La sobretitulación es una forma de transferencia interlingüística TRANS · núm. 13 · 2009 DOSSIER · 119-127 que tiene lugar en escena cuando una producción teatral se desplaza. Consiste, además, en una modalidad híbrida de traducción entre la traducción propiamente dicha y la interpretación. Por ello constituye un campo de investigación novedoso y de gran interés en el ámbito de los Estudios de Traducción. En la actualidad el público ya está acostumbrado a la recepción de imágenes fragmentadas en escena. Esta forma híbrida de traducción se inserta en un teatro intermedial. Este trabajo trata sobre la sobretitulación en el mencionado contexto híbrido. La hibricidad es una característica específica de la sobretitulación que se puede presentar de muchas formas y con la que se tiene que trabajar en escena. El artículo muestra que la transferencia interlingüística lejos de ser simple, presenta complejidad, encuentra muchos escollos como es el caso de las dicotomías. Pero si el escollo se acepta como un reto, este formará parte de la puesta en escena y además puede suponer una forma de enriquecerla. palabras clave: Sobretitulación, modalidad híbrida de traducción, teatro intermedial, transferencia intelingüística en escena, diversificación del público. Surtitling: Surtitles an other hybrid on a hybrid stage
Surtitling is one form within the interlingual transfer, that takes place on stage when a theatre production travels. It is also a kind of hybrid form of translation between interpretation and translation. Therefore it is a very interesting and new field of research within translation studies. Today public is used to a reception of fragmented images on stage. The hybrid form of translation is interduced into an intermedial theatre. This article deals with the surtitling in this hybrid context. Hybridity is a specific of surtitling, and one can experience it, in many ways and we have to deal with it on stage. The article shows that the interlingual transfer is not simple, it is complex, comes across many obstacles like dichotomies and so on. But if the obstacles are accepted as a challenge, it could be a part of the performance and can be an enrichment. Yvonne Griesel Keywords: Surtitling, translation hybrid, intermedial theatre, Humboldt University, Berlín interlingual transfer on stage, diversification of the public. YVONNE GRIESEL TRANS. REVISTA DE TRADUCTOLOGÍA 13, 2009
introduction theory
120 Surtitling is a hybrid form of translation which When a theatre production travels with all their is introduced when foreign language compa- actors around the world an interlingual transfer nies go to stage. Surtitling on theatre stage on stage takes place. This is done on inter- exists since the 1980s and was first used in national festivals, in major theatres, in operas Scandinavia. It is a form of live subtitling. Sur- almost every day. But up to now only very few titles are prepared on the basis of a prototype researches have been done in this field. We have in form of a dvd by a drama translator who a basic study by Griesel (2000) about the four manually inserts them simultaneously on the forms of transfer on stage. In 2007 the same eve of the spectacle. So we can call it a form of author carried out an empirical research on the translation hybrid between interpretation and limits and possibilities of surtitles based on a translation. corpus of French performances subtitled into Surtitling is becoming more and more German. The same author published several popular and during the last 10 years it has articles (2007b, 2008) on surtitling, but always been started to be an every day phenomena in within the complex of interlingual transfer in various domains, for example in opera. Con- theatre and clearly closed surtitling off from cerning research it is quite a new field. One of drama translation, opera surtitling and sub- the first works in the field of translation stud- titling in films (Griesel, 2000: 15ff.). Kapusta ies being Griesel (2000). In theatre studies (2006) did a research about the aesthetic aspect work on this theme has only started recently of surtitles on stage, also mainly based on a (Zatlin, 2005). So I first start with a theoreti- corpus of French performances with German cal orientation. I explain the hybrid meaning surtitles. This work is only published on the compared to the other existing hybrids on, internet. Kaindl (1997) has published an article and round stage. Then there will be a closer about surtitling in opera and theatre, but his look at theatre surtitling in comparison to main topic was opera translation (Kaindl, 1995). the other means of interlingual transfer on Zatlin (2005) mainly works on drama transla- stage, which means simultaneous interpreta- tion, but also started with surtitling. Mateo also tion, summarising translation and alternative (2007) published an article about surtitling in forms. theatre, her topic is opera surtitling too. In conclusion the question will be discussed Opera surtitling is not the same as theatre if hybridity is a specific form of surtitling and surtitling, it has its own specifics, a repertoire translation on stage. And if so, does the trans- that is quite different, another theatrical sign lation hybrid on stage put the tin lid on it or system, where music plays a vital role (Griesel, represents an organic element that can slip in 2007a: ff.). Text is often redundant and works a creative way itself into the work of art. Or if with repetition. The operas and the texts are it is only an other element in a hybrid world well known therefore the cultural memory of which the public is used to and can easily deal the public can be used in a very extended way. with. Due to this it is easier and more efficient to use surtitles in opera. In the famous opera houses all over the world we are used to surtitles in our TRANS. Revista de Traductología 13, 2009 SURTITLING: SURTITLES AN OTHER HYBRID ON A HIBRID STAGE
days. This fact is also mirrored by the research. Intercultural theatre is replacing interna- Mackerras already started in 1991 to establish tional theatre, so we have to deal with hybrids guidelines for writing surtitles for opera, and between cultures, such as the translation as a 121 the theoretical reflections are reinforced by hybrid seen by Bhabha (2000) or Bachmann- Palmer, the main surtitler in the Royal Opera Medick (1996), they consider the interlingual House London, and Desblache (2007). There transfer in itself as a form of hybrid. They see are many works in Finland just to mention the hybrids as a result of the clash of cultures some of them Vallissari (1996), Virkkunen with and considered the cultures not to be homoge- her thesis (2004). neous any more but a hybrid. National identi- It is also important not to confuse the drama ties are replaced by the understanding that translation with theatre translation on stage. every cultural meeting is already translation The first one is a translation done to be spoken and culture in itself is translation. and the second one is a translation of a literary This aspect is also very important for the text into another language that we can hear on intercultural transfer on stage. Most of the time, stage. And we have to create a pragmatic, addi- international theatre is considered as intercul- tive, literary and short translation that fits into tural theatre which plays with the elements of the limits of time and space that the surtitling the source language for the public and already offers to the translated text. takes into account the interlingual transfer that must take place (Griesel, 2007a: 44 ff.). hybrids on stage In addition to this, surtitles appeared on stage. And insert other elements to the theatri- There are so many hybrids on stage. Theatre cal sign system, a written element in another in our days lives between screen and stage, language. This very dichotomy between writ- images and humans. The theatrical sign sys- ten and spoken language plays a major role tem (Fischer-Lichte, 1998: 27) has changed for the reception. The difference between the considerably since the 1980s because of digi- intermedial elements, already existing on stage talization. Intermedial theatre has become is, that the foreign language surtitles are not normal in western Europe, we are used to a suggestion, but they have to be taken into a reception of fragmented images on stage. account for understanding. Of course there The 1990s were affected by intermediality always is the argument voiced that a reception (Rajewsky, 2002). We just have to think about of the language on stage is also possible if one the productions of Robert Wilson and Robert doesn’t understand the language and takes the Lepage. Theatre studies have also been deal- foreign language as a tonal sequence and is car- ing with intermediality for the last 20 years ried away by the images. But if we want to cre- (Balme, 1999; Fischer-Lichte 2001; Pfahl, ate a performance in the target language being 2005 etc.). The latest example in Germany similar to the one in the source language, then is Castorf’s production Endstation Sehnsucht we have to translate the source language in a which was first staged in 2000. We are used to certain way, because language is one theatrical a mixture of screen and stage, actors on stage sign in the theatrical sign-system, that forms and on screens, also as text fragments written the performance (see Fischer-Lichte, 1994; and spoken on stage, above and below stage. Griesel, 2007a). YVONNE GRIESEL TRANS. REVISTA DE TRADUCTOLOGÍA 13, 2009
Of course surtitles can be a suggestion for education, very exigent everything concerning the part of the public, that understands the for- language and translation, they are aware of all 122 eign language on stage, but for those who don’t mistakes in interpreting, surtitles, summarising understand, it is not a suggestion, but necessity. translations etc. And in addition to this they are When foreign language plays are performed, divided into the three afore mentioned groups. we always have to take into account the diversi- The challenge for a surtitler, an interpreter and fication of the public (see Griesel, 2007a: 19 ff.). a translator on stage is to work carefully, cons- One part of the public are native speakers, one ciously and nearly unnoticed. are target language speakers and one part are It is a very complex interlingual transfer target language speakers with knowledge of the between different cultures, different theatre source language. cultures, between interpretation and translation, between intercultural and international theatre, Target language audience between oral and written words, between a Source language Source language audience divided audience, and intermedial and multi- production medial theatre. These facts make the transfer Target language audience with amazing, but at the same time difficult. source language knowledge surtitling as a translation hybrid
So within interlingual transfer, whether it Surtitling is a creative and literary transla- is simultaneous interpreting, surtitling, trans- tion but at the same time a pragmatic form of lation or other methods, one has to accept all translation. It is not drama translation because the different needs and cannot ignore one part of its additive character, it is seen and heard at of the public. For example you cannot trans- the same time as the actors are on stage. So we mit the translation via loudspeakers, because have to deal with source and target language then it is impossible for the source language at the same time and one has to take care that audience to understand the source language the work of art is not destroyed by the transla- on stage. And one reason for them to come is tion. to see and hear (!) a performance in their first In Germany surtitling is the form of trans- language. Under these circumstances this would lation that is used most due to the technical not be an adequate translation and one can development that took place in the last 20 years. easily imagine other situations. When it comes In our days it is quite easy and cheap to project to simultaneous interpreting, we have to take surtitles on stage as means of translation. And care that the whispering from the earphones the public is used to an inter medial approach is not too loud to disturb the public not using on stage. It was also the time when surtitling earphones or the actors on stage. If surtitles are was introduced on stage. It started in the 1980ies too dominant, too clear, or hiding actors it has in Finland with theatre surtitling, then Focon the same effect. And so on, only to show that Machine, a first type of surtitling machine the translation on stage is a delicate task and which is used up to now. But very often the that one has to deal with many dichotomies surtitles are projected on stage in a very simple and a difficult public. Most of them are of high way by power point. TRANS. Revista de Traductología 13, 2009 SURTITLING: SURTITLES AN OTHER HYBRID ON A HIBRID STAGE
Concerning their form surtitles are similar interpreting and translating are not suffi- to the subtitles in film. The translation is done cient to describe every process of translation. in a synoptic way, and the short sub or surtitles, For example, I had to split up translation 123 70 signs each, are projected on stage. They are as an umbrella term still further in order to prefabricated by the translator and then pro- describe theatre surtitling. Thus I coined jected live on stage. The difference between translation hybrid as a term. A translation film and theatre is, that the source text is not a hybrid is a form of translation, that may be film copy that doesn’t change and it is, in that fully described neither by interpreting nor by sense, similar to a written text. But a theatre translating. It is a mixture of both: interpret- performance is constantly changing and every ing and translating. evening there is some improvisation, little I would like to position the translation hybrid changes, something unexpected. The translator referring to TT, as I have explored at length gets a videotape of the performance, that means this mode of transmission of foreign language a prototype of each performance on stage and performances within the framework of my prepares the translation on the basis of this doctoral dissertation. Apart from simultane- text. In the real translation situation when the ous interpreting, summarising translation and performance is shown on stage, the source text alternative modes, the translation hybrid seems can change. There might be improvisations and to be the mode of translation employed most the translator has to react spontaneously as in frequently in the field of TT. The term «trans- an interpreting situation. The surtitler is sitting lation in the theatre» was defined, classified and behind the technicians behind the public and coined by me (Griesel, 2000; 2007a). It contains working in real time like an interpreter but with all modes of translation mentioned so far and prefabricated translation segments based on a should be understood as a complex structure prototype source text. of translation. Theatre surtitling is a means of So first of all we have to deal with a transla- transmitting a foreign language production on tion hybrid meaning a mixture between inter- stage into another language. Written transla- pretation and translation. Usually, translation tions of surtitles are prepared and projected is split up into translating and interpreting. onto the stage with the help of special software There are numerous definitions for both meth- combined with a video projector. The projec- ods of translation, going beyond the typically tion is carried out manually and simultane- assumed distinction between oral and written ously with the actual performance on stage. A transmission. The distinction, that translation particular difficulty in this mode of translation can be repeatedly corrected in comparison in case of improvisations is, for example, that to the interpretation where the source text is the pre-existing translation of the target lan- presented only once and can only be checked guage material does no longer coincide with to a limited extend and can hardly be corrected the source text. The translator’s possibilities of is for me the most important (Kade in Snell- correcting and reacting to alterations are very Hornby, 2006: 28). limited. Research in the field of TT, i.e. an oral and The surtitles being prepared in advance are written transmission of a foreign language used in the interpreting process and the qual- performance has shown that categories like ity of the overall translation process depends YVONNE GRIESEL TRANS. REVISTA DE TRADUCTOLOGÍA 13, 2009
on these prepared written surtitles. However, language; they should be easily perceivable even translations of a high quality may not and should therefore have simple sentence 124 guarantee a successful process of translation. structures and a clear structure. As a rule, Contextual factors like temporal restrictions, a they are shortened by one third and should be high tempo of speech, technical malfunctions without faults. These are some of the impor- or individual mistakes that have an influence tant facts. This example shows quite clearly, on any interpreting process (Pöchhacker, 2000) that there are two products of translation, may prevail over the overall process of transla- which were produced for different purposes. tion and hinder or even prevent its success. If they were simply taken as translation and Therefore, a very good translation may not interpretation without integrating them into always render an adequate process of transmis- the overall translation hybrid, an adequate sion. Apart from the above mentioned factors translation could not take place. In opera for that play a vital role in every interpreting proc- example a libretto is written for singing and ess, theatre surtitling has to deal with wrongly its translation takes the singableness of the positioned surtitles that cannot be seen from text into account, certain notes must coincide all places, with poor lighting or with surtitles with certain vowels and this principle must be that are projected too fast, etc. Unfortunately, observed in the target language as well. As a obstacles of this kind seem to be the rule in result, significant differences in terms of con- theatre surtitling. tent have to be put up with. If one puts this This translation hybrid on stage outlined translation into surtitles, and this happens, above is not an exceptional phenomenon and these surtitles will meet the requirements instead rather one hybrid form of transla- of singableness, although they will never be tion among others. Other kinds of translation sung, but they should guarantee a fast recep- hybrids in film, TV and culture are for example tion, consisting of simple sentence structures opera surtitling, live subtitling, semi-live subti- and form complete unities instead, to name tling, correctable interpretation (Moreau, 2008; but a few aspects (Mackerras, 1991). The Griesel, 2008) etc. The development of new discrepancy between both products of transla- media again and again triggers and demands tion becomes obvious, if they are looked at in new forms of translation. Translation hybrids are an isolated way. Any interlingual transfer can among those forms. Because of the continuing, be examined by separating its elements, thus ongoing development of new technical pos- identifying the weak points of many processes sibilities, it is quite impossible to list every type of translation. of translation hybrid. This is exactly the reason, why a transla- All these hybrid forms of translation men- tion hybrid should be considered to be an tioned above consist of phases of interpreting independent form of translation. If a process and translating. The sequence of phases is of translation is simply understood as a com- irregular. Generally speaking, a translation bination of two or more forms of translation, hybrid may consist of two or more phases of an adequate or functional translation will be translation. If, for example, this product of impossible. interpreting serves as a source for surtitles, When it comes to structure, theatre sur- a conflict will arise. Surtitles are written titling is among the above described transla- TRANS. Revista de Traductología 13, 2009 SURTITLING: SURTITLES AN OTHER HYBRID ON A HIBRID STAGE
tion hybrids. They illustrate the necessity for to the actor, the translator used writing types translators to act as experts. In addition to that, in different ways. A letter was written down on it has become clear that a division into inter- the wall handwritten and gave a perfect image 125 pretation and translation studies and research of a German letter. cannot fulfil current demands. Therefore, an To realize such a translation, the surtitler open approach is needed in translation studies, has to work together with the director. The which is capable of integrating new phenomena director must realize that it is necessary to work into the field of translation. Translation hybrids together with the surtitler to get to best transla- are an example of the relevancy of transla- tion of his performance. Of course for this they tor’s expert knowledge for society. This is the need more time and it makes a lot of work. But only means to contribute to an understanding the public, the actors and at least the director in a cultural sphere of growing diversity and will be very grateful. increasing internationalism. A bad translation can destroy the per- formance completely, such as in the Turkish conclusion performance Geyikler Lanetler in the German theatre festival «Theater der Welt», where the Hybridity is a specific of surtitling, and one surtitles were irregularly projected, not com- can experience it, in many ways. It is a hybrid prehensively and then they stopped completely product with which we have to deal on stage. and the German audience left the theatre, but And it is always visible, in a certain way, or we the Turkish public not only stayed, but told can hear the translation, we can read or we can afterwards that is was an important and won- see it. derful performance and it was a chance, that Normally it is mentioned as disturbing, but they had the opportunity to see a work of Mus- in reality it is only one hybrid factor on stage tafa Avkiran, one of the most important direc- that is becoming more and more hybrid in so tors of Turkey. For the director and the actors many ways. We have to take this as a chance; it was not comprehensive, what had happened, we can deal with it and imagine creative solu- why the audience left the theatre and he was tion for the translation. Up to now it is seen as very furious after the performance. a necessary evil, but that is not necessary, we This example shows in an obvious way what can change this image and create new forms of happens if you don’t accept interlingual transfer translation. We only have to be a little bit cou- as a complex and professional transfer. Transla- rageous to do so. tors and Interpreters have to be accepted as In 2002 Ariane Mnouchkine showed us with partners and together with the production her performance Le dernier Caravansérail on they can find solutions for each performance. the famous Theatre Festival «Ruhrfestspiele» Ariane Mnouchkine worked together with on a German stage how to carry this out. In translators on a surtitling system. The press this performance the surtitles really slipped in didn’t mention the excellent work of the surti- pauses and lacks on stage, they used every space tles, the destiny of translation in every sphere. for translation; they slipped in small places But the press mentioned the bad surtitles of above and below the stage, onto stage element Geyikler Lanetler and that is the rule: Surtitles and requisites. The surtitles were always close are visible if they are not there or if they are YVONNE GRIESEL TRANS. REVISTA DE TRADUCTOLOGÍA 13, 2009
bad. The Turkish surtitler had one night before safe and sound «to the other borders where the première only to translate, the surtitles of other winds are blowing» as the famous Ger- 126 Le dernier Caravansérail were created together man philologist Jakob Grimm said in 1847: in an artistique process and that is the way it Übersetzen ist übersetzen, traducere navem. has to be done. wer nun, zur seefahrt aufgelegt, ein schif Many companies remarked that the inter- bemannen und mit vollem segel an das gestade lingual transfer on stage is important and the jenseits führen kann, musz dennoch landen, off theatres realised it very quickly, and it is not wo andrer boden ist und andre luft streicht. astonishing, that they react in an unconven- tional way and tried out different things, such recibido dicembre 2008 as paper rolls on stage, reading out a poem, etc. aceptado febrero 2009 «Akhe» is one of the most famous groups in Russia they do travel around the world very references often with their production. I did the inter- lingual transfer for their performance Globo in Aaltonen, S. (2000). Time-Sharing on stage. Drama Germany. I translated and prepared the surtitles Translation in Theatre and Society, Topics in for them and we integrated them on stage in Translation, 17, Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Bachmann-Medick, D. (1996). Kultur als Text, different ways. Furthermore, a Russian poem Frankfurt: Fischer. was shown on stage by the actor on cards, I Balme, Ch. (1999). «Intermediality: Rethinking the translated it, and spoke via loudspeakers the Relationship between Theatre and Media». www. German poem mutually with the Russian actor. thewis.de
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