ridges, and posterior root of the zygomatic Palkovich (1980), Magennis (1986), and Powell (1988), process), the bicondylar breadth (width) of the relies on a careful set of descriptions based on the type mandible, the breadth of the ascending ramus of the of pathological lesions present (Appendix 2). Because mandible, and the palatal index. For the femur, the ver- bone has a limited response to any kind of physiological tical diameter of the head and the bicondylar width were disruption, it can be broken down into four basic cate- measured. gories: osteoclastic or resorptive lesions, osteoblastic or The La Plata subadults were aged whenever possi- proliferative lesions, lesions related to trauma, and a ble by dental eruption and calcification and secondarily rarely used miscellaneous category when the other three by long bone growth. No individuals were assigned ages do not quite fit the observed condition. After scoring the based on epiphyseal union. All subadult dentitions were bone lesion within these large descriptive categories, a seriated with respect to crown and root development further assessment can be made. For example, if there from youngest to oldest on the basis of dental develop- was an osteoclastic or resorptive lesion, it can be further ment. This was accomplished by comparing the degree described by choosing among the following: superficial of calcification and, when appropriate, the sequence of cortex only, subcortical involvement, granular walled, eruption. stellate, porotic hyperostosis, osteoporosis or osteope- Determination of the age of La Plata adults is based nia, and a miscellaneous category for all other descrip- on several criteria. Techniques for aging using both the tors. If there was an osteoblastic or proliferative lesion, 10-phase system (Meindl et al. 1985a, 1985b; Todd it can be further described in the following manner: cor- 1920, 1921), and the three-component system (Gilbert tical pitting/striations only, periostitis with subperiosteal and McKern 1973; McKern and Stewart 1957) were apposition, osteomyelitis with destruction of the cortex, employed. Also used was the method described by a combination of the above, osteitis and increase in bone Lovejoy et al. (1985) on the morphological changes in density, osteoma/benign tumor, osteophytosis, and a the auricular surface, and Phenice (1969) on the ventral miscellaneous category. The location and status of the arc. Ectocranial suture closure was observed using the lesion is likewise recorded using a series of prompted methodology of Meindl and Lovejoy (1985) when responses (Appendix 2). pelves were not available. Using the methods of Miles What follows is a very brief overview of the ration- (1963, 1978) and standards in White (1991), subadult ale behind the method of collecting individual skeletons dentitions in the 6-18 age range were used to determine from the La Plata Valley. A summary of morbidity and a functional rate of wear for each of the three molars. mortality indicators is provided in Table 2.1. These are The rate of wear determined from these individuals was also the pathological conditions most frequently cited in then used to estimate the age of adults by means of seri- publications on patterns of health and disease for other ation and reference to those of “known” ages. An esti- archaeological populations living in adjacent areas such mated developmental age was arrived at for most of the as Mesa Verde (Bennett 1975; El-Najjar et al. 1975, adults based on confirmation of results using more than 1976; Stodder 1987) and Chaco Canyon (Akins 1986; one criteria for age. The midpoint of the estimated age Palkovich 1985). range was established based on all available criteria and comparison of individuals (Table 2.2). Porotic Hyperostosis

Paleopathology We are interested in answering a number of ques- tions concerning the nutritional status of the La Plata Through a systematic approach to paleopathology, populations. How frequently did the La Plata population information is gained in several areas. First, we define suffer from nutritional deficiencies? Is there a difference the demographic pattern, geographic distribution, and in the nutritional status of the La Plata population chronological limits of disease at La Plata. Second, we through time? Are particular segments of the population use this information to understand group biological and more at risk than others? cultural adaptation in a regional perspective. Finally, we A major breakthrough in analyzing nutritional dis- provide an explanation of the processes that underlie the ease resulted from a movement away from using single disease patterns seen in the archaeological record. In indicators of stress to an approach that considers multi- this way, human skeletal analysis and anthropological ple indicators, which are systematically analyzed to pro-

16 vide an understanding of nutritional disease stress. length of time that the disease has been acting on bone, There are now a number of lesions, such as porotic the severity of the disease response, the speed of new hyperostosis, defects in enamel development, growth bone formation, and the overall health status of the indi- retardation, and poor maintenance of bone, that can pro- vidual. vide documentation of general nutritional adequacy or Severity in expression was scored as being slight, inadequacy. moderate, or severe. We recognize that the qualitative Of these indicators of nutritional stress, porotic scale we used is particular to the La Plata skeletal pop- hyperostosis (resulting from anemia) is among the best- ulation. It is possible that some of the cases that were studied indicators for archaeological populations. scored as moderate might be deemed slight by other Anemias can potentially affect any bone of the skeleton researchers; likewise, cases that we called slight might that is involved in the production of red blood cells. The in fact have been overlooked by other researchers. This extent of the involvement of postcranial as well as cra- reflects the La Plata data on porotic hyperostosis: nial bones usually indicates how severe an anemia is although lesions were encountered across age and sex and whether it is associated with genetic abnormalities categories, they were largely slight in expression. of hemoglobin or with nutritionally induced anemia A rating of slight was given to lesions that exhibit- (Stuart-Macadam 1985, 1987). ed small, pinpoint-sized porosities on the vault that were Porotic hyperostosis is a descriptive term for macroscopically visible and that showed a nonrandom- lesions on the cranium and the roof of the eye orbits. ly distributed pattern or cluster. Moderate was given to This condition has been called many names in the liter- specimens that had larger areas of involvement, lesions ature (such as cribra orbitalia, symmetrical osteoporosis, that were more pronounced, and a thinning of the corti- cribra cranii, spongy hyperostosis), but all refer to the cal tables such that the underlying diploe (trabecular same condition. Cribra orbitalia (as in Appendix 3 bone) was evident (Fig. 2.1). The category of severe was descriptions) refers to the occurrence of this lesion in reserved for all other cases of porotic hyperostosis that the eye orbits. These lesions are produced by bone mar- could be characterized as having trabecular-like forma- row proliferation that is diagnostic of anemia. The tions rising above the surface of the cranial bone tissue. lesion, as the name implies, has a very porous (coral- Stodder (1987) presents one of the more thorough like) appearance that develops when diploe (the trabec- analyses of porotic hyperostosis for the Mesa Verde area ular portion of the cranial bone that separates the inner skeletal remains. She found frequencies of 84 percent and outer surfaces) expands. With the expansion of the for subadults and 69 percent for adults (out of a total diploe, the outer layer of bone becomes thinner and may sample of 248). She noted differences over time. Adults eventually disappear, exposing the trabecular bone and older children in the Pueblo III group had an (diploe), which is quite porous. increased frequency of porotic hyperostosis. She attrib- The lesions of porotic hyperostosis typically utes this to an increase in the consumption of maize, a involve thinning and destruction of the outer tables of reduced availability of animal protein, and the increased the cranial vault, accompanied by thickening and expo- opportunity for infection that would have modified sure of the deeper diploic tissue. Porotic hyperostosis is nutrient intake and utilization. usually symmetrically distributed and presents as a tight Palkovich (1987) added a different dimension to the cluster of small porous opening that are visible to the analysis of porotic hyperostosis, using subadult skeletal naked eye. All such occurrences were recorded for the material from Arroyo Hondo. Although many interpre- La Plata series. tations of porotic hyperostosis have included the proba- Cranial bones were scored by two separate ble stress of weaning on childhood disease rates, observers (Akins and Martin) and later rechecked by Palkovich demonstrates that in different situations, Goodman and a practicing physician, Gregory Gordon, weaning may not be the major cause of porotic hyper- M.D.3 The scoring system distinguishes lesions by ostosis. For Arroyo Hondo, the early age of onset of severity in expression, location, and amount of remod- porotic hyperostosis coincides with active periostitis in eling that had occurred. Remodeling in this case means infants from birth to age one. Her interpretation of this the amount of new bone that has formed in response to finding suggests that a chronically poor diet was affect- the lesion because almost all bone destruction triggers ing the pregnant females and their fetuses, “acting syn- new bone formation. If the disease persists, the effect of ergistically with immediately acquired infections, not remodeling will not be seen because bone will be weaning diets” to produce the pattern of porotic hyper- destroyed as quickly as it is formed. If the disease ceas- ostosis seen at Arroyo Hondo (Palkovich 1987:527). es or lessens, however, there will be a visible replace- These examples provide ample evidence that we ment of formerly diseased bone with newly mineralized must interpret porotic hyperostosis carefully for each bone. Thus, the amount of healing is subject to the different archaeological series and that generalizations

17 Figure 2.1. Moderate unremodeled porotic hyperostosis in the orbital region of a subadult with a mid- point age of two years. LA 37592, B1.

Figure 2.2. Moderate unremodeled periosteal reaction on the right tibia of a subadult with a midpoint age of nine years. LA 37601, B8.

18 must not be made concerning its etiology without first in the system. looking at the patterning, distribution, and extent of the There is some disagreement among paleopatholo- disease at the level of the population. Furthermore, eco- gists on the use of descriptive terms and diagnostic cri- logical and cultural variables play an important role in teria. For example, osteomyelitis results from the intro- the interpretation of porotic hyperostosis, for without duction of pyogenic infection (pus-producing—not all them, interpretations will be neither complete nor cor- infections are), usually via the bloodstream, and the rect. skeletal response involves the periosteum, cortex, and medullary cavity of the bone. It results from a systemic Nonspecific Infection bacterial invasion (usually from bacteria such as staphy- lococcus or streptococcus) of the body. Osteitis is anoth- Although it is true that only a limited number of er form of this phenomenon, but the reaction is primari- disease conditions leave diagnostic markers on the ly localized within the cortical bone. Osteitis can only skeletal system, it is fortunate for skeletal biologists that be radiologically diagnosed. Periostitis occurs when the some common and highly prevalent microorganisms reaction is restricted to the outer shaft, or periosteum. It that cause illness do initiate changes in the morphology can occur as a direct response to a skin infection, of bone tissue. Lesions that affect bone are primarily through trauma, through systemic bacterial invasions, or from chronic conditions. Acute or epidemic conditions from infections of soft tissue, such as muscle or tendon do not usually affect the skeleton because microbial (Ortner and Putschar 1981). Diagnosis and cause of the attack is swift, and death occurs soon after (Ortner and infection can be difficult. Some paleopathologists have Putschar 1981). advocated using general descriptive categories for clas- The two types of infection (chronic and acute) pro- sification of the skeletal changes (Palkovich 1980; vide different kinds of information concerning past pop- Larsen 1987; Powell 1988; Martin et al. 1991). Referred ulations. Epidemics reveal information on population to as nonspecific infectious lesions, the skeletal lesions responses to relatively short-term crises and high death are categorized as periosteal reactions because most of rates. Chronic (and typically nonlethal) conditions are the skeletal response takes place on the outer periosteal important to track at the community level because it surface of bone. may be these illnesses that shed the most light on every- The La Plata skeletal remains were analyzed using day occurrences of nutritional adequacy, diet, the level descriptions of pathological alterations that characterize of transmissible diseases, the state of waste disposal, the skeletal condition of periosteal reactions. No attempt and hygiene. In other words, low-level, lingering, but was made to diagnose specific etiological categories of nonlethal bouts of infection can reveal something about infections, nor were distinctions made among possible lifestyle and group living that the more virulent and epi- causes. The general nondiagnostic term of periosteal demic infections cannot. reactions is used throughout. Data collection from the Most examples of infectious disease found in skele- La Plata skeletons consisted of gross analyses, aided by tal remains are nonspecific in nature. That is, the lesions low magnification microscopy, of all bones available. can be caused by a number of pathological conditions, The protocol for data collection was patterned after sev- and differential diagnosis concerning exact etiology is eral published accounts (Goodman et al. 1984a; often difficult. The most common causes of infectious Mensforth et al. 1978; Palkovich 1980; Martin et al. disease are microorganisms such as staphylococcus and 1991). Each bone was scored for the severity in expres- streptococcus, making up nearly 90 percent of cases sion of the periosteal pitting (always an osteoblastic (Ortner and Putschar 1981:106). response), the location of the pitting, and the amount of The general inflammatory response always begins remodeling, or healing, that occurred prior to death. For as a vascular phenomenon (Ortner and Putschar assignment of severity (trace/slight, moderate, or 1981:104). Dilated capillary walls burst, and cells nor- severe) we looked for the extent of the involvement, the mally retained in the circulatory system are released. nature of the tissue destruction, and the overall amount These cells, which include albumins, globulins, and of destruction. Location of the lesion was specific to the fibrogen, along with leukocytes, travel to the site, where bone. For flat cranial and pelvic bones, location was there are bacteria. Leukocytes can engulf and destroy recorded for quadrants such as upper left, and for long bacteria, or the bacteria, if numerous or virulent, can bones, location was recorded with respect to proximal, disintegrate the leukocytes and continue to increase in distal, and midshaft locations. Also, cranial bones were number. Pus is produced when leukocytes (along with analyzed for periosteal reactions endocranially, when proteins and fibrin) are at the site of the bacterial inva- possible. sion. The severity of the inflammatory response is tem- The amount of healing was assigned as no healing pered by the number of microorganisms left to multiply (or active and unremodeled), some healing (remodeling

19 in progress), and totally healed (with only remnant pit- defects (Pindborg 1982). It is not surprising that enamel ting or scars from the previous insult). Unremodeled hypoplasias are currently among the most frequently lesions generally display a very fibrous and vascularized studied stress indicators in archaeological populations. irregular new layer of bone (Fig. 2.2). Remodeled Fifteen of eighteen studies included in the Cohen and lesions show resorption and redistribution of new bone Armelagos (1984) volume, for instance, report enamel as it becomes incorporated into the normal cortex. It hypoplasia data. appears as dense, smooth bone with some minor but pat- Numerous reports have presented data on the terned irregularities. Periosteal reactions due to infec- chronological distribution of enamel defects of perma- tious diseases are usually systemic in nature, affecting nent teeth (Corruccini et al. 1985; Goodman et al. multiple long bones, bilaterally in most cases. When 1984b; Hillson 1979; Powell 1988). Many show a scoring a femur for periosteal reactions, as an example, marked central tendency between ages two and five. other long bones were observed in concert to see if they Some of these authors have considered this peak to be were involved as well. If there were other bones related to weaning stresses. Goodman and Armelagos involved, the femur was scored as having a periosteal (1985a, 1985b) have explored whether some of the vari- reaction. If it seemed to be an isolated event, it was con- ability in chronologies of defects might be related to the sidered to be a localized traumatic response and was class of teeth examined. They have concluded that the scored as a trauma. Ortner and Putschar (1981) point out chronology for later-developing teeth, such as canines, that trauma-induced periosteal reactions tend to be will result in a later central tendency, as compared to small, localized, and nondestructive. Systemic infec- earlier-developing teeth. For these reasons, along with tious diseases tend to be generalized and destructive, known variations in susceptibility to hypoplasias among and they often affect multiple bones. Thus, the label of teeth, Goodman and Armelagos (1985a, 1985b) have periosteal reaction was reserved to confer the status of advocated that teeth be considered separately. systemic infectious disease response. Thus, enamel hypoplasias have been used to pro- Specific diagnoses were attempted when there were vide a variety of inferences about precontact popula- lesions that seemed to fit the pattern reported for tre- tions. Goodman and Rose (1990) have proposed a ponemal or tubercular infections, because there have threshold model for considering the etiology of linear been a number of reported precontact cases in the enamel hypoplasias (LEH) (Fig. 2.3). Enamel develop- Southwest (Fink 1985; Micozzi and Kelly 1985; mental disruption is viewed as the additive conse- Sumner 1985). quences of four factors: unknown etiological factors, underlying nutritional status, disease, and tooth suscep- Enamel Defects tibility. Although the exact nature of the physiological stress cannot be deduced, the model illustrates how one Enamel hypoplasias, defined as developmental or several factors can come together to place an individ- defects in enamel thickness, are easily studied and pro- ual at risk for developing dental defects. In general, the vide an indelible indicator of periods of stress during data suggest that many precontact populations are tooth crown development (prenatally to 12 months for stressed to some degree, and when compared with con- deciduous teeth, and birth to 7 years for permanent temporary populations from underdeveloped areas, they teeth). They have been increasingly favored as indica- often have similar or higher frequencies of defects. The tors of stress in studies of precontact and historic skele- chronology of defects suggests that the postweaning tal populations (Blakey and Armelagos 1985; Cook and period is particularly stressful. Variability in rates with- Buikstra 1979; Corruccini et al. 1985; El-Najjar et al. in and between populations provides evidence that this 1978; Hutchinson and Larsen 1988; Schulz and indicator is sensitive to stress differences across age, McHenry 1975; Sciulli 1977; Swärdstedt 1966). sex, and temporally divided subgroups, and between In the vast majority of cases, defects found in populations. archaeological materials fit a chronologic pattern and For our analyses, we primarily analyze LEH, a class appear to be the result of systemic metabolic stress of developmental defects of enamel (DDE), because (Goodman et al. 1984b; Rose et al. 1985). Thus, they are these are among the most commonly used osteological frequently referred to as chronologic or linear enamel indicators of nutrition and health status. LEHs are easi- hypoplasias, reflecting the linear and chronologic nature ly observed, indelible once formed, time specific, and of the defects caused by systemic stress at a specific relatively unambiguously linked to past periods of phys- point in time (Goodman et al. 1984b). Although enamel iological stress (Goodman and Rose 1991; Fig. 2.4). hypoplasias due to systemic stresses are common and For La Plata, all permanent and deciduous anterior easily discerned from defects due to nonsystemic fac- teeth were assessed for enamel hypoplasias. Molars and tors, it is difficult to attribute a more exact cause to these premolars (which are more resistant to developmental

20 Figure 2.3. Threshold model for understanding the formation of LEHs. Defect formation is modeled as an all-or- none phenomenon. Unknown etiological factors, diet, and morbidity combine to disrupt enamel development to a degree that an LEH may occur. disruption) are not included, since they add little addi- the lower incisors, and 0.5 to 6.5 years for the lower tional information. Similarly, because of the high degree canines. of left-right symmetry, only the most complete tooth For the deciduous dentition, defects were grouped from either side is analyzed. Thus, enamel developmen- into six developmental zones following the method of tal defects are studied on up to six teeth, depending on Goodman et al. (1987). These zones vary in length of presence and condition: one each of upper and lower time from 5.5 weeks to over 10 weeks, depending on the canines, and central and lateral incisors. tooth studied. In order to approximate the developmental age of Data are presented both as “chronologies” of individuals at the time of defect formation, the location defects and as overall frequencies of defects per tooth. of defects relative to the cemento-enamel junction is Because most teeth exhibited some degree of attrition, measured with a thin-tipped caliper to 0.1 mm. These one or more developmental periods were frequently location measurements are then converted to a develop- recorded as missing. Therefore, in order to increase mental age based on the tooth development chronology sample size, the tooth specific rates are based on the fre- of Massler et al. (1941). For La Plata we developed a quency of defects per middle and cervical third. series of regression equations by which we estimated the developmental age of a defect based on its location Subadult and Adult Size relative to the cemento-enamel junction (Table 2.3). For the permanent teeth, LEH data are “clustered” Our ability to assess subadult growth and adult into half-year developmental periods for presentation morphology from skeletal remains provides a powerful purposes. For example, the maxillary central incisor is tool for the assessment of nutritional status and disease divided into nine half-year periods from birth through states in archaeological populations. Metric studies of 0.5, and 4.0 to 4.5 years of age. Each of the six teeth pro- skeletal populations have great potential for providing vide chronological records of stress during their time of information concerning variation in adaptation to envi- crown development: birth to 4.5 years for the upper cen- ronments. Variation in size among contemporary tral incisor, l.0 to 4.5 years for the upper lateral incisor, groups, at least to the age of ten, is almost completely birth to 6.0 for the upper canine, birth to 4.0 years for dependent on the environment (Habicht et al. 1974). The

21 though it clearly biases toward a more dampened curve. Studies looking at subadult growth and develop- ment in archaeological samples have met with some success. Lallo (1973) observed a decrease in growth around the time of weaning in an agricultural group from Dickson Mounds, Illinois. Other authors, such as Armelagos et al. (1972), Jantz and Owsley (1984), Merchant and Ubelaker (1977), Mensforth (1985), Sundick (1978), and Y’Edynak (1976), have also stud- ied childhood growth in precolonial series. Most of those authors have found some evidence for growth dampening, especially around the ages of two to five years. That appears to be a period of increased vulnera- bility for the growing child, and diet, nutrition, health, and activity patterns all may have contributed to the poor growth of children in prehistory. The difficult part of the interpretation of growth curves centers on differ- entiating among the various factors that may cause growth dampening. Studies of adult stature and morphology are not constrained to a great degree by problems of assignment of age and sex, nor are small sample sizes as frequently a limiting factor. However, the loss of the most stressed segment of the population due to death before adult- hood, coupled with the ability to catch up in growth, Figure 2.4. Distinctive LEH formation on maxillary renders adult morphology potentially less sensitive to anterior permanent teeth. LA 65030, B6. environmental variation when compared to subadult growth and development. problem of controlling for genetic differences among A wide variety of studies of adult stature has been populations is reduced in studies where variation is performed. Of relevance to the La Plata Valley is a examined in time-successive populations or among review by Genoves (1967) of precontact populations groups with known genetic relatedness. Thus, it is pos- from Mesoamerica. He finds that female stature sible to discern environmental changes and differences decreases from a mean of around 62 inches (157 cm) in based on their effect on skeletal morphology. Despite northern Mesoamerica and the American Southwest to the potential for growth studies in precontact popula- about 58 inches (147 cm) in southern Mesoamerica. tions, a number of practical factors have limited their Male stature also declines from around 66 inches (168 development. Archaeological series are frequently cm) in the north to around 62 inches (157 cm) in the plagued by small sample size, particularly after five south. Genoves suggests that environmental and related years of age. That is the primary reason for the paucity subsistence differences are responsible for the differ- of comparative studies of growth of precontact ences in height between the two regions. subadults. Other researchers have found that stature is respon- There is the technical problem of measuring long sive to changes in the environment. Nickens (1976), for bones with and without epiphyses (the unattached grow- example, was among the first to explore the hypothesis ing ends of long bones), which are frequently lost in the that broad regional changes in stature might be correlat- very young. This irregularity has the potential of adding ed with subsistence patterns. In reviewing much of the considerable measurement error. Likewise, the death same data from Mesoamerica that was used by Genoves, assemblage entails a cross-sectional design (i.e., indi- Nickens found that stature declines in the south. He sug- viduals are measured at a single point in time at death) gests that the decline is due to a greater reliance on agri- and can be used to infer periods of peak stress only culture and that this trend can be charted through time. when conditions are relatively stable over time. Finally, some researchers have looked at stature varia- Cemetery-based studies do not represent the healthy or tion within a single population as a means for accessing “average” child, but rather those who died. It is difficult differences in resource allocation. For example, to ascertain the degree to which the analysis of a “death Haviland (1967) suggests that intragroup variation in assemblage” affects the obtained estimates of growth, stature at Tikal (a large precolumbian Mayan center in

22 Guatemala) may be related to social-class differences. apparent at the articular surfaces of long bone joint sys- Although the measurement of long bone lengths tems and is referred to as degenerative joint disease and stature and the interpretations based on these data (DJD). The patterning of DJD has been linked to behav- are relatively simple, a great deal of recent controversy ioral factors and individuals who habitually engage in has surrounded the measurement and interpretation of activities that put strain on the joint system are more robusticity and sexual dimorphism (Hamilton 1982). likely to demonstrate a breakdown in bone (Merbs This controversy involves the methods of measuring 1983). There also may be a relationship between DJD robusticity and sexual dimorphism as well as the mean- and other health problems. For example, a study corre- ing of these measures. Sexual dimorphism is most fre- lating the incidence of DJD and periosteal reactions quently computed as the simple ratio of mean male to (infection) was undertaken for the Dickson Mound pop- mean female heights (Gray and Wolfe 1980) or ratios of ulation (Martin et al. 1979). Individuals with multiple bone lengths to thickness (Bass 1971). In either case, it joint involvement demonstrated a statistically higher is possible to compare changes in robusticity through percentage of periosteal reactions. Both infectious time or among groups and to compare the relative dif- lesions and DJD appear to be a function of age in this ferences in robusticity between males and females (sex- population. Furthermore, females demonstrated higher ual dimorphism). frequencies than age-matched males of DJD in the The key question here concerns the use and mean- shoulder and elbows, suggesting that subsistence activi- ing of these measures. Kennedy (1989) presents an ties such as corn grinding may have been women’s exhaustive account of the ways in which the human work. skeleton can provide information on division of labor, Degenerative joint disease is generally defined by occupational specialization, and biological features rep- changes in the articular surface areas of joint systems. resentative of specific activities. Other researchers have Following the exposure of subchondral bone, the articu- suggested that robusticity indexes may provide a means lar surface regions become pitted, with marginal lipping of analyzing the physical demands placed on adults and erosion. Eventually, eburnation takes place. (Larsen 1987; Lovejoy and Trinkaus 1980). The relative Eburnation is the formation of a very hard callus on degree of robusticity between males and females can bone surfaces which are rubbing together without being provide a means for assessing the degree and type of cushioned by lubricating fluids. DJD is not an inflam- labor delegated to males and females. matory disease but develops on the basis of aging For the La Plata study, dimensions of long bones changes and breakdown of the cartilage and lubricating have been measured using standard anthropometric system. The condition is slowly progressive, but is not techniques (Bass 1971; Brothwell 1981) (Appendix 2). found to occur in all older adults in the same form. Thus, They have been used to construct a variety of robustici- the condition probably is the accumulation of years of ty measures (Bass 1971; Lovejoy and Trinkaus 1980). In alterations of the articular cartilage and breakdown of addition, stature has been estimated from maximum the joint and occurs with extreme variability across indi- femoral length in centimeters, using the formulas of viduals. Lifestyle and activity play an important role in Genoves (1967:76): Male stature (cm) = 2.26 (maxi- buffering an individual from arthritis or enhancing the mum femur length) + 66.379 ± 3.417; female stature chance that the condition will appear. The weight-bear- (cm) = 2.59 (maximum femur length) + 49.742 ± 3.816. ing joints such as the lower back, hip, and knees and (Note that the ± value represents the standard deviations those exposed to chronic trauma such as the shoulder of the derived stature using these formulas.) and elbow are most frequently affected (Jurmain 1977). The pattern, distribution, severity, and onset by age class Degenerative Disease and sex in adults can be used to interpret the role of cul- tural activity, as well in the overall understanding of Osteoarthritis is among the oldest and most com- quality of life for individuals within the community. monly known diseases afflicting humans. Measuring the Vertebral osteophytosis is a form of degeneration amount of arthritic involvement with skeletal remains is characterized by lipping (extra bony growths usually in sometimes difficult because of the potentially large long spikes) on the vertebral bodies. This has been asso- number of areas to be assessed (each vertebra and all ciated with changes in the intervertebral discs joint systems) and the range of variation in bony (Chapman 1965). Commonly found in ancient and mod- response among individuals. While many factors may ern populations, this degeneration typically begins at 30 contribute to the breakdown of skeletal tissue, the pri- years of age and affects almost all individuals by the age mary cause of osteoarthritis is related to biomechanical of 60 (Steinbock 1976). The lipping may range from a wear and tear and functional stress (Jurmain 1977; slight sharpness to complete fusion of contiguous verte- Ortner and Putschar 1981). Biomechanical wear is most bral bodies.

23 For analysis of the bony response to biomechanical cially if the age, sex, and health status of the individuals wear and tear on joint systems and vertebral elements, are known. For example, if the traumatic lesion occurs we scored two basic morphological characteristics. with periosteal reaction and infectious inflammation, a These include the bony growth of osteophytes (hyper- severe condition that originally involved the soft tissue, trophic osteogenesis) and the destruction of the joint as well as the bone, is implied. Simple fractures that do surface (macroporosity and bone breakdown) (Mann not break through the soft tissue and skin rarely become and Murphy 1990). On joint systems and vertebral ele- infected (Steinbock 1976). Also, the degree to which a ments, the degenerative changes occur on the joint sur- trauma has healed provides a clue to the relationship face (where two bones articulate), the areas that are con- between the event and the possible contribution of the tiguous with but peripheral to the joint, and on various trauma to morbidity and mortality. parts of the bone that come indirectly into contact with Fractures in long bones, ribs, and vertebrae are the other bones in the movement of joint systems (such as most frequently reported of the traumatic lesions in the vertebral spines and processes and various fossae and paleopathology literature (Merbs 1989) and the most landmarks on long bones). easily assessed. Fractures can be classified into a num- The systematic assessment of DJD and vertebral ber of categories ranging from micro stress fractures to osteophytosis can provide an indicator of lifestyle and greenstick breaks to comminuted and complete breaks. work habits in ancient populations. However, clinicians However, the response of bone to any kind of fracture is working in the area of gerontology and arthritis today the same. There is immediate vascularization, and new caution the direct correlation of osteoarthritic changes bone forms within a few days after the break occurs. and pain and dysfunction (Aegerter and Kirkpatrick Calcium salts are released from dead bone fragments 1968). Any morphological changes short of total fusion and from the living bone and are used in calcifying the of vertebral bodies or joint systems cannot be directly callous matrix, which forms a binding and connecting linked to the inability of individuals to function, nor can sheath around the two fractured ends. Within two severity of osteoarthritis be linked directly to job per- weeks, calcification is underway, and the internal formance. Furthermore, physicians suggest that there is remodeling and reorganization of the bone callus little correlation between severity of osteoarthritis and begins. The healing process can last for months or years, an individual’s level of pain or range of motion depending on the age and health of the individual and (Gordon, personal communication, 1992). Apparently the severity of the break (Ortner and Putschar 1981). there is tremendous individual variability in the expres- Even a poorly aligned or unaligned bone will eventual- sion of osteoarthritis and how debilitating it is. Thus, ly mend itself if infection does not interfere with the although levels of pain and dysfunction in precontact healing process. The process occurs much more quickly groups may not be ascertained, the presence and status in children than in adults. Union of two bone ends can of osteoarthritis can be used as a indicator of simple bio- be complete in four to six weeks in children, while in mechanical stress, which is indicative of the accumula- adults the process can take four or five months (Merbs tive stresses and strains of people’s habitual use of their 1989). musculoskeletal system. In this sense, it is also related Depression fractures occur most frequently on cra- to quality of life in terms of how intense workloads nia and have been reported in many specimens in the might have been and how division of labor may have archaeological record (Ortner and Putschar 1981). affected males or females preferentially. Merbs (1989) defines a depression fracture as one pro- duced by a force applied to just one side of a bone, Trauma whereas compression fractures are produced when there is force from two sides. However, these distinctions can Traumatic lesions encompass a broad range of clin- be difficult to make in archaeological specimens, and ical classifications that include fractures, crushing shallow holes in the cranium are often referred to as injuries, wounds caused by weapons and other devices, depression fractures. Depression fractures usually result dislocations, and an assortment of degenerative prob- from a blow to the head by a blunt object. On the crani- lems such as exostoses, osteochondritis dissecans, and um, this results in a depression in the outer bony table, spondylolysis (Steinbock 1976; Ortner and Putschar and if the skin is broken, there will be some infectious 1981; Merbs 1989). These types of injury are primarily response as well. The pathophysiological responses are caused by physical force or by contact with sharp or similar in cranial fractures: there is a coagulation of blunt objects. The cause of traumatic lesions can often blood at the site with resultant formation of new bone at be determined by analyzing the intensity and direction the fracture site. After the site has completely remodeled of the force. Interpretations concerning trauma are gen- and healed, a telltale depression in the cranium at the erally more direct than other kinds of pathologies, espe- original site usually remains.

24 In archaeological specimens, fractures and traumat- osteoarthritic changes in joints and other health prob- ic lesions in the process of healing or with complete lems. The medical aspects of trauma in precontact healing are fairly straightforward in diagnosis. groups is largely speculative, although Merbs (1989) However, when traumatic events occur around the time has reviewed a number of cases where “bonesetting” of death, it can be difficult to distinguish the perimortem was clearly a skill that some groups possessed. bone damage from postmortem changes. Although Specific types of trauma can provide a direct infer- numerous researchers have attempted to isolate the dif- ence about behavioral patterns. Certain activities predis- ferences between perimortem and postmortem breaks pose individuals to certain types of accidental or inten- without other information on the context of the burial tional trauma. Moreover, various forms of interpersonal and the nature of the death, it is almost impossible to violence (warfare, scalping, mutilation, lacerations, can- make firm diagnostic interpretations (White 1992). For nibalism) and of surgical intervention (trephination, example, although bone crushed from the blow of a amputation) can sometimes be specifically identified blunt object will shatter bone differently when it is (Merbs 1989; White 1992). Fractures of the forearm fresh, rather than later, when it is dry, recovery of all of (radius and ulna) can reveal information about the activ- the pieces of bone is necessary for distinguishing the ities of the group. A common fracture seen in many timing of the breaks (Mann and Murphy 1990). The archaeological specimens is at the distal end, at the amount of bone beveling and the type of fracturing (spi- wrist, and these are generally referred to as Colles frac- ral versus straight) has been used as an important indi- tures. They result when an individual who is falling cator of the timing of the traumatic event. In reality, extends the arms to break or soften the fall. Fractures however, these are related to plasticity of the bone at the that occur farther up along the forearm may result from time of the event. Another example of problematic diag- the raising of the arm in front of the face to ward off a nosis is that the nonunion of a fractured end of a long blow (these are called parry fractures). bone could be interpreted upon recovery as an amputa- The patterning of the trauma within a population tion if the distal end is not also recovered. can be very enlightening regarding environments con- Bones that are in the process of healing need to be ducive to accidents, as well as intergroup and intragroup cautiously interpreted. The rate of repair and remodeling strife. The occurrence of multiple injuries, injuries from is modified by age, type of fracture, where the fracture artifacts and weapons, and the demographic pattern by occurs, degree of vascularization, amount of motion age and sex can provide insights into the use of force or between the broken ends, and presence of infection violence in a society or the potential problems in (Steinbock 1976). Infection at the site of the bone frac- lifestyle and subsistence activities that lead to accidents. ture can seriously hamper repair, and the determination of the timing of the fracture on archaeological speci- Dental Wear, Caries, and Premortem Loss mens is rarely possible without determining the nature of the healing process in conjunction with a wide num- Teeth were categorized according to the following ber of variables having to do with the individual. conditions: present, lost premortem, lost postmortem, Careful observation of the entire skeleton of individuals unerupted, agenesized (congenital absence), and with trauma can aid in the understanding of not only the unknown (due to missing alveolar bone ). The distinc- timing of the event, but also related health problems. tion between premortem and postmortem loss was made For example, a healed fractured femoral neck may con- on the basis of presence of bone remodeling in the root tribute significantly to osteoporosis and osteoarthritis in socket. Although this is a standard technique, it may adjacent bones (Merbs 1989). Asymmetry in body pro- slightly under-enumerate the number of teeth lost pre- portions may occur when unaligned bones heal, making mortem. For the purposes of this analysis, the most compensatory biomechanical changes necessary. These important category involves the frequency of pre- kinds of secondary changes are important to note mortem loss versus the frequency of combined present because they could contribute significantly to our under- teeth and those lost after death. standing of the quality of life and changes in health that The following dental pathologies are summarized: may accompany a traumatic lesion. dental wear (attrition), carious lesions (cavities), and The extent to which fractures disable and deform premortem tooth loss. Dental wear is a general term individuals can sometimes be assessed, and this infor- referring to the loss of the occlusal or chewing surface mation can be very important in understanding commu- of teeth and also to the interproximal surface between nity health dynamics. Adults crippled by unaligned frac- teeth. Wear may be divided into two components: den- tures could be less productive in subsistence activities. tal attrition, due to direct tooth-on-tooth contact, and Furthermore, lifelong accumulated adjustments in the dental abrasion, due to the introduction of foreign mat- form of limping and inefficient gait would also enhance ter (Scott and Turner 1988). Strictly speaking, dental

25 wear is not a pathological condition. Rather, as much as Rampant tooth loss may have a strong effect on the any condition that is tracked, it is best considered a nor- health and nutritional status of the individual (Geissler mal consequence of chewing. As such, it is a highly age- and Bates 1984). With endemic tooth loss, foods related phenomenon. Indeed, one of the primary reasons become increasingly more difficult to chew, thus limit- that skeletal biologists analyze dental wear is as a tech- ing the range of dietary options. Based on the assump- nique for aging individuals (Lovejoy 1985). tion that most dental pathologies increase with agricul- Dental wear was estimated based on an eight-point ture, one might hypothesize that tooth loss will also scale, following a variety of researchers (Molnar 1968; increase as a secondary effect of dietary shifts. Powell 1985; Smith 1984) (Table 2.4). This scale is Because tooth loss in recent populations has been bracketed by no wear on one end and complete loss of associated with carious lesions, dental epidemiologists the anatomic crown on the other. The scale, or slight often assume that it is a result of caries. Epidemiologists variations from it, is in common use and is believed to most often express caries rates as percents of teeth that be quite reliable (Smith 1984). Identification of the are decayed, missing, or filled (DMF rates). This con- degree of wear is relatively unambiguous. In analysis of vention is problematic for those working with archaeo- the La Plata dentition, tooth wear is presented by tooth logically recovered remains. Teeth and the surrounding type for the whole sample and by age, sex, and time bone are frequently missing; thus, it is difficult to period. extrapolate a DMF (or DM) rate per mouth. Rates of wear are computed based on the differ- Furthermore, teeth are frequently lost premortem for ences in mean eruption ages of the molars, which pro- reasons other than invasive caries. Nonetheless, it is vide differences in years of exposure to the oral cavity. important to express caries rates in a manner that is Thus, rates of wear can be computed between groups as comparable and meaningful in the broadest sense. mean differences in wear, controlling for age, and mean Having reviewed the literature on the frequency of differences in degree of wear, between teeth such as carious lesions in anthropological populations, Turner M1s and M2s (Scott and Turner 1988). In addition to (1979) concludes that frequencies may be diagnostic of mean levels of attrition, data are also presented on the the introduction of agricultural foods into the diet. difference in degree of wear between molars in the same Hunters and gatherers generally have caries rates of less tooth quadrant. These differences (e.g., M1-M3, M2- than two percent, mixed economies have more variable M3) provide an estimate of the rate of attrition. rates with a mean around 5 percent, and agricultural Despite the strong relationship between wear (or economies have higher and also more variable rates, attrition) and age, wear also frequently varies between from 2 to over 25 percent, with a central tendency of groups and within groups because of factors other than around 10 percent (Keene 1980). Those data have been age. These differences provide information on the habits confirmed by several studies in Paleopathology at the and diets of the groups under study. For example, both Origins of Agriculture (Cohen and Armelagos 1984), in qualitative and quantitative aspects of dental wear have which 13 of 19 case studies report caries data. The been used to distinguish between hunters/gatherers and majority of these studies show dramatic increases in car- agriculturalists (Molnar 1971; Smith 1984). ious teeth, frequently on the order of tenfold or greater. The absolute amount of wear is generally assumed In addition to the overall increase in the prevalence to be less among agriculturalists than hunters and gath- of caries with the adoption or intensification of agricul- erers (Molnar 1971). This is postulated on an increase in ture, a few authors have noted a shift in type of caries. food processing. However, Scott and Turner (1988) sug- In a study of the skeletal remains of 1,338 Hawaiians, gest that this processing might not fully offset the Keene (1986) finds an increased frequency of root sur- greater abrasiveness of plant versus animal foods. face caries. These increased in size with age of the indi- Furthermore, methods of food processing, while gener- vidual. Keene suggests that they were an important con- ally assumed to reduce wear, might also add abrasives to tributor to tooth loss. the food. In the La Plata analysis, identification of carious Pre- or antemortem tooth loss is also of interest, lesions was aided by use of a binocular microscope and both because it reflects dental health and because it may dental probe. Teeth were scored as not having caries or entail functional impairment. Premortem loss is fre- having any of eight types of caries: occlusal fissure, cus- quently associated with dental abscessing, extreme alve- pal, severe occlusal, interproximal contact area, inter- olar resorption, excess attrition, and caries. Premortem proximal root (at cemento-enamel junction), buccal root loss may, in fact, be due to any one or a combination of (at cemento-enamel junction), buccal or lingual fissure, these factors. and smooth surface. Although no measure of severity In a sense, premortem tooth loss represents the ulti- was included, the category of severe occlusal caries in mate diminution of functional, masticatory capacity. fact represents a degree of severity beyond the cate-

26 gories of fissure and cuspal caries. Severe occlusal car- a point where they involve bone destruction that ious lesions are common and, in combination with fis- includes the alveolar margin. Like the other pathologies, sure and cuspal caries, provide a measure of the total data on tooth abscessing are presented for the whole amount of occlusal surface caries. sample, and comparisons are made by age and sex. Alveolar resorption was recorded as a ordinal value from one to four based on a general or averaged estimate SUMMARY for the entire mandible and maxilla, following Costa (1982). A score of 1 equals normal or no alveolar resorp- The indicators of stress reviewed here are not an tion (resorption of less than 1 mm with intact alveolar exhaustive survey of every available type of analysis. It bone); 2 signifies a slight or light degree of resorption is a selection that maximizes information on demogra- (1-3 mm of resorption, with some lipping and/or light phy and disease and allows future researchers to rapidly pitting); 3 signifies medium degree of resorption (3-4.5 evaluate what is presented here for comparative purpos- mm of resorption, with heavy pitting); and 4 signifies es. Indeed, each indicator of stress could form the basis severe resorption (< 4.5 mm of resorption with severe of a major comparative study, but that is not the purpose pitting). of this report. We have been selective about what we Dental abscessing was recorded whenever alveolar focus on; however, we also recognize that other bone was present and in a condition that allowed a firm researchers may be interested in additional types of data. assessment of the occurrence and degree of abscessing. Thus, the information coded on the forms presented in Abscessing is marked by a smoothly worn hole or fur- Appendix 2 may form the basis of future studies. In this row through the buccal (cheek or outer side) of the alve- respect, it is relatively thorough and as systematic as olar bone, usually at the root apex. Abscesses are not possible given the combined objective and subjective easily confused with generalized alveolar resorption or nature of skeletal analysis. postmortem bone destruction. However, they may be What we do focus on in this report is mortuary con- obliterated by postmortem bone diagenesis. text and demography (Chapter 3), indicators of stress Finally, two types or degrees of abscessing were (Chapter 4), dietary reconstruction (Chapter 5), the dis- scored: apical abscessing and severe abscessing. Apical articulated assemblages (Chapter 6), and a synthesis of abscesses are roughly circular holes through the alveo- findings, conclusions, and suggestions for future lar bone at the apical root tips. Usually, these are less research (Chapter 7). Descriptive and narrative sum- than 2-3 mm in diameter. Severe abscesses are likely to maries of each burial are provided in Appendix 3. have started as apical abscesses but have progressed to

27 Table 2.1. Summary of skeletal and dental indicators of stress

Indicator Requirements Subgroups at Risk General Comments

Life tables (age and Well-represented All Age-at-death represents one of the better sex) skeletal population overall indicators of adaptation; indicates patterns of activity

Porotic hyperostosis Cranium Subadults Related to iron deficiency anemia; can Females provide indication of severity and timing; indicates patterns of morbidity

Periosteal reaction Long bones All Related to nonspecific infectious disease; can distinguish localized from systemic infection and provides indication of timing and severity; indicates patterns of morbidity

Enamel defects Any teeth .5 in utero to age 7 Related to acute or chronic physiological disruption; can specify age-of-occurrence and peak occurrences of morbidity

Subadult size Subadults with dental Subadults Represents the summation of factors that age may affect growth and development; can indicate the timing of greatest stress

Adult stature Adult long bones Subadults Summation of preadult factors; short stature is often a response to undernutrition or chronic illness

Osteoarthritis Vertebrae and joints Adults Indication of occupational and biomechanical wear-and-tear on joint systems and the vertebral column

Trauma All bones All Indication of accidents and violence

Dental caries Any teeth All Indication of refined carbohydrate diet; can lead to infection and tooth loss

28 Table 2.2. Summary of La Plata burials

Site / FS Sex Age (y =years; m = months) Stature Burial Number (cm) Pelvis Dental Other Midpoint Femur Attrition Range

LA 37592 B 1 200 2 y ± 8 m - dentition 2 y 1-2 y - long bones B 2 184 6 y ± 24 m - dentition 6 y 2.5-3.5 y - long bones

B 3 197 preterm fetus - size fetus

B 4 350 6 - 9 months - size .6 y

B 5 587 female? adult unknown

B 6 618 15 y ± 36 m dentition 15 y 14.5-15.5 - long bones B 7 662 female 40-55 45-55 50 y 155.8

B 0.1 137, 5 y ± 12 m - dentition 5 y 138 3.5 long bones

LA 37593 B 1 755 6 m ± 3 m dentition .5 y

B 2 756 female 35-45 22-27 sternal rib 35 y

B 3 735 mal e 40-49 - auricular surface 48 y 37-57 - sternal rib B 4 579 4.5-6.5 - long bones 6 y

LA 37594 B 1 808 4 y ± 12 m 4 y

LA 37595 B 1 103 female 20-30 25 y B 2 159 16-20 15 ± 36 m - dentition 15 y 15-21 - fusion

LA 37598 B 1 199 mal e? 40-55 40-44 - auricular surface 45 y 149.9 28-44 - endocranial

LA 37599 B 1 73 unknown adult - size unknown B 3 187 3 y ± 12 m - dentition 3 y

B 4 232 mal e 34+ 40-49 - auricular surface 45 y 31-65 - endocranial

B 5 241 mal e 22-30 24-30 25-29 - auricular surface 25 y 160.3 17-27 - sternal rib B 6 361 10 y ± 30 m - dentition 10 y

29 Site / FS Sex Age (y =years; m = months) Stature Burial Number (cm) Pelvis Dental Other Midpoint Femur Attrition Range

B 7 372 female? 18-22 < 30 - fusion 25 y

B 8 443 2 y ± 8 m - dentition 2 y

B 9 559 mal e 22-39 20-30 < 25-30 - fusion 25 y 160.5 25-29 - auricular surface 18-30 - sternal rib

B 10 759 mal e 30-40 30-34? - auricular surface 32 y

B 0.1 452 unknown 45-55 50 y

LA 37600 B 1 10 & 77 female 45-55 40-44 - auricular surface 45 y 152.2 B 2 610 4 y ± 12 m - dentition 4 y

B 3 81 mal e 36-59 45-55 60+ - auricular surface 50 y

B 4 615 mal e 52-59 45-55 50 y 160.3

B 6 623 & unknown adult - size unknown 624

B 0.1 9 female? adult - size unknown

LA 37601 B 1 166 mal e 22-43 24-35 30 y 162.3 B 2 307 female? 18-19 18-22 19 y

B 3 151 female adult - size unknown

B 4 400 female 22-29 20-30 25 y - auricular surface 25 y 150.7

B 5 190 mal e 35-39 30-35+ 35 y 173.1

B 6 196 mal e 22-35 20-24 34 y - auricular surface 28 y 162.3 20-23 - sternal rib

B 7 324 mal e 23-44 30-40 50 y - auricular surface 42 y 162.5

B 8 430 9 y ± 24 m - dentition 9 y 6-8 y - long bones B 9 606 3 y ± 12 m - dentition 3 y 2.5-3.5 y - long bones

B 10 721 female 30-45 38 y

B 11 722 9 y ± 12 m - dentition 9 y 5.5-7.5 y - long bones B 12 991 mal e 18-23 22 y 158.8

LA 37603 B 1 295 mal e 32-52 40-55 40-44 - auricular surface 45 y

30 Site / FS Sex Age (y =years; m = months) Stature Burial Number (cm) B 2.1 410 female 23-39 20+ 30-34 - auricular surface 30 y 151.7 18-30 - sternal rib

B 2.2 410 fetus - long bones fet us

LA 37605 B 1 1102 18 ± 6 m - dentition 1.5 y B 3 6020 8 y ± 24 m - dentition 8 y

B 4 9301 6+ y - dentition 6 y 5.5-7.5 y - long bones

LA 65029 B 1 536 1 y ± 4 m - dentition 1 y 1-2 y - long bones

LA 65030 B 1 11 & 12 2 - 3 y - dentition 2 y .5 - 1.5 y - long bones B 2 40 female 20-24 22 y

B 3 3 3 y ± 12 m - dentition 3 y

B 4 141 3 y ± 12 m - dentition 3 y .5 - 1.5 y - long bones

B 5 124 female 20-24 20-24 22 y

B 6 159 female 35-40 34-41 - auricular surface 38 y 149.4

B 7 169 10.5 y ± 30 m - dentition 10.5 y 10 - 11 - long bones B 8 241 female 13-24 18-22 20 y - auricular surface 20 y 154.3

B 9 242 female 30-47 20-30 33 y 151.7

B 10 352 female? adult - size unknown

B 12 510 male 20-23 20 y - auricular surface 22 y 160.9

B 13 511 11.5-12.5 y - long bones 11 y

B 14 514- 18 ± 6 months - dentition 1.5 y 515

B 15 517 male 44-54 50+ 50 y - auricular surface 48 y 165.0 44-56 - sternal rib B 16 615 female 25-26 24-30 28 y

B 17 648 3 ± 1 y - dentition 3 y

31 Table 2.3. Regression equations for estimation of age for linear hypoplasia formation

Tooth Formulas1

Maxillary Teeth

I1 Age = -(.454 x Ht) + 4.5 I2 Age = -(.402 x Ht) + 4.5 C Age = -(.625 x Ht) + 6.0

Pm1 Age = -(.494 x Ht) + 6.0 Pm2 Age = -(.467 x Ht) + 6.0 M1 Age = -(.448 x Ht) + 3.5

M2 Age = -(.625 x Ht) + 7.5 Mandibular Teeth

I1 Age = -(.460 x Ht) + 4.0 I2 Age = -(.417 x Ht) + 4.0 C Age = -(.588 x Ht) + 6.5

Pm1 Age = -(.641 x Ht) + 6.0 Pm2 Age = -(.641 x Ht) + 7.0

M1 Age = -(.449 x Ht) + 3.5 M2 Age = -(.580 x Ht) + 7.0

Age = age in years; Ht = distance of the LEH in mm from CEJ 1 Regression equations are based on mean crown heights of Swärdstedt (1966) and the crown formation standard of Massler et al. (1941).

Table 2.4. Assessment of dental wear

Cat egory No. Incisors and Canines Premolars Molars

1 No attrition No attrition No attrition 2 Enamel polish Enamel polish Enamel polish 3 Light line of dentine exposure 4 Dentine patch (wider line) 2 or more dentine patches 3 or more dentine patches 5 Dentine patch (larger line) Exposure of 2d dentine with 3 or more large dentine above patches 6 Secondary dentine Heavy dentine Enamel around entire crown 7 <------Enamel worn away at least on one side------> 8 <------Crown worn to root(s)------>

32 CHAPTER 3 Statistically significant relationships among variables such as location, orientation, grave goods, age, and sex MORTUARY AND DEMOGRAPHIC have likewise not been forthcoming.1 CONTEXT OF THE LA PLATA VALLEY This variability in mortuary context suggests that burial customs probably varied among groups living HUMAN REMAINS within the same regions or even within the same site. Rather than a single set of customs surrounding burial, Throughout its long history, issues of demography there were probably several, and these rules were prob- and health have played a significant role in southwest- ably “context sensitive.” That is, depending on who was ern archaeology. Site reports often report burial age and being buried by whom and for what reason, there were sex and are thus sources of data for reconstructing mor- certain practices that would be followed to the degree tuary behavior and demographic profiles. Many of the possible. Given this complexity and the archaeological most significant cultural historical events highlighted by inaccessibility of some of the important contextual archaeologists are also demarcated by significant demo- information, burial patterns can only be generally char- graphic corollaries (Swedlund 1994). Indeed, one of the acterized for the precontact Pueblo. For example, major questions that plagued the earliest researchers— although a preference for flexed or semiflexed primary what happened to the northern Pueblo people—was interments is demonstrated in Pueblo graves, the loca- framed in terms of population processes. Major events tion of these varies widely. There does seem to be a pref- in southwestern prehistory are catalogued or character- erence for placing ceramics with these primary inter- ized by demographic manifestation, such as periods of ments, although burials with no associated artifacts are “aggregation,” “abandonment,” and migration (Nelson quite common. Earlier researchers (e.g., Frisbie 1978; et al. 1994:59). Likewise, complexity itself has demo- Morris 1939) have presented overviews for shifts in bur- graphic resonances that imply measures of rate, density, ial customs across temporal units (Pueblo I, II, and III) and scale. to which can be added the increased dimensionality pro- Although demography and health are critical fac- vided by great quantities of new information. tors in the analysis of human remains, the context with- Analysis of the mortuary context of the 67 La Plata in which the remains are found can likewise be reveal- Valley burials and up to 82 individuals represented in ing (Alekshin 1983). Seminal works by Bartel (1982), nonburials (described in Chapter 6) does not reveal Binford (1971), Saxe (1970), and Ucko (1969) make strong patterns or trends across sites. The patterning of clear the kinds of information that can be gleaned from burial practices does suggest that it is this rich and com- mortuary analyses. Numerous studies that focus on the plicated variability that is interesting and important to mortuary component of Southwest human burials have document, rather than simply assigning burials to one of revealed a great deal about social ranking (Akins 1986; several large and ambiguous categories (i.e., location, Ravesloot 1988), variability in location and position orientation, position, presence/absence of grave goods). (Stodder 1986), social organization (Palkovich 1980), The variability hints at some interesting differences that treatment of elites (Frisbie 1978), and the relationship may be related to larger phenomena of resettlement or between burial location and settlement patterns relocation, secondary burials (Chapter 6), and status dif- (Schlanger n.d.; Toll and Schlanger 1998). On the one ferences. Stodder (1986; 1987; 1990) and Schlanger hand, these and other studies have revealed considerable (n.d.) advocate a more precise and in-depth analysis of information about how the ancestral Pueblo people dealt burials within sites and between contiguous sites, and with their dead; on the other hand, even with this inten- focusing more on the relationship of the mortuary fea- sive focus, we actually know very little. Identifying tures to settlement patterns, organization of subsistence strong burial patterns and practices among the ancient and ritual activities, and demographic variables such as Pueblos is still quite elusive. Although not random at family size, community size, and population density. any given location, burials are found within a number of Although it is not within the scope of this project to contexts (middens, room and pit structure floors, storage undertake an exhaustive study of the La Plata burial pits, extramural pits, and in abandoned structures), in a configurations, we review the mortuary context here to number of positions (flexed, semiflexed, extended, provide a framework and data for future analyses. sprawled) with grave offerings ranging from nothing to one vessel to extensive offerings (that could include MORTUARY PATTERNING OF THE LA PLATA BURIALS turquoise, bead necklaces, multiple ceramic bowls, ladles, jars, pitchers, mugs, birds, and dogs). Orientation The characteristics of the La Plata Valley burials as of burials may cluster around east-facing, but every a group are described and individual assessments of the other possible compass reading is found as well. mortuary component are more fully portrayed for each

33 burial in Appendix 3. The single best source of informa- majority of the burials from the Chaco small sites were tion for the burial context comes from the original field single primary interments. For Kayenta region burial forms and notes, which relate in extensive detail the collections, Ryan (1977) and Martin et al. (1991) report context, condition, deposition, and associations of each that the majority of the burials encountered were like- burial. Photographs, drawings, and maps likewise are wise single primary interments. available from the original excavation field forms.2 For our purposes, we collected a subset of information from Grave Location these and incorporated it into the skeletal remains data base (see Appendix 2, first page of the Data Base For the La Plata Valley burials that could be posi- Management form). Briefly, location was recorded as tively assigned to a specific location within the site midden, pit structure, storage pit, room, extramural bur- (n=61), over half (55.7 percent) were located in pit ial pit, or other. Data on strata were categorized by structures (Table 3.9). The others were located in extra- stratigraphic association. For midden burials, it was mural features (19.7 percent), rooms (13.1 percent), noted if the remains were in shallow pits or if they were extramural burial pits (9.8 percent), or middens (1.6 per- placed deeper into sterile soil. For structures, it was cent). In looking at location in terms of adults and recorded whether the burials were in the upper, middle, subadults, there are similar patterns of distribution, or lower fill. Position was recorded as semiflexed, although subadults were more likely to be found in flexed, extended, disturbed, or other. Based on an analy- room contexts than adults, and most of those found in sis of burials within sites, they were divided into cate- extramural burial pits were male. Pit structure burials gories that distinguished single from multiple burials, account for the majority of burials in all age, sex, and primary from secondary burials, and articulated from period categories except Pueblo III subadults, where pit disturbed remains. Finally, associated artifacts were structure burials are still common. The total volume arbitrarily placed into categories of none, small, moder- excavated by the highway project was heavily weighted ate, and extensive offerings.3 toward pit structures, so that materials from that context The burials from the La Plata Highway Project rep- are more likely. Nonetheless, there is a strong pattern resent the full range of variability in location and indicating that burials were placed in various pit struc- amount of grave goods (Tables 3.1-3.4) and position ture locations, including on and beneath floors and in (Tables 3.5-3.8) as defined here, although burials with the fill. large quantities of burial goods are absent.4 In the statis- In looking for more subtle variations, females tical analysis of a variety of factors (age, sex, date of buried in storage pits were sometimes in the upper fill site, location, position, goods), no significant associa- and sometimes in the lower. Of the 9 females in pit tions could be found. Although this may be a function of structures, 5 were in intrusive pits in the upper fill, 3 small sample size, an alternative explanation is that the were in the roof fall, and 1 was in the lower fill. The two cultural rules for how individuals are to be interred are females associated with rooms were below floors. Two complex and responsive to a variety of factors. males found in extramural features were in the upper fill, and one was near the base of the feature, although Grave Type the feature had begun to fill when the burial was placed. Of the 9 males located in pit structures, 4 were in intru- A great majority of the burials from the La Plata sive pits or upper fill, 2 were in the lower fill, and 3 were Valley sample are single, articulated, primary interments in subfloor features or a tunnel. There were three males (approximately 90 percent). Although some of these in extramural burial pits. None was associated with burials were badly disturbed at the time of excavation rooms. This general pattern of variability describes the (n=16: 12 by mechanical equipment, 2 by carnivores, subadults as well. and 2 by carnivores and mechanical equipment), the dis- Of special note is the recovery of two fetuses. The turbance is largely due to diagenetic and natural causes. younger one (4-6 lunar months) was placed in a large Multiple articulated primary interments account for corrugated jar and placed below the floor of a room. The another 4.5 percent of the collection, and these burials other one (approximately 8-9 lunar months) was com- are found at LA 65030 in one pit structure (discussed at mingled with an adult female in an intrusive pit in the length in subsequent chapters). These frequencies are upper fill of a pit structure. quite different from those reported by Stodder (1987) The most striking feature of this assemblage is the for the Dolores Archaeological Project burials. She location of burials in domestic locales and the place- found that 51 percent of the burials were single primary ment of the dead in what appear to be largely abandoned interment, while the other burials were multiple primary structures. Placement within the fill of pit structures, for and secondary graves. Akins (1986) noted that the example, ranges from individuals at the bottom (above

34 the floor) and throughout the fill, suggesting repeated remarkable similarities in the frequency of these more use of the abandoned structures through time. Only 12.2 haphazardly placed burials. percent (7) of the individuals were interred in sites occu- A comparison of position with Mesa Verde (Table pied at the time of burial (presumably the subfloor room 3.12) and Chaco Canyon (Table 3.13) burials is enlight- burials and a majority of the extramural burial pits), and ening in several regards. Although semiflexed and some of these structures may have gone out of use after flexed burials dominate, extended burials occur at both burial took place. Occupation of the location may have locations, especially at Chaco Canyon, where they reach continued, but most of the structures used for burial nearly 20 percent during Pueblo II. In some instances locales had ceased to be used as structures. among the Mesa Verde burials, semiflexed burials were The preference for using abandoned structures and reminiscent of the more haphazard or “pushed” attitude features at the La Plata Valley is very similar to the pat- that some of the La Plata burials demonstrated, although tern found by Stodder (1987) for early Pueblo (PI) it was difficult to systematically cull this information Dolores area burials. Over 70 percent of the burials from the site reports. It was particularly difficult to esti- recovered were in the fill of structures, although more mate frequencies of burial location from the site reports Dolores burials were directly in middens than at La for Mesa Verde, but for Chaco Canyon, there are clear Plata. Stodder’s (1987:354) review of burial locations differences when compared to the La Plata Valley for northern Pueblo I and Pueblo II sites in Mancos graves. Middens and rooms account for the great major- Canyon, on Mesa Verde, in the Piedra District, and at ity of the burial locations at Chaco Canyon, with a shows that nearly all these fill burials were steady progression from most burials in middens to from midden deposits. most burials in rooms. The midden burials in Chaco are not located in the huge “trash mounds” associated with Burial Position the great house sites but are in the middens associated with the small sites. What burials there are at great- Most of the burials (78 percent) were found in house sites are located in rooms (Akins 1986). At Morris flexed or semiflexed leg position (Table 3.10), although 41, in the La Plata Valley, burials were placed in mid- there is great variability in leg, arm, axial skeleton, and dens prior to Pueblo III, but were mostly in rooms dur- face positioning (Tables 3.5-3.8). The pattern is similar ing Pueblo III, chronologically later than the great- for adults of both sexes, and for adults and children. house burials in Chaco. Most of the burials reported by Subadults were more likely to be placed in positions Morris (1939) date to the last phase of occupation at indicating deliberate placement (20 of 22) than adults Morris 41. Many of these late burials were simply (males 11 of 13; females 11 of 14). Most were flexed or placed on the floors of abandoned rooms, although they semiflexed. However, some burials were described in were formal burials. Many others were placed in sub- the La Plata field notes as “sprawled,” “flung,” or floor pits in rooms, and some were placed in other con- “thrown.” These are discussed in more depth in subse- struction locations (Table 3.11), but compared to the quent sections. It should be noted that some of the indi- burials from the highway project, surprisingly few were viduals categorized as semiflexed also demonstrate a found in pit structure fills. more inexact positioning; sometimes arms or body parts Differences in burial location at Chaco, Mesa cross over each other in a haphazard manner. For exam- Verde, and La Plata can be attributed to a number of fac- ple, in the case of one female, the field notes state that it tors. The highway project excavated disproportionately was as if the body was pushed into a pit, and ended up few rooms, and a smaller proportion of late Pueblo III in a semiflexed but disarranged position. contexts than at Morris 41. Late Pueblo III rooms exca- Thus, deliberate placement of bodies in flexed or vated at LA 37592 and LA 65030 do contain burials, in semiflexed positions was practiced on the majority of conformance with the pattern. Pit structures and their individuals, but in 14.6 percent of the population, the fills are much less susceptible to modern surface distur- body was disposed of in ways that disregarded orderly bance and therefore are over-represented in this sample. placement of limbs relative to the torso (Table 3.10). Even taking that into account, however, the occurrence Examination of the photographs in Morris’s (1939) La of burials in various pit structure contexts seems very Plata report suggests that the flexed burials found at Site high in the La Plata Highway sample. In some cases, pit 41 were mostly orderly in placement, although he, too, structures contain middens (such as at LA 37592), blur- found disarticulated and less formally placed burials ring the “midden” and “pit structure” categories used (Table 3.11). Stodder (1987:25) notes that of the extend- here. In other cases, pit structures may have been near- ed burials in the Dolores sample, some were found in ly or completely filled, blurring the “extramural burial positions which seemed “rather sprawled.” In compar- pit” and “pit structure” categories. Also important in ing the burials excavated from Dolores, there are some comparing locations is period of interment. As Morris

35 notes (1939:115), there was a shift toward burial in gated jar, a plain gray jar, an organic paint Black-on- rooms in late Pueblo III. This shift is most apparent at white bowl, a jet pendant, and possibly some ground Morris 41 (Table 3.11) and Aztec (Morris 1924) but stone tools associated. This burial dates to after A.D. should be taken into account in other late contexts as 1100 and was in an extramural storage pit. A young well. adult female from LA 65030 (Burial 5) was buried beneath the floor of a room in late Pueblo III. This indi- Burial Goods vidual may have been wrapped in a shroud and was the most elaborately accompanied burial in the highway Burials at La Plata with associated artifacts account project. Her grave goods include a bone bead necklace, for a little over half of the sample (58.6 percent of 58 three bowls, small pieces of turquoise, a polished peb- cases with known associations). Of the burials that ble, a lightning stone, ground pigment, and a ground could be positively identified as having grave offerings stone palette. With the exception of LA 37593 B2, the among adult males, the frequency was 57.1 percent, and burials with extensive accompaniments are from Pueblo for females, 68.8 percent. Half of the subadults (53.6 III contexts. Morris (1939; Table 3.11) reports several percent) had associated grave goods. These numbers are Pueblo III burials with large grave inventories, and it considerably higher than for the Dolores sample, where seems that extensive grave goods are more common in Stodder (1987) found that slightly more than one-third the late period than they are in Pueblo II, the time peri- had been buried with grave goods. In examining the dis- od accounting for the majority of highway project con- tribution of grave goods (small, moderate, extensive), texts (see Table 3.9). It is noteworthy that some there is no significant pattern between sexes, across Basketmaker III burials from Morris 41 also had sub- ages, or through time (Tables 3.1-3.4, 3.14). Females are stantial grave goods. most likely to have burial goods and to have more The La Plata Highway Project did not excavate any goods. Subadults have the least goods. The most com- burials with large quantities of offerings, but the major- mon offerings are ceramic bowls. A few burials contain ity of eastern prehistoric Pueblo burials contain no jars, and fewer had ladles or pitchers, unlike the Rio durable grave goods or fewer than two items (see, e.g., Puerco of the West, south of Chaco, where pitchers are Table 3.11; Brown 1993). Burials with large numbers of common among ceramic grave goods (T. C. Windes, nonperishable items are relatively rare. Morris (1939) personal communication, 1993; Mills 1993:306). One describes burials from Site 41 with multiple vessels, burial had a bone awl, and a few burials had ground bone tools, wood artifacts including arrows, and occa- stone or worked sherds. Of burials with grave associa- sional ornaments. Table 3.11 lists burials from the La tions known (Tables 3.1-3.4, 3.14), around a quarter Plata Valley that are included in Morris’s report (1939). (25.9 percent) had a small (1 object) number of offer- It should be noted that far from all of the burials that ings, another quarter (24.1 percent) had moderate (2 to Morris excavated are included in the report, and that 3 objects) offerings, and 10.3 percent had what could be burials with elaborate accompaniments were more like- considered extensive offerings (more than 3 objects). ly to be included than those with few materials. The five individuals with more than three grave Although some of the many burials from Morris 41 do offerings are a 9 year old (37601 B11), a 22-year-old contain larger numbers of items, the norm is again for female (65030 B5), a 35-year-old female (LA 37593 there to be few or none—the burial assemblages from B2), an adult female of unknown age (65030 B10), and the highway project, then, are within the norm. Burials a 48-year-old male (37593 B3). The child was buried with vast numbers of goods such as those at Pueblo during early Pueblo III in a semiflexed position in a stor- Bonito (Akins 1986), the Warrior at Aztec (Morris age pit with three ceramic vessels. Also in the pit but not 1924:193-195), or the burial at the Dominguez Ruin necessarily associated were a turkey and a dog. Both near Dolores (Reed 1979:101) are exceptions to the nor- adults from LA 37593 were in large storage pits, but mal pattern, showing the extreme to which goods can be they were from different periods. The male, buried present. flexed in early Pueblo III, had a corrugated vessel, a ladle bowl, and a rough-legged hawk, and was placed in Mortuary Behavior at La Plata the pit with matting. The female, buried in mid Pueblo II, was also accompanied by matting. Grave goods The La Plata Highway Project is among only a included a corrugated vessel containing a number of handful of projects in the Southwest that has integrated small rodents, a partial Mancos Black-on-white bowl, the human remains and the mortuary component into the the base of a plain gray jar reworked into a saucer, and ongoing research strategy. Examples of the inclusion of two two-hand manos. Two adult females at LA 65030 mortuary behavior along with paleopathological and had extensive grave goods. One (Burial 10) had a corru- paleodemographic analyses for Pueblo skeletal popula-

36 tions include those by Akins (1986), Palkovich (1980), how little is known regarding what “normal” precontact and Stodder (1987). An analysis focused only on the La burial patterns are. The Dolores Archaeological Project Plata remains is hampered by the small sample size, but recovered 45 discrete burials in the postoccupational fill it can serve to contribute to the growing data base on of habitation and storage structures, under floors of pit mortuary variability and stands ready to be used by oth- structures and habitations areas, and in middens. As ers in more comprehensive and inclusive studies in the with the La Plata remains, Stodder found no patterning future. or association with respect to age or sex for location, Schlanger (n.d.; Toll and Schlanger 1998) has pro- position, or amount of grave goods. vided a careful and illuminating analysis of the mortu- The occurrence of several individuals in what has ary component of the burials at La Plata.5 This impor- been described as “sprawled” position on the fill of tant study demonstrates that the burials are not random- abandoned pit structures at La Plata is not unique, but it ly distributed across features in the landscape. Rather, has also not been intensively described by others work- there appear to be preferred strategies for the disposal of ing with burial populations except for Stodder’s (1986) the dead. She finds three characteristics of the mortuary report on the earlier (Pueblo I) Dolores sample. behavior in the La Plata Valley that distinguish it from It is difficult at this stage to make any kind of sum- precontact burials from other parts of North America: mary statement that accurately situates the La Plata lack of a formal burial ground, great variability in the Valley burials vis-à-vis burials from other sites in the number of burials at any given site, and frequent use of Southwest. There are questions that could be framed for “places for the living” as resting places for the dead. At burials that would shift the focus into different arenas. La Plata, burials are found with greatest frequency in pit For example, what similarities exist in overall health structure fill contexts. Extramural features, floors, sub- status and treatment of the dead? Do intragroup or inter- floor settings, and surface rooms are other places where group tensions and strife enter into a group’s mortuary burials have been located. practices? Is there a pattern relating cause of death Most interesting of the findings by Schlanger is the (admittedly difficult to determine) and mortuary behav- occurrence of burials on or near the benches of mostly ior? Is status (and therefore differential treatment at filled pit structures. She suggests that some graves con- death) defined in political, economic, social or spiritual tain the remains of former inhabitants of abandoned terms? Can information gleaned from the skeletons be sites. For example, four of the eleven burials recovered used in inferring ethnicity, endogamy, and residence from LA 37601 show distinctive genetic anomalies of patterns? These types of questions shift the focus of tra- the spine (refer to Appendix 3). These include one adult ditional research into mortuary behavior and could link male with an extra thoracic vertebra; two adult males, burials with a broader discussion of biocultural process- each with an extra lumbar vertebra; and one subadult es underlying adaptability and population dynamics with a first sacral vertebra that demonstrates lumbar fea- through time and across space. tures. This co-occurrence of genetic anomalies suggests that it is possible that family members were buried at a DEMOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE LA PLATA SKELETAL location that had some meaning for them. This line of POPULATION inquiry demonstrates the need for archaeologists to work closely with skeletal biologists in blending the Mortality data on skeletal populations derive from analyses. Lane and Sublett (1972) have demonstrated assessment of individual ages at death. Traditional pre- that skeletal material can be used to confirm hypotheses sentations of mortality data involve the use of survival about ethnicity, endogamy, and residence patterns. (from one age to another) to graph survivorship curves. Future collaborative and interdisciplinary studies need Life expectancy as a function of survival has also been to be initiated in this area for the La Plata Valley region. used in many studies. Angel (1969) has argued against At La Plata, the frequency of bench burials and the mathematical modeling more complex than relatively presence of disarticulated human skeletal elements that simple statistical procedures. For example, he suggests cannot be explained by natural depositional events sug- that calculations such as proportions of infants and chil- gest that the management and treatment of the dead by dren to adults or comparison of survivorship curves are the La Plata communities went well beyond simple all that is required for demographic analysis of precon- interment. Because so few studies have included the tact populations. type of careful analysis afforded by Schlanger, there are Swedlund and Armelagos (1969), among others, only a handful of comparable studies. promote the use of life tables for paleodemographic Stodder (1986) has provided a similarly insightful analysis. The use of a life table provides all the basic study of the Pueblo I Dolores mortuary program, and calculations that Angel suggested but provides two addi- there are interesting parallels to be made that highlight tional key measures: probability of dying and life

37 expectancy for each age. Thus, using a life table for each establish how valid the derived mortality/fertility esti- specific age interval is characterized by the number of mates are. deaths, the proportion of all deaths, the percentage sur- Errors in phase one or two can greatly affect the viving to that age, the probability of death within that validity of the data generated in successive levels of interval for those that reach the age interval, and the life analysis. However, in spite of all the potential problems, expectancy of those that reach the age interval. there is ample evidence that paleodemography is central Presentations of mortality data involve the direct and critical to our understanding of precontact life and estimation of life expectancy at birth (based on the mean death and should be undertaken in all possible cases age at death) or the construction of life tables. In addi- (Buikstra and Konigsberg 1985). The major limitations tion to estimating life expectancy at birth, probability of of the paleodemographic method are practical ones. dying and survivorship for all age classes can be esti- They include the representativeness and size of the sam- mated. At this level of analysis, we are greatly removed ple and the ability to provide accurate assessment of from the actual skeletal remains because the estimates developmental age (Lovejoy et al. 1977). However, the involve statistical manipulation and only use numbers of bottom line is that age at death stands as perhaps the individuals dying in different age categories. It is criti- most important single indicator of stress as well. cal to fully acknowledge and explore where biases may With a recognition and appreciation for these prob- exist in the archaeological series. Differential mortuary lems, the paleodemographic analyses for La Plata are practices and poor presentation of some segments of the presented as plausible scenarios that reflect the likely population are the two most influential sources of errors, experience of this group. Age and sex composition, life assuming that excavation procedures were systematic table data, and survivorship curves are presented for La and consistent in recovery protocol (Buikstra and Plata and interpreted using other known variables Mielke 1985; Weiss 1972). regarding subsistence, health, and settlement. In this The statistical manipulation of age and sex profiles way, the statistical manipulation of the age data is used and the construction of life tables are actually the easier as a check against other kinds of data from the La Plata part of paleodemographic analyses. The difficulty lies in project to assess how well the living population was interpretation of the data. Johansson and Horowitz doing. (1986:234) succinctly summarize the range of unknowns and assumptions that must be taken as a Age at Death given when reconstructing demographic patterns from skeletal populations. For example, they present four A total of 67 individual burials were recovered and phases or levels of analytical factors that need to be could be aged ranging from preterm fetuses to individu- acknowledged when dealing with skeletal populations als aged fifty and older (Table 3.15).6 The age categories “whose demographic characteristics are unknown . . . are generally well represented, although there may be (who) buried their dead over an unknown period of time under- enumeration in the infant (newborn to one year) according to unknown rules.” Phase one, according to category. The adult population is likely to be under-rep- Johansson and Horowitz, involves archaeological resenting the oldest ages, and there are more females in recovery that can present biases in age, sex, class, and the young adult category than there are males. These other spheres because of mortuary practices and differ- individual burials were retrieved from 12 different sites, ential preservation. Phase two includes the anatomical and the number of burials recovered from any given site and paleopathological analysis of the recovered skeletal ranged from 1 to 16 (Table 3.16). Trends in the distribu- material for age and sex. Problems encountered at this tion of burials by age-at-death and sex across sites could level include the margin of unknown error involved in not be statistically verified. Therefore it seems safe to estimations of age and sex, the small sample sizes in age assume that any biases introduced into the sample were and sex categories, and the inability to determine cause likely the result of excavation constraints and not mor- of death in the vast majority of the cases. Phase three tuary behavior that may have clustered individuals by involves demographic analysis of mortality and fertility. age or sex in spatial units. Here Johansson and Horowitz point out that it is In comparing the age composition of a number of extremely difficult to prove whether a population was archaeological populations from the New World, the stable, stationary, and closed (assumptions that must be distribution of burials recovered at La Plata do not vary made in order to compare precontact age and sex distri- markedly except to verify that the infant category may butions with model life tables derived from living pop- in fact be under-represented. This is also reflected in the ulations). Finally, phase four involves historical recon- higher frequency of the subadult category, one to nine struction and theory building based on the mortality years (Table 3.17). Here La Plata has the highest fre- estimates. Problems at this level include the inability to quency reported (29.8 percent). Given the problems

38 with the younger age categories, the percentage of La made not to use running averages to “smooth” the data, Plata adults (56.7) is indistinguishable from a wide as others have done (Buikstra and Mielke 1985; range of precontact New World populations. Given that Palkovich 1980; Powell 1988). In general, these studies the La Plata Valley sample is represented by a relatively cite Weiss (1973), whose actual discussion on smooth- smaller sample size, yet holds to the same proportional ing refers to living nonindustrialized groups, where distributions across major age categories (except for practices such as age heaping by respondents can pro- infancy) as the much larger Southwest and other region- duce variation that would distort the analysis. This is al samples, it is likely that La Plata is not so biased as to certainly not the case with archaeological populations greatly skew the collective age-at-death composition. such as La Plata. Also of note, adult individuals of The perennial problem of the life table for archaeo- unknown age were differentially reapportioned across logical samples is that we do not know the growth rate the adult age categories. The six individuals from La (Weiss and Smouse 1976). This is important because the Plata who could only be identified as adult were subse- life table calculations assume that the population repre- quently redistributed, using the corresponding mortality sented by the burials has undergone internal and regular for all adult age categories, weighted according to the rates of change. That is, no migration is assumed to have number of individuals in each. occurred, and any growth or decline is assumed to be The life table reveals a mean age at death (ex0) of derived from the inherent mortality or fertility. If these 24.5. Although this life expectancy figure must be con- conditions are met (which it is not possible to know for sidered provisional, and only as a means to generate La Plata), stable population theory allows us to derive a hypotheses regarding population parameters at La Plata, number of attributes about the population by calculating it does suggest a robust population.8 In looking at life the probability of dying from birth to the oldest age cat- expectancy estimates for a number of archaeological egory. Problems such as these have caused some to populations (most of which represent either so-called argue that life tables should not be used on archaeolog- Anasazi or Mogollon groups), La Plata Valley ranks ically derived populations. However, as Nelson et al. fairly high (Table 3.19). The archaeological populations (1994:68) state: “Given all these concerns, our basic that have higher or similar life expectancies are most analytical procedure is to bring multiple sources of extraordinary for their temporal and spatial differences. inference to bear on the age at death distributions. For example, is likely to represent an Rather than attempting to fit the distributions to some elite subgroup living within Chaco Canyon (PII). Black reference model to estimate parameters (such as life Mesa (PI-II), on the other hand, in northeastern Arizona, expectancy), we simply point to what the respective dis- is considered to represent small, autonomous (“poor tributions suggest in terms of health and demography.... cousins”), hamlet-type communities. Precontact people The mean age at death values should be viewed in rela- living on Black Mesa, however, were doing relatively tive terms as opposed to interpreting them as absolute well with sustained population growth from A.D. 800 to values.” 1050, a relatively low disease rate, and an abundance of The La Plata burial population is admittedly small, individuals who reached the age of 50 (Martin et al. and therefore there is the possibility that it will depart 1991:17). Point of Pines, generally characterized as from characteristics of the living population due to sto- Mogollon, with a long span of habitation (A.D. 900- chastic effects. However, Weiss and Smouse (1976) 1450), may represent the final destination point of studied living populations and, based on simulation migrating Kayenta peoples (Bennett 1973:2). The Mesa studies, demonstrated that stability is inaugurated into Verde Early sample represents a period of growth (PI-II) small groups relatively early and quickly after events and expansion in the Four Corners region. Cases that cause population disruption. Regarding archaeolog- Grandes was a large, politically centralized population ical burial collections, Buikstra and Mielke (1985:364) that is similar to Chaco in some regards (e.g., ranked state that assemblages that have “accumulated over a society, architectural symbolism, economic specializa- period of years should provide a reasonably accurate tion) (Nelson et al. 1994:92). Thus, the life expectancy means of characterizing the vital rates of a population.” rate alone does little to provide information on why life Table 3.18, a life table, presents data for the com- expectancy was good at La Plata relative to other groups bined La Plata burial population. The small sample size and suggests that it is a function of a wide variety of cul- prohibits conducting truncated life tables for adult males tural, environmental, and biological factors. and females. All of the individuals except for one child It is telling, however, that life expectancy is only fall into the time period A.D. 900-1300, and the greatest 1.8 years higher at Pueblo Bonito, which may represent majority of the burials are in the A.D. 1000-1200 range.7 the largest politically centralized economic unit in the The combined sample aggregates all the individuals region. Nelson et al. (1994) suggest from an analysis of during the entire occupational span. A decision was a series of Southwest burial populations that being polit-

39 ically autonomous and living in dispersed communities ulation did decline. It is difficult to interpret the Pueblo affords better health and community well-being than Bonito data because this sample most likely over-repre- when groups are part of a large and/or densely populat- sents high-ranking adults given special mortuary treat- ed community (such as at Chaco and ). ment. La Plata, with a fertility rate of .4318,9 appears The exception to this is elites within such a system, who moderate (by Southwest standards). A relatively low may be afforded differential access to resources and disease load (discussed in Chapter 4) may have con- therefore better health and longevity. tributed to the low to moderate probability of dying, and This kind of bracketing of La Plata in terms of life this in turn may have contributed to relatively well-off expectancy permits the following observations. La communities at Jackson Lake and Barker Arroyo during Plata, situated between the Chaco Canyon and Mesa Pueblo II-III. Verde regions, may have shared the negative health The lowest fertility rates were in the Black Mesa effects of high population density (which can signifi- and Arroyo Hondo populations and likely represent two cantly influence morbidity and mortality). The basic tra- completely different processes. Arroyo Hondo was a jectory and time frame in all three of these regions is population in retreat suffering from inadequate nutrition similar (especially when a large enough area is included and sociopolitical disorganization (Palkovich 1980; to encompass elevational movements through time), and Wetterstrom 1986). Black Mesa, on the other hand, all three regions were abandoned by the early A.D. seemed to intentionally keep family size small by spac- 1300s. Population size in the La Plata Valley was most ing births or through some other means (Martin et al. likely as great as or greater than that in nearby regional 1991). This may have been an adaptive response to the systems such as Chaco Canyon and Mesa Verde. highly marginal and unproductive landscape that they Nelson et al. (1994) also present a comparison of lived upon. mortality and fertility data for a select group of Additional information can be gained by comparing Southwest archaeological populations (Table 3.20). the number of individuals alive at the beginning of each These groups were chosen for comparison to test the age category (lx) to track survivorship of individuals hypothesis that demography and health were related to across the life span. The survivorship curve for La Plata social organization and political centralization. It has Valley is plotted along with early and late Mesa Verde been suggested that the ratio of individuals over the age populations and the Pueblo Bonito and Black Mesa of 30 to the number of individuals over the age of 5 is samples (Fig. 3.1). In general, the curves follow a simi- inversely proportional to the fertility rate. The lower the lar shape, although there are several distinguishing fea- value, the higher the fertility. Of course, there are many tures of the La Plata curve. Comparison of La Plata with provisos attached with these data. They are explored by the Mesa Verde samples demonstrates that the rate of Buikstra et al. (1986), but just as with life table data, survivorship in the five-to-ten-year-old category is they can be used to speculate on the magnitude of dif- lower at La Plata and continues to be lower until reach- ferences among groups, and more importantly, why ing adulthood (and most closely resembles the contem- these differences exist. poraneous late Mesa Verde sample). During young In comparison with these groups, La Plata falls adulthood, La Plata survivorship is higher than the late toward the high range in terms of mean age at death, and sample and, until the age of 35, closely follows the fertility is likewise located in the middle range. To some curve for the early sample. After the age of 35, La Plata degree, these values meet our expectations. Mesa Verde exceeds both Mesa Verde groups and has higher sur- represents an aggregated population that grew rapidly, vivorship. peaked, and then abandoned the area (circa A.D. 1300). The survivorship curve for Pueblo Bonito clearly It may seem counter-intuitive to have the highest fertil- displays high numbers of survivors in all age categories ity in the later Mesa Verde sample (representing the leading up to mid-adulthood. From 30 onward, Black period from A.D. 975-1300) during what must have Mesa has the higher figure (in part because of the high included the later years of retrenchment and abandon- proportion of elderly in that population). However, the ment. However, much of the growth in the early Mesa survivorship curves for Black Mesa and La Plata are Verde group (A.D. 600-975) may have been a result of identical for children up to the age of 15. Black Mesa the migration of people into the area, and therefore the has been interpreted as a relatively healthy and robust moderate fertility rate at this time makes sense. It is pos- population (Martin et al. 1991; Nelson et al. 1994). sible that what the high fertility ranking in the late Mesa More support for the hypothesis that La Plata sur- Verde sample is tracking is a function of decreased vivorship curves suggest a population with relatively migration into the area (which would look archaeologi- low child mortality and good health is gained by exam- cally like population decrease). Thus, although fertility ining the survivorship curves of La Plata and groups remained high in the later periods on Mesa Verde, pop- later in time representing a precontact Pueblo (Arroyo

40 Hondo), a Mogollon (Grasshopper), and a Northern where the La Plata life table data may be biased is in the Mexico (Casas Grandes) series (Fig. 3.2). Survivorship under-enumeration of infants. Brothwell (1981) reports at La Plata was remarkably similar to that at Casas that the proportion of infants under the age of 1should Grandes for the first 20 years of life. Whereas Arroyo fall between 25 and 75 percent of the total sample of Hondo and Grasshopper demonstrate low survivorship individuals under the age of 20. If proportional frequen- of children in and young adults in general, individuals at cies fall within this range, the population is most likely La Plata enjoyed, as a group, higher survivorship unbiased relative to the living population. The La Plata throughout the lifespan than its counterparts living a sample of infants is quite small, and the frequency there- hundred years or so later in other areas of the Southwest. fore is only 16.7 percent. If the children assigned a mid- Life table analysis also allows for a close look at the point age range of 1.5 are included, the proportion goes probability of dying (qx) for individuals in each age cat- up to 26.7 percent (leaving the 19-year-old female with egory. In comparing La Plata with the Mesa Verde Early the adults). This is just above the minimal expected fre- and Late samples, and the Pueblo Bonito and Black quency for a nonindustrialized population. Why might Mesa samples, La Plata appears largely situated in the there be fewer infants in this sample? Beaglehole and middle, with neither higher nor lower probability rates Beaglehole (1935) and Dennis (1940) suggest that his- (Fig. 3.3). The exception to this is in the youngest age toric Hopi infants that are stillborn or those who die categories, where there is a higher rate, but the La Plata before 20 days are not yet considered members of the curve drops to among the lowest for children and then community and are buried away from the usual places, remains steadily in the middle. Comparing the probabil- and this may explain why so few infants are in aban- ity of dying at La Plata with the later precontact Pueblo, doned domestic structures at La Plata. Because of the Mogollon, and Northern Mexico sample, a similar pat- situation of the sites along the La Plata Highway, sur- tern holds true: La Plata demonstrates the same or lower face rooms are under-represented in the sample. Since probability rates in most age categories (Fig. 3.4). infants and small children are often found beneath room floors (and were in this sample, such as LA 37592 DISCUSSION Burials 2 and 3, LA 65029 Burial 1), some of the under- representation may result from fewer surface rooms Two different but related kinds of information on having been excavated. Poor preservation of fragile the La Plata burial population are reviewed in this chap- infant bone in open, often shallow contexts and tapho- ter. Analysis of the mortuary context, critical for the nomic processes may also help explain low numbers of assessment of biases introduced into the burial assem- infants at La Plata, but the extent to which they are blage by mortuary practices or excavation procedures, underenumerated cannot ever be fully explained. demonstrated several things. First, although there are Compared to other Southwest series, the life some patterns of interment that hold across sites (single expectancy at birth (e0 ) of the La Plata sample is on articulated primary burials in semiflexed or flexed posi- 0-.9 tion), there was a significant degree of variation in bur- the high end at 24.5 (Table 3.19) and suggests a fairly ial location, associated grave goods, and in age and sex robust population. Values cited by Weiss (1973) for pre- distribution of the burials. The mortuary component colonial and protohistoric North American Indian popu- compares most closely with that of the earlier (PI) lations range from 15 to 25 years. All comparisons con- Dolores Archaeological Project burials, which also dis- sidered, La Plata seems to fall in the moderate range for played a great deal of variability in interment. La Plata mortality figures. There is some suggestion that males burials are different from contemporaneous Mesa Verde lived longer. The mean for 16 males is 38.75, while for region burials, La Plata sites excavated by Morris (such 15 females, it is 30.5. Half of the males are over 40, as Site 41), and Chaco small sites. Toll and Schlanger while only 2 of the females are. Combined with the (1998) suggested that the use and reuse of abandoned derived vital statistic on birth rate (fertility) of .4318, domestic features is meaningful and can be used to bet- these data are interesting because they suggest a moder- ter understand the motivating factors behind burial pat- ate birth rate when compared to other Southwest series. terns and ties to certain places in the landscape. Buikstra et al. (1986:534) demonstrated an increase in The demographic analyses suggest a fairly repre- the birth rate from a low of .7791 to .4123 in sentative population, at least to the extent that it may Mississippian populations shifting from gathering-hunt- portray, in Berry’s (1985:45) words, a “snapshot” view ing to agricultural subsistence regimes. Larsen et al. of the parent population. Although life tables are actual- (1990) revealed the devastating effect of colonization on ly death tables, they present a convenient and standard- indigenous southeastern peoples living in what was ized way to look at the mortality experience as a func- called “La Florida.” Fertility decreased dramatically tion of the life experiences. The most significant place from an all-time high of .2642 in precontact times to

41 .7263 in postcontact La Florida. would have to be considered as a possibility. It is feasi- To summarize, the La Plata burial population con- ble that people were moving from Mesa Verde during sists of 67 individuals composed of 30 subadults and 37 the later (PII-III) into the La Plata area (remembering adults (19 females, 16 males, and 3 unknowns). that Mesa Verde Late has the highest fertility rate of the Survivorship and probability of dying curves suggest a seven groups plotted). Increased population density and population with high survivorship in the childhood decreasing quality of life at Mesa Verde (verified by the years and relatively moderate to low probability of work of Stodder 1987) may have forced those inhabi- dying in the adult years. Because a truncated life table tants to look elsewhere. The moderate birth rate, rela- could not be done for males and females, differential life tively good quality of life, and a dependable supply of expectancy could not be examined. The survivorship resources at La Plata may have looked inviting to Mesa curve is similar to a “class 2” curve of nonindustrial Verdeans and others. populations (Swedlund and Armelagos 1969). The sur- These data, combined with an analysis of the indi- vivorship curve is remarkably similar to that of the cators of physiological disruption and ill-health (dis- Libben population (A.D. 800 to 1100, Western Basin cussed in the next chapter), suggest a fairly robust and Tradition, Ohio). At Libben, life expectancy at birth was viable community, at least for most members. An agree- 19.8. In a paleodemographic reconstruction for this able life expectancy, moderate birthrate, location in a large assemblage (n=1239), Lovejoy et al. (1977:292) well-watered area, low endemic disease rates, and prox- suggested that such a curve “yields a crude birthrate of imity to major political centers would have presented an .050, a mean family size of 3.8, and a generation length appealing and advantageous community within which to of 26.6 years.” These figures, although highly specula- live. However, although endemic disease is not high, tive, provide a way to link the burial assemblage to ideas rates of trauma in the form of compression fractures about the living population from which they are derived. suggest discord among community members. It is feasi- When compared with other Southwest series (pri- ble that with an influx of new people, the growing La marily precontact Pueblo and Mogollon, contemporane- Plata Valley communities could not provide a means for ous or later in time), La Plata tends to situate in the mid- ameliorating conflict. Alternatively, because many of dle position, with rates that are neither high nor low rel- the most obvious examples of trauma occur in young ative to the other groups. Of particular interest is the adult women, domestic violence may be the precipitat- moderate birthrate at La Plata. If the population size at ing cause. Yet another possibility might include abduc- La Plata was increasing significantly during Pueblo II- tion and raiding of other areas to procure a work force. III, this growth may be only partially explained in terms These alternative hypotheses are further explored in of increased births. Immigration of people into the area subsequent chapters.

42 Figure 3.1. Survivorship (lx): La Plata and other southwestern groups.

Figure 3.2. Survivorship (lx): La Plata and later southwestern groups.

43 Figure 3.3. Probability of dying (qx): La Plata and other southwestern groups.

Figure 3.4. Probability of dying (qx): La Plata and later southwestern groups.

44 Table 3.1. Subadult burials by age, location, and grave goods

Burial Date A.D. Age Location Goods

37592 B3* 1180-1300 Fetus Room; subfloor in pot None

37603 B2.2 1200-1300 Fetus Pit structure; upper fill; with B2.1 None

37600 B5 1000-1125 Infant Extramural burial pit Small

37593 B1* 1075-1125 .5 Extramural storage pit Small

37592 B4* 1050-1250 .6 Pit structure; fill Small?

37605 B1 1075-1125 1.5 Room; lower fill None

65030 B14 1000-1075 1.5 Pit structure; lower fill None

65029 B1 1075-1125 1.5 Room; subfloor Small

65030 B1 1200-1300 2 Room; subfloor Moderate

37592 B1* 1180-1300 2 Pit structure; upper fill None

37599 B8 1000-1075 2 Pit structure; fill ?

37599 B3 1000-1075 3 Pit structure; upper fill Small

37601 B9 1000-1075 3 Pit structure; fill Small

65030 B3 1200-1300 3 Room; subfloor None

65030 B4 1125-1300 3 Extramural burial pit None

65030 B17 1000-1075 3 Pit structure; vent shaft None

37594 B1* 1000-1100 4 Pit structure; lower fill Small

37600 B2 1000-1125 4 Midden None

37592 B0.1* 1050-1250 5 Extramural storage pit None

37592 B2* 1180-1300 6 Room; pit in floor Moderate

37593 B4* 1075-1125 6 Pit structure; upper fill ?

37605 B4 1000-1125 6 Extramural heating or roasting pit Small

37605 B3 600-750 8 Pit structure; intrusive pit Moderate

37601 B8 1125-1180 9 Pit structure; tunnel fill Small

37601 B11 1125-1180 9 Extramural storage pit Extensive

37599 B6 1000-1075 10 Pit structure; fill Small

65030 B7 1200-1300 10.5 Pit structure; roof fall None

65030 B13 1000-1075 11 Pit structure; lower fill None

37595 B2* 1000-1075 15 Pit structure; upper fill None

37592 B6* 1075-1150 15 Extramural burial pit Moderate

45 Table 3.2. Male burials by age, location, and grave goods

Burial Date A.D. Age Location Goods

37601 B12 1000-1200 22 ? ?

65030 B12 1000-1075 22 Pit structure; lower fill None

37599 B9 1000-1075 25 Pit structure; floor pit Extensive1

37599 B5 1000-1075 25 Pit structure; intrusive pit None

37601 B6 1000-1075 28 Extramural storage pit Small

37601 B1 1125-1180 30 Pit structure; tunnel Moderate

37599 B10 1000-1075 32 Pit structure; intrusive pit Small

37601 B5 1125-1200 35 Pit structure; upper fill ?

37601 B7 1000-1075 42 Pit structure; lower fill Small

37599 B4 1000-1075 45 Extramural burial pit Moderate

37603 B1 1200-1300 45 Extramural storage pit Moderate

37598 B1* 1000-1075 45 Extramural storage pit None

65030 B15 1000-1075 48 Pit structure; lower fill None

37593 B3* 1100-1150 48 Extramural storage pit Extensive

37600 B4 1125-1300 50 Extramural storage pit None

37600 B3 1125-1300 50 Pit structure; intrusive pit None

* = Jackson Lake sites. Grave goods: small = one associated ; moderate = 2 to 3 associated artifacts; extensive = more than three. The age is the midpoint of the assigned age range. 1 The association of some objects is not clear, but many objects are in the same provenience.

46 Table 3.3. Female burials by age, location, and grave goods

Burial Date A.D. Age Location Goods

37592 B5* 1050-1250 ? Room; pit in floor 2 ?

37600 B0.1 1000-1300 ? ? ?

37601 B3 1075-1125 ? Extramural storage pit Moderate

65030 B10 1100-1300 ? Extramural storage pit Extensive

37601 B2 1000-1075 19 Pit structure; intrusive pit Small

65030 B8 1200-1300 20 Pit structure; roof fall None

65030 B2 1000-1125 22 Extramural burial pit Moderate

65030 B5 1200-1300 22 Room; subfloor Extensive

37599 B7 1000-1075 25 Pit structure; intrusive pit Moderate

37601 B4 1125-1200 25 Pit structure; intrusive pit None

37595 B1* 1000-1075 25 Pit structure; intrusive pit Moderate

65030 B16 1000-1075 28 Pit structure; lower fill None

37603 B2.1 1200-1300 30 Pit structure; intrusive pit Moderate

65030 B9 1200-1300 33 Pit structure; roof fall None

37593 B2* 1000-1075 35 Extramural storage pit Extensive

37601 B10 1125-1200 38 ? ?

65030 B6 1200-1300 38 Pit structure; roof fall None

37600 B1 1000-1150 45 Extramural cist or roasting pit Small

37592 B7* 1000-1075 50 Extramural storage pit Moderate

* = Jackson Lake sites. Grave goods: small = one associated artifact; moderate = 2 to 3 associated artifacts; extensive = more than three. The age is the midpoint of the assigned age range.

47 Table 3.4. Adults of unknown age or sex by location and grave goods

Burial Date A.D. Age Location Goods

37599 B1 1125-1300 ? Extramural midden Moderate

37600 B6 1000-1300 ? Extramural midden ?

37599 B0.1 1000-1075 50 ? ?

* = Jackson Lake sites. Grave goods: small = one associated artifact; moderate = 2 to 3 associated artifacts; extensive = more than three. The age is the midpoint of the assigned age range.

Table 3.5. Subadult burial position

Burial Leg Position Arm Position Axial Face Interment Skeleton 37592 B3* unknown unknown right side unknown inside a pot 37603 B2.2 unknown unknown unknown unknown with B2.1 37600 B5 unknown R along side? right side right side deliberate; rodent, L unknown disturbed by weathering, backhoe 37593 B1* unknown extended along body unknown unknown deliberate 37592 B4* unknown unknown unknown up or left side disturbed by backhoe; cranium and upper body only 37605 B1 L loosely flexed; L unknown;R missing right side? right side deliberate R unknown 65030 B14 unknown L unknown;R flexed left side left side deliberate/ disturbed by backhoe 65029 B1 loosely flexed; L unknown; left side up, slightly to deliberate knees tightly R extended along side? the right flexed 65030 B1 upper flexed unknown unknown unknown deliberate/ disturbed 37592 B1* tightly flexed L unknown; R behind body back up deliberate 37599 B8 unknown unknown unknown unknown disarticulated 37599 B3 unknown unknown back? up disturbed by water-line trench 37601 B9 flexed; to left along sides with hands on back up deliberate abdomen 65030 B3 unknown unknown ch est down deliberate 65030 B4 unknown L extended along side; right side right side deliberate R missing 65030 B17 unknown unknown back up deliberate 37594 B1* unknown L unknown; back? up deliberate R flexed across chest 37600 B2 flexed straight along sides back left side deliberate 37592 unknown unknown unknown unknown disarticulated B0.1* 37592 B2* flexed L forearm over abdomen; left side left side deliberate R along body 37593 B4* unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown; found in backhoe back dirt 37605 B4 unknown L missing; unknown unknown deliberate/ R extended disturbed by utility line 37605 B3 semiflexed with crossed over pelvis back right side deliberate knees up 37601 B8 tightly flexed flexed; hands between left side left side deliberate kn ees

48 Burial Leg Position Arm Position Axial Face Interment Skeleton tightly flexed and L behind back, hand on ch est thrown back deliberate 37601 B11 to right pelvis; R along side with and to the left hand on chest 37599 B6 flexed L flexed with hand to chin; ch est right side deliberate R flexed behind back 65030 B7 extended extended out and bent up back back sprawled at elbows 65030 B13 semiflexed, unknown right side unknown sprawled?/ disturbed by almost extended carnivores 37595 B2* unknown unknown unknown unknown disturbed by carnivores 37592 B6* tightly flexed unknown back up deliberate

* Jackson Lake

Note: In Tables 3.5-3.8, flexed means that the angle between the axis of the trunk and the femur, the femur and tibia, and/or the humerus and radius/ulna is between 0 and 90 degrees. Semiflexed means that the angle between these elements is between 90 and 180 degrees. Extended means that the angle is 180 degrees. Interment refers to the manner in which a burial appears to have been placed in a grave. Types of interment include deliberate (indicating careful placement), unprepared (placed but not arranged), and sprawled (tossed into an available feature). Disturbance by carnivores and other agents is also noted.

Table 3.6. Male burial position

Burial Leg Position Arm Position Axial Face Interment Sk eleton 37601 B12 unknown unknown unknown unknown disturbed by backhoe 65030 B12 L loosely flexed at hip unknown left side unknown disturbed by and flexed at knee; carnivores and upp er R semiflex ed backhoe 37599 B9 extended, R bent at extended, hands at pelvis back right side deliberate knee 37599 B5 L semiflex ed ; R flex ed L upper along side, hand at left side left side deliberate chin; R upper along side, lower missing 37601 B6 hips at right angle; along sides and folded up to right side right side deliberate knees tightly flexed chest 37601 B1 flexed L along side and hand right side unknown deliberate between knees; R along side under torso 37599 B10 unknown unknown back left side deliberate/ disturbed by backhoe 37601 B5 unknown unknown unknown unknown disturbed by backhoe 37601 B7 extended at hips, knees along sides and crossed on ch est left side deliberate tightly flexed pelvis 37599 B4 flexed L across abdomen; R long right side up and on deliberate side with hand at chin the right side 37603 B1 loosely flexed at hips; flexed under body down down deliberate knees tightly flexed 37598 B1* L against chest and L across chest; R extended back tilted back tossed into a pit but extended; R partially outward deliberate extended 65030 B15 semiflexed to the left L extended under body, R upper on left unprepared extended in front of head back; lower to the left 37593 B3* tightly flexed tucked against stomach down down? deliberate 37600 B4 tightly flexed flex ed left side left side deliberate 37600 B3 tightly flexed to left crossed over abdomen back back deliberate

* Jackson Lake

49 Table 3.7. Female burial position

Burial Leg Position Arm Position Axial Skeleton Face Interment 37592 B5* unknown unknown unknown unknown lower legs only; removed by water line 37601 B0.1 unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown 37601 B3 unknown unknown unknown right side unknown, fragmentary 65030 B10 flexed, knees to left L unknown; R upper unknown up deliberate/ disturbed along torso by backhoe 37601 B2 tightly flexed to left upper along sides, back left side deliberate lower L under chin, R across ch est 65030 B8 ex ten ded L extended out; R back left side and sprawled extended and bent up down at elbows 65030 B16 L semiflexed; R L along side and under back up deliberate? but flexed pelvis; R extended out unprepared and bent up at elbow 65030 B2 loosely flexed; knees extended in front of left side left side deliberate tightly flexed torso 65030 B5 upper extended; L folded over chest; R back unknown deliberate/ disturbed knees tightly flexed unknown by mech anical under upper equipment 37599 B7 flexed flexed at chest right side down and right deliberate 37601 B4 L missing; R upper L extended out and up; back left side deliberate semiflexed, flexed at R along side knee 37595 B1* tightly flexed L semiflexed over back? twisted up deliberate chest; R flexed over chest 37603 B2.1 almost extended at L semiflexed along back ? deliberate; part hips, flexed at knees, trunk; R disturbed removed by to right mech anical equipment 65030 B9 L exten ded; R L extended out and back back with chin sprawled slightly flexed bent up; R extended up out add semiflexed up 37593 B2* L semiflexed? L across pelvis; R back left side deliberate/ disturbed extended? by backhoe 37601 B10 unknown unknown unknown unknown disturbed by backhoe 65030 B6 upper at right angle, along sides and down down deliberate knees tightly flexed between legs 37600 B1 unknown unknown unknown right side probably deliberate disturbed by backhoe 37592 B7* upper extended; L across neck; R back up but twisted unusual position but knees tightly flexed extended along side deliberate

* Jackson Lake

Table 3.8. Adults of unknown age or sex by burial position

Burial Leg Position Arm Position Axial Skeleton Face Interment 37599 B1 unknown unknown unknown unknown disturbed by backhoe; badly deteriorated 37600 B6 unknown unknown unknown unknown disturbed by backhoe 37599 B0.1 unknown unknown unknown unknown disarticulated and carnivore gnawed

50 Table 3.9. La Plata burial location (percent and sample size)

By sex

Pit Structure Room Extramural Extramural Midden Feature Burial Pit

Females (17) 52.9 (9) 11.8 (2) 29.4 (5) 5.9 (1)

Males (15) 60.0 (9) 26.7 (4) 13.3 (2)

Subadults (29) 55.2 (16) 20.7 (6) 10.3 (3) 10.3 (3) 3.4 (1)

Total (61) 55.7 (34) 13.1 (8) 19.7 (12) 9.8 (6) 1.6 (1)

By period

Pit Structure Room Extramural Extramural Midden Feature Burial Pit

BMIII-PI Subadult (1) 100.0 (1)

PII Subadult (15) 60.0 (9) 13.3 (2) 13.7 (2) 6.7 (1) 6.7 (1)

PII Adult (19) 57.9 (11) 31.6 (6) 10.5 (2)

PIII Subadult (12) 33.3 (4) 33.3 (4) 16.7 (2) 16.7 (2)

PIII Adult (13) 61.5 (8) 7.7 (1) 21.7 (3) 7.7 (1)

Total (60) 56.7 (33) 11.7 (7) 21.7 (13) 8.3 (5) 3.3 (2)

Table 3.10. Burial position of La Plata burials (percent and sample size)

By sex

Period Flexed Semiflexed Extended Sprawled/ Disarticulated Unknown Thrown Position

Females (20) 47.1 (8) 29.4 (5) 17.6 (3) 5.9 (1) (3)

Males (13) 36.4 (4) 36.4 (4) 9.1 (1) 18.2 (2) (2)

Subadults (16) 53.8 (7) 30.8 (4) 7.7 (1) 7.7 (1) (13)

Total (59) 46.3 (19) 31.7 (13) 2.4 (1) 14.6 (6) 4.9 (2) (18)

51 By period

Period Flexed Semiflexed Extended Sprawled/ Disarticulated Unknown Thrown Position

BMIII-PI Subadult (1) 100.0 (1)

Pueblo II Subadult (17) 50.0 (4) 25.0 (2) 25.0 (2) (9)

Pueblo II Adult (19) 31.2 (5) 43.8 (7) 6.2 (1) 6.2 (1) 12.5 (2) (3)

Pueblo III Subadult (13) 85.7 (6) 14.3 (1) (6)

Pueblo III Adult (12) 44.4 (4) 33.3 (3) 22.2 (2) (3)

Total (62) 46.3 (19) 31.7 (13) 2.6 (1) 15.4 (6) 4.9 (2) (21)

Percentages do not include cases with unknown position.

52 ? none? pendant, matting Black-on-red pitcher,bowl, ladle, bone tools fossils, beads, elk tooth, point, obsidian mugs ? Plate 294a?) abo ve 30 /5 cedar poles wall earlier Mesa VerdeMesa subfloor,slab covered, Mesa VerdeMesa hematite mugs, 3 bowls, 2 Early PIIEarly pit midden covered with PI and minerals kit”: “medicine PIin pit midden jars 4 bowls, and 8 pitchers, pipe back back down back flexedflexed Verde Mesa subfloorback Mesa Verde pits beneath exterior “rich in ”: 11 bowls, 4 ? ? Verde Mesa subfloor ? ? ? early PIII? in fill pits upper ? ?? Mesa Verde ?? Mesa ? PIII bowl ?? PII-III? -- ? -- ? individuals? individuals? individuals individuals? adults adults adult Table 3.11. La Plata Valley burials reported by Morris (1939) burials reported Valley La Plata 3.11. Table 9191 3 infants91 5 children 3 -- ? -- 2 adolescents -- ? ? Verde Mesa Verde Mesa Verde Mesa ? ? ? 88child small -- disarticulated PIII early scattered floor? earlier in pitcher” story (“two pitcher 87 7-8 49 2 children 4 6, 8, 9, 8,6, 10 9, 8,6, 10 9, 8,6, 10 11 exterior 13, 14 41 43, 2, 1, 4, 4141 4 43, 2, 1, 4, 3, 2, 1, 4, 4141 3 3 9 sub [?] 87-8 ? ? ? Verde Mesa subfloorcorner room ? 41414141 2 3 3 3 1 1 5 6 88 88 87-8 87-8 adult ? ? 3 ? ? ? ? ? ? Verde Mesa subfloor Verde Mesa Verde Mesa subfloor subfloorcorner room ? ? ? 4141 30/5 1 1 2 Kiva 8 87 90 adult 2 M flexed back Mesa Verde subfloor bowl 41 19, 7, 1, 41 1 2 87 adult ? semiflexed 414141 30/3 30/4 1 B Trench 1 2 2 91 87 87 ? adolescent adult -- ? flexedright M disarticulated BMIII Verde Mesa semiflexed subfloor pit redeposited 2 bowls ? 4141 Trench A Trench B 91 91 adult 2 M disarticulated ? secondaryburial ? 23 27/10 143 adult M extended face Site Burial23 27/9 Building Room36 2 Page3636 Age midden39 73 1 Sex 1 1 adult Position7, 6, 1, Mound 8 11 Period midden exterior ? 55 49 49 Grave semiflexed adult 2 children 1 adult M ? Goods extended,on ? Verde Mesa sealed in bell-shaped cist 2 bowls

53 see 30/71 (1) bowl, mug, plaque, peeled stick, fire drill, sheaves, hafted matting hammer, pitcher, 2 bowls, ladle,mug, matting blankets, twine, mug, miniaturemug, miniature mug, 2 bowls,(4 30 arrows stone matting bow, points), pot with chippedstone, 3 points, 2 jar, plain awl, painted bowls, selenite crinoid, concretion, stone, bowl with pigment bowl,2 pitchers, ladle, digging stick,(4 20 arrows stonepoints), bedding matting, bow, matting manos, ladle, bowl, slab retaining wall retaining slab slab retaining wall retaining slab with 30/70 (1) see 30/70 (1) slab covered, abandoned pit storage cov er with co bbles subfloor cist from 30/68 Mesa VerdeMesa slab covered, upright Mesa VerdeMesa slab covered, upright pre-Mesa Verde pre-Mesa Verde? crowded crowded left left ? ? Verde Mesa on floor 3 bowls, ladle, matting ? ? PII-III ?4--3? ? BMIII+? jar seed “foreign” and beneath in midden jar adults individuals? 1 children adolescent 3 adults 91 10 adults ? ? Mesa Verde ? 95 1 infant 2 9393 children 3 5 adults -- ? ? ? PII-III PII-III pits pits ? ? 6, 8, 9, 8,6, 10 [etc?] 26 26 Trench CTrench 91 6 50, 52, 53 41 30/71 (2) 7 5 98 18? --down, face 41 30/71 (1) 7 5 98 16-18 --down, face 41 30/70 (2) 7 4 97 infant -- semiflexed Site Burial41 Building Room Page 4 Age3, 2, 1, 4, Sex Position Period Grave Goods 41 30/2741 30/37 (1) 4 4 3 2 91 92 2 child, adult M flexed Verde Mesa subfloor cist with slab 4141 30/5441 30/5541 30/5641 (4-5) 30/62 G 30/63 (4-5) G (4-5) G 6 6 95 2 95 refuse 9541 ? 96, 30/68 127 ? 96 ? adult 5 ? ? ? M ? ? 13 ? flexed, right ? ? BMIII 93 ? PI PII adultin pit midden; covered PII Verde Mesa midden M midden subfloor pit midden flexedleft Verde Mesa ? ? slab covered, ? walled ? 4141 30/37 (2) 45, 48, 49, 4 241 924141 adolescent 6 F 641 6 flexed 30/693, 2,41 1, 4 3, 2, 1, 4 95 2 sub Verde Mesa 95 5 child 4 adults 5 13 -- ? 933, 2, 1, ? ? Placed on top30/37 of adult (1) Verde Mesa Verde Mesa ?level floor pits, floorfloor and level flexed right ? PII ? separated by thin slabs 4141 30/70 (1) 7 5 43, 2, 1, 97 adult F semiflexed

54 none? none? ladle, partial gray pot none? bowl,sherd grayground jar into bowl none none none none none subfloor vessel scattered fill fill fill subwall pit formally placed formally hyperostosis Mesa VerdeMesa pit none? Mesa VerdeMesa subfloor pit bowl, canteen Mesa VerdeMesa slab-coveredpit none Mesa VerdeMesa slab coveredpit 3 bowls Mesa VerdeMesa scattered remainsin cist none Mesa VerdeMesa subfloor pit bowl PII-III interstitial beneath pit PII-III midden, underwall none left right left left right semiflexed left left right thrown Verde Mesa “bottle-necked” cist, not ---- F MF ---- MF? adolescent adult adult [?] old adult adolescent, 1 M, 1 F, 1 old adult 9999 adult adult F? ? semiextended right flexed PII-III interstitial beneath pit 99 adult ? right flexed PII-III interstitial beneath pit in terior in terior in terior 4141 30/9041 30/9141 30/92 7 30/93 7 7 7 18 18 18 18 100 100 100 adult 100 child infant child small ? ------disturbedleft flexed left flexed ? Verde Mesa Verde Mesa Verde Mesa partial disturbed, pit; filled cist slab-covered, next pit to subfloor olla partial Mesa Verde subwall and floor pit none 41 30/89 (2) 7 18 100 adolescent ? right flexed Verde Mesa on top pit; of 30/89 (1) 41 30/8841 30/89 (1) 7 7 18 18 100 100 adult adult ? ? disarticulated Verde semiflexed Mesa partial, pit; irregular 41 30/87 7 18 100 adult F semiflexed 4141 30/8041 30/8141 30/82 30/83 741 7 30/84 (1) 7 7 7 13 13 13 kiva 99 kiva 99 99 infant infant adult -- -- ? flexedleft flexedright flexed right Verde Mesa Verde Mesa subfloor Mesa pitVerde subfloor pit slab-covered subfloor pit 2 bowls none none 41 30/84 (2) 7 kiva 41 30/8541 30/86 7 7 16 16 100 100 adult child small -- ? semiflexed flexed left Mesa Verde slab-covered subfloor, 41 30/79 7 13 99 adult ? semiflexed 41 30/7741 7 30/78 7 11 99 11 child 99 child, small 4141 30/75 30/76 7 7 8 10 98 99 adult adult ? ? flexedright semiflexed Verde Mesa subfloor pit with bowl horned lizard Site Burial4141 30/72 Building 30/7341 Room 30/74 7 7 Page 7 Age 5 5 8 98 Sex 98 Position 98 small child child Period -- adult flexed right -- Grave ? Mesa Verde disarticulated subfloor PIII pit semiflexed Goods subfloor, much porotic ladle, gray jar

55 tting 2 bowls, mug, small jar, 8 jar, small awls, 2 mug, bowls, 2 scrapers, flaker, 2 points, knife, flakes, 22 pieces obsidian, sticks, digging flakes, utilized matting baskets, bowl, mug gray jar squash pot none manufact ure none? floor of large subfloor chamber dug through floor and underlying soil native into fill kiva into pit, subfloor underlying kiva fill cist 30/111) (see without further fill entry storage pit storage entry bin shallow slab-covered pit bowl slab-covered pit bowl, “huge” tchamahia in on floorlaid on floor,scattered laid on floor; scattered none? none? 3 bowls to cist Mesa VerdeMesa on together adults two Mesa VerdeMesa subfloor pit bowl, mug early early PIII pit fill in room shallow ladle early PIII slab-coveredpit bowl early PIII on floor, next103 to none early PIII subfloor pit, next104 to none Mesa VerdeMesa pit shallow none? Early Mesa Verde Early Mesa Verde early Mesa Verde Verde Verde (both) right back right back right left right right right FM flexed right adult old adult 127 41 30/112 (1)41 741 30/112 (2) 30/113 7 31 7 31 102 32 adult 102 103 old adult M adult F flexedright flexedright Verde Mesa F Verde slab-covered, Mesa deep flexedright on top 112(1) of Verde Mesa subfloor pitladle, mug, baskets, ma bowl, 2 ladles, mug, pitcher 41 30/110 7 30 102 adult F flexed right Mesa Verde place in large subfloor 41 30/111 7 30 102, 41 30/10841 30/109 7 7 29 29 102 102 2 infants adult ---- ? ? semiflexed Verde Mesa entry into large, shaft 4141 30/106 30/107 7 7 26 26 101 101 adult adult M F flexed right semiextended early PIII shallow pit in room fill ladle 41 30/105 7 26 101 adult ? semiflexed 41 30/104 7 23 101 infant -- extended 4141 39/101 30/10241 7 30/103 7 7 23 23 23 101 101 101 small child small child child -- -- ? ? -- semiflexed Mesa Verde early PIII shallow pit rectangular slab-lined none 41 39/100 7 23 101 child small -- semiflexed 41 30/99 7 22 100 adult ? semiflexed 41 30/9641 30/9741 7 30/98 7 7 22 22 100 22 100 adult 100 adult adult M ? semiflexed M ? Early Mesa semiflexed Early Mesa 41 30/95 7 21 100 adult M semiflexed Site Burial41 30/94 Building Room 7 Page Age 20 100 Sex Position infant Period -- Grave flexed left Mesa Verde masonry lined box, entry Goods

56 bowl, gray jar, sherd, blanket includingand bowls ladles, and pitcher basket-molded Verde Mesa matting blanket, bowl, bowl, 2 bowls,black-on-white mug, jar seed jar, abovesee jar partial bowl? mug, 2 iron ore cylinders bove north pilaster; slab covered slab pilaster; middenin pits plates vessel 14 pottery”: “little by diggingstick buried buried str uc ture middenmiddenmidden ? ? ? 10 Mesa Verde 10 Mesa 2 PI predominantl y PII Verde Verde Verde 6? M1? 39 1 adult MPII Early 36 4 children 6 adults 4 -- Site Burial41 30/12741 Building41 Room41 341 Page419 Kiva Age 841 841 90 8 30/131 8 30/13241 7 Sex41 8-9? adult old 641 9 8 8 Position sub 3-441 F 103 103 104 Period41 4 103 11 sub 3-441 flexed infant 1141 adult 13adults 13 104 41 127 adult Grave41 104 13 Verde Mesa 41 -- 2 children ? ? 2 a fill in pit 14 ?41 smallchild 14 ? ? -- 2 ? 104 1441 ? 14 104 -- 105 sub 5 ? Goods 14 ?41 ? 6 infant 15 105 sub 3-4 flexedleft adult41 105 2 children sub early3-4 PIII 15 PII-III; ? sub 1053-4 early PIIITotals Verde Mesa 8 adults 6 105 sub -- 105 16 -- adult Verde Mesa 23 PII-III slab-linedbin 105 ? subfloor; supported slab 4 adults 12 16 ? ? 106 2 infants ? adolescent ? prepared PIII sub 6-8 small child ? 16 ?in pits midden ? child -- 106 -- prepared ? sub 10 108 Verde Mesa -- ? sub 21 disarticulated Verde? Mesa disarticulated placedonfloor, 108 not adult disarticulated ? adult Verde Mesa disarticulated -- Verde? Mesa see above PII subfloor PII Verde Mesa 108 PII placedonfloor, not child ? subfloorvessel, mug? seed jar ? subfloor ? PII adult ? disarticulated, limbs processed only -- ? partial ? 2 adults ? unfinishedbowl? PIII ? early knife, cores, flakes midden +? ? ? none? earlier into pit subfloor ? unfinished Verde Mesa bowl? pre-Mesa deep subfloor pit unfinished bowl? 1 pre-Mesa 2 bowls pre-Mesa 2 small gray jars, small bowl,

57 indicates more Semiextended Goo ds ramural interment in the Mesa Verde phase of Pueblo Verde ramural interment in the Mesa o I. ut not tightly flexed limbs. Grave 9 BMIII 1 PI 3 PII 35 PII-III 15 early PIII 4 PIII Verde113 Mesa pre-late PIII 6 1? 187 = Period Position 55 subadults 14 M 13 F 102? 184 = Sex Age indicates the presence of Mesa Verde Black-on-white. Early PIII includes carbon-on-white vessels similar to McElmo Black- Verde indicates the presence of Mesa 30 children 11 adolescents 95 adults 5 old adults 30? 187 = Page Mesa Verde Ro om Building Burial 41 16 infants Site on-white and mineral-painted vessels that we would place in late Pueblo II. We would also place some of Morris's BMIII in Puebl We on-white and mineral-painted vessels that we would place in late Pueblo II. extended than flexed but with some bent limbs. III" (Morris 1939:115). Burials described as "loosely flexed" have been entered here semiflexed, burials with bent b III" (Morris 1939:115). Summary: "The only conspicuous change in burial customs during the entire cycle of occupation was, then, from extramural to int

58 Table 3.12. Mesa Verde burials (A.D. 900-1300)

Mug House Big Juniper Badger Long Total Cave House House House

Number of Burials 46 23 33 39 141

Age Range

Adult 39.1% 52.1% 63.6% 53.8% 51.0% Subadult (under 15) 60.8% 47.8% 36.3% 46.1% 48.9% Position

Flexed 30.4% 21.7% 18.1% 56.4% 33.3% Semiflexed 26.0% 39.1% 36.3% 5.1% 24.8% Extended 6.5% 4.3% 0 0 2.8%

Unknown 36.9% 34.7% 45.4% 38.4% 39.0% Burials with Grave Goods 39.1% 69.5% 78.7% 53.8% 57.4%

Adapted from Cattanach (1980), Hayes and Lancaster (1975), Rohn (1971), and Swannack (1969).

Table 3.13. Chaco Canyon burials

Ceramic Period Early Red Mesa/ Red Gallup McElmo Mesa Verde Mesa (A.D. 900-1050) (A.D. 1030-1150) (A.D. 1100-1175) (A.D. 1175-1300)

Number of Burials 48 66 41 11

Age Range Adult 47.9% 54.5% 56.0% 45.4% Subadult (under 15) 18.7% 34.8% 43.9% 54.5%

Unknown 33.3% 10.6% 0 0 Location

Room 25.0% 51.5% 73.1% 100% Midden 75.0% 43.9% 12.1% 0 Miscellaneous 0 4.5% 14.6% 0

Position Flexed 10.4% 39.3% 21.9% 9.1% Semiflexed 50.0% 40.9% 36.5% 36.3%

Extended 18.7% 18.1% 14.6% 9.1% Unknown 20.8% 1.5% 26.8% 45.4%

Adapted from Akins (1986).

59 Table 3.14. La Plata burial goods ( percents and sample size)

None Small (1) Moderate (2-3) Extensive (4+)

Subadults (28) 46.4 (13) 35.7 (10) 14.3 (4) 3.6 (1)

Males (14) 42.8 (6) 21.4 (3) 21.4 (3) 14.3 (2)

Females (16) 31.2 (5) 12.5 (2) 37.5 (6) 18.8 (3)

Totals (58) 41.4 (24) 27.6 (16) 24.1 (14) 10.3 (6)

X2= 7.839, 6 d.f., p=.250 (expected values less than 5 in over half of the cells)

Table 3.15. Distribution of age-at-death (n=67)

Age Number Breakdown by Sex

Fetal 2

nb - .9 2 1 - 4.9 13 5 - 9.9 7

10 - 14.9 3

15 - 19.9 3 Total 30

Males (16) Females (18)

20 - 24.9 5 2 3 25 - 29.9 7 3 4

30 - 34.9 4 2 2 35 - 39.9 4 1 3 40 - 44.9 1 1 0

45 - 49.9 6 5 1 50 4 2 1

Unknown 6 Total 37

60 Table 3.16. Summary by age and sex

LA 0 - 4 - 9 - 19-25 26-35 36-45 46+ Adult Totals No. 3y 8 y 18 y & % & % & % & % & ? All & % Sub- adults

37592 3 2 1 1 1 8 2 6

37593 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 2

37594 1 1 1

37595 1 1 2 1 1

37598 1 1 1

37599 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 10 1 4 3

37600 1 1 2 1 1 6 2 2 1

37601 1 2 2 1 3 1 1 1 12 4 5 3

37603 1 1 1 3 1 1 1

37605 1 2 3 3

65029 1 1 1

65030 5 2 3 1 2 1 1 1 16 7 2 7

Totals 15 7 7 7 4 4 4 3 4 1 4 4 3 67 19 16 29

Table 3.17. Age composition of New World prehistoric sites (percent)

Population (N) Age <1 1-9 10-18 >18

La Plata (67) 6.0 29.8 7.5 56.7 Mesa Verde Early (150) 10.6 18.0 14.0 57.3

Mesa Verde Late (178) 16.8 18.5 23.5 48.6 Pueblo Bonito (93) 1.0 16.1 17.2 40.4 Black Mesa (165) 10.4 24.2 14.5 50.9

Casas Grandes (612) 10.0 22.0 14.0 54.0 Pecos Pueblo (1722) 18.7 14.0 8.0 59.0

Tlajinga, Mexico (166) 41.3 10.3 10.6 38.6 Arikara Villages (1487) 31.5 24.0 9.5 45.5 Libben, Ohio (1239) 18.0 22.0 14.0 46.0

Compiled from Martin et al. (1991), Storey (1988), and Nelson et al. (1994).

61 Table 3.18. Life table: La Plata burial population

0 x Dx dx lx qx Lx Tx e x

0-.9 4 60.6 1000.0 0.0606 969.7 24539.4 24.54 1-4.9 13 197.0 939.4 0.2097 3878.8 23569.7 25.09

5-9.9 6 90.9 742.4 0.1255 4204.5 19690.9 26.52 10-14.9 3 45.5 651.5 0.0698 3484.7 15486.4 23.77

15-19.9 3 45.5 606.0 0.0751 2916.2 12001.7 19.80 20-24.9 5.97 90.5 560.5 0.1615 2576.2 9085.5 16.21 25-29.9 8.35 126.5 470.0 0.2684 2033.7 6509.3 13.85

30-34.9 4.77 72.3 343.5 0.2105 1536.7 4475.6 13.03 35-39.9 4.77 72.3 271.2 0.2666 1175.2 2938.9 10.84 40-44.9 1.19 18.0 198.9 0.0905 949.5 1763.7 8.87

45-49.9 7.16 108.5 180.9 0.5998 633.2 814.2 4.50 50-54.9 4.77 72.3 72.4 1.0000 181.0 181.0 2.50 x = age interval Dx = number of skeletons with ages within the limits of x lx = survivorship, or percentage of sample entering x qx = probability of dying during interval x Lx = total number of years lived by all individuals during x Tx = number of years remaining in lifetimes of all entering x 0 e x = average life expectancy in years of individuals entering x

62 Table 3.19. Life expectancy at birth values for Southwest series

0 Site e 0 Date Designation

Pueblo Bonito (95) 26.3 PII Anasazi

Kayenta Region (38) 26.2 PII Anasazi

Chaco Basin (91) 25.6 PI-II Anasazi

Black Mesa (165) 25.1 PI-II Anasazi

La Plata (66) 24.5 PII-III Anasazi

Point of Pines (508) 22.9 PII/III-IV Mogollon

Mesa Verde Early (150) 21.2 BMIII-PI/II Anasazi

Casas Grandes (612) 20.2 PIII-IV Northern Mexico

Mesa Verde Late (178) 18.3 PII-III Anasazi

San Cristobal (271) 18.6 PIV-Historic Pueblo

Transwestern (37) 17.6 PII Anasazi

Hawikku (191) 17.1 PIV-Historic Pueblo

Navajo (166) 16.8 PI-II Anasazi

Arroyo Hondo (108) 16.2 PIV Pueblo

Grasshopper (614) 14.2 PIV Mogollon

Salmon Ruin (111) 12.7 PII-III Anasazi

Total samples size is in parentheses. Adapted from Berry (1985), Herrmann (1993), Martin et al. (1991), Ryan (1977), Stodder (1990), and Nelson et al. (1994).

0 Note: e 0 was recalculated for Black Mesa, Mesa Verde, Casas Grandes, Pueblo Bonito, and Arroyo Hondo (see Nelson et al. 1994).

63 Table 3.20. Ranked comparisons of mortality and fertility estimates

Mortality

0 Ranked from Low to High Mean Age at Death (e 0)

1. Arroyo Hondo 16.2

2. Mesa Verde Late 18.3

3. Casas Grandes 20.2

4. Mesa Verde Early 21.2

5. La Plata 24.5

6. Black Mesa 25.1

7. Pueblo Bonito 26.3

Fertility (ratio = deaths 30 $/ deaths 5$)

Ranked from High to Low Birthrate

1. Mesa Verde Late .3212

2. Casas Grandes .3318

3. Mesa Verde Early .3496

4. La Plata .4318

5. Pueblo Bonito .4419

6. Arroyo Hondo .5424

7. Black Mesa .576

Adapted from Nelson et al. (1994:103).

64 CHAPTER 4 in high frequencies (Allen 1984; Dyson 1984; Leatherman 1987). In general, acute or epidemic condi- HEALTH PROFILE OF THE LA PLATA tions do not leave evidence in bone (Ortner and Putschar VALLEY COMMUNITIES 1981). Lesions that do affect bone are primarily from chronic conditions. We argue that it is the endemic, day- to-day stresses that are important to document, for these As with demographic variables, the health status of reveal more about the environmental and cultural fac- southwestern precontact societies has long been recog- tors that people must deal with on a regular basis. nized as a fundamental aspect of understanding and Patterns of death and disease are not random occur- interpreting the past. From Matthews et al. (1893), rences. They are intimately linked to every facet of Hrdlicka (1908), and Hooton (1930), we see early lifestyle from diet and climate to occupation, social attempts to characterize the health of the ancient Pueblo structure, and religion (Wells 1964:87). Although death Indians through their skeletal remains. Readers of this is the ultimate indicator of maladaptation, its timing and early literature are simultaneously impressed that these patterning within populations reveals a variety of chal- researchers write with such descriptive detail but are lenges in the physical and social environment. Some also frustrated by their inability to link their observa- have criticized the ability of skeletal biologists to make tions in systematic ways with other facets of archaeo- useful inferences from paleodemographic and pale- logical reconstruction. The impressions recorded about opathological data (Wood et al. 1992), but Goodman the biological characteristics of ancient Pueblo people (1993) has addressed and rebutted many of these. He were often a blend of subjective and personal ideas points out that skeletal biologists focus on multiple indi- regarding how they lived and why they died (e.g., cators of stress, which, when combined with an under- Colton 1960; Cummings 1940, 1953; Fewkes 1904). standing of the ecological and cultural context (see Fig. Most of the discussions are cast in a rosy glow about the 1.1), can be used to construct health profiles that noble ancient ones who have survived the slings and approach biological realities. arrows of outrageous fortune, or there is a tone that The principal intent of this study is to establish implies that these people were unenlightened and back- health parameters for the people living in the La Plata ward in their knowledge of sanitation and health care. Valley. The small size of the sample limits an extensive The focus of many of the reports on health and disease statistical study.2 In this study we have been able to con- continues to be tabulation of medical anomalies and firm poor health among subgroups within the popula- pathologies for individual skeletons (e.g., Bennet 1966, tion. Also, we can begin to locate places where definite 1973; 1975; Berry 1983; Hrdlicka 1935; Miles 1966, signs of biological afflictions may be linked to cultural 1975; Nickens 1975; Reed 1946, 1965). practices. Categories of skeletal manifestations of dis- It is tempting to interpret signs of hardship directly ease are discussed with an eye toward establishing pat- from the skeleton. It is unfortunate that the finding of terns within the population and noting any trends in disease and early death leads some to believe that the poor health through time or by community (Jackson lives of ancient people were ruled by pain and sorrow. Lake and Barker Arroyo). When possible, comparisons Caution must be used in so doing (Dettwyler 1991), to other skeletal populations are made. because just as we cannot say that skeletons without pathological lesions were healthy (and therefore happy, POROTIC HYPEROSTOSIS fortunate, etc.), we cannot assume that severe skeletal pathology necessarily caused disability and pain.1 The history, background, and methodology of the There are, in fact, hundreds of health problems that study of porotic hyperostosis is reviewed in Chapter 2. do not leave signatures on the skeletal system, but many The results of the analysis presented here suggest that of these are rare or unusual diseases that primarily affect iron deficiency anemia and its resultant health compli- individuals over 65 or are diseases not believed to have cations were ubiquitous but not a severe health problem. been present in precontact New World individuals For the subadult population as a whole (aged newborn (Kiple 1993). It is fortunate for us that common and through fifteen), over half (57.9 percent) of the individ- highly prevalent microorganisms that cause illness do uals who could be scored demonstrate cranial involve- initiate changes in the morphology of bone tissue, such ment (Table 4.1). Of the eleven subadults with lesions, as anemia, staph and strep infections, respiratory ail- four (36.4 percent) were scored as slight in expression, ments, gastrointestinal problems, and dysentery and seven (63.6 percent) as moderate. None of the La (Steinbock 1976; Ortner and Putschar 1981). These are Plata children had lesions that could be characterized as precisely the conditions that contemporary populations severe in expression. All of the cases of porotic hyper- living in marginalized and Third World settings die from ostosis in the subadult population were either healing or

65 healed at the time of death. The majority of the cases of Stodder (1987, 1989). Problems exist in the manner that porotic hyperostosis (63.6 percent) are modally distrib- data are reported. Often, frequencies are given for cases uted in the age category 1.5 through 3 (although this is of porotic hyperostosis in the orbital area (referred to as most likely a function of poor representation in the cribra orbitalia) separately from cases on the cranial younger age categories). vault. It is also problematic that some of the earliest By geographic locale, the 19 subadults that could research by El-Najjar et al. failed to elucidate the exact be scored for porotic hyperostosis at Barker Arroyo methodology for collecting porotic hyperostosis data. include nine individuals (47.4 percent) who have lesions Research into the etiology of the lesion over the last 10 and six (31.6 percent) that do not. At Jackson Lake, two years has undoubtedly affected how skeletal biologists (50 percent) of the four have lesions. Temporal trends collect data on porotic hyperostosis.3 are difficult to assess, but there does not appear to be a Taking these problems of comparison into mind, it clustering of cases of porotic hyperostosis by period (PII does appear that the La Plata population demonstrates versus PII-III). Likewise, severity (slight versus moder- lower frequencies during Pueblo II-III than at some ate) or status of the lesions (active versus remodeled) other sites. Danforth et al. (1994) report that 4 out of 5 does not appear to be associated with a particular tem- subadults aged two or under (80 percent) at this Pueblo poral unit, nor do cases appear to change in patterning III site in Arizona had lesions at the time of death over time. (although the frequency for the total population is about In the adult portion of the sample (Tables 4.2 and 23 percent). La Plata frequencies are lower than those 4.3), anemia appears to have been an equal liability for reported for other sites, as well as later collections. For males and females, suggesting that it is a function of example, the Black Mesa sample (PI-II) had an overall shared dietary and lifestyle activities. In the 11 females frequency of 87 percent, and Canyon de Chelly (PII-III) that could be scored for porotic hyperostosis, 4 (36.4 shows a frequency of 55.1 percent (Walker 1985:143). percent) were slight in expression, with signs of healing. For sites later in time (San Cristobal and Hawikku, Of the 12 males that could be scored, again 4 (33.3 per- PIV), Stodder (1990:223) reports frequencies of 87 per- cent) showed lesions, equally divided between slight cent and 74 percent, respectively. and moderate in expression, all cases demonstrating Interpreting the La Plata Valley data on porotic healing at the time of death. Thus for the total adult pop- hyperostosis involves a simultaneous understanding of a ulation, 45.2 percent were affected by an anemic condi- number of factors. Early interpretations of porotic tion. (Of the three adults that could not be assigned a hyperostosis linked it exclusively to an iron-poor diet sex, none could be scored for lesions due to poor preser- (e.g., El-Najjar et al. 1975, 1976), but it is now assumed vation and missing crania.) that diet per se may play a less prominent role in the The small number of adults recovered from the expression of anemia in a population. As summarized by Jackson Lake sites makes comparisons highly problem- Walker (1985:153): “The remarkable prevalence of atic. Four adults (2 female and 2 male) from Jackson osseous lesions indicative of anemia among prehistoric Lake show no lesions on the cranial portions. Thus, all Southwest Indians apparently resulted from the interac- of the cases of anemia are in the Barker Arroyo sample, tion of a complex set of biological and cultural variables 42 percent of this sample demonstrating lesions. No relating to nutrition and infectious disease. Lack of iron temporal trends could be discerned from the combined in the diet, prolonged breast feeding, diarrheal and adult sample. helminth infections, and living conditions conducive to Looking at the combined La Plata Valley popula- the spread of disease all appear to have contributed to tion, the frequency is 45.2 percent (19 cases of anemia the prevalence of porotic hyperostosis.” out of 42 individuals that could be assessed). Compared While it is important to note the iron content of to groups living approximately the same time in the foods likely to have been eaten, it is equally important Southwest, this is among the lower frequencies reported to examine how other micronutrients and culinary prac- (Table 4.4). Comparison of childhood frequencies of tices interact with iron in the diet. Maize is itself a rather porotic hyperostosis show that the La Plata Valley sam- poor source of iron, and the phytic acid in it is primari- ple is among the lowest. Although these comparisons ly responsible for inhibiting iron absorption. Phytates suggest that La Plata Valley individuals experienced less also inhibit the absorption of zinc, whose interactions of the side effects of iron deficiency anemia than their with iron are important (Sandstrom et al. 1987). Phytic counterparts, it is difficult to interpret these data direct- acid comprises 1 to 3 percent of all nuts, cereals, ly. There have been a number attempts to summarize all legumes, and oil seeds. Because of its chemical struc- published accounts of porotic hyperostosis for ture, it can form chelates with minerals such as calcium Southwest archaeological populations, the most notable and iron. Hurrel et al. (1992) found that reducing phy- being El-Najjar et al. (1976), Walker (1985), and tase levels to a specific concentration can increase iron

66 absorption up to five times. Different varieties of corn The infant mortality rate in New Mexico during the have variable concentration of phytase. Hopi corn 1960s, around 30 deaths per 1,000 live births, was ranges from 0.4 to 2.2 percent, and Kuhnlein et al. shown to be highly associated with low birth weight (1979) found that the practice of adding culinary ash to (less than 1,499 g) (State of New Mexico Public Health the meal resulted in a calcium-phytase complex that per- Division 1983:5). The leading cause of death after con- mitted greater iron availability. Maize prepared into nix- genital anomalies for children under the age of one was, tamal (or masa) for preparation of tortillas or other and continues to be, influenza and pneumonia, and sud- maize foods by being heated in boiling water to which den infant death syndrome (SIDS) in Indian infants liv- lime has been added and left overnight to soak increas- ing in New Mexico (State of New Mexico Public Health es calcium content by over 2,000 percent (Kuhnlein et Division 1989:42). Thus, the presence of iron deficien- al. 1979). Other kinds of ash are also beneficial. cy anemia in the La Plata Valley sample of children is Mesquite ash can increase calcium content eleven times, not unlike that found recently in Pueblo children in the and juniper branches, corncobs, and other materials Rio Grande Valley. added as culinary ash could likewise increase levels of The presence of iron deficiency anemia as con- calcium, iron, copper, zinc, and strontium in meal pre- firmed by the presence of porotic hyperostosis suggests pared from maize. Vitamin C, needed to increase iron that iron deficiency anemia was endemic to both com- absorption, is present in significant amounts in prickly munities, but more likely it contributed to morbidity and pear and cholla, as well as squash, pumpkin, and ama- quality of life more so than to mortality. Understanding ranth. the source of the anemia, however, is more difficult. The The complex interaction of micronutrients and iron likely preparation of corn into nixtamal and the addition absorption are only a part of the picture. There is often of any kind of ash served to make the iron bioavailable a synergistic effect between dietary deficiencies and so that the signs of iron deficiency anemia seen in the La susceptibility to transmissible infectious diseases. At La Plata sample may be due to factors other than dietary Plata, the co-occurrence of porotic hyperostosis in inadequacy. Instead of viewing a maize dependent diet subadults with periosteal reactions (lesions indicative of as deficient in nutrients and a contributor to poor health, systemic infectious disease) is relatively frequent (Table it can be seen as a storable and dependable source of 4.1). Out of 13 cases in which both cranial and postcra- carbohydrate, lipids, and protein that was probably ade- nial material were available to assess for lesions of quate for most segments of the population. Waste man- porotic hyperostosis and periosteal reaction, seven (53.8 agement and proximity to people with transmissible percent) children have lesions. Of these, three (23.1 per- infectious diseases may account for more of the anemia cent) have either porotic hyperostosis or periosteal reac- than did the diet. tions, while four (30.8 percent) demonstrate both. Regardless of its root cause, iron deficiency in even Evidence suggests that infectious disease finds a more slight to moderate rates should be considered a red flag. “willing” host in the anemic individual, and Keusch and Iron deficiency anemia is the single most common nutri- Farthing (1986:145) demonstrate that iron deficiency tional deficiency in the world, with 25 percent of all anemia can predispose children to respiratory and gas- infants and 66 percent of children affected in developing trointestinal infections. For the Black Mesa population, nations today (Wardlaw 1993:458-485). The symptoms co-occurrence was 61.9 percent for the subadults, but of iron deficiency anemia (which do not preserve in the the patterning was quite different than at La Plata. The archaeological record) are pale skin, brittle nails, cases of co-occurrence show a distinctly bimodal distri- fatigue, apathy, poor temperature regulation, and loss of bution at La Plata, with cases at ages 2 and 3, and again appetite. Learning ability, work performance, and at ages 9 and 10, although this may be largely due to immune status can be significantly compromised by poor representation in the youngest age categories. poor iron stores. Thus, although we feel that the fre- In a 1966 study of Pueblo Indian children living at quencies at La Plata are low to moderate by Southwest Acoma Pueblo in New Mexico, Corbett (1968) demon- standards, we do not want to overlook or underempha- strated that there was a high incidence of iron deficien- size that any manifestation suggests the potential to cy anemia in young children visiting the local medical affect the most vulnerable of the group, in this case chil- clinic. At 15 months, 100 percent of the children had dren. Combined with other problems, like staph and lower than normal mean corpuscular hemoglobin con- strep, the synergistic effect could be deadly. centrations. Rates tapered off to between 40 and 60 per- cent in older children. He also found a co-occurrence of PERIOSTEAL REACTION AND OTHER INFECTIONS anemia and respiratory infections in 73 percent of the children. These data reflect on findings of iron deficien- Lesions resulting from inflammations of the perios- cy anemia and infectious disease in precolonial times. teum are indicative of systemic infectious disease or

67 may result from trauma. Among the subadult portion of and reactive lesions (with some cloacal openings). the La Plata Valley population, 5 of 17 cases in which Clavicles show similar lesions. Portions are massively the condition was observable (29.4 percent) demonstrat- remodeled and affected by the same process. The distal ed lesions indicative of generalized nonspecific infec- portion of one humerus is massively remodeled and tion, and one has a trauma- related infection (Table 4.1). affected by the same process (Fig. 4.3). Of children with periosteal reactions, the majority of the Differential diagnosis of this individual (after cases were moderate in expression, and all were active examination of x-rays) suggests osteomyelitis (see and/or active with some healing at the time of death. It Ortner and Putschar 1981:105-109). The pus-producing is difficult to assess the age of onset of infectious dis- bacteria that cause osteomyelitis can reach the skeleton ease in this subgroup because of missing information in via direct infection from a traumatic wound, from infec- the younger age categories, but two of the five cases of tions that start in the skin and expand to bone, or by any periosteal reaction are in children aged 2 and 3, and the vascular route from the point of sepsis. Although we other three cases are in children aged 9 and 10. Four out cannot definitely know the original cause of this mas- of the five cases co-occur with porotic hyperostosis. In sive infection confined to the shoulder and chest area, terms of community differences, one of the five cases is the localized nature of the infection demands that we in a two-year-old child from Jackson Lake. The other ask what caused it. Possibly, it was the result of a trau- cases are from Barker Arroyo, and these are the children matic injury to that area. The right scapula (near the aged 3 and 9 to 10. No temporal trends could be dis- spine) and the sixth and seventh ribs show roughened cerned. depressed areas that are reminiscent of trauma in the For the adult population, the overall rate of form of healed fractures. There appear to be localized, periosteal reactions is 25.0 percent: 7 cases out of 28 trauma-induced osteophytes on the third through the total observations (Tables 4.2 and 4.3). By sex, there is fifth cervical vertebrae. This woman also has a series of only one male (6.6 percent) that demonstrates general- distinct healed compression fractures on the frontal ized lesions and one other that has lesions associated bone and the left parietal, suggesting that considerable with trauma. For females there are five individuals (38.5 force was applied with an implement both heavy and percent) with generalized lesions, one with lesions in the hard enough to have split open the cranium in that area.4 orbits and on the ribs in an individual with metastatic This individual is discussed further in the section on fre- cancer, and another with a severe case of osteomyelitis. quencies of trauma for the La Plata group. For the generalized lesions, three are slight, and two are Tuberculosis, a chronic infectious disease, was moderate in expression. Likewise, two of the cases located on two individuals. One case came from the bur- demonstrate active lesions, while three of the cases ial population discussed here, and one example was show some healing. All of the females with lesions were located in a disarticulated assemblage (discussed in from Barker Arroyo sites. Chapter 6). From site LA 37599 B6, a child of about Comparison of the La Plata Valley sample as a nine years of age demonstrated a pattern of lesions and whole with select contemporaneous samples indicates vertebral fusion that suggests tuberculosis. Although the that the frequencies are somewhat higher than other bur- vertebral elements are highly fragmentary and poorly ial populations from the area (Table 4.5). One detail that preserved, evidence of destruction and resorption of the underscores the frequency at La Plata is that it is dis- articular facets and lytic lesions on the body of some of proportionately weighted with adult females. Table 4.3 the thoracic vertebrae represent a pattern that has been indicates that five females (versus one male) had linked to tuberculosis. On several of the thoracic verte- lesions, and more importantly, three females had active brae, the inferior and superior articular facets exhibit manifestations at the time of death. resorption and osteolytic destruction. The severity of One female (LA 37601, B4, aged 25) had a severe destruction has caused the collapse of the thoracic body, case of osteomyelitis (Fig. 4.1). The sternum is longitu- and the exposed cancellous bone is dense and shows dinally convex, and parts of the manubrium are thick- sclerotic development. The example from LA 65030 (FS ened with osteophytic reactive bone covering the anteri- 510) involves a vertebrae from a subadult found in the or, superior, and lateral surfaces (Fig. 4.2). Some parts fill of Pit Structure 8 with evidence of tuberculosis (Fig. of the bone surface appear smooth and rounded, and 4.4). these areas were likely caused by lytic lesions and sub- Tuberculosis on precontact Southwest specimens sequent sclerotic processes (see Ortner and Putschar has been largely associated with sites dating to late 1981:111). Both scapulae have thin ventral margins (as Pueblo III through Pueblo IV (Merbs 1989). However, a if the epiphysis did not develop properly). The acromion few cases have been noted to occur in Pueblo II and of the right is covered with reactive bone similar to the Pueblo III sites (Chavez Pass, Pueblo Bonito, Talus sternum; the left likewise has damaged surface areas Unit, and Point of Pines). Stodder (1990) found cases at

68 Figure 4.1. Distribution of osteomyelitic lesions. LA 37601, B4.

69 Figure 4.2. Osteomyelitis of the sternum. LA 37601, B4.

Figure 4.3. Osteomyelitic and normal humerus. LA 37601, B4.

70 clear dental defect in La Plata subadult deciduous denti- tion. Additionally, at least two other teeth displayed deciduous caries (22.2 percent). Their location on smooth anterior surfaces suggests that they may have been secondary to an enamel developmental defect. No cases of deciduous canine pits as identified by Skinner and Hung (1989) were found. In comparison, 23 percent of the Black Mesa (PII) subadults with anterior teeth exhibited a hypoplasia (Martin et al. 1991). The Black Mesa deciduous data are very similar to data presented for some contemporary populations living in marginal environments. Goodman et al. (1987) note hypoplasia rates of less than 14 percent for each deciduous anterior tooth in Mexican children, and Infante and Gillespie (1974) note rates of between 18 and 24 percent in Figure 4.4. Vertebrae showing tubercular involve- Guatemalan children from three villages. Perhaps the ment. LA 65030, FS 510. most interesting comparison is with contemporary both San Cristóbal and Hawikku, and she suggests that White Mountain Apache children, for whom Infante there was an epidemic wave of tuberculosis, which is (1974) notes a prevalence rate of 19.4 percent, quite highly contagious. Immuno-compromised individuals similar to the late Pueblo Black Mesa rate of 23.4 per- are most at risk. The clustering of several cases of tuber- cent culosis at San Cristóbal suggested to her a highly com- Relatively higher rates of deciduous hypoplasias promised group. have been reported in other archaeological populations. Tuberculosis can be considered an index of popula- For example, Blakey and Armelagos (1985) found that tion density and lowered immune resistance, and it was 36 percent of 50 individuals from Dickson Mounds, present in very high frequencies in the historic Pueblo Illinois (A.D. 950-1300), had deciduous hypoplasias. groups encountered by Hrdlicka (1908). Ortner and Malville (1994) has reported very high rates (over 50 Putschar (1981) estimate that only a small proportion percent affected) in a small sample from Montezuma (less than 10 percent) of individuals with tuberculosis County, Colorado. The largest of these samples is ever have symptoms. Thus, presence of two cases at La Pueblo II and III Yellow Jacket (5MT1/5MT3). Plata suggests that a much higher frequency of individ- We cannot provide an unambiguous explanation of uals would have been carriers of the disease. the frequency of deciduous enamel hypoplasias at La Plata, which places it at the low end of most other south- LINEAR ENAMEL HYPOPLASIAS AND OTHER western, precolonial, and contemporary Third World DEVELOPMENTAL DEFECTS populations. The sample size is small, and the some of the teeth are fragmentary. Thus, all speculations are pre- Linear enamel hypoplasias (LEH), a class of devel- liminary. Also, one needs to consider that highly opmental defects of enamel (DDE), are among the most stressed individuals could have died and been selected commonly used osteological indicators of nutrition and out, and there is clear variation in minimal criteria for health status. LEHs are easily observed, indelible once scoring a deciduous defect. However, these ambiguities formed, time specific, and relatively unambiguously aside, it is likely that the data reflect a comparatively linked to past periods of physiological stress (Goodman low degree of in-utero and neonatal physiological dis- and Rose 1991). ruption. Data are presented both as “chronologies” of defects and as overall frequencies of defects per tooth. Dental Opacities Because most teeth exhibited some degree of attrition, one or more developmental periods were frequently Compared to other archaeological populations, the recorded as missing. Therefore, in order to increase La Plata sample had a relatively high frequency of indi- sample size, the tooth specific rates are based on the fre- viduals with permanent tooth enamel opacities. Twelve quency of defects per middle and cervical third. individuals had an enamel opacity on one or more per- manent anterior teeth. In general, two patterns of opaci- Deciduous Dentition ty could be distinguished: either the opacity was in the form of diffuse mottling and affected all or nearly all There was only one instance (11.1 percent) of a tooth crowns, or it was localized to just one or two teeth.

71 In the latter pattern, canines seemed to be most often ples (Yellow Jacket, Black Mesa, Mesa Verde, Dolores) affected. Diffuse mottling was particularly prevalent in 29 of 30 comparisons. The sole exception is that La and severe at LA 37600 (PII and PIII, Barker Arroyo). Plata displays a slightly higher mean number of LEHs Of the six individuals from this site, all demonstrated on the maxillary second (lateral) incisor compared to some degree of opacities, and three of the four scorable Mesa Verde (Stodder 1987). These data suggest that individuals also had iron deficiency anemia at the time stress periods may be somewhat less cyclical or even of death. The co-occurrence with dental mottling sug- seasonal at La Plata than in other groups. gests that these people were physiologically stressed at There is slight evidence that females have more the time of death, as well as having been biologically LEH than males (Table 4.7). Females have more defects compromised as children. than males in four of six teeth. This result is not statisti- It is very difficult at this stage to do more than spec- cally significant, and the differences are quite small rel- ulate on the etiology and meaning of the opacities. ative to sample sizes. Nonetheless, they provide some Opacities can result from many things, such as high flu- suggestion of higher stress in young girls than in young oride consumption and other difficulties in the incorpo- boys. ration of trace elements into growing enamel hydroxya- One of the most important aspects of LEH is an patite. ability to provide a chronological patterns of defects. Table 4.8 presents the distribution of enamel defects by Linear Enamel Hypoplasias half-year developmental periods (also see Fig. 4.7). All teeth display a more-or-less normal distribution of Enamel hypoplasias on permanent dentition from defects, with a single peak. In general, there is a very La Plata varied tremendously in size and form. Most fre- low frequency of defects before two years. All teeth quently found were mild linear defects, although a few except the lower canine have a peak frequency of severe defects were also found. In addition, a number of defects between 2.0-2.5 to 3.0-3.5 years. the lower pit type defects and “pit patches” (Goodman et al. canine peak occurs at 5.0-5.5 years. 1992), areas of disrupted enamel, were also found. This peak is quite typical of other precontact popu- Goodman et al. (1993) suggest that pit patches found at lations and seems to be neither unusually advanced or Black Mesa may indicate chronic low-level stress. delayed. For example, Stodder (1987) finds a peak at The percent of anterior permanent teeth with LEH 2.5-3.0 for incisors and 4.0-5.0 for canines at Mesa ranges from 26.7 percent for the mandibular central Verde. Malville (1994) quite similarly detects a central incisor to 66.7 percent for the maxillary central incisor incisor peak at around 2.5 years for Yellow Jacket (Table 4.6). The mean number of defects per tooth Pueblo II and Pueblo III and upper and lower canine ranges from .27 for the mandibular central incisor to peaks between 3.5 and 5.0 years. Goodman and 1.15 for the mandibular canine. Armelagos (1985b) also find peaks between 2.0-2.5 for The pattern of variation in frequency of defects by upper central incisors and 3.5-4.0 for canines for tooth is not unusual. In a detailed study of the pattern of Dickson populations. The Black Mesa peaks are at 2.5- enamel defects among teeth, Goodman and Armelagos 3.0 for upper central incisors and 4.0-4.5 for lower (1985b) found that the maxillary central incisor and canines (Martin et al. 1991). mandibular canine were most often hypoplastic, and this What explains a peak in LEH (stress) at 2.0 to 5.0 pattern has been shown in a number of subsequent stud- years? Factors to be considered include a low quality ies. What is unusual is the low prevalence of defects and quantity of postweaning food, and increased sus- compared to other Pueblo populations and especially ceptibility to infectious disease. Dennis (1940:99) states compared to other southwestern populations. that the Hopi infant “is seldom weaned under one year The frequency (prevalence) of LEH by tooth for La of age and frequently is not weaned before two years.” Plata is shown in comparison to other southwestern There is a clustering of cases of iron deficiency anemia groups in Figure 4.5. For all teeth, the La Plata preva- between 1.5 and 2 years (Table 4.1). The data indicate lence is less than that at Black Mesa (Martin et al. 1991) that this subgroup is at higher risk than other age groups and Yellow Jacket (Malville 1994), but is relatively sim- of morbidity and mortality. This is neither surprising nor ilar in rate to Dolores and Mesa Verde (A.D. 600-1300) highly revelatory except to add, in important ways, a (Stodder 1987). more richly textured understanding of childhood life at Whereas the La Plata LEH frequencies are not par- La Plata. ticularly low, the mean number of defects per tooth is demonstrably lower when compared across Southwest Summary groups (Fig. 4.6). The mean number of LEHs per tooth for the La Plata sample is less than all comparative sam- The data on dental defects suggest there is a rela-

72 Figure 4.5. Prevalence of LEH by tooth: La Plata and other southwestern groups.

Figure 4.6. LEH per tooth (mean): La Plata and other southwestern groups.

73 Figure 4.7. LEH by age at formation: La Plata.

Figure 4.8. Femoral distance curves (ages 0-7): La Plata and comparison groups.

74 tively high frequency of opacities at La Plata. The sig- study. Goodman et al. (1991) found that children from nificance of these defects is yet to be determined. Tezonteopan, Mexico, who were given nutritional sup- However, with some speculation, we suggest that the plements during tooth formation had a 40 to 50 percent high frequency of opacities may be related to high fluo- decrease in LEHs compared to nonsupplemented con- ride intake or an unusual pattern of intake of other trace trols. minerals, which affected the calcification of enamel The Tezonteopan study also provided some prelim- hydroxyapatite. inary data suggesting that disease (especially respirato- There is a very low frequency of LEH in permanent ry and diarrheal) might also be key to the formation of a teeth, suggesting a low level of physiological perturba- LEH. In a subsample it was shown that individuals with tion during infancy and early childhood. These data are LEH also tended to have experienced more illness. And, quite clear. However, they need to be considered in the in fact, the nutritional supplementation data may also context of the pattern of mortality and other indicators point to the importance of disease, because nutritional of general and specific morbidity. As with other archae- supplementation is also associated with a significant ological and southwestern populations, the greatest fre- decrease in the number of days ill (Chavez and Martinez quency of LEH is found around the age of 3-4.0 years. 1982). A paucity of LEH in the first two years is likely related The first data have emerged suggesting that nutri- to the fact that individuals with severe stress likely died tional status and illness have additive effects on the and were thus selected out. We suggest that this peak is prevalence of enamel defects. May et al. (1993) studied “real” in that it reflects a heightened period of stress LEH in Guatemalan children who received varying between 3 and 4 years of age. types and degrees of nutritional supplementation during Goodman et al. (1987) have studied the frequency tooth crown development. They found that individuals and chronological distribution of enamel hypoplasias in with LEH occurring from about birth to three years of Mexican children from five rural agricultural communi- age were more likely to have had a high frequency of ill- ties in the Solis Valley, Highland Mexico. These com- ness and a low rate of calorie supplementation. munities were selected for study because of the presence Similarly, Goodman et al. (1992) studied rural Egyptian of endemic mild-to-moderate malnutrition (children at children and found that number of days ill and estimat- 60 to 95 percent weight-for-age). The diet is tortillas and ed caloric intake from 18 to 30 months had an additive small amounts of meat and vegetables. They found one effect on the probability of developing an LEH. or more hypoplasias on 46.7 percent of 300 children These studies of contemporary rural agricultural examined. Among the unworn and completely erupted groups provide an important framework for contemplat- teeth, the highest prevalence was found on permanent ing the ways that subgroups such as postweaning-age teeth and especially the maxillary central incisor (44.4 children experience morbidity and mortality. Studies of percent were hypoplastic). Fourteen percent of the contemporary populations have shown a consistent deciduous maxillary central incisors were hypoplastic. increase in the prevalence of enamel hypoplasias for This prevalence is slightly less than but similar to the groups that live in poor and underdeveloped communi- figures of Infante and Gillespie (1974) and Sweeney et ties. While the association of enamel defects and anthro- al. (1971) from rural Guatemalan children. pometric status suggests a nutritional cause, it is not In the Solis Valley children, most deciduous tooth clear how important nutrition is, which nutrients are defects appear to occur around the last trimester and most critical, and how nutrition interacts with other fac- neonatally. For the permanent teeth, there is a clear cen- tors such as infectious disease in the etiology of enamel tral tendency toward hypoplasia occurrence between 1.5 defects. Regardless of the specific unknowns, enamel and 3.0 years. Because weaning generally takes place in hypoplasias have been consistently associated with mal- the second year in these Mexican communities, nutrition and disease. It is our opinion that enamel Goodman et al. suggest that the increased frequency of defects are reliable indicators of the types of stress we hypoplasias may result from stresses associated with are interested in documenting for the La Plata popula- weaning. tion. Although the exact etiology is unknown, the pat- In a follow-up to the Solis study, Goodman et al. terning and distribution of LEH by age, sex, and devel- (1992) analyzed the relation between LEH, nutritional opmental time period provide a well-documented status, and socioeconomic conditions. They found that method for studying the prevalence and distribution of LEH that developed around 2-6 years of age is associat- early life stresses. ed with lower achieved growth in height and weight at the age of 7-10 and lower family socioeconomic status, SUBADULT GROWTH based on material style of life. These cross-sectional studies are supported by results from a prospective The La Plata subadults were analyzed for trends in

75 long bone growth and development. It is unfortunate for diameters and breadths. Although males are consistent- the La Plata study that very few subadults had long ly larger than females, the mean differences are usually bones sufficiently preserved to record length. Of 29 on the order of 10 percent. The largest relative differ- subadults, only 8 femora were adequately intact to ence, 14.1 percent, is found in the mediolateral meas- obtain a length. There were even fewer tibiae and other urement of the tibia at the nutrient foramen. Values for long bones present. Figure 4.8 shows where the the head of the femur reveal a 12.6 percent difference. youngest La Plata individuals (n=3 under the age of 7) The lowest amount of dimorphism was in the length of stand in relation to other southwestern and North the fibula (5.0 percent difference). American series: Black Mesa (Martin et al. 1991), Despite the fact that males are consistently larger Chaco Canyon (Akins 1986), the Arikara from than females, measures of robusticity suggest that Mobridge, South Dakota (Merchant and Ubelaker females are on the sturdy side as well (Table 4.11). 1977), and Dickson Mound, Illinois (Lallo 1973, Fig. 5). Robusticity indexes are used to express the relative size La Plata individuals fall within the same range, although of the shaft in relationship to the overall length of the the values tend to fall on the lower side. bone. Thus it takes several variables relating to both width and length into consideration. For the femur, the ANTHROPOMETRY OF ADULTS midshaft anterior/posterior and medial/lateral dimen- sions are added and multiplied by 100. This figure is Studies of adult morphology provide an interesting then divided by the physiological length of the femur contrast in terms of limitations and potentials to studies (Bass 1971:214). The humerus index takes the least cir- of subadults. Studies of adults are not constrained to a cumference of the humerus shaft, multiplied by 100, and great degree by problems of assignment of age and sex, divides that value by the maximum length (Bass nor are small sample sizes as frequently a limiting fac- 1971:148). The clavicle index for robusticity takes the tor. As in studies of adult anthropometry of living popu- midclavicular circumference, multiplied by 100, and lations, the drawbacks to studies in prehistory revolve divides that value by maximum length (Bass 1971:127). around the loss of sensitivity for clarifying underlying These data demonstrate a male edge with 3 percent dif- processes affecting growth and ultimate size at adult- ference in the robusticity of the femur, and a 13.5 per- hood. The loss of the most stressed segment of the pop- cent difference in clavicle. However, for the humerus, ulation due to death before adulthood, coupled with the females are 4.0 percent more robust. ability to catch up in growth, renders adult morphology These data are distinctly different when compared potentially less sensitive to environmental variation to males and females from Black Mesa (Martin et al. compared to subadult growth and development. 1991:93). There were virtually no differences in robus- Adult long bone dimensions and robusticity index- ticity measures for males and females. Females were es provide a way to examine adult size and proportion, identical to males in every measure, suggesting that and sexual dimorphism in these measures (Tables 4.9- occupational and habitual use of musculature were sim- 4.11). The data reveal that La Plata males are larger than ilar for both sexes. The dimensions and lengths of the females for almost every measure of long bones in the upper and lower body at Black Mesa were very similar upper body (Table 4.9). The exception to this is in the to those at La Plata: males were consistently larger on maximum diameter of the humerus (male/female ratio every measure, but not necessarily more robust. What of 0.768). Here females are 23.2 percent on average these data reveal is that although there is a tendency for larger than males. The measure relates in a general way males to be larger in overall size and length of the bones, to the size and robustness of the biceps, triceps, and del- robusticity measures (because they express relative size toid muscle groups (Grant et al. 1981). There is a strong with respect to length) allow for the comparison of fac- relationship between habitual use of these muscles and tors that relate to occupational or habitual use of certain size of the deltoid crest. In general, the male/female muscles groups. Females on Black Mesa are interpreted ratios suggest a consistent degree of sexual dimorphism to have been as robust as their male counterparts, per- that ranges from a high of an 15.5 percent difference in haps because of shared labor tasks. At La Plata, the dif- the size of the head of the humerus, to a low of 4.2 per- ferences between males and females suggest a greater cent difference in the breadth of the scapula. For the degree of sexual division of labor. upper body as a whole (disregarding the larger female The mean stature for males and females, as com- size of the humerus midshaft), there is on average about puted from Genoves’s (1967) formula for the femur (see a 10 percent difference in body size. Chapter 2), approximates 5’3½”, or 161.4 cm (n=11), For the lower extremity measures, males are larger and 5’0”, or 152.5 cm (n=7), respectively (Table 4.11). than females for every single measure (Table 4.10). These data suggest that La Plata adults, when compared Differences are found in measures of length, as well as with other Southwest contemporaries, were not experi-

76 encing major problems in attainment of adult stature. However, it must be kept in mind that this biological The degree of sexual dimorphism is estimated by the variation may be overshadowed by cultural practices ratio of male to female stature for a number of such as differential feeding of male and female children Southwest populations (Table 4.12). In compiling this (Stinson 1985). comparative chart, it was not always clear which long bone or formula was used in the calculations, although OSTEOARTHRITIS it is assumed that the majority was based on femoral measurements and the formulas published by Genoves An assessment of pathology is provided for adults (1967). The amount of difference in stature across all at La Plata with respect to the age-related mechanical groups ranges between 4 and 7 percent. Hrdlicka (1935) breakdown of joint systems. This includes degenerative measured 105 men and 34 women in Pueblo villages joint disease (DJD), and vertebral osteophytic lipping along the Rio Grande and found that the men ranged (Tables 4.13 and 4.14). Although highly detailed data on between 4’10” and 5’9” (147-175 cm), and females several locations on single bones were collected (see ranged between 4’8” and 5’3” (142-160 cm). Cummings Appendix 2), the very small sample size for many of (1940:93) reported a male from the Kinishba site who these observations limits a large-scale investigation of measured 6’2” (188 cm) “from the top of his head to the osteoarthritis. Based on a combined assessment of joint bottom of his heel.” Morris (1924) also reported a systems for individuals, adults were ranked as having an stature of over 6’ (183 cm) for a male buried at Aztec overall score of slight, moderate, or severe DJD, or ver- Ruin. tebral changes associated with osteoarthritis (Tables Adult stature at La Plata indicates that individuals 4.13 and 4.14). surviving to adulthood were not seriously growth-stunt- Because DJD and vertebral osteophytosis are age ed (Stinson 1985). Nickens (1976) has shown that sexu- related and usually begin in mid-adulthood, progres- al dimorphism in height decreases in Mesoamerican sively affecting the skeleton into old age, assessment of groups as a response to food shortage and malnutrition. osteoarthritic changes is made more difficult by the None of these factors appear to be operating at La Plata. skewed age and sex distribution of males and females. From both metrical analysis and observations made For the total La Plata sample, 10 of the adults (27.0 per- in the laboratory, both males and females from La Plata cent) are 46 or older, but this is differentially appor- exhibit quite robust skeletons, although there were tioned with females, who have only 1 (5.2 percent of the clearly exceptions to this in a few adults who seemed females) individuals in that age category, while males quite gracile. The data suggest that life at La Plata may have 4 (25.0 percent of the males). This clearly limits have demanded a high degree of physical labor, but it what can be said regarding sex differences and age- was differentially apportioned between males and related changes for males and females. females. The fact that robusticity is different in males Out of the total sample of 35 adults, only 27 could and females suggests that labor was differentially divid- be scored for DJD. Of these, 15 (55.5 percent) show ed between the sexes. some involvement with osteoarthritic joints. All cases of Gray and Wolfe (1980) computed the mean stature DJD are slight to moderate in the ages up to 50. The two of males and females based on a broad survey of 216 oldest males (50+) both have moderate to severe skele- societies. Interestingly, their mean heights for males and tal changes. For vertebral arthritic changes, out of 23 females, 163.5 cm and 151.9 cm, respectively, are near- observations, 12 (52.2 percent) have some form of tis- ly identical to the mean heights for the La Plata sample. sue destruction, but only 10 (43.5 percent) of the cases Both the achieved heights and the relative difference in are moderate to severe in expression. heights between males and females at La Plata are sim- Older males in general showed signs of slight to ilar to those of many other precolonial and historic moderate vertebral degeneration that may have resulted groups living in traditional and marginal societies. The in complaints about their “aching backs.” As stated ear- data suggest at least mild-to-moderate-degree nutrition- lier, we must be careful not to directly associate bony al stress, as is likely to have been experienced by most changes with pain. There sometimes can be pain in the of the groups sampled by Gray and Wolfe (1980), given absence of bony changes, and bony changes also can their cultural and environmental contexts. appear in the face of clinically inactive disease. The complex interplay of genetic factors and devel- Although there was some osteoporotic bone thinning opmental conditions may have acted to slightly depress based on x-ray analysis of some specimens, the loss did achieved stature throughout the Southwest. Stini (1969, not seem clinically significant (Gordon, personal com- 1971) suggested that one would find less variation munication, 1993). DJD was variable across individu- among the sexes in times of greater nutritional stress als, but at least two elderly males were somewhat hin- because males are more vulnerable to such stresses. dered by moderate to severe cases of arthritis.

77 Only 4 (6 percent) of the La Plata individuals have size from 2 to 3 mm on some vertebrae, ribs, and the been assigned to the age category of 50+. scapulae to more than 20 mm on the cranial vault, ver- Approximately 1 percent of the Mesa Verde regional tebrae, sacrum, clavicle, ribs, humerus, innominates, sample skeletal remains (Stodder 1987) and 6.4 percent and right femur. Damage is most extensive on the of the Grasshopper Pueblo remains (Berry 1985) are pelvis, where the right innominate is in two pieces, the over the age of 50. For Pecos, Ruff (1981) estimates that ischial public ramus has largely been destroyed, and the at least 13 percent of the individuals are over 50, and for pubic symphysis is completely destroyed. The acetabu- Chaco Canyon, approximately 2 percent of the collec- lum has a 14 mm lesion with some remodeling, and the tion is over 50 (Akins 1986). Using different categories ilium has an 11 by 16 mm lesion. The left innominate of aging, Ryan (1977) reports 3.9 percent of Kayenta has four lesions in the sacro-iliac joint surface, a num- remains are aged over 56, and Wade (1970) reports 13.6 ber on the ilium, two large lesions in the acetabulum (20 percent of the Houck remains are over that age. This mm), a lesion (21 mm) and periosteal reactive bone at range of variability makes it difficult to know how the pubis, and a 35 by 22 mm lesion with some remod- under-represented elderly are in this population. This in eling at the edges of the ischial tuberosity. The first and turn makes it difficult to assess the pathological condi- sacral bodies are almost entirely destroyed by lesions, as tions most associated with aging. are most of the lateral portions. These osteolytic lesions Historical and demographic information on the pro- appear to have obliterated the primarily cancellous bone portion of elderly in traditional Pueblo societies is diffi- in parts and have eroded the outer cortex of some of the cult to find. Dukepoo (1978) has compiled a general bones as well (Figs. 4.10-4.14). account of growing old in a variety of Native American Analysis of the x-rays revealed that there were Indian cultures. For living Pueblo Indians in New many other such lesions occurring within the femur Mexico, Rogers and Gallion (1978) report a variety of head, ilium, and vertebral bodies. Based on the distribu- sociocultural and health problems plaguing elderly who tion of the lesions, a diagnosis of metastatic carcinoma do not have access to resources and live in conditions of is made. The patterning fits the descriptive aspects of poverty. the pathology as it affects skeletal tissue (Ortner and In the detailed ethnographic accounts presented by Putschar 1981:392; Steinbock 1976:386). By way of Eggan (1950) and Dozier (1970), the elderly are pre- vascular or marrow passages, cancer cells from the pri- sented as integral parts of the kinship and clan systems. mary site of a tumor travel throughout the body. Skeletal For example, Dozier (1970:137) states, “The oldest tissue responds differentially to various kinds of tumors, woman of this household is the head of the clan.” Thus, and the lesions can be either osteolytic or osteoblastic. it seems that individuals can occupy preeminent posi- Osteolytic lesions are produced by malignant tions within the clan based on seniority. There are also melanoma, thyroid, lung, renal, colon, breast, and accounts of the elderly performing a variety of ritual prostate cancers (Ortner and Putschar 1981:394; ceremonies and passing down to the children informa- Steinbock 1976:385). Bone tissue is involved in up to 70 tion concerning origin myths and religious stories. percent of malignancies and appears most commonly on However, in neither of these accounts of Pueblo culture the spine, sacrum, femur, ribs, sternum, skull, pelvis, is there explicit information regarding health and and humerus (Tenney 1991). Breast cancer, for example, lifestyle of the elderly. In a sense, this can be interpret- results in osteolytic lesions of the type found on this ed to mean that being old in Pueblo society simply was individual. in a continuum with the roles and duties of adults in gen- Cancers are relatively rare in the archaeological eral. record. Ortner and Putschar (1981) provide a broad range of tumors and types of cancers that have been METASTATIC CANCER diagnosed in ancient material from around the world. Gertszen and Allison (1991) have reviewed the litera- A young adult, probably a female (age 18 to 20), ture on tumors in antiquity and have found that the most from LA 37601 B2 has a series of lesions on multiple frequent finding for skeletal specimens is primary and bones that warranted x-ray analysis to establish the metastatic bone tumors. A great majority of the focus in extent and range of involvement. Osteolytic lesions antiquity has been on mummies, because soft tissue can- (Fig. 4.9) are found in the cranial vault, mandibular cers are by far the more frequent. ramus, most vertebrae (bodies, arches, and transverse Untreated individuals with metastatic carcinoma and spinous processes), sacrum, sternum, scapular bod- die fairly early in the course of the disease. The patterns ies and acromion, clavicle shafts, half of the ribs (artic- of osteolytic lesions can aid in suggesting a primary site. ular ends and shafts), proximal humeri, all portions of Here, the greatest involvement appears to be in the the innominates, and proximal femora. Lesions range in pelvic area, where some of the lesions exhibit some

78 Figure 4.9. Distribution of lesions due to metastatic cancer. LA 37601, B2.

79 Figure 4.10. Left femur showing osteolytic lesions of metastatic cancer. LA 37601, B2.

Figure 4.11. Right innominate showing osteolytic lesions of metastatic cancer. LA 37601, B2.

80 Figure 4.12. Parietal showing large and small lesions due to metastatic cancer. LA 37601, B2.

Figure 4.13. Cervical vertebrae demonstrating osteolytic lesions. LA 37601, B2.

81 Figure 4.14. Lumbar vertebrae demonstrating osteolytic lesions. LA 37601, B2. remodeling, the spine, and the ribs. This may indicate an has a healed fracture at the corner of the left eye (37599 origin in the gastrointestinal or renal areas. This indi- B9), and a 35 year old has a healed depression fracture vidual was difficult to sex, and were this person a young on the left parietal (37601 B5). Male postcranial frac- male, a likely source of metastasis would be testicular tures include a healed Colle’s fracture (37600 B4) of the cancer. right radius and ulna (the type one gets when breaking a fall), a healed fractured right thumb (37599 B4), and an TRAUMA individual with several healed rib and vertebrae frac- tures (37593 B3). All of these postcranial traumas are in Evidence of trauma in skeletal remains is one of the males who are over 45 years old, and none co-occur more easily diagnosed pathologies, although even with with the three cases of cranial trauma. Cranial injury is fractures and morphological changes in bone relating to found in younger adult males (ages 25-35), while the external forces, there is the problem of understanding postcranial trauma occurs exclusively in males over the the context within which the traumatic event occurred. age of 45. Evidence of trauma in the La Plata burial series comes Six females show healed cranial trauma (largely in largely from healed fractures or traumatic injuries. In the form of depression fractures), and the ages of these the burials, there were no unambiguous perimortem women range from 20 to 38 (similar to the male pat- bone breaks or fractures. Fractures and traumatic tern). However, the inventory of healed nonlethal cra- injuries occurring during the lifetime of individuals are nial wounds for the females is longer and more exten- reviewed in this section. sive, and 3 of the 6 cases involve multiple head wounds A site-by-site description of individuals with cra- (Fig. 4.16). The youngest female (age 20) has a healed nial and/or postcranial pathology related to trauma broken nose (65030 B8). Another young female (age 28) clearly shows different patterns between adult males with a cranial trauma demonstrates two depression frac- and females (Table 4.15). Young children were general- tures, one on the forehead and one on the back of the ly free of fractures. Only one 15 year old (37592 B6) head (65030 B16). A 25 year old has multiple depres- had a healed compression fracture on the left parietal. sion fractures about the front and side of her head For males, there are three cases of cranial trauma. One (37601 B4). A 33 year old has a large unreunited but 25 year old has a healed compression fracture of the healed series of fractures at the top of her head (65030 right parietal (37599 B5; Fig. 4.15), another 25 year old B9; Fig. 4.17). Of the two 38-year-old females, one has

82 Figure 4.15. Depression fracture on the right parietal. LA 37599, B5.

Figure 4.17. Cranial trauma on parietals and occipital. LA 65030, B9.

Figure 4.16. Multiple traumatic lesions on the frontal bone. LA 37601, B4.

83 a healed fracture above her right eye (37601 B10), and In reviewing other factors associated with health in one has a depression fracture at the back of the head adult males and females at La Plata, females have more (65030 B6; Fig. 4.18). cases of infection (38.5 percent) than males (6.7 per- In addition to this, five females demonstrate post- cent), and some of these may be related to sequelae from cranial trauma. However, two features of lower body the injury that produced the fractures (Table 4.17). trauma are distinctly different from the male pattern: In Although anemia was a condition equally shared by four out of six cases, the cranial and postcranial frac- males and females, sexual dimorphism in stature sug- tures co-occur; and the postcranial fractures in the gests that males were not nutritionally compromised. females occur in younger age categories, ranging from Females demonstrated higher frequencies of enamel 20 to 38. The youngest female (age 20) has fractures in defects (in 4 out of 6 teeth, females had more hypoplas- the atlas and axis of the neck vertebrae (she also had a tic lines). Females with cranial trauma have more enam- broken nose). The 25 year old has several fractures el defects than females without. For example, at LA (right shoulder, ribs, and upper neck) along with multi- 65030, where there are four females with cranial trau- ple depression fractures about the head. This female also ma, each has severe or multiple hypoplastic defects, had the severe case of osteomyelitis described earlier. whereas the other females from this site have few or no The 33 year old demonstrates fractures of the left hip as defects. Other characteristics of the females with cranial well as on the top of her head. The oldest female (age trauma are that these women as a group generally have 38) also showed healed fractures on the left hip and also more frequent involvement with anemia and systemic had a depression fracture at the back of her head. The infection. A final observation regarding women with single case of a solo lower body fracture was in a 30 cranial trauma is that they exhibit more asymmetry in year old female (who may have died during childbirth long bone proportions (three individuals in particular are very asymmetrical: 65030 B6, B8, and B9) and more postcranial ossified ligaments, osteophytes at joint sur- faces (unrelated to general osteoarthritis or degenerative joint disease), and localized periosteal reactions (enthe- siopathies). The cranial wounds at La Plata fit the description of depression fractures caused by blows to the head (e.g., Walker 1989; Merbs 1989; Courville 1948; Stewart and Quade 1969). The variation in overall size and dimen- sions of the depressions suggest that any number of implements could have been used. The location of two out of three of the male fractures is on the parietals (one on the left and one on the right, both towards the back). For females, the lesions are largely around the front of the head, or on the far back (occipital) portion of the head (Fig. 4.19). It is difficult to verify exactly what type of imple- ment was used in each case of cranial trauma at La Plata, but modern forensic information suggests that fractures of the head can be made with any number of blunt or sharp implements (Petty 1980). In their review Figure 4.18. Depression fracture of the occipital of artifacts associated with warfare and hand combat, region. LA 65030, B6. Wilcox and Haas (1994:223-224) find little evidence of because a term fetus was found commingled). She had a the manufacture of objects to be used solely as weapons. right distal radius fracture. The strongest evidence that they could garner was of Thus, the frequencies of healed trauma in adults at two bipointed axes found with a male burial at Aztec, La Plata reveal that females have three times the fre- and wooden swordlike implements found at Chaco quency of cranial trauma among males (23.1 versus 60.0 Canyon. While it is easy to envision a stone axe, ham- percent), and 2.5 times the frequency in postcranial trau- merstone, core, chopper, or causing ma (20.0 versus 50.0 percent) (Table 4.16). Adult fre- damage, it is equally likely that bone, antler, and wood quencies greatly outnumber those in subadults, who objects could be used. For example, a forensic case have an overall rate of 6.2 percent for cranial trauma and involving cranial and postcranial wounds similar to no cases of postcranial trauma. those at La Plata were caused when being struck repeat-

84 edly with a common wooden yard broom (Bhootra lobe (Curless 1992:164). 1985) not unlike the size and shape of a Pueblo digging Head injuries can produce neurological side effects stick (Colton 1960:96). Digging sticks were most likely such as “amnesia, vertigo, epilepsy, poor concentration, common in an agricultural community such as the reduced rate of information processing, fatigue, Barker Arroyo sites at La Plata, and the use of such headache, irritability, emotional instability, attacks of objects was primarily within the domain of men, at least emotional instability, and antisocial conduct” (Walker in historic Pueblo societies (Dozier 1970). Colton 1989:322). These symptoms can reveal themselves (1960:98) states that sometimes wooden digging sticks months or years after the original trauma. Injury to the also had a hoe made of hafted stone, or with triangular left frontal lobe of the brain can cause personality pieces of basalt or sandstone. In addition, a variety of changes (such as loss of inhibition) or hallucination stone tools such as tchamahias and axes were found in (Allen et al. 1985:31). Although well healed, some of the La Plata Valley, and any of these items could be used the more significant fractures (such as La Plata females to cause injury. 37601 B4, 65030 B9, and 65030 B16) may have caused Bhootra (1985:567) asserts, “No injury of the head lasting neurological problems that may have had an is too trivial to be ignored,” and that in all deaths that effect on these individuals’ ability to interact and behave result from violence, one-fourth are attributed to head in culturally appropriate ways. injuries in contemporary society. As background (taken A clear association emerges when the mortuary from Gurdjian 1973:94-98), depression fractures begin contexts of the individuals with cranial trauma are with a traumatic event such as a blow to the head that examined. As discussed in Chapter 3, a majority of the ruptures blood vessels in the bone marrow and perios- burials are flexed or semiflexed and placed within aban- teum. There is formation of a hematoma within six to doned structures or in storage pits. Often, burials con- eight hours. This gradually is replaced by young con- tain associated objects, usually ceramic vessels or nective tissue, and it transforms into a fibrous callous. ground stone (for example, Fig. 4.20). But none of the Through remodeling, this fibrous callous becomes grad- females with cranial trauma had associated grave goods. ually replaced with new bone. Depression fractures are Their burial positions include one semiflexed, two produced by a force applied to just one side of the bone. loosely flexed, one more or less extended, and one The outer cortex of bone is clearly depressed inward, sprawled. Thus, the mortuary context of females with while the underlying diploe space becomes compressed. cranial trauma reveals that, unlike their age-matched There are three characteristics of depression fractures: counterparts without signs of trauma, they were often There are usually fine cracks that radiate from the haphazardly placed in abandoned pit structures. depressed areas; within the depressed area, the inner At Barker Arroyo, LA 65030, three individuals table of bone is beveled at the edges; and the surround- found in the lower fill of Pit Structure 1 (Figs. 4.21- ing areas of the depression is raised as it rebounds from 4.23) include two adult women aged 20 and 33 and a the pressure build-up. With healing, these all but disap- 10.5-year-old child. All are spread awkwardly, as if pear, but there is usually a diagnostic depression for a thrown from a higher elevation. Given the burial con- long period after the trauma. The depression fracture text, it is assumed that these individuals died at approx- stays depressed long after healing because of bone imately the same time and were deposited together. Also necrosis. Traumatic interruption of blood supply will in Pit Structure 1, although located in the middle fill on result in the death of bone cells and a sloughing off of top of the roof fall, another female aged 38 was placed dead tissue. facing downward in a semiflexed position with no grave For individuals who survive the initial effect of a offerings (Fig. 4.24). In the lower fill of Pit Structure 8, blow to the head, one consequence of the process is that a 28-year-old female was placed in a semiflexed posi- not enough oxygen may get to the brain (called hypox- tion with no grave offerings (Fig. 4.25). At LA 37601, a ia). Hypoxia further increases swelling and edema, 25-year-old female withcranial and postcranial trauma which in turn causes increased intra cranial pressure. was found in a similar position with no grave goods This can lead to brain herniating. In general, however, (Fig. 4.26). Of the three males with cranial trauma, at moderate increases in intra cranial pressure can be sur- least one 25 year old from LA 37599 was placed in Pit vived, but there may be long-lasting neurological prob- Structure 2 in a fashion similar to the women (Fig. lems stemming from the healing process of the original 4.27).5 injury. For example, children who survive head injuries To summarize the association of healed cranial are more likely to be hyperactive and have learning dis- trauma and mortuary context, out of a total sample size abilities. Injuries to the back of the head are particularly of 10 adult females with crania, two have trauma and problematic because they knock the brain forward were found in sprawled positions with no grave goods. against the skull, which can do damage to the frontal One female with cranial trauma could not be assigned to

85 Figure 4.19. Approximate location and size of injuries on the combined female crania.

Figure 4.20. Female, age 25, no trauma, Pit Structure 1, upper fill. LA 37595, B1.

86 Figure 4.21. Female, age 20, cranial and postcranial trauma, Pit Structure 1, lower fill. LA 65030, B8.

Figure 4.22. Female, age 33, cranial and postcranial trauma, Pit Structure 1, lower fill. LA 65030, B9.

87 Figure 4.23. Age 10.5, no trauma, Pit Structure 1, lower fill. LA 65030, B7.

Figure 4.24. Female, age 38, cranial and postcranial trauma, Pit Structure 1, lower fill. LA 65030, B6.

88 Figure 4.25. Female, age 28, cranial trauma, Pit Structure 8, lower fill. LA 65030, B16.

Figure 4.26. Female, age 25, cranial and postcranial trauma, Pit Structure 2, middle fill. LA 37601, B4.

89 Figure 4.27. Male, age 25, cranial trauma, Pit Structure 2, middle fill. LA 37599, B5. a mortuary condition, three were flexed or semiflexed cranial and postcranial trauma, infections, and with no grave goods, three have no trauma and were in decreased life expectancy (there were very few females a flexed or semiflexed position with associated grave in the older age categories) suggest truly suboptimal goods, and one female has no cranial trauma but was in conditions for some adult females. Females with these an unknown mortuary context. Of the 12 males that health problems are more likely to have been in mortu- could be assessed for cranial trauma, five have no cra- ary contexts described best as haphazardly thrown or nial trauma and were flexed burials with grave goods, discarded and with no associated grave offerings. As a and four have no cranial trauma but also no grave goods group, they were younger when they died than females (with a variety of positions ranging from semiflexed to who had traditional prepared graves. flexed). Of the three males with cranial trauma, one had Location and patterning of depression fractures can grave goods, one did not, and the third is unknown. One aid in differentiating among explanations. For example, was in a semiflexed position, and the other almost Wilkinson and Van Wagenen (1993) conducted a study extended with one knee bent. There is definitely more of depression fractures on a sample of precontact crania variability in the relationship between cranial trauma from the Riviere aux Vase site, in Michigan. Healed and burial treatment in the males, and in general, more lesions were found extensively on adult females, prima- males have no grave goods. rily on the front and sides of the head, although all parts Interpersonal strife may have placed a significant of the head were implicated. Males, on the other hand, amount of stress on some members of the La Plata com- had lesions largely on the forehead. These authors pres- munity at Barker Arroyo. Trauma is nearly absent in ent a number of alternative scenarios that may explain children and generally more benign in adult males (par- this pattern of violence against women (females had ticularly the postcranial trauma, which was all minor these wounds four times more than males), including and occurred in older males). Females carry the unequal spouse abuse, captured slaves, polygyny (where burden of traumatic injuries in this group. The location cowives beat each other), and warfare, raiding, and the and size of the cranial injuries showed that by overall abduction of females. They argue that the combined dimensions and size, female injuries covered a larger ethnographic and skeletal data suggest that raiding and area, involved more bony elements, often occurred in abduction of women into the group is the best explana- multiples, and caused internal (endocranial) damage in tion. Furthermore, women of reproductive age tended to some cases.6 Furthermore, the comorbidity factors of be the target of such actions, and the age distribution at

90 Rivière aux Vase supports this as well. ing that he died in a confrontation (Akins 1986:116- In contrast, data from precontact populations on the 117). In skeletal remains from Chaco small sites, there California coast (Walker 1989) demonstrated that were a few cases of postcranial fractures and one female healed depression fractures for groups on the coast (ver- (age 30+) who had four ovoid depression fractures on sus the nearby islands) were different. Cranial trauma the parietal. Herrmann (1993:89) notes that five PIII was higher (18.5 percent) for the islanders than for the adult females and one subadult from the Upper Rio coastal people (7.5 percent). Walker attributed this to Puerco of the West and the Little Colorado had postcra- intense competition over resources on the circumscribed nial fractures in the fibula, sacrum, radius, and tibia. island. There were no significant gender differences in Several women had multiple healed fractures on their the patterning of lesions, but males were more frequent- lower body. One female had three depression fractures ly involved. The back of the head was never involved, on the frontal (she also had postcranial healed fractures), and Walker ultimately attributes the high rates of non- and one female had a perimortem fracture on the maxil- lethal blows to the head as part of ritual warfare, in la. At Carter Ranch (PIII), Danforth et al. (1994:96) which people get hit, but the blows do not cause injuries summarize trauma in the following manner: “One-quar- and death. ter of 24 scorable adults had healed fractures. There are The La Plata location of depression fractures is fair- two nasal fractures, one associated with a broken ly close to the Riviere aux Vase distribution. There is lit- mandible and the other with a broken humerus, two tle in the ethnographic record from protohistoric and radius fractures, a clavicle fracture and a femur frac- historic Pueblo Indians that would support a hypothesis tures. Four of the six cases can be interpreted as the of warfare, raiding of other villages, and abduction of result of blows.” The sex of the individuals is not spec- women. However, given the enormous impact of the ified. colonization process, and the taboo nature of the subject Stewart and Quade (1969) present one of the more matter, not finding examples of raiding and abduction in thorough accounts of bone lesions from North American the ethnographic record does not rule these behaviors precontact series. They present data only for the frontal out for precontact groups. The distribution of lesions by bone, and they were primarily interested in distinguish- location (front, side and back of the head) and sex ing traumatic lesions from inflammatory lesions (the lat- (mostly female) does not support ritualized warfare ter possibly being cases of endemic syphilis). beatings as suggested by Walker for the California coast Unfortunately, the manner in which they present their groups. Spousal or domestic abuse is possible but not data makes it difficult to extract the cases of trauma, likely because there were a number of reproductive aged particularly depression fractures, and because they only women and older who showed no trauma and who were collected data for the frontal bone, the frequencies do afforded preferential treatment at death. not represent the full range of traumatic involvement of The La Plata pattern of trauma appears to be a the crania. Nevertheless, they provide information on rather unique phenomenon, judging from the published frontal lesions from Pueblo Bonito and Hawikku literature on trauma for contemporary Southwest (together) and derived a population frequency rate of 9 groups. Admittedly, it is difficult to find studies from percent for males and 5.8 percent for females. They sug- Southwest precontact material that address trauma in gest that only one individual (female) from Pueblo specific and quantifiable ways. Miles (1975), an Bonito demonstrated massive cranial involvement, orthopaedic surgeon, analyzed 179 burials from which may have been related more to an inflammatory Wetherill Mesa. Although these burials range in date response than to trauma. Otherwise, the authors state from PI to PIII, the majority of the material came from that most of the lesions they saw from the Pueblo sites Badger House, Long House, and Mug House, all con- are due to trauma (Stewart and Quade 1969:89). temporaneous with the La Plata material (PII-III). Miles An analysis of cranial trauma in the remains from (1975:20) states, “The relative absence of fractures of the Kayenta region sites on Black Mesa demonstrated major external force indicates that these people lived a very low frequencies (about 4 percent) for both males rather quiet life without frequent warfare, and that they and females. One female and two males out of 68 adults did not sustain many serious falls from the cliffs and had healed fractures. The female (a small, slight eight- mesas where they lived.” He further states, “There were een year old) had three healed depression fractures. One no depressed skull fractures, and no arrowheads or other male, a very robust twenty year old, showed a severe foreign bodies imbedded in bone” (Miles 1975:24). blow to the left side of the mouth and cheek (Martin et Likewise, there was little evidence of trauma in the al. 1991). Chaco Canyon small site series (Akins 1986). However, For the Pecos collection, Hooton (1930) presents a a male (Number 14 from Room 33 at Pueblo Bonito) detailed inventory of cranial trauma by sex. Out of a had “two holes and a gash in the frontal bone,” suggest- total sample size of 581, he found 20 cases of cranial

91 trauma, representing a 3.4 percent frequency. Of these ing during infancy. Only one female with a compression 20 cases, 5 (25 percent) are in females and the rest are fracture (37601 B10) did not show flattening.7 An in males (75 percent). The depression fractures are examination of upper and lower body metrics largely on the frontal bones, although other areas of the (Appendix 4) does not reveal a subgroup that is smaller crania are implicated as well. or larger in any dimensions. Cranial metrics and cranial Table 4.18 lists the frequencies compiled by and postcranial discrete traits are available for such a Stodder (1989:187) for archaeological populations in small number of females that it is impossible to deter- the Greater Southwest (New Mexico, parts of Texas, and mine if there are statistically significant differences south-central Colorado). Regarding these data, Stodder between the two groups of women. This is very unfor- (1989:187) states, “[That] the Gallina sample exhibits tunate, because to understand the physical injury and the highest reported frequencies of postcranial and cra- differential mortuary treatment, it would be important to nial trauma is not surprising, as they are most often verify if the women with trauma were genetically relat- identified as warlike, with defensive architecture in rel- ed to the group as a whole. atively isolated locations.” The relatively high rates of The one physical characteristic that distinguishes at cranial injury at San Cristobal was primarily in the least several of the women with trauma is a pattern of males, “suggesting that they were engaged in warfare” nonpathological lesions and abnormalities associated (Stodder 1989:187). However, the distribution of cranial more with occupational stress or habitual use of select and postcranial by male and female is generally not muscle groups. For example, both females in Pit available. Structure 1, LA 65030 (B8 and B9), demonstrate asym- Allen et al. (1985) have analyzed the evidence of metrical measurements in many of the length and width scalping at Nuvakwewtaqa (A.D. 1200-1300) and proportions of the long bones. Particularly, the humerus, Grasshopper Ruin (A.D. 1300), and they discuss 10 radius, and ulna are affected. Trinkaus et al. (1994) have cases. Some of the individuals who had been scalped examined modern, extant, and extinct groups and col- exhibited depression fractures as well. For example, at lected data on the humerus. They found humeral bilater- Navakwewtaqa, there were four males ranging in age al asymmetry related most often to activity-related func- from 25 to 40+ who were scalped, and three females tional interpretations. Another attribute of some of these ranging in age from 25 to 35. One female had a depres- women is the findings of isolated osteophytes in places sion fracture on the left frontal, and one female had an that correspond to muscle insertions. Because as a group ovoid-shaped hole in the left parietal, suggesting pene- these women are too young to have the osteoarthritic tration by a weapon and the probable cause of death. At changes associated with aging, these morphological Grasshopper, two males (ages between 35 and 40+) changes could be related to habitual use of certain mus- were scalped, and a young female (age 15) exhibited a cles, which can lead to the buildup of bone and changes depression fracture above the left orbit, as well. at the site of the greatest biomechanical stress. Bridges Interestingly, many of these individuals were buried (1990) examined the osteological correlates of weapon with grave goods such as bowls, beads, bone awls, and use in two precontact groups from Alabama, and she quartz crystals, which “indicates that it was members of showed that the shift from hunting and gathering to these two communities themselves who were the vic- agriculture can be correlated with nonpathological tims of the practice [scalping]” (Allen et al. 1985:30). changes in morphology relating to use of tools and However, the authors go on to state, “Skeletal evidence weapons. Bridges noted that there were changes in for violence at the two sites is almost nonexistent” and porosity and osteophytic lipping at the shoulder joints it is “possible that the ten individuals described here and the elbow in particular. She also found bilateral were victims of isolated raids” (Allen et al. 1985:30). asymmetry in the diameters of the radius and ulna Although there is no evidence of scalping at La Plata, between the groups. Although the study is somewhat and the circumstances are very different, this is one of subjective at this point, many of the La Plata females the few published accounts of healed cranial trauma that within the subgroup do demonstrate osteophytes and discusses both the sex of the individuals and the mortu- asymmetries, and therefore the most distinguishing ele- ary component. ment of their physical make-up is developmental and How can the patterns of trauma in the La Plata relates to occupation or habitual performance of certain females be explained? As a group, who were these activities. women, and are they distinguishable from other Although the subgroup sample sizes limit a detailed women? A closer look at some of their attributes sug- quantitative analysis of occupational stress markers, it is gests that they were part of the Pueblo culture to the possible to speculate on a division of labor that was both extent that most of these women have occipital or lamb- by sex and possibly by “class,” as well. Spencer and doidal flattening consistent with the use of cradleboard- Jennings (1965), Titiev (1972), and Dozier (1970) sum-

92 marize sexual division of labor in Pueblo people, sug- migrated into the area may have, in a sense, become gesting that traditionally, women ground corn, prepared indentured servants to others who had the power to food, gathered wood, built and mended houses, made dominate this subgroup. pottery and clothing, gathered wild foods, and made baskets. Men were responsible for farming, occasional DISCUSSION hunting, and religious and ceremonial activities. The difficult task of grinding corn into meal belonged to the The inventory of pathological conditions in the La women, who might spend as many as eight to nine hours Plata population suggest a group that was plagued with a day at the grindstone. the normal range of common ailments, ranging from In traditional subsistence societies, with agricultur- iron deficiency anemia to easily transmissible diseases al intensification there is often a concomitant pressure such as staph and strep. Taken as a whole, the indicators on women to increase their productivity simultaneously of physiological disruption suggest that these problems with a decrease in birth spacing (Harris and Ross contributed to morbidity, but not necessarily to large- 1987:49). This places an enormous burden on women to scale mortality. The general physiological involvement apportion their time, energy, and activities between very is slight to moderate for anemia and infection, and when different and competing tasks: economic labor and bear- compared to other Southwest groups, it is on the low ing and rearing children. Harris and Ross (1987:50) cite end of the frequency distribution. Subadult size, diffi- summary data on the number of hours that women work cult to assess for this group, seems “normal” for the few daily in agriculturally based villages, and it ranges from individuals that could be analyzed and compared. The 6.7 to 10.8 hours a day (the high end represents inten- chronology for dental defects at La Plata likewise falls sive agriculturalists). within the low end of the frequencies for contempora- It is possible that as the La Plata Valley population neous Southwest groups. Adult morphology and stature increased (through a combination of immigration and falls well within expected ranges of variability for increased fertility), several conditions could arise. There extinct and extant Pueblo groups. The occurrence of would be a need to increase production of food to feed tuberculosis in one of the subadult burials is not unusu- the increasing numbers of people, and therefore there al; there have been many reported cases in precontact would be a need for an increased labor pool. As more Southwest skeletal populations (El-Najjar 1979). The people moved into the La Plata Valley, it is possible that single case of metastatic cancer is unusual and may be the more local or “native” populations maintained among the first documented in the Southwest. access and control of the resources. That is, natal groups The picture that emerges from this is one of an agri- would have preferential access to food and other cultural population that was doing well given the cir- resources over nonrelated newcomers. This could effec- cumstances of crowded living and subsistence farming. tively establish an underclass of people who were Anemia and infectious disease are expected outcomes of exploited in any number of ways. Reproductive-aged group living and agrarian lifeways. In comparison to females would be the most advantageous group to nearby groups in the Mesa Verde and Chaco Canyon exploit because they could aid in domestic tasks and regions, La Plata individuals seem to have fared quite food production, as well as in child rearing. This would well. not rule out the exploitation of males as well, although However, all of this is shadowed by the high fre- they would be less vulnerable to physical injury. quencies of cranial trauma found in the female subpop- These conclusions are provocative and speculative, ulation, which suggest strife and troubled times for but the pattern of violence against women at La Plata some living at La Plata. The only thing that distinguish- can be at least partially explained by increased popula- es these women is that they show signs of habitual bio- tion density and, to some degree, stratification. La Plata mechanical stress that other females do not. Their relat- communities may have felt it necessary to construct edness to the group is unknown, and we are left to spec- rigid rules about resource allocation, and they may have ulate on the reasons behind the physical injuries inflict- chosen a strategy that targeted a subgroup within the ed. population. In this case, reproductive-aged women who

93 Table 4.1. Subadults: presence of lesions indicative of anemia and infection

Burial Date Midpoint Range Porotic Hyperostosis Periosteal Reaction Age 37592 B3* PIII fet us ? ? 37603 B2.2 PIII fet us ? ? 37600 B5 PII infant ? ? 37593 B1* PII .5 ? ? 37592 B4* PII-PIII .6 slight/active, ? remodeled 37605 B1 PII 1.5 ? ? 65030 B14 PII 1.5 moderate/active, ? remodeled 65029 B1 PII 1.5 slight/active, none remodeled 65030 B1 PIII 2 none none 37592 B1* PIII 2 moderate/active, moderate/active ribs and remodeled vertebra 37599 B8 PII 2 none ? 37599 B3 PII 3 moderate/remodeled ? 37601 B9 PII 3 slight/remodeled none 65030 B3 PIII 3 moderate/active, ? remodeled 65030 B4 PIII 3 moderate/remodeled severe/active and moderate/remodeled 65030 B17 PII 3 none ? 37594 B1* PII 4 ? ? 37600 B2 PII 4 slight/active, none remodeled 37592 B0.1* PIII 5 none ? 37592 B2* PIII 6 none none 37593 B4* PII 6 ? none 37605 B4 PII 6 ? none 37605 B3 BMIII 8 none none 37601 B8 PII 9 ? moderate/active, traumatic? 37601 B11 PIII 9 moderate/remodeled moderate/active 37599 B6 PII 10 moderate/active, moderate/active, remodeled remodeled 65030 B7 PIII 10.5 none none 65030 B13 PII 11 none none 37595 B2* PII 15 ? none 37592 B6* PII-III 15 ? none

* = Jackson Lake sites (Barker Arroyo sites have no *) ? = no information available PII = A.D. 1000-1125, PII-III = A.D. 1000-1300, PIII = A.D. 1125-1300. The age is representative of the midpoint of the assigned age range.

94 Table 4.2. Males: Presence of lesions indicative of anemia and infection

Burial Date Midpoint Porotic Hyperostosis Periosteal Reaction Age Range 37601 B12 PII-III 22 ? moderate/remodeled 65030 B12 PII 22 ? none 37599 B9 PII 25 moderate/remodeled none 37599 B5 PII 25 none none 37601 B6 PII 28 none none 37601 B1 PIII 30 none none 37599 B10 PII 32 ? ? 37601 B5 PIII 35 moderate/remodeled none 37601 B7 PII 42 slight/remodeled none 37599 B4 PII 45 none none 37603 B1 PIII 45 none none 37598 B1* PII 45 none none 65030 B15 PII 48 ? none 37593 B3* Early PIII 48 none vertebrae; traumatic 37600 B4 PIII 50 none none 37600 B3 PIII 50 slight/remodeled none

* = Jackson Lake sites (Barker Arroyo sites have no *) ? = no information available PII = A.D. 1000-1125, PII-III = A.D. 1000-1300, PIII = A.D. 1125-1300. The age is representative of the midpoint of the assigned age range. Table 4.3. Females: Presence of lesions indicative of anemia and infection

Burial Date Midpoint Porotic Periosteal Reaction Age Range Hyperostosis 37592 B5 PII-III ? ? moderate/remodeled 37600 B0.1 PII-III ? ? none 37601 B3 PII ? none ? 65030 B10 PII-III ? ? ? 37601 B2 PII 19 none orbits and ribs (metastatic cancer) 65030 B8 PIII 20 slight/remodeled slight/active 65030 B2 PII 22 slight/remodeled none 65030 B5 PIII 22 ? slight/remodeled 37599 B7 PII 25 ? ? 37601 B4 PIII 25 none osteomyelitis: severe/active, remodeled 37595 B1* PII 25 ? ? 65030 B16 PII 28 ? crania moderate/active, remodeled 37603 B2.1 PIII 30 ? none 65030 B9 PIII 33 none none 37593 B2* PII 35 none ? 37601 B10 PIII 38 none ? 65030 B6 PIII 38 slight/remodeled slight/active 37600 B1 PII-III 45 slight/remodeled none 37592 B7* PII 50 none none

* = Jackson Lake sites (Barker Arroyo sites have no *) ? = no information available PII = A.D. 1000-1125, PII-III = A.D. 1000-1300, PIII = A.D. 1125-1300. The age is representative of the midpoint of the assigned age range.

95 Table 4.4. Porotic hyperostosis: Comparison across Southwest groups

Site n Period Subadults (0- Total Reference 10 years)* Sample

La Plata Valley 42 PII-III 57.9% 45.2%

Chaco Canyon 32 PII-III 83.0% 71.8% Stodder 1989:179

Pueblo Bonito 20 PII 25.0% Stodder 1989:179

Mesa Verde 93 PII-III 87.8% 59.0% Stodder 1987 region

Dolores 33 PII 82.0% Stodder 1987

n = total number of sample available for assessment of porotic hyperostosis * In this study, subadults were analyzed using the larger age category of 0 to 15. Note: Chaco Canyon refers to a study by Akins (1986) of 135 individuals from 30 sites in and around Chaco Canyon. Pueblo Bonito refers to a study by Palkovich (1984) of 95 burials from Pueblo Bonito at the Smithsonian Institution.

Table 4.5. Periosteal reactions: Comparison across Southwest groups

Site n Period Total Sample Reference

La Plata Valley 45 PII-PIII 26.6%

Chaco Canyon 135 PI-III 17.0% Stodder 1989:184

Chaco Basin 36 PI-III 8.0% Stodder 1989:184

Mesa Verde 179 PII-III 2.7% Miles 1966:37-41

Dolores 66 PII-III 9.0% Stodder 1987:184

Salmon Ruin 97 PII-III 6.0% Stodder 1989:184

n = total number of sample available for assessment of periosteal reaction on long bones * generalized periosteal reactions only

Note: Chaco Canyon refers to a study by Akins (1986) of 135 individuals from 30 sites in and around Chaco Canyon. Chaco Basin refers to a study by Berry (1983) of 91 individuals from three sites in Chaco Canyon, Aztec Ruin, and Thoreau Pueblo.

96 Table 4.6. Frequencies of LEH per tooth

Tooth n % with 1 Mean Number SD Range or More Defects Defects

Max I1 21 66.7 1.00 0.84 0-2

Max I2 20 60.0 .80 0.83 0-3 Max C 18 44.4 .61 0.78 0-2 Man I1 15 26.7 .27 0.46 0-1

Man I2 18 44.4 .56 0.71 0-2 Man C 20 65.0 1.15 1.14 0-4

The sample size (n) is given for maxillary (Max) and mandibular (Man), incisors (I), and canines (C). Both the central incisors (I1) and lateral incisors (I2) are used.

Table 4.7. Percentage of males and females with one or more hypoplasias by tooth

Males Females

n % n %

Maxilla

I1 8 50.0 6 83.3

I2 8 37.5 4 66.7

C 8 62.5 2 33.3

Mandible

I1 3 0.00 6 33.3

I2 4 50.0 6 33.3

C 6 50.0 8 75.0

97 Table 4.8. Frequency of LEH per tooth and by half-year development periods

Maxilla Mandible

AGE I1 I2 C I1 I2 C H/T H/T H/T H/T H/T H/T (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)

nb-0.5 0/5 0/3 0/1 0/2 (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) 0.5-1.0 0/10 0/7 0/5 0/8 0/3 (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) 1.0-1.5 1/15 0/3 0/11 0/9 2/13 1/7 (6.7) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (14.3) 1.5-2.0 0/19 15/8 0/15 0/10 2/14 0/14 (0.0) (12.5) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0)

2.0-2.5 4/20 1/15 1/17 2/14 1/17 0/16 (20.0) (6.7) (5.9) (14.3) (0.0)

2.5-3.0 6/20 5/19 0/18 1/15 5/18 0/17 (30.0) (26.3) (0.0) (6.7) (0.0)

3.0-3.5 9/21 6/20 4/18 1/15 1/18 0/16 (42.9) (30.0) (22.2) (6.7) (0.0)

3.5-4.0 3/21 4/20 3/18 0/15 0/18 5/19 (14.3) (20.0) (16.7) (0.0) (26.3) 4.0-4.5 0/21 1/20 3/18 5/20 (0.0) (5.0) (16.7) (25.0) 4.5-5.0 2/18 17/55 (11.1) (30.9)

5.0-5.5 0/18 18/55 (0.0) (32.7) 5.5-6.0 0/18 7/55 (0.0) (12.7) 6.0-6.5 1/55 (1.8)

Data are presented by the number of hypoplastic lines per total developmental periods (H/T). Highlighted frequencies are shown in bold.

98 Table 4.9. Adult metrics for upper extremities: males and females (cm) (burials at least 20 years of age)

N Mean SD N Mean SD M/F Ratio Males Females

Scapula height 2 14.85 .35 4 13.87 .26 1.070

Scapula breadth 6 10.21 .42 3 9.78 .55 1.044 Clavicle length 6 14.95 1.50 5 12.88 .49 1.161 Clavicle circumference 7 3.21 .45 6 2.78 .23 1.155

Humerus maximum length 7 31.37 1.23 4 28.65 1.05 1.095 Humerus epicondyle breadth 5 5.95 .30 5 5.32 .41 1.118

Humerus maximum diameter 8 2.12 .16 6 2.76 .81 0.768 Humerus minimum diameter 8 1.56 .14 4 1.35 .09 1.155 Humerus head diameter 7 4.38 .14 5 3.70 1.24 1.184

Humerus minimum circumference 9 5.77 .33 4 5.46 .30 1.057 Radius length 6 24.05 1.47 5 21.88 1.13 1.099 Ulna length 8 25.55 1.11 4 23.85 1.15 1.071

Table 4.10. Adult metrics for lower extremities: Males and females (cm) (burials at least 20 years of age)

N Mean SD N Mean SD M/F Ratio Males Females

Femur maximum length 11 42.12 2.41 7 39.61 .84 1.063 Femur physiological length 11 41.93 2.32 7 39.44 1.17 1.063 Femur head diameter 12 4.37 1.81 9 3.82 .18 1.144

Femur subtrochanter anterior-posterior 15 2.29 .17 11 2.09 .15 1.096 Femur subtrochanter medial-lateral 15 3.04 .20 11 2.78 .26 1.093

Femur midshaft anterior-posterior 12 2.53 .13 7 2.36 .25 1.072 Femur midshaft medial-lateral 12 2.53 .23 8 2.30 .19 1.100 Femur epicondyle breadth 7 7.69 .18 6 6.61 .85 1.163

Femur circumference 11 7.75 .37 8 7.19 .54 1.078 Tibia maximum length 9 34.96 1.72 7 32.34 1.05 1.081 Tibia nutrient foramen anterior-posterior 12 3.44 .26 8 2.92 .21 1.178

Tibia nutrient foramen medial-lateral 11 2.06 .15 8 1.77 .09 1.164 Tibia anterior-posterior 9 3.11 .23 8 2.73 .21 1.139

Tibia medial-lateral 9 1.97 .16 8 1.72 .09 1.145 Fibula length 8 34.12 .19 4 32.42 1.07 1.052 Calcaneous length 9 7.37 .34 6 6.41 .19 1.150

99 Table 4.11. Adult stature and robusticity : Males and females

Males Females

Stature

N Mean SD N Mean SD

10 161.4 5.43 7 152.2 2.15

Robusticity

Femur 10 12.06 .54 7 11.7 .72

Humerus 7 18.49 1.32 3 19.26 .87

Clavicle 6 24.82 1.21 5 21.46 2.14

Stature is calculated based on the formulae in Genoves (1967) and is presented in centimeters. The robusticity measures are from Bass (1971) and are presented as indices.

Table 4.12. Stature of select Southwest populations

Group Male Female M/F Ratio Reference

La Plata 161.4 152.2 1.060

Puye 160.0 149.5 1.070 Corruccino 1974

Arroyo Hondo 162.0 148.5 1.091 Palkovich 1980

Point of Pines (Middle) 159.4 150.7 1.058 Bennett 1973

Point of Pines (Late) 162.6 151.3 1.075 Bennett 1973

Black Mesa (Early) 167.0 156.5 1.067 Martin et al. 1991

Black Mesa (Late) 163.1 152.5 1.070 Martin et al. 1991

Carter Ranch 162.2 147.7 1.098 Danforth et al. 1994

Hawikku 160.5 150.0 1.070 Corruccino 1974

Transwestern Anasazi 165.7 154.0 1.075 Herrmann 1993

Chaco Canyon 164.7 157.4 1.046 Akins 1986

Pueblo Bonito 166.9 157.5 1.060 Akins 1986

Mesa Verde 162.1 155.6 1.041 Stodder 1987

1930s Pueblo Indians 163.7 152.0 1.076 Hrdli…ka 1935

Note: Pueblo Bonito here refers to the individuals at the American Museum of Natural History in New York.

100 Table 4.13. Female osteoarthritis

Burial Age DJD Vertebral

37592 B5 ? slight ?

37600 B0.1 ? ? ?

37601 B3 ? ? ?

65030 B10 ? ? ?

37601 B2 19 none none

65030 B8 20 none none

65030 B2 22 none ?

65030 B5 22 none? ?

37599 B7 25 ? ?

37601 B4 25 none none

37595 B1 25 ? ?

65030 B16 28 ? ?

37603 B2.1 30 none none

65030 B9 33 none none

37593 B2 35 none-slight none-moderate

37601 B10 38 ? ?

65030 B6 38 none none-slight

37600 B1 45 moderate moderate

37592 B7 50 slight- severe moderate

101 Table 4.14. Male osteoarthritis

Burial Age DJD Vertebral

37601 B12 22 none none

65030 B12 22 none none

37599 B9 25 none-slight none

37599 B5 25 none-slight none

37601 B6 28 none none

37601 B1 30 none none

37599 B10 32 ? ?

37601 B5 35 none-slight none-slight

37601 B7 42 none-slight slight-moderate

37599 B4 45 slight-moderate none-moderate

37603 B1 45 slight-moderate severe

37598 B1 45 slight ?

65030 B15 48 none-slight slight-moderate

37593 B3 48 slight-moderate moderate-severe

37600 B4 50 moderate-severe severe

37600 B3 50 moderate-severe moderate-severe

102 Table 4.15. Trauma

Buria l Age/Sex Cranial Postcranial

37592 B6 15 L parietal 7x12 mm depression fracture

37592 B5 ? F R fibula, healed fracture

37593 B3 48 M R rib 6, L rib 9 healed fractures vertebrae thoracic 8, 9 osteophytes and wedging

37599 B4 45 M R metacarpal l healed fracture

37599 B5 25 M R parietal 30x30 mm depression fracture (partly unreunited)

37599 B9 25 M L frontal, orbit 6x9 mm depression fracture

37600 B4 50 M R radius and ulna distal ends with remodeled, misshapen lesions; healed Colle’s fracture

37601 B4 25 F L parietal and center on frontal R scapula, roughened depression near spine; R above orbits, 6+ well-rounded ribs 6+ 7, L rib 8 healed fractures, remodeled depression fractures ranging in size with depression; C3-5 trauma-induced osteophytes; L1 healed fracture

37601 B5 35 M L parietal near occipital 20x15 mm depression fracture

37601 B10 38 F R frontal above eye 9x5 mm depression fractures with dense bone and depressed ring

37603 B2.1 30 F R radius distal healed Colle’s fracture

65030 B6 38 F occipital 24x24 mm depression L hip,acetabulum and related area osteophytes fracture and raised

65030 B8 20 F R and L nasals, healed broken vertebra cervical 1, 2 healed fracture nose

65030 B9 33 F at bregma, 57x77 mm area with L pelvis, fracture at pubic plate large bump, sutures unreunited

65030 B16 28 F R frontal 17x17 mm depression fracture; occipital 7x7 mm depression fracture

Table 4.16. Frequencies of healed trauma

Children Males Females

Cranial 1/16 (6.2%) 3/13 (23.1%) 6/10 (60.0%)

Postcranial 0/16 (0.0%) 3/15 (20.0%) 6/12 (50.0%)

103 Table 4.17. Gender differences

Male Female

Anemia 4/12 (33.3%) 4/11 (36.4%)

Infection 1/15 (06.7%) 5/13 (38.5%)

Cranial trauma 3/13 (23.1%) 6/10 (60.0%)

Postcranial trauma 3/15 (20.0%) 6/12 (50.0%)

Stature 161.4 152.2

Table 4.18. Frequencies of traumatic injury in project area population samples

Site Stage/Date Cranial Postcranial

N % N % Gallina Sites Pueblo I-Pueblo III (41) 20 (41) 22

La Pl ata Pueblo II-Pueblo III (39) 26 (43) 21 Paa’ko Pueblo III-Pueblo IV (57) 3 (57) 16

Tijeras Pueblo Pueblo IV (64) 2 (64) 14 El Morro Pueblo IV (26) 4 (26) 8 Cochit i Pueblo IV (101) 4 (101) 5

Pecos Pueblo Pueblo III-Historic (581) 5 (581) 4 San Cristobal Pueblo IV-Historic (247) 8 (232) 14 Hawikku Pueblo IV-Historic (181) 5 (151) 17

San Antonio de Padua Pueblo IV-Historic (40) 5 (40) 0

Adapted from Stodder (1989:187)

104 CHAPTER 5 stable isotopes in bone remains. Combined with a detailed examination of dental health, more information DIET AND RELATED HEALTH ISSUES about diet can be layered into the overall picture of IN THE LA PLATA VALLEY health. For example, dental caries result from an infec- tious disease process characterized by a demineraliza- POPULATION tion of the dental tissues by organic acids. These acids come from a fermentation of dietary carbohydrates. Although it is clear that the La Plata communities Increased frequencies have been noted in a number of were committed to maize as a major portion of the diet, groups as they shift from gathering-hunting to agricul- their health profile suggests a unique picture among ture. The La Plata frequencies suggest a carbohydrate New World precontact agriculturalists. The exact com- diet, but the rates are on the low end when compared position of the diet is not yet known, but an examination with other Southwest groups, which may indicate that of childhood health, growth, and development can other foods in the diet offset the plaque-forming effect establish the adequacy of the diet in individuals and of maize. groups. For example, porotic hyperostosis, a response to iron deficiency anemia in the Southwest, is an indicator STABLE ISOTOPIC ANALYSIS of physiological response to a decrease in the body’s ability to transport oxygen to tissues. Comparing the The analysis of stable carbon isotopes from bone overall frequency of porotic hyperostosis in children collagen can provide information on the relative between birth and age ten, the La Plata prevalence falls amounts of two kinds of plants in the diet.1 Because C in the middle of the range. These frequencies include all 3 expressions of the lesion as well as different stages of and C4 plants have different photosynthetic pathways, healing. The important point is that the La Plata cases they metabolize 12C and 13C differently, the two stable are generally quite mild in expression. When the chil- isotopes of carbon (Vogel 1977). C3 plants include nuts, dren at La Plata experienced bouts of iron deficiency beans, wheat, rice, and tubers, and C4 plants include anemia, the expression was generally less severe. The maize, amaranth, chenopodium, portulaca, many com- root causes of iron deficiency are multiple and complex mon grasses, sorghum, agave, , and prickly pear. and likely include not only inadequate nutrients, but also Humans on a maize or other C4 plant diet would have a poor sanitation, infections, and other childhood dis- higher (less negative) 13C/14C value than those eating eases. Whatever the cause, compared to other Southwest primarily C plants. Individuals eating primarily C groups, the La Plata data suggest better overall child- 3 4 plants would have a delta13C of about -7.5‰. Isotope hood health, which is enhanced if the diet is adequate ratios are expressed as per mil (using the symbol ‰) during growth and development. deviations from the corresponding ratios of widely rec- The general adequacy of diet during development is ognized standards. The deviations are quoted as delta supported by an additional data set. Enamel develop- values. Bone collagen has a carbon turnover rate of mental defects in the form of hypoplastic lines are approximately 10 years, so an isotopic reading provides indelible markers of childhood physiological disruption. They result when some systemic health problem dis- an average for the diet over a long period. Seasonal rupts the formation of new enamel. The resulting defects changes or food shortages are thus difficult to track. 13 (seen as indentations running across multiple teeth) can The mean delta C for a preliminary sample of 13 be assigned an age of occurrence as well as simply doc- La Plata adults is -7.17‰, with a range of -5.68‰ to 2 umenting disturbances during childhood. Comparing -8.65‰ and a standard deviation of .624‰ (Table 5.1). the average number of dental defects per tooth (for the There are no statistically significant differences between central maxillary incisor and the maxillary and males and females or individuals with and without evi- mandibular canine) suggests that the La Plata children dence of traumatic pathology. These values reveal a pat- did not carry the burden of morbidity that children did tern of dietary intake consistent with a maize or C4 plant from many other southwestern groups. The La Plata nutritional base. An analytical model generated for var- average of one hypoplastic line is distinctively low. ious human diets reveals that the La Plata values fall Thus, conditions that result in childhood sickness seem well within the “mixed, mainly maize” range (Krueger less in the La Plata community than at other Southwest and Sullivan 1984:219). sites. Martin et al. (1991:74) sampled 10 adults from the While health indicators can give some sense of the Black Mesa population (A.D. 800-1150), and the level of physiological disruption, additional information delta13C mean was -8.05‰ with a range of -7.3‰ to - on dietary composition can be obtained from analysis of 8.8‰. Decker and Tieszen (1989:38) sampled 35 indi-

105 viduals from numerous Mesa Verde sites ranging from tion we report on the La Plata data on dental patholo- Pueblo I to Pueblo III. The delta13C ranged from gies: alveolar resorption, dental abscessing, dental wear, -6.37‰ to -10.81‰ with a mean value of -8.52‰ (stan- caries, and premortem tooth loss. Dental health is ana- dard deviation .64‰). The enduring problem with iso- lyzed mainly as it relates to diet and potential dietary topic interpretations in the Southwest centers on the shifts. The overall impression is of a low to moderate inability to distinguish the use of amaranth seeds from rate of dental caries, tooth loss, and related pathological that of maize. Although the small grains of the amaranth conditions, suggesting a largely agricultural diet. The plant are more difficult to harvest and process, amaranth following analyses are based on permanent dentition does thrive in the desert, is weedlike in its distribution only. As previously mentioned, dental pathologies, and growth, and is an extremely good source of dietary except for moderate to high levels of wear, were infre- protein, even in relatively small quantities (Sokolov quently found in the deciduous teeth. Because samples 1986). When grain amaranth flour is added to maize vary by analysis, a more detailed description of their meal (12 percent by weight), the lipid and protein composition is provided in reference to the specific por- requirements of young children are more easily met tion of the study. (Morales et al. 1988). Maize alone does not satisfy these requirements. Wetterstrom (1986) emphasizes the utili- Dental Attrition ty of chenopodium and amaranth seeds in the diet in terms of the protein and amino acid composition. She Mean attrition scores for individuals (10 years or suggests that at Arroyo Hondo, these hardy perennials older) by tooth suggest a moderate degree of attrition may have been an important source of essential nutri- (Table 5.2). Most means are in the range of 2.9 to 4.1, ents in the diet. where a score of 3 represents the beginning of cuspal That the mean La Plata delta13C value of -7.17‰ is dentine exposure. Attrition is fairly uniform between the very close to a pure maize diet (-7.5‰) cannot be inter- mandibular and maxillary teeth, left and right sides preted to suggest that the people were only eating maize. (antimeres), and anterior and posterior teeth (Fig. 5.1). In this case, it is compounded by the problem of other Attrition scores tend to be slightly greater on the mandibular teeth, and the lowest mean attrition is found naturally occurring and edible C plants such as prick- 4 on the third molars, the last erupted teeth. ly pear and amaranth and other wild grasses.3 The rate of attrition of the molars was assessed by Interpretation is further complicated if individuals at La computing the mean difference in attrition score Plata consumed animals that were fed maize, such as between molars in the same quadrant (Table 5.3). This domesticated turkeys or dogs (see also Ezzo 1994). difference provides an assessment of the amount of attri- The La Plata isotope data at this point allow us only tion that occurred in the time between eruption of first to suggest that maize formed a significant part of the and third molars (about 10-14 years) and first and sec- diet. The tight distribution of values around the mean ond molars (about 5-6 years). As expected, the attrition suggests that everyone was eating about the same thing. differences are greater between third molars (two to Although neither a surprising nor novel finding, it does three stages) than first and second molars (slightly lend further empirical evidence to the importance of greater than one stage mean difference). maize to the entire group. When compared to similarly collected data from Black Mesa, somewhat paradoxical results are obtained. DIET AND DENTAL HEALTH The attrition scores (overall attrition) are much greater on Black Mesa, but the rates of molar attrition (the attri- “The dentition may well provide a direct record of con- tion gradient differences) are quite comparable between ditions under which the individual lived. The state of his the two populations (Fig. 5.2). In fact, for the mandibu- health, his diet, age, and certain aspects of his material lar teeth the attrition gradient is greater at La Plata, culture are indicated by the appearance of the teeth and implying more rapid attrition. We suggest that the rate of the supporting bone. The problem is how to read this attrition is indistinguishable at the two locations. This record.” Molnar (1971:188) position is supported further by examination of a scat- terplot of the relationship between attrition score and Because of the physically close and highly func- age for the lateral incisor at Black Mesa (Fig. 5.3). The tional relationship between dentition and diet, the con- similarity in pattern is remarkable. dition of teeth strongly reflects the diet and other cultur- Rates of molar attrition are also comparable al aspects of the individual. The problem, as Molnar between males and females (Fig. 5.4). Of four compar- (1971) states, is how to extract from dental patterns and isons, males have a higher rate of attrition for two com- pathologies the record of this relationship. In this sec- parisons, and the reverse is true for the other two com-

106 Figure 5.1. La Plata dental wear: maxillary and mandibular teeth.

Figure 5.2. Molar attrition gradients: La Plata versus Black Mesa.

107 Figure 5.3. Scatterplot of age and attrition: La Plata and Black Mesa.

Figure 5.4. Molar attrition gradients: males versus females.

108 parisons. groups. Assuming that the wear gradient provides a Understanding dental wear is challenging because means of assessing the rate of wear, the La Plata data it is a general term referring to the loss of the occlusal or suggest more rapid wear than in the pre-Neolithic chewing surface of teeth, but there are two components: groups. dental attrition from direct tooth-on-tooth contact, and dental abrasion, which results from the introduction of Dental Abscessing and Alveolar Resorption foreign matter (Scott and Turner 1988). Generally, the method of food processing, which can reduce wear by Two potential consequences of a high degree of breaking tough fibrous food into smaller and softer attrition are dental abscessing and alveolar resorption. parts, might also add abrasives to the food. For example, The frequency of dental abscesses by tooth type is pre- Wells (1975) quotes a personal communication from sented in Table 5.4 (also see Fig. 5.5). Abscessing Miles suggesting that the “spectacular” wear of the occurs at a rate of about 5 percent for both maxillary Mesa Verde inhabitants is due to grinding corn with teeth and just slightly higher for mandibular teeth (5.4 sandstone, which, presumably, easily finds its way into percent). These rates are substantially lower than those the corn meal and renders the meal highly abrasive. found at Black Mesa (Martin et al. 1991:197). For com- To shed some light on the way that attrition studies parison, Martin et al. report an average rate of 16.98 per- have been used in understanding diet, four studies cent of teeth with abscesses in the Black Mesa maxillae. reported in Paleopathology at the Origins of Agriculture Whereas La Plata adults are younger than Black Mesa (Cohen and Armelagos 1984) show a decrease in attri- adults, we doubt this greater than threefold difference is tion rates with agricultural adoption and/or intensifica- explicable by age differences alone. tion: Kennedy (1984) on Southeast Asia, Cook (1984) Dental abscesses are caused by the build-up of pus, on the west-central Illinois River Valley, Cassidy (1984) a product of infection, usually at the apical root tips. on Indian Knoll, , and Smith et al. (1984) on Coupled with underlying bacterial infection, an abscess the Levant. Smith et al. (1984) assert that their results may result from the progression of other dental condi- are independent of age. They also suggest that for the tions such as caries, wear, periodontal disease, and trau- molar wear gradient, the difference in wear between matic injury (Patterson 1984). As the dental pulp pro- M1s and M2s and between M2s and M3s of the same vides little space and circulation, an inflammatory quadrant is greater in the pre-Neolithic–preagricultural process at this site is highly likely to result in a need for

Figure 5.5. Percent abscessing.

109 drainage, hence the development of an abscess. inflammation (World Health Organization 1961). Dental In adaptive terms, dental abscessing is of interest plaque (and its attack by bacteria) is believed to be the for a variety of reasons. First, abscessing is indicative of prime cause of periodontal disease. Clarke et al. (1986) underlying infection, which may vary within and among suggest that it is assumed that over a period of 30-40 populations, as any infection does, by host resistance years, pathogenic bacteria prompt the host into a defen- and environmental conditions. Secondly, in addition to sive reaction, leading to periodontal inflammation and being caused by other dental pathologies, dental disease (Clarke et al. 1986; Loe et al. 1978). However, a abscessing leads to a further degeneration of the under- wide variety of other factors such as nutrient deficiency, lying bone and is thought to be a main factor causative food consistency, and tooth morphology may also be of tooth loss in precontact populations (Brothwell 1963; causal (Patterson 1984). Chronic periodontitis may lead Leigh 1925a, 1925b; Patterson 1984). Finally, abscess- to destruction of the underlying alveolar bone and alve- ing may place a burden on individuals, possibly leading olar resorption. The end result is loss of alveolar bone to a deficient dietary intake (due to mastication prob- from around the neck of a tooth. Alveolar resorption is lems) and other functional losses. This point has recent- an ancient pathology, at least dating back to the middle ly been made in a convincing fashion by Gibson and paleolithic (Wells 1975). It has been frequently studied Calcagno (1988). In reviewing clinical cases, they show in precontact populations, most often in conjunction how a “simple” dental abscess may drain into cranial with other dental pathologies and age. For example, nerves and cause a great deal of disability. An individual Cook (1984) suggests that alveolar resorption is gener- with such an abscess in a culture without the dental sur- ally secondary to dental wear and is therefore greater in gical means to provide an alternative draining route populations that have experienced a high degree of mas- would be at risk of great pain and possible death. ticatory stress (Costa 1982). In general, it appears that A variety of studies have considered the frequency alveolar bone loss might be seen as an intermediate and severity of dental abscessing in precontact popula- stage of tooth morbidity leading to tooth loss. However, tions. Scott and DeWalt (1980) find a decrease in the Clarke et al. (1986) suggest that periodontal disease frequency of abscessing with food production in coastal alone is unlikely to have ever been an important cause Peru. However, the severity of abscessing increases with of tooth loss in precontact populations. food production. They postulate that the causal relation- While the available data suggest that alveolar ship among dental pathologies was altered with the resorption generally increases with agricultural intensi- commencement of agriculture. Path analysis shows den- fication and increased use of refined carbohydrates tal wear to be linked to abscessing before agricultural (Wells 1975; Patterson 1984), the cause of this increase intensification, while after intensification, both dental is less certain. Confounding factors, such as the rela- attrition and caries are linked to abscessing via tionship between attrition and resorption, noted by Cook increased pulp exposure (Scott and DeWalt 1980). (1984), may modify the relationship between diet and Due to the secondary relationship of dental abscess- alveolar bone resorption. Larsen (1984), in his study of ing with other pathologies, it is assumed to be an age- Georgia coast populations, suggests that alveolar resorp- related condition. There is little agreement on possible tion may be greater in lower-class individuals. This rela- changes in rates of abscessing within a group or in tionship may be due to general increases in infection, groups differing in diet, food technology, or some other decreased hygiene, or dietary changes. Unfortunately, factors that would modify the oral environment or host there have been few studies of alveolar resorption in resistance (Wells 1975). relationship to such factors as socioeconomic status, his- Just as the degree of abscessing is rather moderate tory of infections, or nutritional status. at La Plata, so is the degree of alveolar resorption. Table 5.5 provides a distribution frequency of the percent of Dental Caries quadrants with none (< 1 mm), slight (1-3 mm), moder- ate (3-4.5 mm), and severe (> 4.5 mm) alveolar resorp- Dental caries rates can be quite diagnostic of carbo- tion. The data from each quadrant are quite consistent in hydrate quality and quantity in the diet and are also of showing that about three-quarters of the population have importance because of the role of caries in infirmity and slight to no alveolar resorption, and only about one in tooth loss. Thus, dental caries are significant as patho- eight to ten have severe alveolar resorption. logical conditions and as dietary indicators. Dental Periodontal disease, one of the most common of caries are defined as areas of demineralization due to the human afflictions, is a general term used to refer to action of acidogenic bacteria such as Streptococcus inflammation and degeneration of the soft tissues sur- mutans, which grow in plaque on tooth surfaces. rounding and supporting the teeth. In many populations Tables 5.6 and 5.7 present the frequency of caries of almost all adults have some degree of periodontal different types by tooth type, respectively for the maxil-

110 lary and mandibular teeth. There are very few caries on health and nutritional status of the individual (Geissler the anterior teeth, and rates are also low for molars and and Bates 1984; Nagao et al. 1989). With endemic tooth premolars. The most common site of carious involve- loss, foods become increasingly more difficult to chew, ment is the occlusal surface, especially of the molars. As thus limiting the range of dietary options. Nagao et al. can be seen in Table 5.8, occlusal caries reach rates of (1989) estimate a 20 percent loss of nutrient intake in over 20 percent of teeth affected for third molars. Of 32 edentates. individuals with four or more teeth available for evalu- Based on the position that most dental pathologies ation of caries, 14 (44 percent) had one or more caries. increase with agriculture, one might assume that tooth Caries are a multifactorial disease. Their extent loss will also increase as a secondary effect of this depends on a variety of interacting variables, including dietary shift. An increase in tooth loss with agricultural host resistance, the pathogenic agent, and the environ- intensification has been shown by Cook (1984) and ment (Powell 1985:317). Caries rates, like other dental Smith et al. (1984). However, Cassidy (1984) and conditions, tend to vary in relationship to age structure. Meiklejohn et al. (1984) have found the opposite trend. Whereas caries rates increase with age, this pattern is These contradictory results may be explained by con- complicated by dental attrition and tooth loss. current high gatherer-hunter attrition rates, which are Dental caries are perhaps of greatest interest to also causative of tooth loss. archaeologists because of their strong evolutionary rela- An interesting example of variation in caries and tionship to changes in food production and diet. Keene tooth loss rates across samples and the concordance in (1980) finds extremely low frequencies of caries before these rates is found in the study of Smith et al. (1984). the origins of agriculture and quantum increases after Among five groups of Nautufian (Levant) adults, they agriculture and with the introduction of refined carbo- find a range of variation in caries from .3 to 7.6 percent hydrates. Especially for agricultural groups, understand- and a similar range of premortem tooth loss from .9 to ing the relationship between caries and attrition is com- 15.0 percent. While the group with the lowest caries rate plex. also has the lowest rate of tooth loss, it is not true that Armelagos and Rose (1972) have suggested that a the group with the highest caries rate has the highest rate moderate to high rate of attrition rate may have an anti- of premortem loss. In fact, it has the second lowest rate cariogenic effect, while slight attrition promotes caries. of premortem loss. These data caution against assuming This relationship may partially explain the lower-than- that lost teeth are carious teeth. expected caries rate in a maize-dependent society like La Plata. The attrition rate may have acted in a benefi- La Plata Dental Health: Implications for Diet and cial way to keep tooth surfaces relatively clean of aci- Comparisons to Other Southwest Sites dogenic bacteria through an abrasive action. Although dental pathology data have been collect- Premortem Tooth Loss ed from a large number of southwestern sites, compara- bility is rather problematic. Age, while difficult to con- The ultimate indicator of poor dental health is pre- trol for, seriously affects variation in dental pathology mortem loss of teeth. Loss can occur via a variety of rates. In addition, data are infrequently reported by routes: dental caries, trauma, excessive attrition, dental tooth, as we prefer, and as we have done in the La Plata abscessing, and excessive resorption. As with all other series, even though caries and other dental pathologies measures of dental health, the rate of tooth loss at La may greatly vary by tooth type. Plata was relatively minimal, averaging about one tooth As previously discussed, the mean degree of attri- per quadrant (Table 5.9). Of 32 adults with four or more tion is greater at Black Mesa than La Plata, although the tooth sockets available for scoring, exactly half had one rate of molar attrition is comparable between Black or more teeth lost premortem. One individual had com- Mesa and La Plata. The greater degree of attrition is plete maxillary tooth loss. explainable by an older adult population at Black Mesa. Premortem tooth loss is of interest both as a reflec- Expectation of life at age fifteen years is nearly ten years tion of dental health and because it may entail function- greater at Black Mesa. al impairment. Premortem loss is frequently associated Implications of the comparability in rates of attri- with the above-noted dental conditions: dental abscess- tion are not startling. These data suggest that factors ing, extreme alveolar resorption, excess attrition, and influencing tooth abrasion—diet and means of prepara- caries. Premortem loss may, in fact, be due to any one or tion—may have been comparable. Paleo-ethnobotanical a combination of these factors. Tooth loss represents the and carbon isotope data suggest a relatively high degree ultimate diminution of functional, masticatory capacity. of reliance on maize, but perhaps not over-reliance. The Rampant tooth loss may have a strong effect on the dental pathology data do not raise contrary implications.

111 Caries distribution and rates at La Plata are neither consistent with a young sample with a relatively high unusually high or low. The 44 percent of individuals rate of attrition. While the mean attrition scores are quite with caries at La Plata is greater than at Chaco Basin low, the molar attrition gradients are moderately high. sites, , Turkey Creek, and Point of Pines, Thus, a young population with a high rate (but low over- but less than at Chaco Canyon, Grasshopper, San all degree) of attrition might contribute to low rates of Cristobal, and Hawikku (Table 5.10). The tentative dental pathology. These data suggest a mildly abrasive implication of this intermediate level of caries is a diet and somewhat varied diet. that is certainly based on maize, but perhaps not to the The analysis of diet in the La Plata population sug- degree it may have been at other Puebloan sites. gests a reliance on maize, a finding consistent with the In most cases, caries rates need to be evaluated in archaeological recovery of floral and faunal remains, the relationship to premortem loss. The rate of premortem bone chemistry data, and the skeletal and dental analy- loss at La Plata is also not unusual among other south- ses. The lack of significant differences between males western sites. For examples, the 50 percent rate of tooth and females suggests that everyone was eating approxi- loss per adult is greater than at Chaco Basin sites and mately the same kinds of food. The pattern of dental Salmon Ruins but less than at Chaco Canyon (Table attrition suggests a diet that was gritty, tough, abrasive, 5.11). and starchy. Grit gets introduced into the diet through processing of maize with ground stone and ingestion of Discussion wild plants with tough and fibrous outer coverings. An increase in both maize processing and reliance on wild Dental health at La Plata is generally comparable to plants, stems, and seeds most likely contributed to the that of other southwestern sites. The frequency of indi- moderate to high rates of dental wear at La Plata, and viduals with caries falls in the middle of a select group this in turn contributed to the lower frequencies of cari- of southwestern sites. This suggests a diet high in maize, ous lesions. but not unusually high. The data on dental attrition are

112 Table 5.1. Stable carbon isotope values

Buri al Age/Sex Trauma *13 C

37600 B1 45 F none -6. 67

37601 B1 30 M none -7. 45 37601 B4 25 F trauma -7. 12 37601 B7 42 M none -7. 04

37601 B12 22 M none -7. 33 37592 B6 15 trauma -6. 85

37592 B7 50+ F none -7. 57 65030 B2 22 F cannot assess -5. 68 65030 B6 38 F trauma -6. 59

65030 B7 10.5 none -6. 83 65030 B8 20 F trauma -8. 65

65030 B9 33 F trauma -7. 34 65030 B15 48 M none -7. 63

Total 7 F 7 none mean= -7.17 4 M 5 trauma SD = .624 2 subadult 1 no assessment

113 Table 5.2. Attrition score by tooth for the total sample

Tooth Maxilla Mandible

Mean SD Mean SD

I1 Left 3.5 1.7 3.9 1.9

Right 3.8 2.1 3.8 1.9 I2 Left 3.4 1.5 3.6 1.9

Right 3.7 1.7 4.1 1.9 C Left 3.6 2.0 3.7 1.6 Right 3.7 1.8 3.8 1.9

Pm1 Left 2.9 1.0 3.5 1.8 Right 3.5 1.9 3.4 1.7

Pm2 Left 3.2 2.0 3.0 1.5 Right 3.6 2.0 3.0 1.5 M1 Left 3.5 1.6 3.8 1.4

Right 4.0 1.8 4.0 1.7 M2 Left 2.4 0.9 2.5 1.1 Right 2.6 0.6 2.8 1.4

M3 Left 1.8 0.4 1.9 0.9 Right 1.8 0.4 1.6 0.7

Table 5.3. Attrition gradients for maxillary and mandibular molars

Tooth Maxilla Mandible

Mean SD Mean SD

M3-M1 Right 2.23 0.93 2.39 0.65 Left 2.33 0.78 2.67 1.12

M2-M1 Right 1.43 0.76 1.06 0.73 Left 1.41 1.36 1.33 0.72

114 Table 5.4. Dental abscessing by tooth type for the total sample

Maxilla (%) Mandible (%)

I1 Right 5.6 11.1 Left 4.8 10.6

I2 Right 4.8 16.7 Left 4.8 4.5 C Right 5.0 4.2

Left 5.0 4.8 PM1 Right 9.6 4.2

Left 10.6 4.5 PM2 Right 0.0 4.3 Left 0.0 5.0

M1 Right 5.0 4.5 Left 10.2 7.7 M2 Right 0.0 0.0

Left 6.3 5.3 M3 Right 8.3 0.0

Left 0.0 0.0

Table 5.5. Frequencies of grades of alveolar resorption by dental quadrant

Maxillary Right Maxillary Left Mandible Right Mandible Left

0-1 mm 25.0 23.5 38.9 38.9 1-3 mm 50.0 58.8 33.3 33.3

3-4.5 mm 12.5 5.9 16.7 16.7 4.5+ mm 12.5 11.8 11.1 11.1

115 Table 5.6. Frequency of caries by tooth type, maxillary teeth

N None Occlusal Interproximal Buccal Smooth Contact Root

I1 Right 22 95.5 4.5

Left 21 100.0

I2 Right 23 95.7 4.3

Left 19 94.7 5.3

C Right 21 100.0

Left 22 95.5 4.5

PM1 Right 25 100.0

Left 21 95.2 4.8

PM2 Right 19 94.7 5.3

Left 19 89.5 5.3 5.3

M1 Right 20 90.0 5.0 5.0

Left 20 90.0 10. 0

M2 Right 18 100.0

Left 19 100.0

M3 Right 13 84.6 15. 4

Left 13 69.2 23. 1 7.7

116 Table 5.7. Frequency of caries by tooth type, mandibular teeth

N None Occlusal Interproximal Interproximal Buccal Root Fissure Contact Root

I1 Right 18 100.0

Left 20 100.0

I2 Right 22 95. 5 4.5

Left 16 100.0

C Right 22 90. 9 4.5 4.5

Left 23 100.0

PM1 Right 24 100.0

Left 24 100.0

PM2 Right 22 86. 4 13.6

Left 21 100.0

M1 Right 24 70. 8 4.2 20.8 4.2

Left 20 80. 0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0

M2 Right 16 87. 5 6.3 6.3

Left 17 76. 5 17.7 5.9

M3 Right 11 81. 8 18.2

Left 14 78. 6 21.4 7.7

Table 5.8. Frequency of occlusal and nonocclusal caries for total sample

Maxilla Mandible

Occlusal Nonocclusal Occlusal Nonacclusal

PM1 Right 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Left 0.0 4.8 0.0 0.0 PM2 Right 0.0 5.3 0.0 13.6

Left 5.3 5.3 0.0 0.0 M1 Right 5.0 5.0 4.2 20.8 Left 10.0 0.0 5.0 15.0

M2 Right 0.0 0.0 6.3 6.3 Left 0.0 0.0 17.7 5.9

M3 Right 15.4 0.0 18.2 0.0 Left 23.1 7.7 21.4 7.7

117 Table 5.9 . Frequency of premortem tooth loss by tooth type for total sample

Maxilla Mandible N % N %

I1 Right 28 3.6 28 7.1 Left 28 3.6 28 7.1

I2 Right 27 3.7 26 0.0 Left 28 7.1 29 6.9

C Right 25 8.0 26 0.0 Left 26 7.7 29 0.0 PM1 Right 25 4.0 28 0.0

Left 27 11. 1 29 3.4 PM2 Right 24 16. 7 27 14.8 Left 22 4.5 25 12.0

M1 Right 28 21. 4 32 9.4 Left 27 18. 5 30 6.0

M2 Right 24 16. 7 27 29.6 Left 25 20. 0 25 28.0 M3 Right 21 28. 6 23 39.1

Left 21 23. 8 22 31.8

Mean 12. 4 12.2

118 Table 5.10. Frequencies of dental caries

Site Stage/Date N %

La Pl ata Pueblo II-Pueblo III 32 44

Dolores 700-1100 24 71

Black Mesa 800-1150 64 26 Chaco Basin Pueblo I-Pueblo III 49 8 Chaco Canyon Pueblo I-Pueblo III 27 85

Salmon Ruin Pueblo II-Pueblo III 20 20 Turkey Creek 1000-1285 91 9 Point of Pines 1000-1450 76 29

Sopris phase 1150-1250 24 13 Pindi Pueblo Pueblo II-Pueblo IV 52 13

Jornada sites 900-1400 45 13 Paa’ko, Tijeras Pueblo III-Pueblo IV 149 23 Grasshopper 1275-1400 168 52

Pottery Mound Pueblo IV 49 76 El Morro Pueblo IV 15 53

Pecos precontact 1300-1550 126 44 Pecos protohistoric 1550-1600 68 53 Pecos historic 1600-1800 68 43

San Cristobal 1300-Historic 136 57 Hawikku 1300-Historic 98 53

Chaco Canyon refers to a study by Akins (1986) of 135 individuals from 30 sites in and around Chaco Canyon. Chaco Basin refers to a study by Berry (1983) of 91 individuals from three sites in Chaco Canyon, Aztec Ruin, and Thoreau Pueblo.

Table 5.11. Frequencies of premortem loss

Site N %

La Plata 32 50

Chaco Basin 43 37 Chaco Canyon 46 63 Salmon Ruin 12 25

Pindi Pueblo 52 19

Note: Chaco Canyon refers to a study by Akins (1986) of 135 individuals from 30 sites in and around Chaco Canyon. Chaco Basin refers to a study by Berry (1983) of 91 individuals from three sites in Chaco Canyon, Aztec Ruin, and Thoreau Pueblo.

119

CHAPTER 6 few to over 2,000 elements.1 Included in the total ele- ment count are 199 small fragments of bone that could DISARTICULATED HUMAN REMAINS not be positively identified as human at seven of the sites. Frequencies of unidentified bone in assemblages of any size range from a high of 12.3 percent of the In addition to the recovery of burials in mortuary assemblage at LA 37603 to a low of 2.2 percent at LA contexts suggesting primary interment, we found a sig- 37600. nificant amount of disarticulated human skeletal materi- al. Southwestern disarticulated human assemblages are METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS receiving increased attention, some controversial. Based on a set of six criteria, Christy Turner II of Arizona State An initial study of the disarticulated remains2 University has examined a number of disarticulated recorded the following variables using a pro forma com- assemblages and found that more than 40 of these puter coded format: provenience and control numbers; resulted from cannibalism (Turner 1993:421). Informed taxon; element; portion; laterality; gross age; age range; of the recovery of the La Plata disarticulated assem- sex; element development; environmental, animal, ther- blages by former OAS director David A. Phillips Jr., mal, and human alteration; quantification of cut marks; Turner requested and received permission to study the number of impacts; and modification. Errors and incon- La Plata collection. In June 1992, he and Jacqueline sistencies in the original data set compelled a reanalysis Turner studied a portion of the OAS La Plata collec- focused on refinement and further identification of ele- tions. While Turner thought he had examined most of ments, assignment of age and sex when possible, and a the collection, and the entire collection was available for more intensive inquiry into bone fragments initially his inspection, his summary sheets (letter to H. W. Toll, coded as burned or altered.3 La Plata burials aged by October 16, 1992) indicate that 291 (66.6 percent) of the dental development were used to determine the age of 437 elements from LA 37592, 232 (10.5 percent) of the immature elements in the disarticulated assemblage. 2,203 from LA 37593, and 119 (29.7 percent) of the 400 Aging of elements tends to increase the proportion of from LA 65030 were actually examined. immature individuals represented in a population Turner and Turner (1999:311-318) concluded that because subadults of different ages can be fairly reliably all three of the sites they examined showed evidence of distinguished even when represented by only a single cannibalism. While we concur that violence occurred at bone. Conversely, isolated adult bones can rarely be LA 37592 and LA 65030, our closer examination of the assigned to an age category or distinguished as repre- remains indicates that only at LA 37592 is there clear senting single individuals. When possible, adults were evidence for perimortem violence, and even there the aged by dental attrition (White 1991:312) or the pres- remains can be interpreted in several additional veins. ence of advanced arthritis. Evidence of sexual dimor- There are a number of inaccuracies in the information phism in the burial population allowed elements from published in Turner and Turner. These collections are some gracile adults to be classified as females and larg- discussed in detail below (see also Martin 2000). er robust ones as males (see Chapter 2, “Assessment of Ventura Perez of the University of Massachusetts is con- Age and Sex”). The large group of elements falling ducting further analysis of these materials, examining between these extremes were left at “indeterminate” alterations on bone using casting and microscopy (Perez adult status. and Martin 1999). Light to dark brown discoloration caused by envi- Because Martin, Akins, Goodman, and Swedlund ronmental factors is sometimes misinterpreted as burn- did not concur with Turner’s assessment, especially ing or scorching. As analysts became familiar with the regarding LA 37593, each element was reexamined and range of bone discoloration from a variety of mortuary recorded in the format described below. In addition, a contexts at La Plata, the number of bones recorded as study of breakage patterns and missing elements in the burned decreased dramatically. La Plata burial population provided critical information Likewise, the assessment of “human alteration” on carnivore damage, postmortem breakage, and provided a challenge. Butchering marks generally result taphonomy. Our approach throughout this section is from skinning, disarticulation, or filleting (Binford conservative. We believe that the data should be care- 1981:47). Cuts made with stone tools tend to be short fully considered and have endeavored to examine mul- and occur in groups of parallel marks (Binford tiple lines of evidence. 1981:105; Marshall 1989:17). They occur in low fre- A total of 3,542 isolated elements or fragments of quencies on bones of animals processed in replicative human bones were recovered from 17 of the excavated experiments (Marshall 1989:17). Marks closely resem- La Plata sites (Table 6.1). Site samples ranged from a bling stone tool cuts can be produced by trampling by

121 hoofed animal on a sandy substrate (Gifford-Gonzalez collections (Myers et al. 1980:486). Human percussion, 1989:192-193). Other agents reported to cause groove- marrow processing, trampling, rock fall, carnivores, like cut marks or slicelike scratches include excavators water transport, diagenic movement, cryoturbation or preparators, carnivore gnawing, rodent gnawing, rock (freezing and thawing), and traumatic accidents have all fall, water transport, and diagenic movement (Marshall been reported to cause spiral fractures. Similarly, 1989:12). spalling or bone flake removal has been attributed to The earlier La Plata analysis did not distinguish human percussion and marrow processing, tool manu- morphology from causation, that is, fresh breaks and facture, trampling, carnivore gnawing, rock fall, water cleaning marks from ancient activities. Initially, linear transport, and cryoturbation (Marshall 1989:12, 20). marks were recorded as cuts, straight breaks as snaps or Experimental studies indicate that bones exposed splits, and many irregular breaks as impact fractures. for about a year had spiral fractures, longitudinal cracks, Furthermore, there was no variable that allowed the ana- concentric flakes, and spalling from the outer surfaces lyst to question the causation as anything but human. In after being stepped on by the experimenters (Myers et the reanalysis, a more conservative approach was taken. al. 1980:488). Another researcher, amazed at finding All marks were examined under a binocular microscope recent, green-appearing and older dry spiral fractures on (10X to 40X), which provided enough information to the same bone, proposed that the bone had absorbed distinguish among marks produced by dental picks and enough moisture to fracture in a fresh manner and that other excavation tools, natural features of the bone such bone deposited in cold and damp contexts could remain as blood vessel impressions or indentations, and other mechanically fresh for some time (Oliver 1989:84-85). marks from perimortem cuts. To be recorded as a cut, a Analysis of human bone from the La Plata burial popu- mark had to have a V or V-like cross section, and at least lation indicates that bone can in fact remain mechani- two persons had to agree it could be a cut. Other marks cally fresh for hundreds of years, and “green fractures” that resemble cuts but did not meet these criteria were can occur throughout this time (Fig. 6.1; further evi- generally considered abrasions. Problematical cuts were dence is provided in the following section). flagged by adding a code to the modification variable indicating difficulty in interpreting the exact nature of the morphological feature.4 Describing fracture morphology and determining the timing of breaks were other areas of concern. Distinguishing perimortem from postmortem breakage is extremely difficult, and there is no set of standard cri- teria for their determination (Bonnichsen 1983; Morlan 1983). On the other hand, a great deal of consideration has been given to whether certain fracture types are strictly human in origin and the classification of forms of breakage. Gifford-Gonzalez (1989:188) favors a strictly descriptive typology rather than one imputing cause. She records three major break shapes for compact Figure 6.1. Humerus broken by backhoe. Note bone (transverse, longitudinal, and spiral) and notes the remaining plasticity and peel on this eroded bone. LA texture of the break surface as smooth or stepped. Her 37601, B1. data (Gifford-Gonzalez 1989:235) show that impact fractures (indicated by internal and external flaking) can Faced with multiple causes for virtually every mod- result in almost any combination of shapes and textures. ification that has been attributed to humans, a great deal The most common long bone breaks in an ethnoarchae- of caution is necessary when evaluating breakage in a ological assemblage from a seasonally occupied resi- bone assemblage. This is especially true when the dential camp were spiral smooth (n=36), closely fol- assemblage contains human remains. As noted, few of lowed by transverse stepped (n=34), spiral stepped those analyzing human bone define how they distin- (n=30), and longitudinal smooth (n=21). Few were guish perimortem from postmortem or premortem transverse smooth (n=6) or longitudinal stepped (n=6) breaks. The assumption many make is that if the fracture (Gifford-Gonzalez 1989:228). A second data set from a is smooth, the bone was fresh, and damage occurred foraging camp (Gifford-Gonzalez 1989:239) had only around the time of death. For example, Luebben and spiral smooth (n=18), transverse stepped (n=14), and Nickens (1982:77) considered all spiral fractures and spiral stepped (n=1) breaks. sharp-angled breaks on cranial elements from an early Spiral fractures frequently occur in paleontological Pueblo III kiva at the Grinnell Site in southwestern

122 Colorado as products of human activity. These, com- of contexts. Ten were found in the lower fill or features bined with cut marks and burned bones, are interpreted in pit structures, seven in the upper fill of pit structures, as suggesting abusive treatment of the dead and possibly one in a room subfloor feature, three in extramural fea- cannibalism. tures, and three in the extramural burial pits. Five had Some attention has been directed at distinguishing evidence of carnivore disturbance, and six had been potential lethal blows to the head. Frayer (1993:8) gives impacted by mechanical equipment. Although dis- three main criteria for distinguishing perimortem from turbed, these burials are important for the information postmortem holes in the cranial vault. These are the they contain on the impact of carnivores on burials and beveling of the fracture walls, increasing from the individual bones, and on fracture morphology produced ectocranial to the endocranial surface, hinge fractures by both agents. The sample is well balanced in age and and spalling of the endocranial surface, and compres- sex and was drawn from a number of sites. sion fractures radiating from the hole on the ectocranial Every burial was missing some parts (Table 6.2). surface. Milner et al. (1991:583) describe perimortem Even those in excellent condition with no disturbance cranial injuries as holes with the internal edges bordered lacked carpals, phalanges, or portions of ribs. In several by areas where pieces of the table and diploe have bro- instances, whole limbs were gone with no sign of dis- ken off. Cracks radiate out from the area of the blow. turbance evident to the excavator. For example, Burial Citing forensic information, White (1992:133-134) 1, LA 37592, was missing the left arm and half of the notes that the common fracture pattern is internal vault atlas vertebra. These were found with the disarticulated release, where the inner or endocranial table is released human bone and were probably transported by rodents. from the diploe. He also notes that breaks and cracks Burial 5, LA 37599, was missing the right arm and hand. often follow meningeal impressions and sutures (White In this case, the distal humerus had chewing and tooth 1992:172). punctures, indicating that carnivores removed the lower In the La Plata analysis format, the analyst is given arm. Much of the right hand was missing from Burial 2, the choice of describing the “human alteration” as cuts, LA 37601, probably part of the rodent disturbance noted splits, chops, percussion pits, grooves, impact fractures, by the excavators. Burial 4 from that site was missing spiral fractures, abrasions, snap breaks, scrape marks, the right hand and left leg with no evident disturbance. peeling, crushing, or drilling. For this study, the human Burial 11, LA 37601, was missing the lower right arm alteration variable was used to describe morphology on and much of both hands and feet. Rodent disturbance old breaks, rather than causation. Longitudinal fractures was noted, and furrows on the distal right humerus indi- were coded as longitudinal splits, and transverse frac- cate the lower arm was removed by carnivores. Burial 1, tures as transverse splits based on morphology. To be an LA 37603, was missing some ribs and the left radius and impact fracture, external flakes, notches, concentric ulna. The left hand was nearly complete. Rodent and cracks, or some definite indication was required. Only possibly backhoe damage could be responsible for the one possible percussion pit was noted, and no grooving missing parts. Burial 4, LA 65030, was missing most of or drilling was observed in the La Plata assemblage. the legs, and root and possible rodent disturbance were noted. Burial 7, LA 65030, lacked several left ribs, with DAMAGE AND BREAKAGE IN THE BURIAL SAMPLE no disturbance noted. The broken edges of a number of rib fragments were rounded and polished, suggestive of The La Plata project benefitted from having tradi- carnivore licking. Some ribs were completely missing, tional burials and disarticulated bone assemblages while others were represented by the proximal ends and together in some sites. This provided the opportunity to a portion of the shaft. The body was presumably in an examine the color, condition, breakage, and general advanced state of decomposition in order for the ribs to morphological features of fully articulated human have been completely removed without damaging the remains that represent primary interments with no peri- vertebrae. mortem modification. To aid in interpreting the disartic- Table 6.3 summarizes the elements missing from ulated human assemblage, 24 of the 67 burials from the the entire sample and the 17 burials in good or excellent La Plata project were examined for patterns of breakage, condition (excluded are burials in fair or poor condi- missing parts, and suspicious marks. Condition of these tion). The carnivore-damaged burials (LA 37595 B2 and burials ranged from poor to excellent.5 Condition was LA 65030 B13) and the burial removed by the backhoe rated excellent when there was little or no deterioration, (LA 37601 B5) are also not included in Table 6.3. good when there was a small amount of deterioration, Finally, parts likely to have been removed by mechani- fair when many of the bones were deteriorated and bro- cal equipment are not counted as missing. ken, and poor when most were deteriorated and broken. As expected, those elements composed mainly of The burials used in this study came from a variety cancellous bone are more likely to be missing from buri-

123 als where the condition is rated poor to fair. Vertebrae, partially deteriorated, and six have old irregular/jagged scapulae, innominates, carpals, and tarsals are suscepti- fractures. The recent breaks are mostly irregular (n=5) ble to deterioration and may simply disappear. Other but also include crisp (n=1). cancellous bones—the sternum, sacrum, patella, and Cranial bases are rarely intact (n=1). Old breaks are most phalanges—are fairly equally represented regard- irregular (n=11) and usually occur in the area near the less of condition. The only parts found in all of the sam- foramen magnum, where the bone is thin and lacks a ple burials, or accounted for by mechanical or carnivore diploe. Three others have deteriorated bases. Recent disturbance, are the entire cranium and right humerus. breaks (n=6) are also irregular, presumably due to the Every other part either deteriorated or was removed by character of the bone in this locale. “natural phenomena” in one or more of the burials. Eight of the burials have an intact or nearly intact Breakage observed in the study is difficult to mandible. One is missing due to carnivore disturbance, describe and quantify (Table 6.4). The morphology of and another has the corners and condyles damaged by old and fresh breaks and relative frequencies are carnivores. Old (n=5) and recent (n=9) breaks tend to be described by element in the text to provide a back- irregular/jagged, but one old break is straight/crisp, and ground for the site by site discussions that follow. recent breaks produced by a backhoe are crisp and peel- Numbers in parentheses are the number of individuals, like (Fig. 6.4). Deterioration was noted on the condyles not the number of breaks, in which a condition occurs. of two and on the lower margins of four (Fig. 6.5). Old Seven crania are intact, with virtually no damage or cracks occur on two others. deterioration, and two burials are missing the crania. Few burials have all vertebrae intact (n=2) or with One is an incomplete, carnivore-disturbed burial, and only minor marginal erosion (n=2). Two burials are the other was removed by a mechanical posthole digger. missing the cervical vertebrae, five are missing thoracic The remainder are incomplete or recovered in a number vertebrae, one lacks all but one thoracic vertebrae due to of pieces. For the vault portion, disarticulation at sutures mechanical equipment, and one lacks the lumbar verte- is relatively common (n=8), indicating that this type of brae (the latter due to a utility trench). Most have dam- separation frequently occurs naturally. The age range for age to the spines (n=14) and transverse processes these individuals includes infants (n=1), children (n=3), (n=16), either irregular breaks or deterioration. Damage relatively young adults (n=3, 20 to 30 years), and a to the body is less common (n=8) and rarely affects slightly older adult (age 38). An older individual (45 more than the surface. Four have badly broken verte- years or older) has a break that runs along a suture, and brae, and two have crushed vertebrae. Other than minor a child (11 years) has breaks that cross rather than fol- surface or edge damage, recent damage is relatively rare low the sutures. Old breaks, presumably from the (n=4). Carnivore damage was primarily to the spines weight of fill or activity above the crania, are generally and processes in one partially intact burial. Only three irregular (n=6), although an infant has both crisp punctures were noted in the vertebrae. The more usual straight and irregular breaks caused by earth pressure. In damage consists of broken or chewed vertebral process- two cases, the irregular breaks have rounded, almost es. polished edges. Since the pieces in both were in correct Scapulae are missing from one burial and damaged anatomical position when uncovered, the rounding must by carnivores in two others. For the remainder, none are be attributed to natural soil processes. Breaks or parts complete. Five have only marginal breakage or small missing because of deterioration were observed on four cracks, six have marginal and ridge deterioration and vaults (one infant, two children, and one adult). minor breakage, and nine have much deterioration and Deterioration resembling heat damage was found (Fig. breakage. Fresh damage consists of crushing (n=1), 6.2). Recent breaks, caused by agents such as the exca- cracks (n=1), and missing parts of the blade (n=2). vator, preparator, or mechanical equipment, include Thirteen of the 24 burials have one or both clavicles both irregular/jagged (n=8) and straight/crisp breaks intact. Two burials are missing the clavicles. Minor end (n=3). Fresh cracks (n=3) are irregular/jagged in form. damage was noted on six and old irregular breaks on A backhoe was able to reproduce not only green frac- three (one medial, two lateral). Midshaft erosion was tures but peeling (Fig. 6.3), which is normally consid- noted on two. One of these (Fig. 6.6) resembles a con- ered a pattern found only on bone broken when fresh dition attributed by White (1992:162-163, his Figs. 6.29 (White 1992:140). No concentric cracks or spalls were and 6.31) to roasting. An old crushed end was observed observed along the fresh or old fractures. on the same individual. Fresh damage resulted in a peel- Only two of the broken crania have faces with no like break, and irregular breaks to both ends (n=1), lat- damage. One other had been carnivore disturbed and has eral (n=2), and medial ends (n=1). Another has a mid- no face. Breakage of the face bones closely follows that shaft spiral break with a stepped surface. of the vault. Three are disarticulated at sutures, two have Sterna are complete or have slight marginal erosion

124 Figure 6.2. Erosion of surface of right parietal (cf. White 1992: Figs. 7.7, 7.21). LA 37601, B8.

Figure 6.3. Crisp breaks produced by backhoe. LA 37601, B5.

125 Figure 6.4. Recent peel on mandible. LA 37601, B3.

Figure 6.5. Natural deterioration of mandibular margins. LA 37601, B1.

126 Figure 6.6. Weathered clavicle. LA 37601, B5. in ten of the burials. In one other, the manubrium is damage includes nibbles and furrows on both ends of complete but the body absent. Sterna are missing from one and chewing and perpendicular furrows just above seven, two due to carnivores and another from mechan- the distal end of another. Four burials lack one (n=3) or ical equipment. Old breakage includes one with only both (n=1) humeri, three due to carnivores. Fresh break- minor damage and breaks, one with irregular breaks, age is generally irregular (distal n=2, shaft n=2), but two that are deteriorated into fragments, and one that is includes single individuals with smooth spiral and lon- reduced to fragments. Recent damage (n=2) is in the gitudinal breaks produced by a backhoe, spiral breaks form of irregular breaks. produced by a utility line, peeling-like damage caused Nine of the burials have essentially complete ribs. by a backhoe, and crushing or warping caused by Old and fresh breaks are common. Old breaks are irreg- mechanical equipment. ular (n=5), transverse irregular (n=6), and diagonal Seven individuals are missing one or both radii. smooth (n=2) or irregular (n=2). Smooth diagonal Sixteen have radii that are complete (n=3) or complete cracks were noted in two burials. Two have breaks due with slight marginal erosion (distal n=6, proximal and to complete deterioration. The ribs tended to break in distal n=11). Old breaks are generally caused by deteri- one or more of three locations: the constriction just back oration (proximal n=2, distal n=2, both ends n=1), but from the articular facet, and the shaft about a third of the one is irregular with a smooth fracture. One individual way from either the proximal or distal end. Old fractures has only a small fragment of the right radius. Fresh are proximal (n=8), about a third of the length from the breaks are irregular (proximal n=3, distal n=4, shaft proximal end (n=6), and about a third of the length from n=1). the distal end (n=8). Each individual generally has The ulnae follow a similar pattern. Seven individu- breaks in more than one of these locations (n=9). White als are missing one or both ulnae, two due to carnivores, observed similar breakage patterns in the Mancos col- and 16 have ulnae that are complete (n=3) or complete lection, and he attributes the patterning, “ubiquitous with minor marginal erosion (proximal n=6, distal n=5, separation” of the proximal end from the rest of the proximal and distal n=6). A proximal end has deteriorat- shaft, to leveraged removal of rib slabs (White ed away on one, as have the distal ends of two. Old 1992:224). Carnivore-damaged ribs from one La Plata breaks are irregular (distal n=1, proximal and distal burial exhibit spalls and peeling (Fig. 6.7). Fresh breaks n=1). One has a longitudinal crack. Fresh breaks are are transverse (n=2), diagonal (n=2), and irregular irregular (distal n=2, proximal and distal n=1, shaft n=2) (n=6). A fresh peel was also noted. or transverse (n=l). Another is crushed. Humeri tend to be complete (n=5) or complete with Five of the burials have complete hand elements, only minor erosion or deterioration (n=10) at the proxi- and 15 others have only minor erosion or deterioration. mal (n=4), distal (n=3), or both ends (n=3). Three have broken or damaged hand bones. Every bur- Deterioration badly damaged the distal end of one and ial is missing hand elements, and complete hands are both ends of another. Breaks are irregular (distal n=1, missing from three. shaft n=2), transverse (shaft n=1), or spiral (shaft n=1). Sacra are missing from two burials and are com- One has proximal crushing, possibly from a utility line, plete or have only slight marginal erosion in six. and another has a transverse irregular crack. Carnivore Damage is deterioration or erosion rather than breaks.

127 Figure 6.7. Carnivore-damaged ribs. LA 65030, B13. Portions are missing from the inferior portion (n=3), the oration is common (proximal n=4, distal n=1, proximal edges (n=3), or the surface (n=3). One has been reduced and distal n=11, shaft n=2, ends and shaft n=1). One of to fragments. Fresh irregular breaks were observed on these resembles a pattern attributed to roasting by White six. (1992:162-163) (Fig. 6.8). Old breaks on the same indi- Innominates are badly carnivore-damaged in one vidual are irregular (distal n=1, proximal and distal and missing from two of the burials. Eleven burials have n=1). An irregular and a longitudinal crack were also innominates that are complete or have only slight mar- observed. One burial, recovered from between two util- ginal erosion and small cracks. Deterioration was ity lines by a backhoe, has old and fresh breaks. The old observed in the ilium (n=2) and ischium (n=1). When breaks are longitudinal and transverse and smooth, with found, breaks are generally irregular. Seven have broken a possible impact flake on one. The fresh breaks are ilia, and five of the ischia are broken, as is one pubis. irregular, transverse, and longitudinal shaft breaks. One has a straight crisp break of the ilium. One other Other fresh breaks are irregular (proximal n=2, proxi- was reduced to fragments. Recent breaks, also irregular, mal and distal n=1) and longitudinal. are found on two of the ilia, three of the ischium, and two of the pubes. Femora are missing from five burials, one due to carnivores. Two are complete, but many others exhibit only slight erosion or marginal deterioration (proximal n=4, distal n=7, proximal and distal n=7, shaft n=1, ends and shaft n=2). Old breaks are uncommon; one is found proximally and is irregular stepped, and one is at the dis- tal end and is irregular but smooth. Longitudinal cracks are present on five, one due to carnivore crushing of the bone. Fresh breaks on five femora are irregular (proxi- mal n=2, distal n=2, shaft n=2), three caused by mechanical equipment. One smooth spiral break was Figure 6.8. Erosion of tibia shaft (cf. White 1992: Fig. observed, and two others have longitudinal or transverse 6.29). LA 37601, B1. breaks. Tibiae are missing from three burials. Two were Fibulae are missing from three of the burials. damaged by carnivores. One has the ends chewed off, Carnivore damage on two others consists of irregular and the other has cracks and furrows. Only one is com- crisp breaks from chewing on the ends of one and gnaw- plete with no erosion. Slight marginal erosion or deteri- ing and longitudinal cracks on the others. In three buri-

128 als the fibulae are virtually complete. Deterioration is nitely attributable to carnivores was noted. common (proximal n=1, distal n=2, proximal and distal Burial 13, LA 65030, consists of an articulated ver- n=10, ends and shaft n=2). Old breaks are irregular tebral column, ribs, pelvis, legs, and nearby skull frag- (proximal n=3, distal n=1 ). Fresh breaks on five fibulae ments. The cranial case fragments include the right pari- are also irregular (proximal n=3, distal n=1, midshaft etal, temporal, and sphenoid, the left parietal, and most n=2). One has a longitudinal crack. The burial with old of the occipital. Some disarticulation is at the sutures, utility line and fresh backhoe damage has an old trans- otherwise breaks are straight or irregular. Damage to the verse break, an old irregular break at a proximal end, vertebral column was largely from rib removal, and fresh spiral breaks on both, and a longitudinal crack on punctures occur on the spines and transverse processes. one (Fig. 6.9). Virtually all of the processes are broken or chewed off, yet there is little damage to the bodies. Only two tooth punctures were noted on the vertebrae. A fragment of the medial border is all that remains of the scapulae. The clavicles and sternum are missing. Sixteen proximal ends, two shafts, and a number of small rib fragments are present. The ribs have a single tooth puncture and irregular, diagonal, and V-shaped breaks. Chipping or impact spalls were noted on the interiors of three ribs and peeling on seven (see Fig. 6.7). Punctures, crenulat- ed edges, and cracking occur on the ilium (Fig. 6.10). Five other burials consist of scattered and disturbed remains. These include 37595 B2, 37599 B0.1, 37600 Figure 6.9. Old and fresh spiral breaks on the same B0.1, and parts of 65030 B11 and 65030 B12. Burial 2, fibula. LA 37605, FS 201-1. LA 37595, consists of the disturbed and scattered remains of a 15 year old redeposited by washing in the One or both patellae are missing from nine burials. depression in the upper fill of a pit structure. The They are complete in five, have only marginal erosion in mandible, the left scapula, clavicle, and humerus, sever- seven, surface erosion in one, and marginal and surface al ribs, the right femur, and both tibiae and fibulae were erosion in one. Two are deteriorated, and irregular recovered. The mandible has the corners and condyles breaks are found on three. chewed off, with a single puncture on the interior sur- Only one burial in the sample has all of the foot face (Fig. 6.11). The scapula consists of the glenoid area bones; between one and all elements are missing from with the coracoid chewed off. The clavicle is represent- the rest. Complete elements are found in two, and 16 ed by a shaft with an irregular transverse and peel-like have surface or marginal erosion or damage. One has break on one end. The ribs are all shafts with tooth punc- badly broken foot bones. tures, crushing breaks, and jagged breaks. The humerus is a shaft with the ends chewed off and an irregular nib- Carnivore Damage to Burials bled appearance. There are a few furrows at the proxi- mal end (Fig. 6.12). The lower leg bones are represent- A number of burials were disturbed by carnivores. ed by shafts with the ends chewed off. The femur has no Reporting and treatment of the disturbed burials in the furrows or punctures. The tibiae have longitudinal field varied. Minor damage was seldom identified by the cracks, and one has furrows at the distal end and mid- excavators, and sometimes considerable damage went shaft. Fibulae ends are jagged and chewed with dents unnoted, for example, Burial 11, LA 37601, and Burial and chipping back from the ends. 7, LA 65030. Burial 11 has parts of the right humerus Burial 37599 B0.1 consists of only a few elements. damaged, with the distal lateral condyle chewed off and Nine teeth and gnawed zygomatic arches represent the tooth furrows perpendicular to the shaft. The right cranium. Both clavicles have the ends gnawed, and one radius and ulna are missing, as are parts of both hands, has a tooth puncture. Ribs are represented by 33 shaft the patellae, and some foot bones. Ends are missing and fragments, one with a tooth puncture. A possible tibia probably chewed off of two of the three metacarpals fragment is gnawed, as are the 14 metatarsal fragments present. The right ilium has dents that are probably car- (Fig. 6.13). nivore tooth punctures. Burial 7 is missing some com- Burial 37600 B0.1 came from a backhoe trench and plete ribs. Portions of the remaining left ribs have diag- may not represent the complete deposit of this individ- onal or transverse breaks that are well polished, possibly ual. Elements recovered are a right humerus, right from carnivore licking. Despite this, no damage defi- radius, right ulna, and both femurs. All are carnivore

129 Figure 6.10. Carnivore punctures on left ilium. LA 65030, B13.

Figure 6.11. Carnivore-damaged ascending ramus. LA 37595, B2.

130 Figure 6.12. Carnivore-damaged long bones. LA 37595, B2.

Figure 6.13. Carnivore damage on remains of a burial. LA 37599, B0.1.

131 gnawed. patterns attributed by White (1992:224) to the human Burials 11 and 12, LA 65030, were concentrations activity of removing ribs in slabs, presumably for roast- of elements in the lower fill of a pit structure. These con- ing and consumption. centrations represent more than one individual, and Patterns attributed to human activity in other stud- most were treated as disarticulated elements during ies were in this study found to be the product of modern excavation. The elements collected as Burial 12 include or natural taphonomic processes. For example, peeling a left clavicle with the ends chewed off, both innomi- and smooth spiral and longitudinal breaks were pro- nates, with punctures, and the left femur, fibula, and duced by a backhoe, spiral breaks were produced by a talus. utility line, and crushing and warping of human bone In summary, there is ample evidence that carnivores was caused by mechanical equipment. Finally, carnivore are responsible for some of the disturbance and disartic- damage is only sometimes distinguishable from other ulation of burials found at the La Plata sites. It is also kinds of damage; at other times, it produces patterns of clear that not all of the carnivore-disturbed elements dispersal, breakage, and changes in appearance that have marks that clearly identify the damage as carni- could be mistaken for other causes. vore. Punctures and furrows are relatively rare and may In summary, documentation of the full range of reflect the amount of time a carnivore had to work on variability demonstrates that any number of agents can the bone (e.g., Kent 1981:370). Fragmentation and produce alteration in human remains that resemble irregular breakage lacking these diagnostic marks are changes attributable to perimortem modification by indistinguishable from damage commonly attributed to humans. This study highlights the need for such baseline perimortem human alteration. data, particularly in project areas that contain both artic- ulated burials and disarticulated assemblages. The fol- Patterns of Breakage in the La Plata Burial Population lowing data analysis and interpretation of the disarticu- lated remains from the La Plata project area was greatly Understanding the pattern of breakage, carnivore informed by our understanding of the normal range of damage, and overall morphological changes to human variability in preservation and perimortem and post- remains that have not been altered by perimortem mortem alterations in human bone. human activities can aid in discerning how primary interments become disarticulated through natural tapho- SITE-BY-SITE INFORMATION ON THE DISARTICULATED nomic processes, as well as by modern equipment and HUMAN REMAINS other forces. Yet, at least in the precontact context, few studies have been undertaken. Critical both as baseline In this section, the disarticulated assemblage from data for the interpretation of the disarticulated remains each site is described. Factors that may account for the and for understanding the full range of variability in presence of scattered human bone are considered. Many preservation of human remains, this study revealed sev- of these sites were occupied for long periods of time, eral interesting findings. Although burials in a good resulting in ample opportunity for rodents, carnivores, state of preservation have fewer cracked, broken, and and precontact human building activities to rearrange missing bones, a significant proportion of the burials are deposits. In addition, because these sites are along a missing elements, and some do show spalling, cracking, highway, underground utility lines, drainage ditches, and irregular breakage. It is crucial to document the pat- guard rails, fenceposts, and traffic signs are common tern of missing elements for sites where there are both within the site areas and have the potential to account burials and disarticulated remains, because it is highly for a good deal of disturbance and mixing of deposits. probable that some of the disarticulated elements were once part of a burial. LA 1897 Burials disturbed by carnivores or heavy equipment show the full range of breaks (smooth, transverse, spi- Excavation at LA 1897 (or Morris Site 39) was con- ral), spalling and flaking, “cuts,” splits, abrasions, and fined to a mixed trash deposit dating between peeling. For example, at La Plata, a backhoe produced Basketmaker III and Pueblo III. Two human bones were not only a green fracture but also peeling on cranial and recovered. The elements include an upper second pre- postcranial fragments (normally considered breaks molar, the root development indicating a 10- to 14-year- indicative of fresh bone). Midshaft erosion in several of old child, and over half a tarsal (navicular) from an the burials due to natural causes closely resembled a adult. Tarsals are frequently missing from intact burials. condition attributed to “roasting” (White 1992:162- Half of the burials in the breakage study were missing 163). The pattern of rib breakage in burials from La one or more tarsals. This and the tooth could easily rep- Plata due to natural causes was identical to breakage resent rodent or other natural activity at the site.

132 LA 37591 bones bundled within large portions of crania from two individuals (Fig. 6.14). In another area, a definite clus- Only two isolated human infant bones were recov- ter of bones further indicates intentional placement of ered during the excavation of a trash-filled pit structure bone. The stratigraphic unit containing this bone is the and four extramural cists. These are a complete parietal last cultural deposit in the midden and in the pit struc- and most of a rib from an individual about one year old. ture fill, and it may be the final cultural deposit at the Small bones such as these could have easily been trans- site. ported by rodents or other natural disturbance.

LA 37592

Excavation at LA 37592 included three cobble sur- face rooms and underlying activity surfaces, a pit struc- ture with a major midden in the fill, several extramural features, and seven human burials dating after A.D. 1050. Repeated use of the site area and the density of features could account for some scattering of human bones. Rodent activity was definitely a factor at this site. For example, several elements from an infant burial were found outside the burial pit. LA 37592 has the second largest assemblage of dis- articulated human bone (437 elements), most of which (94.3 percent) was found in a trash deposit high in the fill of the pit structure. The remainder were found in extramural features (4.8 percent) and the roomblocks (0.9 percent). A relatively large proportion (48, or 11.0 percent) are small fragments that may or may not be human.6 A small amount of carnivore gnawing was observed (1.4 percent). Most challenging to account for is the amount of burned (9.1 percent) and altered bone (20.4 percent). The bulk of the assemblage is from Pueblo III (A.D. 1125 to 1300) deposits (90.4 percent), with a few from Pueblo II (A.D. 1000-1125) deposits (4.6 percent), and the rest undated (5.0 percent). When considered as a sin- Figure 6.14. Placed long bone and cranial elements in gle sample (Table 6.5), between 8 and 12 individuals are Layer 1 of Pit Structure 1, LA 37592. represented by the disarticulated human elements, rang- ing in developmental age from infants to adults. Adult Bone that demonstrates alteration (Table 6.6) elements represent over half of the sample (58.6 per- includes alteration types that can occur naturally (longi- cent). Adults (using maxillary and mandibular dentition) tudinal and spiral breaks), but the majority of the alter- include a male between 30 and 35 years of age, a male ation at this site is more likely the result of human peri- between 40 and 45 years, and a female over 40 years of mortem modifications. Alteration is found on a variety age. Unidentifiable fragments make up a considerable of elements, but the cranium and long bones predomi- portion of the assemblage (32.3 percent). Few postcra- nate (Figs. 6.15-6.18). It is not unusual for more than nial elements are complete (6.3 percent), and most (80.0 one kind of alteration to occur on a single element. percent) are represented by less than half of the element. Alteration occurs on elements from several individ- The burials recovered from this site ranged in preserva- uals (Table 6.7). The youngest was less than 2 years old, tion from poor to fair, and thus the amount of breakage one to two others were 5 to 7 years, one or two were 9 in the disarticulated assemblage could reflect preserva- to 10 years, at least one was 15 to 20 years, and at least tion to some degree. one and probably two mature females and two males are Potential human alteration appears on 89 elements, represented. Elements from the youngest groups are all but one from a dense trash midden layer in the upper mostly cranial. The adults have some cranial alteration, fill of Pit Structure 1. In one instance (Grid 161N 144E, but long bone alteration predominates. The large counts Level 4), the human bones were arranged with long for femora and tibiae are partially attributable to a few

133 Figure 6.15. Cranial elements. LA 37592, FS 229.

Figure 6.16. Altered bone: humerus, radius, ulna, and miscellaneous long bone fragments. LA 37592, FS 315.

134 Figure 6.17. Altered bone: femora, patella, hand, and foot elements. LA 37592, FS 315.

Figure 6.18. Altered bone: femur, rib, ulna, tibia, and long bones. LA 37592, FS 326.

135 bones that are broken into a number of pieces. Bones part of a face and an innominate. The face (FS 70-1) is were conjoined whenever possible, but each piece of the single piece of altered bone that was not recovered bone was counted separately. from the midden. It is from a female over 40 years of Alteration on the youngest individual (FS 216-6) is age, based on dental wear, and includes the right orbit a series of four parallel cuts on an occipital fragment and part of the maxilla. This isolated element was adja- (Fig. 6.19). The right lateral edge is broken, and the cuts cent to an unexcavated roomblock at the north edge of extend from the break to about the center of the piece the site and comes from an earlier occupation of the site (5.6 mm). The inferior edge has both fresh and old than the material in the midden. At the margin of the breaks. A small corner along the old break is burned. orbit are a number of shallow rounded marks (Fig. 6.26) The burning occurred after the piece was broken and referred to as abrasions in the tables. Some of the marks possibly after the bone had dried. The cuts are almost resemble shallow cuts; others occur in clusters sugges- diagonal below the nuchal crest. White (1992: Figs. 7.19 tive of an impact abrasion. However, they also resemble and 7.20) found similar cuts on adults in the Mancos the marks that a single toothed rodent would make. The assemblage. face is badly exfoliated and root etched. Broken edges A partial mandible (FS 241-1; Fig. 6.20) from a are stepped irregular and rounded. The innominate (FS child about 5 years old has an impact spall on the right 326-1) has a small peel along a break and a crenulated side and a small peel on the inferior margin of the left edge. side. The inferior and posterior edge is missing from the Altered adult male elements are long bone frag- left side. In addition, the right side is lightly scorched, ments (humerus n=3, radius n=1, ulna n=1, femur and a tooth, also scorched, from this mandible (FS 235- n=11)7 and a calcaneus. A right distal humerus (FS 327- 1) was recovered in an adjacent area. 7) has three elongated cuts (7.2 mm, 18.9 mm, and 21.2 A frontal fragment (FS 327-6) from a child the size mm) parallel along the shaft on its posterior surface just of burials aged at 6 to 7 years has small spalls indicating above the distal end, and a cluster of diagonal cuts (7.5 at least one impact break, striae suggestive of an impact mm) below and lateral to the elongated cuts (Fig. 6.27). in the area of the sagittal suture, and possible bite marks The lateral condyle is damaged and mostly missing. The on the superior edge (Fig. 6.21). The bites are small anterior portion has five small transverse cuts (1.4 mm dents in both the endocranial and ectocranial surfaces to 4.1 mm) just above the condyle. White (1992:241, and could represent human or animal activity. Fig. 9.5) found cuts, similar to those on the anterior Two halves of a mandible from a 9-year-old child aspect of humeri in the Mancos collection, that he inter- were recovered from two separate layers in different prets as obvious disarticulation marks. A right proximal quadrants of the pit structure (FS 227-14 and FS 327-9). humerus fragment (FS 326-9) has a spiral break and An irregular break separates the two pieces, and both crenulated edge. The third humerus (FS 326-3) has a have peels on the interior (Fig. 6.22). spiral break. The radius (FS 327-1) is from the same A frontal fragment (FS 229-15) from above the individual as one of the humeri (FS 327-7). Also repre- orbits to the coronal suture, consistent in size and thick- sented is an ulna (FS 326-49) with a more ambiguous ness with an 8- to 10-year-old child, has one long (29 break. Both the radius and ulna have surface damage on mm) and a series of shorter cuts (8 mm) in the location their proximal anterior surfaces and are broken at differ- of the sagittal suture (Figs. 6.23 and 6.24). White (1992: ent locations along the shaft. The radius fracture appears Fig. 7.6) shows nearly identical cut marks on an adult in to result from an impact. Seven of the eleven femur the Mancos collection. fragments are burned, mostly lightly or scorched, but A tibia shaft fragment from a child about the size of one has a graded light to medium intensity burn. In con- a 9 year old has a longitudinal break. Elements from joining, six of these are from the same right femur, and children in the 5 to 15 year age group, judged by size, two others are from the same left femur. Alteration on a surface texture, or unfused epiphyseal surfaces, are single piece of a right femur (FS 326-18) includes a spi- mostly small pieces of long bones (3 humeri, 3 ulnae, 1 ral break, a longitudinal break, an impact fracture, and tibia, 1 unidentified long bone) but also include an orbit crushing. The six pieces from another right femur have and a rib. The long bones have a spiral break, longitudi- spiral breaks and impacts. The left femur (FS 315-2 and nal breaks (n=3), impact breaks (n=3), and peels (n=2 FS 315-3) has several impacts and a crenulated proxi- rib and ulna; Fig. 6.25). The orbit fragment (FS 243-1) mal edge (Fig. 6.28), and the cancellous bone is missing has at least one impact break on the medial edge, and the from the central portion of the shaft. The calcaneus (FS lateral edge is crushed. None of these is burned. 326-6) has an impact fracture and a crenulated edge. Elements from the 15 to 20 year old group include Other adult elements include small cranial frag- a femur and at least two tibiae. All have spiral breaks, ments with impact fractures (n=6; Figs. 6.29, 6.30). and none is burned. The two adult female elements are One, probably a parietal fragment (FS 216-13), also has

136 Figure 6.19. Occipital with cut marks from a two-year-old child. LA 37592, FS 216-6.

Figure 6.20. Damage to inferior border of mandible. LA 37592, FS 241-1.

137 Figure 6.21. Frontal with abrasions and possible bite marks. LA 37592, FS 327-6.

Figure 6.22. Mandible with peel. LA 37592, FS 227-4 and FS 327-9.

138 Figure 6.23. Detail of cuts, frontal inferior broken edge. LA 37592, FS 229-15.

Figure 6.24. Frontal cuts near sagittal suture. LA 37592, FS 229-15.

139 Figure 6.25. Peel on an immature proximal ulna. LA 37592, FS 326-13.

Figure 6.26. Right orbit with many small linear marks. LA 37592, FS 70-1.

140 Figure 6.27. Left humerus with cut marks, distal and posterior. LA 37592, FS 327-7.

Figure 6.28. Crushed proximal femur. LA 37592, FS 315-2 and 315-3.

141 Figure 6.29. Ectocranial release. LA 37592, FS 216.

Figure 6.30. Parietal fragments with external vault release. LA 37592, FS 563-48 and FS 563-49.

142 two small cuts. Another is also burned. A parietal frag- 8 and 11 individuals (2 infants, 2-3 juveniles, 1 teenag- ment (FS 216-11) has an impact and a parietal, and an er, 1 adult female, 2 adult males, and up to 2 other occipital fragment (FS 216-14) has two impact notches adults). Burning and human alteration occur on ele- and an abrasion, probably from an impact (Fig. 6.31). ments from all age and sex categories, suggesting that An orbit (FS 307-5) has an impact break. all of the individuals had bone elements that were cul- Among the adult postcranial remains, a clavicle (FS turally modified at the time of death or sometime after- 315-1) has a cluster of small cuts (2.1 mm) on the supe- wards. A more detailed discussion of this assemblage rior aspect (Fig. 6.32). Two humeri have single follows in a later section of this report. instances of impact and spiral breaks. A third (FS 301- 2) has an irregular break at one end and is battered or LA 37593 chewed at the distal end. This configuration could have been caused by a carnivore or could result from human Three rooms, a pit structure, several extramural fea- actions. One radius (FS 315-11) has two impacts and a tures, and four human burials were excavated at this peel; a second (FS 216-22) has a longitudinal break. Pueblo II–early Pueblo III site, about 120 m north of LA Two metacarpals have a peel and an impact break, and 37592. Large quantities of disarticulated human bone both are burned. One right femur fragment from near the were found in the upper fill of the pit structure dating to proximal end (FS 315-15) has three small cuts (2.1, 6.9, Pueblo II (A.D. 1000-1125). A water line passing and 10.7 mm) on the posterior neck (Fig. 6.33), a spiral through the fill of this structure scattered human break, and an impact notch. Three other femur frag- remains across the site surface. ments have spiral breaks. A patella (FS 315-17) has a The disarticulated human bones (n=2203) represent crenulated edge and is burned. Five unsided and one at least 17 individuals (Table 6.9). These range in age right tibia shaft fragments have spiral breaks. Two are from infants up to two years old to older adults. Adults also burned. One right tibia fragment (FS 315-4) has a who could be aged and sexed (aged by maxillary and small diagonal mark, possibly a cut, on the posterior mandibular dental attrition and sexed by size and mor- shaft, an impact fracture, and a crenulated proximal end phology) include a female and a male between 15 and (Fig. 6.34). Furthermore, a cylinder of cancellous bone 20 years, a male between 25 and 29, a male between 35 is missing from the proximal end of the shaft. Another and 40, and two females over 40 years of age. Other right tibia shaft fragment (FS 326-47) has spiral and than the adults, children between 6 and 10 years of age impact breaks. Three pieces of a burned left tibia all are the most numerous (29 percent). This age group is have spiral breaks, and one (FS 315-8) has a possible generally healthy and not well represented in most bur- chop transverse to the shaft just above the distal end. ial populations. Only 10.4 percent of the La Plata burial Two other left tibia fragments have longitudinal and population falls within the 6 to 10 year range. Within the impact breaks. Finally, a fibula and talus both have disarticulated assemblage, periostitis was noted on a impact breaks. tibia from an individual between 6 and 10 years of age, Burning, with and without other alteration, occurs and a 13 to 15 year old had well-healed periostitis on a in 40 elements, largely cranial parts (40.0 percent) and tibia. Periosteal reactions were present in three of the lower limb bones (37.5 percent). All but two of the seven individuals in this age range in the burial popula- burned bones are from the trash deposit containing the tion (see Chapter 4). This may suggest that 6 to 10 year altered bone. Table 6.8 provides a breakdown of the olds were particularly susceptible to some form of infec- burning by degree of burn, element, and age of the indi- tion. vidual. Interestingly, elements highly susceptible to loss Other elements from this site may have been altered and movement within a site due to normal taphonomic but were not counted as such. Ribs, metapodials, pha- processes are relatively common in this assemblage. For langes, teeth, and small cranial fragments have straight example, 12 individuals are represented by metacarpals, and irregular breaks or cracks similar to those found in 10 by metatarsals, and at least 12 by the 234 phalanges complete burials and in the carnivore-damaged burials recovered. (Fig. 6.35). Among these are a child’s clavicle (FS 327- A small amount of carnivore damage was noted 8) with small cuts or rodent gnawing (Fig. 6.36) and a (2.5 percent), which indicates an additional source of child’s cervical vertebra with possible bite marks (FS disturbance at the site. Complete postcranial elements 326-45; Fig. 6.37). Thus, marks recorded as human are relatively common (31 percent), and a slight major- alterations are necessarily a conservative estimate. ity of cases are represented by less than half of the ele- In summary, using a conservative estimate of the ment (56.8 percent). Unidentified elements account for minimum number of individuals represented in the dis- only 14.4 percent of the assemblage. Partial burning was articulated remains from LA 37592, there were between recorded for three small pieces of bone that may or may

143 Figure 6.31. Right parietal and occipital with impact notch. LA 37592, FS 216-14.

Figure 6.32. Cut marks on a clavicle. LA 37592, FS 315-1.

144 Figure 6.33. Cut marks on femur neck. LA 37592, FS 315-15.

Figure 6.34. Tibia with crenelated edge. LA 37592, FS 315-4.

145 Figure 6.35. Unusual breakage/alteration patterns on clavicle, humerus, and tibia. LA 37592, FS 326.

Figure 6.36. Child's clavicle with cuts or rodent gnawing. LA 37592, FS 326-45.

146 not be human. The fragments are from the end of a long numerous impact fractures. Of the 31 recorded cranial bone, and the cancellous structure resembles that of a elements, 28 are small fragments, mostly of parietal and medium-sized artiodactyl (Fig. 6.38). occipital bones, often with bevels that expand from the Much of the alteration observed is ambiguous. endocranial to the ectocranial surface. Two zygomatic Breaks that are attributed to cobbles or the water line arches have diagonal breaks where the posterior portion trencher, based on photographs of the deposit, were not joins the temporal. Three cranial elements have marks considered altered (Figs. 6.39-6.41). The element, alter- best described as abrasions. A left parietal (FS 563-48) ation type, and age of the individual are given in Tables has a 6 mm long mark with a U-shaped profile and a 6.10 and 6.11. step on one edge, and a fine parallel line perpendicular All of the alterations in children (individuals less to the sagittal suture. Two impact breaks are within a than 15 years of age) are spiral breaks (n=5 incidences). few centimeters. The break bevels expand from the These occur on long bones (humerus n=1, femur n=2, endocranial to the ectocranial surface. A second abra- tibia n=2) that tend to break in this manner. Alteration of sion is on a right parietal fragment (FS 563-39). Four elements from two 16- to 20-year-old females (n=6 inci- scratches, the longest 14 mm, again are perpendicular to dences) are impact breaks of the parietal (n=3) and orbit the sagittal suture. An adjoining piece of the left parietal area (n=2) in one and an impact break in the orbital from the same cranium (FS 563-38) has fine random region and a transverse break of a mandibular body in at striae, concentric and pressure cracks, and at least one least one other. In the first female, two adjoining pieces impact spall. The third is four small scratches on a of the left parietal (FS 563-70) have a circular hole with frontal just above the orbit. Cracks radiate from a break a concentric crack along one edge (Fig. 6.42). The bevel just above the orbit and almost reach the striae. expands from the endocranial to the ectocranial surface, Postcranial alteration of adult elements is mainly on and there is a radiating crack on the interior. The two long bones. These include impact breaks of the humerus orbital pieces (FS 564-1 and FS 564-4) articulate, with (n=2), femur (n=1; Fig. 6.46), and tibia (n=1); spiral an irregular piece missing (Fig. 6.43). Again, the bevel breaks of the humerus (n=2), radius (n=1), femur (n=7), expands from the endocranial to the ectocranial surface, tibia (n=2), and fibula (n=1); and horizontal breaks of suggesting that the direction of force was from the inte- the radius (n=1), tibia (n=2), and fibula (n=2). One rior. Photos of the grid demonstrate that this element in humerus with an impact break also has a number of situ is face down on a cobble. The right parietal (FS 563- small abrasions on the posterior and medial edge of the 69) is essentially complete except for a half circle of shaft above and perpendicular to the distal end. Four bone missing from along the suture line. Again the bevel ribs have smooth diagonal breaks, a metacarpal has a expands from the endocranial to the ectocranial surface. gash near the distal end (Fig. 6.47), and a calcaneus is The adjoining piece of the left parietal (FS 563-70) has missing much of the inferior surface from some sort of a small spall missing along the suture. Other pieces of impact, possibly mechanical equipment. this same cranium are unaltered. Except for breaks of The relatively low frequencies and types of alter- the left parietal and frontal, it is disarticulated along ation are consistent with the excavators’ interpretation suture lines (frontal and parietals, parietals, parietals and of the deposit as resulting from precontact human dis- temporals), a largely natural postmortem process. turbance. The burials may have been encountered by Because the bevels are opposite what Frayer (1993:8) early inhabitants while cleaning out an abandoned pit and Milner et al. (1991:583) consider the result of lethal structure for reuse. Rather than excavating for a new blows, because the cranial bones quite likely were dis- structure, they may have removed and redeposited the articulated or separated by natural processes, and contents of an existing structure in the depression left by because the adjoining levels of the grid from which an abandoned pit structure. This hypothesis, as opposed these were recovered (Grid 35N 66E, Levels 7 and 8) to one stating that the assemblage resulted from human are full of cobbles (Figs. 6.44 and 6.45), these fractures alteration at the time of death, suggests that the creation probably occurred when the bones and cobbles were of the disarticulated and broken remains was largely tossed into the pit structure. The other elements from unintentional or secondary to human activity involved 16- to 20-year-old individuals are a mandible with a in construction activities. The photos and notes indicate transverse break and peel on the interior body just below that some of the bodies were partially intact when the teeth, and a transverse break of a parietal. moved, but others were not.8 Intentional removal of The majority of alteration is in adult elements. An individual elements and dumping of these along with older female mandible has a diagonal break, and an cobbles could account for the breakage and abrasions. older individual has a transverse break of the mandibu- Bone would have been relatively fresh, so that digging lar body. The adult male element in Table 6.11 is a femur implements and cobbles tossed or intentionally thrown with a spiral fracture. Other adult cranial elements have at the remains in the pit could have caused the impact

147 Figure 6.37. Bite marks in cervical vertebrae. LA 37592, FS 326-13.

Figure 6.38. Burned fragments of bone. LA 37593, FS 551-30.

148 Figure 6.39. Child cranium in situ. LA 37593, FS 528.

Figure 6.40. Cranial break, possibly caused by rock. LA 37593, FS 528-33.

149 Figure 6.41. Child cranium in situ. LA 37593, FS 520.

Figure 6.42. Left parietal with breaks. LA 37593, FS 563-70.

150 Figure 6.43. Breaks above the left orbit. LA 37593, FS 564.

Figure 6.44. Bone layer with numerous cobbles. LA 37593.

151 Figure 6.45. Bone layer with cobbles. LA 37593.

Figure 6.46. Problematic break. LA 37593, FS 563-54.

152 37593 strongly suggest that movement of a number of burials from one place to another during precontact con- struction activities, low-level carnivore activity, rodents, and modern construction activities can account for the patterning evident in the collection from this site. That at least 17 individuals are represented by bones of the hands and feet suggests that the reinterment of many of these individuals occurred while limbs were still some- what articulated. The lack of cut marks or longitudinal- ly split bones rules out intentional dismemberment of the individuals. Because of proximity to cobbles, the skeletal elements were most likely removed in concert Figure 6.47. Gash in a metacarpal. LA 37593, FS 852- with construction debris during the re-excavation of an 4. abandoned pit structure or roomblock. breaks and abrasions.9 Transverse and spiral breaks could have also occurred at that time. Fill in this layer LA 37594 consisted of thin alluvial deposits. The nature of the fill and location adjoining an arroyo may have caused some LA 37594 is immediately north of LA 37593. movement and disturbance of human bone. The abra- Excavated features include portions of two small cobble sions could result from movement of the bones or cob- roomblocks, two pit structures, extramural features, and bles within this layer. one poorly preserved human burial. Most of the materi- Table 6.12 lists the articulations and elements from al dates to Pueblo II or Pueblo III; however, one of the the same individuals. Unfortunately, individually col- pit structures is early Basketmaker III. The site was lected articulations were consolidated with other ele- heavily disturbed by the construction of two water lines ments from that excavation unit during the initial analy- and asphalt mixing. sis, and some contextual information has been lost. Given the amount of disturbance, the recovery of Photos, notes, and field bags were checked to confirm as only two isolated pieces of human bone is unusual. The many of these as possible. Those that could not be con- elements, two terminal hand phalanges, are from an firmed but appear to be from the same individual are adult in an extramural context. One is complete, and one noted as such with an asterisk. more than 75 percent complete. Neither is burned, In some instances, age groups tend to cluster with- gnawed, or altered. Since terminal hand phalanges are in a grid and among levels within a grid. These, too, sug- often missing from burials (80.9 percent of the sample gest that parts of individuals were placed in the same in the breakage study had missing hand phalanges), their general vicinity. Considering that the water line trench presence suggests rodent or other natural disturbance. bisected the structure, removing a meter-wide swath between 33N and 39N, and that some information was LA 37595 lost during initial processing, the clustering recorded represents only a part of the original articulations. Although heavily affected by water and telephone There is no relationship between the clustering of line construction, asphalt mixing, and construction of articulations and parts from the same individual, the the original highway, one Basketmaker III and three alteration, and carnivore damage. Table 6.13 provides Pueblo II pit structures, all categories of artifacts, and this information by field specimen number (FS). Some two human burials were discovered at LA 37595. The grids with a relatively large amount of carnivore damage majority of datable materials from the site are Pueblo II. also have fair amounts of clustering. Altered bone Nine isolated pieces of human bone, all from pit struc- occurs in grids with no other observations (n=4), just tures, indicate two to three individuals (Table 6.14). A carnivore damage (n=2), just clustering (n=2), or both 15 to 20 year old is represented by a clavicle, three hand carnivore damage and clustering (n=4). phalanges, and a femur; a small adult, probably a Taken as a whole, the assemblage from LA 37593 female, by a radius; and an adult of unknown sex by a appears to result from a set of circumstances involving rib and an upper central incisor. the rearrangement of human remains across the site. Half of the postcranial elements are complete. The There is little evidence to support a hypothesis of inten- remaining postcranial parts consist of less than half the tional perimortem human alteration of the individuals elements (37.5 percent). Damage to the radius may be represented by fragments and disturbed skeletal ele- from a carnivore but is ambiguous. Burial 2 from this ments. Data on site formation processes affecting LA site was badly damaged by carnivores (Table 6.2). The

153 15- to 20-year-old disarticulated elements could be from water lines and two telephone cables cut through the Burial 2. No burning or potential human alteration was site, and the entire site area was used as cattle pen for an noted. Given the disturbance at this site, the site forma- extended period. tion processes discussed could account for the presence The 39 human bones recovered are largely from of this small sample of human bone. undated room and pit structure deposits. A minority (11 or 28.2 percent) are from Pueblo II deposits. These rep- LA 37598 resent a minimum of three and probably four individu- als (Table 6.16). These include a cranial fragment from A kilometer north of LA 37595, this site dates an infant less than six months old; cranial fragments, slightly later, post A.D. 1100. Excavation of five rooms teeth, and ribs from at least one three- to six-year-old from two roomblocks, a pit structure, extramural fea- child; a small fibula from an adult female; cranial frag- tures, and one poorly preserved adult human burial pro- ments from an adult male; and a scattering of postcra- duced 128 pieces of disarticulated human bone from nial adult elements. One element has carnivore bite room, pit structure, and extramural contexts. Erosion marks. A group of human bones from LA 37599 (B0.1), and utility line installation have caused disturbance of treated as a burial, consists of a collection of gnawed the site area. The human elements are from Pueblo II and punctured elements that include cranial parts, clav- (n=53, 41.4 percent), Pueblo III (n=73 or 57.0 percent), icles, ribs, a tibia fragment, and metatarsals. No burning and mixed (n=2, 1.6 percent) deposits. or alteration was noted. Breakage is moderate; 18.7 per- At least four individuals are represented by disar- cent of the postcranial bones are complete, and 68.7 per- ticulated human bone (Table 6.15). These include cra- cent are represented by less than half of the element. nial fragments from a child around two years of age and Nothing in this assemblage suggests unusual depo- scattered elements from two children four to five years sition, and all elements can be accounted for through the of age. A few adult elements are also present. The adult site formation processes noted. The water line trench elements are those that are easily lost and moved in definitely impacted one burial, another burial was miss- archaeological sites: a tooth, and hand and foot bones. ing an arm and hand, and a third was missing the hands The tooth, an upper second molar, has substantial wear, and one foot. Rodent disturbance was common, and car- indicating an individual over 40 years of age. The hand nivores did some damage. These factors can account for bones are small and twisted suggesting a female, possi- the small assemblage of disarticulated human bone from bly of advanced age. When chronology is considered, this site. the infant and 10 of the adult elements are from Pueblo II deposits. Deposits identified as Pueblo III contained LA 37600 those from the three- to five-year-old subadults and a cranial fragment from an adult. The presence of adult Seven pit structures, 37 extramural features, and 6 elements in both Pueblo II and Pueblo III contexts burials were investigated at LA 37600, which is separat- increases the likely minimum count to five individuals. ed from LA 37599 by the highway. The area within the No carnivore damage was observed in the collec- right-of-way dates to Pueblo II, with numerous Pueblo tion. Few (5.1 percent) postcranial elements are com- III features superimposed. A borrow ditch for the exist- plete, and most (81.0 percent) represent less than half of ing highway and previous road construction have the element. Poor preservation and the large proportion caused considerable surface modification at this site. of easily fragmented immature elements are responsible A relatively small sample of disarticulated human for much of the breakage. Erosion, weathering, and bones was recovered from LA 37600 (n=93), mostly staining were noted. The single burned bone is an from extramural contexts. Few are from dated deposits. unidentified fragment that may or may not be human. Two (2.2 percent) are from Pueblo II deposits, and two No potential human alteration was noted. are from Pueblo III deposits. The rest are from mixed or undated deposits. These represent two or three individ- LA 37599 uals: a child by a fragment of a humerus, a probable adult male by a large fibula, tarsal, and metatarsal, and Few disarticulated human bones were found at this one or more additional adults by a scattering of cranial site considering the number of features and the amount and postcranial elements (Table 6.17). Several foot ele- of excavation. Six cobble masonry rooms, eight pit ments are quite arthritic, suggesting an individual over structures, numerous extramural features, and nine buri- 40 years of age. als were at least partially excavated. Features have evi- No burned or altered bone was found in this assem- dence of remodeling and, except for one intrusive burial blage. One piece was carnivore gnawed, and parts found and a midden area, date to the middle of Pueblo II. Two in a backhoe trench and treated as a burial (B0.1) were

154 all carnivore gnawed. Missing hands, knees, and a foot element are slightly less common (35.0 percent). from Burial 2 were attributed to rodents by the excava- Rodent and the utility line disturbance were noted tor, and three other burials had rodent disturbance in the in the burials from this site. One burial was missing a general area. Two burials were impacted by a backhoe hand and a leg, with no obvious cause of disturbance. and severely weathered, and two others had large Another had a lower arm and hand removed by a carni- amounts of broken bone. The disarticulated human vore. A third, found between two water line trenches, bones were also badly broken. Only 10.1 percent of the has numerous breaks, probably from the trenching postcranial elements are complete, and 84.3 percent rep- (Figs. 6.49 and 6.50). Two other burials were represent- resent less than half of the element. The above factors ed only by crania. This assemblage seems to result from all suggest that preservation was relatively poor, and natural and mechanical disturbance. any disturbance was created by a variety of known processes. LA 37603

LA 37601 Two pit structures and extramural features in the right-of-way were fully excavated at this site, and three Excavations at LA 37601 included six masonry other structures, mostly out of the right-of-way, were rooms, four pit structures, a variety of extramural fea- sampled. One of the pit structures dates to Late Pueblo tures, a shallow midden, and 11 human burials dating III, and the others to Early Pueblo II. The site is on the between A.D. 1000 and 1200. Recent disturbance of the north bank of Barker Arroyo, beneath Morris 39, and site area consists of preparation for an adjacent pond, a extensive disturbance from major erosion, blading, and highway drainage ditch, easement fences, two telephone a guard rail was present. One of the guard rail postholes and two water lines, a drainage ditch perpendicular to removed the upper torso and cranium of Burial 2. The the highway, a ranch access road, and light traffic. other burial was missing ribs and part of an arm. Given the disturbance and the number of burials, A fairly large sample of disarticulated human ele- the recovery of 50 isolated human elements is not sur- ments (Table 6.19) was recovered from this site (n=146, prising. When broken down by time period, a small 18 questionably human). Half (50.7 percent) are from number (6.0) percent are from Early Pueblo III deposits, deposits in three pit structures dating to Early Pueblo II. 40.0 percent are from Pueblo III deposits, and the rest The remainder are from extramural deposits too mixed (54.0 percent) are from deposits not assigned a date. to be assigned a date. Between five and eight individu- These represent from four to six individuals: a two-year- als are indicated when considered as a single sample. old child by two deciduous molars; long bone fragments These include cranial parts from an infant less than six consistent in size and texture with those of a three to five months old; a frontal and a rib from a three- to five-year- year old; phalanges from a child; a metacarpal, femur, old child; a rib, metacarpals, phalanges, and metatarsals tarsal, and metatarsal from an adult female; a femur and from a six- to ten-year-old child; scattered parts from a metatarsal from an adult male; and 34 pieces of bone child or children between five and fifteen years of age; from unspecified adults (Table 6.18). One well-worn a temporal, frontal, part of an orbit, and a metacarpal anterior tooth suggests that at least one older adult is from at least one adult female; a large phalanx, probably represented. indicating a male; and numerous adult parts represent- No carnivore damage or burning was found in the ing most of the body. disarticulated assemblage. However, at least one burial Most postcranial elements are broken (only 20.0 (B7) had gnawing on an innominate, a distal humerus, percent are complete), represented by less than half of and two metacarpals. The burial is missing the lower the element (72.4 percent). Surprisingly few are identi- arm, both hands, patellae, and some foot bones. fiable only as long bone, flat bone, or unknown frag- Potential human alteration consists of spiral fractures on ments (21 or 14.4 percent). Nine pieces (6.2 percent) two adjoining pieces of a femur (Fig. 6.48). Since spiral have tooth punctures or have been gnawed by carni- fractures can occur without human intervention and vores. Six of these pieces are small fragments of what indeed were found in a LA 37601 burial that was dam- may or may not be human bone. aged by a water line trench, these breaks are probably This site has the second largest proportion of attributable to site formation processes rather than peri- burned bone (6 or 4.1 percent) from the La Plata sites. mortem modification. Fill is shallow, and two water The elements (Fig. 6.51) are a hand phalanx, mandible lines pass through the structure where the burial was and occipital fragments, and two pieces that may or may recovered. The lines may be responsible for the break. not be human, one a cranial fragment. Burning is grad- Complete postcranial elements are relatively common ed, scorched brown to black or sooted. Teeth in the (52.5 percent). Those representing less than half of the mandible are broken. All appear to be from mature indi-

155 Figure 6.48. Left femur shaft. LA 37601, FS 403.

Figure 6.49. Breaks caused by waterline trenching. LA 37601, B5.

156 Figure 6.50. Fresh backhoe breaks on femur and humerus. LA 37601, B5.

Figure 6.51. Burned human bone. LA 37603, FS 169 and FS 178.

157 viduals. The assemblage also has a small number of vores.10 The proximal end is also damaged and looks potentially altered elements. These include spiral breaks gnawed. The long bone shaft fragment has a longitudi- on three adult humerus shafts, a smooth diagonal break nal break, and an adult fibula exhibits carnivore gnaw- and peel on one, and a peel on another adult rib. ing. The burned bone comes from deep within Pit All of the alteration from this site could result from Structure 3, Levels 5 and 13. Fill in this structure is carnivores. There is little to suggest that prehistoric cul- clean alluvial with very little cultural material. The fill tural processes were involved in producing this assem- has erosional piping, which could have forced the bone blage. downward. Whatever the mechanism, these few pieces of burned bone were naturally deposited in the structure LA 37606 from an unknown location. Extensive excavations in the area recovered no other burned bone. None of the poten- Eight surface rooms, part of a pit structure, and tially altered bone was from this structure. Altered bone seven extramural features dating to Pueblo II and was all from near the surface in an extramural area that Pueblo III were excavated at this site. Disturbance also had carnivore-altered bone. The forms of alteration includes heavy rodent activity, a ditch, a utility pole, and on these elements could have resulted from carnivore the highway. Much of the human bone (n=8) was found activity and seem to be unrelated to the presence of in a large storage cist dating to Pueblo III. Two individ- burned bone in the fill of Pit Structure 3. uals are suggested by the size of the elements, a male, and a smaller individual, possibly a female (Table 6.21). LA 37605 A hand phalanx, metatarsal, and foot phalanx are con- sistent in size with La Plata females, while a rib, Deposits at this site were displaced by modern humerus, and two of the hand phalanges are larger and highway construction and maintenance, livestock man- suggest a male. agement activities, two telephone lines, two water lines, The humerus is carnivore gnawed. Half the ele- four telephone or electric poles, a pumphouse, and ments are complete, and only one phalanx is less than pothunting by a previous landowner. Portions of six half complete. The majority of the elements are small rooms, four pit structures, exterior features, and three and could have been transported by natural processes. human burials were excavated. Periods of occupation include Basketmaker III or Early Pueblo I and Pueblo II. LA 60751 Only 17 isolated human bones were recovered from LA 37605 (Table 6.20). Of these, the sacral fragment is LA 60751 was cut by two water line trenches. A from a Basketmaker III deposit, the child's tooth and Basketmaker III pit structure and several hand-excavat- seven mandible and long bone fragments are from ed and backhoe trenches in areas with Pueblo II and Pueblo II deposits, and the rest are from deposits not Pueblo III material were excavated. Only two human assigned dates. When treated as a single sample, these bones were recovered, a partial parietal and an unidenti- represent at least four individuals. Elements include fiable cranial fragment, possibly from the same adult teeth and a sacral wedge from a child or children less individual. The cranial fragments were from the surface than two years of age; a premolar fragment from a child; and appear to have originated at nearby LA 37593. a slender fibula, possibly from a female; and adult Excavation and filling of the water line trenches has femur, mandible, and long bone fragments. transported cultural material from that site. No carnivore Most postcranial elements are less than half com- disturbance, burning, or potential human alteration were plete (75.0 percent), probably due to poor bone preser- noted. vation at the site. Two of the burials were in poor or poor to fair condition and rodent disturbed. The third is miss- LA 65029 ing most of the upper torso due to water line construc- tion, and the distal femur has been gnawed by carni- Extensive excavations at this Pueblo II and III site vores. encountered two surface rooms, the edges of two other Carnivore gnawing was observed on two or possi- roomblocks, trash deposits, a burned surface, two fire bly three of the disarticulated elements, the fibula, the pits, and an infant burial. Recent modification includes unidentifiable long bone shaft fragment, and the femur. highway construction and maintenance activities, two The fibula has an old spiral break at one end and a telephone lines, two water lines, a historic irrigation remarkably similar but fresh spiral break midshaft (Fig. ditch complex, and cultivation. Recovered were two 6.52). An adult femur has a break formed by removal of human bones, a deciduous canine from a three- to five- three U-shaped flakes of bone by humans or carni- year-old child, and a tooth fragment recovered from

158 Figure 6.52. Fresh spiral break on fibula, unusual damage on femur midshaft, probably by carnivore. LA 37605, FS 82. Pueblo II deposits. The small sample probably results 22-year-old male missing the cranium, hands, part of a from more or less natural processes in the site area. leg, cervical vertebrae, sacrum, scapulae, and a clavicle. The burial was badly disturbed by the backhoe, and LA 65030 many of the recovered elements are carnivore gnawed. Burial 13, an 11-year-old child, was badly damaged by Eight pit structures, two surface rooms, and 11 a carnivore and consisted of a spine, pelvis, legs, and extramural features were investigated at this site. All scattered cranium fragments that may or may not belong date after A.D. 1000. Seventeen burials were excavated to this individual. Most remaining elements are carni- from this site in addition to three clusters of bones that vore gnawed or punctured. Burial 14, a 1.5-year-old were disturbed by carnivores. LA 65030 escaped the child, was missing parts of both arms, vertebrae, ribs, utility line trenching that affected many of the La Plata the pelvis, and legs. Three other burials within this layer sites, but shoulder maintenance and irrigation ditch con- were essentially complete, although Burial 17 was badly struction have impacted the site. Precontact activities, deteriorated. carnivores, and rodent disturbance have caused some Taking the missing parts of burials into considera- scattering of human bones within this site. tion, the age distribution for the disarticulated includes Although it has the largest sample in many artifact an infant less than six months old; at least one other classes, LA 65030 has the third largest sample of disar- infant between one and two years of age; possibly a ticulated human bone, 400 elements, mainly from the three to five year old; at least three additional six to ten roof fall layer in Pit Structure 8 (75.0 percent). year olds, one with tuberculosis of the spine (Fig. 4.4); Carnivore bite marks and gnawing are relatively com- possibly, one individual between 11 and 15 years of age; mon (10.5 percent), the largest percent for sites with adult females aged 15 to 20, 25 to 30, and 35 to 40; an fairly good sample sizes. Burned bone is present (4.0 adult male 30 to 40 years of age; and possibly one male percent) in amounts similar to LA 37603 (4.1 percent), aged 20 to 30. The latter is represented by a mandible but not at the same level as at LA 37592 (9.1 percent). found at about the same level and within 1 m of Burial The same is true for altered bone at this site (5.7 per- 12 and could easily have been part of this carnivore- and cent) and at LA 37603 (4.0 percent), as compared to backhoe-disturbed burial. 20.4 percent at LA 37592. Breakage is common. Most All but two pieces of the carnivore-damaged bone of the postcranial elements are represented by less than are from Pit Structure 8. Elements come from the 6-to half of the element (75.2 percent), and only 12.4 percent 10-year-old age group (n=9), undetermined large chil- are complete. dren or young adults (n=21), and adults (n=12). Ribs When considered as a single sample, the disarticu- were the predominant element (n=24), with a scattering lated assemblage represents between 8 and 12 individu- of other parts (Fig. 6.53): crania (n=1), mandible (n=2), als (Table 6.22). Some of these are probably parts of dis- thoracic vertebra (n=1), clavicle (n=1), innominate turbed burials found in Pit Structure 8 (for a full discus- (n=1), humerus (n=2), femur (n=2), metatarsal (n=2), sion of these, see Chapter 4). These include Burial 12, a long bone fragment (n=2), and blade fragment (n=1).

159 Only three of the burned bones are from prove- large piece comprising much of the face and left side of niences other than Pit Structure 8. Most burned elements the head. The left parietal has most of the breakage, with were from adults. One was a large child or adult, and lesser amounts on the occipital. another was from a child of undetermined age. Burning Pieces of the cranium from a 25- to 30-year-old was light (n=2), graded light to heavy (n=1), or female were found in three proveniences: Layer 9; heavy/sooted (n=13). Elements (Figs. 6.54 and 6.55) are Layer 10, Level 1; and Burial 11, in Layer 10. Four indeterminate fragments (n=2), mandible fragments pieces have alteration, eight do not. Pieces with no obvi- (n=2), cervical vertebrae (n=3, none from Pit Structure ous alteration include a maxillary fragment, two sphe- 8), ilium fragments (n=3), humerus fragments (n=4), noid fragments, two pieces of the left parietal, the right and femur fragments (n=2). temporal, the occipital, and the base. The parietal frag- The alteration is primarily on three crania found in ment does have pressure cracks along the broken edge. Pit Structure 8. Of the 23 alterations, at least 17 (73.9 Alteration of the frontal (FS 514-32) consists of two percent) are on crania from a child around 10 years of series of three small abrasions and a single abrasion age (n=11), a female 25 to 30 years of age (n=4), and a (Fig. 6.60). These cluster in the same area, but one set is female 35 to 40 years of age (n=2). The older female perpendicular to the sagittal suture, and the others are (FS 511-11) has a healed traumatic lesion (Fig. 6.56), 10 more or less parallel to this suture. The anterior right cm in diameter, on the right parietal. Impact breaks and parietal fragment (FS 514-31) has an impact break along scrapes or abrasions are the most common alterations the coronal suture. It is roughly half-circular, and the (Tables 6.23 and 6.24). The peels and spiral fracture on bevel expands from the endocranial to the ectocranial postcranial elements could easily be the result of carni- surface. There is no corresponding mark on the frontal. vore activity. This and the direction of the bevel suggest the impact is Alteration in the youngest group is a peel on a rib postmortem, well after the parietal separated from the shaft and the impact and abrasions on the cranium from frontal. The posterior portion of the right parietal (FS Pit Structure 8. Parts of this cranium came from two dif- 514-4) has two small spalls along the break and abra- ferent proveniences. The frontal, both temporals, left sions. The spalls are probably edge damage, but in the maxilla, part of the left parietal, and the occipital are tables, they are treated as if they resulted from an from Layer 10, Level 1, and a piece that includes all of impact. A series of four short scratches just off and diag- the right parietal and two pieces of the left parietal were onal to the occipital suture comprise the abrasions (FS collected as Burial 11 but treated as disarticulated since 514-33; Fig. 6.61). The left parietal (FS 514-28) has a more than one individual is represented. Burial 11 is percussion pit, or in this case, a line or even a light chop, also from Layer 10. Unaltered pieces of the cranium an impact fracture, and a series of three small scratches include the frontal, left maxilla, malar and zygomatic, that are probably abrasions (Fig. 6.62). Many of the cra- right temporal, a piece of the occipital, and the vomer. nial fragments from Pit Structure 8 have recent abra- The right parietal (FS 509-20) has a small impact along sions caused by cleaning and movement in the soil the coronal suture (Fig. 6.57). The break expands from matrix. It is very difficult to assign a cause to these very the ectocranial to the endocranial surface. It also has similar but not obviously fresh scratches. Again, much three small cracks radiating from the edges and suggest- of the disarticulation is along sutures. Breakage occurs ing pressure exerted on the piece. A piece (FS 514-38) on both parietals, the right maxilla, and the occipital. that includes the maxilla, frontal, temporal, and much of The cranium of an older female (35 to 40 years old) the left parietal (Fig. 6.58) has at least three pressure- was found in four proveniences: a backhoe trench; like cracks, a possible impact on the posterior portion of Burial 11 in Layer 10; Burial 13 in Layer 10; and in the parietal, and an unusual scrape or abrasion on the Layer 10, Level 2. Two pieces are altered; 15 have no temporal and parietal. The scrape consists of numerous obvious alteration. Unaltered pieces include two upper very fine and shallow scratches diagonally bridging the molars and a central incisor, the right temporal, three parietal/temporal suture (Fig. 6.59). The mark could maxilla fragments, the vomer, the zygoma, two pieces have been caused by the bone moving against a piece of of the right parietal, two pieces of the occipital, a malar, coarse sandstone or could be an isolated scrape mark. and a sphenoid fragment. The left parietal is missing the Two other pieces of the left parietal (FS 509-22 and FS portion along the temporal and part of the occipital 514-40) have impact breaks, and one has a series of four suture and has two pressure cracks radiating out from small abrasions near the sagittal suture. Two pieces of this edge. The temporal has numerous recent scratches the occipital (FS 514-39 and FS 514-47) have impact and abrasions and one that could possibly be old. Breaks breaks. One has a concentric crack around the impact on both temporal/zygomatics are well rounded, proba- and three small abrasions just off the crack. bly from soil movement. Fill in much of Layer 10 is Disarticulation is generally at the sutures, except for the alluvial wash. The frontal (FS 516-43) has a small

160 Figure 6.53. Carnivore-damaged elements. LA 65030, FS 516.

Figure 6.54. Burned elements. LA 65030, FS 513.

161 Figure 6.55. LA 65030, FS 13 and FS 14. Burned femur, maxilla, and mandible.

Figure 6.56. Healed trauma on right parietal. LA 65030, FS 511-11.

162 Figure 6.57. Parietal fracture along suture, endocranial release. LA 65030, FS 509-20.

Figure 6.58. Breakage. LA 65030, FS 514-38.

163 Figure 6.59. Fine abrasion along temporal and parietal. LA 65030, FS 514-38.

Figure 6.60. Location of abrasions on frontal. LA 65030, FS 509 and FS 514-32.

164 Figure 6.61. Right parietal with abrasion. LA 65030, FS 514-33.

Figure 6.62. Left parietal percussion pit. LA 65030, FS 514-28.

165 impact depression and crack radiating out to the suture fragment of an adult right ilium and a piece of long bone line (Fig. 6.63). The bone still adheres to the interior that may or may not be human. Neither element is (Fig. 6.64), with an acute bevel from the ectocranial to altered or burned, and the presence of both probably the endocranial surface. An unusual sharp break occurs results from natural site processes. across the bridge of the nose. The right parietal (FS 509- 11) has a crack along a broken edge that may result from ASSEMBLAGE COMPARISONS an impact and blood vessel depressions that could be mistaken for cuts. Disarticulation is mainly along the Three of the La Plata sites have human bone sutures. Some breakage occurs in the orbital area, at assemblages deserving further discussion: LA 37592, bregma, the left parietal-temporal area, and the base of Pit Structure 1, upper fill; LA 37593, Pit Structure 1, the occipital. upper fill; and LA 65030, Pit Structure 8, roof fall.11 The Other alteration on adults consists of a spiral break LA 37592 assemblage dates to Pueblo III and the others on a metatarsal (FS 208-1, not from Pit Structure 8), a to Pueblo II. At LA 37592, the human bone is high in the parietal fragment with an impact break (FS 513-8), and pit structure fill at the top of a dense trash midden. Two a long bone fragment with a peel (FS 516-22). The ele- groups of elements suggest some were deliberately ment from a large child or young adult is a femur frag- arranged. The LA 37593 deposit is in the fill above a pit ment with a small peel (FS 514-7). structure, but there is virtually no trash with the bones. Two other elements from this site deserve mention. Fill is a combination of windblown and ponded sedi- One is an almost complete right ulna with red pigment ments and an abundance of large cobbles, the primary stains (FS 331-1). Patches of pigment occur on the ante- building material in the La Plata Valley. This deposit rior surface just below the articular processes and scat- appears to result from precontact activities involving the tered around the bottom third to half of the shaft. A redeposition of human burials, probably as a result of black dot is on the anterior about a quarter of the way cleaning out a previously abandoned structure, which from the distal end. The pigment coverage is patchy and had been used for burial (Charles Hannaford, personal therefore may not represent a deliberate attempt to coat communication, 1993). At LA 65030, the human the element. The other is much of a left temporal (FS remains were just above the floor in the roof fall layer. 514-1) from a large child or adult (Fig. 6.65). Small step Again, trash was sparse, and fill was windblown and fractures and polish along the temporal suture edge sug- ponded sediments. Both the LA 37593 and LA 65030 gest wear. assemblages are incomplete. A water line trench bisect- The disarticulated assemblage from this site differs ed the LA 37593 deposits. Likewise, an exploratory from that at LA 37592 and LA 37593. Burning occurs backhoe trench made by archaeologists in the course of but is largely complete burning or sooting, a pattern typ- excavation at LA 65030 removed an undetermined ical of discard or accidental burning and one that is rare amount of skeletal material from that sample as well in the LA 37592 assemblage. For the most part, the (Stephen Lentz, personal communication, 1994). breakage is more like that from LA 37593, with less The LA 37592 assemblage has many characteristics long bone damage. The break on the older female could considered by White (1992) and others (Turner and be perimortem, but the impact breaks and the abrasions Turner 1999:311-314) to be the result of intentional dis- are reminiscent of those caused by rocks at LA 37593. memberment and cooking. Assemblages from the other This set of disarticulated bones is interesting when two sites have some of these same patterns but can be viewed in conjunction with the burials also found at this better explained by other kinds of prehistoric human site. In Pit Structure 1, as discussed in Chapter 4, sever- behavior, taphonomic processes, site formation process- al burials were distinctive in their lack of formal prepa- es, and modern activities. ration and in the haphazard manner in which they were Comparing the amount of postcranial breakage disposed. (cranial is not included because cranial bones were coded to reflect how complete each part is), LA 37592 LA 65031 has the most breakage, and LA 37593 the least (Table 6.25). LA 65030 falls in between but has by far the most Surface indications at LA 65031 consisted of arti- carnivore damage. Considering that much carnivore facts along the existing highway. Backhoe trenching damage goes undetected because it lacks actual punc- revealed two pit structures outside of the new right-of- tures or furrows, carnivores probably contributed sub- way and a large roasting pit. Deposits at the site were stantially more to the breakage. In the LA 37592 assem- disturbed by rodents, plowing, and erosion. blage, the parts that have the most breakage are long Human remains were recovered from a backhoe bones. All of the femur fragments and most of the tibia trench in the vicinity of the roasting pit. These include a (96.3 percent), humerus (84.6 percent), radius (62.5 per-

166 Figure 6.63. Frontal impact and radiating crack on exterior (with vessel impressions). LA 65030, FS 516-43.

Figure 6.64. Endocranial vault release. LA 65030, FS 516-43.

167 White (1992), the La Plata assemblage has far less evi- dence of violent battering and mutilation than Mancos. "Pot polish," percussion pits, and chops do not occur, and few pieces have adhering flakes. The percentage of elements with cuts (1.7 percent) is at the low end of the range reported by White (1992:327), which ranges from 1.0 percent at Grinnell to 11.7 percent at Mancos. Other alterations, while they occur, seem to be less intense than those found in the Mancos assemblage. Breakage associated with movement of burials in varying states of decomposition, throwing cobbles on the remains during the process, and modern construction activities can account for the LA 37593 assemblage. The explanation for the disarticulated assemblage at LA Figure 6.65. LA 65030, FS 514-10. Temporal with 65030 is less clear, and there may be multiple causes. unusual breakage. Carnivores certainly contributed to the breakage and disarray in the assemblage. The burned elements and cent), and rib (85.2 percent) fragments represent less broken crania may result from secondary disposal. than half of the bone. In the LA 37593 and LA 65030 assemblages, the elements with the most breakage are DISCUSSION ribs (88.7 and 94.1 percent) and vertebrae (52.0 and 38.9 percent). Earl Morris (1939:90-95), reporting his finds in the Burning, like breakage, is more common in the LA La Plata Valley of Colorado and New Mexico, described 37592 assemblage. It occurs hardly at all in the LA human bone assemblages similar to those recovered 37593 assemblage, and the elements involved are prob- during the current project. At Site 41, he found individ- ably not human.12 LA 65030 falls between the two. Burn uals whose remains had been gathered up and tossed in intensity differs between LA 37592 and LA 65030. a disorderly heap, others that were placed in empty Burning in the LA 37592 assemblage tends toward light rooms and left exposed until covered by natural agen- brown patchy and incomplete burns, while that at LA cies, and scrambled skeletons he believed were dug up 65030 is heavily and completely burned (sooted or during construction activities and tossed into abandoned smoked). Heavy burning occurs when flesh has been chambers or placed in a shallow pit along with trash. He removed (Gifford-Gonzalez 1989:193). Buikstra and also describes an assemblage attributed to the "residuum Swegel (1989:252) found it was impossible to incinerate of a cannibalistic rite or orgy." Beneath a room in a pit a fleshed bone until it was deeply and uniformly 2.45 m in diameter and 90 cm deep were refuse and smoked. Burning of flesh produced calcination of some bones from at least six individuals. Crania from the four areas before all parts were smoked. This suggests that adults were split, and most other elements were split and most of the burned bone from LA 65030 lacked flesh broken into pieces. Some were partially burned (Morris when burned, while that from LA 37592 did not. 1939:105). Altered bone was relatively common at LA 37592 A rockshelter near Site 23, a large Basketmaker III- and less so at the other two sites. lt also has the greatest Pueblo I site by the La Plata River just inside Colorado, variety of alteration. Cuts, crenulated edges, and possi- held the remains of two individuals embedded in a ble hollowing occur only in this assemblage, and ele- burned layer and inside a large corrugated jar. The skulls ments are more likely to have more than one type of were broken, long bones splintered, and many elements alteration on a single piece. were charred (Morris 1939:75; White 1992:368). Morris When element representation is considered and interpreted these as the result of occasional strife compared to the Mancos assemblage presented by between autonomous units, in which the inhabitants of White (1992) (Table 6.26; Fig. 6.66), LA 37592 resem- one valley may have attacked their better-off neighbors bles Mancos in most respects. Crania, ribs, and large leg when faced with local crop failure. Great house con- bones are the most represented parts. LA 37593 differs struction was seen as a defense against attack by raiders in that, except for ribs, there is a more even representa- from the periphery (Morris 1939:43). tion. LA 65030 has many ribs and cranial parts and a In summarizing human bone assemblages where fairly low representation otherwise (Fig. 6.66). cannibalism has been suggested, White (1992:349-351) Although LA 37592 strongly resembles assem- identified a number of similarities in skeletal represen- blages considered the result of cannibalistic activity by tation and bone modification. All have burning and con-

168 Figure 6.66. Percentage of element counts: LA 37592, LA 37593, LA 65030, Mancos. siderable breakage, and are in good condition. and the remains may or may not be mixed with domes- Percussion striae and cut marks are found in some but tic trash. Most occur in concentrations that suggest sin- not all. Examination of White's (1992:367-381) sum- gle episodes rather than habitual discard. The ages of the maries of the better-documented site assemblages and individuals involved range from infants and young chil- some of the more recently reported assemblages (this dren to older adults. The number of individuals ranges volume; Darling 1993; Ogilvie and Hilton 1993:97-128) from 1 to 44. from the Four Corners area confirms that all or nearly all Interpretations in the literature of these kinds of have burning, cut marks, and considerable breakage deposits vary from cautious to excessive. For example, often accompanied by percussion pits, spalls, and a recent review by Turner (1993) finds that over 40 impact notches. Dates vary considerably, ranging from human bone assemblages have indications of violence Pueblo I (Cottonwood Canyon, ; and OCA:423- or cannibalism. He has proposed an "institutionalized 131, New Mexico) to early historic periods (Polacca violence and cannibalism" model that revises his earlier Wash, Arizona). Four assemblages are attributed to linkage of cannibalism to social pathology and devian- Early Pueblo II (Sambrito Village; Sanchez Site; Burnt cy. The model of institutionalized violence and canni- Mesa; and OCA:423-124, New Mexico), three to balism is related to the rise of the Chacoan system Pueblo II (Porter Pueblo or 5 MT1, Colorado; Leroux (Turner 1993:434). In this view, the violence served to Wash, Arizona; Yellow Jacket or 5 MT3, Colorado), two make examples out of tribute or politically resisting to Late Pueblo II–Early Pueblo III (Big Hawk Valley, individuals or communities (Turner1993:433-434). This Arizona; and Marshview Hamlet, Colorado), three to model does little to explain disarticulated remains that Early Pueblo III (La Plata 41, New Mexico; Mancos predate the rise of the Chacoan system, and it relies 5MTURM-2346, Colorado; and Grinnell, Colorado), heavily on a Mesoamerican influence. Furthermore, the one from Pueblo III (LA 37592, New Mexico), and one model presumes that Chaco Canyon represents a hierar- undated but probably Pueblo II or Pueblo III (La Plata chical, regional, and nucleated system that was built and 23, New Mexico). There are presumably more such sites maintained on fear and retribution. Other ideas about the in the Southwest region reported elsewhere (e.g., Turner nature of power and political-economic influences 1993). regarding Chaco suggest alternative viewpoints (Tainter The archaeological context of many of these assem- and Plog 1994:170-173). blages is most often pits and pit structure fill or floors, Turner's evolving ideas about violence and canni-

169 balism in the Southwest rest on a number of assump- mechanism that minimized status rivalry and ensured tions: (1) That precontact mortuary behavior was large- egalitarianism. Witchcraft and witch accusation are thus ly static through time and across regions; (2) that most viewed as adjustive responses that reduced tensions of the disarticulated assemblages represent unusual resulting from stress within the community. Accusation mortuary patterns, and when found, these almost always generally ensures social cooperation and may deter fac- contain "signatures" of human alteration; (3) that groups tionalism. Slaying of witches in the Southwest peaked living in this area were uniformly hierarchical, with during periods of drought, epidemics, and other stress- widespread social, economic, and political influence provoking events (Darling 1993:23-24). Subsistence that was universal; and (4) that violence, dismember- stress in the highly unpredictable environment of the ment, and cannibalism were practiced on individuals, Four Corners area, as well as sociopolitical shifts, could families, or communities. Recent models regarding the have produced situations where witch accusation and dynamic nature of multiple political-economic spheres execution were an adaptive response (Darling 1993:24). of interaction among Southwest groups suggest that uni- Historical witch accusation included entire families, causal models will fall short (see, for examples, Crown groups, and even communities (Darling 1993:30). and Judge 1991; Gumerman 1994; Gumerman and Gell- Violent dismemberment, destruction, and burning of a Mann 1994). witch's body served to prevent the witch's return. White (1991, 1992) has also provided an exhaustive Cannibalism of a witch's remains is unlikely, since this review of the literature and his own laboratory studies of act is one attributed to witches, and fear of becoming a disarticulated remains. Methodologically, he relies on witch would deter such behavior (Darling 1993:44). analogous faunal preparation techniques. He feels that Darling's explanation fits with the evidence from many cannibalism is only demonstrated when there are simi- of the sites reviewed. Although it, too, is a form of insti- larities in processing and disposal between faunal and tutionalized violence, the motivating factors are far human bone assemblages (White 1992:339). Others find more complex than those proposed by Turner (1993). his approach deficient (Bullock 1991, 1992; Darling The witchcraft model also would allow for a great deal 1993) because it assumes that the perpetrators made no of variability in how it is expressed, and this could distinction in treating prey, whether it was deer, rabbit, account for the variability in the disarticulated assem- turkey, or their neighbor's entire family, and because blages among regions and through time. finding similarities cannot be used as a definitive test Another hypothesis, which could explain much of (e.g., Darling 1993:11). As Bahn (1992:40) states, the violent behavior and dismemberment seen in some "Since the ways in which one can cut, break or burn of the disarticulated assemblages, is warfare and con- bones do not vary markedly, it is hardly surprising that flict. Wilcox and Haas (1994) present an exhaustive despite anatomical differences between food animals review of the instances of fortified sites, , evi- and people there are considerable similarities." Bullock dence for weaponry, and individual burials where there (1991, 1992) also argues that reliance on the faunal is proof of violent death (such as points still embedded model is problematic. He demonstrates ways that vio- in bones, etc.) from the Southwest. They provide com- lent interactions and use of blunt force can mimic many pelling evidence that open conflict was present and of the alterations on bone currently being attributed to intensified during some periods in some regions during processing for consumption. Pueblo I through Pueblo III. That warfare and conflict White (1992:360) appears to favor environmental have been so underutilized in explanations for disarticu- stress as the cause of cannibalism, although he is fairly lated assemblages suggests a reluctance to acknowledge noncommittal. He provides a brief overview of environ- violence in general in the Southwest and a focus on can- mental factors in the Southwest and presents a few spec- nibalism that has overshadowed all other avenues of ulative ideas about dietary stress and marginality of research. resources. He suggests famine as a possible motivating There is no question that assemblages containing factor for some cannibalism but notes correctly that altered, modified, burned, and broken human bone exist there is no other data set to support local or regional in the Southwest during Pueblo I-III. However, as the La cases of famine in areas where there are altered human Plata Valley sites illustrate, while there may be superfi- bones. Thus, while Turner extends his analysis of the cial resemblances, not all human bone deposits result disarticulated remains to include causation, White and from similar activities. Overzealous inclusion of others (Stodder 1987; Ogilvie and Hilton 1993) ponder deposits like those from LA 37593 can obscure any real the significance of such events but do not offer causa- patterning and hamper attempts to understand the con- tion theories. ditions that produced such behavior. Darling (1993:15, citing Baker 1990) favors an The range of variability is most likely pronounced explanation where violence functioned as a leveling across disarticulated assemblages. What is needed to

170 discern strong patterns across temporal and spatial oughly understood. As Ogilvie and Hilton (1993:128) boundaries is a more detailed discussion of the complete suggest, secondary mortuary practices may have been context from which these disarticulated remains come. practiced with regularity and thus offer "reasonable The La Plata Valley study demonstrates that three (or alternatives to a cannibalism explanation." They also four if LA 37603 is included) seemingly similar bone caution that "any interpretation based on observations assemblages (LA 37592, LA 37593, and LA 65030) from these limited data would be strictly conjectural." were the likely products of very different processes. In order to broaden the discussion, an entirely dif- Without contextual information on taphonomic and site ferent set of questions can be asked regarding disarticu- formation processes, curation and laboratory handling lated assemblages in the precontact Southwest. For of the material, and information on any burials located example, who exactly were the people in the disarticu- at the sites, the case for a strong pattern of untimely lated assemblages? Do they differ in any respect from death, dismemberment, and cannibalism cannot be people who were buried in single graves? Are there indi- made. cations that they are from different groups? Do isotopic That the remains from LA 37592 were modified and chemical analyses of the bones from disarticulated and altered around the time of death is clear; the behav- remains reveal differences or similarities in diet from iors that produced the remains are not so clear. burial samples? Are the practices that produce disarticu- Cannibalism is only one of several possible competing lated assemblages linked in important ways to patterns hypotheses explaining modified and altered remains. of poor health, trauma, or mortality? Are there charac- Witchcraft and associated ritual could also explain these teristic features of archaeological contexts where disar- remains. Warfare, conflict, "headhunting," and ritual- ticulated assemblages are located that could reveal addi- ized dismemberment are other working hypotheses. tional insight? In the following chapter we address some While all of these motivating factors for the violence of these questions, which push the discussion of disar- may be seen as a form of institutionalized behavior, ticulated remains into other, potentially more revealing, regional and temporal variability must first be thor- areas.

171 Table 6.1. Summary of La Plata disarticulated human bone (includes parts missing from burials)

LA Number Elements Human ? Minimum Carnivore Burned Altered MNI Gnawed 1897 2 2 0 0 0 37591 2 1 0 0 0 37592 437 48 (11.0%) 8-12 6 (1.4%) 40 (9.1%) 89 (20.4%) 37593 2203 112 (5.1%) 17 56 (2.5%) 3* (.1%) 79 (3.6%) 37594 2 1 0 0 0 37595 9 2-3 0 0 0 37598 128 4 (3.1%) 4 0 1 (.8%) 0 37599 39 4 1 (2.6%) 0 0 37600 93 2 (2.2%) 2-3 1 (1.1%) 0 0 37601 50 4-6 0 0 2 (4.0%) 37603 146 18 (12.3%) 5-8 9 (6.2%) 6 (4.1%) 5 (3.4%) 37605 17 4 3 (17.6%) 0 3 (17.6%) 37606 8 2 1 (12.5%) 0 0 60751 2 1 0 0 0 65029 2 1 0 0 0 65030 400 14 (3.5%) 9-12 42(10.5%) 16(4.0%) 23(5.7%) 65031 2 1 (50.0%) 1 0 0 0

* human? Notes: Element refers to a single piece of bone whether it constitutes a whole bone or a fragment. The minimum MNI is a conservative estimate of the individuals represented. The entire site sample is treated as a single unit regardless of spatial and temporal distinctions at the site.

Table 6.2. Parts missing from La Plata burials

Burial Age/Sex Condition Location Missing Parts 37592-1 2 excellent/roots pit 1.5 cervical vertebrae; @ 7 ribs; L humerus; L radius; L ulna; FS 200 and rodents structure, all carpals; 2 L and 5 R metacarpals; 5 first, 3 second, 6 third upper fill hand phalanges; sacrum S2-S5; both ischia and pubes; all tarsals; about 6 metatarsals ; 4 first, 8 second, 8 third foot phalanges 37592-2 6 fair to good/cut room, pit in .5 cervical vertebra; 2 segments of the sacrum; 2 ribs; all FS 184 by cable trench floor carpals; all R metacarpals; 6 first, 6 second, 10 third hand phalanges; both ischia and pubis; both patellae; all tarsals, metatarsals and foot phalanges 37592-7 50 fair/roots and extramural much of sternum; 2 ribs; 5 R carpals; 2 R metacarpals; 2 FS 662 female rodents burial pit elements of the sacrum; over half of both patellae; 2 L and 1 R tarsals; 2 L and 2 R metatarsals ; 8 first, 8 second, 10 third foot phalanges 37593-2 35 good/bottom half extramural all lumbar vertebrae, much of the L scapula; most of the L FS 756 female removed by storage pit clavicle; sternum; 3 ribs; distal humeri and L radius; R radius backhoe and ulna; 6 L and 8 R carpals; 3 L, 5 R metacarpals; 9 first, 7 second, 10 third hand phalanges; elements from the lumbar vertebrae down (except the L distal femur and L patella); backhoe 37595-2 15 good/carnivore pit poor representation; elements present include mandible; 1/3 L FS 159 damage structure, scapula; shafts of L clavicle, 2 L, 3 R ribs, L humerus, R upper fill femur, both tibiae and fibulae 37599-5 25 male good/none pit parts of cranial base; much of both scapulae; R radius and FS 241 structure, ulna; 3 L, 7 R carpals; 5 R metacarpals; all R hand phalanges; intrusive pit 1 second and 5 third foot phalanges 37599-9 25 male good/none pit L half of face; 1/3 R scapula; 1/3 sternum; 1 rib; 6 R and 6 L FS 559 structure, carpals; 1 L metacarpal; 7 first, 1 second, 1 third hand floor pit phalanges; 2 first, 5 second, 9 third foot phalanges 37601-1 30 male fair/backhoe pit 3 thoracic vertebrae, L scapula and most of the R scapula; @ 4 FS 166 damage to upper structure, L ribs; 6 L and 2 R carpals; 2 L metacarpals; 1 second and 5 body tunnel third hand phalanges; 5 first, 7 second, 10 third foot phalanges

172 Burial Age/Sex Condition Location Missing Parts 37601-2 19 fair to good/rodent pit parts of both scapulae; 1 R carpal; 2 second hand phalanges; FS 307 female? structure, L patella; 1 L and 2 R tarsals; 2 L and 5 R metatarsals; all R intrusive pit and 1 first, 3 second, and 2 third L foot phalanges 37601-4 25 excellent/none pit all R carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges except two first FS 400 female structure, hand phalanges; L femur, tibia, fibula; both patellae, all L intrusive pit tarsals, metatarsals and foot phalanges, 2 first, 4 second, 4 third R foot phalanges 37601-5 35 male good; between two pit part of cranium; 4 cervical vertebrae; much of R scapula; FS 190 water lines and structure, sternum; @ 2 ribs; 2 L, 1 R carpal; 3 R metacarpals; 2 first, 1 most recovered upper fill second, 8 third hand phalanges; both patellae; 7 R tarsals; 4 from backhoe L metatarsals ; 4 first, 5 second, 8 third foot phalanges; parts backdirt of 2 left feet in burial 37601-6 28 male excellent/none extram ural L distal radius; 4 L and 4 R carpals; 4 third hand phalanges; FS 196 storage pit; 9 first, 8 second, 10 third foot phalanges sealed with cobbles 37601-7 42 male excellent/none pit parts of both scapulae; 4 L and 4 R ribs; 4 L and 2 R carpals; FS 324 structure, 4 second, 10 third foot phalanges lower fill 37601-8 9 fair to good/none pit structure 1 cervical, 1 thoracic vertebra; much of both scapulae; FS 430 tunnel sternum; @ 4 ribs; 9 carpals; 4 second, 10 third hand phalanges; proximal L fibula; 2 L, 1 R tarsal; 4 first, 8 second, 9 third foot phalanges 37601-1 9 excellent/rodent, extram ural sternum body; R radius and ulna; all carpals; 7 metacarpals, FS 722 carnivore storage pit 7 first, 8 second, 10 third hand phalanges; 1 sacral element; both patellae; 5 L and 5 R tarsals; 9 first, 8 second, 10 third foot phalanges 37603-1 45 male fair to good/roots, extram ural cranial base; 3 thoracic vertebrae; almost all of the R FS 295 rodents, backhoe burial pit scapula; 2/3 R clavicle; @ 10 ribs; R radius and ulna; 1 R carpal; 1 first, 1 second, 6 third hand phalanges; both ischia; 1 L tarsal; 1 first, 2 second, 3 third foot phalanges 37603-2 30 good/posthole pit cranium; 7 cervical and 11 thoracic vertebrae; both scapulae, FS 410 female removed head and structure, clavicles; sternum; @ 21 ribs; L humerus; 2/3 R humerus; 5 upper torso intrusive pit L, 3 R carp als; 1 L, 2 R metacarpals ; 5 first, 1 secon d, 5 third hand phalanges; 2 first, 2 second, 7 third foot phalanges 65030-4 3 good/root, possible extram ural @ 4 thoracic, 1 lumbar vertebrae, much of sternum; much of FS 141 rodent burial pit R radius; all carpals; 2 metacarpals; 3 first, 4 second, 7 third hand phalanges; most of sacrum; R ischium and part of pubis; R femur; both tibiae, fibulae, patellae; all tarsals, metatarsals, and foot phalanges 65030-6 38 fair to poor/roots pit parts of both scapulae; @ 2 ribs; 4 L, 7 R carp als; 2 L, 3 R FS 159 female structure, metacarpals; 1 first, 3 second, 10 third hand phalanges; pubis roof fall portions of both innominates; 3 second, 5 third foot phalanges 65030-7 10.5 good to pit most of the sternum; 7 L ribs; 6 L, 3 R carpals; 1 second, 3 FS 169 excellent/none structure, third hand phalanges; 1 segment of sacrum; 1 second, 6 third recorded, roof fall foot phalanges carnivore? 65030-8 20 excellent/none pit 5 L and 5 R carpals; 1 first, 2 second, 6 third hand FS 241 female structure, phalanges; 3 L, 2 R tarsals, 3 first, 7 second, 8 third foot roof fall phalanges 65030-9 33 excellent/none pit 1 rib; 1 third hand phalanx; 2 second, 3 third foot phalanges FS 242 female structure, roof fall 65030-13 11 excellent/carnivore pit much is missing, elements present include: part of cranium; FS 511 structure, all vertebrae; fragment of R scapula; 10-11 L, 6-7 R ribs; S1- lower fill 3; both ilia and L ischium; both femora; L tibia; proximal and shaft of R tibia; both fibula shafts; L patella 65030-15 48 male excellent/none pit 1 L, 3 R carpals; 1 second foot phalanx FS 517 structure, lower fill

173 Table 6.3. Summary of parts missing from the La Plata breakage study burial sample

Element Burials with that Part Missing Elements N No. % Missing Range Mean SD Missing Number* face 20 (13) 1 5.0 cranial base 20 (13) 1 (1) 5.0 ( 7.7) cervical vertebrae 20 (13) 3 (1) 15.0 ( 7.7) .5-1.5 (1.5) 1.0 .5 thoracic vertebrae 20 (13) 4 (1) 20.0 ( 7.7) 1-4 (4) 2.7 1.3 lumbar vertebrae 20 (13) 1 (1) 5.0 ( 7.7) 1 L scapula 20 (13) 3 (1) 15.0 ( 7.7) R scapula 20 (13) 3 15.0 L clavicle 20 (13) 1 (1) 5.0 ( 7.7) R clavicle 20 (13) 1 5.0 sternum 20 (13) 7 (5) 35.0 (38.5) ribs 20 (13) 11 (6) 55.0 (46.1) 1-10 (1-8) 4.3 (4.5) 3.1 (3.2) L humerus 20 (13) 1 (1) 5.0 ( 7.7) L radius 21 (14) 1 (1) 4.8 ( 7.1) R radius 21 (14) 5 (4) 23.8 (28.6) L ulna 21 (14) 1 (1) 4.8 ( 7.1) R ulna 21 (14) 4 (3) 19.0 (21.4) carpals 21 (14) 20 (12) 95.2 (85.7) 1-16 (4-16) 9.4 (10.7) 4.7 (4.1) metacarpals 21 (14) 12 (8) 57.1 (57.1) 1-8 (1-8) 4.3 (4.4) 2.3 (2.7) hand first phalanges 21 (14) 12 (7) 57.1 (50.0) 1-9 (1-9) 4.4 (5.0) 2.6 (2.8) hand second 21 (14) 16 (9) 72.7 (64.3) 1-8 (1-8) 3.2 (3.1) 2.2 (2.7) phalanges hand third phalanges 21 (14) 17 (11) 80.9 (64.7) 1-10 (1-10) 6.1 (5.2) 3.0 (3.0) sacrum (elements) 20 (13) 6 (4) 30.0 (30.8) 1-5 (1-5) 2.5 (2.7) 1.6 (2.1) L innominate 20 (13) 4 (1) 20.0 ( 7.7) 3 ischium 3 pubis R innominate 20 (13) 5 (2) 25.0 (15.4) 4 ischium 3 pubis L femur 20 (13) 1 5.0 R femur 20 (13) 1 (1) 5.0 ( 7.7) L tibia 20 (13) 2 (2) 10.0 (15.4) R tibia 20 (13) 1 (1) 5.0 ( 7.7) L fibula 20 (13) 2 (2) 10.0 (15.4) R fibula 20 (13) 1 (1) 5.0 ( 7.7) L patella 20 (13) 4 (3) 20.0 (23.1) R patella 20 (13) 4 (3) 20.0 (23.1) tarsals 20 (13) 10 (5) 50.0 (38.5) 1-14 (5-14) 6.1 (10.0) 5.0(4.1) metatarsals 20 (13) 5 (3) 25.0 (23.1) 4-10 (5-10) 6.4 ( 7.0) 2.3(2.6) foot first phalanges 20 (13) 14 (9) 70.0 (69.2) 1-10 (2-10) 5.7 (5.7) 3.1(3.2) foot second 20 (13) 20 (13) 100.0 (100.0) 1-8 (1-8) 5.3 (5.3) 2.9(2.9) phalanges foot third phalanges 20 (13) 19 (12) 95.0 (92.3) 3-10 (3-10) 7.7 (8.1) 2.4(2.2)

Notes: Missing means over 2/3s of the part is absent. The numbers in parentheses indicate the number and percent of only those that have good and excellent preservation--the condition that corresponds to most of the disarticulated remains. Only body parts that have frequencies of more than one per side (ribs, phalanges, etc.) will have a mean number.

174 6 Transverse Irregular Peel Straight/ Longitudinal Spiral 14 2 (number of individuals with form of break) Transverse Irregular Diagonal/ Straight/ Longitudinal Table 6.4. Fracture form of old and fresh breaks in the La Plata burial sample burial Plata La the in breaks fresh and old of form Fracture 6.4. Table Spiral Diagonal/ Part Old Breaks Breaks Fresh process bodyClavicleSternumRibHumerusRadiusUlnaSacrum 1 4 (2) (1) 1 (1) 16 6 8 3 3 1 5 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 4 4 1 6 2 1 1 1 8 5 Cranial case face baseVertebral spine 1InnominateFemurTibia 6Fibula 6 11 1 (5) 1 (1) 3 1 1 9 1(1) 2 (3) 8 4 1 2 5 1 6 2 2 (1) 1 1 1 7 4 5 5 Mandible 1 5 (2) 1 9 1 Note: Parentheses indicate a crack rather a complete break. than

175 Table 6.5. Number of individuals represented by element, LA 37592

Element N 0-2 y 3-5 y 6-10 y 11-15 y Female Male Adult Cranial case fragment 42 1 1 1 2 Maxilla 6 1 1 1 2 Mandible 9 1 1 1-2 1 Tooth 8 Other cranial 42 Atlas 4 3* 1 Axis 2 1 1 Cervical vertebra 5 1 1 1 Thoracic vertebra 5 1-2 Lumbar vertebra 1 1 Sacrum 4 1 1 Vertebra fragment 0 Scapula 3 1 Clavicle 3 1 1 1 Sternum 0 Rib 30 1 1 1 Humerus 14 1-2 1 1 1 Radius 8 1 1 1 1 Ulna 9 1 1 1 1 1 Carpal 0 Metacarpal 13 1 1 2 Phalanx 13 1 1 2 Innominate 2 1 1 Femur 24 1 1 1 Patella 2 1 Tibia 27 1 2 Fibula 7 2 1 Tarsal 5 1 1 1 Metatarsal 3 1 1 Phalanx 1 1 Hand or foot 4 2 1 1 Long bone fragment 84 Flat bone fragment 27 Unknown fragment 30 Total elements 437 34 15 34 30 3 22 232 Number of individuals 8-12 2 0-1 2 1 1 2-3** 0-2

* One atlas is from Burial 1. ** Maxilla and mandible are from different individuals Note: The number of individuals represented considers the age and size of the individual and the side and portion of the element. Numerical ranges indicate that there is a good probability that two pieces do not represent the same individual. For example, a proximal humerus may be more consistent with a one year old, while a distal from the same side is more like that of a two year old. If there is no overlap in the shaft portion, we cannot be absolutely sure that two humeri are represented, but the size suggests two individuals.

176 No. of Observations 1 1 10 10 Elements 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Table6.6. Summaryelement, alteredby of 37592 bone LA Longitudinal Impact Spiral Crenulated Peel Element Breaks Cut Chop Abrasion Hollowed of No. Totals 16 33 35 6 6 7 13 2 89 111 TalusCalcaneus boneLong 9 1 1 1 1 1 2 Cranial fragmentOccipital ParietalFrontal 1OrbitMandibleRibClavicle 5InnominateHumerusRadiusUlnaMetacarpalFemur 2Patella 1 2Tibia 1 2Fibula 1 3 1 2 1 2 4 3 1 7 1 1 3 3 15 1 1 15 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 1 11 6 1 1 7 2 2 3 3 9 3 3 1 1 1 4 1 3 3 18 11 2 2 4 19 1 4 26 1 2 24 4 1

177 Table 6.7. Summary of alteration by age, LA 37592

Age (years) < 2 5-7 9-10 5-15 15-20 Female Male Adult Indeter- Total minate Longitudinal 1 3 1 11 16 break Impact break 2 4 10 17 33 Spiral break 1 5 9 19 1 35 Crenelated 1 3 2 6 Peel 2 1 2 1 2 8 Cut 1 1 1 4 7 Chop 1 1 Abrasion 1 1 1 3 Hollowed 1 1 2 No. elements 1 3 3 10 5 2 16 48 1 89 No. observations 1 5 3 10 5 3 25 58 1 111 Also burned 1 2 0 2 0 0 7 9 0 21

Table 6.8. Burned human bone, LA 37592

Age/Element Light/Scorch Light to Heavy Heavy/Sooted Calcined 0-2 years occipital 1 3-5 years mandible 1 Tooth 1 5-15 years cranial fragment 2 3 Frontal 1 Ulna 2 Adult cranial fragment 2 1 Parietal 1 Ossicle 1 Mastoid 1 Mandible 1 Metacarpal 1 1 Femur (male) 5 2 Patella 1 Tibia 5 Fibula 2 Long bone fragment 3 1 Unknown fragment 1 Totals 23 10 6 1

Note: A light burn is brown, heavy or sooted is black, and calcined is white. For those with varying degrees of burning, the most intense burn is used.

178 Table 6.9. Number of individuals represented by element, LA 37593

Element No. of 0-2y 3-5y 6-10y 11-15y Female Male Adult Elements Cranial case fragment 114 1 1 3 1 2 1 2 Maxilla 12 2 1 3 Mandible 18 2 1 3 2 1 Tooth 88 1 1 1 2 Cranial fragment 303 Atlas 11 1 1 6 Axis 5 2 3 Cervical vertebra 19 1 1 5 Thoracic vertebra 54 1 1 1-2 3 Lumbar vertebra 17 1 3 Sacrum 10 2 2-3 2 Vertebra fragment 48 Scapula 23 1 1 2 Clavicle 9 1 2 2 Sternum 4 1 1 Rib 386 1+ 1 1+ Humerus 31 1 3 2 1 1 2 Radius 25 5 1 1 3 2 Ulna 23 3 1 2 2 Carpal 66 1 2 4 Metacarpal 80 2 3 1 1 5 Phalanx 132 2 3 1 3 Innominate 22 2 4 1 3 1 Femur 45 1 1 4 1 4 Patella 6 1 1 2 Tibia 32 1 3 1 1 2 1-2 Fibula 22 1 1 2 2 1 2-3 1 Tarsal 75 1 3 1 2 2 Metatarsal 56 1 3 2 1 3 Phalanx 104 1 2 1-2 1 3 Hand or foot 14 Long bone fragment 99 Flat bone fragment 143 Unknown fragment 107 Total elements 2203 10 100 274 233 28 47 1207 Number of individuals 1 2 5 2 3 4

Because of the number of elements involved, most MNI calculations are based strictly on the number of elements or portions of elements represented for that side and that age group (i.e., 4 left proximal femora from children aged 6 to 10 years of age = an MNI of 4). When a range is given, there is no duplication of parts; however, the two parts fall at the opposite ends of the range for that group for children, or there are differences in size or age for the adults. For example, foot phalanges (aged by comparisons with aged La Plata burials) range in age from 7 to 9 years and are considered to represent one or two individuals. The final number of individuals in the table is the largest number for that column.

179 Abrasion Abrasion 1 Chop Chop Peel Gash/ Peel Gash/ Break Break Impact Impact Break Break Diagonal Diagonal Spiral Break Spiral Break Break Break Transverse Transverse Table 6.11. Alteration by age, LA 37593 Break Break Table 6.10. Alteration type by element, LA LA 37593 element, by type Alteration 6.10. Table Longitudinal 6 6 1 6 1 1 1 1 Elements Element No. Age Elements No. Longitudinal & % & Cranial fragmentCranial Frontal regionOrbit Zygomatic 28Parietal/occipitalRibHumerus 3 1Radius 8 2FemurTibiaFibulaCalcaneus 5 BoneLong 4 2Totals 10 1 6 1 2 1 3 79 2 1 28 2 4 3 1 3 6 1 9 4 3 4 1 3 2 21 7 1 1 2 1 43 1 1 1 1 4 0-21 7-1011-151 16-20 16-20Adult Adult 40+ 1 40+ 2 2Totals 2 63 79 4 4 2 1 2 2 3 15 21 6 7 37 43 1 1 1 3 4 MandibleMetacarpal 3 1 2 1 1

180 Table 6.12. Elements probably from the same individual and elements in articulation, LA 37593

FS Grid Level Elements * Side Age 500 33N 66E 1 metatarsals (2) * R 5-15 508 35N 65E 11 femur, tibia, fibula, and foot (14) L 6-8 foot (11) R 7-9 metacarpals (3) * R 8-10 cerv ical v ertebrae (3) 15-20 cran ial fragments (14 ) * 15-20 cran ial fragments (6) * 15-20 femur, patella, tibia, fibula (5) L adult 520 33N 65E 7 radius and ulna (2) R 5-7 cranium, mandible (2) 6-8 cranial parts and fragments (28) * 6-8 528 34N 64E 8 humerus, radius, ulna, hand (19) R 8-10 cran ial parts (3) * 15-20 radius, ulna (2) R adult metacarpals (4) L adult metacarpals (5) * L adult tibia, fibula, foot parts (4) L adult 529 34N 64E 9 cran ial fragments (68 ) * 5-15 teeth (9) * 5-15 metacarpals (3) * L 5-15 partial hand (16) * R 5-15 hand phalanges (4) ? 5-15 femur, tibia, fibula (3) R adult tarsals (3) L adult metatarsals (5) R adult 532 33N 66E 10 thoracic vertebrae (4)* 20-30 550 33N 64E 4 hand phalanges (9) R adult 551 35N 66E 6 thoracic vertebrae (4) * 8-10 scapula pieces (2) * R 15-20 cran ial parts (5) * adult tibia fragments (2) * R adult lumbar vertebrae, sacrum (4) * 40+ 556 35N 66E 1 cran ial fragments (2) * adult 557 33N 65E 8 tibia, fibula (2) R 2 tibia, fibula (2) L 2 metacarpals (2) L 3-5 metatarsals and phalanges (10) R 9-10 tarsals (7) R 9-10 558 33N 65E 9 two partial hands (20) R 3-5 hand phalanges (3) 3-5 tarsals (6) L 3-5 foot phalanges (2)* 3-5 lumbar vertebrae (2) 4-6 pelvis, R femur (6) 4-6 hand (24) L adult metatarsals and phalanges (13) L adult 559 34N 64E 10 humerus, radius, ulna (3) L 6-8 radius, ulna (2) R 6-8 metacarpals and phalanges (29) R, L 6-8 femur, tibia, fibula (3) R 6-8 foot (16) L 6-8 foot phalanges (3) ? adult 560 35N 65E 12 foot (14) R adult 561 35N 65E 13 radius, ulna, partial hand (23) R 7-9

181 FS Grid Level Elements * Side Age 563 35N 66E 7 cran ial parts (4) * adult atlas, axis vertebrae (2) * adult axis and cervical vertebrae 3 (2) * adult cerv ical vertebrae 4-7 (4 ) adult thoracic vertebrae (2) adult 563 and 564 cranial parts (10) * female, 15-20 564 35N 66E 8 lumbar vertebrae (2) 15-20 radius, ulna (2) R 15-20 thoracic vertebrae 1-7 (7) adult humerus, radius, ulna (3) R adult metacarpals (4) * R adult hand phalanges (2) * ? adult 569 (water line maxilla (2) * 15-20 trench) 572 35N 67E 2 femur fragments (3) * L adult 573 35N 67E 2 cranial parts (40) * L male? adult femur pieces (2) * R 7-9 574 33N 67E 3 foot (11) * L adult 577 36N 68E profile cervical and thoracic vertebrae (12) 8-10

(Number of elements) For example, the left leg in FS 508 consists of a femur, tibia, fibula, and 11 foot elements. * Appear to be from the same individual based on stage of development, size, preservation, etc.

Table 6.13. Comparison of clustered, altered, and carnivore-damaged proportions, LA 37593

FS/Grid/Level No. of Articulated or Same Altered Carnivore Damaged Elements Individual N % N % N % 127 39N 69E surface 1 1 100.0 303 35N 65E Level 5 6 1 16.7 500 33N 66E Level 1 15 2 13.3 508 35N 65E Level 11 122 56 45.9 6 4.9 1 .8 520 33N 65E Level 7 44 32 72.7 1 2.3 528 34N 64E Level 8 75 37 49.3 529 34N 64E Level 9 209 111 53.1 1 .5 531 33N 66E Level 9 35 5 14.3 1 2.9 532 33N 66E Level 10 102 4 3.9 1 1.0 3 2.9 534 37N 66E Level 2 9 1 11.1 550 33N 64E Level 4 10 9 90.0 551 35N 66E Level 6 62 17 27.4 1 1.6 556 35N 66E Level 1 6 2 33.3 557 33N 65E Level 8 55 23 41.8 558 33N 65E Level 9 104 76 73.1 1 1.0 559 34N 64E Level 10 102 56 54.9 1 1.0 560 35N 65E Level 12 37 14 37.8 1 2.7 561 35N 65E Level 13 35 23 65.7 3 8.6 563 35N 66E Level 7 335 19 5.7 22 6.6 29 8.6 564 35N 66E Level 8 315 25 7.9 35 11.1 9 2.9 569 water line trench 7 2 28.6 571 33N 67E Level 1 10 1 10.0 572 33N 67E Level 2 13 3 23.1 3 23.1 573 35N 67E Level 2 111 42 37.8 1 1.0 574 33N 67E Level 3 30 11 36.7 1 3.3 575 35N 67E Level 3 46 1 2.2 577 36N 68E profile 48 12+ 25.0 1 2.1 852 42N 67E Level 1 8 1 12.5 1 12.5

182 Table 6.14. Number of individuals represented by element, LA 37595

Element No. Elements Individuals

15-20y Female? Adult Tooth 1 1 Rib 1 1 Clavicle 1 1 Radius 1 1 Phalanx 3 1 Femur 1 1 Unknown fragment 1 1? Total elements 9 4 1 2 Number of 1 1 0-1 individuals

Table 6.15. Number of individuals represented by element, LA 37598

Element No. Elements Individuals 0-2 y 3-5 y Adult Cranial case fragment 2 1 1 Maxilla 1 1 Mandible 1 1 Tooth 7 1 1 1 Cranial fragment 38 Atlas 1 1 Axis 1 1 Cervical vertebra 6 1 Thoracic vertebra 8 1 Vertebra fragment 1 1 Scapula 2 2 Clavicle 2 1 Sternum 1 1 Rib 31 1 Metacarpal 2 1 Phalanx 3 1 Innominate 1 1 Tarsal 2 1 Total elements 128 6 71 13 Number of individuals 1 2 1

183 Table 6.16. Number of individuals represented by element, LA 37599

Element No. Elements Individuals 0-2 y 3-6 y Female? Male Adult Cranial case fragment 18 1 1 1 Maxilla 2 1 1 Tooth 3 1 Rib 9 1 1 Humerus 1 1 Femur 1 1 Fibula 1 1 Tarsal 1 1 Phalanx 1 1 Long bone fragment 1 Unknown fragment 1 Total elements 39 1 17 1 11 9 Number of individuals 1 1 1 1

Table 6.17. Number of individuals represented by element, LA 37600

Element No. Elements Individuals 5-15 y Male ? Adult Cranial case fragment 1 1 Mandible 1 1 Tooth 2 1 Humerus 1 1 Femur 3 1 Tibia 4 1 Fibula 1 1 Tarsal 5 1 1 Metatarsal 7 1 1 Phalanx 5 1 Long bone fragment 35 Flat bone fragment 2 Unknown fragment 26 1 Total elements 93 2 2 78* Number of individuals 1 1 0-1

* Sixty-nine of these are from a single provenience and probably represent a disintegrated burial.

184 Table 6.18. Number of individuals represented by element, LA 37601

Element No. Elements Individuals 0-2 y 3-5 y 5-15 y Female Male Adult Cranial case fragment 1 1 Tooth 3 1 1 Cranial fragment 6 Thoracic vertebra 1 1 Rib 1 1 Humerus 1 1 Carpal 4 1 Metacarpal 8 1 1 Phalanx 8 1 Femur 4 1 1 Fibula 1 1 Tarsal 3 1 Metatarsal 4 1 1 Phalanx 2 1 1 Long bone fragment 2 1? Unknown fragment 1 Total elements 50 2 6 2 4 2 34 Number of individuals 1 0-1 1 1 1 0-1

Table 6.19. Number of individuals represented by element, LA 37603

Element No. Elements Individuals 0-2 y 3-5 y 6-10 y 5-15 y Female Male Adult Cranial case fragment 14 1 1 1 1? Mandible 5 1-2 Tooth 6 1 2 Cranial fragment 16 Axis 1 1 Thoracic vertebra 11 1 1 Vertebra fragment 1 Rib 32 1 1 1? 1 Clavicle 1 1 Scapula 4 1 Humerus 4 1 Carpal 1 1 Metacarpal 7 1 1 Phalanx 16 1 1 1? 1 1 Tarsal 1 1 Metatarsal 3 1 1? Phalanx 1 1 Hand or foot 1 1 Long bone fragment 7 Flat bone fragment 8 Unknown fragment 6 Total elements 146 6 2 6 8 4 1 105 Number of individuals 1 1 1 0-1 1 1 0-2

185 Table 6.20. Number of individuals represented by element, LA 37605

Element No. Elements Individuals 0-2 y 5-15 y Female? Adult Mandible 6 1 Tooth 3 1 1 1? Sacrum 1 1 Femur 1 1 Fibula 1 1 Long bone fragment 1 1 Unknown fragment 4 Total elements 17 3 1 1 8 Number of individuals 1 1 1 1

Table 6.21. Number of individuals represented by element, LA 37606

Element No. Elements Individuals Adult Male Rib 1 1 Humerus 1 1 Hand phalanx 3 1 1 Metatarsal 1 1 Foot phalanx 2 1 Total elements 8 3 5 Number of individuals 1 1

186 Table 6.22. Number of individuals represented by element, LA 65030

Element No. Elements Individuals 0-2y 3-5y 6-10y 11-15y Female Male Adult Cranial case 57 2 2 2 1 Maxilla 4 2 Mandible 7 1 2 1 Tooth 17 1 1 1 1 Other cranial 7 Atlas 3 1 1-2 Axis 3 1 1-2 Cervical vertebra 6 1-2 Thoracic vertebra 12 1 1 2 Lumbar vertebra 6 1 1 Sacrum 4 1 2 Vert fragment 5 Scapula 1 1 Clavicle 3 1 1? Sternum 0 Rib 81 1 1-3 1+ Humerus 12 1 1 1 1 1 Radius 1 1 Ulna 4 3 Carpal 1 1 Metacarpal 1 1 Phalanx 6 1 1 1 Innominate 6 1 1 Femur 12 2 3 1 1 Patella 1 1 Tibia 7 2 1 1 Fibula 3 2 1 Tarsal 12 1 2-3 Metatarsal 11 2 1-3 1 Phalanx 9 2+ Hand or foot 1 1 Long bone fragment 35 Flat bone fragment 27 Unknown fragment 35 Total elements 400 30 2 55 18 39 3 233 Number of individuals 2 0-1 3 0-1 3 2

Table 6.23. Alteration type by element, LA 65030

No. Elements Spiral Impact Percussion Peel Scrape or Break Break Pit Abrasion Occipital 5 5 1 Parietal 10 10 1 4 Temporal 1 1 1 Frontal 2 1 1 Rib 1 1 Humerus 1 1 Femur 1 1 Metatarsal 1 1 Long bone 1 1 Totals 23 1 17 1 4 7

187 Table 6.24. Alteration type by age, LA 65030

No. Sp iral Impact Percussion Peel Scrape or Elements Break Break Pit Abrasion 9-11 13 11 2 4 25-30 & 4 3 1 3 35-40 & 2 2 Adult 3 1 1 1 Large child/Adult 1 1 Totals 23 1 17 1 4 7

Table 6.25. Comparison of bone assemblages from LA 37592, LA 37593, and LA 65030

Variable LA 37592 LA 37593 LA 65030 Postcranial Breakage Number of elements 304 1559 227 % complete 2.0 32.8 6.6 % > 50 percent 18.1 12.9 14.1 % < 50 percent 79.9 54.3 79.3 Carnivore Damage (all elements) Number of elements 395 2049 300 % damaged 1.0 2.6 12.6 Burning (all elements) Number of elements 395 2049 300 % light burn 5.8 % light to heavy burn 2.3 .1 .3 % heavy or smoked burn 1.3 4.0 % calcined .3 Total % burned 9.7 .1 4.3 Alteration (all elements) Number of elements 395 2049 300 % longitudinal break 4.0 .3 % transverse break .2 % diagonal break .4 % spiral break 9.6 .2 % impact break 8.9 .8 5.7 % peel 2.0 .1 1.3 % percussion pit .3 % chop .3 % cut 1.7 % scrape or abrasion .3 2.0 % crenulated edge 1.5 % hollowed .5 Total elements altered 87 77 28 22.0% 3.8% 9.3%

188 Table 6.26. Percent of elements, La Plata sites and Mancos

Element LA 37592 LA 37593 LA 65030 Mancos Vault 14.1 6.4 23.8 17.7 Maxilla 1.8 .7 2.3 1.6 Mandible 3.2 1.2 2.8 1.8 Tooth 3.6 5.9 3.3 4.2 Undifferentiated vertebrae 3.3 2.3 Cervical vertebra 4.1 2.1 1.4 2.6 Thoracic vertebra 1.8 3.4 5.6 2.9 Lumbar vertebra 1.2 .5 1.8 Sacrum 1.8 .7 .5 .3 Innominate .9 1.5 2.8 1.8 Rib 12.3 26.1 31.8 18.7 Sternum .3 .1 Clavicle 1.4 .6 1.4 1.8 Scapula 1.4 1.5 1.2 Humerus 5.9 1.6 5.1 3.8 Ulna 3.6 1.4 .5 2.3 Radius 3.6 1.6 .5 2.2 Patella .9 .4 .4 Femur 10.9 2.7 5.1 11.2 Tibia 12.3 2.0 1.9 8.4 Fibula 3.2 1.5 .9 3.3 Metacarpal 4.5 5.1 2.3 Metatarsal .4 3.6 2.8 2.9 Carpal 4.2 .5 .4 Tarsal 2.3 4.7 3.7 1.2 Hand phalanx 5.4 9.0 2.5 Foot phalanx .4 7.1 .5 2.4 No. elements 220 1457 214 1871

Mancos figures from White (1992:296)

189

CHAPTER 7 turalists. Caries result from an infectious disease process characterized by a demineralization of the dental tissues CONCLUSIONS by organic acids. These acids come from a fermentation of dietary carbohydrates. High frequencies have been noted in a number of groups shifting from hunting and Synthesizing data from the human remains recov- gathering to agriculture. The La Plata frequencies are ered by the La Plata Highway Project raised more ques- comparable to other groups in the Southwest. tions than it was able to answer. The goal of the analy- Although exact dietary composition beyond maize sis was not to provide descriptive forensics, which we is not clear, an examination of childhood health and argue is limiting and reductionist. Rather, the research growth and development can suggest the adequacy of agenda included a broadly biocultural perspective that the diet. Porotic hyperostosis, a response to iron defi- focused on questions derived from the archaeological ciency anemia in the Southwest, is an indicator of phys- context from which the remains came. This project rep- iological response to a decrease in the body’s ability to resents a truly collaborative approach between archaeol- transport oxygen to tissues. It results in an expansion of ogists and biological anthropologists. the thinner bones in the body because of an attempt to Sixty-seven burials representing the full range of produce more red blood cells. The outcome is bone that ages and sexes were recovered. While many of the larg- appears porous on the vault or in the orbits. The fre- er studies on human remains from the Southwest have quency data on this lesion for La Plata Valley include no focused on adaptation to scarce resources and marginal cases with severe involvement. environmental conditions, La Plata provides an alterna- Compared to other southwestern populations, the tive view. Resources may have been better than ade- La Plata sample falls in the middle range for frequency quate, at least during the periods ranging from A.D. 900 of porotic hyperostosis. These frequencies include all to 1100. The additional recovery of at least 68 individu- expressions of severity as well as different stages of als in disarticulated and nonburial contexts suggests that healing, yet the La Plata frequencies are generally about a wide variety of alternative modes of cultural and mor- half those of some Southwest skeletal collections. The tuary behavior operated within this region. root causes of iron deficiency are multiple and complex and may include poor diet, lack of sanitation, infections, HEALTH AND DEMOGRAPHY and other childhood diseases. Whatever the basis, the La Plata data suggest better overall health for its children. The goals of this study included demographic and This is supported by an additional data set. Enamel health profiles of the people living in the La Plata River developmental defects in the form of hypoplastic lines Valley. We wanted to contribute to baseline data that are indelible markers of childhood physiological disrup- could be compared with data from other Southwest tion. They result when a systemic health problem shuts groups, with the eventual goal of providing a larger down the formation of new enamel. The resulting regional synthesis of the relationships between biologi- defects were assigned an age of occurrence, which pro- cal well-being and cultural context. vides good documentation of disturbances during child- The demographic analysis of the burial population hood. Looking at the average number of dental defects demonstrated a mean age at death1 of 24.5 years. per tooth (for the central maxillary incisor and the max- Compared with other Southwest populations, this sug- illary and mandibular canine), La Plata children did not gests a relatively robust population, especially when carry the burden of morbidity that other southwestern combined with a moderate fertility rate. However, the groups did. The average defect of one hypoplastic line is under-representation of the most elderly age category distinctly less than in other Southwest series, such as suggests that the population as a whole had few elderly. Black Mesa, Mesa Verde, Yellow Jacket, Dolores, and The age composition of 10 percent infants under age 2, Sand Canyon, where averages run from two to as high 30 percent children from 1 to 9, 10 percent teens from as four lines per tooth. This low frequency suggests that 10 to 20, and 50 percent adults is almost identical to the suboptimal conditions and the resulting burden of child- age structure distribution for Black Mesa, Casas hood sickness were less problematic for children in the Grandes, and Pecos Pueblo, as well as non-Southwest La Plata communities than in other Southwest groups. sites such as Arikara villages and the Tlajinga (Mexico) Just as the bone lesions from iron deficiency were sites. This suggests a relatively representative precon- slight and mild in expression, the occurrence of sys- tact population. temic, nonspecific infections on the outer shafts of long It is clear that the La Plata communities were com- bones was generally mild in expression. Compared with mitted to a maize diet, since dental health reveals a pat- cases documented at other Southwest sites, where the tern of wear and disease common to traditional agricul- disease response was typically severe and active, La

191 Plata Valley residents seemed to have been buffered larger and more robust. from severe infection. Comparing total population fre- Further complicating the picture of health is the quencies across different Southwest sites, La Plata does case of metastatic cancer in a 19 year old. Another not stand out as having frequencies inconsistent with female aged 25 had not only multiple compression frac- other sites, and although these data do not reflect it, all tures on her head and a traumatic injury to her neck and of the La Plata cases are slight to moderate. Cases of fractured ribs, but she also had a severe case of infectious disease at Black Mesa, Chaco Canyon, and osteomyelitis rampant throughout her upper body and Dolores were mostly moderate to severe, indicating limbs. The proximate cause of this severe infection is greater morbidity than in La Plata. The large protohis- difficult to diagnose. However, it could result from a toric sites also demonstrated many severe cases. series of localized infectious sites that overwhelmed the Turning to the adult segment of the population, typical immune response, leading to full-blown sys- there are some notable patterns among males and temic osteomyelitic infection. females. Anemia was an almost equal liability for both A clear and surprising association emerged when males and females, suggesting that it was a function of the mortuary context of the battered women was exam- shared lifestyles. Differences in transmissible infectious ined. In this sample, as well as in other Southwest col- disease, however, suggest that liability was not shared. lections, the great majority of the burials are flexed or Females demonstrate a five times greater involvement. semiflexed, and placed within middens, abandoned structures, or in storage pits. Burials often contain asso- PATTERNS IN TRAUMA ciated objects, usually ceramic vessels or ground stone. No female at La Plata with cranial trauma followed this Yet more distinctive patterns emerged from this col- mortuary pattern. Some women with cranial trauma lection. Frequencies of cranial and postcranial trauma were found in positions that were prostrate and/or sug- (represented by healed or healing fractures) demonstrate gestive of being hurled. Particularly at one Barker disparate trends across subgroups. Children were almost Arroyo site, LA 65030, several unusual burials dating to free of fractures. Only one 15 year old had a healed the thirteenth century were located at in the fill of a pit compression fracture on the left parietal. There were structure. One female (65030 B9) with a large healed three cases of male cranial trauma: one 25-year-old male fracture at the top of her head was on her back with legs had a healed compression fracture of the right parietal, a and arms splayed outward. Another younger female similarly aged male had a healed fracture at the corner (65030 B8), found on her back, had healed fractures on of the left eye, and one aged 35 had a compression frac- the nose and base of the head. Another female (65030 ture on the left parietal near the occipital. Male postcra- B6) with a healed fracture of the occipital was semi- nial fractures include a healed Colle’s fracture (distal flexed but on her face. Finally, a child (65030 B7, 10.5 ends of the forearm bones), a healed thumb fracture, and years) without traumatic lesions was found in this same healed rib fractures. These lower body fractures did not structure on the back with arms and legs splayed. At this co-occur with head trauma. In contrast, six females have same site but in a different pit structure and an earlier healed, nonlethal blows to the head, and five females context (A.D. 1000-1075), another female (65030 B16) demonstrate lower body traumatic circumstances. In with compression fractures on the right forehead and four cases, the cranial and postcranial fractures co- occipital was placed in a semiflexed but haphazard posi- occur. In the disarticulated remains, healed cranial trau- tion near a pit structure wall with a piece of ground ma includes two adult occipitals with medium-sized stone resting on the cranium. The pattern holds for bat- depression fractures, and an 8- to 10-year-old child with tered females from other sites at La Plata. For example, a small lesion on the parietal. Disarticulated adult post- one female from Barker Arroyo, LA 37601, dating to cranial trauma include a fibula fracture with a large cal- A.D. 1125-1200 (B4), appears somewhat askew. This lus (LA 37592, FS 551-10) and a radius and ulna with burial has no associated goods and multiple traumas. healed fractures near the distal end (LA 37592, FS 25 Although not as common the pattern of unaccompanied, and FS 26). haphazard burial and cranial trauma also occurs in The kinds of compression fractures found in males. Both cases are from LA 37599 and date to the females suggest nonlethal blows to the head with blunt A.D. 1000s. A male with a large depressed fracture of objects. Postcranial co-occurrences of fractures include the right parietal (37599 B5) was found in the fill of a two healed fractured necks (first cervical vertebrae; cer- pit structure, semiflexed with no associated objects. A vical vertebrae three through five), a healed fracture of second male (37599 B9) with a fracture of the left the right fibula, traumatic dislocation of the left hip, frontal near the orbit was placed in a large subfloor cist healed distal right radius, and three females who showed within a pit structure more or less extended with one leg marked lower body asymmetry, in which one side was bent at the knee and only a piece of ground stone, pos-

192 sibly an offering. The burial situations for one female blages found in northern Mexico at La Quemada (A.D. and one male with cranial trauma are unknown. There is 650), where skeletal elements were arranged in groups a 15 year old with a healed cranial trauma (37592 B6) of limb bones lying parallel to one another along with who was formally buried and accompanied by grave portions of cranial vaults. Interpretations include “pro- goods. cessing enemy corpses after battle, sacrificial rites These patterns of cranial trauma and informal bur- involving either enemies or community members, can- ial are provocative, but we are limited in our ability to nibalistic feasting, and charnel treatment, presumably of fully explain them. Their salient features are that exam- revered ancestors or community members” (Nelson et ples occur from contexts spanning three centuries, that al. 1992:304). Numerous reports of disarticulated more females than males are found fitting the pattern, assemblages from other sites in northern and central and that all cases are adults. As discussed further below, Mexico describe long bones piled together, along with this pattern may indicate the presence of a subgroup, broken crania and other miscellaneous bones (Pickering which was treated differently from the rest of the inhab- 1985). The bones often exhibit cut marks (primarily in itants. the regions of muscle insertions or near the distal ends). Thus, while not unheard of in the precontact New CULTURALLY MODIFIED DISARTICULATED ASSEMBLAGE World, this mortuary configuration presents a challenge for contextualization within the Four Corners region. Excavations at La Plata also recovered elements There is virtually nothing in the LA 37592 assem- representing at least 68 individuals (based on a mini- blage of disarticulated and largely broken bone that dis- mum numbers index), found mostly in beds of disartic- tinguishes it as biologically different from the remains ulated bone at three sites. Some dislocation of the skele- of individuals in formal burials. In terms of pathologies, tal elements is likely to have been postmortem due to one of the disarticulated infants (FS 206-3) has an active mechanical and other kinds of disruption. However, the case of porotic hyperostosis on the parietal, an adult has disarticulation of bone at least at LA 37592, Jackson two distinct hypoplasia lines on a central incisor (FS Lake, can be explained in terms of perimortem behavior. 228-1), and another adult has a healed fracture of a slen- This assemblage contained bones that were burned, cut, der long bone, probably a fibula (FS 551-1). This is not broken near the time of death, and arranged in unusual unusual, given that a two of the infants from the burial positions. population also exhibited porotic hyperostosis and The disarticulated human remains from La Plata hypoplasia and fractures occur throughout the burial Valley clearly were the product of several different population. depositional or processual pathways and, while not Stable carbon isotopes were run on one sample of completely understood, have some instructive features. the disarticulated adult bone from LA 37592 (FS 138), For example, the 12 or so individuals recovered from Pit and the resulting data approximate the average value for Structure 1, LA 37592, Jackson Lake represent the full the La Plata burial population. With a delta value of - range of age categories, from infants to adults. There 7.67, this individual cannot be distinguished from sam- were up to two infants, one or two small children (aged ples tested from the burials. All this information really 5 to 7), one or two children a bit older (9 to 11), and at reveals is that these people had the same dietary base as least one teenager. There were at least two adult males other individuals recovered from the La Plata Valley. aged 30 to 35 and around 40, at least one female, and Had the delta values been substantially different, a case possibly a couple of other adults (Table 7.1). Over 20 could have been made that these people were from a percent of the skeletal elements from these individuals group with a different subsistence base. Further chemi- demonstrate signs of human alteration that include spi- cal analyses of more of the disarticulated remains could ral fractures, parallel cuts, burning, spalling, and longi- be conducted, but we feel confident that the findings tudinal breaks. would continue to support the notion that the subjects of Some of the bones were arranged in a way that sug- these violent acts are not foreigners, but rather members gests they were carefully organized. Split long bones of the existing community. were placed in parallel fashion resting on portions of Also retrieved from LA 37592 were eight discrete cranial vaults in two different people.2 One piece of cra- burials ranging in age from a preterm fetus, to several nium was on the bottom, and another was on the top. small children and a teenager, and including an older This assemblage is similar to that reported at Yellow (50+) female and an unaged adult female. Interestingly, Jacket by Malville (1989) and Turner and Morris (1970) no adult male burials were recovered from this site. The in the Southwest, but different from other disarticulated teenager (age 15, sex unknown) has a healed depression assemblages (Swedlund 1965; White 1992; Turner fracture on a parietal. This burial was intentionally 1993). Interestingly, this is remarkably similar to assem- placed and accompanied by two vessels. Four of these

193 burials were flexed or semiflexed, and four had associ- tually no biological or genetic differences between these ated grave goods (burial context is unknown for three, two groups, and historically and up to the present, their and the fetus was found in a corrugated jar). material culture looks quite similar. The fact that they Morphometric and genetic data could not be are now divided along culturally defined ethnic bound- obtained in any systematic fashion for the disarticulated aries that have more to do with political, historic, lin- remains. This is unfortunate, because the relatedness of guistic, and religious differences than any identifying this group of people is important. If these remains rep- features of their biology or material culture provides a resent an extended family, their significance is quite dif- strong cautionary tale. Recent reports revealed that ferent from the presence of a group of unrelated people. Serbian military have beaten, tortured, mutilated, and An overall qualitative assessment of the size, muscular- burned Croatians, including men, women, and children ity, robusticity, and general morphology revealed no dis- (CNN Headline News, 7 October 1994). Would not tinguishing features from the burial population. Future these assemblages show the same criteria currently used analytical procedures based on an analysis of DNA to interpret cannibalistic activity? So-called signatures extracted from the bone collagen may prove useful. of cannibalism (Turner 1993) include burned and cut The age composition of this group is intriguing. bones, splintered, fractured, and broken bones, bone Titiev (1972) and, more recently, Levy (1992) provide with peeling, adherent flakes, and burned elements. All in-depth studies of historic Hopi villages. Levy in par- of these cultural modifications could result from an ticular explores the size of families in protohistoric and alternative pathway that is motivated by anger and hate, historic times, and suggests that an extended family liv- with no cannibalism involved. ing in a matriarchal setting ranges from 9 to 20 individ- Much more research is necessary to even begin to uals, depending on the number of daughters versus sons. untangle the web of possible underlying factors that tar- A family with mostly sons will be on the smaller side, geted some people for violent deaths in the precontact while daughters will cause the family size to grow as Southwest. The La Plata Valley disarticulated remains husbands are brought into the matrilineal fold. It is provide abundant evidence that the picture is not simple, compelling to think about the group of disarticulated and that the variability underlying the assemblages individuals from LA 37592 as an extended family unit. needs to be carefully explored. As discussed in the previous chapter, accusations of Except for LA 37592, then, the disarticulated witchcraft may account for the demise of these individ- remains from all other sites in the La Plata Valley repre- uals. In a review of Pueblo witchcraft beliefs, Ellis sent burials that became disarticulated and dispersed (1989) writes that witches were traditionally blamed for through a variety of means. For example, LA 37593, environmental or personal problems that occur in vil- Jackson Lake most clearly represents burials that lages. Ellis quotes Bandelier’s 1890 manuscript, in became disarticulated during the re-excavation of a pre- which he details the butchering and mutilation of three viously abandoned structure. The arrangement of the men and a woman at Nambe Pueblo in March 1855. human remains and the nature of the breakage can most Bandelier attributes the population decline at Santa parsimoniously be explained by movement of the buri- Clara, Nambe, and Zia to “constant interkilling due to als from one place to another. witchcraft” (Ellis 1989:192). Neighbors and people The combined mortuary and pathology analyses within villages, as well as in adjacent villages, were revealed some interesting information on precontact often targets of witchcraft. The penalties and punish- Pueblo ideology and lifestyle. In terms of treatment of ments for witchcraft, as documented in early historic the dead, Toll and Schlanger (1998) demonstrate that it times, could account for the broken and fractured bone is likely that some individuals were intentionally buried found at LA 37592. Ellis (1989:213) notes that the in abandoned structures that may have been their origi- accused were beaten to death with clubs. Part of the rit- nal home. The finding that some individuals buried at ual of killing witches involves dismembering the body different times in an abandoned pit structure shared a to obliterate the essential human form. genetic predisposition for vertebral anomalies suggests Although others may choose to interpret this assem- genetic relatedness. Ideologically, this suggests that ties blage as the product of perimortem activity associated to certain localities remains strong in spite of the ten- with cannibalism, we choose to emphasize other, equal- dency of families and villages to move relatively often. ly plausible scenarios. Witchcraft is an alternative As Edmund Ladd (1991:34), a noted Zuni scholar, hypothesis. Another is small-scale warfare. One does relates, “There are a lot of Anasazi ruins. They’re scat- not need to invoke data showing that there were huge tered all over the place because that’s where our ances- shifts in political ideology, or invading “outsiders.” tors traveled. They weren’t traveling because there were Recent reports on the civil war among the Serbians and droughts or there was pestilence. They were traveling Croatians provide an interesting parallel. There are vir- because they were looking, searching, for the center

194 place. . . . Each one, until they found their own center political and economic phenomena in the Four Corners place, moved every four [years].” region between A.D. 1000 and 1300, and archaeologists Constant movement could also create situations in need to be involved in theory building about the data. which abandoned villages were reoccupied by others. Explanations of the targeted subgroups of battered indi- Renovation could create the types of assemblages found viduals and massacred families are inextricably linked at LA 37593, where remains buried in one spot are to what was happening in the area and can only be unceremoniously removed and placed elsewhere. In the understood when looked at from broader and more case of LA 37593, cobbles appear to have been inten- interdisciplinary perspectives. tionally thrown or placed on top of the excavated Taken as a whole, the disarticulated assemblage and remains. This suggests several things. Not all burials the burial population suggest several things, but the were left alone or considered venerable; perhaps only most salient feature is the range of variability embodied burials from one’s natal group or village were deemed in this relatively small set of sites occupied over several inviolable. If one interprets the cobbles as intentionally hundred years. Multiple layers of causation underlay thrown at the remains and the breakage as intentional, group morbidity and mortality, including a wide variety then, in addition to lack of reverence, animosity may of practices regarding the appropriate management and have been a motivating factor. disposition of the dead. The La Plata population was a Surely, group identity based on birth or shared res- homogeneous group in that we found no quantitative or idence was an important feature of the ideology behind qualitative differences among the burial and nonburial mortuary practices. Added to this notion of group iden- assemblages. This recognition shifts the focus of inter- tity is the possibility of targeted subgroups either within pretation into areas defined by local political economic groups or among groups. The women found in aban- relations, religious and symbolic distinctions, and other doned pit structures at LA 65030 shared two things: local or regional organizational features of these extant healed traumatic lesions and unceremonious burial. groups. Furthermore, a child (10.5 years old) was found in asso- With current techniques from forensic and medical ciation with these burials, suggesting some form of rela- sciences, we are swayed by the evidence that the burial tionship to one or more of the women. Because these population and the individuals represented by only par- women and the child are not distinguishable from the tial or isolated bones were all Pueblo people. That is not rest of the burial population in terms of morphometry or to say that there were not linguistic and other distin- discrete traits, they must have been considered “differ- guishing features that may have differentiated groups ent” based on ideological grounds. from one another in the La Plata Valley. In fact, cultur- Individuals with cranial trauma were clearly in a ally defined ethnic differences must have distinguished separate category from the individuals found disarticu- groups, just as the Pueblos today have linguistic and cul- lated at LA 37592. The age and sex structure of the LA tural features that make each group a distinct entity. 37592 disarticulated individuals suggests an extended family. The violent subtext of these remains points to THE LA PLATA HEALTH PROFILE multiple homicides. Again, it appears that these individ- uals were genetically related to others in the La Plata A preliminary profile of biological well-being fol- Valley based on the overall morphological characteris- lows. It is a youthful sample. Only 6 percent of the death tics of the remains. As discussed, these skeletal remains assemblage is aged 50 or older, so it is not surprising were cut, broken, burned, and disarticulated. More spec- that the inventory of disease does not emphasize ulatively, there may be bite marks and hollowing of long osteoarthritis. Most adults aged 40 and older at La Plata bones. Were these people eaten, or were they tortured, do not show any clinically significant signs of this dismembered, and burned? It is premature to categori- degenerative, wear-and-tear disability. Infectious dis- cally state the intent behind the behaviors that created ease is present in a number of individuals, but its inten- this assemblage, but we are leaning toward an explana- sity is generally mild. The occurrence of anemia and tion of ritual massacres that may involve a variety of growth defects is moderate compared to other activities. Southwest groups. Thus, the morbidity burden on the La These hypotheses remain to be tested and verified Plata community may not have been one that placed in future studies. These data need to be linked to broad- much disability or hardship on the whole. Health at La er theories about settlement patterns, group identity, Plata was not compromised to the extent demonstrated population movement, and resource distribution in the at other Southwest sites. However, the presence of La Plata Valley and the larger Totah area, as well as the crowd diseases such as tuberculosis suggests that the interactions between the Totah region and others. These community was eventually quite large and densely situ- findings are not unrelated or ancillary to other important ated.

195 Interpersonal strife, however, may have placed a 1986:135). In the comparative analysis of pathologies significant amount of stress on some members of the from the Pueblo Bonito and the smaller sites, Akins community. Trauma is almost absent in children and (1986:137-140) suggests that higher status individuals more benign in adult males. Females carry the unequal had greater access to nutritional resources and enjoyed burden of traumatic injuries in this group. Furthermore, better health. Although there is some indication of bet- the comorbidity factors of cranial and postcranial trau- ter health, both groups experienced degenerative dis- ma, infections, and decreased life expectancy suggest eases throughout adulthood. Although the study suffers truly suboptimal conditions for some adult females. from small sample size, it does begin to address the Females with these health problems are more likely to interplay of cultural and biological variables. have been in mortuary contexts best described as hap- Specifically, it is useful for answering questions con- hazardly thrown or discarded, with no associated grave cerning community health among assumed high and low offerings. status individuals. Detailed information provided by the This is a community that also practiced, at least in archaeological context is used to support interpretations some contexts, perimortem activities that resulted in of the relationship between political structures and people’s death, and these deaths were marked by activi- health. ties that included chopping and burning of the bodies. Stodder (1987) provides a regional synthesis of the This group could have included individuals identified as paleopathology of the Mesa Verde remains. She divides posing a threat (to individuals, to the community, to the 466 burials into two temporal groups: Basketmaker III region, to the cosmos). These individuals were most through Pueblo II (A.D. 600-975) and Pueblo II-III likely put to death in a ritualistic manner, resulting in the (A.D. 975-1275). These individuals represent the popu- disarticulated bone bed found at LA 37592. lation in the Mesa Verde region during periods of Certainly, as new information comes to light, or as growth and decline in the northern San Juan region. the data collected are reanalyzed using new and more Using paleoepidemiological methods, Stodder docu- exact techniques, these hypotheses may be modified, ments a trend toward increasing morbidity and higher expanded, or rejected. Our collective view of the com- mortality in younger ages. Integrating this information bined osteological and archaeological data has led us to with data describing climatic, ecological, nutritional, these conclusions. and political changes occurring at the end of the later period, Stodder’s interpretation suggests that communi- COMPARING HEALTH PROFILES OF LA PLATA, MESA ty health became increasingly compromised. VERDE, AND CHACO CANYON POPULATIONS Stodder’s work is important because it emphasizes population analyses that take many factors into consid- Chaco Canyon contains the largest concentration of eration in the interpretation of community health. Her Anasazi great houses known from the eleventh and study contrasts with one undertaken by Miles (1975), a twelfth centuries. Contemporary communities in much clinical orthopedist who examined 179 burials from of the Southwest probably participated in events coordi- Wetherill Mesa, part of Mesa Verde. Although he was nated by Chaco, and the canyon may have housed thou- able to note the occurrence of arthritis, infections, trau- sands of individuals at least periodically. Occupations ma, and other ailments, Miles (1975:35) concluded that within the canyon range from Basketmaker III (600 the Mesa Verde Anasazi were “a surprisingly healthy A.D.) to Pueblo III (A.D. 1200), when people were also population . . . capable of great physical independence.” living in the La Plata Valley. The relationship of Chaco Because there is no archaeological context for his analy- to other populations in the region is an important sis, because frequencies are not presented for the popu- research question for the La Plata Highway Project and lation, and because it is a synchronic and descriptive others. presentation of bone lesions in an analytical vacuum, it Only a few hundred burials have been scientifically is difficult to evaluate his findings. His report suggests recovered from Chaco, and these have been the subject an impression of community health that is at odds with of a number of studies. Akins (1986) contrasts 132 buri- Stodder’s assessment. als, mostly from small sites within Chaco Canyon, with Thus, comparing the health of individuals residing burials from Pueblo Bonito, the largest Chaco Canyon in the La Plata Valley to those at Chaco and Mesa Verde site (Palkovich 1984). The analysis addressed differ- is not a simple task. Within the paleopathological litera- ences in health of high status (Pueblo Bonito) and low ture, there are conflicting reports on health status not status (small site) individuals. This study suggests that only within sites, but between close sites, and among Chaco Canyon Anasazi suffered from “subsistence sites farther apart. In an attempt to generalize and step stress” as indicated by growth disruption, high rates of back from the individualized data sets, we categorized nutritional anemia, and degenerative diseases (Akins selected Southwest skeletal populations according to

196 mortality, fertility, pathology, and stature (Table 7.2). mobility, increased stratification, and the need for more We arrived at an overall assessment of groups vis-à-vis rigid rules about resource production and allocation. each other. Following Nelson et al. (1994), we com- Violence against women in an area where there was an pared the La Plata series to six skeletal series on mean abundance of resources seems to make sense only in a age at death and fertility with a range of other health context of shifting regional political and economic variables (porotic hyperostosis in subadults and adults, strategies. and infection, trauma, and dental defects in subadults Understanding the political, economic, cultural, and and adults combined). Admittedly partial, this compari- environmental determinants of health is an important son at least allows us to begin to think about how well initiative. We need to devise and utilize theoretical groups were doing on a variety of important biological frameworks that are responsive to the historical and and cultural levels. contextual factors that lead to illness and death, as well A number of interesting trends emerge from this as those that aid in the maintenance of good health and exercise. It is generally assumed that where resources equitable treatment among community members. are high and stable (as near permanent water sources in western deserts), people will “do better,” and there will THE ETHICAL ASPECTS OF WHAT WE DO be fewer internal pressures and therefore less violence. When resources are scarce and productivity is low, there “The ‘old ones’ did not live according to an elaborate will be an increased amount of pressure and stress, and and formalized ideology of absolute truth . . . they lived this could lead to poor health and violence. This sim- knowing that this place, this time, is all that there is. plistic cause-and-effect model does little to help explain This place is where it all happens—happiness, sadness, the patterns seen in the Southwest. In fact, the exact pain, obligation, responsibility, and joy. . . . It is under- opposite seems to be supported by the data in Table 7.2. stood that the achievement of harmony is transitory Although most of the health indices are relatively good since the powaha3 is a constant re-creation and transfor- for La Plata, the incidence of trauma is the highest, and, mation.” Swentzell (1993:141) as has been shown, much of the trauma is likely to have resulted from interpersonal strife. It is sheer folly to think that we can look at the It is likely that an area such as the La Plata Valley physical remains of a people long gone and reconstruct provided a stable and high level of resources—archae- the important events that made up their lives. Without ologists have suggested that La Plata was a “bread bas- the textured layering of oral tradition and the voices of ket” (H. Toll 1993). An agreeable life expectancy, mod- those most closely related to the people we study, as sci- erate fertility, location in a well-watered area, moderate entists we are destined to create a series of scenarios endemic disease rates, and proximity to major political that, although grounded in theoretical modeling and centers would have presented an appealing and advanta- empirical observation, are wanting in exactness and geous community to move into, especially during diffi- authenticity. Leslie Marmon Silko (1987:93), a Pueblo cult periods in other areas. With increased population woman, has written about the scientific study of the density, resources would have to be controlled and/or ancient Pueblo world: “The interpretation of our reality differentially distributed. Certain groups could control through patterns not our own serves only to make us both labor and distribution of goods, producing a form ever more unknown, ever less free, ever more solitary.” of underclass. This scenario is supported by demo- We agree that it is important not to overlay modern graphic data that suggest a moderate birth rate (fertility) analogs over the past to extract meaning. And we do not and by archaeological indications of increased popula- presume to reconstruct any part of ancient Pueblo life tion demonstrated by increased habitation areas and except for the most rudimentary outline of basic rela- storage facilities (Hannaford 1993). All indicators of tionships: spatial arrangement, architecture, material health and demography suggest a viable and robust culture, birth, illness, death. Yet, much can be gained community, at least for most members. With concomi- from this exercise. At the very least, we contribute in tant empirical data suggesting high rates of traumatic important ways to the documentation of life in America episodes and violence, discord among community mem- before European expansion. The evidence garnered bers seems apparent. With an influx of new people, the through the lens of health suggests a rich and varied set growing La Plata communities may not have had effec- of customs and lifestyles, complex beyond our compre- tive means for dealing with conflict. Anger and hostility hension. could have been directed against targeted groups of peo- Tracking the health of men, women, and children is ple, who moved into the La Plata region. In short, a never an empty exercise. It contributes in important more secure economy could have been the precipitating ways to a better understanding of the kinds of stresses to factor that led to increased population density, decreased which most of the world’s population is subjected. The

197 information from the past suggests that we have not men were lost from the group due to illnesses and trau- understood the relationship between politics, diet, dis- matic events that emanated from lifestyle, but we are ease, birth, birth spacing, and biological cost, and that hard pressed to know the social mechanisms that helped these factors contribute to poor health the world over. these people continue with their lives in the face of hard- Part of this exercise, important to scientists but not ship. Making these connections between lifestyle and necessarily to indigenous people, is to understand the health are critical not just for understanding the past, but long, long history of men, women, and children living in for understanding the present and future as well. harsh environments. Clearly, people survive, but what is We acknowledge that some members of the the cost? Although we have measured and quantified American Indian community today disagree that these iron deficiency anemia for the La Plata population, we kinds of studies are useful in the bigger picture of glob- have not balanced this knowledge with an understand- al health and adaptation. It is hoped that this kind of ing of the kinds of medicinal plants that were used, or research contributes to the breaking down of dangerous the ceremonies and community events which most like- stereotypes and opens new ways of knowing about the ly had powerful meaning for members of the group. We past. know that in the La Plata Valley, children, women, and

198 Table 7.1. Age composition of selected Southwest burial populations compared to age composition of disarticulated remains

Percentage Population (N) <1 year <2 years 2-9 years 1-9 years 10-18 years >18 years

La Plata burials (67) 6.0 30.3 9.0 54.5

Mesa Verde Early (150) 10.6 18.0 14.0 57.3

Mesa Verde Late (178) 16.8 18.5 23.5 48.6

Pueblo Bonito (93) 1.0 16.1 17.2 40.4

Black Mesa (165) 10.4 24.2 14.5 50.9

Casas Grandes (612) 10.0 22.0 14.0 54.0

Pecos Pueblo (1722) 18.7 14.0 8.0 59.0

Minimum MNI La Plata 16.2 26.5 11.8 45.6 disarticulated (68)

Without LA 37592 (60) 15.0 26.7 11.7 46.7

LA 37592 (12) 16.6 25.0 8.3 50.0

199 (cm) Height/Female 169 162 (cm) Height/Male Hypoplasias (%) Infection (%) Trauma (%) Enamel Porotic Adults (%) Adults Hyperostosis/ Porotic Hyp erostosis / Subadults (%) Rank Fertility Table 7.2. Comparison of La Plata with selected Southwest skeletal populations at Birth at Expectancy Group Life Chaco Canyon 83 72 17 17 88 164 157 La PlataBlack Mesa VerdeMesa Early Late Verde Mesa 24.5 26.2 21.3 18.4 medium high low high 61 86 51 93 45 31 87 74 31 12 24 21 13 4 66 61 85 161 81 162 163 152 155 153 Pueblo Bonito 25.5 medium 25

200 NOTES 2. More detailed information on individual burial con- texts can be found in the volumes containing site CHAPTER 1 descriptions. 3. This information unfortunately falls short of our own 1. We are especially grateful to H. Wolcott Toll and Eric recommendation that a more detailed description and Blinman for overseeing the administrative details of the categorization of mortuary context be undertaken. For analyses involving human remains. Timothy Maxwell, example, Ravesloot (1988:42-56) breaks many of these director of the Office of Archaeological Studies, divisions down further into smaller classifications that Museum of New Mexico, and Bruce Bernstein and Ed would permit subtle but important variations to be Ladd, cochairs of the Museum of New Mexico Sensitive observed. For the La Plata Valley burials, Schlanger Material Committee, have been extremely helpful in (n.d.) and Toll and Schlanger (1998) have taken a more facilitating this study. Tom Merlan, former state historic in-depth look at burial location, and we hope that stud- preservation officer, and Herman Agoyo, executive ies such as theirs will form the basis for additional director of the Eight Northern Indian Pueblos Council, investigations that seek to delineate variability in mor- also helped the project obtain permission to carry out tuary behavior. 4. These tables show the assigned range of dates for various stages of the analyses. Nancy Hunter Warren burials. In some cases, date assignments represent a took and printed the photographs. span of 300 years. Other burials, such as nine of the ten burials from LA 37599, could be assigned a smaller CHAPTER 2 range, in this case, A.D. 1000-1075. As with many archaeological skeletal series, we analyze the burials 1. The Chicago Standards are the outgrowth of a largely as one collective group, recognizing that these National Science Foundation–sponsored workshop held individuals accumulated over a period of approximately at the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago 300 years at these sites. For ease of analysis, the dates (January 1991) organized by Jonathan Haas. At this (based on ceramic association and stratigraphic context) workshop, various leaders in the field of skeletal biolo- assigned in Tables 3.1-3.4 are recast as assignments gy presented their recommendations for guidelines on within the conventional Pueblo phase system in all sub- data collection. Although many skeletal biologists cur- sequent analyses. Thus, burials dated A.D. 1000-1300 rently use some manifestation of these recommenda- are assigned Pueblo II-III. Burials with dates ranging tions, the major contribution of this effort will be to between A.D. 1000-1125 have been assigned Pueblo II, standardize the way the data are collected and analyzed. and A.D. 1125-1300 becomes Pueblo III. At all times, 2. For data collection forms dealing with dental assess- associations between the earlier and later burials are ment, deciduous hypoplasia, hypoplasia, and definition attempted, but in every case, small sample size and buri- of dental measures, see Martin et al. (1991:235-240). als with overlapping designations obscure any temporal 3. The late Gregory Gordon was a practicing physician analysis. In terms of spatial distribution, the sites all and director of the Cancer Treatment Center at Saint come from two geographic locales, Barker Arroyo and Vincent Hospital in Santa Fe, New Mexico. His interests Jackson Lake (distinguished in Tables 3.1-3.4 by the in paleopathology were backed by a good background in symbol [*]). These locations are separated by a few southwestern prehistory and skeletal biology. He pro- miles. Site distribution indicates that these are definite- vided x-ray analysis and aided the team in diagnostics ly clusters, possibly representing two different commu- and etiological explanations. His work with the project nities (H. Toll, personal communication, 1994). We greatly enhanced it, particularly in the area of differen- have tried to discriminate among the two locales when tial diagnosis. possible, but usually the sample sizes were too small to reveal distinct differences in mortuary or demographic CHAPTER 3 attributes. 5. Dr. Schlanger was part of the original team of archae- 1. Adding further dimension to this variability in the ologists who excavated the remains studied here. mortuary context of primary burials is the fact that there Therefore, her insights into ideas about the nature of the are also disarticulated remains, mass commingled buri- burials have been most helpful. als, secondary burials, and isolated bone elements. 6. After a thorough assessment of developmental age for Adding these possibilities to Anasazi mortuary customs the assemblage (see Chapter 2), by convention and for increases the variability many times over. Disarticulated ease of analysis, a midpoint age range was assigned. remains from the La Plata Valley are discussed in Sometimes the midpoint represents a very small plus-or- Chapters 6 and 7 and will not be reviewed here. minus range such as 1-2 years. Other times, the age rep-

201 resents the midpoint of a ten-year approximation (this is hyperostosis. particularly true of some of the adults). In dealing with 4. It should be noted that it does not take heavy stone this type of variability in age assignment, assignment of implements to cause depression fractures to the crani- a midpoint to the age range provides some measure of um. In a forensic case, Bhootra (1985) reports that a congruity for analysis but may obscure a more exact man beaten with a wood yard broom had lacerated revelation of age-associated trends. wounds on the left side of his head and bruises on his 7. For this analysis, Burial 37605 B3, a Basketmaker III arms. He later died of suppurative meningitis, and upon child, was not used in the construction of the life table. autopsy, a wound 2 by 0.5 cm in diameter on the left 8. Under-enumeration in the youngest age category, frontal bone of the skull was revealed. Thus blunt trau- newborn to age one, does not significantly influence the ma with a wood stick caused a depression fracture on calculations in subsequent categories (Moore et al. the skull that is quite similar in location and dimension 1975). to the compression fractures noted in the La Plata spec- 9. The La Plata fertility rate was based on a total sample imen. size of 61. We could not consider the 2 adults of 5. Unfortunately, the other two males with cranial trau- unknown age or the 4 females of unknown age. The ma cannot be assigned to a mortuary context. Basketmaker III child was also not used in this estima- 6. When possible, endocranial damage was assessed. It tion. Thus, there were 19 individuals aged over 30, and was difficult to assess some of the intact crania because 44 individuals aged over 5. the location of the depression fracture made it impossi- ble to see the endocranial table, even with a flashlight. CHAPTER 4 7. This in itself is not unusual for the La Plata region. Morris (1939), Renaud (1927), and Bennett (1975) have 1. In working with physicians and dentists over the all noted that although most crania after ca. A.D. 700 years, we have been reminded that there is extreme vari- show occipital or lambdoidal flattening, not all skulls ation in the association of severity of pathology and pain do. This variability seems most pronounced in the La and discomfort. For example, at a presentation at Ohio Plata, Durango, and Mesa Verde regions. State University on trauma and arthritis in precontact populations, a physician specializing in skeletal disor- CHAPTER 5 ders and fracture repair told us that he has seen hundreds of x-rays of people with arthritis and other bone prob- 1. Permission to sample the femoral and rib bone was lems. He cautioned that some advanced cases of obtained from the Museum of New Mexico Committee osteoarthritis, involving total fusion of vertebrae, may on Sensitive Materials and the appropriate tribal coun- not be particularly problematic or painful. He also cils. Carbon and nitrogen isotope analyses are being car- reminded us that some people with no radiological signs ried out in the laboratory of Nikolaas van der Merwe, of osteological problems may be hindered by constant Landon T. Clay Professor of Scientific Archaeology and and debilitating back pain. Professor of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Peabody 2. Although the La Plata study utilized many of the Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138. methods of paleoepidemiology, we did not feel the sam- Only stable carbon has been analyzed at this time. ple size warranted the use of elaborate statistical analy- 2. We originally chose 20 La Plata adults to be examined ses. Frequencies combined with means, standard devi- for stable isotopes (both carbon and nitrogen) based on ations, and ratios are adequate to begin to discern pat- preservation quality as well the availability of other terns. information on the burial such as age, sex, mortuary 3. In the analysis of the Black Mesa skeletal remains component, metrics, and pathologies. We also wanted (A.D. 800-1150), we originally assessed trace amounts males and females equally represented, and we were of pitting as a sign of porotic hyperostosis (Martin et al. interested in equal representation of individuals with 1991:152). A later reanalysis of the Black Mesa materi- and without evidence of traumatic injury. Unfortunately, al by Martin et al. (in Todd, 1994) using a more conser- of the 20 samples run, there was diagenic change result- vative diagnostic method revealed that the frequencies ing in insufficient collagen preservation in 7 of the sam- were most likely lower by approximately 20 percent. As ples. Walker (1985:144) stated, slight pitting may be ignored 3. Also, without the nitrogen data we cannot yet discuss by some skeletal biologists and counted as a lesion by the role of beans in the diet. others. For the La Plata Valley analysis, lesions needed to be demonstrably clear to the naked eye, and at least CHAPTER 6 two researchers needed to agree on its presence and sta- tus. Trace or slight pitting was not scored as porotic 1. The term element is used in this chapter to refer to a

202 single piece of bone, whether it constitutes a whole bone pletely decompose to the point where ligaments and or a fragment. especially tendons no longer held joint systems togeth- 2. As discussed in Chapter 2, some of the human er. Estimates provided by a forensic specialist ranged remains (primarily those designated as burials in the from weeks to years (Charles Merbs, personal commu- field) were cleaned and processed at San Juan College, nication, 1994). For groups such as the Plains Indians, then taken to the laboratories at OAS. The first set of with a documented history of secondary interment, observations recorded on the disarticulated bones were ossuaries often contain articulated elements (such as by the faunal analysts under the direction of Linda hands or feet), suggesting that even after months of Mick-O’Hara of OAS. weathering and exposure, bone elements will still be 3. Nancy Akins, employed by OAS as human osteolo- attached (Doug Owsley, personal communication, gist, reanalyzed the disarticulated remains. An agree- 1994). ment was made with physical anthropologists Alan 9. If the remains were intentionally broken or pelted Swedlund, Alan Goodman, and Debra Martin to exam- with cobbles, this could suggest reoccupation by a group ine the material, and ultimately they collaborated with unrelated to those represented in Pit Structure 1. Akins to prepare the final report. 10. See Binford (1981: Fig. 3.44) for similar breakage 4. Difficulty in identifying cuts and abrasions in the dis- caused by carnivores. articulated sample was compounded by differential 11. LA 37603 is not included in this discussion because treatment of the bone in the laboratory at OAS. Some the assemblage has no context. The few burned bones elements were vigorously dry brushed, while others were washed into the fill of a pit structure. were not. Adherent soil was sometimes chipped off with 12. The burned elements from this site are most likely dental picks or brushes with stiff bristles. artiodactyl. 5. These 24 burials were chosen based on the following criteria: the burials co-occurred with disarticulated CHAPTER 7 material on a site, generally the burials had over half of the skeleton represented and had been documented with 1. The mean age at death is equivalent to the life complete field notes, drawings, and photographs, or expectancy at birth under stationary conditions. Mean they were unquestionably damaged by carnivores or age at death can be quite different under stable or quasi- mechanical equipment. stable conditions (Nelson et al. 1994). 6. These fragments are presumed to be human in the 2. The exact arrangement of these and other disarticu- following discussion. lated remains are described in great detail in the archae- 7. These are unconjoined pieces. ological report for this particular site (H. Toll in prep.). 8. It is difficult to estimate the length of time it would 3. Powaha is the life force of the Pueblo people. take for an individual buried in the Southwest to com-

203

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221

APPENDIX 1: LAND STATUS AND SITE LOCATION INFORMATION

Land status at the time of excavation, south to north

LA Number Treatment Private NMSHTD State

60741 tested only Trust

37626 tested only x Trust 37588 tested only x

37589 excavated x x 37590 excavated x x

60742* surveyed only Game & Fish

60743 excavated Game & Fish

60744 excavated Game & Fish

60745 excavated Game & Fish 60747 excavated Game & Fish

60748 surveyed only Game & Fish

60746 surveyed only Game & Fish

111902 surveyed only Game & Fish

37592 excavated Game & Fish

37591 excavated Game & Fish 60751 excavated Game & Fish

37593 excavated Game & Fish 37594 excavated Game & Fish

37595 excavated Game & Fish

60750 surveyed only Game & Fish 37596 excavated x x Game & Fish

60752 excavated x x 37597 excavated x

37598 excavated x x

60753 tested only x x

60754 surveyed only x

65024 excavated x x

65025 tested only x x 65026 tested only x x

223 LA Number Treatment Private NMSHTD State

37599 excavated x x

37600 excavated x x 1906 surveyed only x

37601 excavated x x

65027 surveyed only x

37602 tested only x x

37603 excavated x x 1897 excavated x x

37604 surveyed only x 37605 excavated x x

65028 excavated x x

65029 excavated x

65030 excavated x x

65031 excavated x x

29441 surveyed only x

29442 surveyed only x

37606 excavated x x 37607 excavated x

66708 tested only x

1927 surveyed only x

224 APPENDIX 2: HUMAN SKELETAL AND DENTAL REMAINS DATA MANAGEMENT (also see Martin et al. 1991:235-240)

231 232 233 234 235 236 237 PAGE 1 SCORING 14 Completeness 1=Cranial elements only 4 Cultural Affiliation 2=Postcranial elements only 1=BMIII 3=Cranial and postcranial fair to good 2=PI 4=Cranial and postcranial fragmentary 3=PII 5=Isolated single cranial bone(s) 4=PIII 6=Isolated single postcranial bone(s) 5=PIV 6=Historic 15 Premortem modification 1=Cradleboard lambdoidal flattening 8 Sex 2=Deformation of other skeletal elements 1=Male 3=Scalping with healing 2=Female 4=Other mutilation (amputation etc.) 3=Male? 5=Dental filling 4=Female? 6=Dental drilling 7=Dental inlays and overlays 9 Location 8=Other 1=Midden 2=Pitstructure 16 Cultural perimortem modifications 3="Kiva" 1=Scalping 4=Storage pit 2=Cutmarks 5=Roomblock 3=Anvil/ abrasions 6=Other 4=Impact percussion marks 8=Extramural 5=Spiral fractures 6=Compression fractures 10 Strata 7=High bone fragment count 1=Midden shallow 8=Burning after butchering/breaking 2=Midden deep/into sterile 9=More than one of the above 3=Structure fill upper 10=Chops 4=Structure fill middle 5=Structure fill lower 17 Natural postmortem alterations 6=Kiva features (shaft etc) 1=Erosion by water/exfoliation 7=Roomblock upper 2=Mechanical/Archaeological 8=Roomblock middle 3=Cracking/breakage 9=Roomblock lower/subfloor 4=Warping 0=Other 5=Insect Damage 6=Animal gnawing/disturbance 11 Position 7=Root destruction 1=Semiflexed 8=Mineral deposition/concretions 2=Flexed 9=Multiple alterations 3=Extended 4=Disarticulated 5=Other 5=Other

12 Type 1=Single articulated primary 2=Single disturbed primary 3=Single disturbed secondary 4=Multiple articulated primary 5=Multiple disturbed primary 6=Multiple disturbed secondary

13 Goods 1=No associated offerings 2=Small number 3=Moderate number 4=Extensive number

238 PAGE 2 SCORING 9=Unknown/small fragment

Cranial Inventory 28-57 4 Extent of Lesion 1=bone present and complete 1=Affected area localized +1/3 2=bone present some fragmentation/exfoliation 2=Affected area extensive 1/3-2/3 3=bone extremely fragmentary/exfoliated 3=Affected area widespread +2/3 4=bone present but unreadable/burned Blank=no bone 5 Status of Lesion 1=Slight active 1 Type of Pathological lesions 2=Slight remodeled 1=Osteoclastic/resorptive 3=Slight both 2=Osteoblastic/proliferative 4=Moderate active 3=Trauma 5=Moderate remodeled 4=Other 6=Moderate both 5=Congenital anomaly 7=Severe active 8=Severe remodeled 2 Description of type 9=Severe both If #1: Osteoclastic/resorptive 1=Superficial cortex only 58 Summary: presence active 2=Subcortical involvement 1=Slight 3=Granular walled (tb) 2=Moderate 4=Stellate (trep) 3=Severe 5=Porotic hyperostosis 6=Osteoporosis/osteopenia 59 Summary: presence remodeled 7=Other 1=Slight 2=Moderate If #2: Osteoblastic/proliferative/osteolytic 3=Extensive 1=Cortical pitting/striations only 2=Periostitis w/subperiosteal apposition 3=Osteomyelitis w/destruction of cortex etc 4=Combination of the above 5=Osteitis inc bone density 6=Osteoma/benign tumor 7=Osteophytes 8=Other

If #3: Trauma 1=Fracture 2=Compression fracture 3=Cutting/piercing wound 4=Pseudoarthrosis 5=Scalping 6=Mutilation 7=Trephination 8=Other

If #5: Congenital 1=Fusion defect 2=Cleft palate 3=Asymmetry

3 Location of lesion 1=Upper left 2=Upper right 3=Lower left 4=Lower right 5=Two quadrants involved 6=Three quadrants involved 7=Total involvement 8=Along sutures only

239 PAGE 3 SCORING 7=Throughout shaft 8=Proximal joint surface Post Cranial Inventory 60-89 9=Distal joint surface 1=bone present and complete 10=Vertebral body 2=bone present some fragmentation/exfoliation 3=bone extremely fragmentary/exfoliated (readable) 4 Extent of lesions 4=bone present but unreadable/burned/exfoliated 1=Affected area localized +1/3 blank=no bone 2=Affected area extensive 1/3-2/3 3=Affected area widespread +2/3 1 Type of pathological lesions 1=Osteoclastic/resorptive 5 Status of lesion 2=Osteoblastic/proliferative 1=Slight active 3=Trauma 2=Slight remodeled 4=Other 3=Slight both 5=Congenital anomaly 4=Moderate active 5=Moderate remodeled 2 Description of type 6=Moderate both If #1: Osteoclastic/resorptive 7=Severe active 1=Superficial cortex only 8=Severe remodeled 2=Subcortical involvement 9=Severe both 3=Granular walled (tb) 4=Stellate (trep) 90 Summary: presence active 5=Vert disc lesion 1=Slight 6=Porotic hyperostosis 2=Moderate 7=Osteoporosis/osteopenia 3=Severe 8=Other 91 Summary: presence remodeled If #2: Osteoblastic/proliferative/osteolytic 1=Slight 1=Cortical pitting/striations only 2=Moderate 2=Periostitis w/subperiosteal apposition 3=Severe 3=Osteomyelitis w/destruction of cortex etc 4=Combination of the above 5=Osteitis inc bone density 6=Osteoma/benign tumor 7=Osteophytes 8=Other

If #3: Trauma 1=Fracture 2=Compression fracture 3=Cutting/piercing wound 4=Pseudoarthrosis 5=Exostoses 6=Osteochondritis dessicans 7=Mutilation 8=Other

IF #5: Congenital 1=Fusion defect 2=Fusion defect or lesion 3=Spina bifida 4=Other

3 Location of lesion 1=Proximal/anterior/medial/superior 2=Distal/posterior/lateral/inferior 3=Midshaft 4=Proximal and distal 5=Proximal and midshaft 6=Distal and midshaft

240 PAGE 4 SCORING

Osetoarthritis 92-146 Postcranial Osteophytosis 0=No lipping 1=Slight osteophytosis 2=Moderate osteophytosis 3=Extensive osteophytosis 4=Extreme osteophytosis/fusion 5=spur/osteophytes

Joint Surface Degeneration 0=No degeneration 1=Slight surface porosity 2=Moderate surface porosity 3=Severe surface porosity/eburnation 4=Osteochondritis dessecans 5=Other 6=Eburnation

Centrum and Facets Osteophytosis 0=No lipping 1=Slight osteophytosis 2=Moderate osteophytosis 3=Extensive osteophytosis 4=Extreme osteophytosis/fusion 5=Syndemophytes 6=Other 8=Macroporosity

Vertebral body morphological changes 1=Squared anterior body (ankylosing spondylitis) 2=Compression/wedging 3=Biconcave/fish vertebrate 4=Ankylosis (fusion/bridging) 5=Spondylolysis 6=Osteophyte/syndosmophyte 7=Schmorl's node 8=Macroporosity/distortion of end plates 9=Other

241 PAGE 7 SCORING -all should be scored according to the following protocol 0=absent Scoring Procedures for Preferred Traits 1=present 9=unobservable 235 Metopic Suture (m): 0=absent 1=partial 242 a. epipteric bone (b) 2=complete 243 b. coronal ossicle (b) 9=unobservable 244 c. bregmatic bone (m) 245 d. sagittal ossicle (m) Supra Orbital Structures (b) 246 e. apical bone (m) - all foramina must present openings on both internal and 247 f. Inca bone (m) external surfaces 248 g. lambdoid ossicle (b) - supra-trochlear notches are located at confluence of ver- 249 h. asterionic bone (b) tical and horizontal aspects of the orbit, on the medial side. 250 i. ossicle in occipito-mastoid suture (b) Foramina on the superior, horizontal aspects are considered 251 j. parietal notch bone (b) supra-orbital. Atlas Bridging (b): 236 a. Supra-orbital notch: 0=absent 252 a. Lateral Bridging 0=absent 1=present 1=partial 2=multiple notches 2=complete 3=unobservable 9=unobservable

237 b. Supra-orbital foramen: 0=absent 253 b. Posterior Bridging 0=absent 1=present 1=partial 2=multiple foramina 2=complete 9=unobservable 9=unobservable

238 c. Supra-trochlear notch: 0=absent 254 Condylar Canal (b): 0=absent 1=present 1=partial 2=multiple notches 2=complete 9=unobservable 9=unobservable

239 Infra-orbital Suture (b): 0=absent 255 Divided Hypoglossal Canal(b): 1=partial 0=absent 2=complete 1=partial, internal surface 9=unobservable 2=partial, within canal 3=complete, internal surface 240 Multiple Infra-orbital Foramina (b): 4=complete, within canal -only those structures situated on the external anterior 9=unobservable surface of the maxilla below the infraorbital margin and above the canine fossa should be scored. 256 Tympanic Dehiscence (b): -probing with a bristle or other flexible object may be 0=absent necessary to demonstrate that the observed foramen extends 1=foramen only into a canal that opens onto the orbital floor. 2=full defect present 0=absent 9=unobservable 1=partial internal division 257 Foramen Spinosum Incomplete (b): 2=complete internal division 0=absent 3=two distinct foramina 1=partial formation 4=more than two distinct foramina 2=no definition of foramen 9=unobservable 9=unobservable

241 Parietal Foramen (b): 0=unobservable 258 Foramen Ovale Incomplete (b): 1=present, on parietal 0=absent 2=present, sutural 1=partial formation 9=unobservable 2=no definition of foramen 9=unobservable Ossicles -scored by location, as follows 259 Pterygospinous Bridge (b): -should only be recorded for individuals who have adja- 0=absent cent sutural area open 1=trace (spicule only)

242 2=partial bridge 269 Accessory Transverse F. (b): 3=complete bridge -in Cervical Vertebrae 3-7 9=unobservable 0=absent 1=partial 260 Pterygo-alar Bridge (b): 0=absent 2=complete 1=trace (spicule only) 9=unobservable 2=partial bridge 3=complete bridge 270 Septal Aperture (b): 0=absent 9=unobservable 1=foramen only 2=true perforation 262 Mandibular Torus (b): 0=absent 9=unobservable 1=trace (can palpate but not see) 2=moderate 3=extreme 9=unobservable

262 Auditory Exostosis (b): 0=absent 1= <1/3 canal occluded 2= 1/3 < 2/3 canal occluded 3= >2/3 canal occluded 9=unobservable

263 Mastoid Foramen (b): a. Location 0=absent 1=temporal 2=sutural 3=occipital 9=unobservable 264 b. Number 0=absent 1=1 2=2 3=more than 2 9=unobservable

265 Zygomatico=facial Foramen (b): 0=absent 1=1 large 2=1 large plus smaller 1 3=2 large 4=2 large plus smaller 1 5=multiple small 9=unobservable

266 Mental Foramen (b): 0=absent 1=1 2=2 3=2+ 9=unobservable

267 Mylohyoid Bridge (b): a. Location 0=absent 1=mandibular f. 2=canal 9=unobservable

268 b. Degree 0=absent 1=partial 2=complete 9=unobservable

243 ADULT AGE AND SEX DETERMINATION WORKSHEET Ischiopubic index M F Burial ID# ______Sacroiliac articulate M F

AGE DETERMINATION Estimated age range ______Sacral curvature M F

Todd (1920) Femoral head M F Phase Age range Bicondylar width M F

McKern and Stewart (1957) Mandibular shape M F Component I Component II Mandibular width M F Component III Total Score Palatal index M F Age Range Humeral head M F Gilbert and McKern (1973) Component I Component II SUBADULT AGE DETERMINATION WORKSHEET Component III Total Score Burial ID# ______Age Range Dental calcification (Moorrees et al. 1963) Suchey et al. (1986) Phase Dental eruption (Ubelaker 1978) Age Range Long bone length (Ubelaker 1978) Lovejoy et al. (1985) auricular surface Age Range Epiphyses union (Bass 1987)

Meindle and Lovejoy (1985) ectocranial suture closing Other age indicators Age Range

Iscan et al. (1984) 4th sternal rib Age Range

Dental wear (White 1990) or Miles (1963; 1978) Age Range

Developmental degenerative changes Age Range

Other

SEX DETERMINATION

Sex: ______

Sciatic notch M F

Ventral arc M F

Subpubic concavity M F

Ischiopubic ramus M F

Preauricular sulcus M F

244 APPENDIX 3: BURIAL INVENTORY IDENTIFICATION: LA 37592, FS 200, B1, Jackson Note: This listing of burials is organized by site and burial Lake number in numerical order. It organizes information that was collected from each burial, although it does not list every piece DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: of data collected. It was designed using the recommendations MIDPOINT AGE: 2 of Rose et al. (1991) on standardization procedures for analy- SEX: Cannot assess sis of human skeletal remains. It is primarily useful as a guide CONDITION: Fair to good preservation to other researchers who wish to know what kinds of data were and could be collected from the population. “RC” stands for INVENTORY: Relatively complete reconstructible vessel. These vessels are numbered consecu- tively for each site and are reported in detail in project ceram- ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: ic reports by C. D. Wilson (this collection of volumes). CARIES: 0/17 ABSCESSING: None IDENTIFICATION: LA 37592, FS 137, FS 138, B0.1, TOOTH LOSS: None Jackson Lake HYPOPLASIAS: Present STATURE: Cannot assess DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: ROBUSTICITY: Cannot assess MIDPOINT AGE: 5 INFECTIONS: Moderate/active on ribs and thoracic SEX: Cannot assess vertebra arch CONDITION: Poor preservation and fragmentary ANEMIA: Moderate/active and remodeled in orbits and INVENTORY: Mostly cranium fragments with some of on the occipital the pelvis and femora OSTEOARTHRITIS: None NEOPLASM: None ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: TRAUMA: None CARIES: 0/15 CONGENITAL: None ABSCESSING: None OTHER: Endocranial lesions moderate/active and TOOTH LOSS: None remodeled (labyrinth-like lesions) on occipital and tem- HYPOPLASIAS: Present porals STATURE: Femur (L) length 203 mm ROBUSTICITY: Cannot assess MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: INFECTIONS: None on femora BURIAL POSITION: Lower and upper legs tightly ANEMIA: None flexed; lying on back OSTEOARTHRITIS: Cannot assess BURIAL LOCATION: Pit structure, upper fill NEOPLASM: Cannot assess GRAVE GOODS: None TRAUMA: Cannot assess DATE (A.D.): 1180-1300 CONGENITAL: Cannot assess KEY AVAILABLE DATA: MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: METRICS: Availability extremely limited BURIAL POSITION: Disarticulated GENETICS: Availability extremely limited BURIAL LOCATION: Storage pit CHEMISTRY: Available GRAVE GOODS: None OTHER: X-ray of cranium, innominates, femora, tibiae, DATE (A.D.): 1050-1250 and vertebrae

KEY AVAILABLE DATA: NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This young child was METRICS: Availability extremely limited placed in the midden in the upper fill of Pit Structure 1. GENETICS: None available The body was placed face up with legs tightly flexed CHEMISTRY: Available and pressed toward the chest to either side of the body. Although the preservation and condition is good with NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This five-year-old child good representation of the body, damage to the ends of was recovered during hand excavation of Extramural 4, the long bones has made measurements of the long Feature 3 (a major storage cist). This cist was probably bones impossible. There are patches of porous surfaces contemporary with the use of Pit Structure 1. noted in areas such as the mandible, palate, long bone ends, and pelvis, which could be related to rapid growth at these and other sites or could be pathological. There

245 are osteolytic lesions (moderate, active but partially remodeled) in the orbital region, suggesting porotic IDENTIFICATION: LA 37592, FS 197, B3, Jackson hyperostosis with some healing. Lake

DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: IDENTIFICATION: LA 37592, FS 184, B2, Jackson MIDPOINT AGE: Fetus (estimate: 4-6 lunar months) Lake SEX: Cannot assess CONDITION: Fragmentary and poorly preserved DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: INVENTORY: Very broken cranium; small postcranial MIDPOINT AGE: 6 fragments SEX: Cannot assess CONDITION: Fair to poor preservation ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: INVENTORY: Relatively complete CARIES: None ABSCESSING: None ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: TOOTH LOSS: None CARIES: 9/24 HYPOPLASIAS: None ABSCESSING: None STATURE: Cannot assess TOOTH LOSS: None ROBUSTICITY: Cannot assess HYPOPLASIAS: Present INFECTIONS: Cannot assess STATURE: Cannot assess ANEMIA: Cannot assess ROBUSTICITY: Cannot assess OSTEOARTHRITIS: Cannot assess INFECTIONS: None NEOPLASM: Cannot assess ANEMIA: None TRAUMA: Cannot assess OSTEOARTHRITIS: None CONGENITAL: Cannot assess NEOPLASM: None TRAUMA: None MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: CONGENITAL: None BURIAL POSITION: On right side BURIAL LOCATION: Room floor; inside a large sub- MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: floor corrugated pot BURIAL POSITION: Flexed, left side lower and upper GRAVE GOODS: None legs flexed DATE (A.D.): 1180-1300 BURIAL LOCATION: Pit in room floor KEY AVAILABLE DATA: GRAVE GOODS: 2 bowls METRICS: Not available DATE (A.D.): 1180-1300 GENETICS: Not available CHEMISTRY: Not available KEY AVAILABLE DATA: METRICS: Availability extremely limited NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This is either a preterm GENETICS: Availability extremely limited fetus or an infant born prematurely (probably 4 to 6 CHEMISTRY: Available lunar months based on the size of the mandible). The fetus was placed in a large gray ware corrugated pot and NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This child was placed in placed in the floor (floor 3) of Room 201. The bone is an intentionally prepared pit in the floor (Floor 1) of very porous and striated, as is common for newly form- Room 201. It was dug through an existing hearth, and ing fetal bone. Due to its fragility, texture, and poor two similar McElmo Black-on-white bowls (RC5, 6) preservation, few observations could be made. It is not were placed by the head and chest. A telephone line associated with any adult female burial. It suggests pre- trench did some damage to the pit and destroyed parts of mature labor and death of the infant. Placement of cor- the hands and feet. The body was placed on the left side rugated pots under floors as storage facilities is quite and tightly flexed. Although the preservation and condi- common; the association of the pot with the burial is tion is fair to good with good representation of the body, therefore perhaps secondary. the phone trench disturbance has made measurements of the long bones difficult. There are virtually no lesions on the bones, nor anything unusual to note, except for the IDENTIFICATION: LA 37592, FS 350, B4, Jackson presence of dental caries. Lake

246 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: INVENTORY: Only portions of the lower legs MIDPOINT AGE: .6 SEX: Cannot assess ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: CONDITION: Fragmentary and poor preservation CARIES: Cannot assess INVENTORY: Very broken cranium; some postcranial ABSCESSING: Cannot assess fragments TOOTH LOSS: Cannot assess HYPOPLASIAS: Cannot assess ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: STATURE: Cannot assess CARIES: Cannot assess ROBUSTICITY: Cannot assess ABSCESSING: Cannot assess INFECTIONS: Moderate/remodeled tibia TOOTH LOSS: Cannot assess ANEMIA: Cannot assess HYPOPLASIAS: Cannot assess OSTEOARTHRITIS: Absent or slight on parts present STATURE: Cannot assess NEOPLASM: Cannot assess ROBUSTICITY: Cannot assess TRAUMA: Healed fracture of the right fibula, INFECTIONS: Cannot assess Severe/remodeled ANEMIA: Slight/active and remodeled on R parietal CONGENITAL: Cannot assess OSTEOARTHRITIS: Cannot assess NEOPLASM: Cannot assess MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: TRAUMA: Cannot assess BURIAL POSITION: Cannot assess CONGENITAL: Cannot assess BURIAL LOCATION: Room, pit in floor 2 GRAVE GOODS: Cannot assess MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: DATE (A.D.): 1050-1250 BURIAL POSITION: Unknown BURIAL LOCATION: Pit structure fill KEY AVAILABLE DATA: GRAVE GOODS: Pitcher (?) association is conjectural METRICS: Not available DATE (A.D.): 1050-1250 GENETICS: Not available CHEMISTRY: Not available KEY AVAILABLE DATA: METRICS: Not available NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This burial from a pit in GENETICS: Not available Room 201, Floor 2, was greatly disturbed by a waterline CHEMISTRY: Not available trench, and only parts of the lower legs were recovered.

NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This burial was greatly disturbed and partially destroyed by backhoe activity. IDENTIFICATION: LA 37592, FS 618, B6, Jackson Because it is a young infant, it is difficult to tell how it Lake was interred, other than it was in Pit Structure 1 (NW quadrant), and it was close to the edge of structure fill. DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: It may have been placed on a bench. A Mancos Black- MIDPOINT AGE: 15 on-white pitcher was in the nearby fill and is considered SEX: Cannot assess an “heirloom” vessel, possibly associated with the bur- CONDITION: Poor preservation; fragmentary with ial. Because the infant bones are so disturbed and poor- exfoliation ly preserved, few observations could be made. INVENTORY: Very broken cranium; complete but However, on the right parietal there were osteolytic highly fragmentary skeleton lesions indicative of porotic hyperostosis in a moderate- ly remodeled stage. ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: CARIES: Cannot assess ABSCESSING: Cannot assess IDENTIFICATION: LA 37592, FS 587, B5, Jackson TOOTH LOSS: Cannot assess Lake HYPOPLASIAS: Present STATURE: Femur (R) 382 mm with epiphyses; 351 mm DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: without MIDPOINT AGE: Adult ROBUSTICITY: Femur circumference 76 mm SEX: Cannot assess; possibly female INFECTIONS: None CONDITION: Fragmentary and poor preservation ANEMIA: Cannot assess

247 OSTEOARTHRITIS: Cannot assess ossified ligaments; several articular surfaces show NEOPLASM: Cannot assess degenerative joint disease in slight to moderate degrees TRAUMA: Healed compression, 7 by 12 mm depres- (slight in the shoulder, elbow; moderate in the hip; none sion parietal (L) in the left knee, moderate in the right). CONGENITAL: Cannot assess NEOPLASM: Osteoma 5 by 5 mm on occipital OTHER: Endocranial lesions, moderate/remodeled TRAUMA: Occipital and frontal have tiny pits that are odd. Are these trauma related? It is possible that the MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: osteophytic lipping in the vertebral column is trauma BURIAL POSITION: Lower and upper legs tightly induced, especially T 6-8. flexed, on back CONGENITAL: None BURIAL LOCATION: Extramural burial pit OTHER: Endocranial lesion on frontal GRAVE GOODS: 1 bowl, 1 corrugated jar DATE (A.D.): 1075-1150 MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: BURIAL POSITION: Lower legs flexed, upper legs KEY AVAILABLE DATA: extended, on back with head back METRICS: Available BURIAL LOCATION: Extramural storage pit GENETICS: Limited availability GRAVE GOODS: Corrugated jar and bowl; chert peb- CHEMISTRY: Available ble DATE (A.D.): 1000-1075 NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This teenager was put in a shallow unlined pit with cultural fill in Extramural Area KEY AVAILABLE DATA: 2. The tightly flexed body was damaged by water and METRICS: Available other disturbances. The bone is largely fragmentary and GENETICS: Available exfoliated, and poor preservation of all elements makes CHEMISTRY: Available analysis difficult. A black-on-white bowl and a corru- OTHER: None available gated jar were placed near the head in the pit (RC12, 8). A healed depression measuring 7 by 12 mm is present in NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This mature adult female the left parietal and moderate remodeled endocranial was placed in a pit adjacent to, but perhaps predating Pit lesions on one parietal fragment. It looks like a healed Structure 1. It is probable that when the burial was compression fracture. Due to the very poor condition of placed it was in the base of an extramural storage pit, the bone, not much information was retrieved. but the upper part of the feature was removed by a water line. She was in a loosely flexed position, which sug- gests being pushed instead of placed in the pit. The face IDENTIFICATION: LA 37592, FS 662, B7, Jackson is up with a slightly twisted torso; the left arm is bent Lake across the neck and head, and the right arm extends alongside the body. The legs are flexed from the knee to DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: under the pelvis with the knees quite far apart. A corru- MIDPOINT AGE: 50 gated jar with handle (on top of the body, RC7) and a SEX: Female portion of a Mancos Black-on-white bowl (below the CONDITION: Fair to good preservation body, RC3) were in association, as well as a chert peb- INVENTORY: Relatively complete ble. This female has a button osteoma and a possible endocranial lesion from a localized infection. There is ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: degenerative joint disease in the shoulder, elbow, and CARIES: 11/12 hip joints and osteophytic lipping in the thoracic and ABSCESSING: None lumbar vertebrae. However, the bones appear dense, and TOOTH LOSS: 13 the muscle ridges suggest a fairly robust individual. HYPOPLASIAS: Present Although the field notes suggest foul play in the hap- STATURE: Femur (L) 410 mm hazard position of this body, an alternative explanation ROBUSTICITY: Femur circumference (L) 82.1 is that the body was heavy and was therefore pushed INFECTIONS: None into a shallow pit without much rearrangement. (There ANEMIA: None is a suggestion that the body was placed on a woven OSTEOARTHRITIS: Thoracic and lumbar vertebrae mat, but this needs confirmation from flotation analy- show severe lipping and degenerative changes in the sis.) Although she shows some wear-and-tear arthritic bodies; most muscle ridges robust and some showing responses, the bones were fairly dense, and she

248 appeared otherwise well muscled. There were a lot of caries and premortem tooth loss. This profile is sugges- IDENTIFICATION: LA 37593, FS 756, B2, Jackson tive of a muscular, possibly hard-working older adult Lake female who shows signs of aging although still in very good biomechanical health. DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: MIDPOINT AGE: 35 SEX: Female IDENTIFICATION: LA 37593, FS 755, B1, Jackson CONDITION: Fair to good preservation Lake INVENTORY: Primarily the upper half of the body

DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: MIDPOINT AGE: .5 CARIES: 5/16 SEX: Cannot assess ABSCESSING: None CONDITION: Very poor preservation TOOTH LOSS: 12 INVENTORY: Poor representation; very few bones HYPOPLASIAS: Present present STATURE: Cannot assess ROBUSTICITY: Cannot assess ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: INFECTIONS: Cannot assess CARIES: 0/7 ANEMIA: None ABSCESSING: None OSTEOARTHRITIS: Moderate degenerative joint dis- TOOTH LOSS: None ease in the right shoulder; no to moderate vertebral HYPOPLASIAS: Present osteophytosis and wedging in thoracic vertebrae STATURE: Cannot assess NEOPLASM: None ROBUSTICITY: Cannot assess TRAUMA: None INFECTIONS: Cannot assess CONGENITAL: None ANEMIA: Cannot assess OSTEOARTHRITIS: Cannot assess MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: NEOPLASM: Cannot assess BURIAL POSITION: Semiflexed TRAUMA: Cannot assess BURIAL LOCATION: Extramural storage cist, floor CONGENITAL: Cannot assess GRAVE GOODS: Corrugated jar, partial black-on- white bowl, possible puki, two two-hand manos MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: DATE (A.D.): 1000-1075 BURIAL POSITION: Arms extended; rest is unknown BURIAL LOCATION: Extramural storage cist, fill KEY AVAILABLE DATA: GRAVE GOODS: Ladle METRICS: Limited availability DATE (A.D.): 1075-1125 GENETICS: Limited availability CHEMISTRY: Not available KEY AVAILABLE DATA: METRICS: Not available NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This mature adult female GENETICS: Not available (age 35) was placed on a mat on the floor of a major CHEMISTRY: Not available storage cist. Also in the cist were a Dolores Corrugated jar (RC5) containing rodent skeletons, a portion of a NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This young infant was gray jar apparently reworked into a puki (RC10), a par- wrapped in matting and put in a large bell-shaped pit 20 tial Mancos Black-on-white bowl (RC9), and two com- cm above an adult burial. The bone is poorly preserved, plete manos. The lower half of the body was complete- with only a small amount of cranial and postcranial ly destroyed/removed by backhoe activity. Although fragmentary remains. Exfoliation has made observa- there is some rodent damage to the remaining material, tions of pathology impossible. A Mancos Black-on- it is generally in good condition although broken. This white ladle fragment (RC8) positioned within a large woman had many caries and premortem dental loss. The utility jar by the skull suggests that the large jar was major health problems appeared to be degenerative joint filled (and possibly an offering to the adult burial disease of the shoulder area and thoracic vertebral below). The ladle was put by the infant’s head later. osteophytosis (slight to moderate). There is some tho- racic wedging and collapse with macroporosity and dis- tortion of the endplates.

249 healed fractures with associated periosteal reactions IDENTIFICATION: LA 37593, FS 735, B3, Jackson (remodeled) on the thoracic vertebrae (8 and 9). Lake Shoulder joints show osteoarthritic degeneration, and DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: the vertebrae (primarily thoracic and lumbar) show MIDPOINT AGE: 48 osteophytes (slight to severe in expression). SEX: Male CONDITION: Poor preservation with much breakage and exfoliation IDENTIFICATION: LA 37593, FS 579, B4, Jackson INVENTORY: Cranial fragments and many broken Lake postcranial DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: MIDPOINT AGE: 6 CARIES: Cannot assess SEX: Cannot assess ABSCESSING: Cannot assess CONDITION: Found in backhoe dirt; highly disturbed TOOTH LOSS: Mandibular fragment suggests exten- INVENTORY: Postcranial representation fair to good sive premortem loss HYPOPLASIAS: Cannot assess ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: STATURE: Cannot assess CARIES: Cannot assess ROBUSTICITY: Femur circumference 79 mm (estimat- ABSCESSING: Cannot assess ed) TOOTH LOSS: Cannot assess INFECTIONS: Periostitis on vertebra associated with HYPOPLASIAS: Cannot assess trauma on ribs STATURE: Femur (R) 226 mm without epiphyses ANEMIA: None ROBUSTICITY: Cannot assess OSTEOARTHRITIS: Slight to moderate osteophytosis INFECTIONS: None and body degeneration on thoracic and severe on the ANEMIA: Cannot assess lumbar vertebrae; slight to moderate degenerative joint OSTEOARTHRITIS: None disease on elbow, hip, and ankle articular surfaces NEOPLASM: None NEOPLASM: None TRAUMA: None TRAUMA: 2 ribs (L) with healed fractures; osteophytes CONGENITAL: Spina bifida in lumbar and sacrum and wedging on thoracic vertebrae 8 and 9 could be traumatic MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: CONGENITAL: None BURIAL POSITION: Unknown BURIAL LOCATION: Pit structure, upper fill MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: GRAVE GOODS: Unknown BURIAL POSITION: Flexed DATE (A.D.): 1075-1125 BURIAL LOCATION: Extramural storage cist, fill GRAVE GOODS: Corrugated vessel, ladle bowl, rough- KEY AVAILABLE DATA: legged hawk METRICS: Limited availability DATE (A.D.): 1100-1180 GENETICS: Not available CHEMISTRY: Available KEY AVAILABLE DATA: METRICS: Limited availability NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This 6-year-old child, GENETICS: Limited availability found in backhoe back dirt, came from the upper fill of CHEMISTRY: None Pit Structure 1. There is no cranium or dentition. The postcranial remains do not show any lesions. Spina bifi- NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This mature adult male da, particularly noticeable in the sacrum, is present in (age 48) was placed tightly flexed in a storage pit. The the lower vertebral column. body was chest down on matting with both legs tightly against the chest. Backhoe damage to the cranium and deterioration of the postcranial bones made observations IDENTIFICATION: LA 37594, FS 808, B1, Jackson and analysis difficult. Associated grave goods consisted Lake of a partial Dolores Corrugated vessel (RC14), a McElmo Black-on-white ladle bowl (RC18), and a DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: hawk (placed on the lower back). Several left ribs have MIDPOINT AGE: 4

250 SEX: Cannot assess INVENTORY: Fragmentary cranial and postcranial CONDITION: Very fragmentary; encrusted with root remains masses INVENTORY: Cranial and postcranial fragments, but ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: not well represented CARIES: 2/32 ABSCESSING: None ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: TOOTH LOSS: 1 CARIES: 0/19 HYPOPLASIAS: Present ABSCESSING: None STATURE: Cannot assess TOOTH LOSS: Cannot assess ROBUSTICITY: Femur circumference (L) 72 mm HYPOPLASIAS: Present INFECTIONS: Cannot assess STATURE: Cannot assess ANEMIA: Cannot assess ROBUSTICITY: Cannot assess OSTEOARTHRITIS: Cannot assess INFECTIONS: Cannot assess NEOPLASM: Cannot assess ANEMIA: Cannot assess TRAUMA: Cannot assess OSTEOARTHRITIS: Cannot assess CONGENITAL: Cannot assess NEOPLASM: Cannot assess OTHER: Possible localized endocranial lesions in TRAUMA: Cannot assess frontal; cranium is fragmented CONGENITAL: Cannot assess OTHER: Possible endocranial lesion and odd configu- MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: ration vertebral bodies BURIAL POSITION: Flexed legs and arms BURIAL LOCATION: Pit structure fill, upper fill MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: GRAVE GOODS: Red ware canteen, banded gray ware BURIAL POSITION: On back with right arm across seed jar chest DATE (A.D.): 1000-1075 BURIAL LOCATION: Pit structure, lower fill GRAVE GOODS: Bowl fragment near cranium KEY AVAILABLE DATA: DATE (A.D.): 1000-1100 METRICS: Availability extremely limited GENETICS: Availability extremely limited KEY AVAILABLE DATA: CHEMISTRY: Not available METRICS: Not available GENETICS: Not available NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This young adult female CHEMISTRY: Not available (age 25) was placed tightly flexed into a burial pit in the OTHER: X-ray of vertebra and frontal upper fill of Pit Structure 1, slightly impacting the bench. Her head was propped against the wall of the pit NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This child, age four, was with a partial Deadmans Black-on-red canteen (RC2) placed in the fill of a pit structure, possibly on the back and a banded gray ware jar with interior painted lines with the right arm extended across the chest. Extensive (RC1) in association. There is much root and rodent dis- root and water disturbance and backhoe trenching has turbance throughout the burial, with deterioration of the removed much of the skeleton. The extreme etching and outer surface of the bone. exfoliation of the periosteum has made observations on the bone surface impossible. A portion of a Mancos Black-on-white bowl (RC4) was associated with the IDENTIFICATION: LA 37595, FS 159, B2, Jackson burial. Lake

DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: IDENTIFICATION: LA 37595, FS 103, B1, Jackson MIDPOINT AGE: 15 Lake SEX: Cannot assess CONDITION: Poor preservation DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: INVENTORY: Sparse; mandible and postcranial frag- MIDPOINT AGE: 25 ments SEX: Female CONDITION: Poor preservation with root and rodent ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: disturbance CARIES: 2/11

251 ABSCESSING: None der, knee, and ankle joints TOOTH LOSS: None NEOPLASM: None HYPOPLASIAS: Present TRAUMA: None STATURE: Cannot assess CONGENITAL: None ROBUSTICITY: Cannot assess OTHER: Endocranial lesions in frontal and parietal; INFECTIONS: None localized and slightly remodeled ANEMIA: Cannot assess OSTEOARTHRITIS: None MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: NEOPLASM: Cannot assess BURIAL POSITION: Extended; Sprawled TRAUMA: Clavicle (L) osteophytes (muscle pull) BURIAL LOCATION: Extramural pit, lower fill CONGENITAL: Cannot assess GRAVE GOODS: None DATE (A.D.): 1000-1075 MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: BURIAL POSITION: Cannot assess KEY AVAILABLE DATA: BURIAL LOCATION: Pit structure, upper fill METRICS: Availability limited GRAVE GOODS: None GENETICS: Availability limited DATE (A.D.): 1000-1075 CHEMISTRY: None available

KEY AVAILABLE DATA: NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This mature adult (age 45) METRICS: Availability extremely limited was apparently tossed into a complex storage pit adja- GENETICS: Availability extremely limited cent to a roomblock and Pit Structure 2 while the joints CHEMISTRY: Available were flexible. The person was lying on his back with the head backward underneath the neck. Arms are down at NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This teenager (age 15) the sides, with lower arms both pointing towards the was found in the alluvial fill of Pit Structure 1. Washing left. The right leg is bent and sprawled out to the side, and carnivore disturbance and damage were evident in while the left leg was drawn up over the chest. Rocks the dispersed nature of the bones. The bone is in poor were placed directly on top of the burial and were pres- shape, and it is difficult to make many observations, ent throughout pit fill to the top. Sex was difficult to especially because of the excessive breakage and gnaw assign because of poor preservation, but male morpho- marks on them. There is a slight to moderate osteophyt- logical features are present in the pelvis. There is slight ic growth on the muscle attachment of the left clavicle, degenerative joint disease on the articular surfaces of suggesting a healing pulled muscle. the shoulder and knee, but other joints systems are miss- ing.

IDENTIFICATION: LA 37598, FS 199, B1, Jackson Lake IDENTIFICATION: LA 37599, FS 452, B0.1, Barker Arroyo DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: MIDPOINT AGE: 45 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: SEX: Probable male MIDPOINT AGE: 50 CONDITION: Poor preservation and fragmentary SEX: Cannot assess INVENTORY: Good representation with cranial and CONDITION: Poor preservation postcranial fragments INVENTORY: Small number of fragments

ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: CARIES: 2/19 CARIES: 4/9 ABSCESSING: 1 ABSCESSING: Cannot assess TOOTH LOSS: 5 TOOTH LOSS: Cannot assess HYPOPLASIAS: Present HYPOPLASIAS: Present STATURE: Femur length (L) 370 mm STATURE: Cannot assess ROBUSTICITY: Femur circumference (L) 71.6 mm ROBUSTICITY: Cannot assess INFECTIONS: None INFECTIONS: Cannot assess ANEMIA: None ANEMIA: Cannot assess OSTEOARTHRITIS: Slight osteoarthritis on the shoul- OSTEOARTHRITIS: Cannot assess

252 NEOPLASM: Cannot assess METRICS: None available TRAUMA: Cannot assess GENETICS: None available CONGENITAL: Cannot assess CHEMISTRY: None available

MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: NARRATIVE SUMMARY: Extremely poor preserva- BURIAL POSITION: Cannot assess; Disturbed tion of the material made it virtually impossible to do BURIAL LOCATION: Pit structure, lower fill any analyses. It was located in midden deposits and dis- GRAVE GOODS: Cannot assess turbed by a backhoe. A few cranial fragments were DATE (A.D.): 1000-1075 mostly identifiable. However, an unpainted white ware bowl (RC7) near the head and a McElmo Black-on- KEY AVAILABLE DATA: white canteen (RC 6) found in the backhoe backdirt sug- METRICS: None available gested grave offerings. It is probably an adult, but this GENETICS: None available conclusion is based only on a well-developed mastoid CHEMISTRY: None available process.

NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This small amount of bone fragments and nine teeth were found in Pit IDENTIFICATION: LA 37599, FS 187, B3, Barker Structure 1 but appear to have been washed there from Arroyo someplace else. No observations or judgements about health can be made. Most parts of the cranium are car- DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: nivore gnawed. MIDPOINT AGE: 3 SEX: Cannot assess CONDITION: Poor preservation with much exfoliation IDENTIFICATION: LA 37599, FS 73, B1, Barker INVENTORY: Cranial and upper body fragments Arroyo ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: CARIES: 0/17 (9 permanent) MIDPOINT AGE: Cannot assess (Adult) ABSCESSING: None SEX: Cannot assess TOOTH LOSS: None CONDITION: Extremely fragmentary and poor preser- HYPOPLASIAS: Present vation STATURE: Cannot assess INVENTORY: Largely unidentifiable small fragments ROBUSTICITY: Cannot assess INFECTIONS: Cannot assess ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: ANEMIA: Moderate/remodeled CARIES: Cannot assess OSTEOARTHRITIS: None ABSCESSING: Cannot assess NEOPLASM: None TOOTH LOSS: Cannot assess TRAUMA: Cannot assess HYPOPLASIAS: Cannot assess CONGENITAL: None STATURE: Cannot assess OTHER: Endocranial lesions, moderate/remodeled ROBUSTICITY: Cannot assess INFECTIONS: Cannot assess MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: ANEMIA: Cannot assess BURIAL POSITION: Face up OSTEOARTHRITIS: Cannot assess BURIAL LOCATION: Pit structure, upper fill NEOPLASM: Cannot assess GRAVE GOODS: Worked or utilized sherd TRAUMA: Cannot assess DATE (A.D.): 1000-1075 CONGENITAL: Cannot assess KEY AVAILABLE DATA: MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: METRICS: None available BURIAL POSITION: Cannot assess GENETICS: None available BURIAL LOCATION: Extramural Area 2; trash midden CHEMISTRY: None available GRAVE GOODS: Bowl and canteen DATE (A.D.): 1125-1300 NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This young child (age three) was found in an unlined pit in the fill of Pit KEY AVAILABLE DATA: Structure 2. A waterline trench disturbed the right side

253 of the body and completely removed the lower body. On in relatively good shape, with most of the body well rep- the cranial bones present, the left orbit demonstrated resented. There is a slight case of remodeled cribra signs of slight but remodeled cribra orbitalia. orbitalia in both orbits, and several caries. Not all of the joint systems could be assessed for osteoarthritic changes, but there was noticeable lipping in the hip IDENTIFICATION: LA 37599, FS 232, B4, Barker joint. Thoracic vertebrae show moderate osteophytic Arroyo changes as well. The right first metacarpal shows bend- ing and a bone spur, most likely the result of a healed DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: fracture. MIDPOINT AGE: 45 SEX: Male CONDITION: Poor preservation with root etching and IDENTIFICATION: LA 37599, FS 241, B5, Barker exfoliation Arroyo INVENTORY: Good representation of cranium and postcranium DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: MIDPOINT AGE: 25 ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: SEX: Male CARIES: 6/19 CONDITION: Good preservation ABSCESSING: 1? INVENTORY: Good representation TOOTH LOSS: 5 HYPOPLASIAS: Present ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: STATURE: Femur (R) length estimated 424+ mm CARIES: 0/32 ROBUSTICITY: Femur circumference (R) 83 mm ABSCESSING: None INFECTIONS: None TOOTH LOSS: None ANEMIA: None HYPOPLASIAS: Present OSTEOARTHRITIS: Moderate degenerative joint dis- STATURE: Femur (L) length 416 mm ease in hip and moderate osteophytic lipping on thoracic ROBUSTICITY: Femur (L) circumference 73.4 mm vertebrae INFECTIONS: None NEOPLASM: None ANEMIA: None TRAUMA: Healed fracture of the right thumb OSTEOARTHRITIS: Slight osteoarthritis in feet, spur CONGENITAL: None on clavicle, wear and tear on muscles; spongy bone on OTHER: Localized endocranial lesion, moderate scapula remodeled NEOPLASM: None TRAUMA: Depression fracture (remodeled) on right MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: parietal BURIAL POSITION: Flexed CONGENITAL: Anklosing of cervical vertebrae 2 and BURIAL LOCATION: Extramural burial pit 3; bilateral spondylolysis lumbar 5 GRAVE GOODS: Pitcher, gourd-shaped dipper OTHER: Endocranial lesions, pacchionian pits frontal DATE (A.D.): 1000-1075 and parietals

KEY AVAILABLE DATA: MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: METRICS: Available BURIAL POSITION: Semiflexed GENETICS: Available BURIAL LOCATION: Pit structure, middle fill CHEMISTRY: Available GRAVE GOODS: None DATE (A.D.): 1000-1075 NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This adult male (age 45) was placed in an oval shaped burial pit (outside of Pit KEY AVAILABLE DATA: Structure 2) on his right side, face up, with his legs tight- METRICS: Available ly flexed toward the chest. The left arm was on the GENETICS: Available abdomen, with the right arm tightly flexed and the hands CHEMISTRY: Available under the chin. There was a Mancos Black-on-white OTHER: X-ray atlas and axis vertebrae checkerboard design pitcher (RC8) by the chest, and a Mancos Black-on-white gourd dipper with hatchured NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This young adult male design (RC1) by the head. The burial is undisturbed and (age 25) was placed in a pit within the fill of Pit

254 Structure 2 with no grave goods. He was lying semi- METRICS: None available flexed on his left side with the legs (right leg flexed, left GENETICS: None available leg semiflexed) and left arm flexed against the chest. CHEMISTRY: None available The bone is fairly well preserved, and the burial was OTHER: X-ray thoracic vertebrae, ribs, fibula, tibia undisturbed (except for carnivore damage on the right distal humerus and removal of the right forearm by car- NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This child (age 10) was nivores) resulting in the recovery of most of the skeletal placed in an oval burial pit within the fill of Pit Structure elements. He seems to be a rather robust individual with 2. There were two corrugated sherds (part of the same no caries on any of the 32 teeth present. There is only vessel—RC12) in close association with the cranium. slight arthritis on some of the foot bones. The other joint The body was tightly flexed on the chest down with a systems and the vertebral bodies show no evidence of very large broken vessel by the face. This child has osteophytic lipping. Of interest is a remodeled compres- active cribra orbitalia (both orbits) and porotic hyperos- sion fracture (30 mm diameter) on the right parietal tosis on both parietals (although in some areas there are towards the back of the skull by lambda. Although it is signs of remodeling, suggesting an on-going case of largely healed, there is a 4 mm line that did not reunite. nutritional anemia). There also is periosteal reaction On the interior is a 5 mm length of sequestered bone. (moderate and remodeled) on the tibiae with some There are also slight porosities on the scapula, clavicle, involvement of the fibula as well. The thoracic vertebrae and rib area, suggestion of localized trauma. show fusion, and granular-walled resorptive lesions are on the associated ribs. The presentation of these lesions suggests tuberculosis. IDENTIFICATION: LA 37599, FS 361, B6, Barker Arroyo IDENTIFICATION: LA 37599, FS 372, B7, Barker DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: Arroyo MIDPOINT AGE: 10 SEX: Cannot assess DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: CONDITION: Fair preservation MIDPOINT AGE: 25 INVENTORY: Good representation; complete SEX: Probable female CONDITION: Poor preservation; very fragmentary ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: with root etching CARIES: 0/24 INVENTORY: Fair to poor representation ABSCESSING: None TOOTH LOSS: None ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: HYPOPLASIAS: Present CARIES: 2/22 STATURE: Cannot assess ABSCESSING: Cannot assess ROBUSTICITY: Cannot assess TOOTH LOSS: Cannot assess INFECTIONS: Moderate/remodeled on both tibia; HYPOPLASIAS: Present moderate/active, remodeled on right fibula; tuberculosis STATURE: Cannot assess of thoracic vertebrae/ribs/left ribs ROBUSTICITY: Cannot assess ANEMIA: Moderate/active, remodeled INFECTIONS: Cannot assess OSTEOARTHRITIS: None ANEMIA: Cannot assess NEOPLASM: None OSTEOARTHRITIS: Cannot assess TRAUMA: None NEOPLASM: Cannot assess CONGENITAL: None TRAUMA: Cannot assess OTHER: Endocranial lesions, moderate/active and CONGENITAL: Cannot assess remodeled frontal and parietal OTHER: Endocranial lesions

MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: BURIAL POSITION: Flexed BURIAL POSITION: Flexed BURIAL LOCATION: Pit structure fill BURIAL LOCATION: Pit structure, middle fill GRAVE GOODS: Corrugated sherds GRAVE GOODS: Bottom of large corrugated vessel; DATE (A.D.): 1000-1075 partial seed jar, partial smudged polychrome bowl DATE (A.D.): 1000-1075 KEY AVAILABLE DATA:

255 KEY AVAILABLE DATA: CHEMISTRY: None available METRICS: Availability extremely limited GENETICS: None available NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This child’s (age 2.5) cra- CHEMISTRY: None available nium was found in the fill of Pit Structure 1 and may OTHER: None available have washed into this structure.

NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This individual is a prob- able female about 25 years old. She was placed in the IDENTIFICATION: LA 37599, FS 559, B9, Barker middle fill of Pit Structure 2 in the northwest quadrant Arroyo with no definable burial pit. The body was tightly flexed on the right side with knees and arms drawn into the DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: chest area. The ceramic vessels were placed in the chest MIDPOINT AGE: 25 area; all are partial vessels. They include half of a SEX: Male Mogollon smudged bowl with an unusual spiral decora- CONDITION: Very good preservation tion in red slip on the exterior, the only occurrence of INVENTORY: Good representation such a vessel from the project (RC9), a partial gray jar (RC13), and a partial seed jar. Root disturbance has ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: damaged the bone and it is largely fragmentary and CARIES: 0/24 exfoliated. ABSCESSING: 1 TOOTH LOSS: 1 HYPOPLASIAS: Present IDENTIFICATION: LA 37599, FS 443 and FS 444, STATURE: Femur (L) length 417 mm B8, Barker Arroyo ROBUSTICITY: Femur (L) circumference 76.5 mm INFECTIONS: None DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: ANEMIA: Moderate/remodeled MIDPOINT AGE: 2 OSTEOARTHRITIS: Slight degenerative joint disease SEX: Cannot assess in feet and elbow CONDITION: Cranial fragments only NEOPLASM: None INVENTORY: Very poor representation of cranium TRAUMA: Compression fracture (remodeled) by side of left eye ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: CONGENITAL: None CARIES: 0/4 ABSCESSING: Cannot assess MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: TOOTH LOSS: Cannot assess BURIAL POSITION: Extended HYPOPLASIAS: Present BURIAL LOCATION: Subfloor pit in pit structure STATURE: Cannot assess GRAVE GOODS: Shaped ground stone, shale pendants, ROBUSTICITY: Cannot assess bone needle, bone bead, bone ring INFECTIONS: Cannot assess DATE (A.D.): 1000-1075 ANEMIA: None OSTEOARTHRITIS: Cannot assess KEY AVAILABLE DATA: NEOPLASM: Cannot assess METRICS: Available TRAUMA: Cannot assess GENETICS: Available CONGENITAL: Cannot assess CHEMISTRY: Available OTHER: X-ray of cranium MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: BURIAL POSITION: Cannot assess; disturbed NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This 25 year old male was BURIAL LOCATION: Pit structure, middle fill placed on his back in an extended fashion in the west GRAVE GOODS: Large corrugated sherd next to crani- wall of Pit Structure 4 with the legs extended, one bent um (RC11) at the knee, and arms to the side. A shaped ground stone DATE (A.D.): 1000-1075 was placed at the foot of the extended leg. There is slight, remodeled cribra orbitalia in both orbits and KEY AVAILABLE DATA: porotic hyperostosis in the parietals. A healed compres- METRICS: None available sion fracture (6 by 9 mm) on the left frontal adjacent/lat- GENETICS: None available eral to the orbit suggests a healed wound that would

256 have occurred at the side of the left eye. There is slight degenerative joint disease on the feet and elbows, but no IDENTIFICATION: LA 37600, FS 9, B0.1, Barker osteophytic lipping on the other joints or in the vertebral Arroyo column. The limb bones are gracile without well devel- oped muscle ridges. Because some of the adult females DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: in this collection have quite pronounced muscle ridges, MIDPOINT AGE: Adult this male may not have been as active, or labor may SEX: Probable Female have been relegated differentially by gender. CONDITION: Poor preservation of fragmentary long bones only INVENTORY: Poor representation IDENTIFICATION: LA 37599, FS 759, B10, Barker Arroyo ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: CARIES: Cannot assess DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: ABSCESSING: Cannot assess MIDPOINT AGE: 32 TOOTH LOSS: Cannot assess SEX: Probable Male HYPOPLASIAS: Cannot assess CONDITION: Bones fragmentary and exfoliated STATURE: Cannot assess INVENTORY: Poor cranial and postcranial representa- ROBUSTICITY: Cannot assess tion INFECTIONS: None ANEMIA: Cannot assess ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: OSTEOARTHRITIS: Cannot assess CARIES: 0/17 NEOPLASM: Cannot assess ABSCESSING: Cannot assess TRAUMA: Cannot assess TOOTH LOSS: Cannot assess CONGENITAL: Cannot assess HYPOPLASIAS: Present OTHER: Large (12 by 22 cm) bone spur on linea aspera STATURE: Cannot assess (R) femur ROBUSTICITY: Cannot assess INFECTIONS: Cannot assess MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: ANEMIA: Cannot assess BURIAL POSITION: Cannot assess; disturbed OSTEOARTHRITIS: Cannot assess BURIAL LOCATION: Cannot assess NEOPLASM: Cannot assess GRAVE GOODS: Cannot assess TRAUMA: Cannot assess DATE (A.D.): 1000-1300 CONGENITAL: Cannot assess MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: KEY AVAILABLE DATA: BURIAL POSITION: Unknown METRICS: Availability extremely limited BURIAL LOCATION: Pit structure, upper fill GENETICS: None available GRAVE GOODS: 3 large sherds from the same bowl CHEMISTRY: Available DATE (A.D.): 1000-1075 NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This adult female burial, KEY AVAILABLE DATA: disturbed during backhoe trenching, was found in a dis- METRICS: None available articulated and fragmentary state. The postcranial ele- GENETICS: Availability limited ments available for examination are poorly preserved CHEMISTRY: None available and have much weathering and carnivore damage.

NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This probable male, age 35, was placed in a pit in the upper fill of Pit Structure IDENTIFICATION: LA 37600, FS 77/10, B1, Barker 7, a grinding room. He was placed on his back with his Arroyo face to the southwest with a PII-III mineral-on-white bowl (RC14) near the right shoulder. Due to roots, DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: water, rodent disturbance, and backhoe activity, the MIDPOINT AGE: 45 remains are fragmentary and in poor condition. The SEX: Female right fibula has unusual scalloped/gouged marks, possi- CONDITION: Poor preservation with exfoliation and bly caused by porcupine gnawing. etching INVENTORY: Fair representation of cranial and post-

257 cranial remains ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: CARIES: 0/7 ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: ABSCESSING: Cannot assess CARIES: 3/6 TOOTH LOSS: Cannot assess ABSCESSING: 2 HYPOPLASIAS: Present TOOTH LOSS: 9+ STATURE: Cannot assess HYPOPLASIAS: Present ROBUSTICITY: Cannot assess STATURE: Femur (L) length 396 mm INFECTIONS: None ROBUSTICITY: Femur (L) circumference 78.0 mm ANEMIA: Slight/active and remodeled INFECTIONS: None OSTEOARTHRITIS: Cannot assess ANEMIA: Slight/remodeled in right orbit NEOPLASM: Cannot assess OSTEOARTHRITIS: Moderate to severe degenerative TRAUMA: Cannot assess joint disease in shoulder, elbow, hip, and knee joints. CONGENITAL: Cannot assess Lumbar vertebrae demonstrates moderate osteophytic OTHER: None lipping and biconcave collapse NEOPLASM: None MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: TRAUMA: None BURIAL POSITION: Flexed CONGENITAL: None BURIAL LOCATION: Extramural shallow depression OTHER: Endocranial lesions, moderate/remodeled GRAVE GOODS: None DATE (A.D.): 1000-1125 MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: BURIAL POSITION: On right side facing south; rest is KEY AVAILABLE DATA: unknown METRICS: Availability very limited BURIAL LOCATION: Extramural pit GENETICS: Availability extremely limited GRAVE GOODS: At least 1 bowl CHEMISTRY: None available DATE (A.D.): 1000-1125 NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This four-year-old child KEY AVAILABLE DATA: was placed in a shallow depression in a trash deposit. METRICS: Availability limited The body was placed on the back with the face to the GENETICS: Availability limited southwest, legs loosely flexed, with the arms along the CHEMISTRY: Available torso. The bone is in very poor condition with clay adhering as well as water and root damage. The bone is NARRATIVE SUMMARY: Burial 1 (FS 77) consisted very friable. There appears to be a slight, remodeled of a partial cranium and scattered postcranial fragments case of cribra orbitalia in the orbit (left), but little else found in Feature 14, a burned, bell-shaped cist or roast- can be ascertained. There are unusual pitting/vessel ing pit truncated by a backhoe trench. FS 10 was recov- insertions of unknown origin on arms and ribs. ered from fill of the backhoe trench. Matched fresh breaks were noted between the two FS numbers on both cranial and postcranial fragments. In-place bones IDENTIFICATION: LA 37600, FS 81, B3, Barker include the cranium resting on the right side. A partial Arroyo Mancos Black-on-white bowl (RC2) was found in sev- eral pieces in front of the face. DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: MIDPOINT AGE: 50 SEX: Male IDENTIFICATION: LA 37600, FS 610, B2, Barker CONDITION: Fair to poor preservation Arroyo INVENTORY: Good representation

DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: MIDPOINT AGE: 4 CARIES: 4/20 SEX: Cannot assess ABSCESSING: None CONDITION: Poor preservation TOOTH LOSS: 6-8 INVENTORY: Cranial and postcranial fragments; clay HYPOPLASIAS: Present covered and etched STATURE: Cannot assess ROBUSTICITY: Cannot assess

258 INFECTIONS: None INVENTORY: Fair representation ANEMIA: Slight/remodeled OSTEOARTHRITIS: Moderate to severe degenerative ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: joint disease on shoulder, hand, hip and knee joints. CARIES: 2/12 Osteophytic involvement on cervical, thoracic, and lum- ABSCESSING: 1 bar vertebrae severe. TOOTH LOSS: 16+ NEOPLASM: Tumor or cyst in left calcaneus (17 by 18 HYPOPLASIAS: Present by 28 mm) STATURE: Femur (R) length 416 mm TRAUMA: None ROBUSTICITY: Femur (R) circumference 85.0 mm CONGENITAL: Cleft palate (left side) INFECTIONS: None OTHER: Endocranial lesions moderate/remodeled on ANEMIA: None occipital, parietals, and frontal OSTEOARTHRITIS: Moderate to severe degenerative joint disease on the shoulder, elbow, hands, hip, knee, MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: and ankles. Severe osteophytic lipping on cervical, tho- BURIAL POSITION: Flexed racic, and lumbar vertebrae with some wedging and col- BURIAL LOCATION: Pit structure, pit in upper fill lapse of the bodies. GRAVE GOODS: None NEOPLASM: None DATE (A.D.): 1125-1300 TRAUMA: Severe healed fracture of distal right radius and ulna KEY AVAILABLE DATA: CONGENITAL: None METRICS: Available OTHER: Endocranial lesions slight/remodeled GENETICS: Available CHEMISTRY: Available MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: OTHER: X-ray of calcaneus and humerus BURIAL POSITION: Tightly flexed BURIAL LOCATION: Extramural pit NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This elderly (age 50+) GRAVE GOODS: None male was placed in a pit which was excavated into the DATE (A.D.): 1125-1300 back side wall of the existing but abandoned Pit Structure 1. He was lying on his back with the legs KEY AVAILABLE DATA: flexed to the left and arms at the side and crossed over METRICS: Available the abdomen. Matting was placed on top most of the GENETICS: Available body and tucked under the shoulders (but it is not actu- CHEMISTRY: Available ally under the body). Some clay deposits and puddling by the pelvis suggest that the body was buried while it NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This elderly (age 50+) was raining. This male has the usual degenerative adult was placed very tightly flexed into an existing changes associated with old age: moderate to severe extramural pit. The legs and arms were flexed into the degenerative joint disease and moderate osteophytosis chest area with the body and head placed on its left side. of the vertebrae. He appears to have a mild remodeled Some fibers in the area of the groin suggest clothing. case of cribra orbitalia and both orbits. The calcaneus Parallel vegetation remains (such as reed or grasses) (left) has a large tumor or cyst on it (possibly the suggest bundling of the body before placement into the humerus also). The individual had a cleft palate (the left pit. A healed severe fracture exists on the distal left side is largely undeveloped). There is a moderate, par- radius and ulna (from breaking a fall?). The individual tially remodeled lesion on the proximal portion of the has fairly advanced arthritis in all major joints and the right humerus. vertebral column with some fusion of the lower thoracic vertebrae.

IDENTIFICATION: LA 37600, FS 615, FS 619, FS 620, B4, Barker Arroyo IDENTIFICATION: LA 37600, FS 617, B5, Barker Arroyo DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: MIDPOINT AGE: 50 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: SEX: Male MIDPOINT AGE: Cannot assess; infant CONDITION: Poor preservation; fragmentary and dam- SEX: Cannot assess aged CONDITION: Very fragmentary

259 INVENTORY: None of this burial survived revealed cranial and vertebral fragments in a sheet trash deposit. A piece of femur with carnivore gnawing was MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: recovered from the backdirt of the backhoe trench. BURIAL POSITION: Right side, limb position unknown, semiflexed? BURIAL LOCATION: Extramural burial pit IDENTIFICATION: LA 37601, FS 166, B1, Barker GRAVE GOODS: Corrugated vessel Arroyo DATE (A.D.): 1000-1125 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: NARRATIVE SUMMARY: A backhoe trench MIDPOINT AGE: 30 removed much of this burial. The remains were very fri- SEX: Male able with only small fragments present in a poorly CONDITION: Poor preservation with fragmentary, defined burial pit. The head and trunk rested on the right damaged bone side with the face to the east. A corrugated vessel was INVENTORY: Fair representation placed at the head. ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: CARIES: 0/29 IDENTIFICATION: LA 37600 FS 623/624 B6 Barker ABSCESSING: 1 Arroyo TOOTH LOSS: None HYPOPLASIAS: Present DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: STATURE: Femur (R) length 425 mm MIDPOINT AGE: Cannot assess; adult ROBUSTICITY: Femur (R) circumference 79.4 mm SEX: Cannot assess INFECTIONS: None CONDITION: Very fragmentary ANEMIA: None INVENTORY: Poor representation, cranium, cervical OSTEOARTHRITIS: None vertebra, femur only NEOPLASM: Cannot assess TRAUMA: None ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: CONGENITAL: Extra lumbar vertebrae fused to CARIES: Cannot assess sacrum ABSCESSING: Cannot assess TOOTH LOSS: Cannot assess MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: HYPOPLASIAS: Cannot assess BURIAL POSITION: Legs loosely flexed STATURE: Cannot assess BURIAL LOCATION: Pit structure tunnel ROBUSTICITY: Cannot assess GRAVE GOODS: Two bowls and a pitcher INFECTIONS: Cannot assess DATE (A.D.): 1125-1180 ANEMIA: Cannot assess OSTEOARTHRITIS: Vertebrae show degenerative KEY AVAILABLE DATA: lesions and lipping METRICS: Availability limited NEOPLASM: Cannot assess GENETICS: Availability limited TRAUMA: Cannot assess CHEMISTRY: Available CONGENITAL: Cannot assess NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This semiflexed burial MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: represents a male aged about 30. The burial was in a tun- BURIAL POSITION: Cannot assess nel off of Pit Structure 2. The burial was placed loosely BURIAL LOCATION: Extramural trash area flexed on the right side on a mat on the floor of the fea- GRAVE GOODS: Cannot assess ture and covered with a slab. A bowl and an olla (RC3, DATE (A.D.): 1000-1300 4), both Mancos Black-on-white with organic paint, had been placed in front of the body. Backhoe trench activi- KEY AVAILABLE DATA: ty and root damage have caused much of the bone to be METRICS: None available fragmentary and eroded. Of the bone surfaces available GENETICS: None available for observation, there appear to be no lesions or patholo- CHEMISTRY: None available gies. Although many of the articular ends are broken, the hip joints and all vertebrae show no lipping or NARRATIVE SUMMARY: A backhoe trench degenerative changes.

260 IDENTIFICATION: LA 37601, FS 307, B2, Barker IDENTIFICATION: LA 37601, FS 151, B3, Barker Arroyo Arroyo

DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: MIDPOINT AGE: 19 MIDPOINT AGE: Cannot assess; adult SEX: Probable female SEX: Female CONDITION: Fair to good presentation CONDITION: Poor preservation INVENTORY: Good representation INVENTORY: Cranial, vertebral and clavicle fragments

ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: CARIES: 1/32 CARIES: Cannot assess ABSCESSING: None ABSCESSING: Cannot assess TOOTH LOSS: None TOOTH LOSS: Cannot assess HYPOPLASIAS: Present HYPOPLASIAS: Cannot assess STATURE: Tibia (L) length 365 mm with epiphyses STATURE: Cannot assess ROBUSTICITY: Femur (L) circumference 78.4 mm ROBUSTICITY: Cannot assess INFECTIONS: Slight/active in both orbits and 3 ribs INFECTIONS: Cannot assess ANEMIA: None ANEMIA: None OSTEOARTHRITIS: None OSTEOARTHRITIS: Cannot assess NEOPLASM: Metastatic carcinoma (in cranium, NEOPLASM: Cannot assess mandible, vertebrae, sacrum, sternum, scapula, clavi- TRAUMA: Cannot assess cles, ribs, humeri, innominates, femora) CONGENITAL: Cannot assess TRAUMA: None CONGENITAL: Spina bifida in sacrum MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: OTHER: Endocranial lesions/pacchionian pits BURIAL POSITION: Fragmentary BURIAL LOCATION: Extramural storage or trash pit MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: GRAVE GOODS: Two bowls, one small gray jar BURIAL POSITION: Flexed DATE (A.D.): 1125-1180 BURIAL LOCATION: Pit Structure 1, storage pit in upper fill KEY AVAILABLE DATA: GRAVE GOODS: Bowl METRICS: None available DATE (A.D.): 1000-1075 GENETICS: None available CHEMISTRY: None available KEY AVAILABLE DATA: METRICS: Available NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This adult cranium was GENETICS: Available recovered on or near the floor of a storage or trash pit CHEMISTRY: Available nicked by a backhoe trench. The burial is extremely OTHER: X-rays of all long bones, pelvis, scapula, ver- fragmentary, but of interest is its lack of cradleboarding. tebrae The excavator found the postcranial bones in the back- dirt. The two associated bowls are decorated in Mancos NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This 19-year-old individ- Black-on-white style with organic paint (RC15, R17), ual (probably female) was placed on the floor of a stor- and the small Mesa Verde Corrugated jar (RC20) also age pit excavated into the upper fill of Pit Structure 1. indicates relatively late dates. The pit was filled with a layer of soil with cobbles. The body was placed on the back with legs and arms tightly flexed into chest area. A hatchured Mancos Black-on- IDENTIFICATION: LA 37601, FS 400, B4, Barker white bowl (RC22) was placed above the head. This Arroyo individual has fairly advanced metastatic cancer. Many lesions are visible in the pelvis, mandible, vertebrae, DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: sternum and scapula. X-rays showed other lesions as MIDPOINT AGE: 25 well. SEX: Female CONDITION: Good preservation INVENTORY: Good representation

261 ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: kept hostage or enslaved. CARIES: 3/28 ABSCESSING: 2 TOOTH LOSS: None IDENTIFICATION: LA 37601, FS 190, B5, Barker HYPOPLASIAS: Present Arroyo STATURE: Femur (R) length 390 mm DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: ROBUSTICITY: Femur (R) circumference 66.1 mm MIDPOINT AGE: 35 INFECTIONS: Severe/active and remodeled SEX: Male osteomyelitis in sternum, scapulae, clavicles, right CONDITION: Fair to good preservation humerus, right radius, right ulna INVENTORY: Good representation ANEMIA: None OSTEOARTHRITIS: Biomechanically induced osteo- ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: phytes on ulna CARIES: 0/16 NEOPLASM: None ABSCESSING: 1 TRAUMA: Many healed compression fractures: six on TOOTH LOSS: 2 frontal, two on parietal; cervical vertebrae 3 and 4, ribs HYPOPLASIAS: Present show healed fractures STATURE: Femur (L) 473 mm

CONGENITAL: Absence of both I2 ROBUSTICITY: Femur (R) circumference 85 mm esti- mate MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: INFECTIONS: None BURIAL POSITION: Right leg semiflexed, right arm ANEMIA: Moderate/remodeled along trunk, left arm out and up; on back with head to OSTEOARTHRITIS: Slight degenerative joint disease left side in shoulder, elbow, ankles, and feet; slight vertebral lip- BURIAL LOCATION: Pit structure, intrusive pit ping in thoracic and lumbar GRAVE GOODS: None NEOPLASM: None DATE (A.D.): 1125-1180 TRAUMA: Healed compression fracture in left parietal (towards lambda on side) KEY AVAILABLE DATA: CONGENITAL: Spina bifida sacrum 4-5 METRICS: Available OTHER: Endocranial lesion GENETICS: Available CHEMISTRY: Available MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: OTHER: X-rays of cranium, chest area, humeri, radii, BURIAL POSITION: Unknown ulnae, and femur BURIAL LOCATION: Pit structure, upper fill GRAVE GOODS: Unknown NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This 25-year-old female DATE (A.D.): 1125-1180 was placed in a pit that was cut into the fill of abandoned Pit Structure 2. Although semiflexed, the arms were KEY AVAILABLE DATA: sprawled, and she was on her back, with the right knee METRICS: Available tightly flexed and heel under the pelvis. The left leg and GENETICS: Available right hand were missing in this otherwise well-pre- CHEMISTRY: Available served and undisturbed pit. There was no evidence of carnivore damage; however, two phalanges from the NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This 35-year-old male right hand were recovered and indicate the parts were was discovered during backhoe trenching in Pit disturbed well after the body was interred. The patholo- Structure 2. Most of the skeleton was recovered, but gies sustained by this young adult are numerous. It is there was much damage. The long bones in particular clear that at some point she was beaten. There are show both breakage that occurred prior to the back hoe, numerous compression fractures on her cranium, as well as well as fresh breaks. There is a healed lesion in the as healed fractured ribs and neck vertebrae. form of a depression on the left parietal towards the Furthermore, there was a massive infection back and side of the head by lambda (20 by 15 mm). (osteomyelitis) in the chest and shoulder areas. The vio- There is slight arthritis of the shoulder and ankles. lence inflicted upon this woman in her lifetime is remi- Osteophytic lipping is slight and found mostly on the niscent of domestic battering; however, other theories thoracic and lumbar vertebrae. would include someone who had been abducted and

262 SEX: Male IDENTIFICATION: LA 37601, FS 196, B6, Barker CONDITION: Good preservation Arroyo INVENTORY: Excellent representation

DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: MIDPOINT AGE: 28 CARIES: 6/26 SEX: Male ABSCESSING: 2 CONDITION: Very good preservation TOOTH LOSS: 5 INVENTORY: Good representation HYPOPLASIAS: Present STATURE: Femur (L) length 426 mm ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: ROBUSTICITY: Femur (L) circumference 78.4 mm CARIES: 0/31 INFECTIONS: None ABSCESSING: None ANEMIA: Slight/remodeled TOOTH LOSS: None OSTEOARTHRITIS: Slight degenerative joint disease HYPOPLASIAS: Present on shoulder, elbow, hands, hip, knee and ankles; moder- STATURE: Femur (L) length 425 mm ate osteophytic lipping on cervical and lumbar verte- ROBUSTICITY: Femur (L) circumference 76.6 mm brae; slight on thoracic vertebrae INFECTIONS: None NEOPLASM: None ANEMIA: None TRAUMA: None OSTEOARTHRITIS: None CONGENITAL: Extra lumbar vertebra fused to sacrum NEOPLASM: None TRAUMA: None MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: CONGENITAL: Extra thoracic vertebrae BURIAL POSITION: Semiflexed, face down BURIAL LOCATION: Pit structure, lower fill MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: GRAVE GOODS: Two jars BURIAL POSITION: Flexed DATE (A.D.): 1000-1075 BURIAL LOCATION: Extramural storage pit, floor GRAVE GOODS: jar KEY AVAILABLE DATA: DATE (A.D.): 1000-1075 METRICS: Available GENETICS: Available KEY AVAILABLE DATA: CHEMISTRY: Available METRICS: Available OTHER: X-ray of cranium and axis vertebra GENETICS: Available CHEMISTRY: Available NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This 43-year-old male was placed above a Pit Structure 1 floor feature and cov- NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This 28-year-old male ered with cobbles. His chest was down with legs extend- was placed in the bottom of a previously constructed ed at the hip and flexed under toward the back. Two bell shaped storage cyst. Alluvial deposition in the north crushed jars, one gray ware and one white ware, were side of the pit suggests abandonment before it was used found adjacent to the skull. This person had slight to for the burial. It was sealed with cobbles. The body is on moderate arthritis in all joints and in the vertebral col- the right side with the lower legs and arms flexed. Two umn. The parietals and occipital show slight, remodeled portions of corrugated vessels were present in the pit; porotic hyperostosis. one in the fill above the cobbles (RC1) may have been associated with the burial; a second, near the head (RC23), was probably placed with the burial. The burial IDENTIFICATION: LA 37601, FS 430, B8, Barker is very well preserved and completely undisturbed. Arroyo There are no pathologies, and dental health is excellent. DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: MIDPOINT AGE: 9 IDENTIFICATION: LA 37601, FS 324, B7, Barker SEX: Cannot assess Arroyo CONDITION: Good preservation INVENTORY: Good representation DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: MIDPOINT AGE: 42 ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY:

263 CARIES: 0/20 STATURE: Cannot assess ABSCESSING: None ROBUSTICITY: Cannot assess TOOTH LOSS: None INFECTIONS: None HYPOPLASIAS: Present ANEMIA: Slight/remodeled in orbits STATURE: Femur (L) length 272 mm OSTEOARTHRITIS: None ROBUSTICITY: Femur (L) circumference 47.4 mm NEOPLASM: None INFECTIONS: Moderate/active; tibia (R) localized TRAUMA: None ANEMIA: Cannot assess CONGENITAL: None OSTEOARTHRITIS: None NEOPLASM: None MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: TRAUMA: Localized swelling/periosteal reaction on BURIAL POSITION: Flexed tibia may have been result of trauma (see above) BURIAL LOCATION: Pit structure, middle fill CONGENITAL: Extra lumbar vertebrae GRAVE GOODS: Gray ware jar DATE (A.D.): 1000-1075 MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: BURIAL POSITION: Flexed KEY AVAILABLE DATA: BURIAL LOCATION: Pit structure, fill of tunnel METRICS: Available GRAVE GOODS: Ladle fragment GENETICS: None available DATE (A.D.): 1125-1180 CHEMISTRY: Available

KEY AVAILABLE DATA: NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This three-year-old child METRICS: Available was placed into a pit excavated to fit the shape of the GENETICS: None available tightly flexed body in the southeast quadrant of Pit CHEMISTRY: Available Structure 4. The pit was sealed with a layer of river cob- bles. The body was face up on back with legs loosely NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This child (age 9) was flexed and the upper arms along the sides with hands placed tightly flexed on the left side in a small pit exca- folded over the abdomen. A small Mummy Lake Gray vated into tunnel fill of Pit Structure 2. Waterline work jar (RC11) was placed near the body. The child had a subsequently did a lot of damage to the bone, but in slightly remodeled case of cribra orbitalia in both orbits. general it is well represented. There is a very localized case of moderate, active periostitis and swelling in the midshaft of the right tibia on the posterior surface. It IDENTIFICATION: LA 37601, FS 721, B10, Barker appears to be caused by a traumatic event such as a flesh Arroyo wound in that area. The presence of an extra lumbar ver- tebrae is interesting in that several other burials from DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: this site also show that anomaly and may be genetically MIDPOINT AGE: 38 related. A partial McElmo Black-on-white ladle (RC18) SEX: Female was with the burial. CONDITION: Poor preservation of fragmentary crani- um only INVENTORY: Cranium only partially represented IDENTIFICATION: LA 37601, FS 606, B9, Barker Arroyo ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: CARIES: 0/21 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: ABSCESSING: 2 MIDPOINT AGE: 3 TOOTH LOSS: Cannot assess SEX: Cannot assess HYPOPLASIAS: Present CONDITION: Good preservation STATURE: Cannot assess INVENTORY: Fair to good representation ROBUSTICITY: Cannot assess INFECTIONS: Cannot assess ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: ANEMIA: None CARIES: 0/19 OSTEOARTHRITIS: Cannot assess ABSCESSING: None NEOPLASM: Osteoma right frontal TOOTH LOSS: None TRAUMA: Moderate/remodeled fracture, lower right HYPOPLASIAS: Present frontal

264 CONGENITAL: None CONGENITAL: Spina bifida of sacrum OTHER: Endocranial lesions/pacchionian pits in pari- etal and frontals MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: BURIAL POSITION: Flexed MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: BURIAL LOCATION: Extramural storage pit BURIAL POSITION: Cannot assess GRAVE GOODS: gray ware pitcher, two partial vessels, BURIAL LOCATION: Cannot assess, possibly in the possibly an articulated turkey and an articulated dog upper portion of Feature 46, above Burial 11 DATE (A.D.): 1125-1180 GRAVE GOODS: Cannot assess DATE (A.D.): 1125-1180 KEY AVAILABLE DATA: METRICS: Available KEY AVAILABLE DATA: GENETICS: Available METRICS: None available CHEMISTRY: Available GENETICS: None available OTHER: X-ray of femur, tibia, and fibula CHEMISTRY: None available NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This child of about nine NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This individual is repre- years of age was placed in a partially filled bell-shaped sented only by a cranium that turned up in a backhoe cist tightly flexed on the stomach with the knees to the trench. This 38-year-old female does not appear to have right and covered with a layer of clay and cobbles. The cradleboard flattening, and the cranium seems longer excavator thought that this layer of cobbles might have and thinner than other La Plata remains. The button separated Burials 10 and 11. Placed with the burial were osteoma (4 by 8 mm) is located above the right orbit. a Dolores Corrugated pitcher (RC8), a large sherd from There is slight porotic hyperostosis, remodeled, on the a McElmo Black-on-white bowl, and the base of corru- right parietal and occipital. An oval (9.3 by 5.6mm) gated jar. A young turkey and a dog were within the fea- dense lesion in the lower right frontal bone (above the ture, one below and one above the child. Two large right eye) suggests a healed fracture. Although highly sherds may have held further offerings. At the time of speculative, this individual may be related (sisters?) to death the child had a slight, remodeled case of cribra B3, LA 37601, who also demonstrates no cradleboard orbitalia in both orbits, and a moderate remodeled case flattening, and a similarly long, thin shape of the crani- of porotic hyperostosis on both parietals. There was um. moderate active periosteal reaction on both tibiae and fibulas. The vertebral column demonstrated spina bifida of the sacrum. The distal right humerus, metacarpals, IDENTIFICATION: LA 37601, FS 722, B11, Barker and ilium are carnivore gnawed. Missing parts, the Arroyo lower right arm, parts of both hands, patellae, and some foot bones, may have been removed by carnivores. DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: MIDPOINT AGE: 9 SEX: Cannot assess IDENTIFICATION: LA 37601, FS 850, B12, Barker CONDITION: Excellent preservation Arroyo INVENTORY: Good representation DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: MIDPOINT AGE: 22 CARIES: 2/20 SEX: Male ABSCESSING: 2 CONDITION: Good preservation TOOTH LOSS: None INVENTORY: Postcranial from pelvis down only HYPOPLASIAS: Present STATURE: Femur (L) length 254 mm ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: ROBUSTICITY: Femur (L) circumference 44.6 mm CARIES: Cannot assess INFECTIONS: Moderate/active tibiae and fibulae ABSCESSING: Cannot assess ANEMIA: Slight/remodeled (orbits, occipital); moder- TOOTH LOSS: Cannot assess ate/remodeled (parietals) HYPOPLASIAS: Cannot assess OSTEOARTHRITIS: None STATURE: Femur (L) length 409 mm NEOPLASM: None ROBUSTICITY: Femur (L) circumference 76.9 mm TRAUMA: None INFECTIONS: Moderate/remodeled (femur), slight/

265 remodeled (tibiae) OSTEOARTHRITIS: Slight to moderate osteoarthritis ANEMIA: Cannot assess in the shoulder, elbow, hip, knee and digit joints; severe OSTEOARTHRITIS: None osteophytosis on the cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and NEOPLASM: None sacral vertebrae TRAUMA: None (lower body only) NEOPLASM: None CONGENITAL: None TRAUMA: None OTHER: Very robust and pronounced muscle attach- CONGENITAL: None ments on leg bones with some bowing of the tibiae OTHER: Endocranial lesion; fusion defect or trauma on lumbar 5 MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: BURIAL POSITION: Cannot assess MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: BURIAL LOCATION: Cannot assess BURIAL POSITION: Flexed GRAVE GOODS: Cannot assess BURIAL LOCATION: Extramural storage cist DATE (A.D.): 1000-1075 GRAVE GOODS: Two bowls and a mug DATE (A.D.): 1200-1300 KEY AVAILABLE DATA: METRICS: Availability limited KEY AVAILABLE DATA: GENETICS: Availability limited METRICS: Available CHEMISTRY: Available GENETICS: Available OTHER: X-ray of femur and tibia CHEMISTRY: Available OTHER: X-ray of cranium and lumbar vertebra NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This adult, about 24 years old, was found in backdirt from cutting a drainage canal NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This elderly male, age 45, during highway construction, and thus no information was discovered near the base of an extramural storage on mortuary context can be given. There are signs of cist. He was face down in a loosely flexed position. This systemic infection with periosteal reactions on the tibia individual has no caries but has lost many of his teeth and one femur. The lower body is a bit odd because the prior to death. He also shows signs of arthritis in a mod- left tibia and fibula look curved, and the muscle attach- erate stage of development on all articular surfaces and ments are robust. But there are definitely active lesions the vertebral column. The burial was accompanied by a on the long bones, and they appear to be less dense McElmo Black-on-white bowl, a Mesa Black-on-white (almost osteoporotic) than would be expected for a bowl, and a Mesa Verde Black-on-white mug (RC 2, young adult. A possible explanation is the “enslaved RC5, RC6). laborer hypothesis,” which suggests that this person was treated poorly but was involved in strenuous activity. IDENTIFICATION: LA 37603, FS 408, 410, B2.1, Barker Arroyo IDENTIFICATION: LA 37603, FS 295, B1, Barker Arroyo DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: MIDPOINT AGE: 30 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: SEX: Female MIDPOINT AGE: 45 CONDITION: Poor preservation SEX: Male INVENTORY: Fair representation; no crania CONDITION: Fair to good preservation INVENTORY: Good representation ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: CARIES: 0/1 ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: ABSCESSING: Cannot assess CARIES: 0/11 TOOTH LOSS: Cannot assess ABSCESSING: None HYPOPLASIAS: Present TOOTH LOSS: 21 STATURE: Femur (L) length 394 mm HYPOPLASIAS: Present ROBUSTICITY: Femur (L) circumference 71.0 mm STATURE: Tibia (L) length 360 mm INFECTIONS: None ROBUSTICITY: Femur (L) circumference 78.8 mm ANEMIA: Cannot assess INFECTIONS: None OSTEOARTHRITIS: None ANEMIA: None NEOPLASM: None

266 TRAUMA: Moderate/remodeled fracture in the distal MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: right radius BURIAL POSITION: Cannot assess CONGENITAL: None BURIAL LOCATION: Pit structure, B2.1, LA 37603 GRAVE GOODS: None MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: DATE (A.D.): 1200-1300 BURIAL POSITION: Semiflexed BURIAL LOCATION: Pit structure, upper fill KEY AVAILABLE DATA: GRAVE GOODS: Complete bowl, partial bowl with METRICS: Availability extremely limited blue pigment GENETICS: None available DATE (A.D.): 1200-1300 CHEMISTRY: None available

KEY AVAILABLE DATA: NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This fetus/newborn was METRICS: Availability limited originally excavated as part of B2.1 (female age 30) and GENETICS: Availability limited was not recognized in the field as a fetus/newborn. Its CHEMISTRY: Available close association with a reproductive-aged female sug- OTHER: X-ray of right radius fracture and diagnosis gests association of mother and fetus and possible death during labor or delivery. The bones are too fragile and NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This 30-year-old female small to do any analytical procedures on, but the overall was discovered in a pit in the upper fill of Pit Structure size of the bones suggests 8-9 lunar months of develop- 3. A guardrail post removed the cranium and part of the ment. upper torso. She was in a semiflexed position with a Mesa Verde Black-on-white bowl (RC1) and possibly other grave goods including a partial McElmo Black- IDENTIFICATION: LA 37605, FS 1102, B1, Barker on-white bowl sherd containing azurite pigment. There Arroyo is a healed fracture in the right distal radius. This female was buried with fetal parts. She was probably pregnant DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: at the time of death, or she died during an early delivery MIDPOINT AGE: 1.5 from prolonged and obstructed labor. The age of the SEX: Cannot assess fetus is about 8 lunar months. CONDITION: Poor preservation and very fragmentary INVENTORY: Small number of cranial and postcranial bones IDENTIFICATION: LA 37603, FS 410, B2.2, Barker Arroyo ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: CARIES: 0/5 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: ABSCESSING: Cannot assess MIDPOINT AGE: Fetus (estimate 8-9 lunar months) TOOTH LOSS: Cannot assess SEX: Cannot assess HYPOPLASIAS: Cannot assess CONDITION: Very fragile and fragmentary STATURE: Cannot assess INVENTORY: Fair representation ROBUSTICITY: Cannot assess INFECTIONS: Cannot assess ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: ANEMIA: Cannot assess CARIES: Cannot assess OSTEOARTHRITIS: Cannot assess ABSCESSING: Cannot assess NEOPLASM: Cannot assess TOOTH LOSS: Cannot assess TRAUMA: Cannot assess HYPOPLASIAS: Cannot assess CONGENITAL: Cannot assess STATURE: Femur (L) length 70.1 mm OTHER: Endocranial lesions, slight/remodeled ROBUSTICITY: Cannot assess INFECTIONS: Cannot assess MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: ANEMIA: Cannot assess BURIAL POSITION: Legs loosely flexed OSTEOARTHRITIS: Cannot assess BURIAL LOCATION: Room just above floor NEOPLASM: Cannot assess GRAVE GOODS: None TRAUMA: Cannot assess DATE (A.D.): 1075-1125 CONGENITAL: Cannot assess OTHER: Possible endocranial pitting, moderate/active KEY AVAILABLE DATA:

267 METRICS: None available weathered condition. GENETICS: None available CHEMISTRY: None available IDENTIFICATION: LA 37605, FS 9301, B4, Barker NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This infant, aged at a year Arroyo and a half, was placed in a pit in the southwest corner of Room 101 in a loosely flexed position. The poor preser- DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: vation and exfoliation of the bone surfaces make analy- MIDPOINT AGE: 6 sis difficult. SEX: Cannot assess CONDITION: Poor preservation INVENTORY: Fair representation of postcranial only IDENTIFICATION: LA 37605, FS 6020, B3, Barker Arroyo ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: CARIES: Cannot assess DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: ABSCESSING: Cannot assess MIDPOINT AGE: 8 TOOTH LOSS: Cannot assess SEX: Cannot assess HYPOPLASIAS: Cannot assess CONDITION: Fair to poor preservation; fragmentary STATURE: Tibia (L) length 185 mm INVENTORY: Fair representation ROBUSTICITY: Cannot assess INFECTIONS: None ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: ANEMIA: Cannot assess CARIES: 0/22 OSTEOARTHRITIS: None ABSCESSING: Cannot assess NEOPLASM: None TOOTH LOSS: Cannot assess TRAUMA: None HYPOPLASIAS: Present CONGENITAL: None STATURE: Cannot assess ROBUSTICITY: Cannot assess MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: INFECTIONS: None BURIAL POSITION: Cannot assess ANEMIA: None BURIAL LOCATION: Extramural hearth or roasting pit OSTEOARTHRITIS: None GRAVE GOODS: Bone awl NEOPLASM: None DATE (A.D.): 1075-1125 TRAUMA: None CONGENITAL: None KEY AVAILABLE DATA: METRICS: Availability extremely limited MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: GENETICS: None available BURIAL POSITION: Semiflexed CHEMISTRY: None available BURIAL LOCATION: Pit structure, pit in upper fill GRAVE GOODS: Jar and two bowls NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This juvenile, age 6, was DATE (A.D.): 600-750 placed in a preexisting hearth or roasting pit, but the bone shows no burning. A bone awl was found associat- KEY AVAILABLE DATA: ed with the burial. Preservation was quite poor, and the METRICS: Cannot assess burial was disturbed by a waterline trench. GENETICS: Availability extremely limited CHEMISTRY: Available IDENTIFICATION: LA 65029, FS 536, B1, Barker NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This child (age 8) was Arroyo placed on the back with knees up and arms across the abdomen within a bell-shaped pit in the fill of Pit DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: Structure 2. A portion of the bench was taken out during MIDPOINT AGE: 1.5 construction of the pit. Grave goods included two SEX: Cannot assess Chapin Black-on-white bowls and a Chapin Gray pitch- CONDITION: Poor preservation er, all with fugitive red exteriors (RC1, 2, 3). No evi- INVENTORY: Fair representation but fragmentary dence of lesions was apparent on the bones at the time of death, although the material is in fragmentary and ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY:

268 CARIES: Cannot assess OSTEOARTHRITIS: None ABSCESSING: Cannot assess NEOPLASM: None TOOTH LOSS: Cannot assess TRAUMA: (?) Round hole in left parietal HYPOPLASIAS: Cannot assess CONGENITAL: (?) STATURE: Cannot assess ROBUSTICITY: Cannot assess MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: INFECTIONS: None BURIAL POSITION: Upper legs flexed ANEMIA: Slight/active, remodeled (L orbit); L parietal BURIAL LOCATION: Room, subfloor is thick GRAVE GOODS: Bowl and canteen OSTEOARTHRITIS: None DATE (A.D.): 1200-1300 NEOPLASM: None TRAUMA: None KEY AVAILABLE DATA: CONGENITAL: None METRICS: Availability limited GENETICS: None available MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: CHEMISTRY: Available BURIAL POSITION: Loosely flexed BURIAL LOCATION: Room, subfloor NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This two-year-old was GRAVE GOODS: Corrugated jar placed in an unlined pit beneath the floor of Room 101, DATE (A.D.): 1075-1125 possibly predating the room, with one Mesa Verde Black-on-white bowl (RC 15) and a McElmo Black-on- KEY AVAILABLE DATA: white canteen (RC 22). Several pieces of ground stone METRICS: None available (two partial manos, one whole , one slab) were GENETICS: None available associated with this burial but were probably not grave CHEMISTRY: None available goods. Blading and a rodent burrow badly disturbed and scattered the bones. There is an unusual round, smooth NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This infant (age one and a walled hole (6 mm) through the parietal bone by the half years) was loosely flexed on the left side in a pit in sagittal suture that suggests a trauma, intentional the floor of Room 101 with a small Dolores Corrugated drilling, or congenital defect. jar (RC1). The burial is poorly preserved, but the infant had a slight, remodeled case of cribra orbitalia in the left orbit and porotic hyperostosis on the left parietal (which IDENTIFICATION: LA 65030, FS 40, B2, Barker also showed diploe thickening). The femur and tibia Arroyo exhibited a slight but active case of periosteal reaction. DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: MIDPOINT AGE: 22 IDENTIFICATION: LA 65030, FS 11, FS 12, FS SEX: Female 10125, B1, Barker Arroyo CONDITION: Poor preservation and fragmentary INVENTORY: Poor representation DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: MIDPOINT AGE: 2 ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: SEX: Cannot assess CARIES: 0/30 CONDITION: Poor condition and fragmentary ABSCESSING: None INVENTORY: Poor representation of cranium and post- TOOTH LOSS: None cranium HYPOPLASIAS: Present STATURE: Cannot assess ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: ROBUSTICITY: Cannot assess CARIES: 2/9 INFECTIONS: None ABSCESSING: None ANEMIA: Slight/remodeled, thick L frontal and parietal TOOTH LOSS: None OSTEOARTHRITIS: None HYPOPLASIAS: Present NEOPLASM: None STATURE: Cannot assess TRAUMA: Cannot assess ROBUSTICITY: Femur (L) circumference 32.3 mm CONGENITAL: None INFECTIONS: None ANEMIA: None MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS:

269 BURIAL POSITION: Lying on the left side with arms DATE (A.D.): 1200-1300 extended along front of body; upper leg flexed, lower leg tightly flexed KEY AVAILABLE DATA: BURIAL LOCATION: Extramural burial pit METRICS: None available GRAVE GOODS: Two bowls GENETICS: None available DATE (A.D.): 1000-1125 CHEMISTRY: None available

KEY AVAILABLE DATA: NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This child (age 3) was METRICS: Availability extremely limited placed face down in a pit in the fill of Room 101, very GENETICS: None available close to the west wall. The postcranial skeleton was dis- CHEMISTRY: Available integrated except for a few rib and vertebrae fragments. OTHER: X-ray of cranial fragments There was moderate and active porotic hyperostosis on both parietals, but little else can be deduced from this NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This adult female, age 22, burial. was placed on her left side with legs flexed and arms to the front in an unlined, bell-shaped pit. A sagebrush offering was made by burning a sprig of local sage, and IDENTIFICATION: LA 65030, FS 141, B4, Barker two Mancos Black-on-white bowls (RC19, RC24) were Arroyo placed by the head. The burial was disturbed by rodent activity and mechanical equipment. Remodeled porotic DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: hyperostosis is suggested by the thickened diploe of the MIDPOINT AGE: 3 frontal bone (9-12 mm thick). The rest of the bone frag- SEX: Cannot assess ments are too exfoliated and damaged to assess for CONDITION: Fair to good preservation lesions. INVENTORY: Good representation of upper body, legs and feet absent

IDENTIFICATION: LA 65030, FS 3, B3, Barker ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: Arroyo CARIES: 5/20 ABSCESSING: None DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: TOOTH LOSS: None MIDPOINT AGE: 3 HYPOPLASIAS: Present SEX: Cannot assess STATURE: Cannot assess CONDITION: Fair preservation of cranium fragments ROBUSTICITY: Cannot assess INVENTORY: Fair representation of cranium, verte- INFECTIONS: Severe/active on parietals, slight/remod- brae, and ribs eled on occipital ANEMIA: Moderate/remodeled ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: OSTEOARTHRITIS: None CARIES: 0/15 NEOPLASM: None ABSCESSING: None TRAUMA: None TOOTH LOSS: None CONGENITAL: None HYPOPLASIAS: Present STATURE: Cannot assess MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: ROBUSTICITY: Cannot assess BURIAL POSITION: Lying on the right side, flexure INFECTIONS: Cannot assess not observable ANEMIA: Moderate/active and remodeled BURIAL LOCATION: Extramural pit OSTEOARTHRITIS: Cannot assess GRAVE GOODS: None NEOPLASM: Cannot assess DATE (A.D.): 1125-1300 TRAUMA: Cannot assess CONGENITAL: Cannot assess KEY AVAILABLE DATA: METRICS: Availability limited MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: GENETICS: None available BURIAL POSITION: Cannot assess CHEMISTRY: Available BURIAL LOCATION: Room, subfloor GRAVE GOODS: None NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This three-year-old child

270 IDENTIFICATION: LA 65030 FS 124 B5 Barker IDENTIFICATION: LA 65030, FS 159, B6, Barker Arroyo Arroyo

DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: MIDPOINT AGE: 22 MIDPOINT AGE: 38 SEX: Female SEX: Female CONDITION: Very poor preservation; chalky and frag- CONDITION: Good to excellent preservation mented INVENTORY: Good representation of cranial and post- INVENTORY: Postcranial fragments and teeth cranial remains

ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: CARIES: 1/23 CARIES: 7/32 ABSCESSING: Cannot assess ABSCESSING: None TOOTH LOSS: Cannot assess TOOTH LOSS: None HYPOPLASIAS: Present HYPOPLASIAS: Present STATURE: Cannot assess STATURE: Femur (L) length 385 mm ROBUSTICITY: Femur (R) circumference 67.5 mm ROBUSTICITY: Femur (L) circumference 69.6 mm INFECTIONS: Slight/remodeled on several femur frag- INFECTIONS: Slight/active on femur ments ANEMIA: Slight remodeled on R parietal ANEMIA: Cannot assess OSTEOARTHRITIS: Slight osteoarthritis in shoulder, OSTEOARTHRITIS: None hips and hands; some apparent osteopenia in sternum, NEOPLASM: None vertebrae, sacrum TRAUMA: Cannot assess NEOPLASM: None CONGENITAL: Spina bifida in sacrum TRAUMA: Healed compression fracture on back of occipital; deformed left acetabulum appears trauma MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: induced (there is also a pronounced asymmetry between BURIAL POSITION: Lying on the back; lower legs right and left in femur measurements—left limbs are 1 flexed or more cm longer/wider than right), left pelvis (acetab- BURIAL LOCATION: Room, subfloor ulum) deformed, trauma induced. GRAVE GOODS: Three bowls, lapstone, bone bead CONGENITAL: Spina bifida in sacrum necklace, turquoise, pigment, lightning stone, pebble OTHER: Distortion of ring plates on thoracic and lum- DATE (A.D.): 1200-1300 bar vertebrae with much macroporosity

KEY AVAILABLE DATA: MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: METRICS: Availability limited BURIAL POSITION: Face down, arms crossed on GENETICS: Availability limited pelvis CHEMISTRY: Available BURIAL LOCATION: Pit structure roof fall GRAVE GOODS: None NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This 22-year-old female DATE (A.D.): 1200-1300 was placed in pit beneath the floor of Room 101 with many grave goods, including three Mesa Verde Black- KEY AVAILABLE DATA: on-white bowls (RC26, RC27, RC28), bits of turquoise, METRICS: Available a bone bead necklace, lapstone, lightning stone, pig- GENETICS: Available ment, and polished pebble. The body may have been CHEMISTRY: Available wrapped in an organic shroud. She was lying on her OTHER: X-ray of cranial trauma back with the upper legs extended and completely flexed at the knees. The burial was disturbed by earlier NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This 38-year-old woman road construction, and decomposition was advanced. was placed on the roof fall in Pit Structure 1. She was There was some slight, remodeled signs of periosteal face down with her knees flexed. There were no grave reaction on several femur fragments, but little else could goods. The right parietal demonstrates a slight, remod- be ascertained about this individual. eled case of porotic hyperostosis. She had a slight, remodeled case of periosteal reaction on the left femur (posterior above the knee; probably localized), and

271 slight osteoarthritis on the hips, shoulder and hands. NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This 11-year-old adoles- There is a shallow circular healed compression fracture cent was lying on roof fall 10 cm above the floor of Pit at the occipital bun (24 by 24 mm). There is a curious Structure 1 and appears to have been thrown into it from pattern of slight arthritis but fairly severe porosity in the above. The arms are sprawled above the head and the vertebrae and sacrum (osteopenia). However, long legs are shoulder width apart with feet in tossed posi- bones are quite robust and do not show any aging. There tion. There were no grave goods. There were no appar- is a deformation of the left acetabulum that appears to be ent lesions or trauma. The left central incisor has an trauma induced. There are rounded pores and a jagged unusual shape. This child was most likely interred at the suture-like line at the margin of the articular and nonar- same time as B8 and B9, LA 65030. Several complete ticular surfaces in the anterior portion. The most likely ribs were missing from this individual. Portions of the explanation is a healed fracture in this area. The left remaining left ribs have diagonal and transverse breaks femur is longer than the right by 8 mm. There is no that are well polished, possibly from carnivore licking. developmental wear and tear on the joints, yet there is generalized osteopenia in the vertebral column and ster- num. The other bones appear robust, with well-delineat- IDENTIFICATION: LA 65030, FS 241, B8, Barker ed muscle ridges. Arroyo

DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: IDENTIFICATION: LA 65030, FS 169, B7, Barker MIDPOINT AGE: 20 Arroyo SEX: Female CONDITION: Excellent preservation DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: INVENTORY: Good representation MIDPOINT AGE: 11 SEX: Cannot Assess ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: CONDITION: Excellent preservation CARIES: 2/32 INVENTORY: Excellent representation ABSCESSING: None TOOTH LOSS: None ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: HYPOPLASIAS: Present CARIES: 1/25 STATURE: Femur (L) length 404 mm ABSCESSING: None ROBUSTICITY: Femur (L) circumference 69.0 mm TOOTH LOSS: None INFECTIONS: Slight/active on femur HYPOPLASIAS: Present ANEMIA: Slight/remodeled STATURE: Femur (L) length 330 mm without epiphy- OSTEOARTHRITIS: None ses NEOPLASM: None ROBUSTICITY: Femur (L) circumference 58.7 mm TRAUMA: Severe healed broken bridge of the nose; INFECTIONS: None healed fractured neck (cervical 1, 2) ANEMIA: None CONGENITAL: None OSTEOARTHRITIS: None OTHER: Macroporosity of vertebral bodies and raised NEOPLASM: None ring plates TRAUMA: None CONGENITAL: Spina bifida in sacrum MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: OTHER: Deformed maxillary incisors BURIAL POSITION: Sprawled BURIAL LOCATION: Pit structure roof fall MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: GRAVE GOODS: None BURIAL POSITION: Sprawled DATE (A.D.): 1200-1300 BURIAL LOCATION: Pit structure roof fall GRAVE GOODS: None KEY AVAILABLE DATA: DATE (A.D.): 1200-1300 METRICS: Available GENETICS: Available KEY AVAILABLE DATA: CHEMISTRY: Available METRICS: Available OTHER: X-ray of nasal bone fracture and cervical ver- GENETICS: Availability limited tebrae CHEMISTRY: Available OTHER: X-ray of tibia NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This 20-year-old female

272 seems to have been thrown into Pit Structure 1 in the NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This 32-year-old female northwest quadrant. She is on her back with her arms appears to have been thrown into Pit Structure 1 while sprawled and legs extended. The face is twisted to the limp, into uneven fill or roof fall. She is in a wide left and facing down. She is lying on roof fall along the sprawling attitude, with arms up over and to the sides of wall. She has slight, remodeled porotic hyperostosis on the head, and legs far apart and extended. On her back, both parietals and the occipital. She also demonstrates her head is tilted backwards. A severe, largely healed localized slight, remodeled periosteal reaction on the trauma at the top of the head is a 57 by 77 mm area with right femur in the anterior region behind the knee. There a large irregular bump (35 by 43 mm) with the coronal is a healed fracture of the nasal bones (they are flattened and sagittal sutures running through it. There appears to and rough), suggesting a traumatic event that involved be some interference with suture closure because of the the bridge of the nose. Cervical vertebrae 1 and 2 are trauma. There is also a wide groove that runs for about deformed quite possibly because of some sort of trauma 43 mm along the sagittal suture. Apparently this depres- to the neck. The dens of the axis is squashed down and sion is the remains of a gash from a blow to the head that heavily gnarled. The atlas shows much reactive bone tis- did quite extensive damage but did eventually heal. The sue at its articulation with the dens. There is some dis- left pelvis appears to have osteophytes and margin lip- tortion in the vertebral bodies with raised end plates and ping near the obturator foramen and pubic plate, sug- macroporosity throughout. gesting a trauma-induced response. The left and right fifth metatarsals and phalanges have suffered trauma with angled distal ends and fused terminal phalanges. IDENTIFICATION: LA 65030, FS 242, B9, Barker This woman exhibits left/right asymmetry in the dimen- Arroyo sions of the leg and arm bones (the left side is more robust), but it is not pathological. DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: MIDPOINT AGE: 33 SEX: Female IDENTIFICATION: LA 65030, FS 352, B10, Barker CONDITION: Very good preservation Arroyo INVENTORY: Good representation DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: MIDPOINT AGE: Cannot assess CARIES: 5/32 SEX: Probable female ABSCESSING: None CONDITION: Poor condition and very fragmentary TOOTH LOSS: None INVENTORY: Poor representation of cranial and post- HYPOPLASIAS: Present cranial remains STATURE: Femur (L) length 394 mm ROBUSTICITY: Femur (L) circumference 71.8 mm ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: INFECTIONS: None CARIES: Cannot assess ANEMIA: None ABSCESSING: Cannot assess OSTEOARTHRITIS: None TOOTH LOSS: Cannot assess NEOPLASM: None HYPOPLASIAS: Cannot assess TRAUMA: Severe healed fracture/trauma at bregma; STATURE: Cannot assess healed fractured metatarsals and phalanges (fused) ROBUSTICITY: Cannot assess CONGENITAL: None INFECTIONS: Cannot assess ANEMIA: Cannot assess MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: OSTEOARTHRITIS: Cannot assess BURIAL POSITION: Sprawled NEOPLASM: Cannot assess BURIAL LOCATION: Pit structure roof fall TRAUMA: Cannot assess GRAVE GOODS: None CONGENITAL: Cannot assess DATE (A.D.): 1200-1300 MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: KEY AVAILABLE DATA: BURIAL POSITION: Facing upwards, upper right arm METRICS: Available along side; knees flexed GENETICS: Available BURIAL LOCATION: Storage pit, middle fill CHEMISTRY: Available GRAVE GOODS: Three partial vessels, jet pendant, OTHER: X-ray of cranium abrader, and two manos. Matting possibly present.

273 DATE (A.D.): 1100-1300 the fill of Pit Structure 1 had the legs flexed, but little else is known. Backhoe activity has broken and dam- KEY AVAILABLE DATA: aged much of the bone. The postcranial fragments avail- METRICS: None available able lack lesions. All elements have been chewed by GENETICS: None available carnivores. CHEMISTRY: Available

NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This individual was IDENTIFICATION: LA 65030, FS 511, B13 placed in an existing storage pit. Backhoe activity (Individual E), Barker Arroyo removed some of the burial. The impact of mechanical equipment made the skeletal material difficult to assess. DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: No complete vessels were associated, but large portions MIDPOINT AGE: 11 of two Pueblo II-III corrugated jars, and a McElmo SEX: Cannot assess Black-on-white bowl were present. The associated CONDITION: Poor preservation and fragmentary manos and abrader are partial and may not be grave INVENTORY: Fair representation goods. Excavator suggests that the burial may have been moved prehistorically. ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: CARIES: Cannot assess ABSCESSING: Cannot assess IDENTIFICATION: LA 65030, FS 510, B12, Barker TOOTH LOSS: Cannot assess Arroyo HYPOPLASIAS: Cannot assess STATURE: Femur (L) length 342 mm without epiphy- DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: ses MIDPOINT AGE: 22 ROBUSTICITY: Femur (L) circumference 66.1 mm SEX: Male INFECTIONS: None CONDITION: Poor preservation ANEMIA: None INVENTORY: Postcranial fragments only OSTEOARTHRITIS: None NEOPLASM: None ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: TRAUMA: Cannot assess CARIES: Cannot assess CONGENITAL: None ABSCESSING: Cannot assess TOOTH LOSS: Cannot assess MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: HYPOPLASIAS: Cannot assess BURIAL POSITION: Legs semiflexed (almost extend- STATURE: Femur (L) length 419 mm ed) on right side ROBUSTICITY: Femur (L) circumference 74.2 mm BURIAL LOCATION: Pit structure, lower fill INFECTIONS: None GRAVE GOODS: None ANEMIA: Cannot assess DATE (A.D.): 1000-1075 OSTEOARTHRITIS: None NEOPLASM: Cannot assess KEY AVAILABLE DATA: TRAUMA: Cannot assess METRICS: Availability limited CONGENITAL: Cannot assess GENETICS: None available CHEMISTRY: Available MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: BURIAL POSITION: Upper right leg semiflexed, left NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This 11-year-old adoles- leg flexed cent was placed in Pit Structure 8 and presumably left BURIAL LOCATION: Pit structure, lower fill uncovered as alluvial fill washed in and covered it. The GRAVE GOODS: None burial is represented best by the vertebral column and DATE (A.D.): 1000-1075 legs. The position of these elements suggest that the child was thrown into the pit structure. Of the bones KEY AVAILABLE DATA: present, no pathologies were evident. There is severe METRICS: Availability limited carnivore damage to the vertebrae, ribs, and scapulae. GENETICS: Availability limited Most other elements are missing entirely. CHEMISTRY: Available NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This 22-year-old male in

274 CARIES: 11/24 IDENTIFICATION: LA 65030, FS 514, FS 515, B14, ABSCESSING: 3 Barker Arroyo TOOTH LOSS: 4-6 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: HYPOPLASIAS: Present MIDPOINT AGE: 1.5 STATURE: Femur (L) length 437 mm SEX: Cannot assess ROBUSTICITY: Femur (L) circumference 81.6 mm CONDITION: Poor preservation INFECTIONS: None INVENTORY: Poor cranial and postcranial representa- ANEMIA: Cannot assess tion OSTEOARTHRITIS: Slight degenerative joint disease on the shoulder, elbow, hip, knee, and temporal- ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: mandibular joints; slight to moderate osteophytosis on CARIES: 0/2 the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae; osteopenia ABSCESSING: Cannot assess in sternum pronounced TOOTH LOSS: Cannot assess NEOPLASM: None HYPOPLASIAS: Present TRAUMA: None STATURE: Cannot assess CONGENITAL: None ROBUSTICITY: Cannot assess INFECTIONS: Cannot assess MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: ANEMIA: Moderate/active and remodeled BURIAL POSITION: Semiflexed/sprawled OSTEOARTHRITIS: None BURIAL LOCATION: Pit structure, lower fill NEOPLASM: None GRAVE GOODS: None TRAUMA: Cannot assess DATE (A.D.): 1000-1075 CONGENITAL: None KEY AVAILABLE DATA: MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: METRICS: Available BURIAL POSITION: Left side with right arm flexed GENETICS: Available BURIAL LOCATION: Pit structure, lower fill CHEMISTRY: Available GRAVE GOODS: None DATE (A.D.): 1000-1075 NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This 48-year-old male was in Pit Structure 8 along the northern wall. He was KEY AVAILABLE DATA: on his side with his legs loosely flexed at the knee, and METRICS: None available his arms were askew with one flung over his neck and GENETICS: None available one out to the side and under the body. He appears to CHEMISTRY: None available have been thrown into the pit structure. This individual is very robust with marked muscle attachments. For his NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This infant (age 1.5) was age he has remarkably nonarthritic joints. hit by mechanical equipment, and little is known regard- ing mortuary component. The remaining portion of the spine and cranium were on the left side, and the right IDENTIFICATION: LA 65030, FS 615, B16, Barker arm was flexed. There is slight, remodeled cribra Arroyo orbitalia in the left orbit. DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: MIDPOINT AGE: 28 IDENTIFICATION: LA 65030, FS 517, B15, Barker SEX: Probable female Arroyo CONDITION: Fair preservation but fragmentary INVENTORY: Fair representation of cranial and post- DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: cranial remains MIDPOINT AGE: 48 SEX: Male ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: CONDITION: Excellent preservation CARIES: 0/27 INVENTORY: Good representation of cranial and post- ABSCESSING: None cranial remains TOOTH LOSS: None HYPOPLASIAS: Present ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: STATURE: Femur (R) length 439 mm estimated

275 ROBUSTICITY: Femur (R) circumference 84 mm esti- mated IDENTIFICATION: LA 65030, FS 648, B17, INFECTIONS: Moderate/active and remodeled on (Individual B), Barker Arroyo frontal and parietal; slight/remodeled on mastoids; mod- erate/ remodeled on malars DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS: ANEMIA: None MIDPOINT AGE: 3 OSTEOARTHRITIS: Cannot assess SEX: Cannot assess NEOPLASM: Cannot assess CONDITION: Poor preservation TRAUMA: Two healed compression fractures: one on INVENTORY: Cranium fragments only the right frontal above the eye and one on the occipital bun ETIOLOGICAL CATEGORY: CONGENITAL: None CARIES: 1/16 OTHER: Endocranial lesions/pacchionian pits frontal ABSCESSING: Cannot assess TOOTH LOSS: Cannot assess MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: HYPOPLASIAS: Present BURIAL POSITION: Facing upward, right leg flexed, STATURE: Cannot assess upper left almost extended but bent at the knee ROBUSTICITY: Cannot assess BURIAL LOCATION: Pit structure, lower fill INFECTIONS: Cannot assess GRAVE GOODS: None ANEMIA: None DATE (A.D.): 1000-1075 OSTEOARTHRITIS: Cannot assess NEOPLASM: Cannot assess KEY AVAILABLE DATA: TRAUMA: Cannot assess; none on cranium METRICS: Availability limited CONGENITAL: Cannot assess; none on cranium GENETICS: Availability limited OTHER: Endocranial lesion, frontal CHEMISTRY: Available MORTUARY CHARACTERISTICS: NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This 22-year-old adult BURIAL POSITION: Semiflexed was placed on the back with the right leg flexed and her BURIAL LOCATION: Pit structure ventilator shaft left extended and bent at the knee in the interior of Pit GRAVE GOODS: None Structure 8 in the northwest quadrant along the wall DATE (A.D.): 1000-1075 with no grave goods. There was a ground stone slab on the cranium, which caused postmortem damage to the KEY AVAILABLE DATA: skull. The placement of the body may be haphazard. It METRICS: None available may have been placed with one leg flexed more than the GENETICS: None available other and one arm up and one down. There were two CHEMISTRY: None available healed compression fractures on the head: one above the left eye on a frontal fragment (7 mm) and one on the NARRATIVE SUMMARY: This three-year-old child back of the head. Identification of this individual as a was placed in the fill of Pit Structure 8 on the female is problematic. The stature and available meas- back with face up. Postcranial elements were complete- urements suggest a male. ly deteriorated.

276 154.6 6.53 Midshaft Foramen 31.5 2.86 1.90 2.53 1.72 6.30 34.5 2.84 1.88 2.52 1.67 AP ML AP ML Cir L AP ML AP ML Length Length Subtrochanter Midshaft Nutrient Femur Tibia Fibula Calcaneus Stature Table A4.1. Female postcranial measurements (cm) measurements Female postcranial A4.1. Table Head Diameter APPENDIX 4: POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENTS Breadth Epicondylar Length Physical Length ID Maxi mum * not all epiphyses are fused on this individual on this fused are all epiphyses * not AP = anterior-posterior ML = medial-lateral Cir = circumference 37592 B5 37592 37600 B0.137600 B2*37601 B865030 B265030 B565030 40.4 B737599 B437601 40.2 B137595 B2.137603 6.68 39.0 B965030 B2 37593 39.4 38.0 3.65 B10 37601 39.4 1.95 39.7 B6 4.1065030 6.43 2.63 B137600 2.00 38.9 2.51 2.29 2.67 B737592 3.76 2.88 3.76 2.14 38.5 (508-3) 37593 2.75 5.02 3.63 39.6 2.18 6.91 (509-1) 2.2965030 38.1 41.0 2.79 2.07 32.1 3.73 40.0 7.84 3.75 40.5 2.51 2.85 41.2 6.98 2.05 2.15 36.5 1.92 1.77 2.08 40.0 7.33 2.79 2.12 2.77 3.17 2.98 2.59 2.35 7.24 2.15 3.93 2.17 2.03 6.61 1.65 2.18 2.36 6.86 3.93 2.90 2.51 2.57 1.99 32.7 31.4 7.10 4.22 2.09 6.75 7.18 2.42 2.39 3.91 32.3 2.27 3.30 35.3 2.33 34.1 6.30 2.10 2.42 3.07 3.11 2.19 3.09 1.78 2.56 2.90 7.41 154.3 6.96 2.82 1.63 2.70 2.46 2.25 7.80 2.56 2.98 30.8 1.76 2.27 8.21 1.83 1.64 32.9 2.77 2.67 31.6 7.05 1.78 33.3 1.67 2.56 2.76 6.58 1.68 3.29 6.60 1.71 1.91 151.7 151.7 3.05 2.87 1.63 1.86 150.7 6.14 33.4 149.4 155.8 152.2

277 160.3 7.56 37.2 3.52 2.11 3.48 1.92 Subtrochanter Midshaft Nutrient Foramen Midshaft AP ML AP ML Cir L AP ML AP ML Length Length Table A4.2. Male postcranial measurements (cm) measurements Male A4.2. postcranial Table Femur Tibia Fibula Calcaneus Stature Head Diameter Breadth Epicondylar Length Physical Length ID Maximum AP = anterior-posterior ML = medial-lateral Cir = circumference 37600 B337600 37593 (563-1) 4.26 2.43 3.24 37601 B1265030 B1237599 B9 40.937599 B5 41.937601 B6 40.8 41.737601 B1 41.4 41.637601 B5 42.1 42.537601 B7 42.0 42.5 B437599 42.0 47.3 7.71 B137603 42.0 4.03 42.6 7.4937598 B1 47.0 4.50 7.42 2.33 4.3665030 B15 42.0 2.24 B3 2.9837593 2.26 37.0 7.76 4.14 3.3037600 B4 43.7 2.49 2.76 7.89 2.01 2.23 37.0 2.47 4.40 2.56 4.54 2.42 43.4 2.91 2.82 41.6 4.33 2.47 2.12 2.45 7.69 2.45 2.35 7.68 2.52 3.13 2.45 7.88 7.42 41.6 3.09 34.2 7.65 2.39 3.17 2.32 2.54 34.8 4.49 3.09 35.0 7.34 4.71 2.72 7.66 3.77 2.66 2.64 2.27 3.25 34.6 3.02 2.31 36.8 2.20 2.65 1.99 7.94 2.02 3.10 1.95 2.73 3.08 3.44 3.21 4.35 7.84 3.08 4.36 2.80 3.15 2.64 2.23 2.76 2.06 2.40 36.3 2.39 2.27 2.33 1.73 2.63 1.84 3.07 3.28 2.42 3.33 2.91 4.00 2.16 33.9 7.88 2.56 8.16 2.42 1.93 2.01 2.19 36.0 7.16 3.26 2.75 36.0 3.04 33.4 3.57 3.35 34.8 31.0 2.03 7.70 3.49 2.05 8.50 1.97 6.92 3.32 7.02 158.8 160.9 2.09 3.17 160.5 3.48 35.0 1.93 160.3 3.22 162.3 2.04 1.88 2.73 7.49 3.61 35.0 1.97 34.6 1.82 162.5 7.03 36.3 30.0 7.44 7.94 162.3 165.0 173.1 149.9 7.26

278 20.3 23.2 21.9 Table A4.3. Female postcranial measurements (cm) measurements Female postcranial A4.3. Table * not all* fused are epiphyses 65030 B937593 B237601 B10 13.265030 B6 13.437600 B1 2.7737592 B7 2.76 12.437593 (563-22) 13.5 13.137593 (563-25) 14.0 3.07 9.62 2.90 28.9 2.88 2.26 14.1 1.47 10.40 3.87 30.0 28.1 4.98 3.60 2.44 2.29 5.51 28.2 1.36 1.33 23.0 2.33 5.80 5.75 24.5 3.84 4.98 3.84 1.51 5.86 3.62 5.22 22.5 5.30 3.52 22.5 25.1 ID37592 B5 37600 B0.1 37601 B2* Ln Clav Cir Clav 65030 B8 Ln Scap 65030 B2 14.8 Br Scap 65030 B5Ln Hum 12.3Max 3.7037599 Hum B7 Min Hum 37601 B4 2.33 Epi Hum Head-v37595 B1 Cir Min 37603 13.9 B2.1 Rad-L UL-L 9.33 27.6 2.00 1.92 1.24 1.50 5.10 5.75 3.62 3.73 5.16 21.1 5.74 22.6 22.7 25.5

279 26.5 Table A4.4. Male postcranial measurements (cm) measurements Male postcranial A4.4. Table ID37601 B12 65030 B1237599 B9 Clav Ln37599 B5 Clav Cir37601 B6 Scap Ln 15.037601 B1 Scap Br 14.0 2.34 37601 B5 Hum Ln 3.13 13.137601 B7 Hum Max 3.07 Hum Min37599 B4 3.76 17.6 Hum Epi37603 B1 Head-v37598 14.6 B1 3.40 Min Cir65030 B15 15.0 9.91 Rad-L37593 B3 UL-L 37600 B4 3.31 15.0 30.8 30.537600 B3 30.4 10.0037593(563-3) 3.50 1.89 2.19 37593 (563-24) 34.0 2.17 15.1 1.36 9.89 1.63 9.94 2.14 1.55 10.80 31.0 5.67 5.65 31.4 1.56 2.24 4.57 4.09 2.24 1.86 5.92 10.70 5.38 4.39 5.59 1.60 4.43 1.64 1.39 22.4 5.71 24.2 24.1 5.59 26.0 6.35 6.16 32.2 31.5 26.6 4.33 4.47 24.9 27.4 1.97 2.27 5.90 5.82 5.47 1.46 1.78 23.3 24.6 23.2 24.9 26.6 6.15 24.6 4.40 4.36 5.62 6.50 5.95 25.9

280