Spanish Language Consonants 18 Consonant

& Spanish Language Consonants 18 consonant

Phonemic

inventory

Consonant The following consonant clusters are used in Spanish; these do not occur in word final position: clusters /pl/, /pſ/, /bl/, /bſ/, /tſ/, /dſ/, /kl/, /kſ/, /gl/, /gſ/, /fl/, and /fſ/ Vowels/ 5 vowels Dipthongs The Spanish vowel system is much smaller than that of English; they are similar to the short vowels of English. Spanish vowels include the following: /a/,/e/, /i/, /o/, /u/ Tones none Varieties European Spanish, Catalan, South American, Spanish (including Mexican Spanish, Puerto Rican Spanish, etc.). Writing Latin alphabet with onetoone correspondence between sounds and letters. System Months and days of the week are capitalized

Phonology Dialectal variations in Spanish phonology exist. It is important to recognize this when assessing a Spanish speaker. For example, /v/ and /θ/ occur in some Spanish dialects. Syntax/ Morphology • Adjectives follow nouns • Same words used for in on and at • Double negatives are used • Negative word placed at the beginning of the sentence • Deleting do in questions( ie. You want apples? What you want?) • Omission of articles, pronouns, and auxiliary (is) • Word order difficulty • Substitutions/ mix up of prepositions • No reflexive verbs in Spanish Semantics Difficulty with multiple meaning words Pragmatics Varies across region Pertinent cultural Flapped & trilled /r/. No final consonant clusters. Only /l, r, d, n, s/ occur in final position. information Dialectal. variations exist. Adjectives follow nouns. Syntax: subject-verb-object, question word- verb-subj. Spanish developmental norms 3:3 3:7 3:11 4:3 4:7 4:11 5:7 >5:7 /p,b,t/ /k,w,m,n/ /j,l/ /f/ / ʧ,d,g,ſ/ /x,ɲ/ /s/ /r/

References 1. Acevedo, M. (1993). Development of Spanish consonants in pre-school children. Journal of Communication Disorders, 15, 9–15. 2. Bedore, L. (1999). The acquisition of Spanish. In O. Taylor & L. Leonard (Ed.), Language acquisition across North America: Cross-cultural and cross-linguistic perspectives (pp. 157–207). San Diego, CA: Singular.Edwards, H.T. (1992). Applied phonetics: The sounds of American English. San Diego: Singular Publishing Group, Inc 3. ELL Consonant Chart, revised 2008 by Schindler and Taps 4. Goldstein, B. (2000). Cultural and linguistic diversity resource guide for speech-language pathologists. San Diego, CA: Singular. 5. Iglesias, A., & Anderson, N. (1993). Dialectal variations. In J. Bernthal & N. Bankson (Eds.). Articulation and phonological disorders. (3rd ed., pp. 147-161). New York: Prentice-Hall 6. Jimenez, B. C. (1987). Acquisition of Spanish consonants in children aged 3-5 years, 7 months. 7. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 18, 357–363 8. McLeod, S. (2012). Information about Spanish speech. Bathurst,NSW, Australia: Charles SturtUniversity. Retrieved from http://www.csu.edu.au/research/multilingualspeech/languages. Published November 2012. 15" & Hmong Language Consonants 32 consonants

Phonemic

inventory

Consonant Anecdotal evidence of limited consonant clusters. Only final sound is /ng/. clusters Vowels/ Hmong Daw and Mong Njua vowels Front Central Back Dipthongs oral nasal oral nasal oral nasal Close i ɨ u Mid e ẽ~ʌŋ ɔ ɔ̃~oŋ Open a ã~aŋ

Diphthongs Closing Centering Close component is front ai i, Close component is central aɨ Close component is back au u,

Tones 7 distinct tones Varieties 7 varieties of Hmong: Hmong Daw (White Hmong), Mond Njua (Green Hmong), Hmong Shua, Horned Miao, Hmong Do, Hmong Don and Chuanqiandian. White & Green Hmong are the most recognized dialects. Writing Historically does not have a written language. Two dozen writing systems have been developed System since the end of the 19th century using a combination of Chinese, Lao, Russion, Thai and Vietnamese characters and alphabets. The Romanized Popular Alphabet is most widely used; however, Hmong in the US do not use RPA for spelling of proper nouns because they want their names to be easily pronounced. Phonology • Problems English Sounds: th, e (bed), ae (bat), z, pl, bl, d. Sounds that may be confused of substituted for each other: b, v, w, l, r, p, b, k, g t, d, ch/sh d /dz. • Vowels are nasalized; the only final consonant is /ng/; clusters are difficult and may only occur in initial position • Although English has a few vowel sounds that do not exist in Hmong—for example, the short [i] sound in the word bit—this area of difference does not seem to cause a great deal of difficulty. Consonants, on the other hand, generally do prove troublesome. Even though Hmong Der and Mong Leng have more consonants than English does, English has some sounds that can be difficult for Hmong learners. Two examples are the initial consonant sounds found in the words this and thistle. The [j] sound in the middle of the word suggest is another sound that may be difficult. For many Hmong learners, consonants at the end of words such as married, warmth, and bulb are especially difficult, since Hmong Der and Mong Leng words rarely end in consonants. Because words in Hmong Der and Mong Leng are generally of one syllable, polysyllabic English words also can prove troublesome.

Syntax/ Morphology • No ‘s’ marker for plurals and possessives & confusion with possessive forms (my/mine). • No specific gender words, “He is my sister”. • Negatives formed by word addition before the verb, “I not eat”. • Tenses are indicated by a system of adding words to indicate past and future, example: 16" & “We jump already” instead of “We jumped”. • A word is put before the verb to indicate a question • Compound sentences with clauses are common • Modifiers follow nouns except numbers: “Two book big.” One house” instead of “a house”. • Subject/verb inversion • Omission of “do” and “did” • Incorrect answer form for yes/no questions: “Do you want more food?” answered, “I want.” • Use of two or more main verbs in one clause without any connectors: “I took a book went studied at the library.” • Omission of the linking verb: “He hungry”. • Use of adjective form when adverb form is needed, “walk quiet”. • Problems with irregular subject-verb agreement: “Sue & Ed has a new house.” • Position of adjectives after noun, “I read a book interesting.” • Avoidance of “er” and “est” endings, “I am more old than my brother”. • Confusion of subject and object pronoun forms, “him hit me”. • Use of pronouns with subject nous, “This car, it runs very fast.” • Omission of article, “He has job.” Semantics • Tone determines meaning. In Hmong Der and Mong Leng, by contrast, each word has a tone attached to it that sets it apart from every other word. • As Bruce Bliatout, Bruce Downing, and Judy Lewis explain in Handbook for Teaching Hmong- Speaking Students, “Just as map and mat and mad in English are different because the final consonants differ, so in Hmong ma with a high tone or mid tone or low tone is considered three different syllables with three different meanings.”

Pragmatics Want to help people regularly, may try to help peers during a test. Want group success. Pertinent cultural The Hmong language is an 8 tone language. There are two primary Hmong dialects: Hmong Der information (White Hmong) and Mong Leng (Green Hmong). Most Hmong People did not learn to read and write until the late 1950’s. A high value was placed on Folklore and oral traditions to instruct, entertain, teach values, and teach beliefs. The Hmong culture has been labeled by some as a “ Preliterate people” who lack an alphabet, knowledge, and understanding of the basic literacy process. Depending on were a Hmong family is from they may have or have not been exposed to literacy in their native language. It has been reported that in some places in America teachers have discriminated against Hmong students by lowering expectations of their skills. It has been documented that successful strategies for Hmong students are many visuals and memorization skills. Since this is a culture that relies heavily on oral language to pass down knowledge and communicate, targeting memory allows the student to tap into a current skill set of being able to remember large amounts of information.

As reported by Hmong Cultural and Resource Center , when expressing language, it is a typical for Hmong people to be humble and not express their true emotions in front of others. They may say phrases like, “ "maybe" or "I will try" instead of giving a definite positive or negative reply. Sometimes they might say "okay" or "yes" which actually means "no", when they feel pressured .” Various grammatical forms such as , plurals, pronouns, possessives, and verb tenses to don’t exist in either dialect of Hmong. References • ASD ELL Docs • Vang, A. T. (1999). Hmong-American students: Challenges and opportunities. In C. C. Park & M. M. Y. Chi (Eds.), Asian- American education: Prospects and challenges (pp. 219–236). Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey. • Green, K. R., and Reder, S. (1986). Factors in individual acquisition of English: A longitudinal study of Hmong adults. In G. L. Hendricks, B. T. Downing, & A. S. Deinard (Eds.), The Hmong in transition (pp. 299–329). Staten Island, NY: Center for Migration Studies. • http://www.pbs.org/splithorn/hmong.html • http://www.cal.org/co/hmong/hmong_fin.pdf • Hmong Cultural and Resource Center www.hmongcenter.org

17" & Thai Language Consonants 44 consonant forms and 21 consonant sounds Phonemic

inventory

Place and Place Manner Bilabial Stop/plosiv e Alveolar Stop/plosiv e Velar Stop/plosiv e Labiodenta Fricative l Interdental Fricative Alveolar Fricative Palatal Fricative Glottal Fricative Liquid Nasal Glide Postalveol ar Affricate Eng. p b t d k g f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ b l r m n ŋ w j tʃ dʒ IPA b d k f s h l r m n ŋ w j

Additional sounds /ph, Ɂp, b, th, Ɂt, d, kh, Ɂk, Ɂ, ʨ, ʨh/ Thai distinguishes among three voice/aspiration patterns for plosive consonants: 1. unvoiced, unaspirated 2. unvoiced, aspirated 3. voiced, unaspirated

Thai distinguishes a third sound which is neither voiced nor aspirated, which occurs in English only as an allophone of /p/, approximately the sound of the /p/ in "spin". There is similarly an alveolar /t/, /th/, /d/ triplet. In the velar series there is a /k/, /kh/ pair and in the postalveolar series the /tɕ/, /tɕh/pair.

Consonant 12+ syllable‐initial clusters clusters Vowels/ 18 vowel forms + 15‐18 diphthongs + 3 triphthongs Dipthongs Vowels: /i, iː, ɯ, ɯː, u, uː, e, eː, ɤ, ɤː, o, oː, ɛ, ɛː, ɔ, ɔː, a, aː/

Diphthongs: /ai, ɑu, eu, ʊɪ, iu, aːi ɑːu, eːu, iːa, uːa, ɯːa, ɛːu, ɤːi, uːi, ɔːi/ Tripthongs: /iau, ɯau, uai/ Tones Middle, low, high, falling, rising

Varieties Common forms of Central Thai dialect are Street Thai and Elegant Thai.

Writing Thai script System Phonology Thai speakers learning English often have problems pronouncing /δ/, /θ/, /∫/, /z/, /ʒ/, and /v/ because these are absent in the first language. They often find it hard to pronounce the initial consonant clusters that do not occur in Thai, such as /dr/, /fl/, /fr/, /sl/, /sp/, /st/ and /sw/. In addition, Thai learners tend to drop final consonants (e.g., light is pronounced as lie) or reduce final consonant clusters (e.g., lunch becomes lun). English rhythm also presents another problem to Thai learners. Specifically, they have difficulty speaking English with correct stress patterns in polysyllabic words due to their tendency to give equal stress and timing to each syllable. More practice in the reduced or weak forms is also necessary.

Syntax/ Morphology • Thai grammar is very different from that of English. Because Thai is an And Semantics uninflected language, nouns and verbs do not change their forms for Number, Gender, Case or Person, but instead separate words are used for such purposes. Therefore, English inflections are generally confusing and cause frequent errors to Thai learners in terms of number, agreement, tenses, aspects, and irregular verbs. Duplication conveys the idea of doing the verb intensively.

• Tense is conveyed by tense markers before or after the verb. Present can be indicated 18" & by kamlang, IPA: [kamlaŋ] (currently) before the verb for ongoing action (like English - ing form), by yu, IPA: [juː] after the verb, or by both. Future can be indicated by cha, IPA: [tɕaʔ] (will) before the verb or by a time expression indicating the future. Past can be indicated by dai, IPA: [daːj]) before the verb or by a time expression indicating the past. However, laeo, :IPA: [lɛːw], (already) is more often used to indicate the past tense by being placed behind the verb. Or, both are put together to form the past tense expression

• Although Thai also has a Subject-Verb-Object structure, the subject and object are often left out within clear contexts. Thai learners often carry this pro-drop feature to English, wrongly producing subjectless or objectless sentences. The use or non-use of articles in English often confuses Thai learners since there are no articles in Thai noun phrases. Adjectives occur after the noun they modify. However, since many adjectives in Thai can behave like verbs, this can lead students to omit the copula be in English (e.g., *That book good).

• The passive voice is indicated by the insertion of thuk, IPA: [thuːk] before the verb. To convey the opposite sense, a sense of having an opportunity arrive, dai, IPA: [daj] (can) is used. Negation is indicated by placing mai (not) before the verb. Thai exhibits serial verb construction, where verbs are strung together. Some word combinations are common and may be considered set phrases. Nouns are uninflected and have no gender; there are no articles. Nouns are neither singular nor plural. Some specific nouns are reduplicated to form collectives: dek (child) is often repeated as dek dek to refer to a group of children.

• The word phuak ([phûak]) may be used as a prefix of a noun or pronoun as a collective to pluralize or emphasize the following word. Plurals are almost always used in Thai and are expressed by adding classifiers, used as measure words in the form of noun- number-classifier ("teacher five person" for "five teachers"). Subject pronouns are often omitted, while nicknames are often used where English would use a pronoun. There are specialized pronouns in the royal and sacred Thai languages.

Pragmatics Out of respect, Thai students may not feel as comfortable asking questions and/or voicing their opinions as Western students. Don’t be frustrated at their unwillingness to participate in discussions or challenge your ideas. Eliciting a response can be difficult sometimes, but this should not be taken as non-cooperative on the part of the students. Pertinent cultural As in most other Asian countries, traditional Thai culture places a very high value on learning. information Because of this, teachers are highly respected and are typically considered as being knowledgeable and authoritative.

A major feature of Thai learning style is rote memorization. Students tend to spend considerable time memorizing grammar rules and vocabulary at the expense of oral practice. As a result, most Thai learners of English have better reading and writing skills than listening and speaking abilities.

19" &

References • http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thai_language • Smalley, W. (1988). Thailand's hierarchy of multilingualism. Language Sciences, 245-261. • Tsukada, K., & Roengpitya, R. (2008). Discrimination of English and Thai words ending with voiceless stops by native Thai listeners differing in English experience. Journal of the International Phonetic Association , 325-347 • Prapphal, K. (2008). Issues and trends in language testing and assessment in • Thailand. Language Testing , 127-143. • Diller, A. (1988). Thai syntax and "national grammar". Language Sciences , • 273-312. • McLeod, S. (2012). Information about Thai speech. Bathurst, NSW, Australia: Charles Sturt University. Retrieved from http://www.csu.edu.au/research/multilingual‐speech/languages. Published November 2012.

20" & Nuer Language Consonants 20 consonants

Phonemic

inventory

Additional consonants: / dh, nh,ny Consonant unknown clusters Vowels/ 18 written vowels, 3 lengths of the vowel, Dipthongs 36 or more diphthongs Tones 3 tones Tone is grammatical but it is not represented generally in written form. However, because many statements are distinguished as affirmative or negative only by tone, negative words (particles) usually having a hi tone, are immediately preceded by a slash [/]:

• [cɛ wä̲ ] -- He went • [/cɛ wä̲ ] -- He did not go

Varieties The Nuer language has a Latin based alphabet. The language is uniform with no definable dialects. Writing Non-Roman. Diacritical marks are used. System Phonology • see artic info Syntax/ Morphology Like Indo-European languages Nuer has 3 persons: first person in singular, dual and plural number, and second and third persons in singular and plural number. In addition there is a very important distinction made between 1st person plural "we" including the one being spoken to, and "we" excluding the one spoken to. We are all going now (including "you" being spoken to). We are all going now, but you better stay here until we return.

The Nuer verb shows distinctions in person, number, voice, mode and tense.

To English speaking people the verbs in Nuer present a problem since they are based on ACTION instead of time. This means that one cannot think of verbs in terms of present, past and future tense, but he must re- evaluate his concept of verbs to think of them in terms of different kinds of action which we call "aspects" of the verb. These aspects are divided into 3 main divisions indicating the following types of action:

1. 1st Aspect: it expresses action or state of being going on regardless of time. • State of being: I am here, I was here. • Customary action: I am eating, I was eating. • Possible action as though existing regardless of time: Monkeys climb trees.

The 1st Aspect is used constantly in past time in expressing action or state of being going on as though it were in the present. Consequently, in speaking English a Nuer will commonly refer to actions in the past with present tense forms. e.g. My father (though dead) is a good man. He does much work. He knows how to read, too.

2. 2nd Aspect: it expresses momentary completed action or state of action thought of as completed, 21" & e.g. I went to town. Tell them I have gone. The time involved will of necessity be past. 3. 3rd Aspect: it expresses future action or anticipated change of action.

The whole framework of verbs is built upon these 3 aspects. These aspects can be modified to indicate more specific distinctions in action. 2 ways to express verbs. Either a) by conjugating the verb stem, or b) by using a verb particle with the verb stem. These generalizations must be categorized, however, since each verb aspect has its own particular means of expression within this generalization.

Note: All negative particles may occur separately or in an assimilated form with the personal pronoun.

TYPES OF NOUNS

Nouns with gender: There is no grammatical divide indicating gender in Nuer, but when a classification between sexes is needed the problem is solved in 2 ways:

To explain the offspring of anything while still undeveloped the word "offspring" is used with the name of the parent. In animals it always refers to a female offspring. For the male the word "son" is used, or a separate word.

Nouns expressing family relations: These words are compounded from the names of the 2 principles of every family, viz. the mother and the father. Except for the 2 names of the relatives who stand out separately due to their unique roles in the culture (namely the mother's brothers and the father's sisters) all words such as brother, sister, grandmother, grandfather, cousin, mother-in- law, father-in-law, aunt, uncle, etc. are composed from the words [man] mother, and [gua̲ n] father.

• [maar] -- my mother; [dä̲ maar] -- my brother; [nyimaar] -- my sister • [gua̲ a̲ r] -- my father; [gua̲ a̲ rdɔ̲ ŋ] -- my grandfather; [gua̲ a̲ rle̲ n] -- my uncle

It is to be noted that no words of family relationship can be spoken impersonally. That is, it is impossible to say, "This is the/a mother, this is the/a father". All family relation words must be qualified either by the possessive adjective suffixes (his mother, for example) or by another noun (the mother of the child).

Technical words: Nuer is rich in technical words for laymen in certain scientific realms. These include anatomy, botany and animal-bird life as well as fish. However, these technical words are confined largely to names only and not to a technical analysis within the science itself. Nuer also has a vivid and wide-range descriptive vocabulary for character studies.

• Birds are often named for the sound they make. o e.g. Whistling teal -- [lui lui] o Golden Crested Crane -- [riaak] • Double words: Some nouns have been composed from words explaining the nature of the object or from some outstanding habit of the object. o [kakjuä̲ lbo̲ r] -- silvertailed mongoose Lit. field-tail-white o [rialbɛɛk] -- saddle-billed stork Lit. many of a certain color o [rie̲ ynhial] -- airplane Lit. canoe-of-sky

Words of ownership: Nuer has a system whereby it can attribute ownership of responsibility to a person either of a material or moral nature. This person is then known as, for example, "the father of the canoe", i.e. he owns it and has the "say" over it. Morally, a person, male or female, may be known as "a father of arguing or quarreling", i.e. he or she is subject to an argumentative spirit.

NOUN CASES

1. Nouns occur in 4 cases with the nominative and objective cases sharing the same form. Each case has a singular and plural form. The outstanding problem involved with nouns is the absence of a 22" & normal number of noun classes into which corresponding words can be categorized. It is difficult to anticipate what the various case forms will be due to the extravagance in noun classes. It appears that the majority of nouns each form a class in themselves. 2. The 4 cases are: a. Nominative which assumes the subject and appositive positions. b. Genitive which assumes the possessive position. c. Locative which assumes the position of place where. d. Objective which assumes the object position. 3. The formation of these cases is as follows: Taking the nominative form as the standard, one can recognize the genitive of some nouns by the suffix -kä̲ or -ä̲ , the locative by a medial long vowel or the same form as the genitive, and the plural nominative, genitive and locative by the suffix -ni. However, this is not the pattern for the majority of nouns, and even if it were, regardless of the suffixes which are straightforward, it is almost impossible to predict what the medial vowel changes will be since the majority of words undergo different vowel changes in each case. Note, however, that the genitive and locative plural stem vowels are consistently the same as the nominative plural stem vowel with only a few exceptions. 4. The few possibilities of case identification are as follows: a. In genitive singular by the suffix -kä̲ or ä̲ . b. In nominative, genitive and locative plural by the suffix -ni. c. In nominative plural by a complete word change. d. In all cases by a possible change of medial vowel to any of 3 lengths. e. In all cases by a possible change of the stem vowel. f. In all cases by a possible change of medial vowel and final consonant. g. In all cases by a possible change of tone. h. In all cases by a possible combination of any of the above

NOUN MODIFIERS

1. Nouns modify other nouns creating a possessive. e.g. The house of-the-woman, [duɛ̲ l cëk]. The modifying noun is in the genitive case. 2. True adjectives as such are limited to numbers, the demonstrative, the interrogative and the indefinite. • [wu̲ t kɛl] -- one man • [wu̲ t ŋa?] whose man • [wu̲ t ɛmɛ] -- this man • [wu̲ t ɔ] each man 3. The possessive adjective is expressed by suffixes attached to the noun. • [duɛ̲ lä̲ ] -- my house • [duɛ̲ lu̲ ] -- your house 4. The adjectival idea is expressed by verbs in relative clause. • [Ɛ wu̲ t mi gɔaa.] He is a good man. Lit. a man who goods. 5. Nouns are modified by nouns in the same type of construction. • [Ɛ jue̲ y mi lia̲ a̲ .] It is a deathly disease. • [Ɛ ciɛ̲ k mi wu̲ t.] A manly woman.

PRONOUNS

1. Nuer has personal, possessive, demonstrative, relative, interrogative, intensive and reflexive pronouns. a. The personal pronoun occurs in both subjective and objective form. b. The possessive pronoun is expressed by attaching the possessive adjective suffixes to the noun [du̲ ŋ] -- singular; [nyin] -- plural which indicate possession. • [Yaŋ ɛmɛ ɛ du̲ ŋdä̲ . ] This cow is a possession of mine. • [Yɔ̲ k ti̲ ti̲ kɛ nyinkä̲ . ] These cows are possessions of mine. c. The demonstrative pronoun is differentiated into 3 groupings expressing "this", "that", and "that over there." It occurs in both singular and plural number, and in subjective and objective cases. d. The relative pronoun is expressed in 6 different ways which explain degree of distance or

23" & past of present time or an indefinite state. They have no case, only singular and plural number. e. The interrogative pronouns are separated into 2 classes grammatically. The interrogatives "who" and "what" follow a noun pattern and occur in nominative, objective and genitive cases, singular and plural. ([ŋa -- who] does not have a genitive form.) The interrogative "which" has only a singular and plural form and occurs only adjectivally. f. The intensive pronoun is formed by suffixing to the noun [puɔ̲ ny -- body] the possessive pronoun suffixes. Although it may stand alone, it commonly occurs in accompaniment with the noun it intensifies. g. Pronouns must agree with their noun antecedents in person and number.

PREPOSITIONS

There are 3 prepositions in Nuer.

1. [kɛ] meaning "with" takes a noun or personal pronoun in the objective case as its object. It is almost always lo tone. [kɛ] occurs with intransitive verbs. 2. [kä] meaning "to" (direction), "from", "than" also takes a noun or personal pronoun in the objective case as its object. It is normally hi tone. One of its special occurrences is with the verb [jak] -- "cause". 3. [ɛ] meaning "by", i.e. agent, occurs with the passive voice to indicate the agent of the action. However it may occur with the active voice as well, in the same capacity. [ɛ] takes a noun or personal pronoun in the nominative case as its object.

ADVERBS

1. There are pure adverbs of time which have only one form and directly precede the verb. • [Bä̲ lɔ̲ ɔ̲ bɛ̲ n kɔɔru̲ . ] I will come afterwards behind you. 2. Verbs may act as adverbs modifying other verbs. The sign of the construction is the particle [a]. • [Cɛ lä̲ t a gɔaa. ] He worked well. • [Cɛ jɛ la̲ t a ŋä̲ cɛ. ] He did it knowingly. 3. Seasonal words, calendar words and words of day and night occur as nouns and not as adverbs. They are controlled by a neatly devised system complete with irregularities. 4. There are adverbs of intensification, initiated by the vowel [ɛ], which modify adjectival verbs and other verbs. Many verbs have their own distinctive adverbs. • Bu̲ mɛ ɛtɛt. It is very hard or difficult. • Cɛ thia̲ a̲ ŋ ɛliŋ. It is very full. • Kɔcɛ ɛthe̲ y. It is very cold or soft. 5. What would be adverbs of place, in Nuer are nouns in the locative case. 6. Certain very common adverbs (e.g. quickly, again, just, etc.) occur as particles in close connection with the verb. Like other verb particles they are assimilated with the personal pronouns. They also affect the imperative construction of the verb.

CONNECTIVES

1. The "and" which connects nouns and pronouns is not one simple word. One noun or pronoun is mentioned followed by its corresponding plural personal pronoun with [-ɛ] suffixed. And then the second noun or pronoun is mentioned (always in the objective case). • [ɤä̲ n kɔnɛ ji̲ ] -- I and you. • [duɛ̲ l kɛnɛ luak] -- house and barn. • If 1st person is included it is always mentioned first.

WORD ORDER

1. There are 3 words orders for the subject of a verb in each of the 3 aspects and variations of those aspects which indicate the following: a. An informal meaning when the subject is not desiring any attention.

24" & b. A distinctive meaning when the subject desires to be unmistaken and distinct. c. An emphatic meaning when the subject desires to be emphasized in contrast to someone or something else.

Semantics The Nuer language is built upon a foundation of verbs, nouns and tone primarily, with verbs supporting the whole. Words of a helping nature are classified as articles, pronouns, and certain noun and verb modifiers, as for example the demonstrative adjective, numbers etc. It is to be stressed here that the grammatical function of these word classifications does not necessarily correspond with the functions of the same types of words in other languages. There is a general similarity, but never a 1 to 1 ration in their characteristics.

It is very important to understand that the learning of this language involves a mastery of the philosophy behind the various grammatical constructions as well as the mastery of words and word relationships. it is relatively simple to pick out a verb in a sentence, for instance, but it is much more important to one's understanding of the whole sentence to be able to explain just why this verb occurs in the particular form it does. This is due to the fact that words have fuller meanings which are not necessarily contained in their obvious meanings which only tell what the word is or does. Pragmatics NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION • Eye contact • To be respectful, most Sudanese do not look you in the eye. This is especially true of older generations. • Personal space • Use and meaning of silence • Gestures • Openness in expressing emotions • The expression of feelings and frustrations is done in song. • Feelings are not talked about. Pertinent cultural Females may not always be getting the same level of education as males information References http://www.omniglot.com/writing/nuer.htm http://www.dlib.indiana.edu/collections/nuer/grammar/nuersound.utx.html http://strategyleader.org/profiles/nuer.html http://www.saintelizabethonline.com/downloads/Sudanese-2.pdf

25" &

Samoan Language Consonants 13 consonants

Phonemic

inventory

Consonant No consonant clusters. clusters Vowels/ 10 /i, iː, e, eː, u, uː, o, oː, a, aː/ Many are similar to Spanish. The different sounds are indicated by Dipthongs using a diacritical mark called a hamza (‘) or the stress (-). These markings assist non-Samoans in pronunciation but are not used by Samoans themselves in writing. 20 diphthongs Tones 0 Varieties A number of variations, but three identified: • Everyday Samoan (gagana o aso uma): conversational, taught in schools, used daily. • Orator Language (gagana fa’afailauga): for meetings, poetry, distinct vocabulary, and uses proverbs and idioms. • Polite Language (gagana fa’aaloalo): words to show respect, used by adults or to adults by young people but not in reverse. Writing Latin Alphabet System Phonology • Only open syllables • Every sound in Samoan is found in English. • Common phonological process errors: reduplication, backing, and fronting Syntax/ Morphology • Verb comes before the subject

Semantics • Samoan can take 2 or 3 print words to express what is just 1 word in English. • Samoan has intensifiers and specifiers that can change the meaning of the sentence as a whole versus a variety of vocabulary • Children predicate feelings associated with their own and others' physiological conditions (hunger, thirst, tiredness, etc.) far more often than they predicate/assert affective feelings. 111ese predications are formed by prefixing the verbfia 'wantlfecllikc' to a verb denoting a physical action or aClivity. such as 'aj 'cat' (fia 'ai = "want to eal" or "hungry"),

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Pragmatics Much of Samoan conversation is non-verbal so watch the eyes and other clues. Many questions are answered without words. Eyes are also a good indicator of humor for often words have double meanings. Pertinent cultural A Polynesian language that has evolved. The Samoan spoken when the Europeans arrived was the information “T” Samoan. “K” Samoan developed when missionaries began to write the language down. Three English letters were added (k, r, h) to the original 5 vowels and 9 consonants. With this introduction, Samoans started to pronounce t’s as k’s; n’s as g’s and r’s as l’s. This spread and most normal spoken Samoan is in the ‘k’ . Educated Samoans view the “T” as the most correct language form and consider the ‘k’ as slang.

References • Consonant Chart developed by Andrea Schindler 2002, San Diego Unified School District, revised 2008 with assistance from Jennifer Taps. • Variations in the Samoan Language Culture Handout provided by ASD, but undefined. • Comparison of Samoan and English Phonology provided by ASHA • McLeod, S. (2012). Information about Samoan speech. Bathurst, NSW, Australia: Charles Sturt University. Retrieved from http://www.csu.edu.au/research/multilingual‐speech/languages. Published November 2012. • www.spring-institute.org • Schieffelin , B., & Ochs, E. (1986). Language socialization across cultures. (pp. 251-273). New York, New York: Cambridge University Press. Retrieved from books.google.com/books?isbn=0521339197

27" & Tagalog Language Consonants 19 consonants

Phonemic

inventory

Consonant No consonant clusters in native Tagalog, but borrowed words are commonly used throughout the clusters Phillipines with consonant clusters used. Vowels/ 10 simple vowels with 5 long and 5 short /a, ɛ, i, o, u/. Dipthongs 4 dipthongs /aj, uj, aw, iw/ Tones Varieties Four main dialects of Tagaog. Other Filipino dialects other than Tagalog are Ilocano and Cebuano. Tagalog has accent differences in different regions. Writing Traditional writing of Baybayin has fallen into disuse and currently the Latin alphabet is taught. System Phonology • Trilled /r/ Syntax/ Morphology • Omission of plural marker-s. • Avoidance of ‘s to describe possession. • Use of plural forms for English non-count nouns: “The furnitures, the color of her hairs.” • Omission of articles: “He has job.” • Overuse of articles: “The honesty is the best policy.” • Omission of pronoun “one”: “ I saw two nice cars and I like the small.” • Use of pronouns with inappropriate gender: “He is my sister.” • Omission of ‘s’ in present tense, third person agreement: “She go to school every day.” • Problems with irregular subject-verb agreement: “Sue and Ed has a new house.” • Omission of tense markers: “I study English yesterday.” • Omission of helping verbs in negative statements: “I no understand.” • Avoidance of present perfect where it should be use: “I live here for two years.” • Use of past continuous for recurring action in the past: “When I was young, I was studying a lot.” • Confusion of transitive and intransitive verbs: “He married with a nice girl.” • Use of incorrect tenses in time clauses: “She speaks French before she studies English.” • Confusion of “if” and “when”; “if you get there, call me.” • Avoidance of English inverted questions forms in y/n questions in favor of tag questions or intonation: “You come tomorrow, ok?” • Lack of subject-verb inversion in questions with helping verbs: “When she will be home?” • Omission of “do” and “did” in questions: “Where you went?” Semantics Taglish or Englog are names given to a mix of English and Tagalog. Sometimes English words are borrowed and sometimes code-switching occurs mid-sentence. This is common throughout the Philippines. Pragmatics Eye contact is important, especially professionally. It is a good sign of self-confidence. But if a person refuses to or is reluctant to make eye contact, it is considered a sign of shyness.

Filipinos use a lot of non-verbal communication. Some examples are raising eyebrows or lifting

28" & the head upwards slightly to indicate "yes" or to greet friends. It is considered impolite to pass between people conversing or facing one another. If you must do so, the Filipino polite way is to extend an arm or two arms with the hands clasped and pointing downwards. Some gestures that are considered rude are middle finger erect, waving a pointed index finger and pointing at someone.

It is common to shake hands with both men and women, when introduced or greeting a person. But touching, especially men touching women, is not taken well by Filipinos.

Generally, Filipinos try to avoid hurting other people’s feelings, so they struggle with the word "no" when asked for a favour or request to do work (they may say "maybe", "I’ll see...", "I’ll try...", etc.). As much as possible, they express their opinions and ideas with diplomacy and humility so as not to appear arrogant. They have difficulty contending with frankness or directness

Most Filipinos are generally open about their emotions (as long as in their judgment, they are appropriate and positive). But they do not normally express anger in public so as not to appear rude. Pertinent cultural • Filipinos believe they must live up to the accepted standards of behavior and if they fail information to do so they bring shame not only upon themselves, but also upon their family. • If someone is publicly embarrassed, criticized, or does not live up to expectations, they feel shame and lose self-esteem.

Note: Depending on the family and culture of the family the following information may affect the IEP and Assessment process: Poverty and religious beliefs have fueled the development of alternative forms of medicine in the Philippines. Instead of going to medical doctors, some people go to folk healers called manghihilot or albularyos, who use herbs, massage, oils, or prayers as treatments. References • “Consonant Chart” compiled by Andrea Schindler in 2002; San Diego Unified School District and revised 2008 with Jennifer Taps. • “Grammar Transfer Issues for Ten Languages” ASD handout with non-specific source. • Wikipedia.org/wiki/Tagalog_language • http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/resources/global-etiquette/philippines-country-profile.html • http://www.intercultures.ca/cil-cai/ci-ic-eng.asp?iso=ph • http://www.ntac.hawaii.edu/downloads/products/briefs/culture/pdf/ACB-Vol2-Iss3-Philippines.pdf

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Korean Language Consonants 19 consonants

Phonemic

inventory

Place and and Place Manner Bilabial Stop/plosive Alveolar Stop/plosive Velar Stop/plosive Labiodental Fricative Interdental Fricative Alveolar Fricative Palatal Fricative Glottal Fricative Liquid Nasal Glide Postalveolar Affricate Eng. p b t d k g f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ b l r m n ŋ w j tʃ dʒ IPA Korean p b t d k g s A h l A m n ŋ w j A A

Consonant No consonant clusters. clusters Vowels/ 7 vowels and 10 diphthongs Dipthongs Vowels: /i, ɛ, ɑ, ɯ, ʌ, u, o/ Diphthongs: /jɑ, jʌ, jo, ju, jɛ, wɑ, wʌ, wɛ, wi, ɯi/

The Korean language does not have vowel distinction : Problematic vowels include; /i, I, u, au, ʌ /

Tones No tones Varieties 6 regional dialects Writing Hangeul, the Korean alphabet, consists of 18 consonants (another source stated 14), 11 compound System vowels and 10 simple vowels. The symbols do not correspond to those of English. Phonology • Final stops are frequently nasalized when they occur before a nasal sound. Example: “banman” for ―batman< · Labiodental, interdental and palatal fricatives exist in Korean • Korean speakers may then produce some of the following substitutions: b/v, p/v, s/sh, s/z, t/ch, and dz/th • Flapped /r/. • /r/ & /l/ interchangeable. • Only stops, liquids, nasals in final position. • Korean is a phonetic rather than tonal language. • The Korean language is comprised of nineteen consonants and eight vowels. In the final position of words there are no fricatives or affricates. If a final stop occurs before a nasal sound, the final stop may be nasalized. In the Korean language there are no labiodentals, interdental, or palatal fricatives. Initial or final consonant clusters are not present in the language. In Korean there is no difference between /l/ and /r/, so these sounds may be used interchangeably. • Phonemes of the plain stop series are pronounced as unvoiced sounds in the world-initial position, voiced sounds in the intervocalic position and unreleased sounds in the word- final position, e.g. kap (kap) "case or small box" and kap-e " (kabe) in the case." The liquid phoneme is realized as "r" in the intervocalic position and "l" in the word-final position. For example, tar (tal) "moon" and tar-e (tare) "at the moon." • No consonant clusters or liquid sounds in the word-initial position. As a result, Koreans pronounce the English word "stop" in two syllables, as (swt'op), and change the initial "l" or "r" in foreign words to "n." Recently, Western loan words are beginning to be pronounced with initial liquid sounds.

Syntax/ Morphology • There is no word stress in the Korean Language. Therefore when speaking English, these speakers may sound monotonous and have difficulty with varying intonation.

30" & • Verbs inflected • Verbs not inflected for tense or numbers • uninflected words are nouns, particles, adverbs and interjections • Inflected words are verbs, copula and existential. Each inflected form consists of a base plus an ending. • There are about over 400 endings that can be attached to the base. • Korean is a verb-final language: the verb is always the last part of the sentence. The word order in Korean is Subject - Object – Verb (SOV). • No articles (a, an, and the must be taught). • Subject-object-verb sentence structure. • Adjectives are placed before nouns and adverbs precede verbs: “I hat have.” • No special marker for plurality (-s or –es). Use of number is sufficient: “I have 6 book.” • Only 3 tenses in Korean: simple present, past and future and passive voice is rare. A particular difficult tense is present progressive (-ing). Most English auxiliaries (will, may, have, must, do…) do not have equivalents in Korean and are omitted or incorrect. “Sue & Ed has a new house.” • Verbs in Korean do not undergo agreement changes. The Korean pattern would be “I flower see. You flower see. He/she flower see.” Omission of tense markers. • Comparatives and superlatives (-er or –est) do not exist in Korean. Instead, “more” and “far more” are used. • Koreans call English prepositions “postpositions” since they are placed after, rather than before the noun. Koreans would say, “I yesterday school to went.” • Use of pronouns with inappropriate gender: “He is my sister.” • Use of incorrect number for pronouns: “I saw many yellow flowers. It was pretty.” • Omission of subject and object pronouns: “Michael isn’t here. Is in school.” And, “That man is very rude, so nobody likes.” Also omission of object can occur: “Yes, I want”. • Avoidance of pronouns by repeating nouns: “Sara sees her grandpa every week and Sara makes a meal.” • Position of adjectives before certain pronouns: “This is interesting something.” • Avoidance of –er and –est. “I am more old than you.” • Confusion of -ing and –ed forms: “The movie was bored.” Semantics • Korean words do not have gender, number or case. One of the most difficult aspects of Korean is honorifics. These are different forms of words (verbs and nouns) indicating various degrees of respect shown to the person to whom the speaker addresses himself/herself. • Also, 50% of the Korean vocabulary comes from the Chinese language. • During early language acquisition, Korean children learn nouns and verbs at the same time. Verbs can stand alone as complete sentences.

Pragmatics • One style of indirect communication is illustrated by head nodding and using the word “yes” to actually mean “no.” Furthermore, value is placed on the ability to read nonverbal cues in order to understand the genuine attitudes, opinions, and feelings of the other person. Nonverbal communication includes silence and the timing of verbal exchanges, body posture and gestures, facial expression, and eye contact. • Nonverbal communication is regarded highly in the Korean language. This is due to the fact that Koreans value limited verbal exchange. A higher significance is placed on silence during conversations in Korean when compared to English

Pertinent cultural • Like many other aspects of life, Koreans value and promote harmonious social and information communicative interactions. The Korean culture employs an indirect communication style and is reluctant to criticize or contradict the other speaker. • In the Korean culture, education is held in very high regards. Korean children are trained to be respectful students by being ―quiet learners< and remaining silent while the teacher 31" & talks. Therefore, a rather quiet Korean student in an English classroom is not displaying a lack of knowledge or incomprehension; rather, is being an obedient, quiet student. Some Korean parents may prohibit any extracurricular activities so the children will have plenty of time for school.

References • Beaverton School District ESL/Bilingual Program (1985) • Consonant Chart compiled 2002 by Andrea Schindler and revised in 2008 by Andrea Schindler and Jennifer Taps in the San Diego Unified School District. • Grammar Transfer Issues for Ten Languages (nonspecific ASD resource) • McLeod, S. (2012). Information about Korean speech. Bathurst, NSW, Australia: Charles Sturt University. Retrieved from http://www.csu.edu.au/research/multilingual-speech/languages. Published November 2012. • http://www.asha.org/NR/rdonlyres/CAA0E173-0BB3-4B67-BCA2- 44776739AA38/0/KoreanPhonemicInventory.pdf • http://www.lerc.educ.ubc.ca/LERC/courses/489/worldlang/Korean_2/frame_1.htm • http://www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/korea/language.htm rd • Battle, D.E. (2002). Communication Disorders in Multicultural Populations, (3 ed.). Boston: Butterworth Heinemann.

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Lao Language Consonants 33 consonants

Phonemic

inventory

Consonant The only consonant clusters are in syllable initial /kw/ or /khw/. clusters Vowels/ 28 Vowels/ Dipthongs Dipthongs Tones 6 tones Varieties 6 Dialects: Vientiane Lao, Northern Lao, Northeastern Lao/Tai Phuan, Central Lao, Southern Lao, and Western Lao. Writing • Symbols do not correspond to those in English. System • Order of letters does not correspond to the order in which the represented sounds are pronounced. Symbols for vowels are written to the left, right, above or below the symbols for initial consonants. • Syllables and words are written from left to right on the page but no space is left between them. Laotian does not have spaces between words. If there • No capital letters or small letter distinctions • No punctuation. Phonology • Few consonants in final position. • common mistake will be how students pronounce certain consonants and vowels. Certain vowels and consonants are pronounced differently in Lao. Ex: A sounds like a long U. • may pronounce l for r or omit both sounds entirely Syntax/ Morphology • Uninflected • Words are generally of one syllable, however, compound words exist. • No prefixes or suffixes to indicate plurals, possession or tense. Different combinations of words are used instead: “I help can.” • There is no verb “to be”: “Food good”. • Word order is the same as English: Subject-verb-object; however, subjects are often left out and it is the same whether it is a statement or a question: “He need what?” • Modifiers follow the noun: “Restaurant this have food good really.” • No gender distinction; no “I, me, my, mine”. Pronouns do not change form, but do change with social class distinctions. • Laotian speakers will have difficulty understanding English’s compositional structure. In particular, Laotian speakers will have trouble with inflectional suffixes. They may omit the past tense, plural, and the past participle. Examples: I clean house yesterday. (I cleaned the house yesterday.) • Exclude conjunctions and definite articles Semantics • Tones give words and syllables a different meaning. • Yes and no could have different meanings: YES-#1 Could mean that they heard you and understood what you said but may not have YES-#2 Could also mean no because it is considered rude to directly say no agreed with 33" & it. NO- Often means yes Pragmatics • They try to avoid conflicts during conversations. They may say that they agree with you even if they don’t in order to avoid conflict • Comfortable with long pauses during conversation • Eye Contact is considered rude. • Public body contact is avoided especially between males and females. • Do not touch someone’s head and do not point your feet at someone. Pertinent cultural • The Lao language descended from Tai in what is now southern China and northern information Vietnam. Migrations due to invasions and expansions brought the Tai people south towards India, down the Mekong River valley and eventually in what is known today as Laos. • When speaking with someone, as a general rule, one arm’s length is an acceptable distance. Eye contact is not particularly important but posture can be, especially when sitting. Lao practice is to take notes assiduously during training often without discriminating between the important and the unimportant. This habit can actually detract from actual learning and discussion. You may instruct them only to write down what you have written down on the board or you may tell them you will be distributing a summary of your presentation afterwards so there is no need to take notes. • Lao respond well to modern training techniques such as small group discussions, presentations among themselves and brainstorming provided they feel comfortable and this means only if they have become acquainted with each other. It is useful to have some games or exercises at the outset to help make acquaintances among participants and with yourself. • Apart from arriving and departing on time, Lao don't tend to be as preoccupied as Westerners with "efficient" use of time. Appointments may be delayed or not kept at all and this is acceptable in the Lao culture. • Showing the soles of your bare feet is considered a vulgur gesture and most Laotin people take care to sit in a way that hides them from view. Most families sit on the floors of their homes and sit with their legs folded to the side of them, tucking their feet under their skirts or sitting on them. They never sit with their feet propped up or extended straight out towards someone References • Consonant Chart developed by Andrea Schindler 2002, San Diego Unified School District; revised 2008 with assistance from Jennifer Taps. • Beaverton School District ESL/Bilingual Program 1985; “Minority Language Differences: Laotion”. • Wikipedia.org/wiki/Lao_language • http://www.intercultures.ca/cil-cai/ci-ic-eng.asp?iso=la • http://www.ritell.org/Resources/Documents/language%20project/Laotian.pdf

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Russian Language Consonants 33 consonants

Phonemic

inventory

Consonant • Initial and final consonant clusters of up to 4 consecutive sounds. clusters • Clusters of four consonants are possible, but not very common, especially within a morpheme. (C)(C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C)

Vowels/ 5 vowels written with different letters depending on whether or not the preceding Dipthongs consonant is palatalized. Dipthongs are present

Tones Varieties 2-3 dialects depending on interpretation of linguists. Writing Russian-speaking students have difficulty learning how to spell in English as many letters System represent different sounds in the two languages. Phonology • Trilled /r/ • Voiced consonants may be devoiced. • Palatalization may be present. • Voiced consonants (/b/, /bj/, /d/, /dj/ /g/, /v/, /vj/, /z/, /zj/, /ʐ/, and /ʑʑ/) are devoiced word- finally unless the next word begins with a voiced obstruent. Russian features a general retrograde assimilation of voicing and palatalization. In longer clusters, this means that multiple consonants may be soft despite their underlyingly (and orthographically) being hard. The process of voicing assimilation applies across word-boundaries when there's no pause between words. • The voicing or devoicing is determined by that of the final obstruent in the sequence. Other than /mj/ and /nj/, nasals and liquids devoice between voiceless consonants or a voiceless consonant and a pause.

Syntax/ Morphology • No articles: “He has job.” • All nouns differentiated by gender, therefore the pronouns “he” and “she” are used instead of “it.” Ex: “The house is big. She is beautiful.” • Omissions of the pronoun “one”: “I saw two nice cars, and I like the small.” • Omission of subject pronouns: “Michael isn’t here. Is in school.” • Omission of helping verbs in negative statements: “I no understand.” • Omission of linking verb: “He hungry.” • Confusion of transitive verbs: “He married with a nice girl.” • Confusion of related phrasal verbs: “I look after the word in the dictionary.” • Use of plural forms for English noncount nouns: “The furnitures, the color of her hairs.” • Use of clauses for other structures: “I want that you help me.” • Avoidance of English inverted questions forms in yes/no questions in favor of tag questions or intonation: “You come tomorrow, ok?” • Lack of subject-verb inversion in questions with helping verbs: “When she will be

35" & home?” • Incorrect answer form for yes/no questions: Do you want more food? “I want.” • Incorrect answer form for negative questions: Aren’t you going? “Yes.” When the person is not going. • The Russian past tense is gender specific • Prosody: The iambic rhythm of alternating accented and unaccented syllables is relatively natural in English, whereas in Russian speech many unaccented syllables may quite naturally occur in sequence. • Inconsistent English spelling • Difficulty with idioms

Semantics Limited vocabulary size(163,293) due to modifiers of language. It may seam overwhelming for students who have to learn English vocabulary.

Pragmatics • Russians expect things to go poorly and have learned to live with misfortune. The habit of Americans to smile may get on the nerves of some Russians. Despite their pessimism, the Russians show an admirable durability and resiliency. Russians do not avoid eye contact. • Physical touching is not generally common in the Russian culture.

Pertinent cultural • Russian students are used to being told what the answer is and not why the answer is what information it is. • Russians believe that disability/illness is brought on by something the individual did not do correctly. Mental illness is disgraceful in Russia, and Russian immigrants often do not provide answers regarding any family history of mental illness or past treatment for mental illness. • High value of education

References • Consonant Chart compiled by Andrea Schindler 2002, San Diego Unified School District and revised with Jennifer Taps in 2008. • “Minority Language Differences: Russian”; Portland Public Schools ESL?BL Program (1992). • “Grammar Issues for Ten Languages”; ASD handout with non-defined source. • Wikipedia.org/siki/Russian_language • http://www.goehner.com/russinfo.htm • http://www.shepherd.org/files/Nursing%20guide/Russian%20Culture.pdf • http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notes_on_Prosody#Differences_between_Russian_and_English_Ve rse • http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_phonology

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Somali Language Consonants 22 consonants

Phonemic

inventory

Consonant No information found clusters Vowels/ 5 vowels each having a front and back variation as well as a long and short version. This allows Dipthongs for 20 pure vowel sounds. No information found Tones Three tones: high, low and falling. It is debated as to whether Somali is a pitch accent or tonal language. Varieties Three main varieties: • Northern Somali or Standard Somali is spoken from northern Somalia to parts of the eastern and southwestern sections of the country. • Benadir or Coastal Somali is spoken on the central Indian Ocean seaboard including Mogadishu. It is fairly mutually intelligible with Northern Somali. • Maay is spoken by the Digil and Mirifle clans in the southern regions. It is spoken from the southwestern border with Ethiopia to an area close to Mogaishu. It is not mutually comprehended with the other two varieties. Writing Many writing systems have been developed, but the most widely used is the Somali Latin System Alphabet and uses all letters of the English Latin alphabet except p, v, and z. Phonology • Trilled, flap /r/ • Primarily open syllables • Voicing is context dependent and is not a reliable indicator of a deficit. • Syllable structure is CVC. Syntax/ Morphology • Word order: subject-object-verb • Prepositions precede verbs. • Changes in pitch are used for grammatical purposes. • Nouns precede modifying adjectives. • Semantics No information found Pragmatics When communicating, Somalis tend to stand close to others and in many instances, touch shoulders, arms, or hands of others. This is a concern — an officer might consider this as reaching for a weapon. It is suggested an officer mark a distance and explain to the person to keep that distance. As instructed by religion and culture, looking someone in the eye is considered rude and disrespectful; therefore, one should not interpret this custom as a sign of guilt or cessation of dialogue.

Pointing a finger is very insulting to Somalis because they use this gesture to call a dog. Dogs are not culturally acceptable, and one of the ultimate insults to Somalis is to call one a dog or point a finger as you do for a dog.

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Typical of ancient cultures, Somalis use of hands, arms, and facial expressions are important for communicating with others.

Here are some of these gestures:

• Use of the index finger with other people is not acceptable – since it is a gesture used to call dogs. • Snapping fingers expresses attempts to remember something that happened a long time ago. • Opening the palm of hand and bending it back means “No”. • Crossing legs is impolite and arrogant because it was used by tribes and clans to indicate power and wealth. Islam rejected all practices and gestures used earlier. • Showing the sole of your shoes to others is considered impolite and insulting because soles of shoes touch the ground. The soles gather dirt and become impure, showing the soles is bringing the impurity of the ground in the face of others. Pertinent cultural Somalis have a culture based on oral traditions and the language uses Arabic and Omaryic scripts information that did not include a written language founded on the Roman alphabet until 1972. Somali poetry, songs and proverbs reveal that they are the avenues through which ‘language and culture were transmitted orally and historical events, stories, customs, lineage and customary laws were passed on from generation to generation. References • “Consonant Chart” compiled by Andrea Schindler 2002; San Diego Unified School District and revised 2008 with Jennifer Taps. • Wikipeida.org/wiki/Somali_language • Africa Media Review, Volume 17, Numbers 1&2, 2009, pp. 109–122 © Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa, 2009 (ISSN 0258-4913) • http://www.publicsafety.ohio.gov/links/HLS0075.pdf

38" &

Arabic Language Consonants 28 consonant

Phonemic

inventory

Consonant • No initial consonant clusters. clusters • Since many consonant clusters seen in the English language do not occur in Arabic, individuals who are Arabic-English speakers, typically add short vowels into the cluster (e.g. spiring for spring)

Vowels/ 6 vowels, 3 short and 3 long /a, u, i, aa, uu, ii/ identified by a symbol rather than a letter. Dipthongs Tones none Varieties There are three levels of Arabic: 1. Modern Standard Arabic used in religious ceremony and literature 2. Educated Spoken Arabic used in schools and public arenas 3. Colloquial Arabic used at home and in community; significant dialectal variability exists among colloquial forms. Writing • Words are written from right to left. System • Numbers are written from left to right. • Depending on where they are placed in a word (beginning, middle, end, or standalone), some Arabic letters will change form. • The Arabic alphabet is derived from Aramaic script and contains 28 letters. Letters are always joined together in Arabic writing (both written and typed) except in very rare cases. Phonology • Tapped and trilled /r/ context dependent. • Dialectal variations in phonology. • Short vowels have little significance in Arabic; they are often omitted or confused when Arabic speakers attempt to learn English

Syntax/ Morphology Arabic morphology is a root based system in which words are derived from radicals. Radicals are considered the fundamental consonants used in an Arabic word. Typical Arabic roots consist of three consonants, while some roots consist of four consonants.

Noun Inflection Arabic has three grammatical cases: nominative, genitive and accusative. Nominative cases are subjects of a verbal sentence or predicates of a non-verbal sentence. Certain adverbs retain nominative markers as well. Accusative case is direct object after the transitive verb. Genitive case refers to the marking of a noun modifying another noun.

Nominative case o Singular nouns marked with /-u/ Accusative case o Singular nouns marked with /-a/

39" & Genitive case o Singular nouns marked with /-i/

Number Arabic distinguishes between nouns based on three different quantities. Nouns are either singular, dual, or plural. Dual is typically marked with the suffix –ani while the plural form is either formed by –una for masculine or –at for feminine.

Genders

• The masculine gender of a noun is unmarked, while the feminine gender of the noun is typically marked –at. • Tense For finite verbs, Arabic has two tenses: perfect and imperfect. A different vowel patterns are used to form passive voice (e.g. darab-a “he hit” vs. durib-a “he was hit”). According to Battle, the most commonly used verb tense is imperfect tense (2002). • Word order Unlike the English language, Arabic morphosyntax is typically patterned and predictable. For example, the verb is often placed before the subject noun, while adjectives follow their nouns in which they describe (Battle, 2002). As a result, Arabic speakers use participles to “bring out” the subject in front of the verb. ‘inna, meaning “it is true that”, is a common participle used in Arabic. For example, Arabic: 'inna ('a)l-walad(a) yaqra'(u) kitaaba-h(u) Meaning: it is true that the boy reads (the) book (of) him Translation: the boy reads his book • Auxillary verbs precede main verbs, and prepositions precede their objects • Adjectives follow the noun they are modifying and agree with the noun in case, gender, number, and state • When producing negatives, the particle is placed before the verb. • There is no copula verbs, auxillary “do,” future tense, modal verbs, gerunds, or infinitive forms in Arabic, and no indefinite articles. • Plural nouns agree with feminine singular unless the denote human beings (Prchazka, 2006)

Semantics • Vowels often omitted or not heard due to the lack or vowel use in Arabic. Changes the comprehension as well as expression. Ex: word is “pulls”, student uses or hears “plus”. The consonants are intact, but the vowels are incorrect. • Although there is limited information in regards to Arabic language development, particularly in semantics, many Syrian Arabic speakers use baby-talk when speaking to children. Like most English speakers, most words that are learned/developed first typically consist of nouns (names, food, body parts, animals).

Pragmatics Varies across region Pertinent cultural • Arabic has emphatic consonants, such as /t/, /d/, s/ where the root of the tongue is information retracted toward the pharyngeal wall. • In postvocalic environments the /r/ is trilled; however, in prevocalic productions the /r/ is tapped. • Research indicates that for Arabic speaking children in Jordan, medial consonants have a higher incidence of accuracy than initial and or final consonants Stages in the acquisition of Arabic consonants Adapted from Omar (1973) and Amayreh and Dyson (2000 babbling 14-24ms 2-3:10yrs 4-6:4yrs 6:5-8yrs

Stops b, p b, d, t, ʡ k, q, g t, d Fricatives/affricates h š, ʢ, ћ, h f s, χ, ð, γ, θ, ʤ, s ð, z Sonorants/liquids m m, n, l r

40" & Glides w, y w, y Totals 13 +4 +8 +4 = 29

References rd • Battle, D. E. (2002). Middle Eastern and Arab Cultures. In D.E. Battle (3 Ed.), Communication Disorders in Multicultural Populations (233-243) Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann. • Amayrh, M., & Dyson, A. (1998). The acquisition of Arabic consonants. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 41, 642-653. • Amayreh, M. (2003). Completion of the Consonant Inventory of Arabic. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 46, 517-529. nd • Prochazka, S. (2006). Arabic. Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics (2 ed.). Elsevier. • Saleem, A., & Dyson, A. (2003, November). Arabic Preschool Phonological Screening Test- Revised (APPST-R). Poster session presented at 2003 Annual Convention of the American Speech-Language-Hearing- Association, Chicago. • Watson, J.C. (2002). The phonology and morphology of Arabic. Oxford: Oxford. • http://arabic.tripod.com/VerbLikeParticles1.htm • McLeod, S. (2012). Information about Arabic speech. Bathurst, NSW, Australia: Charles Sturt University. Retrieved from http://www.csu.edu.au/research/multilingual‐speech/languages. Published November 2012.

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Japanese Language Consonants 18 consonants Phonemic

inventory

Place and and Place Manner Bilabial Stop/plosiv e Alveolar Stop/plosiv e Velar Stop/plosiv e Labiodental Fricative Interdental Fricative Alveolar Fricative Palatal Fricative Glottal Fricative Liquid Nasal Glide Postalveolar Affricate Eng. p b t d k g f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ b l r m n ŋ w j tʃ dʒ IPA Japan. p b t d k g s z ʃ h A m n A w j tʃ dʒ

Consonant /kj, mj, ɾj/ Two element syllable-initial /j/ clusters only. clusters Vowels/ Japanese vowels are pronounced as monophthongs (one wholse articulation at both beginning and Dipthongs end is relatively fixed and which does not glide up of down towards a new position of articulation as seen with dipthongs.) /u/ is the only exception. /i, iː, e, eː, ɯ, ɯː, o, oː, a, a/ 10 total vowels. Occurrences of two vowels within a single words are extremely common. Japanese allows long sequences of phonetic vowels without intervening consonants using hiatus (gaping) or pitch change to differentiate between sounds if the same vowels are present. Tones • Lexical pitch • Japanese is polysyllabic and has an elaborate inflectional system • Japanese is not tonal, every syllable is given equal stress

Varieties Many dialects Writing Written in a vertical column from right to left or in horizontal rows from left to right. Three System scripts: kanji, hiragana, katakana. Phonology • Primarily open syllables. • Vowels are slightly nasalized when adjacent to nasals /m, n/. • Glottal Stops are inserted at the beginning and end of utterances. Substitutions of:

• /r/ for /l/, • /s/ for voiceless /th/ • /z/ for voiced /th/ • /j/ for voiced /th/ • /b/ for /v/

Addition of vowels to words ending in consonants

• Deske for desk, Miluku for milk

Approximations of phonemes

• The /f/ sounds is produced between /f/ and /h/ Resulting in food/hood • The /r/ sound is produced between the English /l/ and /r/ • The closest approximation to the voiceless /th/ is /t/ in English • The /d/ comes closest to the voiced /th/ in English • And /j/ comes closes to the English /z/ as in azure

42" & • Prefix O is used for politeness § Sushi becomes osushi in public settings

Syntax/ Morphology • No articles • Limited pronoun use with personal pronouns not used and considered impolite • Sentence patterns are subject-object-verb with the subject omitted if it is understood. All other parts of the sentence can go before the verb. Order is not important. • Questions are structured by adding a syllable to the end of a statement. • Because yes and no questions are marked by a final particle, question markers (what, where, etc) are not needed at the initial position of a sentence • No plurals • No definite or indefinite articles. • No future tense • All verbs appear in sentence-final position • Singular-plural distinction is not made • Relative clauses precede the nouns they modify

Semantics • Two or more forms of many nouns and verbs are used depending on who is talking and whom they are talking to. • Language-specific patterns of development occur as all children do, regardless of ethnicity • There are almost 100 ways to say “I” or “me” in Japanese, It varies depending on age, gender, SES, and pragmatic context

Pragmatics • In Japan, people greet each other by bowing. A bow ranges from a small nod of the head to a long, 90 degree bend at the waist. • A deeper, longer bow indicates respect to those of higher status. • It is also common to bow to express thanks, to apologize, to make request or to ask someone a favor. • Shaking hands is uncommon among the Japanese. • Japanese children speak succinctly about collections of experiences rather than elaborating on any one experience in particular • The Japanese concept of rapport and empathy says that the children are expected to anticipate what will be asked of them and to do it without being asked directly • Communication relies heavily on the listener’s ability to empathize with the speaker to comprehend the message • Implicit communication is valued above an explicit style of communication

Pertinent cultural Japanese has fewer words to communicate concepts of English “prepositions” or prepositional information adverbs. Time is of utmost importance in Japanese and is communicated more through verbs. Use of personal pronouns is considered impolite. References • Beaverton School District ESL/Bilingual Program (1985) • Consonant Chart compiled 2002 by Andrea Schindler and revised in 2008 by Andrea Schindler and Jennifer Taps in the San Diego Unified School District. • Wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_phonology • McLeod, S. (2012). Information about Japanese speech. Bathurst, NSW, Australia: Charles Sturt University. Retrieved from http://www.csu.edu.au/research/multilingual-speech/languages. Published November 2012. • Schauwecker, S. (2008). “Japanese Table Manners” In Japan-guide.com. Retrieved May 15, 2008, from http://www.japan-guide.com/e/e2005.html. • Battle, D. (2002). Communication disorders in multicultural populations, third edition. Boston: Butterworth- Heinemann. • Gonzales, M.D, Chapa, E., Escalante, V., Horton, B., Mares, M., Strohschein, K., et al. (2005). Developing cultural and linguistic sensitivity for diverse populations: A training module for educators and speech- language pathologists. Unpublished training module. Texas State University-San Marcos.

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Cantonese Chinese Language Consonants 19 initial consonants, only 6 used in final position /t, k, p, m, n, ng/. Phonemic

inventory

Consonant No consonant clusters. Only stops and nasals in final positoin. Monosyllabic. /n/ & /l/ often clusters interchanged.

Vowels/ 53 possible combinations of sounds or allophones Dipthongs Tones Cantonese is a tonal language. Each syllable has a tone and each tone will change the semantics of a word. The number of tones in Cantonese is widely debated (between 6 and 9); however, much of the literature reports six tones which in clued: high falling, middle rising, middle level, low falling, low rising and low level.

Varieties Dialectal variations: Initial /n/ and /l/ are often interchangeable and initial /l/ is often deleted.

Writing Standard written Chinese is based on Mandarin, but when spoken word for word as Cantonese, it System sounds unnatural because its expressions are ungrammatical and unidiomatic in Cantonese. As a result, modern Cantonese speakers have developed their own written script, sometimes creating new characters for words that either do not exist or have been lost in standard Chinese. When learning to read in an alphabetic system such as English, phonemic awareness can serve as a strong predictor of individual capabilities for learning to read. Since Chinese is a language based on the syllabic morpheme with little consistency at the phonemic level, orthographic instruction has traditionally been directed towards rote memorization of individual characters as opposed to phonics training. Writing in Chinese is done by mapping the syllabic morphemes onto individual graphemes (characters) instead of phonemes.

Reading/writing errors for this population will most likely result from a lack of exposure to the English alphabetic system and the phonetic system that it represents. Typically L1-L2 Chinese- English readers/writers will have more difficulties initially understanding (and therefore translating) phonetic concepts to an alphabetic system, but once this understanding is established few errors should be present.

Phonology • Developmental phonological processes in Cantonese include affication, assimilation, cluster reduction, deaspiration, final glide deletion, fronting, initial /h/ deletion and stopping. In addition, substitution errors are common and include /s/ for /th/, /f/ for /th/ in final position, /d/ for voiced /th/ in IM, /s/ for /a/ in IMF; /f/ for /v/ in initial or medial; /w/ for /v/ in initial or medial, /l/ for /r/ in IMF and /s/ for /sh/ in IMF. • Chinese has little phonological consistency at the character level, and the syllabic morpheme is the basic speech unit as opposed to the phonemic unit in English. This may cause a possibility for errors in producing or comprehending words with a single phonemic contrast (i.e. “hat” for “hot” or “bit” for “big”). This may also pose difficulties when single phonemes carry morphological importance, as in the case of plural –s, possessive –s, or past tense –ed (i.e. the target sentence “The boys fixed their mom‟s car”).

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Syntax/ Morphology • Verb conjugation and tese of English verbs will be especially difficult as the Chinese “verb” does not change with person, number or tense unless an additional word is added. • Transforming sentences into questions using “do/does”, expressing negatives, and forming plurals will all be difficult. • Personal pronouns do not change with subject, object or possession making use of “I, me, my” difficult. Gender is not used in personal pronouns. • Errors in the following are differences: using “a” v. “an”, definitive v. indefinte articles, “this/that” v. “these/those”, “many” v. “much”, “some” v. “”any”, omission of linking verb, omission of helping verb, incorrect placement of adverbs, omission of the main verb, incorrect placement of adjectives, confusion of “ing” and “ed”. Words are monosyllabic. • Syntactic error example: “Monkey the banana ate” instead of “The monkey ate the banana.” • A change in the tone of a syllable leads to a change in its meaning. Semantics • Exact equivalents to “yes & no” do not exist in Cantonese. Speakers may translate in descriptive compounded words such as “milk-skin” for “cream and “city-inside” for “downtonwn.” • Typical semantic errors do not reflect a language disorder, but rather an unfamiliarity with the particular construct of the English language (i.e. “She didn‟t make a fault” for “She didn‟t make a mistake” or “Your coat is broken” for “Your coat is torn”).

Pragmatics • Chinese in general rely on body movements, facial expression, eye messages, and other nonverbal signals. • Chinese are less direct or forward when communicating with others. Issues arise when interpreting nonverbal expressions, which can be difficult. • Smiling in the Chinese, culture unlike American, normally signifies shyness or embarrassment. • Direct eye contact with superiors or elders is looked down because it is considered to be a challenge or sign of disobedience. • For many Chinese, asking “did you eat” or “where are you heading?” is a way of greeting or starting a conversation. • Chinese is traditionally high context so they may view an American who uses low context as rude and blunt. • Chinese people are shy, especially in an unfamiliar environment. • Because Chinese use tonal expression a soft or gentle greeting is appropriate.

Pertinent cultural Cantonese is a variety of Chinese and is influential in Guangdong Province and is the official information language of Hong Kong and Macu. Mandarin is the official language and considered “Standard Chinese”. Cantonese Chinese Speaking Countries include: Hong Kong, Malaysia Cantonese developmental norms for 75% of children at the following ages: Reference: Zhu Hua & Barbara Dodd (2000) & Bilingual Web Resources on SL Development

2:0 2:6 3:0 4:6 >4:6 /m, t, n, /p, k/ /f/ /l, s, z/ / ts/ x/

• In China, being disabled is often viewed as punishment for the disabled person‟s sins in a past life or the sins of the person‟s parents. Mental health is thought to be achieved through self-discipline, willpower, and avoiding inappropriate thoughts. Mental illness is

45" & often associated with evil spirits or punishment from gods.

References • Consonant Chart compiled by Andrea Schindler 2002; San Diego Unified School District, and revised 2008 with Jennifer Taps. • “Minority Language Differences: Chinese” Beaverton School District ESL/Bilingual Program (1985) & Portland Public School ESL/Bilingual Program (1986). • Wikipedia • “Common Language Errors when Acquiring English” ASD unspecified handout. • McLeod, S. (2012). Information about Cantonese speech. Bathurst, NSW, Australia: Charles Sturt University. Retrieved from http://www.csu.edu.au/research/multilingual‐speech/languages. Published November 2012. Page 5 • Cheng, L. (1991). Assessing Asian language performance: Guidelines for evaluating limited-English proficient students (2nd ed.). Oceanside, CA: Academic Communication Associates. • Fung, F., & Roseberry-McKibbin, C. (1999). Service delivery considerations in working with clients from Cantonese-speaking backgrounds. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 8, 309-318. International Phonetic Association. (1999). Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. • http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/countries_by_languages.htm • Liu, G.Z. (2005). Best Practices: Developing Cross-Culture Competence from a Chinese Perspective. In J.H. Stone (Ed.), Culture and Disability: Providing Culturally Competent Services (pp. 65-83). Thousand Oaks: CA: Sage Publications, Inc. • Wang, M., Perfetti, C., Liu, Y. (2005). Chinese-English biliteracy acquisition: Cross- language and writing system transfer. Cognition, 97, 67-88. • Wang Hui, Zhan Weidong, Liu Qun. (1998). Design of Semantic Dictionary of Modern Chinese. International Conference on Chinese Information Processing. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press. pp361-367.

46" & Mandarin Chinese Language Consonants 21 consonants Phonemic

inventory

In addition to final consonant deletion, common substitution errors for Mandarin speakers learning English include the following: • /s/ for /θ/ in initial, medial, or final position; • /f/ for /θ/ in final position; • /d/ for /ð/ in initial or medial position; • /z/ for /ð/ in initial or medial position; • /f/ for /v/ in initial or medial position; and • /w/ for /v/ in initial or medial position. Consonant No consonant clusters. clusters Vowels/ 16 Dipthongs none Tones Mandarin is a tonal language. Each syllable has a tone and each tone changes the semantics of a word. The tones are as follows: high level, rising, falling–rising, falling, and neutral. Varieties none Writing Chinese characters stand for one syllable and are written in vertical columns from right to left. System When learning to read in an alphabetic system such as English, phonemic awareness can serve as a strong predictor of individual capabilities for learning to read. Since Chinese is a language based on the syllabic morpheme with little consistency at the phonemic level, orthographic instruction has traditionally been directed towards rote memorization of individual characters as opposed to phonics training. Writing in Chinese is done by mapping the syllabic morphemes onto individual graphemes (characters) instead of phonemes.

Phonology • Only /n/ and /ng/ occur in final position. • Palatalization of velars and alveolar sibilants before palatal glides • No final plosives and /m/. • Devoicing of plosives and sibilants. • Chinese has little phonological consistency at the character level, and the syllabic morpheme is the basic speech unit as opposed to the phonemic unit in English. This may cause a possibility for errors in producing or comprehending words with a single phonemic contrast (i.e. “hat” for “hot” or “bit” for “big”). This may also pose difficulties when single phonemes carry morphological importance, as in the case of plural –s, possessive –s, or past tense –ed (i.e. target sentence “The boys fixed their mom‟s car”).

47" & Syntax/ Morphology • Primarily uninflected • Topic preceded new/added information. • Word order is “subject-verb-object”. • Presence of retroflex consonants /t,ʂ t,ʂʰ ʂ/ instead of /ts tsʰ s/. • Syntactic error example: “Monkey the banana ate” instead of “The monkey ate the banana.” • A change in the tone of a syllable leads to a change in its meaning. Semantics • Verb conjugation and tense of English verbs will be especially difficult as the Chinese “verb” does not change with person, number or tense unless an additional word is added. • Transforming sentences into questions using “do/does”, expressing negatives, and forming plurals will all be difficult. • Personal pronouns do not change with subject, object or possession making use of “I, me, my” difficult. Gender is not used in personal pronouns. • Errors in the following are differences: using “a” v. “an”, definitive v. indefinte articles, “this/that” v. “these/those”, “many” v. “much”, “some” v. “”any”, omission of linking verb, omission of helping verb, incorrect placement of adverbs, omission of the main verb, incorrect placement of adjectives, confusion of “ing” and “ed”.

Pertinent cultural The Beijing dialect of Mandarin is considered “Standard Chinese” and is the official language of information the People’s Republic of China and the Republic of China (Taiwan). It is a group of related varieties of Chinese spoken across most of northern and southwestern China. Because most Mandarin dialects are found in the north, it is considered the “northern dialect”.

In China, being disabled is often viewed as punishment for the disabled person’s sins in a past life or the sins of the person’s parents. Mental health is thought to be achieved through self-discipline, willpower, and avoiding inappropriate thoughts. Mental illness is often associated with evil spirits or punishment from gods. Mandarin Chinese Speaking Countries include: China, Macau, Tibet, Singapore, Indonesia, Taiwan (Mandarin and Taiwanese- speaking)

References • Consonant Chart compiled by Andrea Schindler 2002, San Diego Unified School District, and revised with assistance from Jennifer Taps in 2008. • Beaverton School District ESL/Bilingual Program (1985); Portland Public School ESL/Bilingual Program (1986) • Wikipeida.org/wiki/Standard_Chinese • Wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese • http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/countries_by_languages.htm • Liu, G.Z. (2005). Best Practices: Developing Cross-Culture Competence from a Chinese Perspective. In J.H. Stone (Ed.), Culture and Disability: Providing Culturally Competent Services (pp. 65-83). Thousand Oaks: CA: Sage Publications, Inc. • Wang, M., Perfetti, C., Liu, Y. (2005). Chinese-English biliteracy acquisition: Cross- language and writing system transfer. Cognition, 97, 67-88. • Wang Hui, Zhan Weidong, Liu Qun. (1998). Design of Semantic Dictionary of Modern Chinese. International Conference on Chinese Information Processing. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press. pp361-367.

48" & Khmer/ Cambodian Language Consonants 21 consonants

Phonemic

inventory

Consonant • No final consonant clusters. clusters • Khmer is frequently described as having aspirated stops. However, these may be analyzed as consonant clusters, /ph, th, ch, kh/, or as non-distinctive phonetic detail in other consonant clusters, such as the khm in Khmer. [b] and [d] are occasional allophones of the implosives. • In addition, the consonants /f/, /ʃ/, /z/ and /ɡ/ may occasionally occur in recent loan words in the speech of Cambodians familiar with French and other languages. These non-native sounds are not represented in the Khmer script, although combinations of letters otherwise unpronounceable are used to represent them when necessary. Vowels/ 21 phonemes of vowels (12 long phonemes and 9 short phonemes) Dipthongs 10 dipthongs

Tones Khmer doesn’t use tonal contrast. The air stream mechanism used is pulmonic egressive. We use voicing contrast (voiceless, voiced and aspirated). Hence [p], [b] and [ph] are different phonemes. Varieties 3 varieties: • standard Khmer • Suring or Northern Khmer • Cardamon of Western Kmher Writing Non-Roman. Diacritical marks are used. System Phonology • Only voiceless stops, nasals, and /l/ in final position. • Aspirated stops that may be analyzed as consonant clusters /ph, th, ch, kh/. • Table below shows different places and manner of articulation used by Khmer language

49" & Syntax/ Morphology • No prefixes/suffixes, Nouns and verbs not marked • Modifiers follow nouns: “oranges 6” instead of “six oranges”. • Omission of plural marker –s and avoidance of possessive ‘s • Omission of ‘s’ in present tense, third person agreement: “She go to school.” • No marker for possessive forms: “house my friend” instead of “my friend’s house”. • Omission of articles • Use of pronouns with inappropriate gender: “He is my sister”. Pronouns follow nouns and one form is used for many. “I” is used for “me, myself & mine”. • Confusion of subject and object pronoun forms: “him hit me”. • Omission of markers for comparison: “She is smart than me.” • Avoidance of –er and –est endings: “I am more old than my brother.” • Confusion of –ing and –ed forms: “The movie was bored.” • Problems with irregular subject-verb agreement: Sue and Ed has a new house.” • Omission of tense markers: “I study English yesterday.” • Use of present perfect where past perfect should be used: “Yesterday I have done that. • Use of adjective form where adverb form is needed: Walk quiet.” • Avoidance of English inverted questions in yes/no in favor of tag questions: “you come tomorrow, OK?” “He goes to school with you?” • Omission of “do” or “did” in questions: “Where you went?” • Incorrect answer form for yes/no questions: “Do you want more food?” “I want.” • Incorrect tag questions: “You want to go home, are you?” • Negatives before the verb or before the verb and at the end of a sentence: “I not eat” or “I not eat not.” Semantics No information found Pragmatics • Avoid using eye contact; this can be offensive. • Use soft tone of voice, do not use too many gestures, and maintain a straight face. • Stay at a distance as much as possible; to show politeness, don’t stand close. • Try not to ask direct questions, such as ’do you have wife or children?’ or ’how old is that person? • Try to get acquainted first before asking private questions about the person’s name, education, hobbies or skills, preferences.

Pertinent cultural • Children are socialized early to respect the authority of parents and older siblings. There is information a strong cultural value of "study," but little sense of study as oriented toward a specific goal or profession. • Schools in Cambodia emphasize the copying of texts and memorization. • Khmer has a complex system of pronouns and terms of address that distinguishes between people of formal rank, people with whom the speaker is in everyday interaction and those with whom one assumes a marked informality, including people of clear inferior status and those with whom the speaker shares a long-standing familiar equality. References • Consonant Chart compiled 2002 by Andrea Schindler and revised in 2008 by Andrea Schindler and Jennifer Taps in the San Diego Unified School District.. Published November 2012. • Grammar Transfer Issues for 10 Languages (nonspecific ASD resource) • Banasik (1983) • http://www.intercultures.ca/cil-cai/ci-ic-eng.asp?iso=kh • http://www.everyculture.com/Bo-Co/Cambodia.html#ixzz2cpIUpbDz • http://www.multicsd.org/?q=node/208 • Carlo Gussenhoven and Haike Jacobs, Understanding Phonology, second edition, Oxford University Press, Inc., 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, 2005. • J.M. Pickett, The Acoustics of Speech Communication: Fundamentals, Speech Perception Theory and Technology, A Viacom Company, 160 Gould Street, Needham Heights, MA 02494, 1999. "

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