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Home , Alabama River, Cotton gin, Fort Jackson (Alabama), George Troup, Hitchiti, Indian Territory

Ocmulgee Mounds U.S. Department of Interior Ocmulgee Mounds NHP

Muscogee (Creek) Removal

DISSENTION After the Revolutionary War, a new wave of American settlers poured into AND seeking claims to rich river bottomland. This land was perfect for growing , a crop DIVISION made highly profitable by the invention of the in 1793. The Creek Indians, who had always been excellent farmers, adapted quickly to a cotton-based economy. But American settlers wanted the land for themselves and saw the Creek Indians as obstacles to “progress.” Pressure increased on the federal government to remove all Indians to areas west of the River. In an attempt to protect themselves, the Creek Council passed a law providing the death penalty for anyone ceding land without the Council’s authority.

The Creeks were divided over the issue of removal. Many, including Chief William McIntosh, remained loyal to the government, believing voluntary removal was the only way to escape complete annihilation. Others, however, wanted to go back to their way of living before the settlers’ influences. This division eventually led to civil war. The “,” so called because of the red club that they carried, became militant, preferring to remain in their homeland and pursue their traditional way of life. The Creek Indian War, begun in 1813, was a result of these conflicts. The Red Sticks attacked settlers and loyalist Creeks and the United States struck back with forces led by General . Ultimately the Red Sticks lost, and the war ended with the Treaty of in 1814, which ceded 23 million acres of Creek land to the United States. PUSHED OUT After 1814 a series of treaties whittled ceded all Lower Creek land in Georgia. OF GEORGIA away at the Creek lands, pushing them Not only had Troup and members of the further and further out of Georgia. By state government manipulated McIntosh 1823 Georgia Governor into signing, but McIntosh did so without saw the Creeks as a serious problem. At a clear mandate from his people. He one time the “savagery” of the Indians and several other leaders were killed for had helped justify the acquisition of land, their involvement. President John Quincy but many Indians were following the Adams declared the treaty illegal and in European model of civilization. Settlers January 1826 negotiated the second Treaty feared wresting land from these “civilized” of Washington with the Creeks. Although Indians would be more difficult. Troup this treaty was nearly as corrupt as the and his constituents wanted the Indians to Treaty of Indian Springs, Governor Troup be moved to the Territory of the refused to honor it and continued forced Purchase, an idea proposed by removal. When Adams threatened Troup in 1803. They wanted all with federal intervention, Troup prepared Indians out of Georgia. the state , and Adams backed down, saying “The Indians are not worth going to In 1825 the second Treaty of Indian war over.” By 1827, the Creeks were gone Springs, signed by Chief William McIntosh, from Georgia.

FEDERAL Andrew Jackson was elected president toward Indians turned harsher. Jackson INVOLVEMENT of the United States in 1829, and with abandoned the policy of his predecessors IN REMOVAL his inauguration the government stance of treating different Indian groups as FEDERAL separate nations. Instead, he aggressively government stepped up its efforts to get INVOLVEMENT pursued plans to move all Indian tribes the Creek Chiefs to sign a treaty removing IN REMOVAL living east of the to them to . On March 24, (CONTINUED) . At Jackson’s request, the 1832, Indian delegates signed a treaty opened a fierce giving up part of their land in , the debate on an an Bill. In the rest would be allotted – 320 acres for each end, the bill passed, but the vote was close. family and 640 acres for each chief. The Senate passed the measure 28 to 19, while in the House it squeaked by, 102 to The families could stay on their allotments 97. Jackson signed the legislation into law or sell them and move west at government June 30, 1830. expense to lands where they were promised autonomy. Those who stayed For those who migrated, the government were subjected to the violence of white agreed to pay transportation costs and settlers who invaded Indian farmsteads, to finance their subsistence for one year. beating, murdering, raping, and driving the About 1,300, mostly members of the natives off. Other Indians lost their land McIntosh faction, resettled to the valley of to the speculators swindles and the state the River in “Indian Territory,” government supported it all. In retaliation now the state of Oklahoma, on lands several chiefs, including Eneah Emathla, given to them in perpetuity under the and Jim Henry, led warriors in attacks on government’s removal program. Some white settlements. Their most devastating of the Creeks joined their assault came at the small community of relatives in ; many moved into Roanoke, just south of the Fort Benning Alabama. But most opposed the idea of area in Stewart County, Georgia, where moving west. They had no desire to leave Indians killed 12 people and their homelands and many had adopted torched the town. Thus began the Creek European ways as the federal government War of 1836. On at least two occasions, once urged. They owned farms and cattle, Creek Indians also attacked steamboats and some owned slaves. carrying troops. However, the Creeks and their allies were soon overwhelmed. Many Voluntary removal proved too slow for were rounded up and held at Fort Mitchell the ever-growing tide of settlers, and the to await transportation out.

TRAIL OF TEARS When the war ended in July 1836, about During the summer and winter of 1836 and 2,500 Creeks, including several hundred 1837, over 14,000 Creeks made the three- chained warriors, were marched on foot month journey to Oklahoma, a trip of over to Montgomery and onto barges which 800 land miles and another 400 by water. were pushed down the , Most left with only what they could carry beginning their forced removal to a new wearing inadequate clothing for the winter homeland in Indian Territory. travel. Creeks who had intermarried with the or lived within the Removal paused when conflicts erupted Nation in Mississippi were with the further south and hunted out and forced to emigrate. Some a force of 700 Lower Creek warriors of the Creeks, mostly children, were held agreed to patrol Florida in support of the by whites in bondage as slaves. American military. About 4,000 Creeks, including the warriors’ families, were The overall effect of the Creek Trail of moved to concentration camps in Mobile, Tears was staggering. 21,792 Creeks lived Alabama in March 1837 supposedly for in Georgia and Alabama in 1832. Twenty their own protection. However, mobs years after the “removal” ended, only from Alabama and Georgia broke in and 13,537 Creeks remained in Oklahoma. ransacked the camps, raping, killing and Some 8,000 people apparently had enslaving. Some of the Indians fled into died. Counted as a percentage of their nearby swamps, only to be hunted down population, the Creeks and related tribes by the Alabama militia. The Lower Creek suffered more deaths than the Cherokee in warriors returned from Florida in October their own, far better-known . to find only remnants of their families in The once-mighty Creek Nation was down, the camps. They were promptly herded but its spirit was not destroyed. Despite to and loaded onto nine old continued hardships, its citizens carved steamboats for the trip up the Mississippi. a new life for themselves in Oklahoma. During the trip, one steamboat collided Today, their descendants remain a proud with a ship and was cut in half, killing 311 and sovereign people. Creeks.

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