Acta Sci. Pol. Technol. Aliment. 15(3) 2016, 233–245 Pissn 1644-0730 Eissn 1889-9594 DOI: 10.17306/J.AFS.2016.3.23

M PO RU LO IA N T O N R E U I M

C S ACTA Acta Sci. Pol. Technol. Aliment. 15(3) 2016, 233–245 www.food.actapol.net pISSN 1644-0730 eISSN 1889-9594 DOI: 10.17306/J.AFS.2016.3.23

ORIGINAL PAPER Received: 18.10.2015 Accepted: 18.03.2016

EFFECT OF FOOD PROCESSING ON THE PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF DIETARY FIBRE

Vasﬁ ye Hazal Ozyurt1, Semih Ötles2

1Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Food Engineering Branch, Ege University 35100 Izmir, Turkey 2Food Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Ege University 35100, Izmir, Turkey

ABSTRACT Products derived from the manufacturing or processing of plant based foods: cereals, fruits, vegetables, as well as algae, are sources of abundant dietary fi bre. Diets high in dietary fi bre have been associated with the reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, hypertension, obesity, and gastrointestinal disorders. These fi bre-rich products and byproducts can also fortify foods, increase their dietary fi bre content and result in healthy products, low in calories, cholesterol and fat. Traditionally, consumers have chosen foods such as whole grains, fruits and vegetables as sources of dietary fi bre. Recently, food manufacturers have responded to consumer demand for foods with a higher fi bre content by developing products in which high- fi bre ingredients are used. Diff erent food processing methods also increase the dietary fi ber content of food. Moreover, its chemical and physical properties may be aff ected by food processing. Some of them might even improve the functionality of fi bre. Therefore, they may also be applied as functional ingredients to improve physical properties like the physical and structural properties of hydration, oil-holding capacity, viscosity. This study was conducted to examine the eff ect of diff erent food processing methods on the physicochemical properties of dietary fi bre.

Key words: dietary fi ber, insoluble dietary fi ber, soluble dietary fi ber, physicochemical, processing

INTRODUCTION

Dietary fi bre is the edible parts of plants, or similar Many analytical methods and defi nitions have evolved carbohydrates, which are resistant to digestion and ab- over the years. Therefore, approximately comparable sorption in the small intestine (Almeida et al., 2013). dietary fi bre values were produced and presented in Natural sources of dietary fi ber are found in the com- food composition databases for use in food research, plex mixture of polysaccharides, which make up the the food industry and for nutritional counselling and cell walls of fruit, vegetables, and whole-grain cereals education. Nowadays, dietary fi bre is one of the com- (Redgwell and Fischer, 2005). However, knowledge on ponents in foods that cause a lot of confusion among dietary fi bre has improved signifi cantly in both physi- users and producers of food composition data (Westen- ological and analytical areas over the last decades. Di- brink et al., 2013). The physiological eff ect of dietary etary fi bre has a lot of positive health eff ects, such as fi bre depends fi rst of all on its origin, the proportions bowel function, reduced risk of coronary heart disease, of individual fractions, the degree of comminution type 2 diabetes and improved weight maintenance. of raw materials and the thermal processes applied.

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© Copyright by Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Przyrodniczego w Poznaniu Ozyurt V. H., Ötles , S. (2016). Eﬀ ect of food processing on the physicochemical properties of dietary ﬁ bre. Acta Sci. Pol. Technol. Aliment., 15(3), 233–245. DOI: 10.17306/J.AFS.2016.3.23

The insoluble fraction of dietary fi bre that activates in- The chemical nature of “dietary fi bre” comprises testinal peristalsis is capable of binding bile acids and a heterogeneous collection of chemically diff erent water. Soluble fi bre reduces the blood cholesterol level, plant components (Hollmann et al., 2013). Dietary the risk of ischemic heart disease and postprandial gly- fi bre includes non-digestible polysaccharides (cellu- cemia. The functional properties of dietary fi bre, such as lose, β-glucan, hemicelluloses, pectin, inulin, resist- its water-holding capacity, cation binding and sorption ant starch) (Buttriss and Stokes, 2008; Mildner-Szku- of bile acids, play a signifi cant role in the prevention dlarz et al., 2013; Mudgil and Barak, 2013; Prosky, of diet-dependent diseases, e.g. obesity, atherosclerosis 2000), non-digestible oligosaccharides (fructo-oligo- and colon cancer (Dziedzic et al., 2012). saccharides, oligofructose, galacto-oligosaccharides, Many studies have highlighted that the consump- soybean oligosaccharides, raffi nose and stachyose) tion of foods rich in dietary fi bre may improve health: (Elleuch et al., 2011), synthesized carbohydrate the recommended intake is 30–45 g per person per day, polymers (polydextrose) (Mudgil and Barak, 2013), yet the current consumption of fi bre in the West is only resistant maltodextrin (Buttriss and Stokes, 2008; around 20 g/day person. Because processing opera- Hollmann et al., 2013; Westenbrink et al., 2013), tions and their arrangement during complete process- lignin (Elleuch et al., 2011), hydrocolloids (gelatin, ing may play a role in fi bre content and in the type of starch, gums, mucilage, xanthan gum, and cellulose fi bre remaining in the fi nal product, the processing of derivatives) (Buttriss and Stokes, 2008) and other as- the sample is important (Colin-Henrion et al., 2009). sociated substances of plant origin (waxes, phytate, This review summarises recent research regarding the cutin, saponins, suberin, tannins) (Mudgil and Barak, eff ect of food processing on the physochemical prop- 2013). The molecular structure of chitosan, which is erties of dietary fi ber. an example of fi bre of animal origin, is similar to that of plant cellulose (Elleuch et al., 2011). The chemi- WHAT IS A DIETARY FIBRE? cal composition of dietary fi bre is characterised by its sugar residues and by the nature of the bond be- Relevance for dietary fi bre has been advanced in re- tween them. cent decades. Although knowledge on dietary fi bre has developed in recent decades, there is still no gener- Cellulose ally accepted defi nition of dietary fi bre (Mudgil and Barak, 2013). In 1953 Hipsley was fi rst to determine Cellulose is the structural polysaccharide present the term ‘dietary fi bre’ for the non-digestible constitu- in plant cell walls (Molist et al., 2014) and is an un- ents of plant cell walls. Many international defi nitions branched polymer chain consisting of up to 10,000 are used for dietary fi bre (Philips, 2013). The whole glucose monomer units per molecule (Mudgil and dietary fi bre defi nitions refer to non-digestible con- Barak, 2013) linked by b-(1–4) glycosidic bond (Ol- stituents of plant cell wall (Slavin, 2005). New defi ni- son et al., 1987). Because it is insoluble in water, tions for dietary fi bre was existed and expanded. The it increases fecal volume as well as promoting regular latest defi nition proposed by the Codex Committee on bowel movements, eliminating possible carcinogens Nutrition and Foods for Special Dietary Uses (2009) and shortening bowel transit time. Cellulose digested is as follows: “Dietary fi ber is the edible carbohydrate by benefi cial microfl ora in the gut and degraded by polimers of plants, obtained carbohydrate polymers natural fermentation in colon produces a signifi cant from food raw material by physiological or chemical amount of short-chain fatty acids, which feed our in- treatments and has been shown to have a physiological testinal cells (Mudgil and Barak, 2013). eff ect or benefi t to health”. Dietary fi bre generally has such properties as decreased intestinal transit time and β-glucan increased stool bulk; it is fermentable by colonic mi- β-glucan is a linear polysaccharide of glucose mono- crofl ora; it reduce blood total and/or LDL cholesterol mers with β(1→4) and β(1→3) linkages (Johansson levels; and reduces post-prandial blood glucose and/or et al., 2000). Unlike those in cellulose, the linkages be- insulin levels (Philips, 2013). tween the units are variable (Mudgil and Barak, 2013).

234 www.food.actapol.net/ Ozyurt V. H., Ötles , S. (2016). Eﬀ ect of food processing on the physicochemical properties of dietary ﬁ bre. Acta Sci. Pol. Technol. Aliment., 15(3), 233–245. DOI: 10.17306/J.AFS.2016.3.23

Hemicellulose hydrolysis (Ferguson et al., 2001), comprising of 1-kes- Hemicellulose is second to cellulose in abundance (Lu tose, nystose and 1f-B-fructo-furanosylnystose B-D- and Mosier, 2008), but diff ers from cellulose in having -((2,1)-fructofuranosyl)n (Tungland and Meyer, 2002). monomer units other than glucose (Mudgil and Barak, Short-chain fructo-oligosaccharides are known as oligo- 2013). It contains diff erent sugar monomers, like man- fructose (n = 1–8), while medium-chain fructo-oligosac- nose, arabinose and xylose. It is a branched polymer charides are known as inulin (n = 10 – 13 on average and consists of shorter chains than cellulose (500–3000 and 63 at maximum) (Morris and Morris, 2012). Inulin sugar units) (Celebioglu et al., 2012). Chemically, and short-chain FOS vary in degrees of polymerization hemicelluloses can be grouped into four classes: xylans, ranging from 2 to 60 (inulin) or 2 to 20 (oligofructose) xyloglucans, mannans and mixed linkage β-glucans. (Chawla and Patil, 2010). Inulin is a polymer of fructose Xylans are composed of a backbone of β-(1→4)-D- monomers (Lattimer and Haub, 2010), and is a mixture -xylose units with side chains containing diff erent sug- of oligomer and polymer chains with a variable number ars and sugar acid residues. These side chains comprise of fructose molecules, joined by B bonds (2-1) (linked arabinose, glucose, galactose and in lower amounts, by β-(2-1)-D-fructosyl-fructose bonds) (Foschia et al., rhamnose, glucuronic acid and galacturonic acid. Xylo- 2013; Leroy et al., 2010). It also usually includes a glu- glucan is similar to the backbone of cellulose, consist- cose molecule at the beginning (Franck and Levecke, ing of β-(1→4)-linked D-glucopyranose units, but with 2012) or end of the chain (Villegas et al., 2007). frequent branching of α-D-xylose residues. Glucoman- nans consist of a branched backbone of β-(1→4)-linked Resistant starch D-mannose and D-glucose units. A fourth type of hemi- If starch or its hydrolysis products is not digested in celluloses are mixed (1→3, 1→4) linked β-glucans, the gut, they pass into the large intestine, where they which are restricted to grass species and some pterido- may be fermented. This is known as resistant starch phytes (Schadel et al., 2010). Structually, hemicellu- (RS). All starch can be degraded by human a-amylase. lose is heterogenous with its structure and composition However, the rate and extent to which it is digested in changing from plant sources and geographical origins the small intestine determines its physiological prop- of the plants (Juturu and Wu, 2012). erties. Resistant starches are divided into four subfrac- Hemicelluloses promote regular bowel movements tions: (a) physically starch, as RS1, (b) natural starch by increasing hydration of the stool. Furthermore, granule, as RS2, (c) retrograded starch, RS3 (Cum- hemicelluloses directly bind cholesterol in the gut by mings et al., 2004), (d) chemically modifi ed starch preventing cholesterol absorption. They are digested (RS4). These are also known as type I, II, III and IV by bacteria in the gut because hemicelluloses increase starch, respectively (Mudgil and Barak, 2013). The re- the number of benefi cial bacteria in the gut and cre- sistant starch content of a food may change according ate short-chain fatty acids. These fatty acids are used to storage, temperature, water content, preparation and by colon cells as fuel, hence cholesterol is decreased processing (Sajilata et al., 2006). (Mudgil and Barak, 2013). Galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS) Pectin GOS molecules (Gal (β 1 → 4) Gal (β 1 → 4) Glc) Pectin represents a very complex family of plant cell- (Gosling et al., 2010) are a group of oligomerics (Song wall polysaccharides (Sila et al., 2009), consisting of et al., 2013), produced from lactose by glycosyl trans- α-(1,4)-linked homogalacturonan and rhamnogalactu- fer of one or more -galactosyl units onto -galactose ronan highly branched with various neutral sugar gly- moiety of lactose catalysed by β-galactosidase (Mar- cans (Yoo et al., 2012). tinez-Villaluenga et al., 2008).

Inulin, fructo-oligosaccharides and oligofructose Soybean oligosaccharides Fructo-oligosaccharides can also be synthesized from (raffi nose and stachyose) monosaccharides and disaccharides by chemical or enzy- Soybean oligosaccharides are namely raffi nose and matic processes and from polysaccharides by enzymatic stachyose: raffi nose is a trisaccharide containing

www.food.actapol.net/ 235 Ozyurt V. H., Ötles , S. (2016). Eﬀ ect of food processing on the physicochemical properties of dietary ﬁ bre. Acta Sci. Pol. Technol. Aliment., 15(3), 233–245. DOI: 10.17306/J.AFS.2016.3.23

galactose linked α-(1–6) to the glucose unit of sucrose; fermentation leads to the stimulation of the endogenous stachyose is a tetrasaccharide containing a galactose microfl ora and the production of short-chain fatty acids. linked α-(1–6) to the terminal galactose unit of raffi - Its health benefi ts are particularly well documented in nose (Kim et al., 2003). the scientifi c literature (Kravtchenko, 1998). Mucilage is a high molecular weight polyuronide, including sugar Polydextrose and uronic acid units. It is partially soluble in water and Polydextrose, a commercial available preparation, is can form a highly viscous solution. It exhibits a ham- a randomly linked polymer of glucose (Aidoo et al., pering eff ect on the diff usion of glucose, and helps to 2014). postpone the absorption and digestion of carbohydrates, which results in lowered postprandial blood glucose Lignin (Sangeethapriya and Siddhuraju, 2014). Lignin is not a polysaccharide but is chemically bound to hemicellulose in the plant cell wall. The complete TECHNOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF DIETARY FIBRE structure of lignin is not well defi ned (Chawla and Pa- til, 2010). Lignin acts as a matrix together with hemi- The functional properties of dietary fi ber are related to celluloses for the cellulose microfi brials, which are the chemical composition and process conditions used formed by ordered polymer chains that contain tight- to obtain food. The functional properties of a food ma- ly packed, crystalline regions (Fig. 1; Ghaff ar et al., terial could enhance its utilization in food products. 2013). For example, water and oil interaction with food ingredients plays an important role in food texture and fl avor, while the ability of fl our to retain water and oil improves the mouthfeel of a food product and helps to reduce fat and moisture losses. Syneresis in food products is controlled by adding food ingredients with a high water-holding capacity (WHC). In formulated food with a high fat content, food ingredients with high oil-holding capacity (OHC) are added to act as emulsifi ers. Good control over the water activity of food is necessary to maintain its texture, microbial safety, and to hold back detrimental chemical and enzymatic changes. The technological eff ects known as functional properties of dietary fi bres depend mainly on their physicochemical properties: size of the particle, solubility, water-holding capacity, viscosity and gel formation, binding ability, bulking ability, swelling, cation Fig. 1. Cellulose strands surrounded by hemicellulose and exchange, fermentability (Mudgil and Barak, 2013) lignin (Doherty et al., 2011) and antioxidant properties (Elleuch et al., 2011), among others. Hydrocolloids (gum, mucilage) Food hydrocolloids consists of a vast and diverse num- Solubility ber of ingredients sourced from algae, bacterial, fruit Solubility has profound eff ects on fi bre functionality and plant extracts (Viebke et al., 2014). Gums or hy- and chemical composition aff ects it. Branching, the drocolloids are a rich source of soluble dietary fi ber presence of ionic groups and the potential for inter unit (Mudgil et al., 2011). Gum is not digested in the up- positional bonding increases the solubility. Moreover, per intestinal tract but is fermented in the large gut be- changes in monosaccharide units and their molecular cause of its resistance to human digestive enzymes. Its form (α- or β-form) also increase solubility.

236 www.food.actapol.net/ Ozyurt V. H., Ötles , S. (2016). Eﬀ ect of food processing on the physicochemical properties of dietary ﬁ bre. Acta Sci. Pol. Technol. Aliment., 15(3), 233–245. DOI: 10.17306/J.AFS.2016.3.23

Virtually, there are two types of dietary fi bre, de- from the sample (water retention measurement) or as fi ned by their physical behaviour in water: insoluble the amount of water absorbed or bound by the sample fi bre, which are abundant in whole grain cereals, and (water absorption measurement). In the fi rst case, only soluble fi bre, present especially in fresh vegetables, insoluble fi bres (or with a high quantity of insoluble fi - legumes and fruit, oats, barley and some yeasts (Salas- bres) can be analysed, while the second method allows -Salvado et al., 2006). Most vegetable products contain the impact of soluble fi bres to be taken into account. a mixture of soluble and insoluble fi bre in a proportion These methods allow fi bres to be classifi ed with regard of approximately 1:3. Although all food contains both to their affi nity for water (Villemejane et al., 2013). soluble and insoluble fi bre, oats (and particularly oat bran), barley, legumes, apples and citrus fruits contain Viscosity and gel formation the highest quantities of soluble fi bre, while wheat The viscosity of a liquid refers to its resistance to fl ow, bran, bread and wholegrain cereals contain greater informally described as “thickness”, whereas gelation quantities of insoluble fi bre. Diff erent plant foods is the cross-linking and formation of three-dimension- contain diff erent amounts and types of fi bre. Whole al networks of molecules that can entrap the liquid and wheat fl our, bran and vegetables are, in general, good behave like solids, which is commonly called “gel” sources of cellulose, while bran and whole grain cere- (Wanders et al., 2014). Moreover, while the molecular als contain sizeable amounts of hemicellulose. Lignin weight and chain length of fi bre increases, the viscosity is mainly found in ripe vegetables, wheat and some of fi bre in a solution increases. Nevertheless, the con- edible seeded fruits, such as strawberries. The total centration of the fi bre in the solution, the temperature, lignin content of the diet is very low, approximately pH, shear conditions of processing and ionic strength 1 g/d, and mainly comes from wheat and fruit, veg- changes according to the fi bre used. Soluble fi bres, etables with skin, and/or edible seeds. Oats, barley such as guar gum and psyllium, promote relatively and legumes (from which ’guar’ is derived) are rich high viscosities in comparison to insoluble fi bres such in gum, while apples, citrus fruits, strawberries and as cellulose, rice bran, and wheat bran. Soluble fi b- carrots contain appreciable amounts of pectin. There ers form gels, increasing the viscosity of the contents is little diff erence in the content of fi bre of raw and of the gastrointestinal tract (Fabek et al., 2014). For cooked fruits or vegetables, although its quality and example; long chain polymers (guar gum, tragacanth structure may vary. Nuts are particularly rich in cel- gum) bind signifi cant water and exhibit high solution lulose, followed by hemicellulose, pectin and lignin viscosity, but highly soluble fi bres (gum arabic) have (Marlett, 1992; Salas-Salvado et al., 2006). low viscosities.

Water-holding capacity (WHC) Oil holding capacity (OHC) Dietary fi ber is colloid-like, bulky and diffi cult to pro- Oil holding capacity (OHC) is the amount of oil re- cess because of its water-holding capacity (Ramas- tained by the fi bres after mixing, incubation with oil wamy et al., 2013). Water-holding capacity (WHC) and centrifugation. Oil absorption of cereal deriva- was given in the literature as diff erent defi nitions. Ac- tives, e.g., wheat bran, is related mainly to the surface cording to Robertson et al. (2000), the amount of water properties of the bran particles, but may also be related bound or retained by a known weight of fi bre under de- to the overall charge density and to the hydrophilic na- fi ned conditions might be termed water-holding capac- ture of the constituents, e.g., alginate and fucan, of the ity. WHC is mainly measured in 2 ways: (a) dispersing algae (Elleuch et al., 2011). the sample in excess water in certain conditions (tim- etemperature), followed by the removal of the unab- Fermentability sorbed water using pressure, fi ltration or centrifugation Fermentation of soluble fi bers may play an important and then measurement of the water bound by gravim- role in some physiologic eff ects of fi ber. Plants con- etry or (b) measuring the water uptake in conditions tain varying proportions of rapidly fermented, slowly of limited water. The water-holding capacity (WHC) fermented, and unfermentable dietary fi bers (Guillon can thus be estimated as the amount of water released et al., 1998; Norlund et al., 2013; Silvio et al., 2000).

www.food.actapol.net/ 237 Ozyurt V. H., Ötles , S. (2016). Eﬀ ect of food processing on the physicochemical properties of dietary ﬁ bre. Acta Sci. Pol. Technol. Aliment., 15(3), 233–245. DOI: 10.17306/J.AFS.2016.3.23

Binding affi nity The processing conditions (e.g. temperature, pres- Impaired mineral absorption is supplied by fi bre be- sure vb. of soaking and extrusion cooking, and micron cause of binding metal ions to charged polysaccharide. technology) can also change the dietary fi bre composi- Charged polysaccharides do not have an eff ect on min- tion considerably, thereby aff ecting the physicochemi- eral and trace element absorption. The environmental cal and nutritive value of dietary fi bre using chemical, conditions (duration of exposure, pH) and the physical mechanical, enzymatic and thermal processes. The and chemical forms of fi bres can infl uence its adsorp- functionality of DF is attributed to its physicochemi- tion capacity. cal properties such as water solubility, water-holding capacity, swelling power, and rheological properties. FOOD PROCESSING DF has received special attention, since the physicochemical and metabolic properties infl uence. The structure, physicochemical properties and nutrition eff ects of dietary fi bre are easily aff ected by food Chemical processes processing (Zhang et al., 2011). Moreover, various Chemical treatments with acidic or basic solutions of processing steps also lead to the modifi cation of fi - fi bers can increase the swelling capacity of IDF, which bre compositions and microstructure, which in turn could be explained by the damage to the coherence of lead to both desirable and undesirable changes in the cell walls. To enhance the dietary fi ber functions, the functional and nutritional properties of the fi bre. diff erent chemical modifi cations (e.g. acid hydrolysis,

Table 1. The eﬀ ect of technological treatment on functional properties of dietary ﬁ ber

Sources Technological treatment Results References

Sugarcane bagasse Extrusion (constant at High extrusion conditions increased the values of Martinez-Bustos et al., Whey protein 60°C and 90°C; 38 rpm) the water absorption index, solubility index, and 2011 concentrate penetration and decreased the adhesive force in gels. Corn starch

Orange pomace Extrusion (115, 125, The physicochemical properties (water-holding Huang and Ma, 2016 135°C; 230, 290 capacity, oil-holding capacity, swelling property, and 350 rpm) and cation-exchange capacity) improved compared to the unextruded sample.

Okara HHP-treatment (200 and The physicochemical properties increased with Mateos Aparicio et al., 400 MPa) at 30 and 60°C increasing hydrostatic pressure and temperature. 2011 The eﬀ ect of combined hydration, mild temperature and HHP-treatment should be considered in order to improve the functionality of okara.

Wheat bran High pressure homog- As the particle size decreased, the water-holding An et al., 2014 enizer treatment capacity, swelling capacity, oil-holding capacity, and cation-exchange capacity were increased.

Coconut residue Grinding (1.127–550 μm) The oil-holding capacity was increased, while parti- Raghavendra et al., 2006 cle size decreased.

Pumpkin Peeling Unpeeled pumpkin had a higher water-holding Aziah and Komathi, capacity and oil-holding capacity than peeled 2009 pumpkin.

238 www.food.actapol.net/ Ozyurt V. H., Ötles , S. (2016). Eﬀ ect of food processing on the physicochemical properties of dietary ﬁ bre. Acta Sci. Pol. Technol. Aliment., 15(3), 233–245. DOI: 10.17306/J.AFS.2016.3.23

oxidation, etherifi cation, esterifi cation and cross-link- fi ber (DF). Their fi ndings showed that as particle ing) have been carried out. Park et al. (2013) carried size decreased, the hydration properties (water hold- out a study to obtain cross-linked (CL), dietary fi ber ing capacity, water retention capacity and swelling (DF), carboxymethyl (CM) DF, and hydroxypropyl capacity) of wheat bran DF signifi cantly decreased (HP) DF with chemical modifi cation from whole grain and a redistribution of fi ber components from insol- barley. Their fi ndings showed an increase in the total uble to soluble fractions was observed. Zhang et al. DF (TDF) content of CL- and HP-DF. Carboxymethyl (2012) divided mushroom into small pieces prior to led to an appreciable decrease in TDF. Chemical mod- drying, using micronization methods, mechanical and ifi cation might be recommended to exploit its poten- jet millings and contrasted to shear pulverization. Six tial application as a functional ingredient in fi ber-rich powders were prepared: shear pulverized cap (SPC) products. Huang et al. (2015) used chemical treatment and stipe (SPS) powders; mechanically milled cap [water bath of 1–3 h, water bath temperature of 50– (MMC) and stipe (MMS) powders and jet milled cap

90°C, Na2HPO4 concentration of 0.1–0.9% and sam- (JMC) and stipe (JMS) powders. Compared to shear ple/reagent radio (S/R) of 1:40–1:60 (w/v)] to evalu- pulverization, mechanical and jet millings eff ectively ate the changes in physicochemical and physiological reduced particle size. Powders from mechanical and properties of modifi ed soluble dietary fi bre (mSDF) jet millings had higher values in soluble dietary fi ber in the okara and found that the mSDF yield increased content but lower water-holding values and swelling with chemical treatment and the swelling capacity of capacities than shear pulverized powder. Microniza- mSDF improved. tion methods greatly increased the soluble dietary fi ber (SDF) fraction in the powders and jet milling Mechanical processes behaved in a more eff ective way than mechanical Mechanical processes are often included in this type milling. of work in order to study the impact of processing Moreover, extrusion opens the fi ber structure by on the physicochemical properties of fi bers, allowing mechanical shearing and releases free hydroxyl groups changes occurring on an industrial scale to be under- from cellulose available to bind with water. Jing and stood. Some of these changes are related to particle Chi (2013) applied extrusion technology for soluble properties, concentration and chemical composition. dietary fi bre extraction from soybean residue. In this Particle sizes of fi bre depend on their degree of pro- study, the soluble dietary fi bre content of soybean resi- cessing and the type of cell walls present in the foods. due could reach 12.65% and that of the unextruded Raghavendra et al. (2006) found that when the par- soybean residue reached 10.60%. Furthermore, the ticle size of coconut residue reached 1.127–550 μm, dietary fi bre in extruded soybean residue had a higher its hydration properties increased. Surface area and water retention capacity, oil retention capacity and total pore volume as well as structural modifi cation swelling capacity than those of dietary fi bre in unex- increased. As particle size increased (>550 μm), the truded soybean residue. Chen et al. (2014) investigat- hydration properties decreased and the oil-holding ed the eff ect of blasting extrusion processing (BEP) on capacity increased with a decrease in particle size. the increase in soybean residue SDF content under op- Zhu et al. (2014) studied the eff ect of buckwheat timal conditions (170ºC and an extrusion screw speed hull dietary fi ber (DF) particle size (from 1.00 μm to of 150 r/min). Compared with the control, the content 133.10 μm with a mean particle size of 12.50 μm) on of soluble dietary fi ber from soybean residues treated its functional properties, with the buckwheat hull DF by BEP (BEPSDF) increased from 2.6 ±0.3% to 30.1 being ground by ultrafi ne grinding. As particle size ±0.6%. Moreover, BEPSDF showed improved water decreased, soluble DF content increased, withthe wa- solubility, water retention capacity and swelling ca- ter-holding capacity (WHC), water retention capac- pacity. Stojceska et al. (2010) showed how to increase ity (WRC), swelling capacity and oil binding capac- the level of total dietary fi bre in gluten-free products ity (OBC) increasing signifi cantly. Zhu et al. (2010) by using extrusion technology and by incorporating also researched the eff ect of ultrafi ne grinding on the a number of diff erent fruits and vegetables, such as physicochemical properties of wheat bran dietary apple, beetroot, carrot, cranberry and gluten-free teff

www.food.actapol.net/ 239 Ozyurt V. H., Ötles , S. (2016). Eﬀ ect of food processing on the physicochemical properties of dietary ﬁ bre. Acta Sci. Pol. Technol. Aliment., 15(3), 233–245. DOI: 10.17306/J.AFS.2016.3.23

fl our cereal. Extrusion technology increased the levels dependent on air-drying temperature (from 30°C to of total dietary fi bre in gluten-free products made from 90°C). In drying around 50–60°C, pulp samples ex- vegetables, fruits and gluten-free cereals according to hibited higher values of swelling (SW) than those the results of this study. derived from orange peel. Signifi cant decreases in water retention capacity (WRC) and solubility values Enzymatic processes were detected for both by-products as the air-drying Enzymatic treatment can also change the ratio be- temperature increased. Benítez et al. (2011) focused tween soluble and insoluble fi bers. Zhou et al. (2012) on the eff ect of sterilisation on fi bre physicochemical reported that the water-holding capacity and swelling properties of onion by-products to evaluate the use of capacity of Tartary buckwheat (Fagopyrum tataricum sterilised onion. Triturated onion wastes were named Gaertn.) bran dietary fi ber were improved after enzy- “Paste”. After pressing, there was a liquid phase called matic treatment, due to the increase in SDF/IDF and as “Juice” and a solid residue phase named as “Ba- the decreased size of dietary fi ber particles. gasse”. Sterilisation (at 115ºC for 17–31 min, depend- Yi et al. (2014) evaluated the physico-chemical ing on by-product and cultivar: Juice for 17 min; Paste characteristics of dietary fi bres with enzyme treatment and Bagasse for 26 min) took place in a conventional from citrus juice by-products. The enzyme-treated autoclave. These frozen by-products were used as the sample had a dietary fi ber content of 64.12 g/100 g. control. Swelling capacity decreased after sterilisation When compared to previous reported data, these en- as a result of IDF losses, since insoluble fi bres can ad- zyme-treated samples display higher favourable func- sorb water in the manner of a sponge. However, the tional characteristics, such as enhanced water reten- water-holding capacity was not aff ected by changes tion, increased swelling and oil-holding capacity than with sterilisation, since this thermal treatment did not the water-bath-treated sample. produce drastic changes in the free hydroxyl groups Wang et al. (2015) investigated the eff ects of extru- that adsorb water through hydrogen bonds. Yan and sion-assisted enzymatic hydrolysis extraction process Kerr (2013) dried apple pomace with continuous vac- on the extraction rate and physicochemical properties uum-belt drying (VBD) at three diff erent temperatures of dietary fi ber of rice bran. The results indicated that (either 80°C, 95°C or 110°C) due to containing signifi - an extrusion-assisted enzymatic hydrolysis extraction cant amounts of dietary fi ber. TDF ranged from 442 to process improved physicochemical properties of rice 495 g·kg−1 in vacuum-dried pomace and was not sig- bran dietary fi bers. nifi cantly diff erent from TDF of freeze-dried pomace (480 g·kg−1). Thermal processes At higher temperatures, drying dietary fi ber can Thermal treatments can change their physicochemical degrade some SDF components and alter their hydra- properties of dietary fi ber by altering the ratio between tion properties and fat adsorption capacity (Garau et soluble and insoluble fi ber (SDF/IDF), total dietary al., 2007). In extrusion, the amount of soluble dietary fi ber content. Lan et al. (2012) reported that steam fi bre produced is highly dependent on the temperature processing and drying in sunshine aff ected the phys- and pressure of the processes. In sum, high tempera- icochemical properties of dietary fi ber isolated from tures break down glucosidic bonds in polysaccharide, Polygonatum odoratum. Findings showed that when which can lead to the release of oligosaccharides and the steam processing applied the fi ber extracts from P. thus increase the quantity of SDF (Wolf, 2010). The odoratum, it displayed a signifi cantly higher oil-hold- dietary fi bre from peach bagasse Prunus persica L. ing capacity than that of drying in sunshine. However, was obtained by a process involving ethanol pretreat- that of drying in sunshine exhibited a signifi cantly ment and subsequent microwave drying (de Escala higher water-holding capacity and swelling power in de Pla et al., 2012). The use of 4.6 mL of ethanol comparison to that of steam processing. Garau et al. (96 mL/100 mL) per gram of tissue in the extraction (2007) observed the physico-chemical properties of step performed at 20°C for 15 min and a tempera- dietary fi bre (DF) of orange peel and pulp remain- ture of 55.0°C for drying in a microwave equipment ing after juice extraction. These changes were largely working at a maximum power of 450 W. The results

240 www.food.actapol.net/ Ozyurt V. H., Ötles , S. (2016). Eﬀ ect of food processing on the physicochemical properties of dietary ﬁ bre. Acta Sci. Pol. Technol. Aliment., 15(3), 233–245. DOI: 10.17306/J.AFS.2016.3.23

showed that after air drying was used, oil-holding ca- Nyman (2004) used to modify the physico-chemical pacity decreased. Moreover water retention capacity properties of dietary fi bre in white cabbage (Brassi- (WRC) was higher than that reported in the literature ca oleracea var. capitata) with high hydrostatic pres- for dietary fi ber obtained from peach bagasse submit- sure (HHP) subjected to high-pressure treatment (400 ted to water washing. Piwińska et al. (2016) added oat and 500 MPa) at diff erent temperatures (20, 50 and β-glucan fi ber to pasta dough at levels of 40, 80, 120, 80ºC). When the pressure applied was 400 MPa, the 160, and 200 g/kg and the pasta was dried at a very proportion of soluble fi bre was reduced at all tempera- high temperature and in a vacuum dryer. The swell- tures. However, no additional eff ects were seen when ing index, water uptake, and cooking loss were sig- the pressure was increased to 500 MPa. This study nifi cantly higher in samples with oat β-glucan fi ber therefore showed that the solubility of dietary fi bre powder compared to the control. Rashid et al. (2015) can be decreased in white cabbage with high-pressure examined the suitability of wheat bran for extrusion treatment. Ma and Mu (2016) evaluated the eff ects of cooking and checked the eff ect of diff erent extrusion high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) as well as enzyme parameters on the dietary fi bre profi le as well as on the (laccase and cellulase) treatment on the structural, water solubility index. The results showed that extru- physicochemical and functional properties of deoiled sion cooking had a positive eff ect on total and soluble cumin dietary fi ber (DF). HHP-enzyme treatment in- dietary fi bre. This positive eff ect was probably due creased the contents of soluble dietary fi ber (SDF) and to disruption to the covalent and noncovalent bonds water retention capacity, water swelling capacity and in the carbohydrate and protein moieties leading to oil-holding capacity of DF modifi ed by HHP-enzyme smaller and more soluble molecular fragments. Water treatment improved. solubility index was greatly enhanced by varying the Rabetafi ka et al. (2014) carried out in order to de- extrusion temperature and screw speed. Padalino et crease the free monosaccharide content in fruit pom- al. (2015) evaluated the eff ect of semolina and whole- aces and to concentrate the dietary fi bre using the des- meal fl our from six durum wheat cultivars on pasta ugaring step for dietetic and light-coloured foods, so cooking. The wholemeal spaghetti samples showed water washing in mild conditions was applied to dry an improvement in the chemical composition (high fruit pomaces in order to avoid loss of soluble fi bres. protein and insoluble dietary fi bre content), although The results show that desugaring increased the dietary there was a decline in cooking quality compared to fi ner content in fruit pomace in addition to fi bre con- semolina spaghetti. Karlovic et al. (2009) conducted centrates having improved water-holding capacity and various diff erent coating mixtures for coating chick- swelling capacity but no signifi cant eff ect on oil-hold- en meat. Fibrex (0.5%, 1.5% and 2.5%) and pectin ing capacity. (0.5%, 1.5% and 2.5%) were added to the mixtures as dietary fi bers. Meat fried at 180°C for 5 minutes and CONCLUSION the eff ects of adding dietary fi bers were evaluated. The addition of pectin or Fibrex to mixtures showed Recently, dietary fi ber, which is mostly derived from a signifi cant decrease in oil uptake (up to 30%). Water cereals, vegetables and fruits, has gained attention due loss from meat decreased, and consequently, elasticity to its functional properties. These functional proper- was much greater for samples coated with pectin or ties depend on the food sources, extraction methods, Fibrex coatings than for samples without dietary fi ber chemical composition, structure, and particle size of coatings. dietary fi ber. Recent research concerning these properties can change the diff erent processing applied. Pro- Other processes cessing conditions also change the composition and High hydrostatic pressure (HHP) treatment is con- microstructure of DFs, which, in turn, lead to desir- sidered one of the most economically viable of the able and undesirable eff ects on their physicochemical nonthermal technologies that improve the appear- and functional properties. However, further informa- ance, fl avor, texture and nutritional quality of foods tion is needed to study the eff ect of diff erent process- (Hernandez-Carrion et al., 2014). Wennberg and ing methods.

www.food.actapol.net/ 241 Ozyurt V. H., Ötles , S. (2016). Eﬀ ect of food processing on the physicochemical properties of dietary ﬁ bre. Acta Sci. Pol. Technol. Aliment., 15(3), 233–245. DOI: 10.17306/J.AFS.2016.3.23

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