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CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY

Gift of

Professor and Mrs.

Donald J. Grout

Music """^ ML 108.S781876""""'

of musical terms.

1924 022 261 105 Cornell University ^w Library

The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in

the United States on the use of the text.

http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924022261105

: FOURTH THOUSAND.

'"*M \

A DICTIONARY

OF USICAL ilERMS

EDITED BY

J. STAINER, M.A., Mus. Doc, MAGD. COLL., OXFORD,

W. A. BARRETT, Mus. BaC,

S. MARY'S HALL, OXFORD.

r^jfr-fc^tTrjiSs^tJ^r-

LONDON

n6vello, ewer and CO.,

I, BERNERS STREET (W.), AND 80 & 81, QUEEN STREET, CHEAPSIDE (E.C.)

— —

PREFACE.

In a work of reference of this kind it is always difficult to find any definite principle by which to include or exclude the words to be explained. On the one hand, if all words however rare their use in —were to be given, the bulk of the book would be

inconveniently large : on the other hand, words seldom met with are from that very fact often more in need of explanation.

The Editors hope, that from practical experience and knowledge, they have succeeded in collecting the chief musical terms met with in scientific, theoretical, and practical treatises, and in the more common annotated programmes and newspaper criticisms. That everj'

subject should be treated in an exhaustive manner would be, of course, impossible ; but the

Editors have endeavoured to give sufficiently true outlines of matters of fact to inform the amateur correctly, and intimate to the musical student the results to which his own reading will probably tend.

The Editors are largely indebted to the following gentlemen who have contributed important articles, or have in other ways rendered them valuable assistance :

R. H. M. Bosanquet, Esq., M.A., Fellow of St. John's College, Oxford, author of the

article " Temperament."

J. Bulley, Esq., M.A., of the Middle Temple, Barrister-at-Law, author of the articles " Licensing " and " Copyright."

F. Champneys, Esq., M.A., M.B. (Oxon), M.R.C.P., F.L.S., " Medical Registrar of

St. Bartholomew's Hospital ; late Radcliffe Travelling Fellow of the University of

Oxford, author of the articles "Ear," "," and "Laryngoscope;" and for

his explanation of the formation of the hand given in the article " Fingering."

W. Chappell, Esq., F.S.A., author of the articles "Ballad" (Old English), "Greek

Music " (Ancient Systems of), and " Notation '' (Early Systems of).

A. E. Donkin, Esq., M.A., F.R.A.S., Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford, author of the

article " Acoustics."

A. J. Ellis, Esq., B.A., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.C.P.S., F.C.P., formerly Scholar of Trinity College,

Cambridge, author of the article " Duodene."

Henry Gadsby, Esq., for his account of Sonata Form in the article " Form."

Rev. T. Helmore, M.A., Chaplain-in-Ordinaiy to the Queen, author of the article " Plain ." —

PREFACE.

John Hullah, Esq., Government Inspector of Training Schools, for extracts from a paper

read before the Musical Association on " Nomenclature."

W. G. McNaught, Esq., author of the article "Tonic Sol-fa."

W. H. Monk, Esq., Professor of , King's College, , author of the

article " Hymn Tunes."

Also to

Messrs. Broadwood, for permission to publish diagrams of their pianoforte .

Messrs. Cassell, for permission to quote from Musical Articles in the " Bible Educator."

Messrs. Chappell, for permission to quote from " Popular Music in the Olden Time."

Messrs. Erard, for permission tp reproduce their diagrams of pianoforte action.

A. J. Hipkins, Esq., for valuable information on the subject of Tuning-Forks and Pitch.

W. H. Husk, Esq., for an important list of early printed music, and other assistance.

Messrs. Murray, for permission to quote music from Lane's " Modern Egyptians."

Sacred Society, for offering special facilities for the use of their valuable library.

Rev. J. Troutbeck, M.A., Chaplain-in-Ordinary to the Queen, for permission to reprint

diagrams from Troutbeck and Dale's " Music Primer."

Henry Willis, Esq., for diagrams and explanations of his Pneumatic Bellows. :

DICTIONARY

OF MUSICAL TERMS.

-A BATTUTA.

A. (i) The note called Proslamhanomenos it. Proceeding upwards, the note one octave

in the greater perfect system of the . above A is represented by a (italic) ; that two

The letter-name of Mese, the highest note octaves above it by a (once underlined) ; that of the middle tetrachord; and of Nete, the three octaves above it, by g (twice underlined), highest note of the upper tetrachord. [Greek and so on. [Pitch.] Music] A. {It.) At, by, in, for, to, with, towards,

— (2) The first note of (i) the Hypo-Dorian &c ; a prima vista, at first sight ; a battuta,

mode, or church-scale, commencing four lit. by the beat, in strict time ; a , in

notes below the Dorian ; (2) the Hyper-Phry- time, &c. &c.; q.v. sub vocibus. gian mode, or church-scale, commencing four A. (Fr.) For, by, on; a deux mains, for q.v. vocibus. notes above the Phrygian; (3) the Eolianmode. two hands, &c. ; sub [Greek Music] Abacus {Lat.) a/jaf {Gk.) Any square

— (3) The next note above Gamma Ut, tablet ; hence, a board on which calculations

in the Grave Hexachord of the Guidonian were made ; hence, in music, a diagram of system, where it is A re. Also, the first note the notes with their names. of the acute and super-acute Hexachords, in A ballata (It.) (i) In the ballad style. which it is a la tni re. [Notation.] Applied to any song, , or chorus, con- — (4) The normal minor scale of modern structed in the ballad or narrative form. music, so-called because it is the relative Also to a song with a refrain in chorus, as minor of C. It is sometimes also named the is found in many old and modem English

natural minor scale, because no sharps or ; for example, the song of which a flats are required in its signature. portion runs normal sound {Ger.NormaUon), — (5) The " Ich have house and land in Kent, because the instruments of an And if you love me, love rae now; tune to this note, as given by the or Two pence half penny is my rent, Organ. Ich cannot come everich day to woo." — (6) The -note of the major scale, Chorus. three sharps for its signature. which has " Two pence half penny is his rent, " — (7) The name given to a string tuned He cannot come everich day to woo to the sound A. The A-string of a is —is a song, a ballata. its second string ; of a , its first string ; (2) The term is also used to describe a of a violoncello, its first string ; but on this vocal piece, that may be danced to. [Ballad.] instrument it is one octave lower in pitch Abbandonamente (It.) With self-aban- than the A-string of a violin or viola ; of a donment, despondingly. Double-, its third string, which is two Abbandonarsi {It.) To abandon one- octaves lower in pitch than the first string of self (to the influence of the music). a violoncello ; of a , its sixth string. Abbandono, con {It.) With self-aban- The string tuned highest in pitch is called donment, passionately. the first string of an instrument; the next Abbassamento {It.) A lowering. Ab- below it, the second ; and so on. bassamento di mano, a lowering of the hand; _(8) The actual sound ^ IS in some abbassamento di voce, a lowering of the systems represented by A (capital letter), while . AA represents the note one octave below that A battuta (/f.) In strict time. This term is sound, and AAA the note two octaves below usually employed when a break in the time of .

ABBELIRE ABBREVIATION.

Obb Obbligato a movement has occurred, and it is desirable Fag Fagotto . Oberst. ...Oberstimme to resume the original pace " by the beat." Falset Ff. or Fff... Fortissimo 8br-.;:}oi'---'' Weber. PI Flauto

, ReciU tempo a battuta. Oh. ped. ...Ohne pedal f:0rg.".".}P"'10^g^" Org Organ 8™ }°"^^^ ::::::

8" alta ... Ottava alta 8" bassa G Gauche bas. ...Ottava G. O. ...) G. Org... S-Great Organ P Pedal Gt j Ped Grand" ...Grandioso Perd Perdendosi. Graz" Grazioso P.F Piu forte Gr Grand Piang. Piangendo Pianiss. ...Pianissimo Abbelire (It.) To overload a plain melody Hauptw. ) Pizz Pmo. ... -. with ornaments. Hptw. ... > Hauptwerk H.P PP. ... [-Pianissimo Abbelitura (/f Ornament, embellishment. J .) Haut Hautboy Abblasen (Ger.) To sound a call. PPP ") H.C Haute Contra "' P'^n'ssissimo Abbreviare (It.) To shorten. PPPP f Abbreviation. A system frequently em- Intro Introduction lf"» Prima l"" Primo ployed in music, by which a portion of a Inv Inversion technical term is made to stand for the whole. 4'te L Left 5'K The following is a list of the abbreviations in Leg most common use; the explanation of each Legg° Leggiero Rail Rallentando term may be found on reference to the words L.H Left hand Lo Loco Raddol. ...Raddolcendo themselves in their proper places : Luo Luogo Recit Cantab . Lusing. ...Lusingando ;;;}^="'"^"'*° ^orrfnf:}K'"^°"^"'^° Accel" ... .Violoncello RH Right hand Ace. Cemb ... .Cembalo M —St.LAccompani- 1 Ritar Main. ... t Manual Ritardando Accom... Ch . organ "«"' ... Riten Ritenuto Accomp.J Chal ... .Chalameau Mano. J - Accres Accresciamento Clar ... . Maest" ...Maestoso S Senza Adg" or ad". Adagio Clar«» .Clarinetto Magg Maggiore A Sign Clar ... .Clarino Man Manuals K. ''•''""" Scherz. ...Scherzando Ad lib"!; }^^ Co, So. Gome Sopra Mancando 2''» Seconda Affett" ...Affettuoso ColC. .Col Canto Man*- ...} 2''o Secondo Affrett" ...Affrettando Col ott« .Coir ottava Seg. Segue Col Vo. .Colla voce Marc Agitato Sem. ... „ A|ito":::} Con espres- Mano Diritta 1 Con. esp. C Semp....;Se'"P^e All» Allegro sione M.D J Main Droite Allgtt" 7" ...Allegretto , Cor. .. or ( Manu Dextra 6" Sestet AU'ott... 1 .,„ ^^ Cres" .. M.G Main Gauche ottava Crescendo Sfz Sforzando All's™... J''^" Cresc .. Maelzel's Me- M M. . I Smorz. ...Smorzando Al seg Al segno C.S. .. .Colla Sinistra \ tronome And"" Andantino C. 8" .. Coir ottaya The beat of a Andts Andante Sinf. .Canto primo crotchet is e- 1"'» Senza intemi- Anim" Animato Co. .Come primo qual to the S. Int....| zione Arc fCoUArco, or C'o .Concerto pulse of the S.S. ... 1 I Arcato M.M. pendulum of Senza Sordini S. Sord . Arp" Destra, droite, the J • = 92 Metro- Ard» Ardito Sos "I right nome said to Sostenuto At D.C Capo Sos' J ) Da be Maelzel's, A tem ... i-A Spir Spiritoso tempo Dec i. Decani with the A temp.. S.T Senza Tempo J Dectes ... Decrescendo weight set at ^y Augmenta- Delic Delicamente Stacc Aus . i 92. ° '\ tion. Stopped Diapa/. Dest Destra St, Diap. Diap Diapasons M.P. ...Mezzo piano I son ( Bass (voice) Dim String. Stringendo By Diminution jjg f Manuscript or

} , organ B Dim Diminuendo. X Mano Sinistra Sw Swell t Centre Bass Div °^ Sym Symphony B.C Dol Dolce Mus.BacP^^'jfJ^"' Brill Brillante Dolcis Dolcissimo Men Meno nr. f , tutti, Dopp. ped. .Doppio pedale Mez Mezzo \ tempo, tendre C.B Col Basso D.S M.V Mezzo voce T.C Tre corde CD Colladestra Mf. or Mff.. Mezzo forte Tem Tempo C.S CoUa sinistra Energ Energicamente Modto. ...Moderato Tem. l" ...Tempo primo Cad Mus. Doc. .Doctor of Music Ten Cal Calando Espres::;}^=p'^^=^'^° Timb Timballes Can Cantoris or Ob. {Oboe, Haut- Timp Cant Canto F. or for ...Forte bois Tr Trillo (2) : .

ABBREVIATURE .

Trem Tremolando V Volti Abcidiren {Ger.) (i) To use a system of 3' Trio Va Viola solmisation. A series of exercises in which Tromb. ...Trombi Vat Variation the are instead of Tromb. ...Tromboni VcUo Violoncello names of the notes used T.S Tastosolo Viv Vivace words. (2) A method of instruction for sight Vo. ... . U ... j-Violino Una Vno. Abellare {It.) decorate, ornament, or * To U.C Unacorda " ... embellish. Unis Unisoni V.S Volti Subito V"' 1 Abellimento {It.) A decoration, ornament, [Violini V. .Voce V.V. or embellishment. Abendglocke {Ger.) The Curfew, evening There are" other abbreviations employed in . manuscript or printed music, the chief of which are as follows A bene placito {It.) At pleasure. The singer or performer may alter the time, intro- In time, a dash with a figure above signifies duce ornaments, , &c., according to the length of the pause in bars, e.g. : fancy, or may use certain instruments speci- 24 fied, or not, without detriment to the effect required. [] Abenteuerlich {Ger.) Strange and uncouth. In notes, the trouble of writing a passage in The music of the new German school is so full is saved by the use of abbreviations, e.g. : called by the unthinking. Written. Abgestossen {Ger.) Struck off. Staccato. AbgeleiteterAkkord {Ger.) An inversion of a chord. Ab initio {Lat.) From the beginning. [.] Abkilrzungen {Ger.) Abbreviations. Abrdger {Fr.) To shorten, curtail, abridge. Abr^g^ {Fr.) Shortened. Abreissung {Ger.) A sudden pause. Abrupt cadence. An interrupted cadence. [Cadence.] Abrupt modulation. A sudden change of key for which no preparation has been made. [Modulation.] Absatz {Ger.) Cadence. [Cadence.] Abschnitt {Ger.) Section. [Phrase.] Repetition phrases are thus shortened: Absetzen (Ger.) ] To render music ' stac- Abstossen (Ger.) J cato.' Abub. [Ambubajae.] Abwechselnd (Ger.) Alternating, niit ab- wechselnden Manualen, alternately from the Abbreviations, by signs, of musical graces : great to the choir organ. The Turn. ^ Acad6mie de Musique {Fr.) An aca- Written Sung 5 demy of music. ^ Acaddmie Royale de Musique {Fr.) The back Turn, The ^ or t house in . ^"^ Academie Spirituelle {Fr.) A concert Written ^ or performance of sacred music. passing shake, Q Academy of Music. A name given to Sung Written f an organised society of performers and Beat, ^ teachers of music; originally applied to the Written Royal Academy of Music, founded 1824 in London. A cappella,or,Allacappella(/i.) (i) In the church style, vocal pieces unaccompanied, especially those of the Italian school, because the music sung in the Sistine Chapel was never accompanied by instruments. [School.] (2) Church music in a duple time (two or four minims in each bar), this being for a Abbreviature {It.) Abbreviations. long period considered more ecclesiastical Abbreviazione {It.) An abbreviation. than triple measure. (3) ,

A CAPRICCIO ^.

A capriccio {It.) At will, according to mediaval notation will be found. [Neuma.] individual fancy. [Old systems of notation.'] accent, or accen- Acathistus. A hymn of praise, sung in 4. In plain song, the term that the Greek Church in honour of the Blessed tus ecclesiasticus, was used to designate learnmg Virgin, upon the Saturday in the fifth week system of movement of the voice, by in Lent, by the whole congregation stand- the principles of which { legendt chor- , ing. aliter), a chanter could read collects, Accarezzevole (It.) (Lit. flatteringly.) gospels, &c., from an un-noted book. Hence, rules relating Agreeable, pleasing ; used occasionally to de- it resolved itself into a series of scribe the anticipation of notes. to the inflexions or intonations of the voice on Accarezzevolmente (It.) In a caress- reaching a comma, semicolon, colon, full stop, ing style. and also a note of interrogation. But perfect Accelerando or accellerato (It.) Gra- uniformity is not to be found in these regula- dually increasing the pace. tions regarding the puncta. According to Accent (Fr.) A sign used in old French its position in the sentence, or the interval music for the : covered by the movement of the voice, accent _o A was said to be (i) immutabilis, (2) medius, Written Played moderatus, in- (3) gravis, (4) acutus, (5) (6) terrogativus, (7) finalis. The following are The custom of employing a variety of orna- examples of these different species : ments in harpsichord music, arose from the immutabilis. fact that the instrument was not capable of ^ i^ ^—-- - ^ - sustaining tone without the use of repeated -^^ touches. Lec-ti - o E - pi-sto-lse Sanc-ti Pau - li Accent.—In its ancient and widest sense, medius. a sign placed over a syllable to indicate the -— * n - ff elevation of the -Moice when pronouncing it. ^ ^ Hence, the term came to imply a raising up- et o-pe-ra-tur vir-tu-tes in vo-bis: wards of the voice in the scale series from the gravis. monotone or note of recitation, to a sound of higher pitch. By using various forms of accents, different elevations of the voice were Be - ne - fi- cen-tur in Te om-nes gen-tes. obtained, until a rude sort of chant resulted. acutus. The most ancient known accents, those of the Hebrews as found in the Pentateuch, Psalms, T and Book of Job, were interpreted only by tra- Cum Spi ri tu coe - pe - ri - tis nunc, dition, not according to definite rule. Unfor- moderatus. tunately therefore in comparing the musical rendering of them as taken down in modern notation by authors in various parts of , cum fi - de - li, ex o - pe - ri - bus le - gis, it will be found that their original force is interrogativus. now quite unknown, and that the various n ^, "^ " foliations " which are supposed to repre- sent their meaning, are the growth of many an ex au di tu fi - de - i ? surrounding musical or other indirect in- finalis. fluences. >- * n 1 2. In early Greek Church music, the accents ^ ^11 had to a great extent, a plain and definite A - ni - ma me - a ad Te De us. intention, and as they were fixed and adapted But according to some authors, the to various poems by John of Damascus in should be on monotone, except at a point of the 8th century, and their use has been kept interrogation, e.g. : up in its purity to this day in , a very good insight into early forms and principles of notation can be obtained. [Greek Church music] Lee - ti - o li bri Sa - pi - en - ti 3. In mediaeval music the term accent was also applied to , the first two * and most common of the signs being the Be - a- tus vir qui in-ventus est si - ne ma-cu-la, &c. acutus, and accentus gravis. After- wards the term came to signify the system generally, and so became synonymous with neuma, under which head information as to Quis est hie et lau-da - bi - mus e - urn ? 4) ACCENT.

But in some countries, the epistle is chanted with the greatest elaboration, the note above the reciting note being introduced before the full stop, and the whole of an interrogative sentence being recited on a note below the ut. But as these uses differ not only in various places, but according to the Church seasons, an exhaustive account is impossible. In chanting the gospel, an accentus medius takes place at the fourth syllable from a full stop, or thereabouts, and also the accentus interrogativus. :: :

ACCENTUARE ACCOMPANIMENT.

independent effects. Accentuare {It.) To accent. attempt was made to gain poetiy of Accentuation. The act of accenting, or The ancient Greek dance, and the at first giving to certain notes their due emphasis. the tragedy, was always accompanied, Accessory stops and movements. with the , afterwards with the . of the Greeks," Stops and movements acting only on the Donaldson, in his " Choral soijg, mechanism of an organ, not having pipes says, that the Ancient Dorian accompanied with in connection with them, as, Couplers, Tre- the Pcean, was originally molo, Signal to the blowers ; Composition the {

Accompagnement {Fr.) i ment.] The same root supplying many words refer- Accompaniment ad libitum. Accom- ring alike to dancing, singing, and playing, paniment at will. That is, one which can suggests a common origin for dancing and be played or omitted without injury to the its accompaniment. Most of the words of harmonic construction of a composition, c.f. ancient ballads are set to tunes that were obbligato. danced to, and the practice is still observed Accompaniment obbligato. [Obbligato.] of arranging words to melodies, that were Accompaniment. A separate part or originally intended to accompany the dance. parts, for voices or instruments, added to So that the " new " idea of singing waltzes a solo or- concerted piece. Accompaniment or other dance measures, is but a revival of may consist of a single simple instrument, the ancient practice. Nothing -seems more such as a violin or flute, or a single com- natural than that those not actually engaged pound instrument as an organ or pianoforte, a in dancing, but as interested spectators, upon combination of selected orchestral instruments, the recurrence of a musical phrase should or a whole , or of voices in harmony. accompany it with the voice. This would Accompaniments are those portions of a form such a burden or chorus, as that alluded composition which are independent of the to by Shakespeare principal parts, and which are added to sup- " it featly here and there. port, or to produce such effects as would And let the rest the burden bear." be otherwise unattainable. Accompaniment should always be subservient to the chief Some simple instrument would be employed part, so as not to overload or obscure it, to play the tune, either with or without some and should be so constructed, that the voice means of marking the time or ; a or voices or solo instruments should be made combination like that of the pipe and tabour, to appear to the most favourable advantage. would form an adequate accompaniment to In the earliest records we possess, it is found the dance, as the burden would to the song. that some sort of accompaniment was gener- As most of the mediaeval learning and accom- ally employe'd either to assist the voice, or plishments came through the Church, it is mark the time or rhythm of the songs sung very reasonable to assume that the methods of these many examples could be quoted if of the Church would be reflected in the prac-' it were necessary. In the Bible, instances are tices of every-day life. And as it is known mentioned in which singing is accompanied that the organs employed in the service were by musical instruments ; but of the nature so constructed as to be adapted only for the of these accompaniments we can form no purposes of melody, it is scarcely probable definite idea, beyond the fact that, from a that harmony should have been in use as an comparative knowledge of the instruments accompaniment to secular songs and tunes. spoken of, it is presumed that little, if any Although instruments were employed as ac- (6) : —

ACCOMPANIMENT. companiments to the voice, there is no reason or dances. These " natural instruments" for supposing that they were not at times required little skill to use, beyond a correct engaged in the performance of purely in- sense of rhythm, though there are instances strumental pieces, but on the contrary, the on record where some degree of science was numerous instances in which musical ' in- brought to bear in their employment. The struments are mentioned in> ancient English butchers of Clare Market, in the parish of , show that the performers were not St. Clement Danes in London, were at one only accustomed to accompany singing with time noted for their aptitude in playing tunes their several instruments, but they also imply with marrow-bones upon cleavers of various that they were able to play independent sizes capable of sounding a scale of notes, in pieces. [Mediaeval musical instruments.] a manner somewhat similar to the hand-bell In some instances we jBnd that the accom- ringing in the North of , but their panist was distinct from the singer, for performances were ultimately made independ- " example : In Alwyni episcopi . . . et durante ent, and therefore could scarcely be considered pietancia in aula conventus, sex ministralli, as accompaniments. Addison's description cum quatuor citharisatoribus, faciebant minis- of a Burlesque musician, and his cultivation tralcias suas." Regis. Prior: S. Swithini of strange instruments for accompaniment, Winton (c. 1374). It cannot be ascertained may be read with interest in reference to this whether the harpers did anymore than play the subject (Spectator, No. 570.) Skelton, in his same melody to which the poems were recited, description of Riot, speaks of one, who or by the constant repetition of certain notes " Counter he coulde, O Lux, upon a potte," serve any other purpose but that of main- probably meaning that while he sang the taining the pitch or rhythm. melody of the ancient hymn, " O Lux, beata The following quotation from David Lynd- Trinitas," he would beat upon the vessel he say's poem, "The Dreme," 1579, implies had been drinking out of, a part, in derisive the performance ofa purely instrumental piece: imitation of the florid counterpoint sung " Thay beir ane aid stok-image throu the toun, by the monks during service. The poets and With talbrone, trumpet, shaltne, and clarione." authors of the give no lucid in- Whether this combination produced con- formation concerning the abilities of the cord, or unison, it is impossible now to de- musicians of their, times, probably on the cide, for, as before stated, the loose manner presumption, that because the method of with which the terms melody and harmony are their performances was well known and employed helps to confuse, rather than to understood by every one, no particular de- make clear all conjecture. For example scription was needed. All our knowledge on " And all above there lay a gay sautrie, the subject is derived from inference, and so On which he made on nightis melodye." Chaucer. it is assumed that the minstrels and later Again, in the " Lyfe of Saint Werburge," musicians, previously to the i6th century, printed by Pynson in 1521, we read: had little, if any, knowledge of harmony; or if they had, they probably left the practice of " Certayne at each course of service in the Hall Trumpettes blewe up, shalmes, and claryouns it to the Church. " Shewynge theyr melody, with toynes musycall There is a further reason for supposing that the ancient minstrels accompanied their and again in the same poem : songs by playing the same melody which was singuler Mynstrell, all other ferre passynge "A sung, in the character of the majority of the Toyned his instrument in pleasaunt armony." instruments alluded to in old writings : In the two first quoted examples, that which " Harpys, fythales, and eke rotys is called melody might well be harmony, and Lutys, ribibles, and getemes, in the third, that which is called harmony Orguys, cytolis, monacordys might well be melody. .... trumpes, and trumpettes doncettes." In nearly every list of instruments of rnin- Lowde shaluys, and strelsy, there are one or two pulsatile instru- The drone of the bagpipe and the funda- ments spoken of — "Tymphans, tabours, mental sound of the drum might suggest the nacaires," whose use was to mark the rhythm, formation of harmony; the character and con- earliest piece of harmony sung, played, or danced to ; but where these struction of the we regular instruments were wanting, the clap- possess, " Sumer is icum'en in" offering ping of hands, the beating of a stick upon a curious confirmation of this notion. shovel, or the clashing of two sticks together, All writers are agreed as to this being the or the " ancient natural instruments of our oldest song with musical notes extant. War- islands," as Dr. Burney calls the tongs, ton believed it to belong to the 15th century, marrow -bones and cleavers, salt -box and but Sir Frederick Madden showed it to be at rolling-pin, with the hurdy-gurdy, were em- least two hundred years older; and judging ployed as accompaniments to rustic songs by the character in which it is written, and (7) ACCOMPANIMENT.

other evidence, fixed its date at about the year 1250. It is among the Harleian MSS. in the British Museum. The piece is arranged as a

continuous melody ; but by commencing that melody at certain indicated places, it forms a canon in the unison in four parts, with a "pes," a foot, or burden for two other parts. The first attempts at accompaniment in har- mony were arranged for the voice, in a manner that to our ears wouldbe simplybarbarous[Dia- phony], [Descant], [Fa burden]. It was only by slow degrees that it was discovered that certain instruments were capable of producing complicated sounds forming harmony, and

' were therefore especially valuable for accom- ' ' r r ^ c . - - ness of His paniment. The chief among these instruments regarded the low li was the , which appears to have been a A favourite instrument in Chaucer's time, and to have continued in favourin one form or another, until the and spinetts, being of more convenient form and less trouble to keep in or- der, completely superseded it. [.] The opportunity the virginals and spinetts gave for the employment of both hands, tended considerably towards the improvement of accompaniments, as well as developing the power of execution for solo purposes. " Consorts of " were at first used only " for Cantilenas and tunes for dancing," though compositions were occasionally so arranged as " to be apt for viols or voyces," and when instruments were employed with voices they generally played the same notes as the voices, a practice observed until the time of Handel. No doubt an organist ac- companying some of the services and anthems in Church, little occasionally indulged- in a A comparison of the vocal with the organ license in the matter of fingering, and intro- score, here shows that the ornaments intro- duced flourishes and according to duced are such as involve little, if any depar- fancy, while the choir were singing the plain ture from the rules of harmony, while they vocal harmonies. copy of a portion of A impart a distinct character to the accompani- Gibbons's service in found F [1583-1624] ment, such a character as most of the spinett among the old music in Magdalen College, or harpsichord music of the period possessed. Oxford, in which such variations are written The peculiarity of all old key-board stringed down, is still preserved. Although the MS. instruments, their feebleness of tone and belongs to the middle of the 17th century, their lack of sustaining power, probably sug- there is no doubt but that it records a con- gested to the skilful player the necessity of tinuation of a custom of long standing. The breaking up the accompaniments to vocal character of this accompaniment maybe seen music, ornaments and graces being considered by the following quotation : perfectly legitimate so long as they did not interfere with the essential notes of the har- mony as represented by the . But as in many cases it Voices. was doubtless deemed unwise to attempt display in the accompani- ments during the singing, therefore all exhi- bition of skill on the part of the accompanist was reserved for the ritornelli, with which songs of the 17th century abound. It was Monteverde[i568-i643]who, among ACCOMF. other of his art-benefiting inventions, con- ceived the idea of constructing independent accompaniments for instruments, breaking

) — ;

ACCOMPANIMENT ACCORD.

tip long notes into effective repetitions, and the " di cembalo" became an obso- so imparting novel rh3?thnis and striking in- lete office in the orchestra, as soon as strumental figures. From his conception conductors considered it to he undignified arose the Italian school of accompaniment to do other than direct with the baton, it a school which influenced all musical teaching was necessary that some mode of accom- for more than a hundred years, and only de- panying recitative should be devised, and cayed with the growth of a distinct style of the figured bass was interpreted by a violon- instrumentation, the result of Italian ideas cello and . and drums implanted in the German mind, after which were generally employed together, as much the Symphony and Sonata, retaining names for rhythmical, as for any other purpose derived from their connection with vocal and many other instances of the thoughtless music, became independent and distinct, and practice of taking things for granted, and accompaniment once more was lifeless and doing that which was held to be correct, uninteresting, a mere adventitious aid. In- because it was the custom, are to be found difference with regard to the part accompani- in well-known works of the lesser lights in ment should play," marked most of the music, the great thinkers constantly de- music produced for a long period, but the spising ordinary forms, and inventing new power of the genius of Mendelssohn aroused ones, which in their turn became models new thoughts and new deeds, and care as for imitation, and therefore standards of con- great as that involved in the production of a ventionality. vocal piece was employed in accompaniments, The bagpipe, , lute, , virginals, with true artistic effect. The followers of spinett,harpsichord,pianoforte, harp, and guitar Wagner, in imitation of him, are striving have each had their turns of favour and appre- to impart a new form to accompaniment, ciation at several times. by giving to every instrument employed, The use of the guitar for an accompani- a certain amount of independent work to ment became exceedingly popular during do — a practice at once laudable and in- the latter part of the last century, to the in- genious, but neither novel nor needful. It jury of the makers of pianofortes, until Kirk- is laudable, for the reason that it is as well to man gave away a number of cheap to interest the performer; it is ingenious, as no milliners' apprentice girls, and so made the common amount of thought is involved in its instrument unfashionable. The portability of production; it is not novel, for it was the both harp and guitar rendered them useful practice of the Italian writers, and it is not for the purposes of accompaniment, more needful, as accompaniment should always be especially at a time when the pianoforte was subservient to the thing accompanied. less frequently found in dwelling-houses Purcell was among the first of the musicians than it is now; but improved mechanism and in England who attempted to give colour to the tone, together with smallness of cost, have accompaniments in the scores of his , made the pianoforte the most available ac- but only occasionally introduced variety in the companying instrument in private as well as

organ parts of his Anthems. The works of in public ; and the fact that one is to be found the musicians of the latter portion of the 17th in nearly every house has contributed greatly and the commencement of the i8th centuries, towards the neglect of more portable means show a desire to depart from the habitual rule, of accompanying songs and other household by giving independent melodies to the accom- music. panying parts, specimens of which may be Accompanist. The player who accom- traced in Blow's Amphion, and contemporary panies. The qualities necessary to form a works. The scores ofJ. S. Bach's "" good accompanist are, (i) that he possess a and other of his compositions, contain some knowledge of reading music at sight, and of excellent harmony that acquainted specimens of free instrumental parts ; (2) he should be

in the accompaniments, and many of Handel's with the style of the music performed ; (3) obbligati foreshadow the true use of orchestral that he should know the characteristics of colouring, a shadow to which substance was those performers whom he is called upon to playing with firm- given by Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. accompany ; (4) that while The influence of conventionality may be nessand decision, he should not attempt to lead. observed in accompaniments from the earliest Accoppiato (/i.) Joined or connected. period to the present day. Because it was Accord {Fr.) (i) The series of notes to the practice in olden time to accompany which an instrument is tuned, e.g., Accord recitative upon the " cembalo," du Violon, rarely thought of setting down more than a figured bass to these parts of their scores, excepting when the recitative took something hence, Accord a I'ouvert, open strings, q.v. of the form of the " soliloquae ;" and because (2) A chord. Concord, hence, D'accord, in tune. (9) ACCORD ACOUSTICS,

to Accord de sixte Ajoutee (Fr.) The is almost instantaneously communicated chord of the Added Sixth. [Added Sixth.] the adjacent ones, those first agitated coming rest; the adjacent ones Accordamento (It.) } . ^ . ^ at the same time to Agreement in tune. to those Accordanza {It.) ] pass on the impulse in the same way thus the Accordando {It.) Tuning. at a greater distance, and so on ; looked Accordare {It.) To tune. explosion gives rise to what may be of constant Accordato {It.) Tuned. on as a rapidly expanding shell between Accordatura {It.) [Accord.] thickness, containing at any instant stratum of Accorder (Fr.) To tune an instrument. its exterior and interior surfaces a Accordeur {Fr.) A tuner. agitated air particles each one of which per- the . A simple musical instru- forms a single vibration to and fro during other words ment, of oblong form, invented by Damian, passage of the shell over it ; in the_ shell of , in 1829. The tone is produced the exterior and interior surfaces of by the inspiration and respiration of a pair are at any time the loci of all those points at of bellows acting upon metallic reeds or which the particles at that instant come under tongues. [Free reed.] the influence of the impulse, and are left at The first instruments had only four buttons, rest by it respectively, so that its thickness or keys, each of which acted on two reeds, depends both on the rapidity of their vibration making the compass one octave of diatonic and the rate at which they pass on the scale, but with a separate arrangement, by impulse, one to another.* Let us suppose which these notes might be accompanied with now that immediately after the first explo-

a tonic and dominant harmony. At first it sion a second were to take place ; then, in was used only as a toy, but the introduction exactly the same way there would be a of a chromatic scale made the Accordion more second pulse propagated in all directions. capable of producing a varied melody and If a series of explosions at regular intervals harmony, although the awkwardness of the were to take place, there would be a regujar

form was always a hindrance to its use. The series of these expanding shells ; and if the German Accordion or Concertina {q.v.) of intervals were sufficiently small, the alternate hexagonal form made the prinpiple of the changes of pressure, due to the successive accordion more acceptable. The English collisions of the air particles against the tym- concertina (5.0.) and the harmonium (g.i».) are panic membrane of an ear in the neighbour- superior instruments constructed upon similar hood of the explosions would convey to the principles. brain a sensation of a continuous note. Ex- Accordo {It.) Concord, agreement, har- actly the same thing occurs if, for a series of mony. explosions, are substituted the vibrations of

Accordoir (-Fr.) A tuning key or hammer. an elastic body ; and it is, in general, by the Accresciuto {It.) Increased. Augmented latter means that all sounds, and especially as applied to intervals. musical ones, are produced. The motion of Acetabulum. An ancient instrument, a sound wave must not be confounded with originally made of earthenware, afterwards the motion of the particles which transmit of metal, which, when struck with a rod, the wave. In the passage of a single wave produced a sweet sound. [See an allusion each parljicle over which it passes makes to it in Boet. de Inst. Mus., Lib. i. cap. xi.] only a small excursion to and fro, the semi- Achromatic. Not chromatic. length of which is called the amplitude of Achtel {Ger.) A quaver J^. The eighth the vibration, the time occupied during one part of a semibreve. vibration being called its period. Achtelpause. A quaver rest 1- 4. The intensity of a sound is proportional A chula {Port.) A dance similar to the to the square of the maximum velocity of the Fandango, q.v. vibrating particles. It also approximately Acoustics. The- science which treats of varies inversely as the square of the distance

the nature and laws of sound. from the origin of the sound ; for, supposing 2. The sensation of sound consists in the the latter to be produced at a uniform loudness, communication of a vibratory motion to the the same amount of energy has to be com- tympanic membrane of the ear, through slight municated to the particles contained within and rapid changes in the pressure of the air the external and internal surfaces of shells of on its outer surface. the same thickness but of different radii. For 3. The mode of propagation of sound in air may be explained in the following manner. * The word vibration must be taken in its full sense, viz. Suppose a small particle of fulminating silver : as meaning the whole motion of the particle dur- ing the time that to be exploded in free air; the air particles elapses from the instant it sets off from its original position to the instant when it next immediately contiguous are driven outwards regains that position, and is ready to start again over in all directions by the explosion, their motion the same path.

( 10) ACOUSTICS.

example, if we take a shell of air whose in- of any given pitch can be determined very ternal radius is one foot, one of the same thick- exactly. For a detailed account of this ness whose radius is two feet will contain instrument and of its improvements by Helm-

four times the quantity of matter ; one whose holtz, the reader is referred to Tyndall's

radius is three feet, nine times the quantity, Lectures on Sound, p. 64 ; but to describe and so on. Thus the amount of matter it shortly it may be said in its original form over which a given quantity of energy has to consist of two equal discs, one forming the to be distributed augments as the square top of a hollow fixed cylinder into which air of the distance from the origin of sound, and can be driven, the other capable of revolving therefore the aniount of energy, or, what concentrically upon it with the smallest pos- comes to the same thing, the intensity of sible amount of friction. A circle of small the sound, diminishes in the same ratio. holes equidistant from each other is bored upon

5. At a temperature of zero Centigrade each disc and concentric with it ; those in sound rs propagated at the rate of about the upper disc being inclined slantwise to its logo feet per second, and this speed aug- plane, those in the lower being slantwise

ments about two feet per second for every also but in the opposite direction ; there are

additional degree of temperature ; thus at also arrangements both for driving a constant 15° C. the rate of propagation would be supply of air into the hollow cylinder, and for about 1 120 feet per second. The velocity registering the number of revolutions the

of sound in air depends on the elasticity upper disc performs in a minute ; thus, when of the air in relation to its density. It is the upper disc is so turned that its holes co- also directly proportional to the square root incide with those of the lower, and air is forced of the elasticity, and inversely proportional into the cylinder, it will pass out through the to the square root of the density. Now perforations, and by reason of their obliquity for a constant temperature the elasticity will cause the moveable disc to revolve with

varies as the density, hence in this case a rapidity corresponding to the pressure ; and they neutralise one another, and the velocity each time that the holes of the former coincide of the sound is independent of the density with those of thelatter a number of little puffs of the air. of air get through simultaneously, giving rise 6. One sound differs from another not only to an agitation in the surrounding atmosphere in quantity, but also in quality and pitch.* which spreads round in all directions in the The pitch of a sound depends on the num- way before described, and if the pressure of ber of vibrations per second by which it the air in the cylinder is sufficient, the series

is caused : the greater this number is the of impulses thus given will link themselves higher is the sound, and vice versa; thus together, forming a continuous note. J pitch is a more or less relative term, and it is Hence, to determine the number of vibra- therefore necessary to have some standard to tions per second, corresponding to a sound which different sounds may be referred. This of given pitch, we have only to maintain standard is so chosen that the middle C of the such a pressure of air in the syren as will pianoforte shall be produced by 264 vibrations cause it to produce the same sound for the minute, and note the number per second .f space of a of revolutions registered in that time. Now, 7. Knowing the velocity of sound in air for every revolution of the upper disc, the we can estimate the different wave lengths same number of sound waves are propagated corresponding to notes of different pitch in around as there are perforations, hence the the following manner. The wave length is whole number propagated in a second will the distance through which the sound tra- be the product of the number of holes and vels while any particle over which it passes number of revolutions per minute divided by describes a complete vibration; hence, if 60 ; and this rftsult will evidently be the we know the number of vibrations the par- required number of vibrations per second ticle performs per second, the required wave caused by the given sound. length vdll be found by dividing the number To apply this to find the wave length cor- of feet over which the sound travels per responding to the note given by the open C second, by that numJDer. Now, by means string of the violoncello, we should adjust the of an instrument invented by Cagniard de la Tour, and by him named the syren, the number of vibrations corresponding to a note J It should be remarked that the pitch of the sound would be exactly the same if there were only one per- foration in the revolving disc, the number of holes * the cause of the different qualities For of sound merely serving to increase its intensity; if the number 16. see § of holes in the revolving disc is less than the number in according to the lower one, those of the former must be situated so f That is, German pitch ; at present there is no definitely fixed standard in general use in as all to coincide simultaneously with an equal number England. of the latter. (") ACOUSTICS.

to dis- supply of air to the syren till it gives a note Now the unassisted ear is only able of the same pitch. Supposing the number tinguish the separate notes out of a number of holes in each disc to be i8, the number of sounded at once up to a certain point; beyond mdividually, revolutions per minute would be found to be this it fails to distinguish them mixture 220. Hence the number of vibrations per and is conscious only of a confused nearly second of the string, and therefore of the sur- of sound? which approaches the more rounding particles of air, would be "°^ " =66. to the character of noise the more components another. Supposing the temperature were i6° C the there are, or the nearer they lie to one so velocity of sound would be about 1122 feet A noise, then, may be defined as a sound per second, and the quotient obtained by complicated that the ear is unable to resolve dividing this number by 66 gives the wave or analyse it into its original constituents. length corresponding to that number of vi- 10. As the character of a sound depends vibrations by which it is brations per second; that is, just 17 feet ; the upon that of the sound then will travel through this distance caused, it is important to know of what kind during the time the string takes to perform the latter must be in order that they may give one complete vibration. the sensation of a perfectly simple tone, i.e., 8. If the number of vibrations per second one which the ear cannot resolve into any be increased, the pitch of the sound caused others. Such a vibration is perhaps best by them is raised, and vice versa, as can easily realised by comparison with that of the pen- be illustrated by driving more or less air into dulum of a clock when it is swinging only a the syren, and observing the sound it pro- little to and fro. Under these circumstances duces. Dr. Wollaston has shown (Phil. Trans. it is performing what are called harmonic vi- 1820, p. 336) that if the number be increased, brations, and when the air particles in the beyond a certain limit the sound becomes neighbourhood of the ear are caused by any inaudible, although this limit is not the same means to vibrate according to the same law for all ears, some 'persons being perfectly as that which the pendulum follows, and also sensible of sounds inaudible to others. In with sufficient rapidity, a perfectly simple general it is probable that no sound is heard tone is the result. Such a tone is, however, when the number of vibrations per second rarely heard except when produced by means exceeds 40,000 ; while on the other hand the specially contrived for the purpose. If a note perception of pitch appears to begin when on the pianoforte is struck, the impact of the the numher of vibrations is somewhere be- hammer on the string throws it into a state tween 8 and 32, the wave length being in of vibration which, though periodic, is not the former case about 0-03 of an inch—in really harmonic ; consequently we do not hear the latter ranging from 140 feet to 35 feet. a perfectly simple tone, but one which is in g. Sounds are primarily divided into two reality a mixture of several higher simple classes, musical and unmusical ; the former tones with that one which corresponds to the being defined as those produced by regular actual length of the string. The former are, or periodic vibrations, the latter by such as however, generally faint, and become associated are irregular or non-periodic. These defini- by habit with the latter, appearing to form tions require some explanation, since, by with it a single note of determinate pitch. sounding together a sufficient number of notes These higher tones are the of the sufficiently near in pitch, it is plain that we string, and are produced by vibrations whose could produce as unmusical a sound as we numbers per second are respectively twice, pleased, although the components would be three times, four times, &c., as great as those themselves due to periodic vibrations, and of the fundamental tone of the string (§ 13). would be therefore musical. The answer to The same may be said of the notes of all this is found in the fact that when two or instruments, including the , which more sets of sound waves impinge on the are usually employed for the production of ear at the same instant, since each one cannot musical sounds. impress its own particular vibration on the 11. Since the consonance of two or more contemporaneously with those of such simple tones always gives a more or the others, the motion of the latter membrane less musical sound, and since also the ear must be in some way the sum of all the is always more or less capable of resolving different motions which the different sets of the latter into its components, the question waves would have separately caused it to naturally arises whether all sounds are not, follow and this is ; what in fact does happen, theoretically at least, resolvable into simple i.e., the vibrations due to each set combine and tones. The answer to this is contained in a throw the tympanum into a complicated state celebrated theorem due to the French mathe- of vibration, causing the sensation of the conso- matician Fourier. He has shown that any or nance combination of the different sounds periodic vibration is the result of combining from which the sets of sound waves proceed. together a certain numbec of simple harmonic

( 12) —

ACOUSTICS. vibrations whose periods are aliquot parts of are in the proportion of i, 2, 3, 4, &c. J In that of the former; and we have conclusive other words, every periodic vibration is the re- reasons for supposing that, in the same way sultant of a certain number of harmonic vibra- as a compound periodic vibration gives rise tions whose periods are one-half, one-third, to a compound sound (§ 9), so the simple tones one-fourth, &c., &c., that of the former. into which the ear resolves the latter are re- 13. A harmonic scale is formed by taking a spectively due to the simple harmonic vibra- series of notes produced by vibrations whose tions which, as the above mentioned theorem numbers in a given time are respectively as proves, make up the former.* I, 2, 3, 4, &c. 12. The theorem of Fourier referred to in If we take as fundamental tone the open C the preceding article is of such g^eat impor- string of the violoncello, the series of tones tance in all questions connected with acoustics which with it form a harmonic scale will be that a few words illustrative of it may not be as follows: out of place.f otlea--g- &c. If a peg is fixed into the rim of a wheel capable of revolving about a fixed centre, and at right angles to the plane of the wheel, and The notes marked with an asterisk do not if the latter is caused to rotate uniformly and exactly represent the corresponding tones ; but is looked at edgeways the peg will appear to are the nearest representatives which the move up and down in a straight line, its velo- modern notation supplies. All the notes of the city being the greatest at the middle of its harmonic scale can theoretically be produced course, and diminishing as it approaches each by either a single string, or by a simple tube end. Under these circumstances the peg used as a trumpet. If we lightly touch the appears to perform harmonic vibrations. string of a violin, without causing it to come Now suppose a second wheel, also fur- in contact with the finger board, at any one of nished with a peg in its rim, is made to a series of points dividing it into a number of revolve about the peg of the first as an axis. equal parts, and excite it by means of a bow, If the latter is at rest the peg of the second it no longer vibrates as a whole, but separates will appear, looked at as above, to perform into the number of equal vibrating segments harmonic vibrations ; but if the former is also which is the least possible consistent with caused to revolve these vibrations are no that point forming one of their points of di- longer harmonic, but are the result of adding vision ; the latter remain stationary, or very together the separate harmonic vibrations of nearly so, and are called nodes, their number the two pegs, in other words of superposing being evidently just one less than that of the the harmonic vibrations which the second peg segments. It is plain that if the point of ap- performs if the first wheel is at rest, upon plication of the bow be one of a series of those which the first peg performs when it is nodes, no sound will be produced, provided, itself in motion. Now it is evident that by con- of course, the finger remains on any other of tinuing this process indefinitely, and by giving the same series, and this may serve to ex- the wheels different radii, and different uniform plain why it is sometimes difficult to bring velocities of rotation, the final motion of the out the higher harmonics of a violin, as the last peg looked at sideways as before, would bow may, unconsciously to the performer, be an exceedingly complicated one, and that be passing exactly over one of the corres- an infinite number of different vibrations could ponding nodes. The first harmonic, as it is be produced by varying the number, position called, of the open string is produced by at starting, radii, and velocities of the wheels, touching it while in a state of vibration at its though it could not be assumed without proof middle point, and thereby dividing it into two that every possible variety could be so pro- equal portions, both of which vibrate twice as duced. This however is what Fourier's fast as the whole, and accordingly give the theorem asserts, provided that the velocities octave. The second harmonic, or the twelfth of rotation of the several wheels of the series of the fundamental, corresponds to a division of the string into three equal portions, and so on. And generally, in order to produce the * A periodic vibration is any movement which recurs the finger should touch the after equal intervals or periods of time, such as that of M* harmonic a uniformly working punching machine, or of the ham- string at any one of the series of points it is striking, so on. It mer of a clock bell when and which divide it into « equal portions. § In should be observed that though all harmonic vibrations are periodic, it is by no means the case that all periodic foot note to 2. which the wheels are arranged with vibratiops are harmonic. See § X The order in respect to their velocities is quite arbitrary. a. number (i.e. For a complete discussion and demonstration of § That is supposing » to be prime f plain the theorem, the reader is referred to the work on having no divisors). If such is not the case, it is Acoustics by the late Professor Donkin, published in that some points of the series when touched would give the Clarendon Press series. harmonics of lower pitch. (13) ;;

ACOUSTICS. practice, however, the finger should always intermediate notes being supplied by opening touch the string at the point of division adja- the lateral orifices of the instrument. that is ex.-. cent to either end. 17. When two simple tones, (as of all the har- 14. The harmonics of a simple tube used as plained above), notes deprived a trumpet are the same as those of a vibrating monic components which under ordinary sounded string, viz., the octave, twelfth, fifteenth, &c., circumstances accompany them, are and are produced by modifications of the breath together very nearly in unison, there are heard beats succeeding one another and lips ; but there is a great difference be- what are called tween the nature of the vibrations which at regular intervals, their rapidity depend- produce sound, in the case of strings and ing inversely on the smallness of the interval pipes. In the former case the vibrations are between the two tones. Their origin may tones to be executed at right angles to the length of the be explained thus : Suppose the string, that is, are lateral, while in the latter produced by vibrations numbering 500 and they are in the direction of the pipe, or longi- 501 per second respectively, then every tudinal, and are the vibrations of the air itself 500th sound wave of the former will strike on instant as within it. the tympanum at exactly the same 15. When an open organ pipe is sounding every 501st of the latter and will reinforce it; its fundamental tone, the particles of the while at the 250th of the first the correspond- column of air within it are all, more or less, ing wave of the other will be just half a period in a state of vibration parallel to the length in front of it. Now a sound wave consists of the pipe, of which the intensity is at its of a condensed and rarified stratum of air par-

maximum at the two ends, growing less and ticles, and therefore the condensed portion of , less towards the middle, where there is a one wave here coincides with the rarified por- node, that is, a point of no disturbance. The tion of the other and neutralises it. Thus there harmonics of an open pipe follow the same will be an alternate reinforcement and dimi- law as those of a simple trumpet, or vibrating nution of sound, every second, from the maxi- string. mum intensity when both waves impinge on The fundamental note of a stopped organ the tympanum at the same instant to the pipe is an octave below the fundamental note minimum when they counteract each other of an open one of the same length. When it as much as possible and vice versd. is sounding this note there is no node, and In the above case it was supposed that the the first harmonic is a fifth above the octave, number of vibrations of one tone were only the second a major sixth above the first, the one more per second than those of the other third a diminished fifth above the second, and but if the difference of the numbers had been so on. Or, more simply, the successive tones two, for instance, then in one second the first of the harmonic scale of an open pipe are tone would have gained two vibrations on the

produced by vibrations which are as i, 2, 3, 4, other, and there would have been two beats &c., those of a stopped pipe by vibrations and in general the number of beats per second which are as 1, 3,. 5, 7, &c. is always equal to the difference between the 16. It was stated (§ 10) that the sound of a two rates of vibrations per second.

vibrating string was in general • compounded 18. In the preceding section, the cause of of a number of simple tones, and a well beats due to two simple tones of nearly the trained ear can detect a considerable number same pitch was explained, and it was seen of them. If it were not for these harmonic that the number of beats per second was components the tones of strings, pipes, of always equal to the difference of the numbers

the human voice, or in short, of every instru- of vibrations per second of each tone ; so ment most generally used for the production that as the interval between them increased so of sound, would be flat and uninteresting would the number of beats increase in a given like pure water. Each harmonic compo- time. Hence it is obvious that if the interval nent is by itself a simple tone, and is due became sufficiently large, the beats would suc- to the vibration of the corresponding seg- ceed each other so rapidly as to become un- ment of the string superposed upon that distinguished. For instance, in the case of the of the whole. The same statement applies, fifth whose lower and upper tones are pro- mutatis mutandis to pipes, whether open duced by vibrations numbering 264 and 396 or stopped. That the harmonics of different per second respectively, the number of beats instruments greatly influence their several per second would be 132 and would therefore characters is observable in the .difference of be undistinguishable—and still more so sup- the tones of a flute, and clarinet. A flute posing the upper tone to have 397 or tnore is an open pipe, a clarinet a stopped one; vibrations per second; but, on the other hand in the former, therefore, the harmonics follow it is a well-known fact, that if an imperfect the order of the natural numbers i, 2, 3, 4, fifth, octave, or any other tolerably simple and in the latter the order i, 3, 5, 7; —the interval is played on a violin or violoncello. (H) ;

ACOUSTICS.

the beats are most distinctly heard succeeding dary waves ; and it is to these that the phe- each other at perceptible intervals—^whereas nomena of resultant tones are due. according to what was said above they should Thus if two notes a fifth apart, for in- occur so rapidly as not to be heard at all. stance, are forcibly sounded together, a third Two explanations of this phenomenon have tone is heard an octave below the lower of been given, of which by far the most simple the two, and this ceases to be perceptible when is due to Helmholtz—and which here follows. the loudness of the concord diminishes. In It appears that when the tones are simple general the resultant tone of any combination and at a sufficiently large interval the beats of two notes is produced by a number of vi- should occur too rapidly to be heard, whereas brations per second equal to the difference of when the interval is played on a violin they the numbers per second of the notes. This are easily distinguishable. The reason of fact formerly led to the supposition that the this fact is that in the latter case the tones resultant tone was produced by the beats due are no longer simple but compound —and to the consonance, which, when they occurred the beats which are heard are not due to with sufficient rapidity, linked themselves to- the fundamental tones themselves but arise gether so as to form a continuous musical from two of their harmonic components note. If this were so it is clear that the re- which are nearly in unison. Suppose the sultant ought to be heard when the original ratio of the interval between the fundamental notes are sounded gently as well as forcibly and it was the failure of this condition that tones to be — , that is, let — be the fraction, re- n n led Helmholtz to the re-investigation of duced to its lowest terms, which is formed by their origin. These resultant tones have been putting in the numerator the number of vibra- named by him difference tones; he has also tions per second of the upper tone, and in the discovered the existence of resultant tones denominator those of the lower. Then it is formed by the sum of the numbers of vibra- plain that the «"> harmonic component of the tions of the primaries. These summation tone m, will be of the same pitch as the w'h tones as they are called cannot be explained

harmonic component of the tone n ; for they on the old theory. will each have exactly mn vibrations per 20. The theory of beats explains the law that the smaller the two numbers are, which express second. J^ow let tt be the ratio, expressed in the ratio of their vibrations, the smoother the same way, of another interval, nearly, but is the combination of any two tones. When two simple tones are sounded together whose not quite, equal to — ; then the «"> harmonic rates of vibration per second differ by more component of M will have Mn vibrations per than 132, the beats, according to Helm- second,while the jw"> component of N will have holtz, totally disappear. As the difference grows less the beats become more and more Nm. Now since -rj is nearly equal to — , the audible, the interval meanwhile growing pro- difference between Mn and Nm will be a portionately dissonant, till they number 33 small number; and when the two notes are per second, at which point the dissonance sounded together the number of beats per of the interval is at its maximum. second will be equal to that difference. This, however, depends upon the position of the interval as regards its pitch. For it For example, let — be the ratio of a fifth, should be remembered that though the ratio M of any given interval remains the same what- that is the fraction ^, and let -rj represent very ever the of its tones may be, nearly the same interval, say ff^; then the dif- yet the difference of the actual numbers of ference between Mn and Nm, or 794 and 792, their vibrations, and therefore the number of is 2; hence if two strings tuned apart at an inter- beats due to their consonance, alters with it. val represented byff|- are sounded simultane- And vice versd, if the difference of the number ously there will be two beats heard per second. of vibrations remains constant, the interval 19, When the vibrations of the air due to must diminish as its pitch rises. For in- a number of different sounds which co-exist stance, either of the following combinations at the same time are infinitely small, they are :^e2= merely superposed one on another, so that s each separate sound passes through the air m as if it alone were present ; and this law of would give rise to 33 beats per second, since superposition holds, though only approxi- the numbers of vibrations of their tones mately, until the vibrations have increased per second, are 99-66, and 528-495, respec- up to a certain limit, beyond which it is no tively. Now it is obvious that in the latter longer true. Vibrations which give rise to a case the dissonance would be far greater than large amount of disturbance produce secon- in the former. (15) ACOUSTICS ACT.

The above explanation of the cause of dis- only instruments which depend upon it directly sonance is also due to Helmholtz, and com- for the production of their sounds, are gongs pletely solves a question which had remained and cymbals, and the same may be said of show unanswered since the time of Pythagoras, al- membranes. Chladni was the first to though that philosopher made th6 important the positions of the lines of nodes on a plate, a vice, and discovery that the simpler the ratio of the two by clamping it horizontally in a violin bow parts into which a vibrating string was divided, causing it to vibrate by passing sprinkled the more perfect was the consonance of the over one edge, having previously being two sounds. it with a little sand. The lines of nodes the nodes of 21. The sound of the piano, violin, &c., those parts of the plate which, like into vibration, is only in a small measure due to the actual a string (§ 13), are not thrown vibration of the strings themselves. The remain covered with the sand which collects latter communicate their own motion to the there from the vibrating portions, and in this sound board of the piano, and to the front, way very curious and interesting figures are back, and enclosed air of the violin. In the produced. latter instrument communication is made to Act (Acte, Fr.; Akt, Ger.; Atto, 7^) A the surrounding air from that within it by distinct division in the plot or design of a means of the / holes. drama or opera, forming an incident complete If a string were merely stretched between in itself, but bearing reference to the general two pegs firmly fixed in a stone wall and idea of the whole. Every dramatic plot natu- caused to vibrate, scarcely any sound would rally divides itself into three portions : the be heard at all, owing to the mass and rigidity exposition, the development, and the conclu- of the wall, which would refuse to be thrown sion ; and this division would seem to point into vibration by so small an amount of energy to the separation of a dramatic design into as that which the string would possess. On three acts, but where the piece is in four, the other hand, the sound board of a piano five, or more acts, it will be found on exami- readily answers to the vibrations imposed on nation that the tripartite division is essenti- it when the string is struck, and having a ally the same, greater prominence or care in large surface in contact with the air, every detail being given to one or more of the point of which originates a system of waves, sections. Thus the exposition maybe spread it causes a full and powerful sound. over two or three acts, the development over 22. The vibrations of straight rods may be one or two, and the conclusion or unravelling, either longitudinal or transversal. The former reserved for the final act. have not been generally employed for the The classical trilogies—groups of three tra- production of musical sounds ; the latter are gedies—were most frequently united by a such as take place when a tuning fork is common idea, each forming a complete in- struck, or when a musical box or triangle is cident, connected by a bond of sympathy, played. In the case of a curved rod the sentiment, or subject with the grand design. vibrations are more complicated, but there is Bartholomfi Torres Naharro, of Torre in one interesting case, namely, that in which , who wrote at the commencement of the curved rod takes the form of a circular the 1 6th century, is said to have been the ring. In this case the fundamental tone is first who suggested the division of plots into obtained by suspending it horizontally ,by acts, or jornados, although Cervantes claims four strings attached at equidistant points in the invention for himself. It is certain that the circumference, and by lightly tapping it Naharro's printed dramas are not so divided. midway between any two. If the number of Donaldson, in speaking of the ^schylean vibrations then given be in per second, those Trilogy (the Agamemnon, Choephorce, and the of the successive harmonics are proportional Eumenides), says, that the three plays mutu- to snV^ 4«V'1i3, 5«V22", &c. ally cohere, is plain ; and as they were actu- 23. The nature of the vibrations of a bell ally brought on the in sequence, they may be partly inferred from those of a ring, may be regarded as so many acts of one as the bell may be considered as consisting of grand heroic drama. This is mentioned, in a connected series of rings of different dia- order to vindicate the practice of Shakspeare meters all vibrating simultaneously ; thus the and other modern dramatists, in compressing fundamental tone of a bell would cause it to into one drama an extensive cycle of human divide itself longitudinally into four equal destinies ; because the very objection that segments, corresponding to the four quadrants has been made to the practice is the alleged into which the suspended ring divides. The example of the ancients to the contrary. period of its vibrations could not, however, be Wagner's Nibelungen trilogy, though stated similarly inferred. to be " new from end to end" in idea and 24. The vibration of plates is not, musically design, bears a close affinity to the ancient speaking, a subject of much interest, as the Greek drama. For the subject is mythical

( 16) : :

ACT MUSIC ADDED SIXTH. and "the mythical subject has a plastic The above example being in the key of C, unity; it is perfectly simple and easily com- the Subdominant of the scale is F, and a prehensible, and it does not stand in need of common chord of F consists of F, A, and C, the numberless small details, which a modern to which is found added at * the sixth of the playwright is obliged to introduce to make bass note : namely, D. Although as a mere some historical occurrence intelligible. It name, the expression added sixth may not-be is divided into a few important and decisive without value, it is by many authors con- scenes, in each of which the action arises sidered very doubtful whether the notes, F, spontaneously from out of the emotions of A, C are really the constituents of a Sub- the actors ; which emotions, by reason of dominant common chord ; and the fact that the small number of such scenes, can be the apparent fifth of this chord (C) is nearly presented in a most complete and exhaustive always treated as a discord, and made to manner." In many modern operas, the di- descend, is rightly cited as the cause of their vision of the work into acts is made, less doubt. with reference to dramatic principles, than to This naturally leads to the second explana- of the requirements the stage-manager. tion of the chord, which is, that it is an Act Music in Oxford. com- inversion of the chord of the seventh on the posed by the Professor of music, to words super-tonic, e.g. : written by the Professor of poetry, and per- formed at grand commemorations in the University. Act tunes. [Playhouse tunes.] {Fr.) Certain chords Seventh on 1st Inversion. Acte de Cadence by Ex. 2. Supertonic. means of which the final cadence is introduced. Action. The mechanism of an organ or pianoforte, or other compound instruments. Acuta. The accent attached to certain constructing chords letters in the Greek system of musical no- But, the system of on tation, thus, M' every degree of the scale, though once much

.adopted, is daily losing ground ; and justly, An organ stop. [Sharp mixture.] Acuta. because by it, the particular progression of Acutae claves, acuta loca, acutas voces. each component note of a chord, either has Those keys, places, and sounds, which lie be- to be ignored, or else treated of with an ' tween alamire acutum ' and ' alamire superacu- amount of detail which is puzzling to the tum' of the Hexachords,that is between little a student, owing to the impossibility of laying down several laws as to the usual progression and A of stated intervals.

A third explanation is, that it is a dominant Acute . High as to pitch ; opposed to grave. chord—consisting of the fifth, seventh, ninth, Adagietto {It.) A diminutive of Adagio. and eleventh from that root, e.g. Adagio {It.) Slowly ; also a name given to a movement written in that time. ^^°dfL^i,lto}ve^ slowly. Ex.3. cantabile. Very slow, and sus- tained, as if being sung. patetico. Slow and with pathos. pesante. Slow and weighty. The objection to this is, that the bass note sostenuto. Slow and sustained. of the chord (F), in nine cases out of every Adagiosissimo(/f.) (superlative ofAdagio). ten, ascends in the resolution, as seen in More than usually slow, very slow indeed. Ex. I. But, on the other hand, it will be Added Sixth, Chord of the. This found that the ninth (A), and the eleventh dissonant combination of sounds is so called (C), descend properly, and it is a fact well because it has the appearance of a common known to careful analysts of harmony, that chord of the Subdominant of the key in which when several discords are heard simultane- it occurs, with the addition of a sixth from the ously, the regular resolution of part of them bass note, e.g. often completely satisfies the ear; and also, that when the root or generator of a chord is omitted, there is more license in its treat- ment. Ex. 1.

A fourth explanation has been offered : it is to the effect that the chord contains two

( 17) :

ADDED SIXTH AD LIBITUM.

minor sevenths, namely, F and C, derived from two roots, G and D respectively:

Ex.4.

If both sevenths were properly resolved, consecutive fifths would ensue, therefore one • (and generally the lower one) is made to a«cend, on the principle just mentioned above. It is also urged that the lower seventh, F, is practically resolved, if the pro- gression be followed to the cadence in C. In favour of this view, it is also stated that chords built upon the dominant of a scale and its fifth are not uncommon, as for in- stance chords of the augmented sixth, &c. Whatever explanation be accepted, it is manifest that as this chord is made up of four notes, it can occur in as many positions, each note forming it being in turn placed in the bass, e.g. ^^ ^

It is resolved generally as in the above example, but many other resolutions are occasionally met with, e.g.:

\/.},J\ -

ADORNAMENTO AIR,

(2) A ad libitmn is a cadenza, the Affinity. Connection by relation. Keys of construction of which is left to the performer. affinity. [Relative Keys.] (3) Accompaniments ad libitum are addi- Afflitto, or con afflizione {It.) Af- tions to a piece, which may be performed, or flictedly, with sadness. not, at discretion. Affrettando (/f.U

(4) The word is also used to indicate the Affrettate {It.) [-Hastening the time. point at which a cadenza may be introduced Affrettore (/f .) J in a concerto. A fofa {Port.) A dance, like the Fandango, Adomamento (It.) An ornament, or grace. q.v. Ad placitum (Lat.) At pleasure. A free Agevole {It.) jWith facility and light- part. A part added to a strict Canon, which Agevolezza {It.) j ness. does not come under the laws which govern Aggraver la fugue {Fr.) To augment that class of composition. the subject in a fugue. A due corde(/i.) On two strings. [A deux.] Agilita, con {It.) With sprightliness. stromenti (7^) For two instruments. Agilite {Fr.) Lightness and freedom in A due voci {It.) For two voices. playing or singing. A dur (Ger.) The key requiring three Agilmente {It.') I Cheerfully, in a lively sharps to complete the major scale. The Agilmento (7^) j" manner. key of A major. Agitamento {It.) Restlessness. Ad videndum (Lat.) A species of coun- Agitato {It.) An agitated or restless style terpoint, which was written down or noted, of playing or singing, in which the time and as opposed to that which was alia mente or expression is broken and hurried. improvised. Agitazione, con. {It.) With agitation. ./Eolian harp. [Eolian.J Agnus Dei {Lat.)' [Mass.] JE,o\ian mode. [Eolian.] Agoge {Gk.), aywyri. {Lat. ductus; It. con- ^olian piano. A piano having wooden ducimento.) The name of one of the sub- bars, instead of strings, which, when struck divisions of Melopceia q.v. among the Greeks. by the hammers, produced a tone of peculiar The order in which successive notes of the quality. scale followed each other, with regard to .ffiolodicon. .Eolodion. A musical instru- their pitch, in a melody. It is thus defined ment, the sounds of which are produced by by Aristoxenus : 'dywyi^ jikv oZv, kariv f/ did tUv the striking of steel springs by hammers set kivQ (j>06yyii)v 6S0C Tov fxiXovs. There were three in motion by an ordinary key-board. kinds of Agoge: ist, eiiOeia (ductus rectus), ^olomelodicon, called also a Choraleon; when the melody proceeded from a grave to an jEolodicon having brass tubes over the a higher sound by single degrees, evdela fiiv

metal springs, for the purpose of giving more KoXCiTai j( a?ro papvTriToe Etf d?ur)/ra (Aristides,

power to the tone. Quin) ; 2nd, avaKafivTovaa (ductus revertens), .^olopantalon, a pianoforte in connection when a higher sound was followed by a

with the ^olodicon. lower ; 3rd, TrepKpepiis (ductus circumcurrens), iEquisonae voces {Lat.) Equal sounds, when a modulation was introduced in an as-

but not unison ; that is, such a consonant cending, and afterwards, descending succes-

combination as, a note and its octave ; or a sion of notes, by making one of the notes, note and its super-octave. which was flattened in ascending, sharp on

AEVIA. The vowels in the word Alle- descending ; or, vice versa, e.g. : luia, used in mediaeval " prick song" as an Direct. 2. Reversed. abbreviation for that word, especially in An- tiphons. ^ No-tum fe - cit Do - mi-nus, AEVIA. Agoge rhythmica. The succession of me- - .-^ "i r^iy— lodic sounds viewed with regard to their accent, and rhythm. Sa - lu - ta - re Su - um. AEVIA. A grand choeur {Fr.) Full chorus. Ap- c.f. EVOV^. plied to compositions written for the full choir Affabile {It.) In a pleasing kindly manner. in opposition to the petit chceur, which origin- Affannato (it.) In a distressed manner. ally consisted of three parts only. Affannosamente {It.) Restlessly. Agr^mens {Fr.) Turns, graces, and Affannoso {It.) Mournfully. embellishments in Harpsichord music. Affetto, con {It.) With affection, A-igu {Fr.) Acute, high. Affettuosamente {It.) Affectionately. Air. In its modern sense, a tune, or the AfTettuoso {It.) Affectionately. tune. The word air was formerly used to

^ ( n : ,

AIS ALLA STRETTA. describe dance tunes, as "Court Ayres, Pavins, Alcuna , con {It.) With a little of altering the time Corants and Sarabands," also melodies for license ; that is, the power instruments ; for before the invention of the at will. harmonics. Sonata, the music for concerts {concertos) of Aliquot tones. or , consisted altogether of airs in three [Acoustics, § 9.] sight. and sometimes four parts. The word air A livre ouvert {Fr.) At that the notes {), iirst used by Italian visiters in the i6th Alia breve {It.) A direction pace taken century, was, when translated into English, re- are to be made shorter; that is, the found presented by the word " fancy." Lord Bacon quicker than usual. It is generally four or eight in his essay on " Beauty," uses the word air, attached to movements having expressed in the sig- and perhaps unintentionally describes its cha- minims in a bar, and is unusual sign racter thus—"the sweetest airs in music are nature by ^. The following made by a kind of felicity, and not by rule." for alia breve is found in the signature of one The. air was formerly assigned to the middle of the exercises " pour le Clavecin," by J. S. voice part or medius, corresponding to our Bach, as published about 1760 tenor. The practice of giving the air to the , or upper part, arose from the custom of the Italian , where the "," while being supposed- to sing the air in the [Time.J tenor, really sang it in the soprano range. It hunting style. was afterwards adopted by the composers of Alia caccia {It.) In the of cham- instrumental music, and the habit of giving camera {It.) In the style the principal melody to the highest voice or .ber music, {It.) Cappella.J instrument has continued until now. [Ballad.] cappella [A [Sonata.] [Song.] diritta. By direct intervals. the hanaise, Ais {Ger.) A sharp. hanacca. In the style of polacca polonaise. Akkord (Ger.) A chord, as Nonen-ahkord, a sort of polka, or chord of the ninth, &c. marcia. In the style of a March. {It.) barbarous species of A la, Al, Air, Alia {It. and Fr.) Like, Alia mente A fifths, improvised in, at, &c. counterpoint in thirds and " Chant A la meme {Fr.) In the original time. upon the plain song, called in France " burden." A la mi re. The name of the note a in sur le livre," and in England Fa the acute and super-acute hexachords of the This peculiar harmony is said to have had its Guidonian system. [Notation.] rise in the 12th century, but it is probably Alamoth {Heb.) This word occurs in older, as Hucbald, who was living about the it, also did Odo, Abbot Ps. Ixviii. 25. "First go the sharim (singers), year 880, describes as then follow the neginim (kinnors), in the midst of Cluny, in his Enchiridion [c. 920.] While are alamoth (damsels playing on the timbrels)." the use of this hideous harmony was encour- Gesenius and others understand the word to aged by the church, musicians of feeling never signify music, " vox clara et acuta, failed to protest against it, therefore we find after quasi virginum." But, on the other hand, in Hucbald, Odo, and Franco of Cologne—Johan- I Chron. xv. 20 the names oimen are given nis de Muris, and others complaining of its as players of " nebels on alamoth." It is one use, and^suggesting various measures for its of the many obscure musical terms which reform, and by degrees paving the way to the are met with in the Bible. It however seems modern system of counterpoint. The decree to have been associated with nebels, much as of the John XXII, dated at Avignon the expression sheminith is with kinnors, and 1322, had some effect in checking its use, but may therefore be supposed to refer to the pitch did not entirely suppress it, as it was sung as or method of playing on those instruments. late as the middle of the 15th century. Alarum, AU'armi {It.) A call to arms. Alia militare. {It.) In a military manner. —— moderno(7i.) In the modern method. " Alarums sounded-, and ordnance shot off" Air antico {It.) In the old style. [ShaTispeare.) Alia polacca (7^) Like a polonaise. Originally a general shout; afterwards, a quinta (7f.) At the fifth. recognised signal by trumpets and drums. rovescio (7^.) By contrary motion. Alberti Bass. A bass consisting oi arpeg- [Rovescio.]

or : gios broken harmony, e.g. siciliana {It.) A species of melody in 4> ¥' or h having the longest note at the accented pulse. Handel's Pastoral Syrhphony is alia siciliana. so-called after its reputed inventor, Domenico Alia stretta(7f.) Bringingcloserand closer, Alberti, who died in 1739. alike as to subject and movement. (20) ALLA ZOPPA ALLEMANDE.

Alia zoppa (It.) Lamely, halting, against time, syncopation.

AUegramente (If.) Joyfully. Allegretto (It.) (Diminutive of allegro.) (i) Slower than allegro. (2) A movement in this time. Allegrettino (It.) (Diminutive of alle- gretto.) (i) Not so fast as allegretto. (2) A short allegretto movement. Allegro (It.) (Lit. joyful.) Quick, lively. The word is occasionally employed to describe a whole movement of a quartett, sonata, or symphony. In music it is sometimes qualified

Allegro agitato {It.) :

ALLEMANDE^ ALTERATA. towns in the Low Countries, as Turenne did not win them until six, years after Dumont's ^^^^^^^^^ publication. The mention of the word as a dance is to be found in earlier writings than either of the .above-mentioned, for there is a passag'e in Ben Jonson's play, " The Devil is an Ass," first acted in 1610, whiqh proves the dance to

have been known in his time :

" He may, perchance, in tail of a sheriff's dinner, Skip with a rhyme on the table, from New-nothing, And take his Almain-leaip into a custard, Shall make my lady mayoress and her sisters all their their shoulders." , Laugh hoods over The old Almains probably had leaping steps, as the foregoing passage, and another from George Chapman's " Alphonsus, Em- peror of ," would imply

" We Germans have no changes in our dances. An Almain and an Up-Spring—that is all." This play was printed in 1599. ALLEMANDE.

Henri Dumont, 1610-16S4. ^^ C J_J\^]J^i^^sL::p^^4^U=d ^ ,^1^g^££ft^g:g :

ALTERATIO VOICE.

Alteratio [Lat.) In mediaeval music, the simply a development of the falsetto. The doubling of the value of a note. " Alteratio register usually written for this voice lies est proprii valoris alicujus notse duplicatio" between tenor G and treble C, (Tinctor). This alteratio only took place when a note was in a certain relation to those near it; e.g.y if two longs preceded a maxim "in modo majori perfecto " [Modus] the latter of As the best notes of the alto voice are within them underwent alteration : and if two breves the octave from B flat, those notes are most " in modo minore perfecto " preceded a long, generally employed, for the higher notes are

the latter underwent alteration ; and so on. harsh and discordant, and the lower of small A perusal of the eight general, and four par- musical quality, and therefore ineffective. ticular rules which governed alteration, will The alto voice in man is mostly formed cause the reader to be thankful that modern upon an indifferent bass voice, and there music has been relieved of such complica- is always a break between the chest and tions. thp ; this break varies between Alterato (It.) \ Altered, augmented (with C and E 3 and the careful union Alter6 (?"»'.) reference to intervals). J ^ Alternamente (It.) "1 of the chest and head qualities of voice, and Alternando (It.) [ Changing by turns. the judicious employment of the "mezza

Alternativo (It.) j voce" are characteristic of every good alto Altgeige (Ger.) The , the singer. The alto voice is almost peculiar to viola. [Viola.] English singers, not one of the continental Altieramente (It.) Proudly, grandly, nations possessing the capability of producing haughtily. the quality or of appreciating it when pro- • Altisono (It.) Sonorous, ringing. duced; the consequence is, that there is no Altissimo [It.) The highest. music written for this voice by any but Altista {It.) A name formerly given to an English composers, and the majority of alto singer. writers of the present day forming their style Alto-basso (7^) An ancient Venetian upon the foreign model, neglect and ignore stringed instrument, a Hackbret, q. v. It the voice, disregarding its claim to useful- was formed of a square box of pine-wood, ness, in places and at times, when and where supported on legs and strung with cat- female voices are unavailable. The value of gut. The player struck the strings with a the voice, its flexibility, sympathetic quality, sort of bow, which was held in the left hand, and harmonious power, when carefully culti- the right hand being engaged in holding a vated, are well displayed in cathedral music, sort of flute or flageolet Tvith which a melody and glee singing: a great number of melodious was performed. The instrument was only compositions by the most noted English used by the lower class of people, and is now writers, depend upon the alto voice for their obsolete. proper effect. Many of the songs in Handel's Alto . The C clef, placed upon the were assigned to this voice, which third line of the stave, in order that the notes are now, in consequence of the heightened proper to the Alto voice may be conveniently pitch at present employed, sung by females : represented for instance, the part of in the of that name; of Barak and Sisera in the oratorio of "Deborah;" and of Daniel in " ;" are each given to an alto voice. As this practice is of quite recent growth, it is but reasonable to conclude that Handel The Alto clef is also used for the Tenor violin the music of the wisest king, and or viola. [Clef.] intended that of the two brave warriors to be sung by Alto viola (It.) The tenor instrument of rather than by women, for the the , called Alto, Tenor, or Viola. men , of appearance, if for no more powerful {Ger.) Bratsche or Altgeige. [Viola.] sake before alluded to, of the non- Alto voice. Called also counter-tenor, reason . The fact voice by foreigners, has when used by men, and counter-alto or con- recognition of the given an advantage to English musical tralto, when used by women. It is the deepest not enjoyed by any other people, tone of voice among women and boys, to literature in the cultivation and sole possession of the whom it may be said to be natural, and it is and the Anthem. called the highest voice among men for lack Glee many of the principal eff'ects are obtained of a better term to describe it. Properly As two species of composition through speaking, the tenor voice is the highest in these medium of the alto voice, if only for the man's voice, the alto or counter-tenor voice the of the performance of the many noble being entirely an artificial production, and sake

(?3 ) :

ALTRA AMBROSIAN TE DEUM. specimens of art in these two styles, the however, used sometimes in a more extended alto voice will always be cultivated in Eng- sense than our word compass, as it is made land until such time as the Glee and Anthem to signify the proper steps which lie between cease to exist. The cultivation of the Part- the extreme limits of the tone—"Toni debitus song has almost superseded the use of the ascensus et descensus." The rules (regulae) alto voice in modern music, for the upper which govern the ambitus depend upon the part in this class of composition is given position oi the final of the tone, and although to tenor voices, and the difficulty in pro- much elaborated in medieval treatises, their • ducing the notes of the higher register so force seems to be that the proper ambitus far influences the character of the music should (regulariter) not exceed the octave written, that many of the part-songs for male (diapason) included between the highest note voices are of a bold, boisterous style, entirely of the mode above the final and the lowest " different to that of the glee, which by reason below it, except by licence" (licentialiter), of the peculiarity of the alto voice is of a These dispensations only allow the intro- more quiet character, depending in a great duction of three notes outside the ambitus in measure for its effect upon delicate and each direction, an authentic mode being expressive singing, Many composers of allowed a descent to the lowest note of its eminence have completely ignored the alto corresponding plagal tone ; a plagal tone voice, whether male or female, a quantity of being allowed to ascend to the highest note music for Church use being written for treble, of its corresponding authentic. This fact, tenor, and bass, as by Cherubini and others. simple enough in itself, is cleverly put into a In quality and power of expression the shape as unintelligible as possible in the female alto voice is peculiar, and unlike any following lines, framed for the supposed other voice. Its character is grave, tender^ spi- assistance of the student ritual, and moving, and is admirably adapted " Undenis gradibus vult juste vadere prothus. to express emotions of dignity, grandeur, and . Per sex et quinas claves vult deuteru's ire. piety. The male alto being an artificial voice, Octo tribus gradibus vult juste cepere tritus. its usefulness is of limited duration, for when Per sex quinque gradus juste capit ire tetrardus." the singer is past fifty years of age the voice becomes harsh, reedy, nasal, and the break is Ambo or Ambon {Gk., ajxjioiv from painfully apparent. avaPaivw.) A desk or pulpit. The raised Altra, fern. (It.) platform in Eastern churches, on which the "J Altri, pi. (It.) >Other, another, others. singers mounted when they sang. A canon Altro, mas. (li.) ) of the Council of Laodicea (a.d. 360-370) Altschliissel {Ger.) Alto clef. decreed that no one should sing in the church Altviole (Ger.) [Alto Viola.] besides the regular singers {irXrjy tuv icavoviKdv Alzamento di mano (It.) Raising the i/'aXrwi'), who ascended the ambo and sang hand in conducting. from the parchment (ajro lifQipag). This early Alzando (It.) Lifting up, raising, elevating. attempt to bring about the separate perform- ance of trained choir-singers did not obtain Altzeichen (Ger.) The alto clef, -^ 1 any favour in the Western churches of that Amabile {It.) Lovely, gentle, tender. period, and with the introduction of congre- Amabilitk, con (It.) With gentleness, gational song, the ambo became disused. tenderness. Ambrosian Chant. The system of church- Amarevole (It.) Sad, bitter. song introduced by Ambrose, Bishop of , Amarezza, con (It.) With sadness. in the fourth century. It formed the basis of

(7^) ") , Amarissimamente -.j .^^ , the Gregorian system. [Plain Song.] Very bitterly. Amarissimo j^^.j } Ambrosian Hymn. The " Te Deum" In a mournful, sorrowful style. so-called, because, by some, its authorship Amateur (Fr.) A lover of music; one is attributed to Bishop Ambrose. who pursues the practice of any art for pure Ambrosian Te Deum. A musical set- love, in distinction to one who is engaged ting of the Te Deum in plain-song, called after in its employment for pay. Bishop Ambrose because -of its antiquity Ambira (A/r.) A kind of drum or pulsatile and the possibility of its having been the first instrument, made of wood, in cylindrical setting of the Hymn after the introduction of form, upon which a series of tongues of iron, properly-regulated song into Christian wor- cane, or wood are so arranged that they may ship. Marbecke, who adapted it to English be made to vibrate upon pressure. The words, chose a simple setting, and a com- Ambira is used by the negroes of Senegambia parison between his version and others will and Guinea. be found interesting. Meibomius (in his well- Ambitus {Lat.) {lit. circuit.) The com- known work. Ant. Mus. Auct. Septem. 1652), pass of an ancient church tone. The word is, published it with Greek notation, as an ex- (24) —

AMBUBAJ^ ANCIA. ponent of his own principles, not as a copy A moll {Ger.) A minor, the tonality of of any authorized edition. [Plain Song.] the relative minor to the key of C. Ambubajae (Lat.) Companies of immoral A monocorde {Fr.) On one string. Syrian women, who attended festivals and Amore, con {It.) With love, affection, gatherings among the Romans as minstrels. tenderness, ardour. Their instruments were called abub, or ambub, Amorevole {It.) Affectionately. whence their name. Amorevolmente {It.) Tenderly. Ambulant (Fr.) Wandering. Applied to A Moresco {It.) In the Moorish style. strolling musicians. Amorosamente (7^.) Lovingly. Ame (Fr.) The sound-post of a violin, or Amoroso {If.) In a loving style. other stringed instrument of its kind. Amor-schall. A horn of peculiar con- American Organ. An instrument having struction invented in the year 1760, by Kolbel, one or more manuals, and registers which one of the musicians of the Emperor of Rus- control series of free reeds. It is, in its sia. It was intended as an improvement upon principles of construction, diametrically the ordinary , but the introduction opposed to the Harmonium, for v/hereas of the cylinder and valve system led to the in this, air is forced through the reeds from disuse of the Amor-schall. A duet for these a bellows, — in the American Organ the instruments was composed by Cherubini, and action of the treadle exerts suction. When dedicated to Lord Cowper. it is required to shut off a row of reeds, Amphibrachys. A foot consisting of a " the putting in of the stop-handle places a long between two short syllables, ' ". thick air-tight covering offelt over the outside [.] of the row of reeds, so that the air cannot be Amphimacer. A foot consisting of a " " sucked through them,—^the drawing of the short between two long syllables, ". stop, by removing this obstruction, allows the [Metre.] free passage of the air through the reeds. In Amplitude of vibration. The distance short, in the Harmonium, air is blown from from the point of rest of a particle, to either

the bellows through the reeds ; in the end of its journey, when a sound-wave passes American Organ, air is sucked through the over it. [Acoustics, §3.]

reeds into the bellows. There are, however, AmpoUosamente {If.) "i In a bombastic, other differences. The reeds of the American Ampolloso {If.) i inflated style. Organ are thinner than those of the Har- Ampoul6 {Fr.) Bombastic. monium, and are slightly curved in shape, by Amusement {Fr.) A short and lively which greater quickness of speech is insured. piece of music. {If.) Divertimento. A very beautiful undulating tone is obtained Anabasis {Gk.), avajiaaiQ, a succession of by setting in motion a rotating fan, imme- ascending sounds. diately above one of the rows of vibrators. Anabathmi {Gk.), avafiaBfiol, the name This, by producing a variable pressure of air given to certain antiphons in the Greek

just outside the reeds, affects also their vibra- Church ; so called because their words were tion as they draw it in. The mechanism selected from the Psalms called in the Sep- which sets the fan in motion is called the tuagint loSai tSv avajjadfiav (Ps. 120- 134 in Vox Humana stop. When there is an Eng. version), " Songs of degrees," the gra- Expression stop it gives the player some dual Psalms of the Roman use. control over the pressure of suction, and thus Anakampsis {Gk.), avaKa/i-^'ie, a succes- it is the converse of the stop of the same sion of descending sounds. effects Anakamptos. [Anakampsis.] name in the Harmonium ; but the which can be produced by its use are more Anakara {Gk.) The ancient kettledrum. striking in the latter instrument. The tone A larger sort was used for battle purposes, of American Organs is extremely melodious and there was a smaller drum which a woman beat with the and sweet, but it does not travel well. For could hold with one hand and chamber music these instruments are emi- other. [Drum.] [Nacchera.] nently qualified, not only because of the Anakarista {Gk.) A drum player. character of their tone, but because they . A foot consisting of a long pre- [Metre.] possess the enormous advantage of remaining ceded by two short syllables, . combination for a longer period and under varying circum- Anaploke {Gr.) avairKoicfi. A stances in tune. of notes ascending the scale; opposed to descending series of combined A mezza aria {It.) A compromise be- KaraTrXoci), a tween Air and recitative. [Aria parlante.] sounds. the mouth-piece A mezza. voce {It.) With half the strength Anche {Fr.) The reed in bassoon, &c., the name also of the voice. (2) The quality between the of a hautboy, to a reed in an organ. [Reed.] chest and head voice. (3) The subdued tone applied of instruments. Ancia {It.) [Anche.]

( 25 ) : :

ANCORA ANTECEDENT.

agreeable. Ancora (It.) Again, once more, encore. Angenehm (Ger.) Pleasing, English contra danse. Ancor piu mosso {It.) Still quicker, Anglaise (Fr.) \ The dance.] more motion yet. Anglico (It.) J [Country Andacht (G«r.) Devotion. Anglican Chant. [Chant.] distress, Andachtig (Ger.) Devotionally, devoutly. Angore (It.) Anguish, grief, Andamento (7^) (i) An accessory idea, passion. „ . „ Sorrowfully, or episode; an accessory part, in -a Fugue. Angosciamente (It.)l (It.) J anxiously. (2) In the style of an Andante. Angosciamento (ii.) With extreme Andante (It.) Walking. In the early Angosciosissamente part of the last century, music so marked sorrow. painful. was understood to be of a grand yet cheerful Angoscioso (It.) Anxious, (Ger.) A lengthened style, but in the present day it implies a move- Anhaltende Cgdenz point. ment which is slow, graceful, distinct and cadence, an organ or pedal peaceful. The word is sometimes used as a Anhang (Ger.) [Coda.]

• animation, spint. substantive, in speaking of that portion of a Anima, con (It.) With symphony or sonata so marked. The many Animato (It.) Lively. animation. modifications both of pace and style are ex- Animazione (It.) Liveliness, pressed as below Animo, con (It.) With courage, spirit, Andante afFettuoso, in an easy, pathetic dash, and fire. [Anerhochord.] style. ' Animo Corde (It.) Andante cantabile, in a singing style. Animosamente (7^) Spiritedly, ener- Andante con moto, an uninterrupted getically. andante. . C Exceedingly Animosissamente .J L,V

Keep to the time. at ; in music, to condemn. [Fiasco.] Anelantemente (It.) Ardently, eagerly, Ansatz (Ger.) (i) Attack, q.v. (2) The pantingly. adjustment of the mouth to the position required for the production of the voice in (7f.) I Shortness of breath. AneHto^^ singing. (3) The adjustment of the lips Anemochord. A variety of the Eolian necessary for the proper production of the tone harp, made by Jacob Schnell, in Paris, 1789. of wind instruments, as in French, "embouch^ [EoHan harp.] ure," and in English, "lipping," q.v. Anemometer. [Wind-gauge.] Anschlag (Ger.) (i) Touch, or the pro- Anesis (Gk.) &vtais, from avirt/xi, to loosen, duction of tone upon such keyed instruments (i) The progression from a high sound to as the organ, pianoforte, or harmonium. one lower in pitch. (2) The tuning of strings (2) The clash of a discord before resolution. to a lower pitch (cLveaig yppSiJiv.) [Percussion.] Anfangs-ritornel (Ger.) Introductory Ansingen (Ger.) To welcome with song. symphony. [Symphony, § 4.] Ansprechen (Gen)! To sound, to sing, to Anfangs-griinde (Ger.) Rudiments, prin- Anstimmen (Ger.) ) give out tone. ciples, beginnings. Anstimmung (Ger.)^ Intonation, sound- ing, singing. .] i;;|eHqufe^|;':)^}LVox Antecedent, (i) A phrase or point pro-

( 25 ) ; —

ANTHEM.

posed for Imitation. (2) Any passage which the same prototype. The Antiphon was a is answered. (3) The subject of a Fugue. special selection of words intended to be Anthem.—A composition for voices, with suitable to the service for the day, and was or without organ or other instrumental ac- invariable, but the words of the Anthem in companiment, enjoined by the Ritual of the the Anglican Church were chosen by the Anglican Church to be sung at Morning and , with or without reference to any Evening service, " in and places where particular Season, the early composers very they sing." The words are generally selected rarely mentioning the special season for which from the Psalms, or other portions of the they intend their music. The ignorance of Bible, but paraphrases of Scripture, and Praecentors and other rulers of the choir, or words in prose and metre, of less authority, their partiality for some one class of compo- are sometimes used. It is the one ornament sition has often led them into having Anthems of the Service, reserved for the Choir, in performed that are ludicrously inappropriate which the congregation takes no part. to the Season. 2. Anthems _ may be divided into various 4. The history of the Anthem may be com- kinds, according to the character of the words prised within a period of little more than but with this division it is not our province to three centuries, and falls into three divisions, deal. The form of the music suggests four namely : the Motett period, the Verse period, divisions, namely: the Full, the Full with and the Modern period. The Motett period verses, the Verse, and the Solo. When lasted from the time of the Reformation to the Anthems were accompanied with instruments death of Henry Lawes, say from 1550 to 1650, other than the organ, they were formerly During the troublous times of the Common- called Instrumental Anthems. wealth, the Anthem, in common with nearly 3. A Full Anthem, which is the earliest all other Church music, excepting hymn tunes, model, consists entirely of chorus, with or had little or no life or character. The Verse without Organ accompaniment. A Full and period existed from 1670 to about 1777, the Verse Anthem is one in which certain parts time of the death of the elder Hayes. To are assigned to voices soli, with choruses to this succeeded another lapse of more than commence and conclude. A Verse Anthem forty years, during which time Church needs is one that begins with portions intended to in this matter were supplied by a series of be sung by a single voice to a part, the word adaptations from Oratorios and Masses, which verse probably meaning a turn of thought were greatly favoured,—even were to be forcibly or clearly expressed, a change laid under forced contribution. The absence of treatment or sentiment properly echoed of proper encouragement to original com- in the style of the music. The words of posers prevented many able writers, the the verse are often chosen from portions of elder Samuel Wesley among others, from Scripture other than the main body of the employing their talents towards relieving the Anthem, by way of gloss. The chief voices want of the Church. That Wesley was a on one side, Decani or Cantoris, usually writer of no mean order of genius the " sing the Verse, and the whole choir, both existence of his / Latin Motetts Omnia sides, the chorus or Full part. The character Vanitas," " In Exitu Israel," " Exultate of the Solo Anthem is sufficiehtly obvious, Deo," sufficiently proves. through its title ; in every case there is, how- The modern period commenced with ever, a concluding chorus, even if it be Thomas Attwood, and was continued by only the word Amen once sung. An Instru- the younger Samuel Sebastian Wesley, and mental Anthem may partake of either or all John Goss. The earliest composers , of the characteristics of the Anthems above music for the Reformed Church have left described. At the end of the 17th and the no examples of either solo or verse Anthems, beginning of the i8th centuries the Instru- their contributions to this order of music mental Anthem was in frequent use at the being similar in character and construction Chapel Royal, St. James's; and, until thirty with the Motett of the Italian Church. years ago, the whole of the music sung at the The greater portion of the Anthems, by the Festival of the Sons of the Clergy, at St. early English writers, were adaptations of Paul's Cathedral, was regularly given with English words to music formerly set to Latin the accompaniment of a full orchestra. This words, a proceeding both useful and needful custom was revived on the like occasion in in the shifting period immediately succeeding 1873 with fine effect. the Reformation. The first music set to Eng- The Anthem is especially an English pro- lish words for the service of the Church duction, a development of the Motett; but the exclusive of Marbecke's plain-song—was the Antifona of the Italians, the Antienne of the work of Thoinas Tallis, organist to the Court, French, and the Wechselgesang of the Ger- in the .reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI., mans, preserve to this day the character of Queens Mary and Elizabeth ; and much of his (27) ANTHEM.

music, which is still extant, is a mere collection sort of compromise was effected ; the secular of dry contrapuntal exercises without much style of a preceding generation was adopted attempt at musical or religious expression, as the prevailing standard character for although some of it exhibits great origin- Church music, a practice which has con- ality and an agreement with the character tinued in use to this day. Now, as then, of the words. The next writer of importance recently acquired ideas were used in com- was WilHam Byrde (1543-1623.) His An- bination with old fashioned notions, and at thems, set to Latin words, and first published the period of the history of the Anthem, now in 1589 under the title of " Cantiones Sacrse," being treated of, the novelty introduced was were afterwards adapted, probably by himself, the Verse, the effect of French and Italian to English words of like character. One of influence upon English music. The best them, still frequently in use, " Bow Thine Verse and Solo Anthems are those by ear," or " Be not wroth, very sore," for there Humphreys, Purcell, Wise, Weldon, Blow, with last are two versions of the same composition, Croft, and Greene ; and, the named was originally sung to the words, " Civitas writer, the verse Anthem proper culminated, sancti Tui," the second part of the Motett, and then decayed, for the poor productions "Ne irascaris ;" and the music beautifully of Nares, Kent, Pring, and others, although expresses the sentiment of the text. It is popular in their day, simply lumber the shelves only occasionally that such a happy com- upon which they are placed. Boyce and the bination is found in the works of Anthem elder Hayes were more successful in their writers up to the period of the restoration of Full, than in their Verse Anthems, some of

Charles II. ; for, although the compositions of which are models of beauty and effective Tye, Tallis, Farrant, Allison, Morley, Hooper, writing. It is a singular fact that for many Byrde, Bull, and Gibbons, are models of years there was a hiatus in the supply of constructive skill, there is little that could be original Anthems, the exigencies of the fairly called musical expression to be found Church service being supplied by a series of in any one of them. Neither was there any bad arrangements, for, counting the single distinction of style between sacred and secu- contributions furnished by men of genius like lar music at this period. For example, the Battishill, who were living betVveen the time of by Gibbons, "The Silver Swan," Boyce and Wesley, the majority of these con- and his Anthem, " Hosanna," might change tributions were the weak repetition of themes places, so that the madrigal might be made an that had been better treated before. Thomas anthem, and the anthem a madrigal, without Attwood, a pupil of Mozart, and organist at any violation of character, and yet each would St. Paul's Cathedral, was the first who made be counted a noble specimen of its class. It the laudable endeavour to supersede bad was not until men's manners and modes of arrangements by attempting to give some thought had undergone the change brought adequate and connected expression to the about by the emancipation necessarily suc- words set as Anthems; and, although his ceeding a reformation in religion, that a special works are to a great extent valueless as and marked difference was made between the Church music, his intention should be men- style of music used for the Church and that tioned with respect, especially as his writings for secular purposes. For nearly twenty and mode of thought aroused the emulation years, that is, from the death of Lawes in of a worthy series of followers. 1645, to the time when Pelham Humphreys It is interesting in reviewing the history of was writing. Church music was represented the Anthem to notice to what an extent organ by such writers as Child and Rogers, the best accompaniment has developed and expanded. of whose compositions are but pale reflections The Anthems of the first period are as effective of old styles. The pause in church matters, without organ support as with it, and in those during the Commonwealth, had its bad effect choirs in which an unaccompanied service is upon Church music, until the new interest sometimes performed, they form the repertory aroused by the works of foreign writers from which selections are made. The organ produced fresh vitality. When Humphreys part to Anthems of the second period is began to supply the want in Church music almost indispensable, by reason of the fre- caused by the revival of the service ac- quency with which ritornelli, and solos and cording to the Ritual of the Prayer-book, are introduced. In the Anthems of the some degree of difficulty arose, for it was more modern period the organ is exalted impossible to pursue the practice formerly almost to the dignity of a solo instrument, in vogue, of making little, if any, difference many Anthems being written less for vocal in the style of sacred and secular music, for than for instrumental effect. The variety of secular music had now assumed a character stops, improved mechanism of the organ, and unfitted for the dignity and solemnity of the advanced skill of cathedral organists form Divine worship. To meet this difficulty a a combination too tempting to the composer, 28 ( ) — ; — ;

ANTHEM.

who is, in most cases, himself an organist. Durandus gives another meaning to the word, The tendency of most of the music written when he says, that the sentences which for the organ is to treat it as an imitation of precede the Psalms and Canticles are called an orchestra; this improper use of the instru- Antiphons " non quia alternatim a diversis ment is influencing the character of the choris cantentur; sed quia sicut claves et Anthems of the present day; and, unless indices, ad quorum modulationem ac sonum, composers are wise in time, the Church music sequens canticum psalmusque alternatim of the latter part of the 19th, will be as feeble cantatur. Tonus enim totius psalmi ex tono and as useless to future generations as that antiphonse sumitur" — "not because they, of the latter part of the i8th century. are sung by two choirs alternately, but because 5. The first published collection of Anthems they are as keys and indices to the tone and in score was that made in 1724 by Dr. W. mode, to which the Canticle or Psalm fol- Croft, of his own compositions, the only piece lowing ought to be chanted antiphonally. of Church music' which had been previously For the tone of the whole Psalm is taken issued in this style, being a service by Henry from that of the Antiphon." When the Purcell. The old practice of printing each part Prsecentor of ancient times started the Tone separately not only led to tTie loss of the for the psalms some sort of antiphonal several parts, but also increased the difficulty singing was practised between him and of a correct understanding of the effect, for the Choir, in singing the Antiphons ; and the want of a score. Of Barnard's Church music, connection of the word Anthem with responds printed in this manner, no perfect copy is and invitatories in the preface to the Prayer- known to exist, as even the parts intended book, would seem to imply alternate singing. for the several voices on the Decani and Can- The word Anthem is used three times in toris sides of the choir were published in the Prayer-book, to the Venite, to the portions separate and distinct books. of Scripture appointed to be sung in place of 6. Many suggestions have been made as to the Venite on Easter-day, and in the Rubric the derivation of the word Anthem, of which after the third Collect. In two out of these the following are the chief : three cases the word is used in the same (a). From the word Antiphon, it being sense as the old Antiphon. An antiphonal understood that the Anthem was the suc- character (in the sense of alternating) is cessor of the more ancient Antiphon. If it implied by the use of the words in the was the intention of the framers of the Prayer- Oifice for the Communion of the Sick in book to continue the use of the Antiphon it the Liturgy of King Edward VI., a.d. 1549, would probably have been expressed, and but as the office does not comprise singing, a table of the Antiphons proper to the Church it may be inferred that the words Anthem Seasons would have been compiled and in- and Antiphon in this case refer to other than serted among the directions for order of the a musical meaning. It may be here mentioned service, in like manner with the table of that the word Anthem was at one time lessons and the division of the Psalms. If, applied to texts of Scripture—Bishop Scoiy's however, this direction was omitted, the text for his sermons preached at St. Paul's tradition of their retention would doubtless Cross, being called his Anthem—and also remain, and so it would be found that the to secular compositions as well as sacred. early Anthem writers would have been saved In the Prioress's Tale, of Chaucer, the the trouble of making their own selection words " of words, and would have set to music the bad me for to synge This antym veraily in my deying," words of the Antiphons, all of which were taken from Scripture, and therefore in con- refer to the ancient Hymn, " Alma re- formity with the principle of the Reformation demptoris." Shakspeare makes Falstaff use but this was not done, as a reference to the the word with a very different application Anthems in Barnard's Collections, and to and the " Boar's Head Carol" annually sung the words in Clifford's Anthem-book, suffi- at Queen's College in Oxford, was until ently shows. recently, called an Anthem in the printed (b). From nvrifiovoc, or according to some, copies. the mediaeval avdv/xvoe, on the supposition (c). A derivation from the word avLQefia has that the Anthems or Antiphons were sung been suggested, under the impression that an from side to side of the church. The choir Anthem is an invocation ; and it is curious to being still divided according to ancient custom, note in confirmation of this conjecture, that the practice of aintiphonal singing is apparently in the original edition published in 1663, of maintained, if by such a term alternation is Clifford's words of Anthems, the first book of implied. But Antiphony means classically, its kind ever issued, the majority of the se- singing at the octave, and anthem singing is lected verses set as Anthems— 144 out of 167 the reverse of such antiphonal singing. —are of an invocatory character. (29) : ;

ANTHEMA ANTIPHON.

to itpHrov xopo'h " 1^^ aySM>v,- {d). Lastly, the word has been derived from men : Zvo yivovrai (Philo de Vita, cont.). ihe dvQrifia (a flower), from whence the word an- b Ik yvvai^Hv antiphonal singing seems to have thology. The ancient and still existing name custom of at Antioch by Diodorus for the book containing the words and notes been first introduced jrpwroi S^x'' SteXovi-fc tovq of the anthems or antiphons, is Anthologium and Flavian : oItol ^apaloxVS ^Setv rn" or Antiphonarium, probably from the idea that tCv ^aXk6vTu>v x°po^S « iiAigliav ical tovto ey a collection of such words might reasonably AaiiiSiicflv dSiSa^ay itavroae. SieSpa/ie Kal be considered as a series of choice flowers 'AvTioxiif '^pSiTOV apKafievov Hpiiara (Theod. Hist. from Holy writ, as the Anthem was formerly KariXafie TiJQ oiKOVfiivrie through the musical held to be the flower of the service, by those Eccl.). Afterwards, the same system of psalm- who attended church for the sake of listening ability of Ambrose, became general in theWestern church. to it only, and who left in an unseemly man- singing Christian authors give accounts of ner at its close,—a vicious habit which is Although as something new, there scarcely yet extinct. antiphonal singing can be no doubt of its great antiquity. There Anthema (Gk.) avBefia, short poetic form are sufficient allusions to it in the Old Testa- of avaSij/xa, literally anything set up (avarlBrifu), ment to show that it was well known to the hence ornaments or apparatus of a feast and the very structure of many of the hence music and dancing. Jews ; Psalms impHes its existence. In our own Anthologium {Gk.) A collection of anti- times, the choirs of cathedrals and churches phons set to music. A term used in imitation are usually (when seated in the chancel,—not of the word avBoXoyiai, collections of small in a west gallery) divided into two sides, one Greek poems, selected and made up, as it called Decani, from the fact that it is on the were, into a nosegay, from avOog, a flower, Xiyw, Dean's side of the choir (south) ; the other. to pick. [Antiphonarium.] Cantoris, because it is placed on the Pre- Anthropoglossa {Gk.) [Vox Humana.] centor's or Succentor's side (north). The . A foot consisting of two Psalms are sung by alternate verses, from long syllables, followed by one short, " " ". side to side, both sides joining in the Gloria Anticipation. The introduction of notes Patri. In some foreign churches, the Anti- of one verse before the time in which they are naturally phony consists of the chanting sung the expected in the harmony, e.g. by a single voice, the next being by full choir, in response. This is not a correct system, ritualistically speaking, although, in the Church of England, in those rare places where they do not sing, the minister and congregation go through an exactly similar process. The Antiphony, which was once common in this country, between the minister and parish-clerk, who rivalled each other in phases of meaning which their Antico (7^.) Ancient. the uncommon particular method of "saying" the Psalms tAnthem.] often rendered prominent, is now happily ^^! ^(^?.j} almost obsolete. Miraculous stories of the Aritifonario (It.)l introduction of responsive choir-singing are ^Antiphonary.]a (Fr.)i '- ^ j Antiphonaire not wanting. , in his ecclesiastical

Antiphon. (i) In ancient Greek music history (Book vi. chap, viii), says : " Ignatius, antiphony {avTiifiiiivfi, or avri^bivoi) meant third Bishop of Antioch in Syria from the " " sounds in octaves as being responsive to, Apostle Peter, who had also conversed fami- or over against each other. The relation liarly with the Apostles themselves, saw a between sounds at the interval of an oc- vision of angels hymning in alternate chants thus implied by avrupiav^, while tave was the Holy Trinity ; after which he introduced the actual interval of an octave was called the mode of singing he had observed in the diapason. vision into the Antiochian Churches, whence (2) From the above meaning of the word it was transmitted by tradition to all the other it came in time to be applied to the alternate churches." singing of choirs, as being similar in some (3) A short sentence, generally from Holy respects to the kirlpprifia and avTCKipprifia of the Scripture, sung before and after the Psalms old Tragedy. The word Antiphony is the for the day, or the Canticles, selected for its more appropriate for recitation alternatim if appropriateness to the Church season in it be remembered that in the earliest public which it is sung. As an example, one of the services of Christianity a choir of women and Antiphons used on the fourth Sunday in

children was often responded to by a choir of Advent is here given : (30) ) ; ;:

ANTIPHONARIUM ANTISPASTUS.

by unauthorized additions, or foliations, was felt as much one thousand years ago as it Ca-ni-te tu ba - qai pro-pe eat Si -a is now. For we read that the good lessons in plain-chant given to the French clergy, when Pope Stephen II. was the guest of

di- es Do - mi-ni : ec-ce ve - ni-et ad Sal-van-dum nos Pepin, King of France, were soon forgotten and that in the time of his son, Charlemagne, (Then follows Ps. the church-song had become exceedingly ex. to Tone I.). ' Dixit Dominus." Al - le - lu corrupt. Charlemagne, for the purpose of remedying this, obtained the services and help The use of the Antiphon in this manner, of Theodore and Benoit, who carried with has no doubt grown out of the frequent re- them from a copy of the Antiphoner of currence of Alleluia, and other devout excla- Gregory, which the Pope himself (Adrian) had mations as found in the Psalms, which have noted. Other accounts are to be found of these ever been used in the Church as " Respon- reformations of plain-chant, all of which how- soria." The Galilean " Liturgy," which may ever point to the importance of the preser- with probability be ascribed to the second vation of, and reference to, old antiphoners. century, commences with an Antiphon. And later on, in the 12th century, we find But the word Antiphon is used in many St. Bernard the Abbot making efforts to stem other senses, sometimes even given to a the tide of innovations, by publishing his complete set of Versicles and Responses tract—" De Cantu seu correctione Antipho- thus Augustine and his followers are said narii"—in which he says, " take the anti- to have entered Canterbury singing' as an phonary used at Rheims, and compare it Anthem (Antiphona) one of the Litanies. with that of Beauvais, or Amiens, or Soissons, Certain of the hymns sung at the end of which are almost at your doors, and see if Compline are also called Antiphons. they are the same, or even like each other."

(4) The greater Antiphons (Antiphonse ' The number of service-books seems to have majores) are sung on the eight days pre- rapidly increased ; for, by the constitutions ceding Christmas-day, before the Magnificat. of Archbishop Winchelsey (a.d. 1305) it was The first of them commences with the words, required that every church in the province of " O Sapientia," which is still found in the Canterbury should be provided with a Legend, calendar of the English Prayer-book, on an Antiphonary, a Grail, a Psalter, a Troper, December i6th. It will be found interesting an Ordinal, a Missal, and a Manual. In 1549, to compare the text of these greater Anti- when all such books were abolished to make phons as found in the Sarum use, and in the way for the "Booke of Common Praier," they Vesperal now issued from Mechlin. appear to have been still more numerous " (5) In the early Greek Church, in the being described as Antiphoners, Missals, services of which, hymns and canticles of all Grayles, Processionals, Manuals, Legends, kinds were sung by two alternating choirs, Pies, Portuasses, Primers in Latin or English, the word Antiphon was specially applied to Couchers, Journals, and Ordinals." The the three canticles which preceded the lesser Grayle, or Gradual, contained tracts, se- Introit. quences, hallelujahs, creeds, offertories, the (6) Antiphona (Lat.) An Anthem. The sanctus, and the office of sprinkling with holy English word is supposed to have been water. Legends, or Lectionaries, contained corrupted from the Latin. But several other the Lessons, which were not in the Anti- explanations, which have been brought phonary. It is unnecessary here to enter forward from time to time, will be found into an explanation of all these terms; suffice sub voce. [Anthem.] it to say, that the copying of choir-books was Antiphonarium (Lat.) a matter of great labour, and that the iDOoks ] Antiphonaire. Anti- > [Antiphonary.] themselves were in consequence very costly.

phonier (-^''•) It is related by Spelman that two anti- Antiphonary. \ A service book of the phonaries cost the Monastery of Crabhuse, Antiphoner. J Roman Church, which in Norfolk, twenty-six marks in the year contained originally the antiphons sung in 1424 ; and it is also related that a common the services of the Hours, properly arranged Missal cost five marks—a year's income of a and noted, to which, from time to time, other cleric at that time. Upon the dissolution of portions of music and words were added, monasteries, valuable books of this sort were such as Invitatories, Hymns, Responses, &c. dispersed throughout the country, and, from The advantage, perhaps necessity, of refer- carelessness or wanton waste, destroyed in ring to ancient copies of service-books for large numbers. the true restoration of plain-song, which has Antispastus. A foot, consisting of two ever had a tendency to vary in its character long between two short syllables, . (31) ANTISTROPHE .

Antistrophe. [.] Appenato (It.) With an expression of Anwachsend (Ger.) Swelling, crescendo. suffering, with bitterness or grief. Aperto (/^) Open. The use of the Applause. Praise or approbation ex- damper-pedal in pianoforte music. pressed by clapping the hands, stamping Appelregal {Ger.) A reed stop in the the feet or the utterance of certain cries, as organ ancient Greek theatre, now no longer made ; the pipes, which bravo, encore. In the were small, had a round hollow nob at the Donaldson says, that "the conduct of the top like an apple, whence the name. audience was much the same as that of the Antode(GA.) AirpSq. Responsive singing. spectators in our own theatres, and they seem Aoidoi {Gk.), plural of aoiSog. Minstrels, to have had little scruple in expressing their bards. (Lat.) Vates. [Bard.] approbation or disapprobation, as well to the A piacere r7i.)i (i)Atpleasure. Not poet as to the actors. Their mode of doing A piacimento (It.) i strictly in time, ad this was sometimes very violent, and even in libitum. (2) The introduction of a cadenza. the time of Machon it was customary to pelt (Fr.) Steadiness, self-possession. a bad performer with stones." A poco a poco (It.) More and more. Hissing, as an expression of disapproval or By degrees. Applied to the increase of time contempt, is of very ancient use, and it was or expression. the custom to augment the power of the hiss, A poco piu lento (It.) A little slower. by blowing through reeds and whistles, a A poco piu mosso (It.) Somewhat faster. custom not altogether unrepresented in later -lyra. [Psaljnmelodicon.] times, when cat-calls, introduced into an ApoUonicon. An organ, invented in 1800 English theatre, gave Addison a subject for by John Henry Voller, of Hesse Darmstadt, an amusing paper (No. 361) in the Spectator. and manufactured in London by Messrs. The hollow pipe of a key serves the purpose Flight and Robson in 1828; it consisted of of the ancient calamus or fistula, in modern about 1900 pipes, with six sets of keys, so , and the frequency with which indifferent that half a dozen performers might play operas are received " colla chiave," proves simultaneously. The action was so ar- that the spirit of old times still lives and is ranged, that it might be performed upon by active. [Fiasco.] six players in the ordinary manner, or the History shows us that applause was not various effects might be elicited by the revo- confined to secular performances, but was lution of certain cylinders which set the wind allowed and even looked for in churches as in motion, and regulated the stops according well as theatres. Hone, in his " Ancient to the character of the music played. An Mysteries described," quotes the following imitation of an orchestra, with the usual passage relative to this custom : Jerome de- instnaments, including kettle-drums, was the sired Gregory Nazianzen to explain to him object sought to be gained by the invention. what was meant by the second Sabbath after Apolutikion (Gk.) awoXvnKwv. A hymn the first, in St. Luke vi. i. Gregory answered, sung at the close of Vespers in certain seasons " I will teach you that at Church, where, of the Greek Church. The word is probably when all the people shall applaud me, you will derived from the opening sentence of the be forced to know, what you do not know; for Nunc Dimittis, " vvv avoXveig tov SovXoi' aov," if you only keep silence, you will be looked and signifies a hymn of dismissal. upon as a fool." Apopemptic Song. An ancient farewell At one time encores were not permitted in or parting hymn usually sung to a stranger France, neither were calls allowed for the about to return to his own land. Apopemtic author of a piece which had given pleasure. strains were sung to the gods on certain days When reforms were takingplace, opportunities on which it was believed that the several were found to break through this rule, Jean deities returned to their original countries. Baptiste Lemoine or Moyne, in 1789, being Apotome (Gk.) 'Attoto/j.^. A major semi- the first composer called upon the stage in " tone. Major pars toni : quse semitonium France after the performance of his opera, majus vulgariter dicitur" (Tinctor.) " Id quod " Nepht6." A few years later in Italy, Paisiello vere semitonium nuncupatur, pars toni minor was the means of removing the prohibition on est quam dimidia. Reliqua igitur pars, quae the audience from applauding at all in San » major est, apotome nuncupatur a Grascis, a Carlo, for he induced the King to set the ex- nobis vero potest vocari decisio." (Boethius ample of the change, by applauding an aria De Inst. Mus., Lib. ii., cap. 29 et 30.) sung by Carlo Raino, in the opera " Papirius," Appassionato (It.) With feeling, passion, produced in the year 1805. or affection. It has been happily said that " II piu Appassionamento (It.) With passion, grand 'omaggia alia musica sta nel silenzio," love. and, influenced by some such principle, the Appassionatamente (It.) Passionately. better sort among a mixed audience refrain (32) ; —

APPLICATUR ARETINIAN SYLLABLES, from indiscriminate applause, encores in- new instrument was brought, called the tended as compliments often becoming an Arched Viall, where being tuned with Lute- oppressive tax, levied by the unthinking, or strings, and played on with kees like an those who care little for true art. The gene- organ, a piece of parchment is always kept ral opinion of the reasonable on this subject, moving ; and the strings,- which by the kees

; is expressed in the following epigram are pressed down upon it, are grated in imi-

tation of a bow, by the parchment ; and so it ' " The sovereign people ' rule all things, So levellers would say is intended to resemble several vyalls played But all 'encores' in concert -rooms, on with one bow, but so basely and so harshly, ' shilling The people ' sway." that it will never do. But after three hours'

[.] stay it could not be fixed in tune ; and so they were fain to go to some other music of instru- Applicatur (Ger.) (i) The art of using ments." Pepys had probably no design in the fingers freely upon a musical instru- writing the word viall in the manner in which ment of any kind, (2) shifting q.v. and re- he has done ; but, in doing so, he has intimated a covering the original position. connection with ancient or hurdy-gurdy, Appoggiando (It.) Drawing out, length- which the Arched viall somewhat resembled ening, leaning upon. ; the parchment was doubtless " always kept Appoggiato (It.) Supported. Appoggiato. moving" by means of a wheel. notes are those notes which suspend the Archeggiamento (It.) (i) The same as resolution, or that supply gaps in passages arcato, or coll' arco. (2) The use of the bow. of intervals. See also passing note, sus- Archet (Fr.) Arco (It.) The bow with pension, and SYNCOPATION. which stringed instruments are played. [Bow.] (It.) A note leant upon Archicembalo (It.) Archicembalo (Lat.) in singing or playing, applied to beats and A cembalo with an enharmonic scale, supposed grace notes, q.v. to have been invented about the year 1537 in Apprestare (It.) To make ready, to pre- Italy, described by Salinas as having each pare for playing, to set in tune. tone divided into parts, of which three were A premiere yue (Fr)) ^^ g^^^ ^.^^^ given to the greater semi-tone and two to the A prima vista (It.)) *= less, the whole octave being divided into thirty- A punta d'arco (It.) With the end of one parts. the bow near the point. , arciliuto (It.) Archiluth (Fr.) punto (It.) In exact time, precise, strict, A [.] accurate. Arco (It.) The bow. Coll' arco, with the Apycni (Gk.) (airvKvoi). The notes Pros- bow, as opposed to Pizzicato, pinched by the lambanomenos (TrpoaXafipavoiitvog), nete sy- finger. nemmenon (vr;rij awrmixeviov), and nete hyper- Ardente (It.) (Fr.) Ardently, with fire. boleon (vriTri vTrepfioXaiwv) of the Greek system Arditezza, con (It.) With boldness, energy. of music. The notes are so named because Ardito (It.) Bold and energetic. remoteness from each other (from of their Aretinian syllables. The names Ut, awvKvos, not close, not dense). Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, given to the Hexachord by A quattro mani (It.) A quatre mains (Fr.) Guido d'Arezzo (Guido Aretinus). These instrument, that is, as For four hands on one syllables happen to occur in consecutive notes the pianoforte a duet for two performers on of the scale, in an ancient hymn to S. John or organ. Baptist. A quattro parti (It.) \A quatre seuls (Fr.) A quattro, soli (It.)j For four soloists. A quattro voci (It.) 'A quatre voix (Fr.) UT que -ant la - xis RE - so - na - re fi-bris, For four voices in harmony. Arbitrio (It.) Will, pleasure, a suo ar- ^ J p m * ' at his pleasure. bitrio, MI ra ge - sto - rum FA- mu - li tu or - um, Arcato (It.) With the bow, as opposed to pizzicato, plucked with the finger. CoW arco is a direction to the same effect. - - ti LA - bi - i re - a - turn. Arched viall. An instrument somewhat SOL ve pol lu in fashion like a hurdy-gurdy, invented about A.D. 1664, and thus described by Pepys in 'his Diary, under the date October 5th, in that Sane - te Jo - an'-nes. " at the year : To the Musique meeting From the system of over-lapping Hexa- Post Office, where I was once before. And chords, arise the compound names of notes thither anon came all the Gresham College, such as E-la-mi, A-la-mi-re, &c., which are and the and a great deal of noble company ; explained under Notation.

( 33 ) c ARGHOOL ARIA FUGATA.

Arghool. A simply constructed wind in- of Bononcini, usually called the rival of strument, now used in . It is made of Handel, but it may be the production of common cane, and is played by mouth-pieces either of the other writers concerned in the containing reeds. There are two species of opera of Thomyris, from whence it was taken. arghool ; the first (Fig. i) consists of two This opera, produced' under the direction of tubes both pierced with holes, so that the Heidegger, at the " King's , in y' Hay- performer may play in thirds and sixths ; the market" in 1709, was a of melodies second (Fig. 2) consists also of two tubes, but and compositions selected from the works of one only is pierced with holes, the other being Albinoni, Gasparini, Steffano, Scarlatti, and longer and used as a drone. The pitch of the Bononcini. The opera was called English, drone can be altered by the addition of extra though the singers delivered some portions in pieces, which are attached to the instrument, Italian, and others in English. The of as are also the mouth-pieces, by waxed the opera was by no means of a high, poetical thread. order. Fig. 1. " Aria fugata" out of the Opera of Thomyris.

Fig. 2.

Aria {It.) An air, tune, song, or melody in rhythmical proportion, now understood to mean a movement for a single voice or instru- ment, with an accompaniment. [Air.]

Aria d'abilita {It.) A song of difficult execution, requiring great skill in its proper blessing, why have I lost my joys, and satisfactory performance. Aria buffa {It.) A song with some degree of humour in the words, or in the treatment of the music. Aria cantabile {It.) An air in a graceful, flowing style, capable of much musical ex- pression. Aria concertante {It.) An air in the con- cert style, that is a melody for a single voice, accompanied by instruments having obbligato or solo passages assigned to them.

Aria di bravura {It.) A melody with florid, bold, and energetic passages and phra- ses for the voice. An aria di bravura is more or less an aria d'abilita.

Aria fugata {It.) A song or air, in which u c rr;g the accompaniment is written in fugal style, ^ ^EEE^^ or in imitation. The difficulty of expressing no rest pos- ses -sing, no rest pos - ses- sing, Grief dramatic emotions in this species of compo- sition led to its ultimate disuse, though at * one time it was greatly in favour. The sub- joined specimen, perhaps one of the most

m»: , expressive of its class, is said to be the work m f_J-^f^^,J^ (34) . :

ARIA PARLANTE ARMONISTA.

Fine. Ottavio Rinuccini, Rappresentate nello Spon- salizio della Christianissima Maria Medici, Regina di Francia e di Navarra. In Venetia, MDCvm," the author states that the ground- work of the imitation proposed " usassero un armonia, che avanzado quella del parlare ordinario." The character of this harmony, which was intended to be a medium between common speech and singing, will be seen in the fol- lowing Aria parlante for , in answer to seeking

Plutone. m J_JJ_J. ^^=^^ ^ On -de CO - tan - to ar- di re Chi ff*: iwr

U. J J :T|J J ^^^^ now to my eyes a flood of tears will cost, Oh . g J » is &. ^ nan - ti al di fa - ta le, Scend' a miei p^i^^^^^^: iii ^ ^ iWr ^r^r—r=3^Bt—^=FPp

[Opera.] [Recitative.]

Aria Tedesca {It.) An air in the German style—that is to say, in which the accompani- ment is inseparable from the melody. Aria aggiunte (It.) Supplementary songs Aria pfarlante (li.) (i) Vocal music suit- introduced into a work after the first perform- able to, and designed for, a proper declamation ance or representation. of the words. Arietta (It.) The diminutive of aria ; a (2) A style of song-writing invented to- short air or melody. wards the close of the i6th century by those Ariette {Fr.) [Arietta.] Florentine dilettanti who, imbued with the {It.) In the style of an air. (i) A spirit of which had already direction that the music to which it refers is revolutionized other arts, turned their atten- to be performed tunefully, sweetly. tion to the necessity of ridding music of (2) An intimation that recitative form has cold formalities and restoring it to its proper more or less been incorporated into, or perhaps' function, which indeed it held among the superseded by, a smooth and melodious treat- Greeks, of being a just vehicle of the ever- ment of the words. The Arioso is found in its varying emotions which poetry calls forth. perfection in the works of Mendelssohn, but Monteverde, Peri, Corsi, and Caccini, were examples of it are not wanting in older writers, the musicians who made the first attempts at although they are simply called recitative, e.g., aria parlante, several operas being composed "Behold and see" ("") and in Nos. by them individually or in combination, to 17 and 74 of Bach's Passion (St. Matthew). words by Rinuccini, in which the aria par- Aristoxenians. The followers of the musi- lante occupied an important position. The cal system of Aristoxenus. of. Pythagoreans. aria parlante was not a recitative, but was Armer la clef {Fr.) To indicate the key sung in strict time. The latter, however, by the number of sharps or flats in the very soon grew out of the former, and assumed signature. a separate existence in the works of Carissimi. Armoneggiare {It.) To harmonise, to In the preface to the first Opera printed sound in chords. with the music, " Le Musiche da , Armenia {It.) [Harmony.] Nobil Fiorentino, sopra L'Euridice de Signor Armonista {It.) A harmonist. (35) ;

ARMONICA ARRANGEMENT.

Armonica {ItA Harmonica, Armonicon, although it occasionally involved a slight Harmonicon. (i) The musical glasses, a -alteration in the time-value of some of the importance series of glass cups of various sizes and thick- notes, was a matter of small ; nesses, capable of producing the different and the musician who undertook such a notes of the diatonic scale by friction upon matter rarely gave himself the credit of the edges. The name armonica was given having done so clever a thing as modern to this instrument -by Benjamin Franklin, to arrangers would have us believe such an in whom also the credit of the invention is alteration to be. Thus Nicolas Yonge, his sometimes given, but the idea was. suggested collection of Madrigals, " Musica Transal- by a Mr. Pickeridge, an Irish gentlema:n, and pina," London 1588, leaves it to the judg- first carried out by M. Delaval, and was in ment of the reader to infer the part he took use long before the name ctrmonica was given in giving his book to the world, calling his " fine, to it by Franklin. work Madrigales translated of four, diners excellent (2) An instrument now used by children, and sixe parts, chosen out of consisting of a flat oblong box, containing Authors, with the first and second part of free reeds so arranged that when applied La Verginellay made by Maister Byrd, out of to the mouth, inspiration and respiration two Stanz's of Ariosto, and brought to Speak through the orifices in the side, produce English with the rest. Published by N. Yonge different sounds of the scale, in a series. in favour of such as take pleasure in Musick [Cheng.] [Harmonium.] of voices." For a somewhat lengthened period arrangements were described as " brought to Arpa (7^.) [Harp.] "figured," "fitted," "made Arpa doppia (/i.) A double harp. [Harp.] light," "framed," " forth," for example : Arpanetta or arpanella {It.) A small proper," and newly set " harp. LessonsforConsort, madeby sundry excellent Arpfege {Fr.) [Arpeggio.] authors, and set to sixe severall instruments, Violl, Base Arpeggiando {It.) Playing arpeggio, q.v. Namely, the Treble Lute, Treble To strike the notes of a Violl, Bandora, Citterne, and the Flute. Now chord in succession in newly set forth by Philip Rossetor, 1609." " the manner of harp Richard Alison, in his book An Howres I playing. Recreation in Musicke, apt for Instruments Arpeggiatura {It.) [Arpeggio.] and Voyces" (1606), describes his arrangement gentlemen and Arpeggio (7^.) In the style of a harp. A as "Framed for the delight of term applied to the notes of a chord when they others which are well affected to that qualitie." are struck consecutively, instead of simul- A Dutch edition of Gastoldi's for "5 en taneously. 6 stemmen, te singen of speelen," 1648, is "gestelt"—that is, arranged or accommo- Una corda. dated — " of 3 en 4 stimnden," and this is f^, ^, perhaps one of the earliest instances of an alteration of an original design. Arrangements such as these could only be called into exist- ence by the desire to possess condensations of larger works. The " Modulorum Hortus ab excellentis- In pianoforte music a waved line is written simae Musicse auctoribus " is described as beside a chord intended to be played arpeggio : being merely collected by R. Floridus, Rome, 1647,—"inlucem curavit edendam." A few years later arrangements are described as m^^ " transpositions." Thus, in the Mercurius Musicus for 1699, the " New teaching songs, compos'd .... With a Thorow Bass i^i^i^ for the Harpsichord or Spinett," we have the further intimation of "The songs being T/aws- Arrangement. A selection or adaptation pos'd for the Flute at the end of the Book," of the parts of a composition, to fit them for In the " Orpheus Britannicus, a collection of performance by other voices or instruments all the choicest songs for One, Two, and Three than those originally designed. Voices, composed by Mr. There are very few examples existing of together with such Symphonies for Violins or acknowledged arrangements in the earliest as were by him designed for any of musical publications ; for few ever thought of them, and a Thorow-bass to each song, figur'd tampering with an author's compositions so for the Organ, Harpsichord, or Theorbo Lute far as to divert them from their original in- (1698- 1702); also, in "Suits of the most Cele- tentions. The adaptation of new words, brated Lessons for Viols, collected and fitted (36) :

ARRANGEMENT- -ARSIS. to the Harpsichord m Spinett, by William forte, or small bands, his arrangement of Babell (1702) ;" and in "A choice Collection Twelve Symphonies by Mozart, as sestetts of Lessons, being excellently Sett to the with a seventh part, ad libitum, being con- Harpsichord, viz. Old Simon the King, Mote- sidered at the time they were made as of ley's Maggot, Mortlack's Grounds, and several more than ordinary excellence. These were others (by Blow and Purcell) 1705." In " A undertaken by Cimador out of pure love for Collection of the Newest Minuets, Rigadoons, Mozart's woiics, and a desire to communicate and French dances perform'd att Court and that love to the musicians of his time who Publick entertainments," 1716. The tunes thought " Mozart's symphonies too arduous are made " proper for the Violin, Hoboy, or and difficult." Flute," and in " Six Setts of Choice Opera About the same time J. S. C. Possin (1755- Songs or Arietts, with their Symphonys fitted 1822), a musician of such singular modesty for two Flutes. The Second Parts being com- that he never would have his name printed pleat and airy as the first, not thin and heavy with his works, arranged for Salomon the as Second Trebles usually are ;" in both parts twelve symphonies of Haydn, known as the their proper Variations for the Humour of the " Salomon set," for the pianoforte, in " an Flute (1712.) admirable manner;" indeed, says his bio- A little later in date, we find, " Song in the grapher, " they were the first adaptations of Opera of Flora, with the Humorous Scenes orchestra music worthy of notice." From of Hob, designed by y° celebrated Mr. Grave- that time to the present " adaptations, lot, and engrav'd by G. Bickham, junr. The arrangements, and transcriptions," have been Musick proper for y' Violin, German and Com- issued in unlimited quantities, of more or mon Flute, Harpsichord, or , with a New less value. Base, and thoro' Base to each Song" (1737). Arranger (Fr.) To arrange a piece of The business of arrangement, that is to say, music. [Arrangement.] of altering music intended for one purpose, Arrangiren [Ger.) To arrange a piece of so that it might serve another—more or less music. [Arrangement.] hinted at in the preceding collections—arose Arsis (Gk.) aptrie (from aipm), a raising,

with the popularity of Handel's works ; thus, an elevation, as opposed to thesis (OeVic, from copies of " favourite Choruses" out of Mr. ridmu), a depression or lowering. Handel's celebrated oratorios " adapted for There are two kinds of Arsis, (i) of

the Harpsichord or organ and a single voice," accent ; (2) of metre. began to appear soon after his death. Such The former of these does not perhaps call " arrangements" being part and parcel of the for special attention from musicians, unless system of piracy which was most ingeniously it be looked upon as a subject into which and unblushingly carried on during the last their educated ear qualifies them to enter; or century. A chorus arranged for a single voice unless it be considered (as it undoubtedly was the ceasing of course to be a chorus ; but, as a by the Greeks) as an esse'ntial part of double security, many of these pieces were education of those who attempt to set words made cleverly incorrect. Thus Pitt, organist to music. The latter has been explained of Worcester, evaded all copyright that might from two opposite points of view, both of have existed by arranging his "Church which, however, are closely connected with music" from the sacred works of Handel, the former,—a slight sketch of the whole sub-^ by a system of dove-tailing and occasional ject is therefore subjoined alteration of key. (i) Though not accepted without dispute, " The beauties of Handel, consisting of his the following facts seem generally to be voice is most favourite Songs, Duets, and Trios ; ar- admitted; first, that in speaking, the ranged with a separate accompaniment for constantly varying slightly in pitch, that is, the pianoforte, and figured from the MS. scores is not absolutely on monotone ; next, that the ofthe author, by Jos. Corfe"(c. 1782) is perhaps component syllables of polysyllabic words one of the earliest collections of confessedly are not exactly of the same duration ; lastly, is an emphasis on particular "arranged" music. In 1795, J. W. Holder, that there Mus. Doc, Oxon, one of the most talented syllables, which is independent alike of the pianoforte players of his time, published an raising or depression of voice, and of the arrangement of the choruses of Handel for length of time during which any syllable is four hands, which were the standard pieces held. of their kind for many years, being frequently The elevation, or pitch of the voice is played by two performers on one organ also. classically termed Accent (from ad and cantus,

Giambattista Cimador (1750-1810) was pro- just as wpofffSla is from Trpoc and ^Sfi) ; the bably the first who was employed by the duration of syllables is called Quantity ; and publishers of London on purpose to make the metrical emphasis is called Ictus. arrangements of large works for the piano- Accent is of two kinds, vocabular and

I 37 ) ;

ARSIS AS DUR. oratorical. The former is that method of Greeks, p. 371), "those syllables which have pronunciation which a word receives if it the metrical ictus are said to be in arsi; those stands alone in a vocabulary or dictionary which have it not, in thesi the latter the latter that which it receives in con- is sometimes called the debilis positio." In sideration of its position in a sentence, words this he follows Bentley, who makes ictus (or being of course influenced by the meaning to percussio), elevatio, and arsis synonymous. be expressed in a sentence of -prose, or by To this other scholars object, and say truly their metrical position in verse. that a syllable often is in arsi as regards There can be no doubt that a nice ear and metre, when it is in thesi as regards accent appreciation of pitch is required before accent (elevation of voice). Also, Victorinus says and quantity can be distinguished from each distinctly that " arsis and thesis, as used by other in modern languages. With regard to the Greeks, refer to the movement of the foot ancient languages the same difficulty does (significant pedis motum), and that the former not exist, because, putting aside the question is 'the elevation of the foot' without sound, of the correctness of our pronunciation of the latter the 'lowering of the foot' to the them, quantity is governed by either known ground, with a sound, the sounds marking the laws of syllabic structure and position, or by metrical ictus. To this Foster (on Accent, the actual shape of the letters. Hence, many p. 166) agrees. With these authors, there- have thought that quantity does not exist in fore, ictus and thesis are synonymous. modern languages, and all that we possess is Hence, musicians who agree with the accent (elevation of the voice) and emphasis, former of these opinions and make arsis and and that these two always coincide, and are ictus synonymous are justified in saying that commonly included in the one ,term accent. there is an arsis on the down-beat of every But as a matter of fact, the pitch of voice is bar, and its up-beats are in thesi, for if thesis in modern languages quite independent of is debilis positio, it would be absurd to say quantity, e.g., precarious, request, &c., in that this occurs on the down-beat, except in which the voice is high for the short syllable, some rare cases of syncopation. drops in pitch for the long, yet no one can Those musicians, on the other hand, who doubt that there are long syllables in these believe that ictus and thesis coincide, because words, just as much as in such o'thers, the thesis of the foot marked the ictus of the as probable, symmetry, pendant, &c. The metre, have a perfect right to say that the pronunciation of English in the common down-beat of a bar is in thesi, and an up-beat conversation will give but a very slight clue in arsi. to the intricacies of our language in this Inasmuch as the confusion among mu- respect. For, in addition to the acute accent sicians in using these terms has resulted already spoken of, we certainly have a fiat from the disagreement of scholars as to their accent corresponding to the Greek ^, e.g., proper application, it is much to be hoped cumbersome, where the voice drops a little that they will be allowed to sink into disuse. below what might be termed its key-note. The expressions, strong position and weak We have also the up-and-down indi- position of the bar, imply all that is under- cated by the Greek circumflex, e.g., feirful, stood by arsis and thesis, -withovit the risk, by lo&thsome. But with us these are always their use, of calling forth absolutely con- oratorical, never vocabular. tradictory opinions as to their meaning. Having said thus much as to elevation and Art {Ger.) Species, kind, sort, as auf depression of the voice, it is now time to show polnischeArt, a sort oi polonaise, &c. how arsis is used as a musical term. Ac- Articulation, (i) In singing, the art of cording to Scaliger, when the voice is raised distinct pronunciation. (2) In instrumental on a syllable it is called arsis, when it returns music, the art of producing proper tone by a to its original position it is called thesis. right adjustment of the fingers, or the lips. Priscian (see Foster on Accent, p. 8i, note) The latter application of the term is less not only says the same thing, but gives as commonly met with than the former. an example the word natura, pointing out Artist. One who possesses in a high that there is an arsis at the syllable tu, and degree that appreciation of the beautiful and thesis on ra. In this sense arsis is evidently that refined temperament, which, when duly the accent, or elevation of the voice, which trained and educated, become active faculties, has been already spoken of. and render their owner an able and influential (2) But arsis and thesis are not only applied exponent of Art. to the elevation and depression of voice, but As [Ger.) At?. also to the strong and weak parts of metrical Asamentata, Assamenta, or Axamenta . But unfortunately, scholars have {Lat.) The songs or hymns sung by the Salii, used these terms in two ways. For instance, q.v. Tate says (see Donaldson, Theatre of the As dur {Ger.) The key of A flat major. (38) ASHANTEE TRUMPET AUBADE.

Ashantee Trumpet. An instrument A tempo primo {It.) In the time fi^rst formed of the tusk of an elephant carefully given. hollowed. Its peculiarity consists in the A tempo rubato (7^.) Robbed time ; time fact that the is not at the end, made slightly irregular for the sake of ex- but in the side, a short distance from it. pression. As moll (Ger.) The key of flat A minor. A tre {It.) For three voices, instruments, Asor. [Azor.] or parts.

Asosra (Heb.) [Chatzozerah.] A tre mani {It.) For three hands upon Ascaules (Gk.) aa-icavXris, a player on the an organ or pianoforte. ascaulos. A tre parti {It.) For three parts. Ascaulos (Gk.) &

A string. [A §7.] A suo arbitrio {It.) At his judgment, or pleasure. Attendant Keys. Relative keys, keys of A suo commodo (It.) At his leisure. affinity. Attendant keys in a scale are the placito {It.) At his pleasure. A suo bene relative minor or major, the dominant and A suo luogo {It.) At his position or place. subdominant, and their relative minors or Atabal. A Moorish tambour. majors. [Relative Keys.] A table sec (Fr.) The performance of Atto [It.'] An act in an opera. [Act.] vocal exercises without the accompaniment of Attore or Attrice {It). An actor or an instrument. Sec. lit. dry, c.f. Lat. assa actress, the chief singers in an opera. vox, an unaccompanied voice, and assce tibice, ( Aubade {Fr.) i ) An open air morning con- flutes used without a voice accompaniment. cert, the antithesis of a . (2) The word A tempo {It.) In time. [A battuta.] is derived from a«6e, day-break, and was similar " A tempo commodo {It.) In a convenient, in character to the English Hunts up" {q.v.) easy, moderate time. Sometimes unmusical noises were made for an aubade, and so the word came to be em- A tempo di Gavotta {It.) In the time of ployed as a for insult. the Gavotte, q.v. term an The Aubades de Calene occupied in France the position of A tempo di Minuetto (Jt.) In the time the Waits {q.v.) in England'^ as they were of the Minuet, q.v. performed in the evening for a month or so A tempo giusto (7^) At a just pace, before Christmas. Although doubtless of (i) In general, an indication that the move- religious origin, the performers gradually ment should be taken at a moderate tempo. introduced secular melodies. The players, (in older writers) (2) A direction to return to like the Waits, were officially licensed. The after irregular strict time declamation. word CalBne is a French provincial form of A tempo ordinario {It.) At an ordinary the word Calendes, Christmas Day being for- pace. merly called " le jour des Calendes."

( 39 ) AUDACE, CON AUSSERE STIMMEN.

Audace, con (li). With vigour, boldness. two ancient Greek flutes, preserved in the Auditory nerve. [Ear.] British Museum. Fig. I. Auferions {Old Eng.) Wire strings. Aufgeweckt(Ge»'.) Brisk, lively, sprightly, cheerful. Aufgewecktheit {Ger.) Sprightliness, liveliness. Aufhalten {Ger.) To stop, to keep back, retard. Aufhaltung(Ger.) Suspension. [Harmony.] Auflosung {Ger.) Resolution of a discord. Aufschlag {Ger.) Unaccented beat. Aufstrich {Ger). An up bow in violin playing. Auftakt {Ger.) The unaccented part of a bar. Augmentatio {Med. Lat.) The lengthen- ing of a note by the addition of half its length, thus corresponding to the use of the modern dot. Augmentation. The introduction of the Fig. 2. subject of a fugue or canon, in the course of its progress, in notes of longer duration than those in which it was first proposed. [Fugue.]

^uj. "p" •

Augmented interval. [Interval.]

, Augmented subject. [Augmentation.] Auletes {Gk) AvXrirrie. A player on the or Flute. [Aulos.] {Gk.) Plural of Auletrides avXtirple. Fe- Fig. 3- male players on the Aulos or Flute, q.v. Aulaeum {Lat.), avXaia {Gk.) The curtain of a theatre.

Aulos {Gk.) avXoQ, derived from atjfii, to blow, as flute is from the Lat. flo. The most important of the Greeks. The aulos was sometimes double, A una corda {It.) With, or on, one string. the two tubes being called dextra and sinistra, A direction (i) in pianoforte music, to use the and sometimes male and female. Though . (2) In music for stringed instru- generally rendered flute, there is much reason ments to play the passage so marked on one for supposing that it was a reed-instrument, string only, by the shift. [Shift.] least, that the term, used generally, or, at the Ausarbeitung {Ger.) The working out of the family. included instruments of ohoe The a theme, the climax of a composition. fact that the two tubes were often of different Ausdruck {Ger.) Expression, q.v. lengths {impares)ha.s been explained by saying Ausfiihrung {Ger.) (i) or that they were tuned in different modes. But Performance execution. (2) The working out of a subject it is far more probable that they were con- in composition. structed like the arghool, and that the longer tube gave out a drone. The double flute Aushaltung {Ger.) The time a note oc- was not unknown to the ancient Egyptians cupies . in sounding, the duration of sound, and Assyrians, as shown in figs, i and 2, sustaining a sound. but they were divergent, or perhaps actually Aushaltungs-zeichen {Ger.) A pause /t\ separate from each other. Fig. 3 represents Aussere Stimmen {Ger.) [Extreme parts.]

( 40 ) AUSWEICHUNG AZOR.

Ausweichung {Ger.) Change, modulation. 8va. Authentic cadence. A final close, in which the common chord of the Tonic is im- mediately preceded hy the common chord of the dominant. [Cadence.] Authentic mode. The name given to ^^P those modes on which were afterwards con- Rossini. " Guillaume Tell " . structed other modes called Plagal, by an alteration of the pitch to a fourth below. [Plain Song.] Authentic part of the Scale, in Counter- point and Fugue, is that which lies between a note and its Dominant, whilst that which lies between the Dominant and its superior Tonic is termed Plagal. The terms are used chiefly ^ in connection with Subject and Answer. ^P^^^n.SBSS' [Fugue.] Autos Sacramentales {Sp.) One of the early forms of Spanish drama, similar in some respects to the mysteries and moralities in AuBER. Coro " En bons militaires buvons" England, but in which music and dancing (Fra Diavolo). formed an important part. The Autos had reference to the adminstration of the Sacra- ^^m^^^ ments according to the ideas received by the people. Auxiliary Notes. Notes not essential to the harmony, introduced for the sake of giving breaking monotony, or of freedom of Auxiliary Scales. The scales of relative motion to one or more of the parts. They or attendant keys, q.v. may occur on either the accented or the unac- Ave Maria (Lat.) (Hail ! Maiy.) The cented part of the bar, and if introduced angel's salutation of the Blessed Virgin Mary, below the melody should be only a semitone used in the Roman as an from the proper note of that melody, but if Antiphon. either a tone or a semitone above they may be Avena (Lat.), lit. oats. An oaten pipe, as the position in the scale would warrant, or hence (i) any simple reed used as a shep- taste suggest. i herd's pipe—"est modulatus avena ," Beethoveh. No. 4 Symphony. Tibull, 2, I, 53. (2) The syrinx or -pipes, Violini. reedsjoinedtogetherwithwax—"pastor junctis pice cantat avenis," Ovid, Tristia 5, 10, 25. [Pan-pipes.] A vista (It.) For a prima vista, at first sight. fe^.ajJ^^J:W^^^-# Away. A direction in Mace's Musicks Monument, published in 1676, signifying a return to the original time. Azione Sacra (/i.) Sacred dramas. [Autos Sacramentales. Oratorio. Passion Music] Azor (Heb.) This word which occurs in the Book of Psalms and elsewhere, is vari- ously rendered according to the view which is taken of its association with nebel. In Examples of extended auxiliary notes, and Psalm xxxiii., 2, " Sing unto him with a nebel of auxiliary notes, on the accented part of and azor " some drop the " and " and under- the bar. stand azor as qualifying w«6e/,making the com- Verdi. Coro " Vedi le fosche" (Trovatore). pound word to signify a " ten-stringed nebel" tr (psalterium decem chordarum). Whether the azor was a distinct instrument, or not, it is impossible to say, although Engel, Fetis, and some other authors have so considered it, and have ventured to assign to it a definite number of strings.

(41 ) — .

-BAGPIPE.

B. (i) The name of the note above Pros- Bacciocolo (It.) Tuscan musical instru- lambanos, in the greater perfect system of the ment of the guitar kind. Greeks. The first note of the lowest Tetra- Bachelor of, or in. Music. The first of chord (Hypaton). [Greek Music] the degrees in music at the Universities of (2) The third note of the grave hexachord Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin. At Cam- of the Guidonian system, in which it is B mi. the degree is conferred next in seniority [Notation.] to that of Master of Arts. In Oxford and step in the Scale of (3) The seventh note of the normal scale C, Dublin it is the lowest the note Si [Si], in Tonic Sol-fa system Te. Graduates. The hood worn by the Oxford is of blue silk, trimmed (4) The major scale having five sharps in and Dublin Bachelors its signature. with white fur ; at Cambridge the hood is the of Arts. The (5) The note Bl? in Germany, where BS is same as that worn by Masters known as H, whence the possibility of making degree is not conferred by any foreign Uni- the letters B, A, C, H, into a fugue subject, versity. Backfall. A Turn in Lute or Harpsichord

music, written thus J played Jj as has been done by Bach, Schumann, Liszt, and others. Back fall. [Organ, § 10.] Badinage (Fr.) Playfulness. (6) In old solmizations this note was called a Mi. [Solfeggio.] Bagana. The ten -stringed lyre of the five different notes, There is no authentic church-mode com- Abyssinians. It has only mencing on this note, owing to the imper- but each note has its octave-string. Sketches, short pieces, fection of its fifth when unraised by the Bagatelles (Fr.) signature. trifles. B. Abbreviation of Bass voice. Bassoon, Bagpipe. The ascaulus (a

of the Romans ; sampogna or zampogna of of the Dutch organs ; (lit.) the Bear-pipe, written also Bar-pfeife and Baren-pfeife, so Italy ; the cornemuse of France ; the chifonie of called from the instrument played as an ac- or symphony the middle ages ; the sougga- companiment to dancing bears. rah or zouggarah of the Arabians. An ancient Baas or Base Dance. A dance or slow wind instrument of almost universal adoption, movement, similar to the Measure, q.v., or the formerly in common use in every part of minuet, so called probably in contradistinction Europe, but now only found in parts of Italy, to the vaulting dances in which greater agility , Calabria, Brittany, , and Scot- land, in form more or less varied in Ireland was displayed. ; the under the name of the Union "And then came downe the 1. and the lady Cecill, and daunced two baas daunces, and departed up pipes, are yet to be met with, but as a againe ; the 1. prince to the ICing, and the lady Cecill among the English it has to the Queene." Wright's Provincial Dictionary completely disappeared, in consequence of the Baccalaureus Musicae (Lat.) Bachelor advance in musical taste. A form of bagpipe in Music. is probably meant by the word symphonia Bacchanalian Song, (i) Songs sung in (Dan. iii. 15) translated in the Italian version of procession during the worship of Bacchus. the Bible zampogna. In its general construc- (2) Any song in praise or defence of wine tion the bagpipe consists of a leathern bag fre- drinking, ofwhich there are numbers belonging quently formed of the whole skin of a kid or to the 1 8th century. other small animal, which contains the wind Bacchia. Kamschatdale dance, in | time. conveyed from the mouth of the player . A foot consisting of one short through a tube, a small valve, preventing its and two long syllables. [Metre.] rapid escape. The sound comes from three

( 42 ) : : : :

BAGPIPE BALCKEN.

pipes, two of which united are called the Scotch was at the Battle of Balrinnes (1594), drone, and are capable of producing only one though the oldest known pibroch is called note each, the key-note and its fifth. These the " Battle of Harlaw," but it could not be two notes are heard throughout the per- contemporary with the event (141 1). There formance. The third pipe, the chanter, furnished is mention of trumpets and drums in the old with a reed, is bored with six or eight holes ballad relating to the battle, but none of the

which are stopped by the ends of the fingers bagpipe : of the performer. The scale of some of the " The armies met, the trumpet sounds. Scotch bagpipes, is with eight ventages, in The dandring drums alloud did touk." the minor mode with the seventh flat The Irish or Union pipes are furnished with a pair of bellows (worked with the elbow) with which to inflate the bag. There are three drones, in others with six holes, the fourth and two tuned in unison, and one seventh are omitted an octave below ; most pipes have a valve by means of which the drone can be silenced, and there is also a contrivance for sounding at will the common chord of the key note that of the Calabrian bagpipe is the diatonic in which the pipes are set. The quality of scale the chanter is more like that of the clarinet than the oboe, and the general tone of the Irish pipes is softer and less piercing than the Scottish bagpipe. The native Irish pipers The bagpipe was known to the Anglo-Saxons, call the instrument " uUan piobe," the pipes and that it was at one time in England a of the elbow. Shakespeare's mention of popular instrument, may be inferred from the " woollen pipes " in the " Merchant of ," frequent mention made of it in mediaeval Act. iv. sc. I times. Strutt quotes a MS. recording many "Why he, a harmless necessary cat payments made to bagpipers in the reign of Why he, a woollen bagpipe," Edward III., about both for their per- 1335, refers probably to the "ullan pipes ;" and the sonal performance and as an allowance to word " union," as applied at the present day, enable them to visit the foreign minstrel may be only a modern substitute for the right schools. The same authority also records a word, for it is difficult to see the force of the payment to another bagpiper in 1494. The application of the term " union " to bagpipes, manner in which the instrument is mentioned unless the word be a corruption of a proper Chaucer, other poets, it to by and shows have term. been exceedingly popular and of frequent use It is supposed that the bagpipe came in England in their days ; and a large number originally from the East ; it is still to be met of tunes quoted or alluded to in William Chap- with in use among many Eastern nations. ' pell's ' Popular Music "bear evidence ofhaving In India, , Persia, and Egypt, it is been of bagpipe character. is proof There no the subject of frequent mention by many that the bagpipe is a national Scottish instru- travellers. ment, for its introduction into Scotland only Baguettes (•?">'•) Drumsticks. dates from time it to be disused in the began Bais^er (Fr.) To lower. England. Balafo. A musical instrument popular There is a tradition that bagpipes were used among the negroes of Senegambia. It is at the Battle Bannockburn, and there is a of made of a series of graduated pieces of wood, " tune, Hey taitti, taittie," said to be the placed over gourds, which act as resonance- identical march played by them. Ritson, in boxes, is struck with hammers, and has a preface to a collection Scottish songs, his of scale of two octaves, sometimes tuned in ac- doubts whether the Scots had any martial cordance with the white notes of a pianoforte, music, and quotes Froissart's account of each soldier in the army wearing a little horn, on which, at the onset they would make such a horrible noise " as if all the devils in hell had been let loose." He further notes that as these (Russ.) A Russian instrument, horns are the only instruments mentioned by in form like a guitar, but narrower and of less

Barbour the Scottish chronicler, it must re- depth ; it has two strings. With it the Rus- main a moot point whether Bruce's army was sian Moujiks accompany their popular songs. ever cheered by the sound of a bagpipe. Balancement (Fn) '< Tremolo. The earliest mention of the bagpipe as Balcken or Balken (Ger.) The bar under forming part of the military music of the the belly of a violin. (43) —

BALG BALLAD.

Balg (Ger.) Bellows, wind-chest. in them to those who were assembled around Balgentreter {Ger.) The bellows-treader. him. In the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle we In old organs the blower worked the bellows have about a dozen fragments of historical by standing on them in turns. ballads, but these commence only from Athel- Ballad. A song designed to suit a popu- stan's victory over the Danes. When William lar audience. A varied derivation has been of Malmesbury was writing the history of claimed for the term, which doubtless meant King Edward, son of Alfred the Great, he trust- originally a dance song. Hence its connec- said : " Thus far I have written from tion with the Medieval Latin word ballare, worthy testimony—^that which follows I have (fiaWo), fiaXKi^b)). As a poem, the ballad has learnt more from old ballads, popular through written undergone so many transmutations that it is succeeding times, than from books difficult to describe it properly, many pieces to expressly for the information of posterity. I which the term is applied having little or have subjoined them, not to defend their nothing in common with the primitive form, veracity, but to put the reader in possession and poems of exactly similar character being- of all I know."t described at one time as romances, at another Again, after recounting the pride of King ballads, at another lyric-epics. The Italians Edgar in having compelled subject kings to the prow, among other writers, Dante—gave the title bal- be his oarsmen, while he sat at lata to short lyrical pieces of inartistic con- William says : " For this he is justly blamed struction allied to the sonnet or madrigal. It by history, but the other imputations which was against the French equivalent for these I shall mention hereafter, have rather been ballate that MoliSre wrote. The Spanish ro- cast upon him by ballads." % mances, erroneously called ballads, belong to It may be asked, "what kind of music epic poetry. The ballad, as we now understand had these ballads?" The answer will be its meaning and application, is confined to that, although we have no existing specimen the people of Northern Europe, the Germans, of ballad music of such early dates, yet we following Burger, the creator of the modern have hymns to Latin words, some of which ballad, have given it an artificial character by have more tune in them than would be ex- the introduction of reflections arising out of pected, and that they are our only existing the incidents. A ballad, properly speaking, means of forming a judgment. It was not is a simple narrative of one or more events, mere natural song with indefinable sounds, told without gloss, commentary, or deduction, but with regulated notes upon the diatonic set to a tune sufficiently rhythmical to act scale. In the year 951 the double organ at as one of the original purposes of a ballad, Winchester Cathedral had 400 pipes and re- namely, a dance tune. The old ballad tunes still quired two organists. It was intended to be existing are nearly all of this character. In heard all over Winchester, in honour of Saint fact, the majority of the melodies have been Peter, to whom the Cathedral was dedicated. recovered from having been preserved in col- Wolstan, or rather Wulfstan, of Winchester, lections of them made by dancing masters who describes it fully in his Life of Saint at various periods. The title of or Swithun, was himself the author of a treatise Ballad—says Warton—^was often applied to on Harmony {De tonorum ), which poems of considerable length, of various was a standard book, and remained in use 200 subjects, sometimes to prose compositions, years after it had been issued. William of sometimes to plays or interludes, sometimes Malmesbury, writing after iioo, describes this to religious verses or discourses. boolc as " very useful " {valde utile). It is Ballad (Old English). The English have quoted (or else some second treatise on music ever been a ballad-loving people, and although by the same author) as the Breviloquium the taste was more widely diffused among all Wolstani, at the end of the 13th century. classes in former days than now, yet there is no We have Winchester hymns with music present sign that it will soon die away. Ballads on four lines and spaces in the time of were embodied into our earliest histories, be- Ethelred II. (978 to 1016), and even the cause the bards or minstrels—called Scopes words of these hymns are not to be found in in the language of the country*—^were the any foreign collection. They are, however, earliest of our historians. The Scope was by no means solitary specimens of English both poet and musician. He recorded deeds of hymnology of the same kind, and as they ancient valour, and enlarged upon them in order to stimulate the warlike spirit of his t Sequentia magis cantilenis per successiones tem- hearers. He adopted ancient stories of adven- porura detritis, quam libris ad instructiones posteriorum elucubratis, didicerim." (De Gestis Regum Anglorum, tures, and re-applied them to some more Lib. 2, cap. 6.) recent hero, in order -to give greater interest f "Indemerito, jureque, culpant eum literas; nam ceteras infamias, quas post dicam, magis resperserunt * Anglo-Saxon " Scop'' or " Sceop." cantilenas."- [De Gestis Regum Anglor., Lib. 2, cap. 8.) (44) ——"

BALLAD. are before the time of Guide d'Arezzo, connected with our text of " Old English they must be considered as proofs that the Ballads," but the arts of music and poetry English used lines and spaces before other were then united, all poetry being intended to nations. only difference this The between most be sung ; and there is so much new matter to ancient English notation on lines and spaces, be adduced in the history of music, especially and that which came into use after Guide's in that of our own country, of which Dr. system had been relinquished (for he em- Burney's account is most inaccurate, that ployed only red and yellow lines for F and C, it is difficult to avoid the temptation of refer- which was incompatible with the use of four ring to the subject. If we desire to prove lines and spaces because C was under F), was that music was cultivated by the working that the English placed any letter of the scale classes as well as by those above them, we at the signature, and in the later use of lines may quote the fact of the Watermen of and spaces only F, C, or G, were so placed. London having made a round for three voices, We have alsp an extant Kyrie composed by St. in honour of Sir John Norman, Lord Mayor Dunstan, which, when rendered into modern of London, who, in 1453, commenced the notation, will be found a favourable specimen custom, which became afterwards established, of early music. As to secular music, we find of going to Westminster in his barge to be in the Gesta Herwardi, or the Life of Here- sworn into his office of Lord Mayor, instfead ward, who was son of Leofric, Earl of Mercia, of riding both to and fro with a procession on and the Lady ^ (the Lady Godiva of popu- as before. The music of the Round horseback || lar fable), that he seized the harp and sang is like the chiming of from one church " with correct musical intervals " (for that is steeple to another, and might be sung by the meaning of "per discrimina vocum"*), hundreds of men together to the words, sometimes alone, and at other times in three " Heave and ho, rumbelow, parts with his companions after the manner Row the boat, Norman, row. of the Gyrwians.f These Gyrwians were the Row to thy Leman." inhabitants of the fenny districts between The idea of representing the taking charge of East Anglia and Mercia, including Peter- the City of London, as a " leman " or " loved borough (then called Medeshamstede) in the one," was quite watermanic. north, and the Isle of Ely in the south. This The people were then fond of singing, and was not a district likely to be in advance of altogether more cheerful than after the advent the rest of England, and yet, even here, we of that severe puritanism which told them, in read of singing in three parts as customary. the words of Prynne, to "go about chattering When Archbishop Alfric wished to trans- like cranes, and cooing like doves for their late the Latin word "Concentor" for his own and others' sins."^ Solomon thought vocabulary of Latin and English words, he that there was a time for everything^" a time rendered it by " mid-singend," which seems to dance, a time to sing, and a time to play ; suificiently to express singing in three parts, but these wise-acres did not. They put down for there would be no middle in two or four. the Maypoles and the dances on the village It might perhaps have been taken to mean green, and thus reduced the people to drinking " singing all together," or in " chorus," if and to earnest politics as the only excitements Alfric had not also given two different trans- left to them. lations of "Chorus," J besides others for The character of " Merry England "will com- " Song," " Duet," " Tune for an instrument pare favourably with that of " Old England" alone," " Harmony," " Discord,"§ &c., all for England had not the title of " Old " until which, taken together, are sufficient to prove a " New England " had been planted in the very early cultivation of music in England. America, and puritanism had become both These notices of early music may not rampant and dominant at home. appear, at first sight, to be immediately " The merry, free, and frank disposition of the Old English," says Camden, "was thus described by Alfred of Beverley " (who died * It is a quotation from Virgil's " septem discrimina " vocum," and one frequently employed to express the A.D. 1 136): England, full of sports, a free seven intervals of the diatonic scale, viz.. A, B, C, D, people, delighting in jokes."** In the same E, F, G. " f Multipliciter cum ea [cythara] canendo, et per The easy music of this little Round is printed in II discrimina vocum, nunc solitarie, et nunc tripliciter Popular Music of the Olden Time, Vol. II. p. 783. s6ciis, more Girwiorum, cantavit." (From a cum suis V Prynne was parodying Hezekiah's words when photographic copy of the Peterborough Manuscript.) " he thought himself dying : Like a crane or a swallow, " " " " heap and Hluddra sang." : I did mourn as a dove : but Hezekiah J Singende so did I chatter " was mourning for his sickness, and not for the sins of § " Sang," " twegra sang," " answege sang," gei others. —waere sang," and " ungeswege sang." {Vocabularies " " Anglia, plena jocis, gens libera, et apta jocari." edited by T. Wright, F.S.A., p. 28, privately printed by Remaines. Joseph Mayer, Esq., of Liverpool, F.S.A., &c.) Camden's (45) 1 ——

BALLAD.

Also strain runs William of Malmesbury, referring maidens acted as the musicians."§ of the London to the Norfolk and Suffolk men, or East that, on festival days, the boys to the three pnncipal Anglians : " they are a merry, pleasant, jovial schools attached with each other m race, but apt to carry their jokes to an irrita- churches "contended contests "by ting excess."* For a third testimony we may verse," and wound up their of epigrams, ballads, and rhymes, take an extreme part of England : "Merry recitations frailties of their Michael, the Cornish poet, piped this upon in which the foibles and exposed, without his oaten pipe, for Merry England," says fellows were sarcastically individuals." At this " the audi- Camden : naming the into the jest, tors, who were prepared to enter " For money, dinners, varied drinks, no land will e'er assembly with of laughter." be found shook the These are gayer pictures and of more content, Like England, famous England, where the fertile soil Examples might be is crown 'd than are common now. a volume, but one With countless flocks and herds, and where all social continued to the extent of Eliza- joys abound. " j" more, from Oxford in the reign of Queen It was written by the learned Wfe know from another source that there was beth, will suffice. Case, whose Speculum moralium no lack of tunes when the Normans came, Dr. John QucBstionum in universam Ethicen Aristotelis, for Thomas, the first Norman Archbishop of was the first book printed at the new press at York (1070), set about collecting those which The extract is from The he heard from the minstrels, and wrote hymns Oxford in 1585. printed at Oxford by John Richard de Ledrede, a Londoner, Praise of Musicke, to them. J " the following year : Every who was Bishop of Ossory, from 1318 to 1360, Barnes, in troublesome and laborious occupation hath did the same thing ; but carried the tunes to and recreation, and hence Ireland with him. We know the names of musick for a solace wayfaring men solace themselves the ballads, because they are written in the it is that the ease the wearisomness of Red Book of Ossory over his Latin hymns. with songs, and " musicke, as " their journey ; considering that Among them are Sweetest of all, sing ! " a pleasant companion, is unto them instead " How should I with that old man ? " Do, on the way. And hence it is do, nightingale, sing full merry," and " Good of a waggon and mechanical arti- day! my leman dear." Thus he anticipated that manual labourers sorts keep such a chanting and the Rev. Rowland Hill, or whoever else ficers of all shoppes—^the tailor on his may have said, that " the Devil should not singing in their bulk, the shoemaker at his last, the mason at have all the pretty tunes." And yet there shipboy at his oar, the tinker at was some danger from this appropriation of his wall, the the tiler on the house-tops." secular words, lest they might become so his pan, and proverbially merry cobler has now fixed in the memory as to crop up unexpectedly Even the and tailors seek only to and unwittingly. Giraldus Cambrensis relates almost ceased to sing, tuneless tailor, in former a case that should have been a warning. It mend the State. A such a rara avis as to become at is of a priest in Worcestershire, who had days, was suspicion. " Never trust a been listening to choral singing and dancing once an object of at his work," says near the church during the night, and who, in tailor that does not sing is of nothing but pure forgetfulness, sang one of these popular Fletcher, "for his mind of the poor was burdens in the morning, instead of greeting filching." The treatment but the people with " Ddminus vobiscum." perhaps less considerate than now ; their amusements were As to London, the first good description of the people having content. The number of the city and of its customs was written in certainly more ballads left for entry at Stationers' Hall at 1 174 by Fitz-Stephen (Stephanides), the only friend and biographer of Thomas Becket. the end of year 1560 was 796, and 44 He says that " in summer evenings the young books. still a large number of extant people danced till dark, to the sound of the We have side of a harp (or cittern), and that some of the ballads, such as were printed on one sheet of coarse paper, to be sung about the streets and villages in the i6th and 17th * " Gens laeta et lepida, facetaque festivitate jocorum centuries. Their tunes aie also to be found, ad petulantiam pronior." (Gesta Reg. Anglor., Book 2, being included in early collections of country cap. 13. dances. Ball and ballad are words derived " f Nobilis Anglia pocula, prandia donat, et sera. from the same root, and when the people Terra juvabilis et sociabilis, agmine plena: danced country - dances they accompanied Omnibus utilis, Anglia fertilis est et amoena.'' Camden's Remaines. them with song. Nearly every old ballad

" quis in % Si auditu ejus arte jocularia, aliquid vocale, § " Puellarum ducit usque imminente sonaret, statim illud in divinas laudes effigiabat." W. luna, et pede libero pulsatur tellus." (Descrip. Land., Malmesbury. ed. T. Pegge.) (46) BALLAD. has the name of the tune printed upon it second part, and sometimes two ballads for which it was intended, and it has been are printed on the same page. It was pur- owing to this combination of circumstances chased for the British Museum at the sale of that so many of our national airs have been the library of the late Benjamin Heywood recoverable, and that words and tune could Bright, M.P., in 1845. be re-fitted together in authentic forms. Mere Another important collection of ballads in tradition is the frailest of guides in music, the British Museum is that formed by Bag- for hardly do any two untaught singers sing ford, who was agent in purchasing for Harley, an air alike, and they often vary the tune Earl of Oxford. It is bound in three volumes. between one stanza and another. There are also many minor collections in the Captain Cox, the Coventry mason, is the same library, and a large number of political first recorded collector of old printed ballads. ballads and songs among " The King's He is mentioned by Laneham in his letter Pamphlets." from Kenilworth in 1575. The next in order For early date there are no extant collec- of date is the learned Selden. He lent his tions to compare with those of Mr. Henry collection to Samuel Pepys, the arjiusing Huth, Mr. S. Christie- Miller, and of the diarist, who did not return it. We are, in all Society of Antiquaries of London. These are probability, indebted to that circumstance for unrivalled for rarity, but they are not of so

its preservation ; for Pepys left his library, in- large an extent as some others. cluding his collection of ballads and those The Bodleian Library at Oxford is particu- borrowed from Selden, to Magdalene College, larly rich in ballads, and the Public Library Cambridge, where they remain under the at Cambridge particularly poor, if, indeed, it strictest custody, owing to the terms of the be- possess any collection at all. Oxford can quest. Old Pepys took the greatest care to boast of the Douce collection, which is, per- prevent others from indulging in his own haps, next in extent to the Roxburghe and little habit of filching. Pepys, but rather later, as to average date, than The united collections of Selden and Pepys either. It contains 877 ballads bound in 4 vols., (or of Pepys including those ballads that he the fourth volume being later than the rest. borrowed from Selden) are bound in five folio The Bodleian also possesses Anthony Wood's volumes containing 1785 ballads, mostly with famous collections, both in print and in manu- second parts. Sometimes two ballads were script, as well as a smaller number of printed printed upon one page, and these would enlarge ballads collected by Rawlinson. Wood's the above named number. In addition to the printed collection is of 27g,and the Rawlinson broadsides there are three volumes, lettered of 218 black-letter ballads, and (as a rough " Penny Merriments," which were also col- guide to the number of duplicates to be found lected by Pepys, and which include a large in the great public libraries) it may be stated number of " Garlands," that are in themselves that although the Roxburghe Collection con- collections of ballads, but printed in octavo tains about ten times the number of the or other small size, instead of "in broadside," Rawlinson, yet the latter includes 130 ballads, i.e., on one side of a folio page. of which no edition whatever is to be found A second great collection of broadside ballads in the Roxburghe. Yet they are generally of is that which is now called the Roxburghe coeval dates. Collection. John, Duke of Roxburghe, was The Cheetham Library, Manchester, pos- only one of several proprietors through whose sesses an extensive collection of ballads pre- Orchard Halliwell, F.R.S. hands the collection successively passed ; but sented by James his name became especially connected with Of other collections in private hands, it may be the late it, owing to the notoriety of the comparatively suificient to name first, that of W. to large price it produced at the sale of his Ewing, F.S.A., Scot., which, according the library. The collection had been purchased printed catalogue, contains 408 ballads ; a for the Duke at the auction of Mayor Thomas collection at Osterley Park; and a rare col- Pearson's library in 1788 for £^6 14s. 6d., lection formed by Mr. J. Payne Collier, and and was resold in 1813, with the duke's addi- now in the possession of Frederic Ouvry, Esq., Antiquaries. tions, for £477 '15s. It was originally formed Treasurer to the Society of by Robert Harley, who was raised to the There are, no doubt, many more collections peerage as Earl of Oxford and Mortimer in in private hands, as well as many ballads scattered in collections of pamphlets, both in 171 1, the same whose magnificent collection of manuscripts, known as the Harleian Col- public and private libraries; but even in those of lection, is one of the wonders of the British already named, the number extant English Museum. ballads dating from the reign of Henry VIII. This collection consists of four volumes, to the year 1700 cannot be computed at less containing 2133 pages of ballads. Sometimes than ten thousand. It would be much larger, one ballad takes two pages including its if ballads printed with music were taken into (47) BALLADE BALLET.

account, or even if manuscripts, like the Percy cumstances gave importance to particular folio, and Wood's collection, were included in parts of those productions, so that from the calculation. The tunes for some thou- forming a continued or dependent whole, they sands of them have been traced, and many became detached and separate, and made what are printed in the " History of Popular Music seemed in later years distinct things of those of the Olden Time." " In a word," says an old that had a common origin. The splendour virriter, " scarce a cat can look out of a gutter, of the Court Masques, the glory of the unity but up starts a halfpenny chronicler, and of the genius of the poet, architect, painter, presently a proper new ballad of a strange and musician, are matters of history. Give sight is indited." prominence to the music, let the poetry fade Ballade [Ger.) A dance, also a ballad. away from inanity, retain the skill and genius Ballata (It.) The melody of any song which of the machinist and scene painter, and you may furnish a tune for dancing. [Ballet.] have opera. Let your poet write prose, have Ballatetta (It.) Diminutive of Ballata. as little music as possible, respect the scenic effects and mechanical means, and drama is Ballematia. 1 e j ^ i '" dance-style. poetry or words of Ballistia. I ^°P^^ the result. Dispense with Ballet. A Madrigalian part-song with a any kind, make music subservient, but do all fa la chorus. The " Ballets " or " fa las " of that can be done with scenery and machinery, Giovanni Gastoldi [1532- 1598] the reputed and make the dramatis persona bound, caper, originator of this form of vocal music, are in and gesticulate, and ballet is the product. most cases in simple counterpoint ,— note The Ballet had its origin in the Masques, against note—but the rhythm, strongly marked which were written for and often perfqrmed and well defined, is admirably suited to the by princes and other distinguished personages. purposes of the dance which these vocal har- In England, Italy, and France, it- arose almost- monies were intended to accompany. There simultaneously out of the remains of "^ the are many examples of Ballets to be found in Masque. Count Aglio, at , invented the writings of the Elizabethan madrigal com- pieces that were at the same time pastoral, posers. mythological, allegorical, and fantastic, in Ballet (Fr.) A representation in dancing which the princes of the Court took part. and gesticulation, of some story, without words. In France Louis XIII. danced in a ballet, and The rise of the Ballet is almost coeval with his successor, Louis XIV., did the same in dancing itself, for it is difficult to believe that his turn, these ballets being portions of spec- any number of dancers could have so dis- tacles that were operatic, dramatic, and terpsi- ported themselves as to give delight to the chorean by turns or in combinations. Antoine spectators, if there had not been some definite de la Motte improved the ballet, and made it and organised arrangement. The dances distinct, and independent of other means

described as having been led by Miriam, for explanation and elucidation ; he also en- David and 's daughter, the Emmeloeia, couraged the introduction of female dancers, .the dances, the Motions of the Mimes, till then almost unknown in Europe, and from Minstrels, and Joculators, and the homely that time the ballet gradually sank from im- dances popular among the peasantry, besides portance and consideration, and became a the more stately measures favoured by people mere exhibition of artificial agility and natural of high degree, were all ballets—in which comeliness. It is not many years since it certain motions were made to the sound of was a very considerable item in the evening's music, and whose gestures and actions had entertainment at the opera in England, rival- meanings and intentions that were commonly ling in spectacular splendour the famous understood. When these dances were trans- ballets of Milan, the absence of vigour and ferred from home circles to the stage, the intellectual power in the operas produced gestures and actions made were such that being counterbalanced by the so-called glory could be readily interpreted by the lookers-on, of the ballet. But as people began to be and even when great skill was acquired by alive to the fact that contortions, dislocations, the performers in following ages, the old con- and indecent postures were the reverse of ele- ventional signs, attitudes, and motions were vating or instructive, and not really amusing, retained, that all who chose might understand. the patronage of the ballet as a distinct enter- The first ballets on the stage were those that tainment fell away and finally ceased alto- were introduced into the oratorios, masques, gether, and an attempt to revive it apart from and comedies, each being a development of and out of the course of the situations of an portions of certain entertainments, from which opera, during the season of 1871, met with so they arose in common. little encouragement that it was silently aban- The oratorio and the drama arose from the doned. The ballet was once a poem and a

ancient sacred and classical plays and the power : kings did not scorn to exhibit trained mediaeval mysteries and moralities, and cir- and practised personal skill for the edification (48 : ;

BALLETTO- -BAR. of their loyal subjects, and the exaltation of steel-wire. The Bandore is said to have been in the exercise in which they indulged ; but the invented by John Rose, of London, 1561. "improvements" of De la Motte introduced Banduira. A form of guitar, strung with an element which was at once the cause of wire instead of cat-gut. [Pandoura.] its glory and of its shame, its culmination Banja or Banjo. A stringed instrument and contempt. [Dance.] of supposed African origin, popular with the Balletto (7^) A ballet, a dance. negroes of America, and one of the most im. Ballet-master. One to whom is entrusted portant musical instruments employed by the direction of the motions of the ballet, and troupes of fictitious negroes. The instrument the order of the performers. consists of a handle, which, running the whole Balli Inglesi (It.) English dances. length, serves at once as finger-board, as sup- Balli della Stiria (It.) Styrian dances. port for the hoop, over which a skin, acting Balli Ungaresi (It.) Hungarian dances. as sounding board, is stretched, and also as a Dances in the Hungarian style. hold for the pegs which tighten and keep the Ballo (It.) A dance, a ball. strings in tune. The banjo is strung with Ballonchio (It.) [Passamezzo.] five strings, so arranged that they may be Ballonzare {It.) To dance wildly, reck- stopped in the ordinary way to vary the melody lessly, without rule. or harmony, together with an octave string Band (Ger.) A part, a volume, any thing which is never stopped. The tuning, which sewn together. may be in any key, is generally according to Band. Instrumentalists collected together the following plan for the performance of music. (i) . A coUeption of players on brass wind-instruments. Octave string. (2) String Band, (a) That portion of an orchestra which consists of players on The character of banjo music is sprightly and stringed-instruments of the violin family. well adapted for dancing, for which it is as (b) A band consisting only of instruments often used as it is for accompanying the voice. played with a bow. Bar. A line drawn from the top to the (3) Wind Band. Stromenti di fiato (It.) bottom of the stave to denote the division of That portion of an orchestra which consists the time in a piece of music, and the place of of players on flutes, , , bas- the strong accent. Each portion comprised

soons,- and horns ; but not on trumpets, trom- within two of these lines is also called a bar. bones, and other loud brass instruments, these In mediaeval music the bar, also called the being included only under the sign "tutti." lesser bar, to distinguish it from the greater (4) Wood Band. The players on the wood or double bar, was often used solely for the wind-instruments, flutes, oboes, clarinets, purpose of showing the end of a line or sen-

; but not on the , which is tence of the words, hence it was said "to give usually classifled with brass instruments. time for the whole choir together to draw " (5) Military Band. A number of musicians breath (Nievers, sur le Chant Gregorien) belonging to a regiment in the service of the whereas the two great bars or the double bar King or Queen of a country. In England, is " the most efficacious contrivance that can those who perform upon instruments pro- be thought on to remedy all the cacophonies vided by the officers of the corps to which and contrarieties in the voices of the singers, they belong, the military regulations only who without them could not guess when to recognising side drums, fifes, , and rest." (Ihid^ Mr. Chappell (" Popular Music

trumpets, as necessary ; these are supple- of the Olden Time ") remarks that the Tunes in mented by clarinets, flutes, , bassoons, the " Dancing Master," printed in 1651 in horns, , , bombardons, only a single part, have no bars, but that the " triangles, cymbals, big drums, &c., and the score of the moral play, " The four elements combination is known as a military band. (to which Dr. Dibdin has ascribed the date The band is conducted by some one skilled 15 10), is barred. He further adds, that so far in directing and arranging, who is usually as he has observed, all music in the ordinary a civilian, but the bandsmen over whom he notation, even for one voice or one instrument, presides are in every other respect the same was barred after i66q. It is probable, how- as private soldiers. Military bands are some- ever, that the regular barring of music had its times used upon the opera stage, for the origin in the system of Tablature, in which purpose of gaining an increased effect. its efficacy as a means of pointing out the (/i.) A military band. [Band § 5.] position of accent must have been generally Bandora (Fr.) [Bandore.] observed. But for a considerable period after Bandore. An English form of the ancient the introduction of the bar, its use in eccle- Greek Pandoura, having twelve strings of siastical music was very irregular, two, four. (49) BARBET CLEF. six, or even eight minims being included in a now understood is a curious compound o^ bar which, by the signature, should contain heterogeneous matter, for although it is held only four. In modern music-printing and for the purpose of encouraging national art engraving, care is taken that the bars in the in music and poetry, its judges appear to be Separate lines forming a score shall stand satisfied with the least worthy effusions com- exactly over one another. The neglect of this mon to London concert-rooms, provided they in early publications in score adds greatly to are given through the medium of the Cambrian the difficulty of reading them. tongue. Little is known of the bards in Barbet. [.] Scotland beyond the fact that they were Barbiton. An ancient Greek instrument similar in constitution to the bards in Ireland, said to have been invented by ; it who, like those of Wales, were a hereditary was in the form of a lyre, and had seven community. The Irish bards were divided strings. The name was applied to instru- into three classes, the Filhedha, the Braithea- ments of the violin class in the i6th and 17th main, and the Senachaidhe. The first sang centuries. the sacred and heroic songs, and were Barcarole. A simple melody, composed employed as heralds and counsellors, the in imitation of the songs of the Venetian second recited and expounded the laws, and gondoliers, many of which are of striking the third were the chroniclers and recorders. beauty. Apolloni Salvadore, a Venetian barber They were endowed with many privileges and fiddler. in 1720, is named as the com- and had great influence, and their power over poser of several popular tunes of this class. the minds of the people was so strong that Bard. A name given to hereditary poets severe measures had frequently to be resorted and minstrels by all the Celtic nations. In to, to check their sway. In England bardism their songs and poems the bards recorded the took a more refined and less exciting form deeds and prowess of the warriors, kings, and than that which was acceptable to those people, at festive and social gatherings ; and nations of more strictly Celtic origin. [Min- at religious assemblies they celebrated the strels.] [Ballad.] acts and fame of the gods and heroes, accom- Bardone. [Viola di Bardone.J panying their songs with the harp and -crowd Barem (Ger.) An organ-stop, consisting or . The power, reputation, and in- of closed flute-pipes of 8 ft. or 16 ft. pitch, of a fluence of the bards were very great, and the soft character of tone. favour of kings, princes, and nobles was Barginet, Berginet, Bargaret, or Ber- accorded to them. They, like the Aoidoi of geret. Shepherd's songs, to accompany , were the historians, poets, and dances. Songs relating to pastoral matters. chroniclers of their time; they incited their " A bargaret in praising the daisie. armies to courage in the hour of battle, and For, as methought, among her notes swete, " by their heroic strains roused the fury and She said, ' Si douce est le Margarite.' yalour of the warriors. In time of peace they Chaucer.—Floure and Leafe. were ambassadors, heralds, and the deposi- Baribasso. A deep bass voice. taries of all historical tradition, and of much (Fr.) A medley. A cadenza, of the learning that was at that time possessed or series of cadenzas, whose appearance forms by the community. As an institution they a design upon the music paper, " a waistcoat kept longest influence in England, Scotland, pattern" as it is called by performers. and In the Wales. last-named country their • . A deep tenor. privileges were fixed by King Howel Dha, Baritone. A . [Metal A.D. 940, and a century and a half later Wind-instruments.] Griffith ap revised Conan and reformed the Bariton, or Baryton. [Viola di Bardone.] whole system. The Eisteddvodau, as the Bariton Clarinet. An instrument used congregations of Welsh bards are called, in military bands, the tone of which is between were held from time to time until the con- the clarinet and bassoon. quest of Wales by Edward I., in 1284, when Baritone Clef. The F clef placed upon the bards were persecuted, and as some the third line of the stave. authors declare, were put to death. Although the power of the bards was broken, still their EE Eisteddvodau were encouraged by the rulers of succeeding generations, until the time of It is not now used, but was frequently em- Queen Elizabeth, who was the last monarch ployed in vocal music of the i6th and 17th who made any concessions to the bards of centuries. Purcell's Song, " Let the dreadful Wales. The preservation of such of their engines," was originally written in this clef, literature that has survived them is owing to and it was also used occasionally for horn several learned. societies who have made this parts by Handel, Cooke, and other writers in object their peculiar study. An Eisteddfod as the I 8th century.

( 50) :

BARITON BASSE FONDAMENTALE.

Bariton {Fr. a series of valves, the pegs and staples set in The Baritone voice. Baritono {It.:0 vibration the teeth of a steel comb, which Bariton voice. [Barytone.] produce the sounds. [Musical box.] Barocco (It.) "1 Unusual, singular, eccen- Barypycni(me(i.Laf.,from Gk.jiapiie deep, Barock (Ger.) \- trie, whimsical, irregular. and TTvKvoe close), (i) Lowest strings of tetra- Baroque (Fr.) ) Applied to a composition chords in the chromatic or enharmonic scale. with over-chromatic harmonies, or unrhyth- (2) In ecclesiastical music, those modes which mical melodic phrasing. have the pycnon or semitone at the bottom of Barpfeife {Ger.) [Baarpyp.] the tetrachord, e.g. Barquade {Fr.) An obsolete term for Phrygian. Hypophrygian. Barcarole, q.v. Barr6 {Fr.) In guitar or lute playing, the pressing of the fore-finger of the left hand across all the strings, so as to alter temporarily see mesopycni, oxypycni. the pitch of the instrument, the remaining Barytone voice. A voice of fuller quality fingers being at the same time engaged in than a tenor and lighter than a bass, having a forming a chord. The first finger, therefore, compass partly included in both, namely, performs the duties of a capotasto, q.v. de luth {Fr.) The bridge of the lute. Barre de mesure (Fr.) [Bar.] to Barre de rep6tition {Fr.) A double bar limits with points, marking a repeat. This is the extreme compass, and both are rarely reached. This voice has only been distinguished by name, as being of a separate character, within Barrel. A revolving cylinder of wood or the present century. Early writers indicate special clef. The metal. its existence by the use of its unmeaning, unless it be (i) Barrel-organ. An organ in which a term Barytone is Barytenor, but wooden cylinder furnished with pegs or staples, looked upon as a corruption of it was borrowed from the when turned round, opens a series of valves it is quite possible Barytone or Bardone, which occu- to admit a current of air to a set of pipes, pro- instrument tenor and bass viols. ducing a tune either in melody or harmony. •pied a place between the woice Basse-chantante, or The barrels are sometimes made moveable, Rousseau calls this as and Shield, in his " Introduction in order to obtain a variety in the tunes, Basse -taille ; having used the word Barytone, the capability of a single barrel is necessarily to Harmony," necessary to explain in a foot-note limited. Barrel organs furnished with hymn thinks it " between a tenor and a bass." and psalm tunes, or even voluntaries, were that it is a voice Mezzo soprano, or sometimes used in places of worship, but the Bas-dessus {Fr.) increased knowledge of music, even in remote second treble. har- form of the word Bass. places, has led to the introduction of the Base. Old , bass viol, monium, which has superseded the use of Bass. Low, as bass tone of voice, &c. barrel organs to a great extent. The bass or ottava {It.) At the lower octave. barrel organs is incapable of expression Bassa found {Fr.) Bass. variety, and has consequently been Basse advantage chantante {Fr.) A barytone voice. seriously monotonous. The only Basse figured bass, is its portability, , -r,- ' /E- \ 'l A belonging to the instrument chiffree {Fr.) r Basse ^^^^ ^^^^ ^j^g and this rendersitavailableforstreetmusicians, continue {Fr.) Basse j accompanying who generally hire one at a small charge, harmonies of which are expressed by numbers. the cost of the instrument (from £20 to £70) poor contrainte {Fr). [Ground bass.] being beyond their means. Many of the Basse from Basse contre {Fr.) A deep bass voice, hirers are cruelly used by the Padrone singing below the ordinary bass whom they obtain their instruments. The capable of in barrel-organ, as a street entertainment part. de cremone {Fr.) The bassoon. London, dates from about the year 1790. Basse consist Basse de hautbois {Fr.) Corno inglese. The stops in a barrel-organ generally pnncipal, Basse d'harmonie {Fr.) The . of a stopped diapason and flute or added a reed stop of Basse de viole {Fr.) The violoncello. to which is sometimes exceeds Basse de violon {Fr.) Double-bass. coarse quality. The compass rarely double {Fr.) Large double-bass. two octaves and a half. Basse figurfee {Fr.) Figured bass. Barrel of a musical box is constructed Basse (2) or similar to that of an Basse fondamentale {Fr.) Root-bass in a manner somewhat instead of opening generator. [Harmony.] organ, but is of metal, and

(51 ) BASSE RECITANTE BASSOON.

than that Basse recitante (Fr^ [Basse chantante.] pitch of which is five notes higher part given to Basse taille (Fr.) The Barytone voice. of the common bassoon. The written five notes lower Basset-horn, Corno di Bassetto {It.) it must therefore be Its written A of the clarinet than the actual sounds required. order, of a beautiful, soft, and rich quality, invented in Passau about the year 1770, and compass is sounding improved by Lotz of Presburg twelve years later. In form like a long clarinet, with a including all the intervening curved and bell-shaped metal end. The compass extends from F below Gamut to semitones. Its tone is more powerful, but less C in Altissimo sympathetic, than that of the corno inglese. Basso numerato {It.) A bass, the accom- panying harmonies to which, are indicated by numbers. With all the intermediate semitones, except Bassoon. Basson {Fr.) Fagotto {It.) A the F sharp and A flat in the lower range. reed wind-instrument of deep pitch, with a com- pass of more than three octaves from low B flat.

The music is written for it in the bass and treble clefs fifth higher real a than the sound. This compass includes all the intermediate Mozart has written with brilliant effect for semitones, with the exception of the basset-horn in his " Nozze di Figaro," in "Clemenza di Tito," and in the "Requiem." Bassetto (It.) (i) The diminutive of B9.SS0. A name sometimes given to the tenor which are as yet to be obtained only from violin. (2) A reed stop in the organ of 8 ft. instruments of improved construction. Some or 16 ft. in length. performers can produce three notes higher Bass Flute. The lowest in pitch of in- than the flat, but for all common orchestral struments of the flute family, now obsolete. B purposes they are unnecessary. The bassoon Its compass was ^ It was a flute ordinarily forms the bass or deepest tone ^ among wood wind-instruments, and is capable a bee, not a flauto traverse ; that is, it was of excellent independent effects, among which blown at the end (like a flageolet), not at a the grotesque ought not to be forgotten, as in hole in its side. In order to enable the player Beethoven's " Pastoral Symphony," and the to reach the remote holes with his fingers, a " Clown's March," in the music to the " Mid- bent tube turning upwards conveyed the air summer Night's Dream," by Mendelssohn. from his lips to the of the instru- It is customary to write for the Bassoon ment. in the Bass clef, and as the instrument is Bassgeige {Ger.) Bass Fiddle, or Violon- usually employed in pairs, one stave serves cello. for the two parts. The tenor clef is often Bass Horn. English Bass Horn, Corno employed for the higher notes of the register Basso, a kind of serpent. [Serpent.] of the Bassoon, sometimes in a separate stave. Basslaute {Ger.) [Bass Lute.] Some writers assert that the Bassoon is the Bass Lute. [Theorbo.] invention of Afranio of Ferrara in 1540, and Basso {It.) A bass singer, also the double- that he gave it the name Fagotto from its bass, and the bass part. resemblance to a bundle or fagot of sticks (his Basso buffo {It.) A comic singer, with a instrument being made of several pieces laid bass voice. together), but it was known long before under Basso cantante {It.) [Basse chantante.] the name of , Buzaine^ Courtal, Bom- Basso concertante {It.) The principal bard, or Wait. bass, that which accompanies solos and There is reason to believe that the Bassoon . is of Eastern origin, introduced into western Basso continuo {It.) A bass part figured Europe in the twelfth century, and that it is for the organ or pianoforte. an improvement of the drone-pipe of the Bag- Basso figurato (/^.) (i) Basso continuo. pipe. The Egyptian word for a pipe of deep (2) A bass part, with running passages. tone, and for the drone of the Bagpipe is, ac- Basso fondamentale {It.) The funda- cording to E.W. Lane (" Modern Egyptians"), mental ground bass, or root. Zummarah-bi-soan, and the manner in which Basson {Fr.) [Bassoon.] the word Buzaine, Buisine, is used in mediae- Basson quinte {Fr.) A bassoon, the val MSS., shows a possible connection with (52) : ; : :

BASSO OSTINATO B CANCELLATUM. this origin. The instrument was introduced human voice, having a compass ranging into the orchestra about the commencement between two octaves from lower D: of the i8th century ; for a long time it was employed to strengthen the voice parts only. Handel generally makes it double the bass voice part, or treats it as a bass to the oboe The whole of the bass voice should be pro- he has, however, made excellent use of it duced from the chest, and the most useful notes, as a solo instrument in the scene of and those generally written are between and the Witch of Endor, in his oratorio of G and tenor " Saul." C Basso ostinato (It.) Ground bass. Basso ripieno (It.) The bass of the full or chorus parts. A bass voice rarely reaches full perfection of Basspommer (Ger.) A deep-toned in- quality or sonorousness before the possessor strument of the Oboe family, precursor of the is thirty years of age, and a true bass voice Bassoon. has seldom much flexibility. Bass-Posaune (Ger.) Bass trombone. Batillus. An instrument formerly em- [Trombone.] ployed by the Armenians in their Church Bassschlussel (Ger.) The bass clef. service to supply the place of bells, which . An old instrument, now they were forbidden to use. A board struck superseded by the trombone. with a hammer. Bass . A brass instrument, a species BSton {Fr.) (i) A stick used in beating of not capable of such rapid exe- bombardon, time. (2) The method of a conductor is cution as bass ophicleides, but producing a called his bdton. (3) A pause of two or more much finer quality of tone. It has the enormous compass of four octaves from bars is also so named, e.g. a bdton of five measures or bars. (Fr.) An ornament in singing, opposed to the Cadence (^Fr.) e. g.

with all the chromatic intervals. is called a cadence, whereas the following It is sometimes treated as a transposing instrument, in which case it is in Et> or F, and its part has to be written a minor third, or major fourth higher respectively than the is a battement. [Beat.] actual sounds given above. Battere, il \lt.) The down-stroke in familiar name for the Bass Viol, (i) A beating time. violoncello. The largest and deepest in (2) Batterie {Fr.) A roll upon the side drum. chest of viols, which had five tone among a Battery, An effect in harpsichord music, and sometimes six strings, and a fretted finger-board. The manner of tuning the written : and played open strings varied according to the music to \ be played. [Battement.] Playford (Introduction to the Skill of Music) Battimento {It.) {It.) (i) In correct time. A bar. mentions three sorts of Bass viols " as there Battuta (2) {Ger.) The structure of musical are three manners of ways in playing." Bau instruments. " First, a Bass viol for consort must be one Bauernleyer {Ger.) [Hurdy-gurdy.] of the largest size, and the strings propor- Bauerpfeife {Ger.) An organ stop of 8 ft. tionable. Secondly, a Bass viol for divisions length of a small scale. must be of a less size, and the strings accord- Baxoncillo {Sp.) An organ stop like an ing. Thirdly, a Bass viol to play Lyra-way, open diapason. that is by Tablature, must be somewhat less Comic dancing songs, many than the two former, and strung proportion- Bayles {Sp.) which were written by Quevedo in the ably." of [Ballad.] The common accordatura of the six-string Spanish gipsy dialect. Basso Continuo. instrument was as follows B. C. B cancellatum (Lat.) The cancelled B.

The note B t> as altered by means of a [j or J in old music. Up to the middle of the iSth century the # frequently had the force of register of the the as now used. Bass Voice. The lowest t]

(53 ) B DUR BELLS.

B duf (Ger.) The key of Bj? major. bell. It was introduced by Mr. Hill, organ- B durum (Lat.) B natural. [B quad- builder, of'London. Its tone is remarkably ratum.] sweet, not unlike that of a Stringed instru- Bearings. Those few notes which a tuner ment, though somewhat more reedy. The accurately tunes or lays down before pro- pipes speak rapidly.

Bellicosamente {It.) 1 ceeding to adjust the whole compass of the Warlike, martial. instrument. Bellicoso {It.) ) Beat, (i) A short shake, or transient Bell metronome. A metronome in which , played or sung before the note the recurrence of a set number of beats is a bell. [Metronome.] it is desired to embellish. The beat is marked by the sound of always a semitone lower than the ornamented Bell Open Diapason. [Bell Diapason.] note. Bello'ws. In the harmonium, organ, con- Written. Played. certina, &c., that contrivance by means of which wind is supplied to the pipes, tongues, or reeds. [Organ,] Bell Piano. [.] (2) The portion of a bar of music occupied Bells. I. Musical instruments of per- by the movement or supposed movement of cussion, consisting of a series of metal basins the hand in counting time. Thus, a beat in or cups, the outline of which has from time time is equal to to materials of which f three quavers ; a beat in time been modified. The |- time is equal to a minim. bells are usually made are copper and tin, the (3) The peculiar "throbbing" heard when proportions varying in several countries and sounds not quite identical in pitch are sounded even among the manufacturers. together. [Acoustics, § 14, 15.] Bebung {Ger.) The stop in an 6rgan. Bebisation. A series of syllables recom- mended by Daniel Hitsler, a Fleming, in 1630, as a means of teaching the notes. He proposed to substitute the syllables la, be, ce, de, mi, fe, gi, for ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, si, already in use.

Becarre {Fr.) a natural, tj. Bee (Fr.)\A mouth-piece, Hi., a beak. Becco (li.) I [Flute a bee] Becco polacco (It.) A large bag-pipe. Becken (Ger.) A cymbal. The Various parts of the bells are A, the Bedon {Fr.) An obsolete term for a drum, Canons; B, the Shoulder; c, the Waist; the or tambour. thick part between d and e, the Sound Bow; E, the lip f, Begeisterung (Ger.) Spirit, excitement, Rim or ; the Clapper. enthusiasm. The following analyses of English and Begleiten (Ger.) To accompany, some foreign bells, will give a correct idea of Begleitende Stimmen (Ger.) Accom- the composition of the ancient bells. panying voices or parts. English Bells. Paris Bells. Begleitete Fuge (Ger.) A Fugue with Copper free parts. [Free parts.] Copper 8o"o 72-9 Tin 25-56 Begleitung (Ger.) Tin lo-i Accompaniment. Iron 1-54 Beitone (Ger.) Aliquottones. [Harmonics.] Zinc 5'6 Swiss Bells. Bell. [Bells.] Lead 4'3 Hour Bell. The lower termination of any tubu- Copper 75-0 Tin...... 25'o lar musical instrument which by the outward Rouen Bells. Mr. Denison recommends turning of the rim assumes the form of a bell. Copper 72-0 on theoretical grounds Fr. Pavilion, Ger. Schallstuck. Tin ,... 25-0 the following proportion Bell diapason. An organ stop consisting Zinc 1-8 Copper 76-5 of open metal pipes with bell mouths. Its Lead 1.2 Tin 23-5 tone is niore reedy and powerful than that of an ordinary open diapason. Generally of 2. The use of bells to call worshippers to- 8ft. length. gether is supposed to be of Christian origin, Bellezza (7^) Beauty of expression and but it is said that the, feast of Osiris in tone in playing and singing. Egypt was announced by the ringing ol Bell Gamba. An organ-stop, the pipes bells^ Aaron and the Jewish high priests of which are conical and surmounted by a had bells attached to their yestiU'eiits, and (54) ; :

BELLS,

Plutarch says that small bells were used in bell, the Pardon or Ave bell, the Passing bell, the " mysteries of Bacchus, and the priests of the last tolled to warn all " Christen soules Cybele at Athens employed bells in their to pray for the parting soul of the dying. rites. The Greeks sounded bells in their Bells, being thus intimately connected with camps, and the Romans indicated the hours the services of the Church, have been supposed of bathing and business by the . to possess a certain sacred character. They It is also said, that in some places large were founded with religious ceremonies, con- gongs were suspended in the air, and as secrated, baptised, and were anointed with the wind brought them together, so was the holy oil (see Schiller's " Lay "). St. Colomba, character of the sounds made, interpreted in the 6th century, made use of a bell whose as an unfavourable or favourable augury. name was " Dia Dioghaltus," or " God's ven- Trumpets were employed among the Jews to geance," to test the truth of assertions made, call the faithful to worship (Exodus xx., 13 as it was believed that the wrath of God would x., Numbers 2 ; Joel ii., 15). Plates of iron speedily overtake any who swore falsely by it. are still used in the Levant, and a plank of Pious inscriptions are frequent on bells of the wood is occasionally employed for the same middle ages, and inscriptions, not always purpose that we use bells in some of the old pious, are found on those of later date. Bells Wallachian monasteries. In the East the were often rung to allay storms, there being call to prayer is made by the Mueddin of each a special endowment belonging to Old St. mosque, who, having ascended the gallery of Paul's, " for ringinge the hallowed belle in the mad'neh or minaret, chants the "hadan" great tempestes and lightninges." The curfew or call to prayer, apparently in opposition to bell, still sounded in many parts of England the Christian use of bells. [Hadan.] and Scotland', is of more ancient practice than The introduction of bells into churches is the period usually assigned as its commence-

attributed to Paulinus, Bishop of Nola, in ment, the reign of William the Norman ; and Campania, about the year 400, but there is there are many social practices announced by an epistle of that bishop still extant in which the ringing or tolling of the church bells. he describes his church, but makes no men- 3. , or , is fre-

tion of either tower or bells ; indeed, it is quently practised when there are more than believed that towers were not constructed three bells, such changes being known by the until two centuries later. Yet it is not a little names of bob-majors, bob triples, Norwich remarkable that the general name for bells court bobs, bob-triples, and caters. was Nolae or Campanse, and hence the words The number of changes a set of bells is cap- knoll as meaning the sound of a single bell, able of, may be known by in-multiplying the and campanile a . Sabianus, who numbers of the set. Thus, three bells may ring was Pope in 604, ordered the bells to ring the six changes, 123, 132, 213, 23 i, 32 i, 31 2;

hora canonicce at the proper times during the four bells will give 24 changes ; 5 bells,

day, and Benedict, Abbot of Wearmouth, 120 changes ; 6 bells, 720 changes ; 7 bellsv

brought his bells from Italy about the year 680. 5,040 changes ; 8 bells, 40,320 changes ;

Bells were hung in towers in the East in the 9 bells,- 362,880 changes ; 10 bells, 3,628,800 gth, and in Germany in the nth century. changes; 11 bells, 39,916,800 changes; 12 Those that were in use before are supposed bells, 479,001,600 changes. To ring the

to be hand bells ; several examples, as old as changes that 12 bells are capable of, would the 6th century, are still preserved in some take 91 years at two strokes per second, while parts of Europe and the United Kingdom. a of 24 bells can make so many changes St. Patrick's bell, St. Ninian's bell, St. Gall's that it would occupy 1 17,000 billions of years bell, and others are plates of iron rivetted to ring them all. together. St. Gall's bell (about 646) is still The technical terms for the various peals, shown in the monastery of the city called by on sets of bells of different numbers, are the his name in Switzerland. In the 13th century following bells larger were cast, but it was not until the Rounds On three bells.

end of the 15th century that they began to Changes or singles , four assume great proportions. St. Dunstan, in Doubles or grandsires „ five (Bobs) Minor „ six the loth century, seems to have the credit of Triples „ seven havingestablishedthe first foundryin England, (Bobs) Major „ eight Glastonbury, Malmesbury, and other places Caters „ nine having been furnished with bells by him. (Bobs) Royal ten eleven Bells were rung not only to indicate the com- Cinques... , (Bobs) Maximus „ twelve mencement of certain services, but also were tolled to mark certain stages in those services. 4. A bell is said to be "set" when she is Thus we find mention made of the Saints or mouth upwards, at " hand stroke " when the Sanctus bell, the Compline bell, the Judas " sallie" or tuft on the rope has to be pulled,

(55 ) :

BELLS BELL FOUNDING.

in his opera at "back stroke" when the ringer has to pull clever harmonies for the orchestra deep-toned bell strikes the the end of the rope. A bell is said to be " going " Hamlet," while a " Martha,'^ uses up "when she moves her position in the change midnight hour. Flotow, in in " Jeanne d Arc, from "treble" towards that of "tenor," and a bell, as does Gounod "down" when she is changing her position tuned to the following note : from that of "tenor" towards that of "treble." A bell is said to be "behind" when she is the last of the changing bells, and at "lead" where when she is the first. Thus the progress and there are numerous other instances " " used with from lead to behind is said to be " going bells of all grades of tone have been up," and from behind to lead is called "going skill and effect. down." " Dodging " is moving a place back- Bell founding. The shape and propor- wards out of the ordinary hunting course. A tions of the intended bell having been decided bell is said to be " hunting up" when she is upon according to a certain scale, the first pulled after the one which previously pulled part of the process of casting is commenced, after her; A bell is said to " make a place" by constructing an inner mould called the core, when she strikes two blows in succession at by which the form of the inside of the bell is any one place. To "lie a whole pull" is determined. This core has a foundation of synonymous with " making a place." Two rough brickwork or iron, hollow in the centre, blows at " lead " and " behind " are a part afterwards plastered over with loam or soft " of hunting," in making these therefore a bell clay. A guage of wood, called a crook, made " " " is not said to be making a place." Bob to revolve or sweep round on a central pivot " and " singles are words used to produce a by the hand of a workman, gives the clay the certain series of changes by disturbing the exact form required. This process will be at ordinary system of " hunting." The full once understood'on reference to the following knowledge of the meaning of these and many diagram, a is the core, b the crook, which is other technical terms used in ringing can fastened to c, the pivot on which it revolves only be learnt in the . The method of Doubles named after Stedman (1640) is, in

principle, as follows : while three of the bells are ringing changes, the other two are dodging behind, but at the completion of each set of six changes one bell comes down from behind to take part in the changes, one, of course, at the same time going up behind to take part in the dodging. 5. Bells are occasionally employed as or- chestral instruments—small bells, tuned to a certain scale, being most favoured — as in Victor Masse's " Les noces de Jeannette," a whole peal of small bells being used with great effect. These, as in Mozart's " Magic Flute," are so arranged as to be played with keys, like a pianoforte. [Glockenspiel.] Auber employs a single bell in the finale to " Fra Diavolo." Rossini has introduced a bell The core is hardened by a fire made in its sounding hollow, and when it is sufficiently " set," it is covered with grease and tan, over which is placed a coating of haybands and loam, of in the opening of the second act of " William the thickness of the intended bell, and upon Tell." Donizetti also, in the finale to " Lucia this the cope or outer mould is shaped. When of di Lammermoor," has written for a bell tuned this is dried it is removed, the thickening to the same note. Meyerbeer, in his " Hu- haybands and loam which represented the guenots," employs a bell in shape of the bell to be cast, is destroyed, and the two moulds, the core and the cope, are S examined and finished. " with clarinets and bassoons. In ," The core is sometimes made on an iron in what is popularly known as the " Goat foundation, instead of brickwork, in which case the Trio," a bell with the note it can be dried in a furnace, instead of by fire in its hollow. The cope having been care- *== the core, the head and the i fully adjusted over are then fitted on, is used. Ambroise Thomas has a series of staple to hold the clapper (56) —

BELLY B QUADRO. and the whole mould is firmly imbedded in the largest peal of bells in England, the greater the earth, leaving only the holes at the top number of which were cast in 1676, have the visible. following weights, diameters, and tones ; WEIGHT.

The above diagram shows the position of mould ready for the metal, a is the core, b the cope, f the channel for the metal to run in, E the hole for the air and gases to escape during the casting, and the thick black line the section of the bell. When the metal is quite ready, the furnace-door is opened, and the molten mass rushes down a channel, pre- viously prepared, into the moulds sunk in the pits, and excepting mishaps, from insecure " bedding," the splitting of the cope, or other accidents, the bell is cast, and, when cold, is dug from the pit, the clay mould destroyed, and the bell is ready for the next process, that of tuning. The tuning is effected by means o^ a lathe and some simple machinery. If the bell requires sharpening, the diameter is lessened in proportion to its substance, if it is too sharp, the sound-bow is thinned by the

same means ; but, as a rule, bells are now so accurately cast, that little if any tuning is necessary after the bell leaves the mould. It is stated in " Knight's Encyclopedia, 1854," that the German bell-founders made the vari- ous dimensions of the bell to bear certain ratios to each other. The thickest part where the hammer strikes is called the " Sound Bow." If this thickest be called one, then the diameter of the mouth equals 15, the diameter of the top or shoulder 7^, the height equals 12, and the weight of the clapper -^ of the weight of the bell. Denison recommends that the sound bow of the three or four larger bells of a peal should be of the thickness of a thirteenth of the dia- meter, and that the smaller bells may gradually increase in thickness up to the twelfth in a peal of six, the eleventh in a peal of eight, and to the tenth in a peal of ten or twelve, greater thickness impeding the freedom of the sound. The bells of the Cathedral at Exeter, one of :

BEQUADRO BIS.

' curved line, —~, a sign that signs of \> and C{ are of general appli- Bind, (i) A of the cation. which, when placed over two notes same name or same pitch (enharmonically sus- changed), directs that the two are to be occurrence Berceuse (Fr.) A cradle song. tained as one. It is of frequent Suspension. Bergomask. Burgomask. Berga- at points of Syncopation and tnasca. A lively dance in triple time, for two clumsy performers, in imitation of the dances of the country people of Bergamo, who were considered the least graceful of the Italians.

" Will it please you to see our epilogue, or to hear a " Bergomask dance, between two of our company ? Shakespeare.

Bes (Ger.) The note B double flat. I

Besaiten (Ger.) To string an instrument, Bewegung {Ger.) Motion. Bhat. A Hindu Bard.

Bianca {It.) A minim, ez). The -eohite note, as opposed to the J, or black note (nero). Bichord. Having two strings to each note.

Bicinium (Lat.) A duet, from bis and Syncopation. catto. " Cum duo canunt, hicinium appellatur; curved line is placed over two notes, cum multi, chorus." When a the name or pitch, it is called a Bifara [Lat.) An organ-stop, with two not of same directs that they are to be played pipes to each note, producing a tremulant Slur, and smoothly, e.g. effect. [Vox Angelica.] Bilancojel. An Indian flute with seven holes, played by a mouthpiece. BimmoUe (7i.) aflat,t>. [See B Quadra- that the 'horizontal tum.] It is to be regretted introduced by Sir S. Bennett as a Bina, or Vina. An Indian guitar, with a line W. confusion can exist between long finger board, and a gourd attached to Bind, so that no has not been generally each end. Seven strings or wires wound the Bind and Slur, round pegs in the usual way are attached to adopted, e.g.: the finger board, four on the surface, and three at the sides. There are about twenty , some standing up as high as an inch from the finger board; these are fastened •with wax, and the performer regulates the positions of them at his pleasure. In the performance one gourd is rested on the left the other on the right hip. Its shoulder, and (2) A Brace {Fr., Accolade) which binds scale consists of a series of small intervals together the separate parts of a score. lying between a note and its octave, in the Binde {Ger.) [Bind.] bass-stave. Bindebogen (Ger.) Thebind-bow. [Bind.] Bindung {Ger.) Syncopation, suspension, so called because the notes fonning it are bound, or at least might be so written. Bindungszeichen {Ger.) A slur or bind. Birn {Ger.) That portion of a clarionet or similar instrument in which the mouth-piece Binary Form. The form of a movement is inserted, so called from its pear-like shape. which is founded on two principal themes or Bis {Lat.) Twice, (i) A direction that subjects. [Sonata Form.] the passage over which it is placed shall be Binary Measure. Common time. [Tonic- twice played or sung. Its use is generally of Sol-fa.] limited to short passages, marks repeat (58) BISCHERO BOMBARDO. being written for a long repetition, It is taking the credit to himself, introduced it into placed under or over a slur, e.g. : Germany. In Spain and France the method was proposed by Pietro de Ureno and John Lemaire, but without success. To the last- named musician the addition of the syllable Si for the leading note is attributed. Bobisa- (2) Again. Encore. tion was accepted by some musicians and Bischero {It.) The peg, or pin, with which rejected by others, and the result was a petty the strings of an instrument are secured. war, which lasted until the commencement of

Biscroma (It.)^ . . k the 1 8th century. Hitzler, a few years later, semiquaver, ^\ Biscrome (Fr.)] ^ suggested the use of the syllables la, be, ce, Bisdiapason. The interval of a double de, me, fe, ge—this system he called bebisa- octave, or fifteenth. tion or labecedation ; and Graun recommended Bissex. A kind of guitar with twelve da, me, ni, po, tu, la, ba, from which his plan strings {Ger. Zwolfsaiter), invented by Van- was called damenisation. hecke in 1770. Of the twelve strings six Bob major. Bob maximus, Bobs. [Bells.] were over the finger-board, six below, hence Bocal {Fr.) The mouth-piece of the horn, the name twice-six. Its compass was three serpent, trombone, &c. and a half octaves. Bocca {It.) The mouth. Con bocca chiusa, Bis unca [Lat.) A semiquaver ^, or with closed mouth, humming. note with two hooks. Bocca ridente {It.) Smiling mouth, the Bit. A small piece of tube, generally fur- position of the mouth needful for the pro- nished with two raised ears. It is used for duction of pleasing tone. supplementing the crook of a trumpet, cornet- Bocchino (7^.) A mouth-piece of wind a-piston, &c., so as to adapt the instrument instruments. to a slight difference of pitch. Bockpfeife {Ger.) Bagpipe.

I Fantastically, won- Bockstriller {Ger.) A goat-like tremolo Bizzarramente (7i.) \ derfuUy. upon one note, a bad shake. [.] Bizzarria {It.S < Singularity, affecta- Boden {Ger.) [Body.] box of a string Bizzarro (It.) j tion. Body. The resonance part of a wind instrument ( Odd, droll. instrument. That Blanche (Fr.) A minim j [Bianca.] which remains after the removal of mouth- Blanche point6e (Fr.) A dotted minim. piece, crooks, and bell. Blasebalg (Ger.) The bellows of an Bogen {Ger.) Bow. organ. Saxon bles-belg, a wind-bag. Bogenclavier {Ger.) [Tetrachordon.] Blase-instrument {Ger.) Wind in- Bogenfiihrung {Ger.) The art of play- strument. Flute, oboe, bassoon, cornet, ing with a bow upon stringed instruments. trumpet, trombone, &c. Bogenstrich {Ger.) The stroke of the Blase-musik {Ger.) Music for wind bow. instruments. Bolero {Sp.) A Spanish dance in triple Blatt {Ger.) A vibrating tongue or blade. measure with strongly-marked accent, also [Reed.] called Cachuca. It is accompanied with Blech-instrumente {Ger.) [Metal wind singing and castanets, and the performer instruments.] assumes in the course of the dance all the excited by B mol {Fr.) The note Bb. various feelings supposed to be' highest B moll {Ger.) The key Bl' minor. love, from the greatest shyness to the [Chica.] B moUe {Lat.) The note Bb. c.f. B quad- ecstasy. {Fr.) reed stop raturn. Bombard. Bombarde A pedal regis- Bobibation or Bocedisation. Solfeggi on the organ, usually among the a taught by Huberto Walraent at the end of ters, of large scale, rich tone, and often on of wind. the 1 6th century for scale practice, which heavy pressure small bombardo, q.v. were bo, ce, di, ga.la, mi, ni. [See Bebisation.] Bombardino {It.) A instru- Bobisation or Bocedisation, in which the Bombardo {It.) A mediaeval wind the oboe, of which it syllables bo, c6, di, ga, lo, ma, ni were sub- ment, the precursor of and coarse species. stituted for those attributed to Guido, was was no doubt a large these instru- introduced and taught in many schools in The word Pommer, applied to the Italian name. Flanders, and so this peculiar use came to ments, was a corruption of or shawm (GeT.Schalmey) was be called Belgian solmisation. Walraent's The chalameau method was adopted in Italy in 1599 by the smallest of this cla^s, the bombardone the oboes, and bassoons, now Henri de la Putte, who wrote an elaborate largest. Clarinets, so clearly defined, grew out of one common Latin treatise in defence of it ; and a few parentage. clarinet has but one vibrating years later Calwitz, ignoring its invention and The

(59 ) BOMBARDON BOW.

scale reed ; the oboe and bassoon double vibrating stop. It was formerly made of a large reeds. in England, but from a better knowledge Bombardon. A brass instrument, in tone of scientific principles organ builders are now not unlike an ophicleide. It is not capable of able to produce a strong and pure body of rapid execution. The compass is tone from a pipe of moderate scale. As a rule, it is important that it should be free from a preponderance of harmonics or over- tones, but sometimes they are purposely produced with the fundamental note, in which Music for it is written without transposition, case the stop is called quintaton, bec^use,the it is although in F. first harmonic or over-tone of a stopped pipe Bombaulius, jiofifiavXioe {Gk.) A facetious is its twelfth, or octave fifth. Hence a name for a bag-piper. A pun on the words was sometimes said to h&fifthy. mikrirfie, a flute-player, and /3oft/3wXioc, a buz- Bourree [Fr.) A dance tune in common zing insect, whence our word, bumble-bee ; time,said by Hawkins to come from Auvergne. c.f., Latin, Bombus. Other writers give Biscay as its birthplace. Bombyx {Gk.) fionjiv^. A Greek flute, The earliest mention of it is probably about perhaps so named from its supposed resem- 1580. It is still popular with the peasants blance to the silk-worm. It was probably of Lower Brittany. It often forms one of a reed-instrument of powerful tone. The the movements of the earlier Sonata. following illustration is given by Burney from Boutade {Fr.) A dance which was sup- a sarcophagus in the Capitoline Museum, at posed to be impromptu. Rome. Bow. An instrument of wood and horse- hair, employed to set the strings of the violin, &c., in vibration. The bow, originally curved, as its name implies, has been subject to many changes of shape from time to time, from a Bones. Four pieces of the ribs of horses large curve to an almost flat form. or oxen, held in the hands and struck together for the purpose of marking time, in accompa- Fig. niment to the voice or an instrument. The bones are of ancient use in England, and are alluded to by Shakespeare in the fourth act of "AMidsummer Night's Dream, "as forming one means of rustic music. And in figures designed by Inigo Jones for the Court Masques one is re- presented playing upon knicky-knackers ofbone Fig. 2. or wood. The word knicky-knackers, by which the bones are known to the country people, may have its origin from the word " nakeres." In Strutt's " Sports and Pastimes," a payment is recorded as being made tojanino leNakerer, Fig. 3- among the minstrels of King Edward II. The nakerer was probably the drummer; but, as the minstrels frequently indulged in burlesque music, Janino may have been the performer

on that primitive orrusticinstrumentjthebones. Fig. 4. Bon temps de la mesure {Fr.) The accented portion of the bar. Bordone {It.) [Bourdon.] [Viola di Bar- done.] Boulou. A harp used by the negroes of Fig. 5- Senegambia and Guinea, in shape like the asr* Oriental harp. Its strings are of fibre. Bourdon (Fr.) (i) A drone bass, a The bow shown in fig. i is that still used burden such as that produced by a bagpipe, with the of Algeria. Fig. 2 is given by or a hurdy-gurdy. [Burden.] (2) An organ Gerber from a MS. of the 8th or gth century. stop, consisting of stopped wooden pipes, The bow now used for the violin is about generally of 16 ft. tone. Sometimes, but 29 inches in length (almost straight, but rarely, the upper part is of metal. It is with a slight curve inwards, not outwards, as found on manuals as a "double" stop, and in the older bows), the violoncello bow being a also on the pedal organ as a soft foundation- little shorter, fig. 5. Christopher Simpson(i676) (60) .

BOW BOWING. says that twenty-seven inches was the length Bow-hand. The term is employed by of the bow in his time, the "sonata bow," fig. 3, violinists to describe the power and skill with according to tradition, being only twenty-four which a player produces the tone of his inches, the common " fiddle-stick " being instrument. still shorter. The form of the bow, which was Bowing. The art of managing the bow, anciently employed for all stringed instru- so as not only to bring out the best tone the ments of the violin kind, known now as the instrument is capable of, but also so to phrase " Corelli bow," fig. 4, is to a certain extent the passages played that the best possible preserved in the double-bass bow as at present character may be imparted to the music. employed in England. The importance both to a violinist, and a Most of our stringed-instruments can be composer of music for the violin, of a thorough traced to an Eastern source, but as the earliest knowledge of the art of bowing, cannot be figure of the bow is found in MSS. relating to overrated. By varying the system of bowing, this country, it has been supposed that it is of a simple musical sentence may be changed in British origin. There are many representa- its character, almost indefinitely. Formerly, tions of it in MSS. as early as the Anglo- very little attention was paid to this subject, Saxon period (see " Sandy's History of the the system of bowing being left very much to Violin," pp. 52, 53, &c.), and later through the discretion of the players, who only occa- successive generations, besides existing speci- sionally had such general directions as legato mens of actual ancient bows, all of which par- or staccato. There always, however, existed take of the bowed character, as seen in fig. i certain traditional rules, e.g. that the down- The curved bow was still in fashion until the bow should be used at the first beat of a bar, death of Handel, if any trust is to be placed or where any great emphasis was required (as in contemporary pictures and drawings. in some cases of syncopation); also, that The little that is known of the early bows where no directions are given, the passage gives the notion that they were incapable of should be bowed, that is, the notes should be

producing anything like delicacy of tone ; and alternately played by an up and down bow. it was not until the early part of the 17th But it is evident that in simple music, of triple century, when violin-playing began to be cul- measure, these rules will clash, for, alternate tivated, that we find that any attempt was bowing will lead to the recurrence of an up- made to improve either the form of the bow bow on every alternate down-beat. Hence, or the means of stretching the horse-hair, even if an excellent band is playing music up so that an even pressure might be obtained. to the date of, and including that by Handel, it The alteration from the bowed form is said to must have often been observed that the bowing have been made after a suggestion by Taftini is far from being uniform. In modern music, [1692-1770]. There is every reason to believe every direction is given to the performers that the improvement in violin-playing due to which is requisite for the production of abso- him could only be effected by means of a better lute uniformity, and more than this, the various bow than the clumsy one of his time. The effects which are capable of production by the earliest improvement was made when a metal different systems of bowing are used as part band, with teeth-like edges, was introduced, of a composer's material. The prominent with the design of regulating the position and features in modern bowing are the more fre- tension of the hair at or near the handle. This quent antithesis between legato and staccato, helped to prevent the hair assurning the cord- and the use of at least three kinds of the latter. like form which players found to be awkward When notes have the ordinary dot placed

and clumsy. But it was reserved for Fran9ois above them they are bowed staccato ; when Tourte [1747-1833] to devise the plan of keep- the dots are under a slur, they are played with ing "the hair flat by means of a clasp." one bow (that is by the movement of the bow Tourte also introduced the screw and button in one direction) the short length of the sounds for slackening or tightening the hair at plea- being brought about by keeping the bow always sure, and was the first to choose -wood lying on the string, so that any movement of as a material in bow-making. It was the the bow which has produced a sound shall be father of Tourte who attempted the first im- followed by absolute silence. The third kind provements in bow-making, but it was the of staccato is produced by holding the bow as son above-mentioned who introduced the most lightly as possible and allowing it almost to valuable inventions. The bows of the younger dance upon the string. In this manner rapid Tourte are almost as much sought as those of passages may be played either by one bow up the elder Dodd [1705-1810], who lived to the or down, br by an alternate bowing, during great age of 105 years, but the works of the which the movement of the bow at right angles last-named are most highly valued. Panormo, to the string is so slight that it seems to rise Tubbs, and Chanot are counted among the and fall almost perpendicularly. A favourite chief of modern bow-makers. division of four rapid notes is to make two

(61 ) : : : ;

BOWING BRAWL.

not only legato and the following two staccato. The The quality of tone produced depends pressure exer- well-known Var. II. of Beethoven's Sonata for on the nature and quantity of strings, but also Violin, known as the " Kreutzer," is a good cised by the bow upon the of impact. illustration of this upon the position of ' the point bridge {suV Thus, if played very close to the brightness ponticello), the tone is of peculiar and shrillness; as the bow is used further from the bridge, the tone passes through a stage of great purity and strength, until, at close proximity to the finger-board, it becomes per- soft and somewhat dull. The practised The effect which results from moving the former chooses that part of the string capable bow on pass- an unaccented part of the bar is most of producing the tone best suited to the striking and beautiful, forth e.g. (from the same age he is playing, and he draws it with Sonata) that part of bow most suitable for the purpose. As a general rule, from the heel to about the middle of the bow, is the part naturally used from the ior forte or sforzando passages ; and middle to the point for those of a more delicate and in the following (Beethoven Symphony, character. But actual experience is the only No. 9) method of learning the intricacies and beauties of the art of bowing. Boyau (Fr.) Cat-gut strings. B natural. The name of B quadra- tum or B square quadratum {Lai.) B was given by reason quadrum (Lat.) B of its shape, which Groups of three notes are often divided into quarre {Fr.) B was originally that two legato and one staccato, e.g. : of a gothic B. [B cancellatum.] Brabangonne. The Belgian patriotic song first sung at the time of the revolution less often into one staccato and two legato, of 1830. The words were written by an actor e.g.: named Jenneval, at that time engaged at the theatre at , the music being set by a singer named Campenhout. Upon the ^ ^ ' * * '» -r-^ ^ J J death of Jenneval at Berghem his mother was allowed a pension of 2400 fr. Campenhout notes out of eight are often made stac- Two was appointed director of the Royal Chapel. cato, e.g. : Brace, (i) A mark connecting two or more staves together.

1^m

(2) The leather slides upon the cords of a The above few examples may serve to give drum, used for raising or lowering the tone some idea of the inexhaustible resources of by tightening or loosening the head. the art of bowing. It will of course be under- Bransle (Fr.) Brawl. stood that what is here said of the violin Brawl. An old round dance in which the applies equally to the viola and violoncello. performers joined hands in a circle. A country But, in consequence of the thickness of the dance. strings, the double-bass is not so capable of " Then first of all he doth demonstrate plain rapid contrasts of bowing as the rest of its The motions seven that are in nature found, family. In studies and exercises it is usual Upward and downward, forth, and back again. this side, to that, turning round now to direct a down-bow by the sign r— ; and To and and 1 Whereof brawls he doth compound, an up-bow by '^. The French terms corres- a thousand Which he doth teach' unto the multitude, ponding to these signs are tiri (draw) pousse ; And ever with a turn they must conclude." (push),, sometimes abbreviated by p and t. Sir John Davies. Orchestra, 1607.

(62 ) BRATSCHE BREVE.

The brawl and the bransle were the same dance. Douce gives an account of " le branle du bouquet,' from " Deux dialogues du nouveau langage Fran9ois, Italianize," Anvers, 1579, in which, kissing the whole of the ladies, by each of the gentlemen in turn, seems to have been one of the chief features in the dance. The following Braule from Delaborde's specimens (of the 15th or i6th century) shows

the rhythm of this dance :

i: r, J J ^^-p^^^-^^^^ :

BRETT-GEIGE .

two centuries. The Semibreve is now our will. Shakespeare, " TroilUs and Cressida," recognized unit, the Breve being a double note Act iii. sc. I rare occurrence. and of But these changes " Fair prince, here is good broken music." have been a slow growth, not sudden altera- Also " Henry V," Act. ii. sc. i ; "As you tions of existing opinions or practices. like it," Act i. sc. 2. Brett-geige. Bret-Geige (Ger.) A pocket Brontium {Gk.) Ppovre'iov. A contrivance fiddle ; hence, Fr. pochette, Gex.Tdschengeige. for imitating thunder, used in the Greek It. sordino, from the small quantity of tone theatre. Sheets of copper were laid out in it is capable of producing. Eng. kit. the hyposcenium over which' were rolled Bridge. A piece of wood which, on in- bladders filled with pebbles. struments having a resonance-box, performs B rotundum {Lat.) B flat. h^j See the double duty of raising the strings above ^ the belly, and of terminating at one end their B cancellatum. vibrating portion. In instruments played Brummeisen or Maultrommel {Ger.) with the bow, the bridge is arched, in order to Jew's-harp. From Maul, the mouth. [Jew's- allow the bow to impinge upon any one string harp.] without touching others. In instruments, Bruscamente {It.) Coarsely, roughly, such as the guitar and pianoforte, its upper strongly acpented. edge runs parallel to the belly. In violins, . Bucina {Lat.) A crooked horn the material and adjustment of the bridge are or trumpet, tuba being the straight trumpet. of great importance. Some instruments re- It was used as a signal for changing the quire a bridge made >of coarse-grained wood, night-watches, hence the expressions ad pri- others of close-grained. It stands on two mam bucinam, secundam, &c., at the first and

legs ; that on the right hand should rest on second watches. Public assemblies were the belly at a short distance behind the sound, also summoned by it in early Roman times. post. The legs should lie flat on the surface Poets and sculptors have represented of the belly, in order that the vibrations of as blowing through a bucina, from bucinum, the strings should be duly transferred to the a shell called the sea-trumpet. resonance-box. The tone of an instrument is Buccinator. A muscle situated in the largely influenced by the position of the bridge, fleshy part of the cheeks. It is so palled and only great experience and nice handling because, when the cheeks are filled with air, can discover where it is best set up. the contraction of the buccinator muscles Brillante {It. and Fr.) Brilliant, in a forces it out. It derives its name from showy sparkling style. buccinare, Lat., to blow a trumpet. " Brillenbasse {Ger.) Spectacle basses," Buccolica {It.) "I Rustic, a la hucolique, music for the drum, so called from its resem- {Fr.) in a rustic Bucolique J manner. Biichse {Ger.) The boot or foot of an blance to a pair of spectacles, g): ^J***p^ organ pipe.

~ ~ " Brindisi {It.) A melody in triple time of Buffet {Fr.)~ An organ case. Key-board a florid character, so arranged as to exhibit case. the change from the chest to the head voice Buffa {It.) fern.I. \1 C(Comic. Aria buffa, in rapid succession, something similar to the Buffo {It.) mas.s. I) a humorous melody; German jodl, q.v. The air " Libiamo" in , a comic opera. In mediaeval Verdi's " La Traviata," is called a brindisi. Latin buffa meant a slap on the face, and in Brio, con {li.) With spirit, vigour, and Italian huffare means to blow wind through

force. the mouth ; c.f. Scotch buffie, puffed. Brioso {It.) Joyfully, vigorously, forcibly. Buffone {It.) A comic singer in the opera. Brise {Fr.) [Broken chords, .] Buffonescamente {It.) In a burlesque Brisk. Lively. A term frequently used or humorous style. by writers of the last century before the Bugle, (i) A hunting-horn of a straight general adoption of the term vivace. or curved form. (2) A copper instrument of Broderies {Fr.) Ornaments with which the horn quality of tone, but of less compass, it was the fashion in a past age to cover any furnished with keys. The tone is sweet, powerful, and distinct; it has rarely .been em- simple melody ; these were generally left to the caprice of the performer, until Rossini set ployed in the orchestra. There are bugle the fashion of writing those ornaments which horns in C, B flat, and E flat, each capable he wished his music to bear. of producing its generator and 7 harmonics. Broken cadence. An interrupted cadence. The ventil-horn is an improvement upon the Broken chords. [Arpeggio.] bugle. The word Bugle, from the Anglo- Broken music. Probably music played Saxon buge, to bend or curve, was anciently on , guitars, or , because the sounds applied to many things of a curved shape, of these instruments cannot be sustained at thus, the head of a bishop's crozier was called (64) —

BUONACCORDO BYSSYNGE SONGES. the bugle, and the crozier itself the bugle-rod. L *J The handle of a kettle, basket handles, and a Burlando. Burlescamente, ) ^ peculiar sort of elongated glass-bead are each Burlesca {It.) A jest, a movement in a called by the name bugle. Some writers de- jocular style, c.f. scherzo. , rive the word from bowgle or bougie, a bull, on the ground that the earliest horns were {It.) A comic operetta, a farce bull's horns, and that the earliest representa- interspersed with songs. tions of hunting horns are in shape like bull's Busaun. Busain. Buzain A reed- horn. [Metal wind instruments.] stop on the organ. Generally of 16 ft. length, Buonaccordo {It.) A small triangular and on the pedal organ. Its quality of tone spinet for the use and amusement of chil- is soft. It is not improbable that this word is dren, the notes of which were made small to connected with bassoon. suit the length of their span. Bussone {It.) An obsolete wind-instru- Buonamente [It.) Justly, truly. ment, c.f. bassoon. Buona nota {It.) Accented note. Buon gusto {It.) In good taste. Button, (i) A small round piece of leather Burden, (i) The chorus or refrain of a which, when screwed on the tapped wire of a it place. song. [Ballad.] (2) The drone of the bag- tracker, prevents from jumping out of The keys of the first-made pipe. (3) The tune sung as an accompaniment [Organ.] (2) lo a dance when there were no instruments. . [Accordion.]

" Foot it featly here and there, Buxus. Buxea tibia {Lat.) A flute made And let the rest the burden bear." of boxwood. " " Belike it hath some burden then And clap us into Light 0' love, that goes without a " Tympana vos buxusque vocant Berecyntia matris burden- Idseae."—Virg. M. ix. 6ig. Do you sing it, and I'll dance it." Shakespeare. " This sompnour bear to him a stiff bordoune Byssynge songes {early Eng.) LuUa- Was never trompe of half so gret a soun." Chaucer. byes, cradle songs.

(65) -CADENCE.

C. (i) The note Ut in the Guidonian (2) Tjh^e.end of a phrase, forrnerly called a system and in modern French and Italian fellj_either'in melody. or harmony. nomenclature. " That strain again — (2) The letter whose original form was It had a dying fah."—Shakespeare. afterwards modified into the C clef. principal forms of cadence — (3) The first note of the Hypo-Eolian (3) There are four mode. The first note of the Ionian mode. in harmony, the whole, or authentic, the the plagal cadence. — (4) The first, or key note of the modern half, the interrupted, and normal scale, so called because if it be desired When the last chord—the major or minor to write down the scale now used, C is the chord of the key note—is preceded by the major only note from which the series can start chord of the dominant, such cadence is called unless sharps or flats be added. whole or perfect. If the last chord is the dominant and is preceded by the chord of the — (5) A capital letter C signifies the note in the second space of the bass stave (TenorC). tonic, the cadence is called half or imperfect. of the*'°phrase is other A small c signifies the note one octave above When the last chord this, middle C. [Pitch.] than the tonic chord and is preceded by that of the dominant, the cadence is said to be [Sp.) {Lit. a little horse.) A interrupted, false^ or deceptive. The cadence, melody in rondo form, at first sung simply, called plagal' is'that in which the chord of afterwards with variations, probably so called the tonic is preceded by the major or minor because accompaniments to were chord of the subdominant. The whole ca- in triplet form like the noise made by a horse dence is used to conclude most modern cantering. music ; the half and the interrupted cadence Cabinet d'orgne (Fr.) Organ case. in the progress of a harmonised melody. Cabinet Pianoforte. An old-fashioned The plagal cadence was frequently employed upright pianoforte, about six feet in height. as a close by the old contrapuntal writers. [Pianoforte.] Cabiscola (Lat.) A corruption of the Whole or Perfect Cadences. Half or Imperfect Cadences. words caput scholas. The prsecentor in a choir (Prsecentor). In Narbonne and many parts of Italy, the office of capischol was held by the Dean.

Caccia (It.) Hunting, (i) Music accom- panied by horns, or in praise of field sports, is Interrupted, False or Deceptive Cadences. said to be alia caccia, in the hunting style. (2) Instruments used in hunting are called da caccia, as ohoe da caccia, hunting oboe, a

large kind of oboe ; corno da caccia, hunting horn. Cachuca {Sp.) A Spanish dance. [Bolero.]

Cacophony {Gk.) "j Harsh sounding music Cacophonie(Fr.) \ —not necessarily incor- rect, Cacofortia {It.) J but often treated as though it were, because of its unusual appeal to imperfect judgment. The word is, however, generally used in a bad sense. By some authors, cadences are divided into

Cadence. (i) A vocal or instrumental two kinds, perfect and imperfect ; the authentic

shake or trill, run or division, introduced as and plagal being considered perfect ; all other an ending, or as a means of return to the cadences, imperfect. From another point of first subject. view cadences have been divided into simple 66 ( ) : : ; '

CADENCE IMPARFAITE CADENZA. and compound; a cadence being simple when display, and hence the added cadenza was both the penultimate and final chords which often so inappropriate and incongruous, espe- form it are plain common chords ; and com- cially in vocal music, that composers felt pound when suspensions or other devices are bound to write down all the ornaments or introduced, e.g. : embellishments they considered their music capable of bearing. Purcell is said to have Simple Cadence. Compound Cadence. so acted with regard to many of his songs and it has been supposed that the runs or divisions so common in music of the i8th century were introduced as concessions to the custom of the time of ornamenting a plain melody. Every performer considered him- self at liberty to alter an air to suit his own A series of cadences can be constructed by peculiarities, and singers were estimated ac- making any one of the relative chords (or its in- cording to their vocal agility. An extract versions) precede the final tonic chord, a from a diary kept at Rome in 1697, by a relative chord being a common chord which young Scotch gentleman, speaking of Corelli can be made up out of the notes of any given and his playing, says : " This is his manner scale. The relative chords of are therefore C in adagios, to which he adds innumerable D minor, E minor, F major, G major, A graces ; not crowded in confusion as some minor, but not B major or minor, as there is do, but gentle, easy and sliding, and suited no F in the key of C. shall, therefore, jf We withal to the composition of the other parts, get this series which no man but he who has taste and knowledge of the composition, can perform." When a great master in art sets the example, followers are always found, and what is pleas- ing in a man of genius becomes the reverse when imitated. Although cadenzas were D to c. E to c. FtoC. GtoC. AtoC. fashionable in the time of Handel, instances of fully written examples by him are rare. And from the relative chords of the minor The conclusion of the duet, " O lovely peace," scale in " Judas Maccabseus," is one of the few specimens he has left. Many of the songs in his oratorios were constantly so changed by the singers by means of graces, notes, and turns, that their form was completely dis- guised. But while the custom existed there were not wanting some musicians who con- Eb to c. FtoC. GtoC. Ab to c. stantly protested against what they considered It will be observed that there is no relative the ill-usage of an author's ideas, forgetting chord on the second or seventh degree of the that the composer, probably knowing the bad minor mode owing to the imperfection of habit of his singers, had constructed his melo- the interval of the fifth. For further infor- dies so that they might not suffer by the mation see Stainer's "Theory of Harmony." overlading of fioriture. Rubinelli the singer, Cadence imparfaite (Fr.) An imperfect on his first appearance in England, was cen- cadence. sured for enibellishing and changing his airs. Cadence parfaite {Fr.) A perfect cadence. On his second appearance in this country, Cadence perl6e {Fr.) A brilliant cadence. he determined, to sing without introducing a Cadence rompue (Fr.) A broken or in- single ornament not written, and so fickle was terrupted cadence. the taste of the time (c. 1780), that when he Cadenz (Ger.) [Cadence.] sang " Return, O God of Hosts," from " Sam- Cadenza [It.) (i) A passage introduced son," in Westminster Abbey, his hearers towards the close of the first or last move- thought the song and his style of singing ment of a concerto, either actually extempore alike insipid. or of an impromptu character. (2) A running The omission of ornaments in a musical passage at the conclusion of a vocal piece. performance was a matter for surprise a cen- Solo performers in times past were accus- tury earlier than that just named. Richard tomed to display their skill and invention in Lygon, in his "History of Barbadoes, 1687," a final flourish, apparently extempore, but describes his satisfaction at hearing a min- often the result of careful study and prepa- strel sing a song, " savouring much of an- ration. In some cases, however, the attain- tiquity — no graces, double relishes, trillos, ment of the performer was the object of the grupos, or piano -fortes, but plain as a pack-

( 67 ) CADENZA D'INGANNO 9A IRA. staff; his lute, too, was but of ten strings, the accompanying performers may know when so that the rarity of this antique piece pleased it has been begun ; and it is also customary me beyond measure." to make a long shake at the end of the ca- Cathedral chants, services, and anthems denza, as a signal that the accompaniment is —even psalm and hymn tunes—were writ- to be resumed." ten with every possible florid turn, as shown Cadenza d'inganno (It.) A deceptive by existing examples of the Church compo- cadence. sitions of the latter part of the last century. Cadenza (It.) An ornamental The stor}' told of the elder Dubourg and cadence. Handel's comment upon his cadenza is well Caisse (Fr.) A drum. known ; and there is another anecdote illus- Kettle drums grosse trating the absurdity of a misplaced cadenza, Caisses claires (Fr.) ; big drum. told concerning the trombone player at the caisse (Fr.), first performance of Mendelssohn's " Lobge- Caisse roulante (Fr.) Side-drum, or sang." The composer met the player and snare-drum. asked him if he had looked at his part, as he Calamus. (Gk. KctXajuoe) A reed-flute. had given him plenty of important work to Probably a simple rustic instrument like our do. " O yes, Herr Director, I have studied it oaten-pipe. But some suppose it to have been carefully." The astonishment of Mendels- similar in construction to the syrinx, or pan- sohn may be imagined when at the rehearsal pipes, and to have been synonymous with he heard the result of the careful study of the arundo. From calamus is derived the post-clas- trombonist in the announcement of the initial sical calamaulos, a flute made of reed, whence phrase of the symphony as follows : calamaulis (KoKafiavXrig and (caXo/iavX^rjjc) a

player on reed-pipes ; hence too, chalameau, Maestoso con moto. schalmey, shawm, the precursor of the modern clarinet, one of the registers of which is still said to be of chalameau tone. Calando (It.) (Calare. To descend, de- Mendelssohn, in his sweet manner, told the crease.) A passage marked calando is to be performer that he would rather have the phrase sung or played with decreasing volume of played as he had written it. Other musicians tone and slackening pace. of less agreeable dispositions have sarcas- tically thanked performers for taking " so Calandrone (It.) (Calandra, a woodlark.) much trouble to sing or play notes that were A small reed instrument of the shawm or holes, used not written ;" and it is on record that Beet- clarinet character, with two much hoven repeatedly quarrelled with vocalists for by the Italian peasantry. not adhering to his text, and it is also well Calascione. [Colascione.] known that Rossini wrote every cadenza out Calata (It.) An Italian dance in | time, in full, " for he thought it better so to do than of a sprightly character. to trust to the gaucheries of conceited voca- Calcando (It.) Hurrying, pressing the lists." time. In instrumental compositions the habit of Calcant (from Lat. Calcare.) Treading. leaving a space for the ad libitum fancies of The bellows-treader (balge-treter) of the old the performer opened a door for the admis- German organs. sion of eccentricities and absurdities, which Calcanten-glocke (Ger.) Bells sounded the better sort of musicians have sought from by means of pedals. time to time to remedy, by the composition variations of of suitable cadenzas as much as possible in Call. A military term for the trumpet accordance with the original composer's de- certain musical notes played on a beat upon the sign. Clementi wrote cadenzas for the whole or bugle, or a special sort of for a definite of Mozart's concertos, and Dr. Hiller and drum, each call being the signal others have done like things for other works duty. in which spaces have been left. Call. A toy instrument made by winding small oblong pieces The cadenza has been made the vehicle for a narrow tape round two tape be set the expression of musical humour, as by of tin, so that one fold of the may through. The call Mendelssohn in the Music to " A Midsummer in vibration when blown work the drama of Night's Dream," and of quaintness in instru- is used by men who " Punch and Judy." mentation, as in Beethoven's No. 5 Concerto, and in other works needless to particularise. Ca ira (Fr.) 'That will do.' The refrain " It is usual," says Jousse in his " Dictionary of a song popular during the revolution in of Music," " to commence a cadenza with a France in 1793. The melody to which it was plain note or chord sung or held out, so that Sling was a favourite with the unhappy Queen

( 68) : :

CALMA, CON CANON.

Marie Antoinette. The song was called the The above is called a canon 2 in i at the " national. " octave, because two parts are singing one Le refrain. thing at that interval. The part which com- mences is called the subject or antecedent Ah ! 9a ira, 5a ira, 9a ira, Le peuple en ce jour sans cesse repete- (guida) ; that which follows, the answer or

Ah ! 9a ira, 9a ira, 9a ira, consequent (consequenza). The above is also Malgrfi les mutins, tout reussira. an infinite canon, because, anyone having Calma, con {It.) With calmness. such a remarkable desire as to play it for ever, Calmata {It.) Calmed, quieted, appeased. could do so. The pause shows where it may Calore, con {It.) With heat, warmth. be concluded. Caloroso (7^) Warmly, full of passionate Ex. 2. feeling. Cambiare {It.) To turn, change, alter. Cambiata {It.) [Nota cambiata.] Camera, musica di {It.) [Chamber Music] Camminando {It.) Walking, flowing, The above (Ex. 2) is also 2 in i, but at the andante. under-fifth. Campana {It.) A bell. [Bells.] Campanella,-o, {It.) A small bell. Campanellino (7^.). A very small bell. Campanista {It.) A bell-ringer. Campanology. The knowledge of the construction and use of bells. [Bells.] Ex. 3 is a canon 2 in i at the upper sixth, Campanetta (It.) A set of bells tuned to the upper part being the consequent. a scale, and played with hammers or keys. [Glockenspiel.] Ex. 4. Schubert. " Song of Miriam." Canaries. A dance probably of English Soprani and Alti. invention. The melody was a lively air of two phrases. Purcell introduced a Canaries tune in his opera of " Dioclesian." Dreadful sea ^_ so deep . . and Bassi and Tenori. The following example (from Delaborde) shows the rhythm of this dance

Cancrizans. [Canon Cancrizans.] Canon {Gk. Kavwv). A rule,—a term ap-. plied to the measurement of the ratios of intervals by means of the monochord, hence the system of Pythagoras was called the canon of Pythagoras ; that of Euclid, the canon of Euclid. Hence, too, the science of calcu- lating musical intervals is called canonih. Sectio canonis {Lat.), a division of a string, or monochord, formed by a moveable bridge" or frets. Canon. Owing to the various forms which canons assume it is almost impossible to give a general definition which will be intelligible. The essence of a canon is this, that the music sung by one part shall, after a short rest, The above example (4) shows a canon 2 in be sung by another part note for note. The I at the octave, with a. free accompaniment. simplest form is when there are only two Any part of a canon which is not an ante- parts, e.g. cedent or consequent is said to be a. free part {ad placitum). It is also _;?Mif« because there is no repeat, the canon being dropped at the close of the theme. The same desciiption

will apply, to the next example (5).

) : ;

CANON.

Ex.5, Beethoven. Symphony, No, 4.' The above well-known canon by Byrde is Clarinet. theime which 3 in I, because there is only one m all the three parts sing. S. Bach. Mass in B minor. Ex. 7. J.

The above example (7) is a finite canon 4 in I.

Ex. 8. Attwood. Service in F.

Ex. 6. (Transposed.) Non no - bis Do - mi - ne, non

The above example (8) shows a canon 4 in 2 because it is in four parts and there are- two themes. Enough has been given to show the exact meaning of the numerical descrip-

tions of canons ; the first number giving the number of the parts in which it is composed the second number, the number of themes sung by them, thus 16 in 4 signifies that 16

parts have 4 subjects ; 8 in i that 8 parts sing in turn the same theme, &c. A canon by aug- mentation is when the consequent is double the length of the antecedent, e.g.

Ex. g. From Cherubini.

A canon by diminution is when the conse- quent is half the value of tlie antecedent,

e.g. :

Ex. ID. From Cherubini. ir—

n - am. : :

CANON CANON CANCRIZANS.

Fragments of canon by augmentation and From this method of enunciating canons, diminution are not uncommon in fugal writing, the name is probably derived, as the reader e.g.: had to discover the rule or canon on which the Ex. II. Handel. composition was constructed. A canon written out in full was called canone aperto, and one written in riddle -form canone chiusa. A canon at the unison becomes a round, if the antecedent has A canon by triple or quadruple augmen- a cadence before the entry of the consequent. tation is when the three or four parts of which Thus every round is a canon at the unison, although a it is composed are each twice the time-value canon at the unison is not necessarily a round. of its predecessor. A canon is said to be [Round.] Some of the writers strict when the consequent follows the ante- early have left canons of the greatest ingenuity. cedent at an exact interval (say a major fifth Some very good speci- mens are to or fourth, &c.) regardless of key tonality. The be found in Hawkins. It had been well if the labour and perseverance which canon in Ex. 3 is not therefore strict. If it must have been requisite were so, the consequent must be in the key of for their production could the sixth above, which would be impossible. have been more profitably directed. The constant study of canon-writing is A canon by inversion is when the consequent much to be deprecated, it follows the inverted intervals of the antece- as checks the inventive faculty, and at most only the dent, e.g. teaches student how to force themes into cohesion. It is Ex. 12. fc probable that much of the ugly and crabbed ^^ m ^ part-writing of the 17th and early part of $ =P P the 1 8th century is due to the over estimation of canons. Canonical imitation with free :d= ^^=^ ^^ accompaniment is, however, capable of very ^m r ' [ beautiful r effects. Specimens of this style have already been given in Ex. 4 and 5, and the fine example in Mendelssohn's 95th Psalm may be studied with advantage. The highly dramatic effect of the canon in two parts, afterwards breaking into four, at the words, " And the sea was upheaved," in No. 34 of Mendelssohn's " ," is so^ well-known that it need not be quoted here. The above (Ex. 12) is a canon 4 in i , because Canone al sospiro {It.) A canon, the there is only one antecedent. The part ap- subject of which is answered at the half- pearing like a second antecedent being only beat : the inversion of the first. A canon by retro- gression is when the parts forming it (generally, only one is antecedent and one consequent) sing each other's notes backwards. An ex- ample will be found under " canon cancrizans." Originally canons were a kind of musical ^ riddle, the antecedent, and the number of The answer to any subject is said to be parts, only being given ; and the student close when it enters shortly after the subject. being required to solve the problem. Thus, A canon al sospiro is therefore the most close Ex. I would be put forth of all canons, as it is impossible to answer at less time than the beat. Canone aperto {It.) A canon written out in full. Canon cancrizans. A canon by retro- gression. A canon practically consisting of two parts in double counterpoint, that is, parts which are grammatically interchangeable, so " Non nobis Domine " would be given constructed that they may read actually back- thus: wards, hence probably the derivation of can-

a 3 Voci. crizans, walking backward like a crab. The following example will be found to consist only of four bars, at the close of which, hav- ing exchanged lines, the parts proceed back- wards. A canon cancrizans may of course

be accompanied by free parts :

{71 ) :

CANONE CHIUSO CANTO A CAPPELLA.

From Andr£'s " Lehrbuch der Tonkunst," 1832. short text of which is Italian," " a kind of oratorio, or opera not intended for the stage," " a short piece of vocal music of a pathetic character," " one of the Psalms or portions in- of Scripture set to music for voices and struments," according to the work the de- scriber had in his mind at the time, but a is now understood as a short work in the musical form of an oratorio, but without dramatis personce. Cantatilla ,... l The diminutive of Can-

Cantatina ^ '' J tata. The following is a canon cancrizans with a Cantatore (It.) A male singer. bass part per recti et retro Cantatrice (It.) A female singer. Cantatorium. A music book. Cantellerando (It.) Singing in a sub- dued voice, trilling. C Songs sung Canti carnascialesci ,^^ s , ' wTi^ ^? r r r I rrf^-f^-p^ ^^^^ the r Canti carnivali ^ -' i (^ carnival. Cantici (It.) Another name for the Laudes spiritu»li, or songs sung in the old Romish church in praise of God, the Blessed Virgin and Saints, and Martyrs. Canticle (i) A song or hymn in honour of God, or of some special sacred event. Productions of this class are utterly value- (2) The word is also applied to certain de- less as contributions to art. tached psalms and hymns used in the service Canone chiuso (It.) A close canon. of the Anglican Church, such as the Venite [Canon.] exultemus, Te Deum laudamus, Benedicite Canone infinito or perpetuo {It.) Never omnia opera, Benedictus, jubilate Deo, Mag- ending canon. Infinite canon. nificat, Cantate Domino, Nunc dimittis, Deus Canone sciolto (It.) A free canon, not misereatur, and the verses used instead of the strict. Venite on Easter-day. Caiionici. A name given to followers of Canticum (Lat.) (i) A song. (2) A song the Pythagorean system of music, as opposed in the Roman comedy accompanied by music to Musici, the followers of the Aristoxenian and dancing. Sometimes one person sang system. [Pythagoreans.] the song while another went through the ap- Cantabile (It.) In a singing style. propriate gesticulation. Cantamento (It.) The air or melody of Cantilena (Lat.) (i) An oft-repeated, old a phrase. song. (2) In mediaeval music, singing exer- Cantando (It.) [Cantabile.] cises, in which were introduced all the inter- Cantadour (OZ^Fr.)') A street singer. vals of the scale, &c. (3) In old church-song Cantambancp (7^.) J A mountebank. the plain-song or canto-fermo sung in unison Cantante (If.) A singer. by one or more persons to an organ accom- Cantare (It.) To sing. paniment. (4) A ballad. Cantare a aria (It.) To sing with a cer- Cantilenare (It.) To sing without ac- tain amount of improvisation. [Penillion companiment. singing.] Cantilenaccia (It.) Bad singing. Cantare a orecchio (If.) To sing by ear. Cantillatio (Lat.) Declamation in a sing- '" ^ ing style, applied to a method of reading the Cantare di maniera (It.) .^j"^^ j J° Epistles and Gospels in the church. [Ac- Cantara di manierata(7^)i ^°"^ ^ f °J'^^- ' (^ mental style. centus Ecclesiasticus.] Cantata (It.) A cantata consisted origin- Cantino (It.) The smallest string upon the ally of a mixture of recitative and melody, and violin. The E string. (Fr.) chanterelle. was given to a single voice, but the introduc- Cantique (Fr.) A sacred song or melody, tion of choruses altered the first character of a canticle. the cantata, and gave rise to some confusion Canto (It.) The upper voice-part in con- in the manner of describing it. So that it has certed music, so called because it has the ^Tseen variously defined as " an elegant and melody or air. [Air.] passionate species of vocal composition for a Canto a cappella (It.) Sacred music; " I single voice," a long vocal composition, the cantore di cappella, the praecentor. (72) J ;

CANTO ARMONICO CANTUS MENSURABILIS.

Canto armonico (It.) A part-song. Cantus mensurabilis {Lat.) Mensurable- Canto cromatico {It.) A scale or song song. The very name of this art explains at in chromatic style. once its scope and the probable date of its birth. .The indissoluble association of music Canto fermo (It.) [Cantus firmus.] and poetry, or df music, poetry, and dancing, Canto figurato ^(It.) Florid melody, or in ancient times, rendered a system of nota- melody varied. [Cantus figuratus.] tion, by which the comparative duration of Canto Gregoriano {It.) . sounds could be exhibited to the eye, un- CantoUano {Sp.) Plain chant. necessary. If the metre of the poetry were Canto piano {It.) Plain chant. duly appreciated, the length of the musical notes to which the poetry was set would be Canto primo {It.) First soprano. undoubted. If dancing accompanied the mu- Canto recitativo {It.) Declamatory sing- sic and poetry, it would be, of course, impos- ing, recitative. sible to sing to any other rhythm than that Canto ripieno {It.) Additional soprano prescribed by the movement of the feet. As chorus-parts. [Ripieno. long as music of this kind was unisonous, or, Canto secondo {It.) Second soprano. at most, consisted of a series of chords, the Cantor. [Precentor.] component parts of which were of equal length, no difficulty or doubt as to the length Cantor choralis {Lat.) Chorus master. of notes could occur. But when prose-writ- Cantore {It.) general name for a singer. A ing was set to music, and still more when, in Cantoris {Lat.). (From the word Cantor.) polyphonous compositions, it was desired that The cantoris side in a cathedral choir is the a particular voice should sing two or more side upon which the Precentor sits, usually notes to one note of another, it became an the north side, opposite to Decani. absolute necessity that the signs used should Cantus Ambrosianus {Lat.) Ambrosian be so formed as to direct the performer, with- chant. [Plain-song.] out a chance of doubt, as to how long he hold note reference to that Cantus coronatus. [Cantus fractus.] should any with held in another part. Hence, the formation Cantus durus {Lat.) Music which modu- of Cantus mensurabilis. As to the date of its lated into a key having one or more sharps in invention, learned and reliable authors differ its scale. Such keys were at one period much in their opinion. Having been ascribed strictly proscribed by church-musicians. to Johannes de Muris (circ. 1330) for many Cantus ecclesiasticus {Lat.) (i) In a centuries by writers who have been but too general sense, plain-song and other early ready to copy from each other, asking no church-melodies. (2) The method of singing questions, it seems that the laurel must be as opposed to saying Lections, Collects, Gos- taken from his brow, and that the credit is pels, and special offices, such as the Impro- due to authors who lived—some say a few peria, &c. See Accentus ecclesiasticus under years, others two centuries at least — be- " Accent § 4, and Passion Music." fore him. It is, however, certain that Robert Cantus figuratus {Lat.) Florid church de Handlo wrote on the subject before Jo- certain that song, that is, in which more than one note of hannes de Muris, and equally music was sung to a syllable. The purest Robert de Handlo had the benefit of the labours system of ancient church-song prescribed only of Franco. But here a new difficulty arises : that one note to each syllable. [Plain song.] not only was Franco so common a name many learned Francos existed at the same Cantus firmus {Lat.) (i) The tenor or date, but at least three of this name were chief melody, originally sung by the tenor- musicians—Franco of Paris, Franco of Co- voices, afterwards transferred to the treble- logne, Franco of Liege. Nor is this all—two part, hence called Canto. A fragment of (2) distinct dates are attributed to the Franco to which counterpoint has been plain-song, who wrote on Cantus mensurabilis, which added. (3) Any subject chosen for con- differ by about 200 years ! The reader who trapuntal treatment, generally a short dia- cares to enter deeply into this question may tonic passage of semibreves or other long refer to F6tis, Kiesewetter, Hawkins, Burney, notes. Forkel, and Coussemaker, all of whom Cantus fractus (Lat.) A broken melody, have bestowed much thought on the subject a term applied to a tune which proceeded having done so, he will find that he is still in either by perfect or imperfect consonances. ignorance. The truth is, that mensurable When accompanied by a Faburden, or Faux- music, like many other highly important in- bourdon, it was called Cantus coronatus. gredients of our intellectual life, was a growth, Cantus Gregorianus {Lat.) The Gre- not a sudden invention. There are evidences gorian system of church-song. [Plain song.] that in the twelfth century a proportionate

(73 ) CANTUS PLANUS CANZONCINA.

subdivision of the length of sounds was CANZONA.* reached after, and naturally enough, the first GinoLAMo Frescobaldi (isgi—1640)' step was, that two sounds might be sung to one, hence the long and short, or long and breve, as they were called. The shortest note or minim found its way into use, probably, in the thirteenth century, and was in time fol- lowed by other subdivisions. Then followed the triple division of notes, a threefold division being called perfect on theological grounds ; then rapidly followed, in the 14th and 15th centuries, a compHcation of mensurable signs, which now baffles the most enthusiastic interpreter of music of that period, — the value of notes varying according to their position with regard to ^^^--^ other notes ; or, ac- cording to the position of the tails, if up or

down, or on the right or left sides ; or, as to the complete blackness or open outline (evacu-

atid) of the notes ; or as to the manner in which consecutive sounds to one syllable were writ- ten in continuous lines, forming ligatures. Happily, from the i6th century a genuine taste for part-music led to an unremarked dis- use of these utterly useless conceits, a full account of which can only be found in ancient learned treatises, where any one having more taste for music than antiquities, will do well to leave them. Cantus planus {Lat.) Plain song. Cantus Romanus [Lat.) Roman chant or song, (i) The Gregorian system of music. (2) The early attempts at harmonizing a melody known as the organum. Canun or Kanoon {Turkish). An instru- ment strung with cat-gut, in form like a dulcimer, with which the women in the harems accompany their singing. The sound is brought out by means of plectra—^thimbles made of tortoiseshell pointed with cocoa- wood, and worn upon the ends of the fingers.

Canzona (7^.) (i) A short song, in which the music is of much more importance than the words. It is one of the ancient forms of measured melody, and when the older writers employed it, it was usually made the vehicle for the display of skill and contrivance in the treatment of the phrases in fugal imi- tation. A secondary meaning of the word, scoffing or banter, perhaps accounts for the use of a form in which a musical imitation or mocking was shown. (2) In the early, part of the last century the word was used to describe an instrumental ^composition, similar to the sonata as then known.

(3) It was also understood to mean the same as allegro, " for it denotes that the movement of the part eo which it is fixed ought to be after a lively, brisk, or gay manner." CANZONET ^CARILLON.

Canzonet, Canzonetta (7i.) A diminu- of the unusual exertion necessary for the tive of canzona, " denoting a little short song, proper production of tone. tune, cantata, or suonata." Originally applied to a short song in parts. , Giovanni Ferreti, and Horatio Vecchi are said to have excelled in this species of compo- sition. The title was also employed by poets to describe verses either of a trifling character

or subject ; and musicians, when they set such words, repeated the poet's title without reference to the musical meaning of the word. Brossard, " Dictionnaire de Musique, 1703," speaks of two sorts of canzonets—the Neapo- litan, with two phrases, and the Sicilian, a sort of jig in ^-^ or -f time, each in rondo form. (1597) describes a series of madrigals as " Canzonets, or Little

Short Songs to Four Voyces ; celected out of the best and approued Italian Authors ;" and Haydn's use of the word with refer- ence to his well - known examples will be familiar.

Canzoniere (It.) A lyric poem or song. Cappella, alia (7^) In the ecclesiastical Caoinan {Irish.) funeral «ong (Keeners). A style. In duple time. [A cappella.] Capellmeister (Ger.) Maestro di Cappella Capo {It.) Head, commencement. {It.) (i) The musical director of a church or chapel. A post of considerable honour, espe- Capo, da {It.) A direction to return to the cially when connected with a royal or ducal first or other indicated movement. chapel. The list of eminent musicians, from Capo d'opera {It.) The principal song or Palestrina to Mendelssohn, who have held piece in an opera. such offices is very large, and the fact that Capo tasto {It.) (Lit. head-stop.) A me- men of general musical ability have thus been chanical arrangement by which the pitch of necessarily brought into contact with sacred the whole of the strings of a guitar is raised music, has probably greatly influenced the at once. The capo tasto, or capodastro as it is character of the compositions of the i6th, sometimes called, is screwed over the strings r7th, and i8th centuries. There is no post on to the finger-board and forms a temporary in the English Church or at our Court which nut, e.g. con capo tasto sulla 3a Poz. exactly corresponds to that of Capellmeister, Capriccietto {It.) little caprice, or including as it does the duties—as circum- A stances may require—of conductor, accom- fancy. panist, choir-trainer, and composer. The Capriccio {It.) A freak, whim, fancy. A choir-master—an office lately instituted or re- composition irregular in form. vived in this country is perhaps the nearest — Caprice {Fr.) [Capriccio.] approach to the Capellmeister. By the com- bination, which not unfrequently took place, Capriccioso (7^.) Whimsical, humorous. of the offices of " Composer to his (or her) Caracteres de musique {Fr.) The signs " Majesty and " Master of the Children of used in music. [Notation.] the Royal Chapel," a veritable Capell meister Caral {old Eng.) Kyrriole {Ang.-Sax.) was created. In our cathedrals the precentor [Carol.] and organist practically divide the duties of this post. Carattere (7^) Character, dignity, quality. title applied (2) The has sometimes been Carezzando {It.) 1 Caressingly.singingor to a conductor of a band or an opera. playing with a frequent Carezzevole (7^) J Capellmeister Musik {Ger.) A term of introduction of notes of anticipation or ap- contempt for music made and not inspired. pogiatura. Capiscolus (Precentor) Cabiscola. Caricato {It.) Loaded, over displayed. Capistrum {Lat.) A muzzle. A sort of Carillon. A set of bells so arranged as to bandage wound round the head and face of be played by hand or by machinery. The the ancient trumpeters, to protect the cheeks word has by some authors been connected while playing their instruments, on account with {Fr.) clarine, a little bell, which is pro-

( 75 ) CARILLON.

Fig. 3- bably connected with (Lat.) clarisonus ; but others derive it from the word quadrille, or quadrigUo, on the ground that this dance was popular, and probably " set " to bells, in the i6th century. There can be no doubt as to the antiquity of thus using small bells. They were probably graduated in size so as to produce a diatonic scale, and were called a Tintinnabulum.

Fig.

Fig. I is given by M. Coussemaker as being from a MS. probably of the gth century. Fig. 2 is from an ancient Psalter in the British Museum. Fig. 3 is from a MS. in the Royal Library of Brussels. Five seems to have been the number of bells usually employed in earliest times, but they were afterwards increased to six or seven. It is to the bell-foilnders of the Low Countries we owe the perfecting of the art of bell-found- ing and the construction of , during the 15th, i6th, 17th, and i8th centuries. Pre- eminent among them stands the Van den Gheyn family, whose works are to be found in almost every Belgian belfry. Originally of Mechlin, they afterwards removed to Louvain, where Matthias Van den Gheyn (b. J721) Fig. z. deservedly attained the highest fame, as or- ganist, composer, carillon-maker, and caril- loneur. The brothers Von Aerscholdt, the great bell-founders, now living in Louvain, are lineal descendants of Matthias Van den Gheyn. The finest carillons, namely those at Antwerp, Mechlin, Bruges, Ghent, and Namur, consist of about forty bells, extending from huge specimens of several tons in weight up to little bells weighing only a few pounds.*

* The fine chimes in Mechlin consist of 45 bells, the largest of which weighs between g and 10 tons. This rich-toned bell was cast by Aerscholdt in 1844. At Ghent there are 48 bells (44 above and the 4 heaviest in the lower storey), the largest of which was cast by Du Mery, 1744, and weighs about 5J tons. At Antwerp there are in reality two carillons—one connected to the machinery, and in use, the other disused. That in use consists of 48 bells, the largest of which weighs about 7 tons. At Bruges there are 48 bells, the largest nearly 10 tons. At Namur there are about 50 bells, the largest about 4 tons. Many of the bells in the Belgian chimes are found to be of Dutch make, and (by their inscrip- tions) have been issued from old foundries in Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Zutphen, and elsewhere.

( 76 ) :

CARILLON CAROL.

They are in most cases arranged as follows and dominant ; or, at most, to the flrst five the smaller bells are fixed to strong timbers degrees of the diatonic scale. A short and arranged in rows, according to size, the "flourish" is played at the half-quarter, a largest being nearest to the floor—the bells slightly longer phrase at each quarter, a tune and framework thus representing the outline at each half hour and hour. It is to be re- of a pyramid. Where there are many spe- gretted that we in England are but just begin- cially large bells, these are generally placed ning to appreciate the beauty of the effect in a lower storey, not uncommonly below the produced by carillon - music. But, on the chiming machinery. To each bell is attached other hand, nowhere but in England can one or more hammers on the outer side, and genuine change-ringing be heard, in which, a clapper in the inside. To the lever-end of the tone prdduced by the bells as they swing the hammers thick wires are attached, which completely round is totally different in cha- pass down to long iron rods. The lever-end racter from that obtained by the dead stroke of of these rest on the tambour, or barrel, on a hammer. But bells can be easily arranged which are arranged projecting staples. When so as to do the double duty of chiming and the barrel is turned (which is done by ordinary change-ringing, and it is to be hoped that they clockwork) the staple forces up the end of the will often in future be so arranged. iron rod, the other end at the same time pull- Carilloneur (Fr.) Bell-player. [Carillons.] ing down the wire and raising the hammer. Carita, con (It.) With tenderness. When the barrel releases the iron-rod, it drops Carmagnole. A dance accompanied by suddenly and causes the hammer to strike the singing, named from Carmagnola in Pied- bell. Some time is of course required for the mont. Many of the wildest excesses of the raising of the larger hammers, hence the French revolution of 1792 were associated necessity of having several hammers to some with this dance. It was afterwards applied of the bells, so that if a quick repetition of the to the bombastic reports of the French suc- sound is required, one hammer shall be ready cesses in battle. The song commenced with to strike while another is being brought into " Madame V6to avait promis," and each verse position. There are, therefore, always a ended with the burden " Dansons la car- larger number of staples on the barrel than magnole, vive le son du canon." there are bells in the carillon. The clapper, Carol. To sing or warble, to celebrate in before-mentioned as being in every bell, is song. held by a wire-loop, within an inch or two of Carol, A song of praise, applied to a

the side of the bell ; this wire passes down species of songs sung at Christmas-tide. It to the clavier, or keyboard—a series of small originally meant a song accompanied with round sticks, arranged in an order similar to dancing, in which sense it is frequently used that of the black and white keys of a piano- by the old poets (perhaps connected with forte, but separated from each other by a choraula). It appears to have been danced sufficient distance to allow each one to be by many performers, by taking hands, form- struck with the Jist without fear of that on ing a ring, and singing as they went round. either side of it being also struck. The clap- It will be readily imagined that a dance of pers of the heaviest bells are, owing to their this character would lead to a certain wildness weight, generally attached to a pedal-board, if not rudeness of behaviour, so that the warn- and the carilloneur usually guards his hand ing contained in the following verse addressed with a thick glove when playing. to those of gentle blood who indulged in the It will be understood from this short de- exercise, might not be altogether unnecessary : scription that the mechanism by which these " Fille quant ferez en karoUe beautiful bells are chimed and played is of Dancez gentiment par mesure the roughest description. Vast improvements Car, quant fille se desmesure Tel la voit qui la tient par folle." have, however, been lately made, chiefly in Taylor says that the oldest carol England ; and Messrs. Gillett and Bland have Bishop invented an ingenious piece of mechanism, was that sung by the heavenly host when by which the hammers are held up constantly, the birth of the Saviour was announced to and only have to be released by the action of the Shepherds on the plains of Bethlehem. the barrel. This insures a regularity in the It is probable that the practice of singing striking which cannot on the old system be carols at Christmas-tide arose in imitation of attained, and does away with the necessity this, as the majority of the carols declared and the title of for multiplying hammers to a single bell. the good tidings of great joy; The higher octaves contain generally a com- Noels, nowells, or novelles, applied to carols, plete chromatic scale. But the heavier bells, would seem to bear out this idea. owing to their great cost and the large amount Carol singing is of great antiquity among of room they occupy, are limited to such import- Christian communities, as the carol by Aure- ant fundamental basses as tonic, subdomtnant, lius Prudentius, of the 4th century, will show. (77) — — : ;

CAROLA CATCH.

This poem contains twenty-nine stanzas, Castanets. A musical instrument of per- commencing : cussion introduced into Spain by the . originally dried chestnut " Quid est quod arctum circulum The castanets were Sol jam recurrens deserit, husks, from whence their name is derived, ChrisWsne terris nascitur, afterwards made of hard wood, by " but were Qui lucis auget tramitem ? which means the tone was rendered more Carols were both serious and humorous in defined. The ancient KporaXov, was a species the 14th and 15th centuries. Mr. Chappell of Castanet (knicky-knackers). [Bones.] quotes a tune that might be sung to words of {It.) A male singer with a either character, but bearing reference to the peculiarity of voice, produced by a natural observances of the season of Christmas. deprivation procured in early youth for the (Popular Music, i. 42.) purpose of preserving the normal tone. In later times carols were written of a more Catch. A species of canon or round for sober character, and we find in 1630 the pub- three or four. voices, in which the words are ' lication of " Certaine of David's Psalmes in- so contrived that by the union of the voices a tended for Christmas carols fitted to the most different meaning is given by the singers sollempne tunes everywhere familiarlie used, catching at each other's words. Poems of a

. by William Slayter, printed by Robert Yong." trivial character, similar in style to nursery- Upon a copy of the later edition (1642), pre- rhyme doggrels, were also called catches. served in the British Museum, a former For example, there is a poem by " the learned possessor has written the names of some of Clarke, Lewis Wager," printed in 1567," be-

: these tunes; for example, to Psalm 6, the tune ginning : of Jane Shore, Psalm g to Bara Forster's " I have a pretty titmouse ;" Dreame, Psalm 43 to Crimson Velvet, Psalm Come pecking on my toe 47 to Garden Greene, &c. Shakspeare alludes and one of John Lyly's songs from " Endy- to the Puritan practice of adapting religious mion," 1591, is distinguished by the title of words to secular melody in his "Winter's " a catch." The musical catch originated :" Tale about the early part of the 17th century, the " There is but one puritan among them and he sings first collection of catches being made by psalms to hornpipes." Ravenscroft in 1609, under the title of" Pam- After, the Restoration, carols of the old kind melia, Musicks miscellanie, or*nixed varieties became again popular, and from that time to of pleasant Roundelays and delightfull Catches

the present the singing of carols at Christ- of 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 parts in one ; none so

mas became steadily encouraged. ordinarie as musicall ; none so musicall as Warton supposes the religious carol to have not to be all very pleasing and acceptable." been introduced by the Puritans, but this is a These, and others contained in later publica- mistake, as a reference to Mr. Wright's col- tions are little else than rounds, without the lection, made for the Percy Society, will show. humour, so called, of the catch as it was after- The earliest printed collection was made by wards accepted. William Jackson, of Exeter, Wynkyn de Worde, 1521, but all these are of sa^ that " they are three parts obscenity and a convivial character. one part music. If they are not indecent, Many of the old carols had scraps of Latin they are nothing. There is no particular ob- • intermixed with English, as ject in them, but they are a species of musical " Puer nobis natus est de Maria Virgine false wit." Of the few catches which may be Be glad lordynges, be the more or lesse, yet sung in a mixed company, " Would you

' I bring you tydinges of gladnesse know my Celia's charms ?" by S. Webbe, and As Gabriel me bereth witnesse." "Have you read Sir John Hawkins's History?" Compare also " In dulci jubilo," in which'; and " Ah ! how Sophia," by Callcott, are the Latin and German were used. most favourable specimens. The words of Carola (It.) A dance accompanied byj the first are as follows singing, which grew into unenviable notoriety " Would you know my Celia's charms, during the Republic of 1792 in France, c.f. Which now excite my fierce alarms ? carmagnole. I'm sure she has fortitude and truth Cartellone (It.) The prospectus of an To gain the heart of every youth. operatic season. She's only thirty lovers now, Carnyx (Gk.) An ancient Greek trumpet The rest are gone I can't tell how of a shrill tone, known afterwards to the No longer Celia ought to strive, For certainly she's fifty-five." and , mpwi, (Gk.) c.f. . Cassa-grande {It.) The big drum. The humour of this catch consists in the Cassatio. [Suite.] emphasis placed upon the words fortitude, Castagnette {It.) Castagnettes {Fr.) thirty, and fifty-five, by which it appears to Castanuelas {Sp.) Castanets. the hearers that each singer is contending in

( 78 :

CATENA DI TRILLI CATHEDRAL MUSIC. turn to uphold his notion of the age of the tration of the Communion that the clerks, shall lady. In the second, the words " Burney's sing in English for the office or " Introite as " History are made to sound like " burn his it is called," a psalm appointed for that day. history," and in the third, one voice cries, " a And again it directs that the clerks shall sing house a fire," another, " go fetch the engines," one or many ofthe sentences therein mentioned, while one apparently indifferent exclaims, according to the length and shortness of the " I'm but a lodger," from the following words time that the people be offering. In John " " • Marbecke's Booke of Common Praier noted Ah ! how, Sophia, could you leave Your lover, and of hope bereave, 1550, it will be seen that the whole of the Go fetch the Indian's borrowed plume, service was sung either to some general kind But richer far than that you bloom. of recitation or intonation with small inflec- I'm but a lodger in her hfeart, tions, to an adaptation of the ancient cantus or Where more than me I fear have part." accentus ecclesiasticus, or to some modification There were formerly a number of clubs sup- of the old use by Marbecke himself. Queen ported for the purpose of encouraging the Elizabeth in her injunctions concerning the production and performance of this species of clergy and laity of this realm, published in musical trifle, only one or two of which are at the first year of her reign, 1559, desired the " present in existence, a better feeling having " continuance of syngynge in the Churche diverted the main object of these societies into and " that there bee a modeste and destyncte the encouragement and execution of glees, song so used in all parts of the Common part-songs, &c. [Round, canon.] Prayers in the Churche, that the same may Catena di trilli (It). A chain, or succes- be as playnely understanded as if it were sion, of short vocal or instrumental shakes. read without syngynge." Catgut. Boyau [Fr.), Minugia {It.), Darm Notwithstanding this injunction the use of (Ger.) The name given to the material of singing and of organs in the Church was which the strings of many musical instru- only maintained by a majority of one in the ments are formed ; it is made from the intestines Lower House of Convocation, a strong objec- of the sheep, and sometimes from those of the tion to Cathedral music existing even in that horse, but never from those of the cat. early period. After Marbecke's book, which Cathedral Music. A term applied to has music in one part only, John Day (1560) that music which has been composed to suit published a service in four parts, adding five the form of service used in our cathedrals years later, those " offices " which had been since the Reformation. It includes settings omitted in the former collection. These, pre- of canticles and also of anthems. The first served to a certain extent the prescribed or writers of this class of music were Marbecke, adopted " use " in those parts of the service Tallis, Tye, and Byrd, and the works of the which were always intended to be performed two last named especially illustrate the state simply, the publication also indicated the of cathedral music at the period in which places where a more elaborate musical setting they lived, for they employed Latin and might be allowed, and composers taking ad- English words to the same music, so that it vantage of the licence wrote original music might be available whether the service was forthe Venite, Te Deum, Benedictus, Jubilate, according to the ancient or reformed usage. Communion Service, the Canticles used at The style of the earliest cathedral music was evensong, and "such godly praiers and psalmes formed on the model of the Italian motets in the like form to the honor and praise of and other sacred compositions, and with the God,"—" so they may be songe as anthems." exception of a difference in the words was The use of organs and singing in the Church identical with the secular music of the period. was nevertheless a sore grievance to the

It was feared that the Commissioners ap- Puritans ; they did not, however, object to pointed by the Statute 27 Henry VIII. to metrical psalms, and employed them when- compile a body of ecclesiastical laws " as ever and wherever possible; but the cathedrals should in future be observed throughout the always objected to their introduction, as not realm," taking into consideration the abuse of being cathedral music properly so called ; it music in the Church, would forbid its use is within the last ten years only that hymns altogether. As the King was fond of music or psalm tunes have been sung in cathedrals they deemed it politic to retain it for the service as an integral part of the ordinary service. of the Church, but they implied a return to In the time of the Commonwealth metrical simple forms, in directing certain parts of the psalms were the only things sung in the service to be sung by the "ministers and churches, but they were also sung at other clarkes " in a plain, distinct, and audible times, and it was not until the Restoration of manner. The rubric of the First Book of Charles II. that Cathedral service was re- Edward VI. prescribes the saying or singing sumed, this time in a considerably altered ; of " mattens and evensong " and in the minis- form. The Communion Service or Mass, in'

(79 1 CATHEDRAL MUSIC . times past held to be the most important act music in past ages should have their sayings of worship, was placed in the back -ground, preserved when they are worthy of. being and. was, when celebrated, given without the kept, but it would be folly to insist upon the aid of music. Church composers did not retention of all that could be gathered of the take the trouble to set those parts of the works of a writer, because he has said one It is not given to • service which were never performed, and con- \ happy and lasting thing. sequently there is not a single " Gloria in men to be wise at all times, and the best of excelsis " produced by any cathedral writer cathedral musicians have written unworthy between 1660 and 1840, other than as an stuff. Taste and good sense, free from pre- anthem. When so set, it was considered judice, will guide to a proper and useful allowable to omit some sentences and add selection, so that cathedral music for ordinary others at discretion, so that it would be purposes may include the thoughts uttered scarcely available for the Communion Ser- under all influences in many ages. vice. The " Sanctus " was set to music, The small number of voices considered suf- as it became the habit to sing it in the ficient for the usual services of our cathedrals place of the Introit, a fashion not yet dead is a bar to grand effects. This has been felt in many cathedrals. When the Communion by composers, who have been compelled so to Service was restored to its true importance arrange their music that it may produce ade- about twenty-five years since, adaptations of quate effects from the usual small choirs. Marbecke's arrangements were freely and Probably with a prophetic view of the future properly used, until a new generation of com- augmentation of the musical staff of a cathe- posers employed their talents to supply the dral, many modern composers have so con- deficiency. At the time of the Restoration, structed their works, that while they are not the character of cathedral music also under- ineffective with a small body, they are nobly went a change. The influence of the French grand when given by increased numbers. So school may be traced in the writings of Purcell, that there is reason to believe that in the days Humphries, Blow, Wise, Weldon, and others. of the future, when cathedral choirs shall be It is not a little strange that while most tem- in numbers and skill worthy of the service to porary influences can be seen in the various which they minister, cathedral composers will periods of cathedral music, there are few in- be equal to the task of writing music suitable stances of any church composers copying to the time and place. The grand effect pro- Handel's style, and none in which it was done duced by a large body of voices in a cathedral with success. Dr. Greene, his contemporary, during the performance of an oratorio upon has a special character of his own, Dr. Boyce the occasion of a festival is never without has also his individuality, and the elder Hayes some influence in turning men's minds to shows no leaning towards the great oratorio higher things. Music is the handmaid of re- writer. Handel's oratorios, though not writ- ligion, and there can be no reasonable objec- ten for the cathedral, are often laid under con- tion to the introduction of oratorios and other tribution, whereas the anthems composed by extensive sacred compositions, with all the him for the service of the Church are com- effects that a trained choir and orchestra can paratively neglected and unknown. produce, provided always, that such perform- At the latter part of the last century and ances are made an integral part of an act of the beginning of the present, cathedral music worship. In the metropolis such perform- was at its weakest point; adaptations, arrange- ances have been given with the most satis- ments, florid melodies, with paltry accompani- factory results at stated times, and the day ments, chants of a gay and undignified style, may not be very far distant, when they may be and all music used in the service, showing made of more frequent occurrence, and so, our the influence of a general indifference and cathedrals, by calling into requisition all musi- carelessness, which, to a certain extent, still cal talent, inventive or executive, will become exists, though happily in no strong degree, again what they once were, the nurseries and for a more reverent feeling abounds and is centres of musical culture and knowledge. nourished. Cathedral music, like every other Catlings. The smallest sized lute-strings. branch of art, should increase and be pro- Cauda (Lat.) The tail of a note. gressive, should take advantage of every new Cavaletta (It.) [Cabaletta.] discovery or admitted truth in music. All Cavaletto (It.) (i) A little bridge. (2) styles should be fairly represented, and no The break in the voice. one style should be considered as indicative Cavalquet {Fr.) A trumpet-signal to of special doctrinal views. There are few cavalry. who seriously object to a building in which Cavata (It.) [Cavatina.] successive styles are seen, but on the con- Cavatina (it.) A melody of a more sim- trary think that all that is good should be ple form than the ayia. A, song without a retained. The many who have spoken in second part and a " Da capo." The term is, (80) ;

C.B. -CELERITA, CON. however, applied with less strictness to airs of other kinds. (See " Be thou faithful," in Mendelssohn's " St. Paul," and " Salve di- mora," in Gounod's " ," &c.) C.B. Abbreviation for Contra-basso. C barre (Fr.) The term for the time indi- cator. C with a dash through it. C clef. The clef showing the position of 1 j.a*^ middle C, in which are written the alto, tenor, and (in old music) other parts.

Soprano Clef. Mezzo-Soprano Alto Clef Tenor Clef. Clef. [Clef.] C dur (Ger.) C major. Cebell. The name of an air or theme in common time of four bar phrases, forming a " subject upon which to execute " divisions upon the lute or violin. This style of air, although frequently found in books for the violin in the 17th century, is now obsolete its principal feature was the alternation of grave and acute notes which formed the several strains. The following are examples :

Tho. Mace, 1676. ^^^^^^^^

»-* ^-si Uj-J- J J rI- \ rP JI I :

CELESTE CHAMBER MUSIC,

Celeste (Fr.) A direction for the use of room. The performance in private upon single the soft pedal. instruments of any class constituted the first Celeste, voix (Fr.) A stop on the organ chamber music properly so-called. Strictly or harmonium. [Vox Angelica.] speaking, any music vocal or instrumental but Celeusma (Gk.) KtKivafia, or xiXevfia (from played in private is chamber music ; the KcXevia, to urge on, to command). The word term is now applied not only to perform- or sing-song of the KeXevtrrrie (fugle-man or ances upon a single instrument, with or leader), by which oarsman were encouraged without accompaniment, but also to any to row rhythmically, and by which, to this combination of different instruments, with day, sailors pull uniformly and simultaneously only one player to each part—duets, trios, at a rope. quartetts, &c., for voices or instruments. It Celli. .<46&. of violoncelli. is probable that the first chamber music con- Cello. ^66. of violoncello. structed as such was entirely vocal, and not Cembalista (li.) A pianoforte player. of much earlier date than the end of the 15th Cembalo. Clave - cembalo, cimbalo. A or the beginning of the i6th centuries—the harpsichord. [Pianoforte.] Scolia of the Greeks, the music of the min- Cembanella (It.) [Cennamella.] strels, and of public and private musicians of Cennamella (It.) A pipe, or flute. later date, including among the former " the " other private bands, Cento {Lat.) [ (In Greek KtVrpiDv.) waits," noises," and Centone (7i.) J Patch -work. A musical work not being of a character that could fairly be made ap of extracts from an author's compo- called by the title chamber music. Therefore sitions, as a cento was from an author's poems. the Madrigal will be regarded as among the c.f. pasticcio. first specimens of chamber music. The titles Cercar la nota (It.) To feel for a note, of more than one collection, for example, to reach it by slurring. " Madrigali di Tavolina," " Madrigali di Cervalet or Cervelat (perhaps dim. of Camera," " Madrigali Concertati," " Madri- cervus, signifying a little stag-horn). An an- gali et Arie per sonare et cantare," and so cient wind-instrument of a small size, from forth, together with the peculiar style in which which, by means of a reed, tones similar in many of the early books are printed,—^two character to those of the bassoon could be parts on one page intended to be read by two produced. persons seated opposite to each other at the Ces (Ger.) C flat. same table—^would show conclusively that Cetera (It.) A citarra or guitar. they were intended as chamber music. Chacona (Sp.) A slow dance in | time, The addition of instrumental accompani- Ciaconna (It.) -frequently constructed ments to madrigals probably arose out of a Chaconne (Fr.) upon a ground bass, desire to support the voices in ^ ^ J and and keep them sometimes formerly introduced as a move- tune, as well as to give employment to those ment of a sonata. [Chica.] who could play and not sing, but who were It is usually stated that the chaconne is in desirous of taking part in that which was the major mode, and that passacaille which is going on. This practice—at first a mere somewhat similar to it in rhythm is in the conciliation to the instrumentalists — sug- minor. This is not the case, as the following gested the use of instruments alone for the theme on which Bach's celebrated ciaccona purposes of concert. Thus we find attached for violin solo is founded, will show to the early productions, instructions to the effect that they are " apt for Instrumentes and Voyces," as in Alison's "An Howres ^^diJijj^iji^'iiijjij Recreation in Musicke," or as in Bonaffino's " Madrigali," that they are available " per Chair organ. A name given to the Pre- cantar e sonar nel Clave cimbalo, Chitarrone o stant or choir-organ, from a notion that it altro simile Instrumento," or as in the later formed the seat of the organist, when placed editions of Byrd's Psalmes, Songs, and Son- behind him. nets, framed to be " fit for Voyces or Viols." Chalameau {Fr.) Stem, or straw-pipe, Doubtless from such small beginnings the from the Latin calamus, a reed. The lower writers of the time were induced to compose register of the clarinet and the basset-horn is " Consort lessons," " Ayres," " Fancies," called the chalam.eau tone, from the obsolete "Canzone da Sonare," and the like, often instrument shawm, schalmey, precursor of the written in six parts, the number of viols in a oboe clarinet. and " chest." These compositions at first differed Chamber music. Kammermusik (Ger.) very'little in point of form and treatment from Musica da camera {It.) Vocal or instru- the madrigals from whence they were derived, mental compositions suitable for perform- until the demand arose for pieces of less dig- ance in a chamber, as opposed to a concert- nity, in obedience to which demand we find

(82) ; :

CHANGEABLE CHANT CHANT. dance tunes, "Almaines, Ayres, Corants, (i) A Gregorian chant consists of five parts; Sarabands, Moriscoes, Jiggs, &c.," hitherto the intonation; the first reciting note or domi- only set for a single instrument, arranged in nant ; the mediation ; the second reciting parts for " Viols or ;" Violins and these and note or dominant ; the ending, e.g. : other dance-tunes issued in suites made into the first sonatas, and the symmetrical shape ^ tSi^fc^ in which each was necessarily written for the purposes of the Intonation, ist Mediation. 2nd Ending. dance gave jise to that which Dominant. Dominant. is known as Form. The word Sonata, at intonation is generally first applied to pieces for a solo instrument, The used to every verse first as well as to those for several, became gradu- of a canticle, but only to the verse of psalm, unless a special ally to be used as a term for compositions a psalm be used on a occasion, as for instance the Mise- of a certain character for a single compound solemn rere (Psalm li.) during Lent. instrument, as the organ, harpsichord, or pianoforte. With regard to the pointing of the Prayer- book version of the Psalms, several important The most important era in the history of facts have to be considered. The undoubted chamber music was the final quarter of the object of the chants as originally used in the last and the first of the present centuries Roman Church was to enable, as far as pos- the labours of Boccherini, whose trios, quar- sible, a pure syllabic recitation of the words, tetts, and quintetts are form-like, easy, and so many of the words of a verse being recited graceful, as well as those of Fiorillo, Giardini, on the dominants as would leave one syllable Pugnani, and Viotti, leading to the foundation only to each note of the mediation and end- of the school in which Pleyel, Haydn, Mozart, ing. As these chants were in use many and Beethoven were such apt pupils and masters. centuries before the invention of cantus men*- surabilis, it is quite impossible that they were Changeable chant. A single or double ever sung rhythmically at the close of eaich chant which can be sung either in the major recitation. there is a growing tendency or minor mode without other alteration than But to treat the Gregorian chants Anglican-wise, the substitution of the minor third and sixth and either bars, to definitely of the scale for those of the corresponding by accents or major, shape out their rhythm. If any proof were W. TUEHEE. wanting of this fact, it is only necessary to give the following

Ex. I. ». ^ ^ J

Change of voice. [Larynx.] Change ringing. [Bells.] Changer de jeu {Fr.) To alter the stops on an organ or harmonium. Changes. The altered melodies produced by varying the sounds of a peal of bells. [Bells.] Changing notes. Passing notes or dis- cords which occur on the accented parts of a bar. Chanson (Fr.) (i) A song. (2) A national melody. (3) A part-song. Chansonnette (Fr.) A little song. Chant. A short to which the Canticles and the prose version of the Psalms are sung, either in unison or in four-part harmony. There are two kinds of chant in common use—the Anglican and the Gregorian. : : ;

CHANT. new portion to the adoption of strict time in the number. It is out of the question that " com- ending, the trae use of chants for syllabic Gregorian chants should be expressly " absolutely neces- treatment becomes lost. In short, "Gre- posed for Psalters, but it is to avoid gorians," as used for the most part in England sary to provide a variety of chants at the present time, are nothing more than the monotony of over-repetition. Hence it is, endings heard on the Continent, what- ordinary chants, not, however, . having an (i) that incom- uniform number of bars of music. Hence ever be their modern growth or their are greedily the same difficulties present themselves which patibility with the Gregorian scale, this country and will be explained below in the account of seized and made use of in ; or the vicious introduction Anglican pointing, e.g. : (2) that foliations the genuine Ex. 4. a. of auxiliary notes, above or below welcomed _-i notes of the chant, are as readily ^ w * , ^ by Gregorian editors, e.g. :

at the presence | of the God of Jacob.

at the presence of the | God of Ja -

It is generally understood that when the number of notes exceeds the number of syl- lables, the notes not required maybe omitted, e.g.: From Sargent. Ex. 8 is called a form of the 5th tone. No. 9 a form of the 4th. foliated form of the media- theFath*er}*°'^'°"'^^™ and to the Ho-ly Ghost. Ex. 10 shows a tion of the I St tone. The division of the plain This is a negative proof of the original tones and foliated tones into ferial and fes- syllabic tendency of Gregorian pointing, it tival does credit to the ingenuity, but not to being merely a corollary of the law that there the historical integrity, of Psalm-pointers. should be " one syllable to one note," to say, The French and Belgians have ever been " if only a few syllables are left, let the notes celebrated as clever adulterators of plain-song not wanted be omitted." This rule is now and as their manuals now form the chief text- generally neglected ; and, even in canticles books of English Gregorianizers, it is not with such short verses as the Te Deum, the difficult to prophecy a general decadence of syllables are slurred to the superfluous notes, the art of Gregorian chanting in this country. lest the hearers' notion of " the tune " should An Anglican chant is of two sorts, single • be disturbed. (2) and double. A single chant is in two strains, In 1843, the Rev. F. Oakeley published his the first of three, and the second of four bars Gregorian Psalter, carrying out, in its integrity, in length thp principle of the syllabic system, e.g. Pelhau Humphreys. £x. 6. y From Oakeley.

A double chant has the length of two single

ROBIHSON.

• It has been stated, and the statement is often re- peated, that the double chant was suggested by the accidental performance of two single chants in succes- and tongue that speak - eth proud things. the sion by a nameless pupil of Hine, who was organist of Notwithstanding its merits, this Psalter Gloucester Cathedral between the years 1710 and 1730. In"Boyce's Cathedral Music," published 1760— seems not to have been largely used, and 1778, is a double-chant by John Robinson, who was organist where used has others been superseded by of Westminster Abbey from 1727 to 1762, dying at the " " in which the tones have been anglicanized ripe age of eighty ; and as there exists a MS. copy of and made more palatable by the unjustifiable the same chant in the handwriting of Dr. Turner, the with date in one introduction of fixed accent and rhythm. father-in-law of Robinson, the 1706, of the old MS. service-books belonging to St. Paul's Another danger which presents itself to the Cathedral, there is reason for questioning the story advocates of Gregorian chants is their limited concerning the accepted origin of the double-chant. (84) : " ::

CHANT.

The two strains are also called halves; one No. 3. The Congregational Psalter. half is sung to that part of a verse of the For they that led us Prayer-book version of the Psalms on each away captive required side of the colon, whether the number of words of us then a song and melody in heaviness. be many or few, whether the sentence is com- plete or not ; as : No. 4, Monk and Ouseley's Psalteb. For they that led us away captive required of us then a song and When the company of the spearmen and mul-"J11-1 melody in our heavi- titudeot the mighty are scattered abroad I . , suver.silver- among the beasts of the people, so thatfP""^"" The form of the chant has been the real they humbly bring - - - cause of the difficulties of pointing. An ordinary melodic sentence consists of two, four, or eight bars, but the chant has first And when he hath scattered^ .,„. ,_ "'^' *= light the people - - -I three, then four bars. This peculiarity does not, however, offend the ear so much as the eye, for in reciting, the rhythmical completed. My tongue is the pen rea - dy writer. cadence is to a certain extent Various theories have been put forth to ac- The opening chord of a chant, and also the count for the 7-bar or twice 7-bar form of the . first chord after each double bar, may be sus- Anglican Chant, all writers being agreed that a tained at will, to accommodate the number of 7-bar phrase is not actually presented to the syllables contained in each part of the verse. ear in the process of chanting. The theorists These chords are called reciting notes, those may be divided into two classes—those who which follow are called the inflections; or, would add a bar to the commencement of the to some, the first half of the chant according chant, that is, to the reciting note ; and those is the mediation, and the second the. ca- who would add a bar at the half cadence and dence. The fitting of the words to the music whole cadence. The following is the method is called pointing. The pointing of the in which the former would write out Robin- Psalms and Canticles is a matter concern- son's Chant ing which there are diversities of opinion. The principal object to be aimed at in pointing is "the apportioning out of the emphasis of the words to be sung, after the manner that an eloquent speaker would recite them ;" but as sentences are capable of as many accents more or less sensible as there Those who lean to the latter opinion would are words, the diversity of opinion on the sub- write it thus ject is not to be wondered at. The words are divided in the Prayer-book not always in the best manner as regards their complete gram- ^ matical sense ; and as it is at present deemed unwise to adopt any plan but the one therein suggested, difference of opinion will exist until a change is made in its system of stops. The varieties of pointing arise from the desire to

unite an oratorical with a musical accent ; and the many ways in which this is attempted will be best seen by the following quotations from pointed Psalters in frequent use.

[The lines after each set of words indicate the place of the bar in the chant.] Psalm cxxxvii. No. i. Dr. Wesley's Psalter. For they that led us away captive required of us then a song and melody in our heaviness.

No. 2. The Cathedral Psalter. For they that led us away captive required of us then a song and melody in our heaviness. : :

CHANT-

Psalm Ixxxix. form, it may be remarked that the final bar of (2) that thy servants both halves of a double chant is not in prac- 40. Remember Lord the rebukes the rebukes of have and how I do bear in my bosom tice held out for the length of two bars. One thine enemies have blas- many people; (50) wherewith or the other of these theories may be true, footsteps of thine phemed thee, and slandered the and the reader is left to decide on their re- evermore Amen and spective merits. ^"praised be the Lord for : Certain writers have assumed that the Amen. Psalm xiv. Anglican Chant is a highly tractable collection (3) shall give salvation unto Israel out of of sounds, bound by no laws of rhythm ; and II Who ' turneth the captivity of his Sion (:) when the Lord acting on this notion, have attempted to unbar shall be people, then shall Jacob rejoice, and Israel some modern chants. This view has led glad. to a system of pointing by which as many In some of the numerous editions- (issued words as possible are collected on the reciting between the years 1655 and 1730) of Play- note, e.g. : ford's "Introduction to the Skill of Musick," there is an appendix containing the " order of singing the Divine Service in Cathedrals."

Praise Him in the sound of the trum- pet« j) &c. I I In these it is said that "the Venite is begun by one of the choir, then sung by sides, ob- serving to make the like break or close in the middle of every verse, according as it is shorter or longer." The use or tune for each day in the week is given to the first verse of the Venite, and these tunes are such as are Praise Him upon .. ^. ,, Praise Him ,„„j cym-Jba'Ml^ loud-lcym-Jbals]!f„„„ ik«i«ii the well-tunedl „po„ the 1 now called Gregorian. There are two others " —" Canterbury tune " and " Imperial tune The above system (known as the " Sud- —" proper for Choir ; to sing the Psalms, Te bury ") is said to be smooth, but the number Deum, Benedictus, or Jubilate, to the organ of slurs involved would produce this effect, or sometime without it." The manner in although opposed to the true principles of which the words are disposed will be seen by chanting. the following copy of the first-named of these It has been said " that the best practical tunes solution of the difficulty of chanting would be offered by selecting a set of the most appro- priate chants, whose melodies, within the range of all voices, would not suffer by being sung by a whole congregation, and to have every word set to a note of relative length, so

as to ensure evenness of tone and accuracy re - joice in the strength of our sal - va - ti - on. of accent." Some of the early church com- posers have left examples of the Venite set Dr. Turner, 1706, gives the pointing of the to distinct music, often chant-like, so that same verse as follows the thing here suggested would not be so great a novelty. But it would be difficult to make such a plan general, for, leaving out of the question the additionar time such a service would occupy, none but educated choirs could perform it, and the ordinary chant is so easy

that there is little if any trouble needed to heart- i - ly re-joice in the strength of our sal - va - ti - on. teach it to unskilful choristers. The chant at present in use might be retained, and if elocu- It will be seen that this chant contains only tion is the main object of chanting, a different five complete bars of four crotchets each. system of pointing might be devised, by em-- The bars in it do not indicate the place of ploying the present authorised division of the accent, or even the best division of the chant verses only when convenient. Alterations for the purpose of pointing. The earliest might be made in a verse (i) when the sense printed copy of a now well-known chant by IS incomplete in it, (2) when a verse contains the same author, is given in the following form " chants two distinct subjects, (3) when the present (from Fifty double and single colon interrupts the logical sequence, e.g.: being the most Favourite as performed at St. Pauls, Westminster, and most of the Cathe- (i) Psalm xvii. drals in England. London : Printed for C. 8. Keep me as the apple of an eye : hide me under and S. Thompson, at No. St. Paul's the shadow of thy wings, (g) from the ungodly that 75, trouble me. Churchyard ";. (86) :

CHANT CHANTERRES.

parish churches in the last century, the ca- thedrals alone retaining the traditional use.

By degrees a change was effected ; the un- clean thing was handled without any alarming effect, and even Dissenters changed their opinions upon the subject. Instead of con- In the following example (from the " Har- demning chanting, they adopted it. Dr. Chan- mony of Sion ") the chant is compressed into ning thought it "the most purely Protestant four bars. music ;" Mr. Newman Hall considered it " a homage to the Bible, calculated to make the Word of God better known, appreciated, and loved;" others would "by no means have it banished ;" and the preface to the fourth Wepi^seThoei O Ood; ttq actenowlcdga Dhee to ba the Lord. edition of a little book called "Euphonia" '(1870), designed to familiarise Non-conform- ists with the principles of chanting, states that "the objections entertained by many to And Dr. Boyce, in his " Cathedral Music," the ancient practice of chanting having been writes the Venite to the chant ascribed to much diminished, there is now a growing Tallis thus feeling in favour of singing portions of the Bible in the very words of Scripture, rather than through the medium of metrical versions exclusively." This book, which is historically valuable, contains one hundred portions of Scripture pointed for chanting, together with a selection of familiar, if not good, Anglican the principle guiding the choice being Let us heartily rejoice in the strength of our sal - va tion. chants ; liveliness of melody and general tunefulness. The method of chanting the Psalms adopted These facts tend to show that the usefulness in the present day is for each of the two di- of chanting is in process of general recog- visions of the choir to sing a verse alternately. nition by " all who profess and call themselves In some places where a double chant is used Christians ;" that it is no longer held to be

the whole of the chant is sung to two verses the type of a peculiarity of religious opinion ; by each side in turn. In one cathedral (Ox- that there is a mutual interchange of means ford) each side sings one half of a verse only. towards a spiritual end; that whereas one In consequence of this custom of the alternate side does not disdain to encourage the use of chanting of the Psalms, it is supposed that metrical psalmody in its services, the other wherever alternate singing is mentioned in borrows chanting, defending it as " a simple ancient records, chanting is meant. The ob- but impressive mode of worship." jections entertained against chanting by the Chants have been found convenient means followers of Wickliffe, and in later time by of rendering hymns of irregular metre, or any those ofCalvin, were expressed in violent terms, hymn of which a simple musical treatment not altogether necessary to repeat here. It is is required. true these reformers approved of the people Chant (Fr.) (i) Song, tune. (2) The voice joining " with one voice in a plain tune, but part or melody. one side to not of tossing the Psalms from Chantant {Fr>) Singing, musical, as cafe organs." Less the other with intermingling of chaniant, a musical coffee-house. moderate in their deeds than in their words, Chant en ison, or chant egal (Fr.) (i) the Puritans, when in power during the Com- The name of a species of chant, consisting of monwealth, destroyed all organs and every two sounds only, which was adopted by many music-book they could lay their hands upon. of the old religious orders. (2) Monotone. Metrical psalmody supplied the place of chant- Chanter. A name given to the singing ing, the Psalms were rarely if ever sung, and priest on duty. so, in contradistinction to Sternhold and Hop- kins, or Tate and Brady, were called the Chanter a livre ouvert (Fr.) To sing at «' Reading Psalms," a practice continued as sight. (i) first or highest lately as the year 1873, when the Psalms for Chanterelle (Fr.) The the day sung at the meeting of the Charity string upon instruments played with a bow. the the Children in St. Paul's Cathedral were so called. The E string of the violin, and A of Chanting was regarded as essentially Popish, viola and violoncello. (2) The highest string and alternate singing an abomination even of a guitar or lute. among church people. It was never heard in Chanterres [Fr.) A name given to ballad /87) CHANTEUR CHEF D'ORCHESTRE.

or poem singers in mediseval times, originally CharacterstUcke {Ger.) Pieces of music applied to the Proven9al Cantadours. written with the intention of describing cer- tain impressions by means of sound. Beet- Chanteur ,p >] A male singer. Pastoral Symphony, Mendelssohn's Chanteuse ' *'j A female singer. hoven's Reformation Symphony, and the overture and Chant gregorien (Fr.) Plain song. music to "A Midsummer Night's Dream," Chant pastoral (Fr.) A shepherd's song, are specimens of this style of composition. or melody in imitation of one. Charivari {Fr.) Mock music, clatter. Chantries. Endowed foundations in the Chasse {Fr.) Hunting; co ta chasse, in Romish Church, instituted for the due per- the hunting style. formances of requiem masses for repose the Chatzozerah {Heb.) The chatzozerah is of the soul of the' founder his family. and generally thought to have been a straight Chantries were attached to existing parish trumpet, with a bell or " pavilion " as it is churches, or more frequently to monastic termed. Moses received specific directions establishments and cathedrals. At the Refor- as to making them. " Make thee two trum- mation the practjpe of soul-masses and the pets of silver ; of a whole piece shalt thou chantries became disused, and their revenues make them : that thou mayest use them for absorbed. the calling of the assembly, and for the jour- Chant-royal (Fr.) A certain form of early neying of the camps." In Ps. xcviii. 6, the French poetry set to music. Pasquier de- chatzozerah and shophar are brought into scribes it as in of the a song honour God, juxtaposition : "With chatzozerah and sound " Virgin, or the saints, or any other argument of shophar make a joyful noise before the Lord of dignity, especially if coupled with distress." the King ;" or, as it incorrectly stands in the The chant-royal was written in heroic stanzas, Prayer-book version, " With trumpets also and closed with a L'envoy or stanza containing and shawms, &c." In this passage the Sep- a dedication, recapitulation, or moral. tuagint has it, 'Er aaXiriy^iv tXaratc, Kai favrj " Chantry priest. A chaplain or singing (raXntyyOQ Ksparivrie, With ductile trumpets, parson attached to a chantry. One whose and the sound of horn-trumpets." So, too,

: " tubis ductilibus et duty it was to sing masses for the speedy the Vulgate In voce •deliverance of the soul of a founder or bene- tubse corneas." The word mikshah, which ii factor from purgatory. applied to the description of the chatzozerah in Num. x. 2, which means "rounded" or Chant sur le livre {Fr.) A system of " turned," may either apply to a complete •descant by which the part sung by one voice, twist in the tube of the instrument, or, what •as written in the open book, could be accom- is more probable, to the rounded outline of panied by another voice in counterpoint, more the bell. But if the former is the real inter- -or less free, according to the movement of pretation of the epithet, it would make it more the canto fermo, which was sung generally by like a trombone, and similar in form to that a bass voice, the dechant being taken by a depicted on the Arch of Titus. But, on the tenor or other high voice. It was necessary other hand, the account given by Josephus that the singer of the canto fermo or plain- points out the latter characteristic of shape. song should render it a la rigueur, that is, He says, " Moses invented a kind of trum- should not make those slight changes of the pet of silver; in length it was little less than flength of the notes which would be justifiable a cubit, and it was somewhat thicker than a and usual when singing alone ; nor could he pipe ; its opening was oblong, so as to permit Jiold out the rests {tenere punctum) as he other- blowing on it with the mouth ; at the lower wise would, lest the dechanteur should be end it had the form of a bell, like a horn." •upset in his calculations. The full rules of It seems chiefly to have been brought into this system are. to be found in early treatises. use in the Hebrew ritual, but was also occa- It was called in Italy contrapunto di mente, or sionally a battle-call, and blown on other alia mente. warlike occasions. Chapeau Chinois (Fr.) A set of small Check-action. [Pianoforte.] bells arranged in the form of a Chinese hat.

. for Pavilion chinois. Check-spring. A small spring added the assistance of. any. weakness in the return Characteristischer Ton {Ger.) The lead- of action in the mechanism of an organ. ing note. {Fr.) sensible. Chef d'attaque {Fr.) The leader of an Characters. A general name for the signs orchestra, or chorus. employed in music, such as brace, bind, bar, Chef d'ceuvre {Fr.) The master-work of sharp, flat, natural,, clef, stave, shake, turn, any composer. ' beat, and the signs of words indicating time Chef d'orchestre {Fr.) (i) The leader. ^nd expression, e.g. «= => (tj, &c. C (2) Conductor of an orchestra^ : • . (88) :

CHELIDONIZING CHICA.

Chelidonizing (from the Gk. xeXiSoW^w, to be dispensed with, as is the case in a har- twitter like a swallow). ; Singing the swallow- monium. song (xeXtSovtiT/xa), a popular song sung by Rhodian boys in the month Boedromian, on the return of the swallows, and made into an opportunity of begging. A similar song sur- vives in modern Greece. A crow was also carried about by begging boys who sang ; whence Gk. Kopiavi^m. Examples of both songs are given by Athenseus. Pamphilicus of Alex- andria, in his chapter on names, calls the men making collections for the crow, coronisice, and their songs, coronismata. .There was a similar custom in Ireland on St. Stephen's day. A number of young men carried a furze- bush on which a wren was tied, and stopping before the houses of the gentry, repeated the following lines

" The wren, the wren is the king of all birds, Was caught on St. Stephen's day in the furze. Cherubical hymn. The ter sanctus, or Although he's little, his family's great, Then pray, kind gentle folks, give him a treat." trisagion in the service of the Holy Commu- nion, " Holy, holy, holy," &c. In England and Scotland there are many Chest of viols. An expression signifying customs of a like character, as for example, a set of instruments necessary for a " consort "going a gooding" on St. Thomas's day; of viols." They were six in number, namely singing the Hagmena on the three days pre- two trebles, two , and two basses. A

ceding Christmas day ; the children's May-day chest of viols, with a harpsichord or organ, march, when they carry garlands of spring- with an occasional hautboy or flageolet, formed flowers and boughs, and stopping at the doors an ordinary orchestra in the early part of the of people of the better sort, sing a long song, 17th century.

one verse of which runs : Chevalet {Fr.) The bridge of a stringed instrument. Cheville (Fr.) A peg for a violin, guitar, lute, &c. branch of May we have brought you, And Chevroter {Fr.) To skip, quiver, to sing with uncertain tone, after the manner of goats. Alia vibrato. Chiara {It.) Clear, distinct, pure, e.g.,

voce, voice ; chiara quarta, a per- at your door it stands; It is but asprout, but it's chiara clear fect fourth. Chiaramente {If.) Clearly, purely, dis- tinctly.

well bud-ded out, The works of our Lord's liands. Chiarezza, con {It.) With brightness, clearness. . {Gk.) xeXvq, Ht. a tortoise {Lat. Chiarina {It.) A clarion or trumpet. testudo). (i) The lyre of Mercury, supposed Chiave (/f.) (i) Key or clef. (2) A failure. to have been formed by strings stretched [Fiasco.] across a tortoiseshell. (2) In the i6th and Chica. The name of a dance popular 17th centuries a bass-viol and division-viol among the Spaniards and the South American were each called chelys. settlers descended from them. It is said to Cheng. The Chinese organ, which con- have been introduced by the Moors, and to sists of a series of tubes having free reeds. It have been the origin of the Fandango, which is held in the hand and blown by the mouth. some writers declare to be the Chica under The introduction of this instrument into Eu- a more decent form. It is of a similar cha- rope led to the invention of the accordion and racter with the dance of the Angrismene per- harmonium. Kratzenstein, an organ-builder formed at the festivals of Venus, and still of St. Petersburg, having become possessed popular among the modern Greeks. The of one, conceived the idea of applying the English jig is said to be one form of the Chica. principle to organ-stops. The tone of free It is not a little singular that the word came reeds is enforced by tubes, as in the cheng into use soon after a free intercourse with and in certain organ-stops, but the tubes can Spain was opened. The words Chaconne (89) ; ;

CHIESA CHORDiE ESSENTIALES.

(Fr.), Ciaccona {It.), Cachuca (S/'.),Czardasch e.g., canone chiuso, a close canon, [Canon] (Hungarian), describe modern modifications con hocca chiusa, with the mouth closed, of the Chica. [Bolero.] [Country Dance.] humming. Chiesa (It.) Church. Sonata di Chiesa. Chceur (Fr.) [Chorus.] A sacred sonata. Choir, (i) A part of the buildmg in a apart Chiffres {Fr.) Figures, basse chiffrSe, cathedral or collegiate chapel set for figured bass. the performance of the ordinary daily service. , (i) To play a tune on bells, The choir is generally situated at the eastern either by machinery or by hand, by means of end of the building, and is frequently enclosed hammers, or swinging the clappers, the bell by a screen, upon which the organ is placed. remaining unmoved. It is opposed to ring- (2) The minor canons, choral vicars, and ing in which the bells are raised, that is, choristers, or other singers taken collectively, swung round. (2) A carillon. are spoken of as the choir. The choral body Chirimia (Sp.) An oboe (from Chirimoya, is usually divided into two sets of voices, the a pear), the portion of the oboe in which the one sitting on the north and the other on the mouth-piece is inserted, called in German south side of the chancel, and are known by Birn, a pear. the respective titles of Cantoris and Decani Chirogymnast. Finger-trainer. A con- from their nearness to the Cantor (or Pre- trivance for strengthening the fingers, consist- centor) and to the Decanus (or Dean). In ing of a cross-bar, from which are suspended most cathedrals and collegiate chapels, the rings attached to springs. The term is also Decani side is held to be the side of honour, applied to any apparatus designed for a like the best voices are placed there, and all the object. "verses" or soli parts, if not otherwise directed, Chironomy. Gk. xn-povofiia. (i) Gesticu- are sung by that side, which is also considered " lation by the use of the hands. (2) Directions the " first choir (coro primo) in eight-part given by movements of the hand, especially music. to a chorus. >In the early church of the West Choir-man. An adult member of a choir.

such a system was much in vogue ; and some Choir Organ. [Organ, §1.] have maintained that the signs of sounds, as Chor (Ger.) Chorus. Choir of a church then written, were merely pictorial represen- or concert room. tations of the movement of the hand. Choragus. (Lat.) (i) The leader of the Chiroplast. Finger-former. An instru- chorus in the ancient Greek drama. [Chorus.] ment invented by Logier in 1810, to facilitate (2) The title of a musical official at Oxford the proper method of playing the pianoforte. University, whose duties are described in the It consisted of a position-frame, finger-guides, Statutes. and a wrist-guide. The position-frame con- Choral, (i) Of, or belonging to the choir, sisted of two parallel rails extending from one concert, or chorus. Choral service, a service extremity of the keys to the other, and fastened with music. (2) A hymn or psalm tune. to the pianoforte. This frame served as a (Ger.) [Hymn tunes.] line upon which the finger-guides travelled Choraliter (Ger.) In a choral form. these guides were two moveable brass frames, Choralmassig (Ger.) [Choraliter.] with five divisions for the fingers, and to each Choral Music. Vocal music in parts, as guide was attached a brass wire with a regu- opposed to instrumental.

lator, called the wrist-guide, by which the Choral Service. A service of song ; a position of the wrist was preserved from in- service is said to be partly choral, when only

clination outwards. With the instructions for canticles, hymns, &c., are sung ; wholly choral, the use of the chiroplast, progressive lessons when in addition to these, the versicles, re-

on the pianoforte were given ; and in the suc- sponses, &c., are sung. cess attending the use of the hand-guide, these Choral Vicars. [Lay Vicars.] lessons, which were cleverly designed, had Chor-amt (Ger.) Choral service. Cathe- doubtless as much to do as the machine itself, dral service. which, however, soon fell into disuse. Choraules (Gk. •xppavXrn from xopoe and Chitarra (It.) A guitar. aiXt'w.) (i) A player on the flute in the Chitarra col arco (It.) A violin with Greek Theatre. (2) One who keeps a chorus

sides gently curved, as in a guitar ; without and plays in it himself. corners, as in an ordinary violin. Chord. A combination of musical sounds, Chitarrina (7^) A small Neapolitan guitar. consonant or dissonant. [Harmony.] Chiudendo (It.) Closing, ending. The Chord. A string. word is generally employed in connection with Chorda characteristica. A chord of the another, chiudendo colla prima strofe, ending 7th in which a leading note appears. with the first verse. Chordae essentiales {late Lat.) The Chiuso (It.) Close, hidden, concealed, tonic and its 3rd and 5th. The key-chord. (90) ;

CHORDAULODION CHORISTER.

Chordaulodion. A self-acting musical in- taught the simple elements of reading and strument, invented by Kauffmann, of , writing, in others they learn as much of the in 1812. higher branches of education as is possible Chor-dienst (Ger.) [Chor-amt.] in addition to the duties of their profession. Chordometer. A gauge for measuring In many instances their musical instructors the thickness of strings. impart no more than is absolutely needful for Chords 6toufr6s {Fr.) (i) Chords played the exercise of cathedral duty, and in some on the pianoforte with the sordino pedal held music is taught scientifically as well as practi- down. (2) Chords on the harp, lute, guitar, cally, not only in connection with the immediate or dulcimer, damped by placing the hand work in hand, but also with reference to future gently on the strings. use. In very few instances are the boys Choriambus. A metrical foot consisting boarded and lodged within the precincts of of two short between two long syllables. the cathedral, or placed under the immediate Chorister. A member of a choir whether care of the cathedral authorities out of the juvenile or adult. At the present day the hours devoted to duty—a matter of much children of the choir of a church or cathedral, regret. The organist is sometimes music- are those usually distinguished by the term, master of the choristers, sometimes the office but so recently as the commencement of the is distinct, and is held independently of the present century, all who were engaged in organist. In many cathedrals a sum of money taking part in the musical portion of the as apprentice fee is paid to a chorister on service, were called choristers. The word leaving the choir; this is instead of the money derived from x°P"s> by metonomy came to at one time set apart for the maintenance of signify a band of singers or dancers, or any the chorister as a student at the universities. member of such a band, and hence the term is For instance, in the Statutes of Stoke College, often applied to a singer in a chorus not in Suffolk, founded by Parker, Archbishop of necessarily belonging to a church, just as Canterbury, are these words: " of which said choir is applied to the place in which church queristers, after their breasts be changed singers sit, as also to any body of singers of (their voices broken) we will the most apt of sacred or secular music. For example, Les wit and capacity be holpen with exhibition of enfans de choeur, children of the choir or forty shillings, the rest with lesser summe."

chorus ; Dom-chor, cathedral choir or chorus, In olden times, choristers were privileged and Coro del chiesa, church choir or chorus to demand a fee from every newly installed Choristers, or boy singers, called " clerks of officer of the church, and to levy " spur money" the third form," in some .places, are attached from all who attended the service in riding to every cathedral in England, and receive gear. In the former case the fee varied advantages of more or less value, in exchange according to the position of the installed for their services as members of the choir. officer, and was paid without conditions being

In addition to necessary instruction in music, imposed in return ; in the latter, the wearer of they have an education in other matters, spurs could require the youthful tax-gatherer " varying in many places according to the con- to repeat his gamut " perfectly ; if he hesi- struction put upon the Statutes by the deans tated, he lost his spur-money. The boys ot and chapters of the cathedrals. The interpre- the Chapel Royal were the last to keep up tation of these Statutes has been the subject the custom which has now fallen into disuse of grave dispute, as the advantages accruing with many others equally absurd. For ex- to the choristers have been from time to time ample : the choristers in many cathedrals and most shamefully ignored. In days past, the collegiate establishments were permitted to children have been shut out from the enjoy- rule over their superiors for a short period ment of preferential privileges made con- once a year, generally from December 6th, cerning them, and their education and moral the Feast of St. Nicholas (the patron saint of training has been so little cared for, that many sailors, parish clerks, thieves, and boys) until a child who in early years was familiarised Innocents-day, December 28th. From the with the most sacred matters, has acquired for aptitude acquired in these ludicrous ceremo- them the proverbial result of familiarity. A nies, the choristers gained such a skill in better state of things is now being brought acting that they were selected to perform in into existence with a result which cannot be the mystery plays of old time, and later to considered other than hopeful. represent the masterly conceptions of such In some places private instructors have writers as Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, and been engaged to teach cathedral choristers a others. It was not alone to the choir boys attached to unimportant establishments that few matters besides music ; in others they are admitted into the chief grammar schools these matters were entrusted, but also to the " of the several cities. The course of instruc- children of Powle's churche " and of the " tion also varies, for in some cases they are Chapel Royale " of Her Majesty Queen

( 91 ) ! ; :

CHORISTER CHORUS.

distm- Elizabeth. The possession of such powers Paul's School, and scores of other musicians and privileges may have been exceedingly guished men were choristers. The first knowledge of their pleasing while it lasted, but the ill sorted who have gained the church are many, union of the theological and the theatrical is art within the walls of a others the names of happily dissolved, it is hoped for ever. and comprise among di Lasso (im- The life of a chorister in these remote days Palestrina, Frescobaldi, into Italy as a child), was, however, not all bliss, as the owner of a pressed from Hainault Bach, Haydn, good voice would probably find to his cost, Padre Martini, John Sebastian Dr. Rogers, Dr. more especially if he was not fortunate enough William Byrd,Tallis, Dr. Bull, to belong to St. Paul's Cathedral, or the Blow, Elias Ashmole, Henry Purcell, Dr. Croft, BattishiU, Chapel Royal, for there were officers armed Pelham Humphreys, Dr. Greene, with the awful warrant of the Royal Court, Dr. Burney, Attwood, and many famous living empowering them to roam the country, to musicians whose names it is not necessary visit all churches and cathedrals of the lesser here to catalogue. sort in which choral singing was practised, Chorton {Ger.) (i) The ancient ecclesi- and to select and take away all boys "with astical pitch in Germany. It was supposed good breasts," that is to say, all with voices to be higher than that employed for secular of more than ordinary excellence, for the music by about a tone. The terms Kam- " service of the privileged choirs. The " placard merton and Chorton were used to signify the or warrant was often used illegally, and chil- difference between a high and a low pitch for dren were impressed for choirs other than the same denominated sound. (2) The melody those above mentioned. There is reason for of a hymn or psalm tune. believing that choristers so gained were in Chorus. Chor (Ger.) Choeur (i^n) Coro(/f.) general badly used, if we may trust Thomas (i) A band of singers and dancers employed Tusser (1523-1580), the author of " Five on certain occasions in the ancient Greek hundred points of good husbandry," for he theatres, and other public places. It was the speaks of his good fortune in having been custom for the whole population of a city to assigned to John Redford, organist of St. meet on stated occasions, and to offer thanks- Paul's, in terms which prove that choristers givings to the gods for any special advantages were not so kindly used in other places. His obtained, by singing hymns accompanied with situation at Wallingford, from whence he was dances. Donaldson derives the word from exer- impressed, he laments in the words : Xopoe, the name of the place where these cises were performed in Sparta, and shows " O shameful time ! for every crime religious What toosed ears, like baited beares. the connection between the civil and What bobbed lippes, what yerkes, what nips. ceremonies of the ancient Greeks, saying that What hellish toies music and dancing were the basis of the re- What robes, how bare, what colledge fare. ligious, political, and military organisation of What bread, how stale; what penny ale, were Then Wallingford, how wert thou abhor'd the Dorian States. The choral songs Of silly boies." always written in the Doric dialect, and the choral dances were Dorian also. In course In another verse he contrasts his treatment of time, as the fine arts became more culti- " But marke the chance, myself to vance. vated, the duties of the chorus as a branch of By friendships lot to Pauls I got, worship devolved upon a few, and ultimately So found I grace a certayn space one, the whole expenses, Still to remaine upon who With Redford there, the like no where, when paid dancers were employed. This For cunning such, and vertue much person was called the choragus and it was his By whom some part, of musicke art business to provide the chorus in all plays, So did I gain." whether tragic or comic. His first duty after On the Continent choristers are attached to collecting his chorus was to find and pay a many cathedrals, but their duties and educa- teacher (xopoSiSao-KaXoc) who instructed them tion are based upon a different system to in the songs and dances which they had to that in general use in Great Britain at the perform. The choragus was allowed to press . present time. Before the time of the dissolu- children, if their parents did not give them up tion of the monasteries the position ofchoristers of their own accord. He lodged and main- was much the same as that enjoyed abroad tained the chorus until the time of performance by them, and it was no uncommon thing to and provided them with such aliments as find " the children of the choir " in after life conduce to strengthen the voice, he had also occupying stations of eminence and trust in to find masks and dresses. The honour was both Church and State. The venerable Bede, much coveted among the wealthy Athenians. St. Swithun, St. Hugh of Lincoln, William The choragus who exhibited the best theatrical of Wykeham, William Wainfleet, Erasmus, entertainment generally received a tripod as and his friend. Dean Colet, the founder of St. a reward of praise. (92) CHORUS.

The choral dance reached its perfection in upon scenes that are past, and describes the xopoe KvKXiKog at Athens. This chorus scenes to come. consisted of 50 persons. The number of the (4) A composition for a number of singers, chorus varied in later times according to the with or without accompaniment, intended as performance. The ^opoc rpayiKog consisting of the expression of the united sentiments of a from 12 to 15, the xopoe koiiikoq of 24, and the multitude. A chorus may be independent and \op6Q auTvpiKoe of the same number as the complete in itself, or may be a portion of a TpayiKoc. The chorus in the time of the Attic large work either sacred or secular. It may tragedy consisted of a group of persons, male contain opposed sentiments interwoven, as in and female, who remained in the theatre as the Kermesse scene in Gounod's "Faust;" in witnesses as well as spectators. When they Meyerbeer's "Huguenots," and "L'Etoile du spoke, it was to offer reflections on the scene Nord;" Wagner's " Tannhauser" and "Lohen- passing before them, taking part with or grin ;" according to the purposes of the drama. against the dramatis personcs by offering Choruses with opposed subjects are not in- advice, comfort, exhortation, or dissuasion. frequent in oratorios, as in Handel's chorus, At times the chorus was divided and spoke " Fixed in his everlasting seat," in " Samson." antiphonally. These divisions moved accord- The union of independent themes may be ing to a pre-arranged order, which movement traced by the student with advantage, ia the probably originated the naming of the stanzas choruses of such compositions as Bach's which were called strophe, antistrophe and Passion music, &c. Double, triple, or even epode. When not engaged in singing, the quadruple choruses are often found in the chorus grouped itself upon a platform called works of the old Italian church writers, as the Thymele, which was in the centre of the well as in the sacred compositions of Bach, building, and from whence all measurements Handel, and later musicians. were made, the semicircle of the amphitheatre The choruses in the early Italian operas being described from it as its centre. Of were devoid of dramatic character, and in the exact part music played, whether elaborate fact, were often independent of the action compositions were employed or not, little is of the opera in which they were inserted. As now known. It is supposed that a simple they contained occasional reflections on pass- rh3rthmical declamation analogous to chanting ing events they were in some sort connected was used. The accompaniment of flutes in with the ancient Greek chorus, the stage direc- unison was made use of for the choruses. tions enjoining the dancers to accompany the The chorus declined with the ancient tragedy, singing with motions and gestures, also formed and the few attempts made by modern writers another link binding thpm to their ancient to revive the manner of the ancients, as in model. The invention of the operatic chorus, Schiller's " Braut von Messina" have not been or rather the introduction of combined voices successful. The well-known Antigone and as a necessary part of the dramatic action is CEdipus Colonseus of Mendelssohn can claimed by the French. Many of the lesser scarcely be regarded as a reproduction of the musical dramas, , interludes, &c., had ancient Greek chorus, owing to the insuperable no choruses properly speaking, a glee or some difficulty of adapting modern instrumentation concerted piece for the principals being all to the spirit and observances of the older that is found in them. The choruses of customs. Lully are not very dramatic, and those of very badly constructed, and often (2) A musical instrument variously described Rameau are by different writers. A bagpipe must have incorrect as to their harmony, so that the im- been signified when the word was used in the provements introduced by these two masters loth century, as a chorus or corus is described were not extended to the chorus. Among the as " pellis simplex cum duobus cicutis." followers of Lully, Campra (1660-1744) is the his choruses The word is supposed to be connected with most distinguished; he treated his model, cornemuse, as it is sometimes written cormusa in a more advanced manner than and corusa. In the Promptorium Parvulorum, not onlyinthe development ofharmonic effects, . 15th century, the word is used to describe but also by the introduction of novel " a crowde, an instrument of musyke;"— the Gluck invented morceaux d'ensemble, grand drone of the bagpipe and the unstoppable indeed, when compared with the choral effects preced- strings of the "crowde" bearing a sort of by other composers of his own and instrumental burden or chorus to the melody played on the ing times; Spontini added new " Cherubini employed the graces of other pipes or strings. Busby in his Dic- colouring ; suggested tionary of Music," 1810, says that the word form to clothe the musical outlines

; Rossini did as little com- is the old Scottish name for a trumpet of loud by his predecessors a dramatic point tone. paratively for the chorus from in some of Shakespeare's of view, as Meyerbeer did much. Some of (3) A personage conceived in fine dra- plays, who between the acts utters reflections Bellini's choruses are

(93 ) : ;

CHORUS.

greatest matic spirit ; Verdi's, though occasionally In the Oratorio, the chorus is of the vulgar in detail, are by no means wanting in importance, and the number of voices to a it was in the general force and appropriateness ; the faults part is generally larger than they exhibit are due to the influence of the time of Handel, though some writers ques- fetters of tradition, and a wearying use of tion the advantage gained by multiplying by them that a simple tonic and dominant harmonies ; Gou- the forces, as it is supposed nod's are often admirable, but as the expression greater number of voices does not necessarily of the voices and opinions of a multitude, produce a proportionate power of tone, and Wagner's choruses are nearest the true ideal. the difficulty of moving a large body in con- In many of the early English operas the cert may involve a change of tempi, but this chorus is an inconsiderable item. Exception need not be the case with a trained body well must, however, be made in favour of those by acquainted with the works performed. It is Henry Purcell, whose works of this class said that " a chorus of thirty-five voices from exist, while many of the other portions of his the Pope's chapel who sang at the Coronation operas have fallen out of memory. Neither of Napoleon I., in the Cathedral of Notre- Lampe, Arne, or Storace paid much attention Dame, Paris, produced a far greater and more to the development of chorus, but its improve- wonderful effect when they entered singing the ment in smaller dramatic works is due to Sir Tu es Petrus, than another chorus of hundreds He,nry Bishop. As conductor of the music at of voices, and eighty harps, that had been Covent Garden Theatre for many years, he assembled and trained for the same occasion, produced a series of compositions of more or in expectation of surpassing all that man less value, some of which live, while the could imagine." As the knowledge of music dramas and plays for which they were vsrritten is more general in the present day, this ob- have fallen completely into oblivion. His jection cannot with reason be entertained earlier choruses have the glee attached, the now, otherwise the choruses at the Handd part for the multitude of voices being as easy Festivals could not be held to be the most as possible. It is presumed that operatic attractive features of such gatherings. chorus singing was not in its highest state of (5} The union of a number of voices for the perfection in the da}^ of Mozart or Beethoven, joint performance of a composition. The for neither of these composers has given the whole of the male and female singers other, chorus much that is difficult or important in than the principals whether in the oratorio, their operas—a matter of necessity perhaps, as drama, or at a concert. it was hard to find a body of singers in those (6) The refrain or burden of a song whether days, who would be so far content with the sung by one or by many voices. As ioi gifts they possessed as to accept an inferior example position. Chorus singing was very little culti- {fl\ I lov'd a lass, a fair one, vated in London so recently as the time when As fair as e'er was seen the Sacred Harmonic Society was established, She was indeed a rare one, for it was found necessary to invite a con- Another Sheba Queen. But fool, as then I was tingent of singers from the North of England I thought she lov'd me too, fo take up a residence in Metropolis, the But now, alas ! she's left me. employment being found for them for the Chorus. Falero, lero, loo. hours when their vocal services were not George Wither. required. (ij Lisette, dont Tempire If it is necessary to account for the slow S'^tend jusqu'a mon vin, growth of operatic chorus, when compared J^prouve la martyre with the progress made in other portions of D'en demander en vain. the musical drama, a very simple reason Pour soufTrir qu'a mon age can be found, in the fact of the difficulty Les coups me soient compt^s, attending the first performance of a variety of Ai-je compt^, volage, works when the singers have to commit the Tes infidelit€s ? whole of their parts to Straight- memory. Chosur. Lisette, ma Lisette, forward as many of Handel's choruses are, Tu m'as trompS toujours, it was found necessary to make some slight Mais vive la grisette alterations in the choruses of such a work as Je veux, Lisette, Boire a nos amours. "Acis and " when given on the Beeanger. stage. It is not difficult to gain the most sublime effects from chorus singing when {c) Lasst tanzen uns und springen, the performers have the copies before their Hier, wo die Blumen stehnj Und frohe Lieder singen, eyes, as the performance of oratorios and Im Freien klingt es schon. similar works by large choral societies can Chor. Und frohe Lipder, &c. sufficiently testify. Uhland. (94) : —

CHRISTE ELEISON CITTERN.

(7) The name given to the mixture and that in which it commences. As, at each compound stops in an organ. repeat, it begins, not at the original pitch, but Christe eleison (Gk.) A portion of the at the pitch at which it closed, it is evident kyrie in the mass. [Mass.] that twelve repetitions would take it through Christmas Carol. [Carol.] all the known keys. Christmas Music, (i) Cantatas, the words Circulus {Lat.) A circle. One of the of which are suitable to Christmas tide. (2) time signatures of early music. It was only Music played by waits. [Waits'.] applied to tempus perfectum. and temptis int- Chroma (Gk. j(pSifia, colour or complexion). perfectum, that is to the division of a breve The name of one of the modifications of the into semibreves. When the breve v/as divi- Greek musical scale. The principal chroma- ded into three semibreves (tempus perfectum) a tic scale of the Greeks was called XP"I^"- complete circle was placed at the signature " rovaiov ; its chief characteristic is the omis- quia forma rotunda perfecta est." When the sion of the 4th and 7th. [Greek Music] breve was divided into two semibreves (tempus Chroma duplex [Lat.) (i) A semiquaver. imperfectum) a broken circle or semicircle (2) A double sharp. was used. This last sign is now corrupted Chromatic. That which includes notes into a C which is erroneously said to stand not belonging to a diatonic scale. for common time. [Time.] (i) A chromatic chord is that which con- Cis {Ger.) The note C sharp. tains a note or notes foreign to diatonic Cis-cis {Ger.) The note C double sharp. progression, e.g. : Cis dur {Ger.) The key of C sharp major. Cis moll {Ger.) The key of C sharp minor. Cistella {Lat.) A dulcimer, lit. a little box. '^ r Cistre {Fr.) [Cittern.] Cistrum. [.] Chromatic harmony is that which is (2) Citara {It.) A cittern. A guitar. made up of chromatic chords. Cithara {Gk. KiQaon). The ancient lute. chromatic interval is that which is (3) A It probably differed from the lyre in having diminished, e.g. augmented or something behind the upper part of the strings, whereas the lyre-strings were open on both sides. [Guitar.] Cithara bijuga. A guitar or lute having a double of the strings passed along Chromatic modulation is a passing into neck. Some ^^4) could not an extreme key, by means of chromatic the side of. the finger-board and harmony. therefore be stopped, and some of the higher strings were tuned in pairs in unison. Some- (5) A chromatic scale is one which consists it strung with wire and played with of a succession of semitones. times was a plectrum like a cithara ; at others, it was Chromatique {Fr.) \ ' Chromatic. and played like a lute. Chromatisch {Ger.) strung with cat-gut Chrotta. [Crowd.] Citharcedus. Onewho sings whilst playing only played. Church modes. [Plain Song.] the cithara, whereas a citharista . An instrument similar in form to Ciaccona {It.) [Chaconne.] the dulcimer. The name is supposed by some Cicogna {It.) The mouth piece of a wind to be derived from cistella a little box ; by instrument ; lit. a beak. others, from cithara, a guitar. It is frequently Cicuta {Lat.) A flute or pan-pipes, made by early poets, apparently with from the stalks of the hemlock plant. mentioned various meanings. WilHam Guiart (1248) Cimbalo(7f.) (i) Harpsichord. {2)cimbali, says : cymbals. (3) A . " roi de France a celle cree Cimbel {Ger.) A mixture-stop in German Qui le Enveloppa si de parolles organs. Plus douces que son de ." Cimbelstern {Ger.) Lit. cymbal-star. A mechanical contrivance in some German Chaucer's allusion to it would imply that it :— organs, consisting of star-shaped cymbals was a kind of guitar " A citole in hir right attached to a wheel which is set in motion by hand had sche." guitar a pedal. Cittern. An old English name for a instead of with gut. It had Cink (Ger.)) A small reed stop on foreign strung with wire Cinq (Fr.)\ organs. eight strings tuned to four notes g, b, d, and corresponding intervals. The instru- Cinque {It.) A fifth part in concerted music. e, or Cinyra. An old term for a harp. ment was at one time very popular, a cittern Circular Canon. A canon so constructed being part of the furniture of a barber's shop, amusing themselves with it that it closes in the key one semitone above the customers

( 95 ) ;

CIVETTERIA, CON CLARICHORD.

at the i while waiting. The music for the cittern was the supposed invention, its likeness is written in Tablature. There were several least rather doubtful. Trustworthy represen- instruction books for the instrument issued, tations of keyed instruments are very rare while it was still in use. The title of the before the latter of the above dates, and a earliest known is " The Cittharn Schoole, by consequent amount of 'confusion exists, as Antony Holborne, Gentleman, and servant to well with regard to forms as to names. In Her Most Excellent Maiestie. Hereunto are the few early English glossaries extant, no added six short Airs, Neapolitan like to three clear or lucid description of the majority be obtained, voyces without the Instrument : done by his of instruments in existence can brother William Holborne. London, 1597." and many modern writers, misled by varied [Guitar.J spelling, and the number of different names Civetteria, con (It.) In a coquettish for the same thing, have exercised their wits manner. in finding a variety of forms, shapes, and Clairon (Fr.) [Clarion.] uses for that which was after all but of one Clang, (i) (Fr.) Klang (Ger.) character, and probably the same thing des- Quality of tone. (2) The peculiar "ringing" cribed variously. To speak of the older noise or din produced by the clash of metals, names of instruments of the kind now under or the blast of loud wind instruments. Lat. consideration, the words , mono- clangor. The Gk. KXayyri is also applied to the chord, manichord, clavycymbal, cembalo, whiz or twang caused by the discharge of an clavecin, all have the same meaning, a arrow, &c. stringed instrument with keys played by hand. Clapper. [Bells.] [Bones.] Some writers explain the words clavichord to Claque (Fr.) A body of hired applause- be so called, because the strings were wrested makers, openly employed in France and some- in tune with a key {c\a.vis) —this description times secretly resorted to in England. The would also apply to the clarichord, called also " claque " in France is divided into several claricols, clarigold, &c., for that was kept in ranks; rieurs,pleureurs,chatouilleurs, bisseurs, tune by a wrest, as William Cornishe in his and so forth. These officers distributed in poem, " A treatise betwene Trouthe and several parts of the theatre, laugh, weep, Enformacion." 1500, tells us. He says: gossip with their neighbours, cry encore, &c., " The clarichorde hath a tunely kinde under the direction of a fugle-man whose As the wyre is wrested hye and lowe business it is to study the work produced, So it tuneth to the players mynde. and after consultation with the author, the For as it wrested so must it nede showe. performers, and the stage manager, to direct Any instrument mystuned shall hurt a trewe song, Yet blame not the clarichord the wrester doth and regulate the reception of certain portions wrong." of the entertainment. this it that the clarichord Claque-bois (Fr.) [Gigelira.] By would appear it required Clarabella. An organ stop consisting of was a kind of harp, tuned as was to be used, and it is somewhat singular that open wood pipes, invented by Bishop. It is as the words clarichord, clarigols, clarigold, of a soft and sweet quality of tone. It is English writings, generally merged into a Stopped diapason &c., are only used in ancient in old French or below middle C, as the larger pipes do not no form of them being found Latin, the derivation of the word from an produce a clear tone. It is usually of 8 ft. pitch. ancient British etymon, such as clar, to grip or bend, would be applicable to the harp as Clara voce (It.) A clear voice. plucked or Claribel Flute. An organ stop of similar an instrument whose strings were gripped, for playing construction to the clarabella, but generally the- modern Irish word of 4 ft. pitch. on harps is cld|ieT5)l"e]v (clarediser), and the Clarichord. A stringed instrument of harp itselfis called cld|i')*Cd'c(clarscat), gripped mediaeval times, by some writers presumed to or clawed string. The word ycdn might be be identical with the clavichord, the precursor compared with the German Saite. of the spinet, harpsichord and pianoforte. Dr. Rimbault, after quoting the definitions The earliest stringed instrument with a key- of the word clarichord given by a few of the board for the fingers, is said to have been lexicographers of the 17th century, observes invented about the year 1300, in Italy, and that they make " no distinction between the to have been called Clavycytherium, the terms clarichord and clavichord, but the one cithara or harp with keys. In the Musurgia can hardly be a corruption of the other." He of^ Lusciniusj printed in 1536, a picture of adds that the " words suggest a totally this early instrument is given, Ijut as there is different etymology," and he then proposes no statement that it had been drawn from that it might be from the French word claire, an existing example, and moreover, as it denoting a transparent tone; but in the earliest appeared nearly two centuries and a half after musical dictionaries clarichord is said to be (95) : :

CLARIN CLARINETTO.

" called also the Dumb spinnet, on account of all the intermediate semitones. The clarinet the cords being covered with pieces of cloth." being of the nature of a stopped pipe, as to The Clavechord or clavecimbalo is said to its harmonics, can be played from its lowest signify a harpsichord. In every instance in note E up to twelve notes higher without a which the word clarichord is employed before break by means of its keys. At this point the the 1 6th century it might be fairly be trans- player has to increase the pressure of wind, lated harp. and commence a new series of sounds, the At the marriage of James of Scotland with transition between these two registers forming the Princess Margaret, in the year 1503, "the the chief difficulty in " clarinet blowing." king began before hyr to play of the clary- The registers are four in number, and are as chordes and after of the lute. And upon the follows said claiychorde Sir Edward Stanley played a I. The low includes all notes between ballade and sange therewith." (Warton, " History of English Poetry.") It is quite possible that the similarity of the two letters V and r in ancient MSS. might have led the transcribers to mistake one for the other, and 2. The second between by writing clarichord or clavichord indiscrimi- nately they might innocently cause contro- versy. All modem authorities on the subject declare that the words are of separate and 3. The third between distinct origin. [Pianoforte.] Clarin (Ger.) A species of trumpet, a clarion, also an organ reed stop of 4 ft. pitch. Clarin-blasen, the sound of a trumpet. Some- The fourth comprises all remaining notes times the word is applied to the soft tones 4. produced on this instrument. from

Clarinet , "j An important wind in- Clarinette {Fr.) I strument said to have Clarinetto [It.) J been invented by John The first two registers are called the " chala- Christopher Denner, who was born in Leipsic, meau part," and when this is employed for any in 1654, but it was in reality only a modification continued time it is written an octtve higher, and improvement of the more ancient shawm with the direction " chal, or chalameau " to OT chalanteau. Most authors relate that Denner the player. There are three lengths of tubing invented the instrument in 1659, at which date employed for the clarinet, by which means he was four years old ; but it was made by the instmment may be made to sound three him after his residence in Nuremberg, in 1690. different scales according as the tube is The name clarinet, or clarionet was probably short or long. The longer tube is used for attached to it on account of its pure and brilliant the clarinet, a medium for the B flat, and tone not ufalike that of the clarion or trumpet. A the shorter for the C. In modem instraments of this class, the tone As the fingering is in each case the same has been rendered far purer and sweeter in each instrument it has been found con- than that originally produced. The difference venient to adopt C as the normal scale, so between the tone of the hautboy and that of that a piece of music apparently the same to the clarinet, is due to the circumstance that the eye is different to the ear, according to the one has a double, and the other a single the clarinet employed. Thus the passage reed. The difference in the nature of the written as follows scale arises from the fact that the hautboy is conical, while the clarinet is a cylinder, the f] ^rJ i rr'r series of harmonics in the hautboy following i—^n- each other in the ratio i, 2, 3, 4, &c., those of the clarinet i, 3, 5, 7, &c., hence, that When played upon a C clarinet would sound whereas the first of the forrher is its as it stands, upon an A clarinet would sound: octave, the first overtone of the latter is its twelfth. On this fact depends the difficulty of making shakes and of playing rapid pas- iX^-^^^i=r^j \aSj' nr sages on certain parts of the clarinet. All sudden changes from the end of the first range of twelve notes to the commencement of the second series, are difficult, some impossible. The compass of the instrument is about three octaves and a half from tenor E, including : :

CLARINETTISTA—CLEF.

ment give out the same notes by employing clausula fitlsa, a.Mse ca.dmce; clausulafindUs, a change in the signature, thus the passage a final cadence, &c. for the A clarinet should be written Clavecin (Fr.) (i) A harpsichord. (2) The keys by means of which the carilloHeur plays upon the bells. [Pianoforte,] Claviatur (Ger.) (i) The key board of an organ or pianoforte. (2) Fingering. And for the B flat clarinet Clavi-cembalum (Lai.) Clavicembalo (It.) [Pianoforte.] Clavichord. [Clarichord.J Clavicylinder, An instrument in the form when they will each give the sounds as written of tubes or cylinders of glass, invented by in No. I. Chladni. There was another instrument with The kindof clarinet required is usually stated the same name made of plates of glass of gradu- at the commencement, as clarinet in A, B flat, ated lengths, the tone of which was produced or C, and whenever a change is needed during by hammers set in motion by a key-board. the progress of a piece, the same is indicated . [Clarichord.] duringa period of rest for the instrument, by the Claviglissando. An instrument with a words change to A, B, or C, as the case maybe. key-board, invented by C. W. Le Jeune, which The aavantage of a change of clarinet is is intended to combine the properties of the that complicated scales upon one instrument violin and harmonium—of the violin in ob- become easy upon another. For instance the taining a slide or , and the harmo- scale of F sharp major which is very difficult nium in the capability of imitating the tones on a C clarinet, when played upon an A of various wind instruments. clarinet is fingered as A major, the real sounds Clavier {Ger.)\ (i) The pianoforte. (2) A

produced being those of the scale of F sharp Clavier (Fr.) J row of keys on an organ. major. Similarly the scale of D flat major Clavierauszug (Ger.) A pianoforte score, would become the scale of E flat major on a as opposed to Partitur, a full score. B flat clarinet. This accounts for the fact Clef (Lat. clavis.) The sign placed at the that the clarinet part in a full score is some- commencement of a staff' or stave, showing times in a flat key while the movement is the absolute pitch, the lines without it showing in a sharp key. For example a piece in the only the relative distances of sounds. When key of E minor (one sharp) not uncommonly it was found that could be better has a part for an A clarinet written, of course, interpreted by the use of lines, a red and a in G minor with two flats. yellow line were used, it being understood The favourite (because easy) keys of the that the former bore the note F, the latter C. clarinet are the keys of C, F, and G, B flat, It is easy to see, that the fact having been E flat, A flat and D with their relative minors. once established that lines could represent Hence the skill of the composer is shown in notes, it would be found much easier to attach writing for that .clarinet capable of producing the letter itself to the commencement of the the best effects in certain keys. lines, than to colour the line. The coloured Clarinets are usually employed in pairs, lines were invented by Guido, but Walter and the parts are ordinarily written on one Odington (13th century) used one of the letters stave. They, in Conjunction with the two of the musical notes as a clef to his stave of bassoons similarly written, form a grand ba.sis four lines. At this period, it was not usual or support for all the other wind instruments. to employ leger lines, but if the voice ex- The small E flat clarinet (playing a minor ceeded in compass beyond the limit of the

third above the notes actually written) is used stave, the position of the clef was altered ; a in military bands. Its tone is shrill and practice still retained in plain-song books. piercing. The introduction of the clarinet as [Notation.] The letters C and F were most a regular instrument in the orchestra of the commonly used in all ecclesiastical music up opera is due to J. Christian Bach, who wrote to the time of Palestrina, after which other special parts for a pair of clarinets in his opera clefs were introduced. " Orione, Diana vendicata," which was There were five sorts of clefs in use in the in , produced in London 1763. i6th century, namely, the gamut T, from the Clarinettista (It.) Clarinettiste (Fr.) A Greek gamma, the F, C, g and d clefs. These performer on the claririet. were ultimately reduced to three, the gamut Clarinetto (It.) [Clarinet.] and the d clefs being found to be unneces- Clarino (It.) (i) A trumpet (2) An organ sary. The position of the defs was held to stop, eoflsisting of reed pipes, generally of represent a certain pitch, and as it was 4-ft. pitch. supposed that the scale was incapable of ex- Clausula (Lat.) A close or cadence, e.g. tension beyond the notes indicated by the (98) : :

CLEF. clefs gamut and d, their places marked the found sufficient for all purposes. The C clef .boundary of ecclesiastical compass. The other appears upon all lines but the fifth. clefs might be made moveable if needed, for reasons already intimated, but whatever the number of lines above or below, the clefs, each clef represented a particular sound. Thus, w i^ the F clefs indicated F finale, the C clef, The first is called the Soprano, and is most, acuium, and the G clef, G superacutum, &c. frequently found in ecclesiastical music, though Many of the musical treatises of the i6th it not uncommonly indicates the treble voice century contain a chapter " De Clavibus sig- part in modern full scores. The second is natis," which is interesting as showing the called the Mezzo Soprano, and is assigned form of the clefs as then employed. to second treble, and sometimes alto voices, All the writers of these tracts distinguish and in music of the early part of the i8th between the clefs proper to plain-song, and century is often used for the tenor violin. The those employed for figurate or mensurable third is the Alto, and the fourth the Tenor

music. In the following copies of these ar- clef ; the former being used for alto voices, rangements of clefs, those for plain-song are , and the highest trombone, the latter on the left, and those for figurate music on by tenor voices, trombones and the upper the right. No. i, from ipjnck's " Practica register of the bassoon and violoncello. The

Musica," 1556 : F clef is placed upon the fourth line of the stave and is used for all bass voices and in- ^79 v\r struments. When it is found upon the third ^Cg Et ponuntur omnes in lineali situ, line as in some old music it is called the quaedam tamen sunt magis fami- baritone clef: liares, utpote rariuscule. Signa F et C, g vero et dd rarissime utimur. clavium r Unde, Linea signatas sustentat in utroque * scilicet omnes. Et distant inter cantu. se mutuo per diapentem. F tamen The following quotations from music books yaiifia distinguat septima quamvig. of various dates will show the forms through which the several clefs have passed. The rr " Compendium ," byLampardius,i537, to be the earliest printed book in No. 2, from " Erotemata Musices Practicae," is supposed which the G clef is used in a shape nearly by Ambrosius Wilphlingsederus, 1563 : similar to that now employed:

-^ J^ -^ In LuUy's and other French scores it is some- upon the line: -m^ times placed first -^ In this position it was called the " French In choraU cmnta slmplicitcr In mensurali vero hoc mode. prescribuntur ita. violin clef;" and in an earlier work by " No. 3, from " Erotemata Musicae," by Christopher Demantius, Isagoge Artis Lucas Lossius, 1570 Musicse," 1656, it appears upon the third line: =3JS ^^ dS i -^^ fcfc In "Ayres and Dialogues for one, two, and ^a three voyces," by Henry Lawes, 1653, the ^^ 5^5WI forms of the clefs are as follows ->^— =# =f= ^ 1= flgurali, In cantu choral!. In cantu ; Christopher Simpson's " Compendium of In later times three clefs F, C and G were In (99) :

CLEF COGLI STROMENTI.

Practical Musick," 1678, the clefs are in this ^hape

^ : : —

COI COMMON OR DUPLE TIME.

Coi {It.) With; e.g. coi bassi, with the basses; Comes {Lat.) The answer to the Dux or coi violini, with the violins. subject. [Fugue.] Col {It.) With; e.g-. Comic opera. An opera in which the in- cidents are description. Col arco, with the bow. of a humorous The Col basso, with the bass. comic opera is of Italian origin and French Col canto, with the melody. development, each subject treated by musicians CoUa destra, with the right hand. of other nations owing its rise either to some Coll' arco, with the bow. one or other theme already taken by French CoUa parte, with the principal part. CoUa punta dell' arco, with the point of the bow. composers of comic operas, or from thp CoUa sinistra, with the left hand. vaudevilles which preceded, and formed the CoUa voce, with the voice. pattern of, the comic operas. Boieldieu, College of Organists. A modern insti- Herold, Auber, Adam, Thomas, Offenbach, tution established in London, for the purpose Lecocq, are the most successful representatives of strengthening and improving the position of the modern school of comic opera writers. of organ players, granting diplomas, and of [Vaudeville, Opera, &c.] providing suitable performers for the service Comic song. A song developing in humo- of the church. rous verse some ludicrous idea or incident College youths. A London Society of set to a tune already popular, or with a melody bell ringers, formerly confined to members of easy to be caught up by the hearers, in order the universities. that they may be ready when called upon to join in usually accompanies {It.) With the wood. A direction the chorus which to strike the strings of a violin with the back such songs. Songs of a humorous description or wood of the bow. are of high antiquity, but as their humour character, of Collet de violon {Fr.) The neck of a is generally of a bad specimens violin. this class of literature are not fitted either for ballads CoUinet {Fr.) [Flageolet.] general or for. particular readers. The stories would please an audience of Colophony. Colofonia {If.) Colophonium and which their {Lat.) Colophonie {Fr.) Resin. The gum a past age and which have found way ancient songs, are used for making the hair of bows rough, so into many collections of for their antiquity. as to set the strings freely into vibration. So scarcely respectable even small interval betwepn a called from Colophon in Greece {KoXoipaivia, Comma. The major and a minor tone, that is between a and priTivri, gum.) is 8 : and one whose ratio Color {Lat.) Colour. A term variously tone whose ratio 9 is : ratio of a comma is therefore employed in mediaeval treatises on music to g 10. The differ- 80 : 81. A Pythagorean comma is the represent : a repetition of a sound in part between the note produced by taking music (repititio ejusdem vocis); purity of tone ence 7 octaves upwards and 12 fifths. (pulchritudo soni) ; a movement of the voice Common chord. A note accompanied from the part (florificatio vocis) ; an altera- its major or minor 3rd and perfect 5th. tion of rhythm by different voices (idem sonus by [Harmony.] In thorough bass, the figure repetitus in tempore diverso a diversis voci- 3, a sharp, flat or natural, as the case may be, bus) ; a discord purposely introduced for the ^absence of any letter, character, or sake of variety (aliquando unus eorum ponitur or the figure, denotes the common chord of the bass in discordantiam propter colorem musicse). is more than one chord Some have gathered from the definition note. When there bass note, the common chord is " Repetitio diverse vocis est idem sonus re- on the same figured • petitus in tempore diverso a diversis vocibus," I- . Common'or Duple time. Time with two that a musical canon is meant to be described'. beats in a bar or any multiple of two beats (2) The coloured lines first used for the pur- in a bar. The beats may be of the value of pose of rendering neumes more intelligible. any note or rest or compound of notes and " Quamvis perfecta sit positura neumarum, rests, providing the sum required by the caeca omnino est et nihil valet sine adjunctione time sign be exactly contained in each literarum vel colorum " (Guido). [See Clef bar. Common time is of two kinds, simple and Notation.] and compound. Simple common time is {It.) Divisions, runs, trills, that which includes four beats in a bar, cadenzas, and other florid passages in vocal any division of that number, or square music. or the number or its divisions. The signs Coloscione or Colachon. A species of of used to express simple common time are called also Bichordon or Trichordon, guitar, and the charac- the following: f , |, |, %, %, according as it was strung. ters and (^. In these signs the upper figure : (3 Come {It.) As, like ; e.g. quantity of notes required in the Come prima. As at first. Come sta, as it denotes the the quality of the stands. bar, and the lower figure

( loi ) COMMODAMENTE CONCENTUS.

The interval which must notes, I signifying asemibreve, 2 a minim, 4 Complement. so that the a crotchet, 8 a quaver, and so on, each figure be added to any other interval, octave e.g., the showing the relative proportionate value to whole shall be equal to an ; 6th; that of a 4th, the semibreve which is now reckoned as the complement of a 3rd is a It will be a 4th ; and so on. time-standard. The sign (q) is called the a 5th; of a 5th, that the intervals are always considered sign of alia capella time, and is usually- seen as overlapping. followed by four minims in a bar, played or sung . Compline (from the Lat. completonum). in slow time ; the sign is called the sign ( (p ) The short evening service which completes of alia breve time, and has also four or eight the day-hours. minims in a bar played or sung in a shorter Composer, (i) An author of music. One time, as its title implies. The use of words who " finds out musical tunes." (2) An in- directing the pace in which pieces of music ventor and arranger of a series of changes in are intended to be taken, has created a certain bell ringing. ' amount of confusion in the use and meaning , . . , . , Composition, (i) A piece of music, for of all the time signs descriptive of form in a voices or instruments, or a combination of bar [Expression, Time]. Compound common- both effects, constructed according to the time is expressed by the signs |, ^^, such J, rules of art. (2) The art of composing music, signs meaning two or four beats of three guided by scientific rules. (3) In an organ, crotchets or quavers to each beat. the particular combination of sounds which In mediaeval music a circle O was used form a compound stop. (4) A mechanical indicate what was called perfect time to arrangement on the organ by which certain (tempus perfectum), a portion of the circle combinations of stops may be employed or Deing omitted C showed that the time was im- not, at the wish of the performer, upon his perfect, a line through the latter sign' (p meant opening or closing a valve, or by using a a more rapid pace than that required when the pedal which acts upon the sliders. C alone was used. When these signs were Composizione {It.) A composition. reversed they implied that the music was to Composizione di Tavolino {It.) Table Ger. be taken faster than if they were in their music. Convivial compositions, c.f. ordinary places. Thus the degree of rapidity Lieder-tafel. [Chamber music] would be shown by the time signs arranged Compound intervals. Intervals greater than an octave, as opposed to simple intervals as follows : o c (|; ;!) which are less than an octave. Commodamente (It.) lit. in a convenient Compound Stops. Organ stops having manner. Easily, quietly. more than one rank of pipes. Commodo (it.) Easily, at will, without Times. Times in which the haste. Compound bar is divided into two or more groups of Compagnia del gonfalone {It.) An notes, |- which consists of two groups ancient society of mystery or miracle play e.g., of three notes which consists of three actors established at Rome, in 1264, who ; f groups of three, &c. Compound Times are illustrated their dramatic performances of classifie4 as duple or triple, according to the sacred subjects with music. They took their number of groups in each bar, not according name from the banner (gonfalone) which they to the number of notes in each group ; e.g., bore. Their performances are supposed by is a duple time ; a triple time ; ^^ (four some writers to have suggested the Oratorio. f -I groups of three) a duple time, &c. The prin- of Musicians. One of the Company cipal accent falls on the first note in each bar, chartered companies of the City of London, and a subordinate accent on the first note of like majority of such companies, which, the each group. has become by time perverted from the original Comus {Gk. Ktifioe). A revel, carousal, its foundation. charter was purpose of The merry making with music and dancing. The granted by King Charles I., in 1636, to divers revellers paraded the street crowned, carrying musicians under the style and title of the torches, and sang verses in praise of the gods Marshal, Wardens, and Commonality of the or the victors in the games. Art and Science of Music, in Westminster, Comus. {Gk. ko}1)x6q). a mournful song in the County of Middlesex. This charter sung in alternate verses by an actor and a was confirmed by letters patent from King chorus in the Attic drama. Charles II. Con {It.) With ; e.g. con amore, with affec- Compass. The whole range of sounds tion ; con moto, with spirited movement; con capable of being produced by a voice or sordini, with the mutes on, &c. (See the instrument. words to which it is prefixed.) Compiacevole {It.) Pleasant, agreeable, Concento {It.) Harmony. 'charminif. Concentus {Lat.) (concinno). Musical

( 102 ) — : :

CONCERT CONCERTINA.

harmony. Part music ; e.g., concentus voeis pose to describe in detail the several sorts of Lyrceque. Consonance ; e.g., concentus tuba- concerts which have taken place since that rum ac cornuum, ' given " over against the George Tavern." Concert, (i) A performance of music in It may not, however, be uninteresting to state which several executants are employed. Con- that the word has been applied to the per- certs of music, to which the general public formance of oratorios in church as the follow- is admitted by payment, are of comparatively ing quotation will show recent origin in the history of music. Public " The Oratorios for the opening of the musical performances, more or less connected elegant Organ now erected in the Minster, at with state or religion, were anciently given Beverley, will be on the 20th, 21st, and 22nd of from time to time, on occasions of importance. September, 1769, viz Kings, nobles, and civic officials, employed " On Wednesday the 20th, the Sacred musicians in their trains, but their perfor- Oratorio of the Messiah; mances could scarcely be considered in the " On Thursday, the 21st, the Oratorio of light of concerts. Organized bands of musi- Judas Maccabseus. cians who performed in the houses of the " On Friday the 22nd, the Oratorio of great " " " " and wealthy ; waits and noises Samson ; and that being the Anniversary of are frequently mentioned in old records, but the King'g Coronation, the Performance will concerts of music in hired houses, assembly conclude with Mr. Handel's grand Coronation rooms of taverns, &c., apart and distinct Anthem. from the " entertainment " ordinarily provided "The first violin by Mr. Giardini. The at hostelries are rare before the time of principal voices by Mrs. Hudson, of York, Charles II. Pepys, in his Diary, speaks of Miss Radcliffe, Mr. Norris, and Mr. Matthews, " musick meetings " and " concerts," but both of Oxford. The remainder of the band they were private affairs, and therefore not will be numerous, and will consist of the best within the meaning of the term as now under- performers, vocal and instrumental, that can stood, The first public concert in England be procured. was given at Oxford, in the year 1670, the " Tickets for the Great Aisle at 5s. each. first in London two years later. After which Galleries at 2s. 6d. each, to be had of Mr. a periodical concert was established in Ayles- Hawdon, organist, of Mr. Norris, at the Bell, bury Street, Clerkenwell, over the shop of and of Mrs. Todd, at the Tyger, in Beverley ; Thomas Britton, the musical small-coalman. of Mr. Forster, carver, in Salthouse Lane, and Before this time musicians roved from tavern of Mr. Ferraby, Bookseller, in the Butchery, to tavern, instruments in hand, waiting the in Hull. Of whom may be had Books of the pleasure of the guests "if they were wilHng Oratorios, with Mr. Handell's Alterations and to heare any musick." These bands of Additions,as they will be performed at Beverley. fiddlers played by the hour together such pop- Price 4d. each. The North doors will be ular tunes as were best calculated to delight open'd at Ten in the Morning, and the Con- audiences gathered impromptu. But from all cert to begin at Eleven. The Great Aisle that can be learned, their performance was will be fiU'd with Benches. And to add to " not scientific ; for the most part it was that the solemnity of the performance, the gingers of violins, hautboys, and trumpets, without will be dress'd in surplices. any diversity of parts, and consequently in " All tickets transferable. No Money taken the unison." at the Door. The advertisement of the first London con- " A Concerto upon the Organ each Day.

cert is still extant, and runs as follows : And Mr. Giardini will oblige the company " These are to give notice, that at Mr. with a Solo. John Banister's house (now called the Musick IS"' An Assembly on Wednesday and School) over against the George Tavern, in Friday." White Fryers, this present Monday, will be Concertante (It.) (i) A composition suit- music performed by excellent masters, begin- able for performance at a concert. (2) A ning precisely at 4 of the clock in the after- composition in which several of the parts are noon, and every afternoon for the future, in turn brought into prominence. precisely at the same hour. London Gazette, Concerted music. Music for two or more Dec. 30th, 1672." From this time forward performers, either vocal or instrumental, as concerts of all kinds, vocal and instrumental, opposed to a vocal or instrumental solo, with given not only "by excellent masters" but or without accompaniment by a single in- also by those who cannot with justice be called strument. either " masters " or " excellent," become com- Concertina (Eng.) A portable musical mon enough. It would, be both tedious and instrument of hexagonal form, invented by unnecessary to trace the history of concerts Professor Wheatstone, consisting of a series step by step, neither is it to the present pur- of vibrating metal reeds acted upon and set

( 103 ) : CONCERTINA CONDUCTOR.

in motion by the current of air, caused by a designed according to rules or plans, accepted bellows placed in the body of the instrument or allowed from time to time. The concertos connecting the two ends in which the metal of Corelli, Torelli, Bach, Tartini, and writers tongues or springs are fixed and worked by of the periods in which those masters lived the player, both hands being in such a position are only different from their suites in that a that the wrists move the bellows while the solo instrument has the accompaniment of fingers are free to press the stops or keys other instruments. which cause it to sound. The compass of the Torelli (1683- 1708) was the first writer who concertina is of three and a half octaves with suggested an extension of the number of in- intermediate semitones from fiddle G struments employed in a concerto, and by this means pointed the way to the symphony. He called this sort of composition " Concerto Grosso." In his plan he gives certain phrases to one or more solo instruments which are Each note in this scale is double, that is to repeated by the full band employed. Handel say, is capable of being produced by the in- constructed his "Concerti Grossi " on the spiration or respiration of the bellows. [Ac- same model. Vivaldi (1690-1743) further de- cordion.] veloped the idea; Gossec, Haydn, and Mozart' Concertina (Ger.) An instrument of shape settled the form as it stands at present, and similar to the English concertina, but of less Beethoven, Weber, and Mendelssohn have finished appearance and more limited com- left noble examples of their musical powers pass. The bellows excites the vibration of in their works of this class. the free metallic reeds as in the English Concerto spirituale {It.) Concert spirituel concertina, but the scale instead of being (Fr.) A concert formed of a miscellaneous double is single, that is, the respiratory note is selection of vocal and instrumental pieces different to the inspiratory note, and has only with words of a sacred character. The con- those chromatic notes necessary for the modu- certs spirituels in Paris were founded in the lation of melody into the tonic or dominant year 1725. of the scale in which the instrument is tuned. Concertmeister [Ger.) The leader of the There is also an escape valve to allow the band, the conductor. passage of superfluous air, a contrivance not Concert-spieler' (Ger.) A performer; a

necessary on the English concertina, where solo-player ; the player of a concerto. the notes are of double sound. The German Concert-stuck (Ger.) A concert piece, a concertina is capable of being onlyin performed concerto. , the one key in which it is tuned, the English Concha (Lat.) A trumpet in the conven-

concertina can be played in any key. tional form of a shell fish ; Triton's horn ; a (It.) (i) The principal in- . strument in a concerto as violino concertino. Concitato {It.) Moved, disturbed, agitated. (2) The diminutive of concerto. Concord. [Harmony.] Concerto (It.) (i) A concert. (2) A com- Conductor, (i) A director or leader of an position for the display of the qualities of orchestra or chorus. It is supposed that a some especial instrument, accompanied by leader or a fugleman was employed by the others of a similar or dissimilar character. A Assyrians, to regulate the rhythm of the songs

concerto' may be for a solo violin, or violon- or dances ; he was armed with two sticks, cello with an accompaniment for strings, or one of which he beat against the other, and wind; or it may be for a pianoforte, violin, or so marked the time or accent. any wind instrument, and a full band. Those Among the Greeks the Coryphoeus or exar-

for pianoforte, violin, or organ, are generally ' chus led the dance, and in everything requiring made of more classical character than those united action, a leader or conductor by his for any wind instrument, as in many cases the voice or certain understood gestures secured last named are constructed by the performers the desired result. The word in connection themselves with the object of exhibiting their with music has several applications. It signi- own accomplishments, and their artistic taste. fies one who directs with a biton the perfor- In a work by Scipio Bargaglia, published in mance of a band of players. It is also appHed Venice, 1587, "Trattimenti ossia divertimenti to one who accompanies vocal or instrumental da Sonare," the word concerto is applied to a pieces on the pianoforte. A conductor, as an piece for a solo instrument with accompani- independent time beater, was not known until ment, probably for the first time. The con- the end of the last century. The player who certo is usually constructed in symphonic sat at the harpsichord gave the time to the form, but without a minuet or scherzo. Though leader of the tand, who, directing his subor-

the early concertos show some deviation from dinates, was called conductor. [Orchestra. ] the plan now accepted, they were, however. (2) The inventor or leader of, a chime, or

( 104 ) CONDUCTUS CONFRERIE DE ST. JULIEN. change in bell ringing, is also known as the age by the patronage bestowed upon them, " conductor or ' composer. and deeming it needful to ' sort their humours Conductus {Lat.) The name given to a to those of the people for whose amusement certain vocal composition in parts, in the 13th they exercised their calling, they made a and 14th centuries. It has been variously change in their programme and spoke out described as a composition having descant openly that which had hitherto been conveyed on an original melody (qui vult facere con- only through a delicate innuendo. Their suc- ductum, primum cantum debet invenire pul- cess was complete, and to save the effect of chriorem quam potest, &c., Franco ofCologne) ; troubles which might arise from an ungodly on an original or borrowed theme (conducti enterprise, they became apparently religious, sunt compositi explicabilibus canticis decoris placed themselves under the protection of a cognitis vel inventis, &c., Walter Odington). patron saint, Julien, Archbishop of Toledo, The definition of John of Garland points to an who after having led a life of vicissitude and elaborate construction: "conductus autem est vagabondage, died in 662, and became the super unum metrum, multiplex consonans tutelar protector of all vagabonds except cantus qui etiam secundarias recipit conso- thieves—who were committed to the care of nantias." ..." In florificatione vocis fit color St. Nicholas. There was also another Saint ut commixtio in conductis simplicibus." Con- who divided the honours of their devotions, ducti were sometimes sung without words. Genesius, a comedian, who was martyred tor They were called simple, double, triple, or his Christianity at the end of the 4th century. quadruple, but the real distinction between Under the care of these two patrons, the musi- the different kinds cannot be clearly learnt cians flourished, and in the year 1330, settled from the old treatises. All the information themselves in the good city of Paris, and which can be brought together will be found formed themselves into a guild for mutual in Coussemaker's L'Art harmonique aux XIP protection and support. The title by which et XIIP siecles. they were enrolled was that of the "Com- Cone Gamba. [Bell Gamba.J pagnons, jongleurs, menestreux or menes- Confrerie de St. Julien. A Society of triers," and this title sufficiently indicated their Musicians in France, at one period possessing position of companions, yokefellows, and ser- great power. At the end of the 13th century, vants to the former troubadours. They had the troubadours ceased to exist, the " courts sufficient interest left with the friends and of love " were closed, the sentiment of the connexions of their old masters to obtain troubadour poetry was no longer enjoyed, and "sealed letters" in November 27th, 1331, the excesses of the singers and poets were the recognising their position ; and they lived things for which they were best or worst re- together in one street, hence, called St. julien membered. Their followers, no longer having des m'enHriers. To this quarter all had to poetry as a veil and excuse for their peculiari- come who desired their services, and as the ties, became disreputable, and led a wander- minstrels became further encouraged, and in- ing, careless, and shifty life ; the sins of their creased in numbers they assumed a line of masters were visited upon their devoted heads, conduct which caused William de Germont, and they became Ishmaelites against whom Prefect of Paris, to place various restrictions every man's hand was raised, and who had upon them, which were continued with ad- inclination but not power to lift hand against ditions and modifications by his successors, every man. They were no longer welcome By a decree issued in the year 1393, the pain for their skill at all times as heretofore. They of imprisonment was visited upon all niem- were no longer free to enter the houses of the bers of the guild who offended by reciting g^eat and wealthy " without leave and license scurrilous and scandalous verses either in the previously had and obtained," as they had streets or in the houses of those who hired been when in attendance upon some poet them. This check caused a division of the prince or troubadour sovereign. It was, how- society, the one part devoting itself to the ever, necessary that they should live, and practice of tumbling and rope-dancing—these those that did not become openly dishonest, were called haceleurs—the other carrying on " robbers oh the king's highway with a gallows the music-entertaining business—took to viol at the end of it," sought the means of liveli- playing, and marked a certain progress in their hood in another sphere than that to which art, by the introduction of bass instruments they had previou,sly been always welcomed in. hitherto not used by them. They distinguished The love for music still existed among a lower themselves by the title of " MSnestrels joueurs class of people, and these gladly received the d'instrumens tant haut que has." By this musicians and performers "whose strains had name they were recognised by Charles VI., made many a gentle heart beat quickly," as a who gave them letters patent dated April 14th, proof of their own elevation of taste in matters 1401. Armed with this document they elected of courtesy and refinement. Gathering cour- a chief called " Roi des m6nestrels," and they

( i°5 ) ; : :

CONFRERIE DE ST. JULIEN- CONSECUTIVE^.

built and endowed a chapel in the Rue St. cients, this new band of practical musicians, Martin, as much to conciliate the ecclesiastical these four and twenty were to be called powers, as to mark their attachment to religi- "Petits violons du Roi," the king's little ous forms. They had a monopoly of all fiddlers, instead of the king's musicians, a music in France, especially in Paris ; no one very nice and comforting distinction. By could learn an instrument without employing degrees the income arising from the property a member of the confraternity, no one could possessed by the confraternity of St. Julien give a banquet of music without the leave and was applied to a proper purpose, the king's license of the Confrerie de St. Julien. Even chamber music was executed by legitimate the king, not to speak of thp mayor of Paris, performers, and the perverted association was was compelled to be indebted to them for finally suppressed in 1761, after four hundred the after dinner amusement of his guests, years of profitable but comparatively useless as well as for the means of giving brilliancy to existence. pageants, processions, and other state busi- Congregational music. Music in which nesses. The Confrerie were all- important in the people or congregation take part, as op- the matter of vocal and instrumental music posed to that which is sung by the trained they had the monopoly of the court and mu- choir alone. The plain-song of the Respong^es, nicipal music of Paris until the reign of Louis Creeds, and of the Lord's Prayer ; and the XIV., who in 1 658 was weak enough to confirm melody of psalm and hymn tunes are con- their charter and privileges. These privileges gregational music, but services and anthems must have been great, for they allowed the are specially set aside for performance by the title of musician to be possessed by those choir, acting as it were as the skilled represen- who had funds sufficient to purchase fellow- tatives of the listening and meditating people. ship in the guild: musical skill was of no Conjunct, (i) One of the Greek systems import, for neither city or court cared for the of music. [Greek Music] (2) Conjunct motion, performances of the Confrerie, though they a succession of sounds proceeding by single were compelled to pay handsomely for that degrees. which they would rather have dispensed with. Consecutives. A forbidden progression of If the cultivation of true musical science had parallel fifths or octaves, e.g. been the object in the maintenance of the Ex. I, Es.2. guild, musical coi;nposition frorri the 14th to the 17th centuries would have been less of a

puzzle and annoyance than it is ; but unfortu- nately for the body, in course of time, pressure from without was brought to bear, and the whole thing collapsed, though not without a Consecutive fifths. Consecutive octaves. struggle. From the date when attention was Consecutives are considered to be saved, if drawn to it for its inefficiency and incompe- they do not occur between the same two parts, tency, to the day when it finally ceased to exist, as shown in the following (Ex. 3), which em- no less a period than 100 years elapsed. Louis bodies the harmonic progressions of Ex. i XIV. in i56o happened to hear a piece of music by a rising composer called Jean Bap- tiste Lully, and thinking that it was exactly the sort of lullaby or reveille he should like to hear performed in his own palace, desired to have it executed by his own court band, but, alas ! they were musicians only in name, and That consecutive fifths are often productive of this little request gave them trouble. But an ugly and distressing effect, is not to be they plucked up courage ; the king was in- denied ; but their use when not objectionable formed that they held their places by prescrip- seems to have been somewhat thoughtlessly tive right, and as it had not been the custom forbidden by musical law-givers. The great for the " Musiciens du Roi," to exercise the masters not unfrequently use them with good art which they professed and were paid for, results, as will be seen by the following for many generations, the king's request was examples. (Stainer's "Theory of Harmony.") unreasonable and unconstitutional. The con- Handel's " Solomon." fraternity would still enjoy their privileges and Bach. " Mdtett," No. z. "Almighty power." emoluments and the king must go without his music. This he was not inclined to do ; he was therefore pleased to command and ordain that Lully should organise a band, himself at the head, and in order to avoid collision with the patent place-holders and privileged ineffi-

f TO6 1 :

CONSECUTIVES CONSERVATORIUM.

MeHDELSSOHn'S " " St. Paul." MESDEtSSOHN'S St. Paul." Consecutives are said to be hidden when To Crod on high." " To Thee, O Lord." the progression of two parts gives the im- pression that they have occurred, although they have not actually been written, e.g. :

Sfohr's " The Last Judgment." Introduction to Part III. Haydn's Symphony, No. 4.

A -i-S-j Hidden fifths. Hidden octaves. They are to be discovered by filling up the interval of one of the parts with the interme-

diate scale-series, e.g. : Ex.5.

The law against hidden fifths and octaves has never been directed against the movement of inner parts, but only against that of extreme Beethoven's Pianoforte Sonata, No. z, Op. 2g. parts. But even this has been greatly relaxed ^ 4 ?A rr in modern music, e.g. : Ex.6.

It having been found by experience that the early attempts at harmony known as diaphony Consecutives are said to be "by contrary which consisted entirely of and organum, motion " when the parts forming them pro- consecutive quarts, quints, and octaves, ceed in opposite directions, e.g. were remarkably unpleasant and barbarous, Schumann's " Luck of Edenhall." it is probable a reaction took place which led to the indiscriminate condemnation of con- secutive fifths. No satisfactory reason has yet been brought forward for the unpleasant effect of con- secutive fifths, but it is easy to see why consecutive octaves should not be allowed in {It.) The pure part-writing. If in a duet, or trio, for Consequent. Consequenza subject ' or any instance, one part occasionally moves in unison answer to a fugue-subject proposed for imitation. [Dux.] [Guida.] or octaves with another, such a part is for the _ {Lat.) Conservatorio time wasted, and loses its power of forming a , Conservatorium musique (Fr.) A distinct melody or adding a real contribution {It.) Conservatoire de to the harmony. But, on the other hand, public music school. or conservatories are any phrase, however short, may be legiti- The Italian academies were formerly attached mately enforced or strengthened by doubling the most ancient, and benevolent institutions, at the unison or octave. Thus, the bass may to hospitals and other for the education of the be doubled by the left hand or the melody by and were intended or orphans. Education, the right hand, in pianoforte or organ music, poor and fatherless, clothing, were dispensed without and voices may join in unison whenever it is board and and female pupils. The thought desirable. So, too, in writing for a cost to both male at Milan was founded in 1808, full band, a theme or motive may be enforced conservatorio of the instruction of the by the combination of any instruments, at the and the advantages professors is sought and obtained by many unison, octave, or double octave ; but, instru- not eligible for the foundation, but ments playing in parts are not allowed to who are obtain the benefit of a superior combine in such a manner unless for such a who can at a small cost. purpose. musical education

( 107 ) CONSOLANTE COPYRIGHT.

The first school of the kind was established the lower part of the register, and the careful in France, in 1784, with the title of " L'ecole adjustment of the two qualities of tone above royalede chant etde declamation." A national or below this break is one of the chief qualities institute was started during the period of of good singing. [Alto Voice.] the Revolution, to supply the want of musi- Contraposaune. An organ stop 16 ft. and ' cians in the army; this institute became the 32 ft. pitch. present Conservatoire de musique, for the sup- Contrappuntista {It.) A writer on, or a port of which the government is charged with composer of counterpoint. an annual sum of 140,000 francs. Many of Contrappunto (7^) [Counterpoint.] the masters have been, and still are, men famed Contrappunto alia mente {It.) Im- throughout the world for their practical skill promptu counterpoint. [Alia Mente.] [Chant and their success in, teaching, and the text sur la livre.] books used at the conservatoire are among Contrappunto doppio {It.) Double coun- the standard works of reference in their depart- terpoint. [Counterpoint.] ment. There are also establishments of a Contrapuntal. Belonging to counterpoint. similar character at Brussels, Cologne, Prague, Contrapuntist. A writer on, or a com-

' , Vienna and Leipsic, the last named, poser of counterpoint. - established under the direction of Mendels- Contr'arco {It.) False or incorrect bowing sohn, is held to be one of the best in Germany. on the violin, &c. Consolante {It.) In a consoling, comfort- Contrary motion. Melodies or chords ing manner. proceeding in opposite directions, [Motion.]

Consonance. Consonanz {Ger.) [Har- Contrassoggetto (7^.) [Counter subject.] mony.] Contra tempo (7^) Against time, (i) The Consonant. Concordant. part progressing slowly while another is Consonant interval. [Interval.] moving rapidly: Con sordini {It.) (i) With the mutes on. (2) With the soft pedal at the pianoforte held down. Consort, (i) A consort of viols was a Syncopation. complete set, the number contained in a chest, (2) usually six. [Chest of Viols.] (2) The sounds Contra-tenor. [Alto.] produced by the union of instrumental tone. Contratone {Ger.) Deep tones of the Consort, (i) To sound together, to form bass voice. agreeable sounds by combination. (2) To Contra- {It.) Double-bass. form a concord. Contre-basse {Fr.) Double-bass. Con stromenti {It.) With the instru- Contre-danse {Fr.) [Country dance.] ments. Contrepartie {Fr.) Counterpart, opposite. Continued Bass. [Figured Bass.] The entry of a second voice with a different Continuo {It.) [Figured Bass.] melody, making harmony with the first. Contours. Conteurs {Fr.) [Troubadours.] Contrepoint {Fr.) Counterpoint. Contra (7^.) Against. In compound words Contrepointiste {Fr.) Contrapuntist. this signifies 'an octave below, e.g-. ; Contra- Contre-sujet {Fr) [Counter subject.] gamha, a 16 ft. gamba ; Contra-basso, a double Contre-temps {Fr.) Against time. Syn-

bass ; Contra-fagotto a double bassoon, &c. copation. Contra-bassist. A double-bass player. Conversio {Lat.) Inversion. Contra-basso {It.) [Double-bass.] Convict of music. An institution for Contra-danza {It.) [Country-dance.] musical instruction in Leipsic ; from Lat. Contra-fagotto {It) [Double bassoon.] convictus (convivere), living together, social Contralto voice. The voice of deepest intercourse. [Conservatorio.] tone in females. It is of a quality allied to Coperto (7^) Covered, concealed. Tim- the tenor voice in men, and the usual compass pani coperti, muffled drums; quinti coperti, is within two octaves. The best notes of the concealed fifths,. hidden fifths. range are between G or A flat below, and C Copula {Lat.) In mediasval music a free or D above : use of slurred running notes in descant. Copyright is the exclusive right or privi- lege of printing, or reprinting, publishing, 01

as- ^s>- selling his original work which is allowed by the law to an author. It is doubtful whether The notes above these areof a,somewhat harsh this is a right at common law, or whether and forced character, those little below of musi- (which seems the better opinion) it is merely cal value. In most contralto voices there is a the creature of legislative enactment. (See break varying between C sharp and A flat in on this point the cases of Southey v. Sherwood,

( 108 ) COPYRIGHT COR ANGLAIS.

origi- 2 Mer. v. ; regard to 435; Tonson Collins, i W. Bl. 301 ; musical copyright but with Miller v. Taylor, v. nality the case of Lover v. 4 Burr 2303 ; Jeffreys we may mention Boosey, 4 H. L. C. 815.) By Statute 8 Anne, Davidson (i C. B.,N. S., 182) in which it was c. 19, § I, a copyright was given to books then held that one who adapts to an old air words printed for 21 years, and to authors and their of his own, adding thereto a prelude and assignees, an exclusive copyright for 14 years. accompaniment, also his own, acquires a copy- By § 9 of the same statute, another similar right in the combination, and may, in an action period was given, at the expiration of 14 years, for infringement against one who has pirated if the author was then living. This Act the whole, property describe himself as the was extended to the United Kingdom by 41 proprietor of the entire composition. In this of Geo. III. c. 107. By 54 Geo.- III. c. 156, § 4, case Samuel Lover had adapted the words authors and their assignees had exclusive the " Low Back'd Car" to an air previously copyright for 28 years from the day of publi- known as the " Jolly Plough Boy." It is not, quadrilles or cation ; and, if the authors were living at the however, lawful to publish as expiration of that period, for the residue of waltzes the airs of an opera of which there their lives. The present law of copyright is exists an exclusive copyright (D'Almaine v. to be found in 5 and 6 Vict. c. 45, which Boosey, i Y. and C. 289.) It may also be amends the general law on the subject, re- noticed that the publication of a piece of peals the above - mentioned statutes, and music, not for sale or hire, but by the gratui- extends the privileged period to the author's tous distribution of lithographed copies among if that the members of a musical society is a publi- life and for 7 years after his death ; but period falls short of 42 years, then for 42 cation for which a party is Hable as for an years from the first day of publication. So that invasion of the copyright of the proprietor if an author lives for 42 years after publication, (Novello V. Sudlow, 12 C. B. 177.) In order necessary to the copyright will exist for 42-^7 = 49 years. to assign a copyright, it is only The remedy for unlawfully printing a book do so by a written instrument, which need within the British Dominion is (i) an action not be under seal. But an agreement to exe- on the case, which must, however, be com- cute such an assignment will not operate as inoperative a menced within one year, or (2) by special in- an assignment so as to render junction in equity to restrain the progress of subsequent regular assignment to a third party. the injury and to compel an account of the By 5 and 6 Vict., c. 45, § 13. copyrights may profits which have accrued therefrom. By § 2 be registered at Stationers' Hall, on payment of this statute the word " book " includes a of a fee of five shillings, A book of Registry sheet of music. Lord Mansfield in construing of the proprietorship and assignment of copy- the previously existing law said, " the words rights is there kept, and is open for inspection of the Act of Parliament are very large, books at reasonable hours, on payment of a fee of given and other writings." It is not confined to one shilling, and certified copies must be it and on payment of a fee of five language or letters. Music is a science ; on demand may be written and the mode of conveying shillings to the proper officer of the Stationers' certified are re- the idea is by signs or marks. A person may Company. These copies so in all courts and summary use the copy by playing it, but he has no right ceivable as evidence rebuttable by other to rob the author of the profit by multiplying proceedings, but they are case of musical and dra- copies of it and disposing of them to his own evidence. In the are prima facie use. If the narrow construction contended matic compositions they right of representation, but for were to hold, it would equally apply to evidence of the rebuttable by algebra, mathematics, arithmetic, hierogly- this presumption is similarly phics. All these are conveyed by signs and evidence of a contrary character. figures (Bach v. Longman; Cowp. 623), and Cor {Fr.) A horn. Chorale, or psalm tune. this is so, even though the music was published Corale {It.) hymn on a single sheet of paper (Clementi v. Gould- [Hymn Tune.] Anglais [Fr.) Corno Inglese {It.) ing, II East 244.) And it has been held that Cor reed instrument of the in a declaration for pirating a book, an alle- English horn. A possessing a compass of gation, that the plaintiff was the author of a hautboy character, pitch. Its scale is two book, being a musical composition called A, like extent but of lower bass E with the in- was supported by showing him to be the octaves and a fifth from

• author of a musical composition" comprised in termediate semitones : and only occupying one page of a work with a different title, which contained several other musical compositions (White v. Gerrock, 2 B. and A. 298.) It is of course impossible within actual sounds pro4uced. The our necessary limits to discuss all the points of these being the Anglais is written in the law that have been decided on the subject of music for the cor

( 109 ) :

CORANACH CORNET. treble clef, and the instrument transposes the sound a fifth below. Gluck introduced the instrument in his " ," Meyerbeer has made frequent use of it, and Rossini produces a fine effect in the overture to " William Tell" by means of its tone, but Beethoven only once employed it, —Mozart and Weber never. Coranach, Coranich, Coronach, Cronach (Gaelic.) The word for a funeral song among the Scotch Highlanders ; it is said to be de- rived from corah-rainach a crying together. [Keeners.] Coranto (It.) Courante (Fr.) Current tra- verse {Old Eng.) {i) An Italian form of the country dance. (2) A movement in a suite or sonata of the early writers. The following is given as an early specimen

GiROLAMO FrESCOBALDI, Z59I-Z64O.

^ N^^r,rr^ ^a^i^^j=^^ \ V

' 1* ' ' ' r- w~&— 0m r-w V. 1—1- —t 1 -T- 1 1—1— : ;

CORNETTO COULE. the finger held on middle C, the following Corona {It.) A pause. sounds would be heard simultaneously Coronach. [Coranach.] Corps de voix {Fr.) The quality or the fulness of the voice. Corrente (7^) [Coranto.j Correpetiteur {Fr.) Correpetitore {It.) The Although these would of course combine instructor of the chorus, one who teaches the choral their into one, and not be audible as separate and body to sing several parts by ear. Corti's organ. [Ear.] distinct sounds, yet it may be supposed that such a combination of loud harmonics with Coryphaeus {Lat.) Kopva.iog {Gk.) (i) leader or conductor of the dances or chorus. a comparatively soft ground-note would pro- A duce a most disagreeable and nasal tone. But, (2) An officer in the University of Oxford, whose duty it is to give instruction in music. notwithstanding its unpleasant timbre it was {Fr.) (i) leader of the groups a favourite stop in the last and in the early Coryphee A of dancers. (2) A female dancer. part of this century, and its general intro- Cotillon {Fr.) lit. under-petticoat. lively, duction into the best organs gave rise to a A spirited dance, originally performed by a male vicious and trumpery literature of " cornet and female, in which the latter alternately voluntaries." The characteristic of these was, a attracted and repulsed her partner. It was that while the left hand held down a soft first called cotillon in the reign of Louis XIV. chord on the choir organ, the right was en- was expanded in its design by the French in gaged in passages, turns, shakes, and other the last century, and arranged for eight per- musical capers, on the cornet stop of the great sons. It is danced with any step by an organ. The usual compass of the stop was now unHmited number of dancers. When it is from middle C upwards, but sometimes it possible, chairs are placed round the room for commenced at tenor C. A large number of the performers. " Each gentleman places his comet stops were removed to make way for partner on his right hand. There is no rule the clarabella when first invented by Bishop, that any particular figure shall be danced. and better taste has so far ejected them that The selection is left to the determination of a specimen in good playable condition may the leading couple who commence the figure, be looked upon as a curiosity, which the other couples repeat in succession. 4. Echo cornet. A stop often found in In large parties of twenty-four or thirty Swell organs. Originally it consisted of the couples, it is customary for two or more same series of ranks of pipes as the mounted couples to perform the same figure at the same comet, but was always of a very small scale. time. The constant variety of the figures But the name is now often applied to any small- enables each gentleman to dance with almost scale sesquialtera or mixture enclosed in the every lady." The figures from which a selec- swell box. tion is made are called the pyramid ; the two 5. Comet-cl-pistons. A modem brass instru- flowers ; the great bound and pass-under ment of the trumpet family, but having valves the cushion ; the round ; the basket, ring, or pistons by means of which a complete and flower ; the two lines of six ; the coquette chromatic scale can be produced. In propor- la gracieuse ; the mirror ; the handker- tion to the number of valves introduced into chief; the star ; the cards ; the double tube-instruments, the quality of their tone is moulinet ; the deceived lady ; the quadrille ; deteriorated, but notwithstanding this loss of the two chairs ; the rounds multiplied ; the purity and brilliancy, the cornet is most useful lancers ; the three chairs, &c. : the whole and valuable for many purposes. It has been being more or less allied to the old-fashioned brought into discredit by being unwisely used country dance. It is not at all improbable in some as a substitute for its parent, that the tune " Petticoat loose " given in the the trumpet, with the grandeur of which it article, " Country dance," furnished the title cannot compete. [Metal Wind-instruments.] to the Cotillon. Cornetto {It.) [Cornet.] Couac {It.) An onomatopoeic word for the Corno {It.) [Horn.] sound made by bad blowing on the clarinet, Corno alto {It.) High horn. oboe, or bassoon. The quacking sound, the Corno basso {It.) Low hom. goose note. Corno di bassetto {It.) [Basset-hom.] Couched harp. [Spinett.] Corno di caccia {It.) [Caccia.] Coul6 {Fr.) A glide, (i) Slurred notes. (2) Corno Inglese {It.) [Cor Anglais.] A slide in dancing. (3) An ornament in Cornopean. [Comet, § 5.] harpsichord music ; e.g.: Coro {It.) [Choras.] Cor omnitonique {Fr.) A hom on which by the use of valves, a chromatic scale could Written. Played. be played.

1 II ( ) " :

COUNTERPOINT.

Counterpoint. The term " counterpoint tion to each note of the subject; 5, when in its broadest sense may be defined as " the the added part is free, or has a florid accom- art of adding one or more parts to a given paniment to each note of the subject. " melody ; in its more limited sense as, " the In the first species, note against note, in art of harmonising a theme by adding parts two parts, the following rules and regulations which shall be in themselves melodious." The are to be observed: terms subject, melody, canto fermo, and theme, 1. No discords are allowed. are synonymous. The common definition of 2. More than three consecutive 3rds or 6ths counterpoint as the " art of combining melo- are forbidden. " dies is not strictly logical, unless the wford 3.- Consecutive 5ths and 8ths are forbidden. "melody" has a definition not generally ac- 4. The fourth is to be considered a discord. cepted ; because, distinct melodies are never 5. No augmented or diminished intervals given to the student to be combined by him are to be used in the progression of the unless they have been previously proved subject or counterpoint. The major 6th,

capable of combination ; and if a composer major 7th, and minor 7th are similarly should attempt to combine two distinct disallowed. melodies in accordance with the laws of 6. A tritone (or augmented 4th) should be strict counterpoint he will probably find it avoided, between the component notes necessary to eliminate so much of one or of a chord and that which immediately both of his subjects that little real musical follows it. melody is left. The contrapuntist's notion of a 7. False relations are forbidden. melody is—a succession of sounds which 8. Of the three kinds .of motion— similar, does not infringe certain theoretical laws.' No oblique, and contrary—contrary motion wonder then that authors who have bound is to be preferred, themselves by the commands of counterpoint g. Hidden fifths and octaves are forbidden. seem to have trodden in one almost identical 10. Unison between subject and counterpoint path and to have added little that is valu- is forbidden. able to the literature of counterpoint. Those The first rule requires no explanation. The masters who have exceptionally combined great second is given to insure the independence of genius with a deep study of the art of counter- the counterpoint, as it is evident that if one part point, such as Bach, Cherubini, and Mozart, constantly follows another at the interval of exhibit in their works more than any other the 3rd or 6th, it cannot possibly be said to authors do,, with what beneficial results the form a separate melody. IT^e third and laws of counterpoint may be purposely broken, fourth rules need no explanation. The fifth for it cannot be denied that the first fact which rule is saddled with many exceptions, as startles, and shakes the faith the of student might be expected ; the major 6th and aug- of counterpoint, is that the preaching and mented 4th in ascending, and the diminished practice of contrapuntists are so thoroughly 7th in descending, are tolerated. The origin inconsistent. Their books consist of rules, of the sixth rule is to be traced in the difficulty their compositions of exceptions. But it would of making dominant and subdominant har- be dishonest to blink the fact that much good mony succeed each other with good effect, was for a time done by counterpoint, by elimi- e,g. nating crudities in harmony, by introducing an interesting rhythmical correlation of parts, and by opening to ingenious writers a large field for imitative construction of music at a is certainly unpleasant to the ear, whereas time when the resources of key, modulation, form, and variety of tone in instruments, were greatly limited. Whether a course of study in counterpoint is not more interesting is certainly not so unpleasant, though equally to the lover of musical history than beneficial forbjdden by strict contrapuntists. The rule to the gifted young composer, the reader may against false relations (7) is necessary in two- perhaps be able to judge for himself after part writing, as it is impossible to introduce reading the rules of the art and seeing the them with good effect. Such progressions as examples of its scope given below. the following are palpably inadmissible : Counterpoint is simple or double. There are five species of simple counterpoint. I, when the added part is note against note of the subject; 2, when the added part is two notes to one of the subject Rule 8 may be proved necessary on the same ; 3, when the added part is four notes to one of the grounds as given in explanation of rule 2. forming separate subject ; 4, when the added part is in syncopa- Two parts cannot be melodies

( "2) : : : :

COUNTERPOINT. when moving in similar motion, much less 2. Consecutive fifths or octaves on successive can they be doing so in oblique motion, in down-beats are forbidden. Some authors which, one part stands still : therefore, contrary however admit the latter of these pro- motion is preferable as probably leading to gressions if the skip to the second note more variety. The law against the use of is greater than a third. hidden fifths and octaves, includes under it the 3. Scale passages are preferable to broken well-known contrapuntal rule : " do not proceed harmony. from an imperfect to a perfect interval by 4. The counterpoint may commence on the similar motion," the fifth and octave being up-beat of the first bar. the only perfect intervals admissible in two- 5. The cadence of the subject should be har- part counterpoint of the first species. The monised by contrary motion. presence of hidden fifths or octaves is dis- 6. The interval of a fourth may occasionally covered by filling up the intervals between be used on the down-beat. the consecutive notes of each part with the 7. A false relation is not avoided by the int€frmediate degrees of the scale, thus introduction of a passing note or passing discord. A passing discord is a discord having a

degree of the scale on each -side of it, e.g. : gj T" gg *- i ^

The first rule therefore forbids a discord to be Hidden fifths. Hidden octaves. a skip. The second rule is to prevent the use or where both parts move by a skip of such progressions as the following

The third rule strives to enforce independence

of motion in the counterpoint, e.g. :

The examples given throughout this article are taken from Fux, "Gradus ad Parnassum," .1725, a work from which all later authors have borrowed largely, Cherubini and Ouseley In this example, the upper part is practically

not excepted : it is fair therefore to suppose harmonised by the lower one, the first bar that these specimens of counterpoint meet representing the chord of C, the next two bars with the approval, if not the admiration, of a chord of G. Rules 4, 5, and 6, require no modem expositors of the art. explanation. Rule 7 is to prevent the admis-

sion of such passages as the following : Counterpoint.

The following are speciihens of this species

Counterpoint. The above is said to be " contrapunto sopra

il soggetto." The followihg example has the same subject in the upper part, " contrapunto

sotto il soggetto."

, Qanto fermo.

ST Counterpoint. a- tS>-

The gj;rqn^ "Pecies^of simple counterpoint is subject to the ibllowing rules and regula- tions : I. Of the two notes in the coun^rgointj^the first must~Be"a concord, the secpn3~may be^a concord or passing discord.

( "3) : : : : :::

COUNTERPOINT.

If counterpoint in triple time is used, the first minim must be a concord, the other two may be concords or passing discords as may be found desirable. The tji ird. species of counterpoint in two parts in wKich there are four notes to each note of the canto fermo, is subject to the following rules and regulations 1. The fourth note must be a concord, the second and fourth may be passingdiscords. 2. The third note may sometimes be a pass- ing discord, but should be generally a The fpJira ffppciea of counterpoint in two concord. parts, is that in which the counterpomt though 3. The first bar may commence with a crotchet containing practically note against note of rest, if the note immediately after the rest the subject, has each note bound into the is a concord. following bar, or, syncopated. 4. The cadence should be by contrary motion. The following rules and regulations are to 5. There may be unison between counterpoint be observed it " and subject, provided does not occur on 1. That which is incorrect sine ligatura" is the first note of the bar. incorrect when " cum hgatura." 6. The tritone is to be avoided between any 2. It is necessary to begin on the up-beat. four notes of the counterpoint, unless 3. Syncopations may be concordant or dis- they occur as an integral part of the scale, cordant, a concordant syncopation being that is, having the next note of the scale one that is heard in both bars (half of on each side of them. each) as a concord : a discordant synco- 7. Octaves and fifths between counterpoint and pation one that is a concord on the up- subject should not occur on successive beat, but forms a discord on the down- down beats ; or between the third crotchet beat. of one bar, and the first crotchet of the 4. If necessary, the syncopations may be following bar. relinquished for the space of two minims. cases in which the third note may be The 5. The best cadence is formed by the suspen- discord are of the following kind : a (see 2) sion 7 6 on the supertonic. Rule I is directed against such progressions as the following

1

The sixth rule is to prevent the use of such = tf— ——=> —s^ passages as the following For, tested by the omission of the ligatures, it appears thus

It will, however, be noticed that a passage almost similar to the above, occurs in the According to this rule the following passage second of the two models given below from is correct Fux. Rule 7 is constantly broken. Fux him- self gives the following as a specimen of a cadence in this species: Although it seems to infringe rule 2 of the second species, and rule 7 of the third species, but without ligatures it becomes merely a succession of 6ths: ^^-Fffflff^

^ The following are specimens of counterpoint of this species ^N^^^^^N^^^ ^f^Ffi-^^

( iH) COUNTERPOINT.

(Transposed.) w^jnffr : , : : :

COUNTERPOINT (DOUBLE).

(Fourth Specie».). _ subject, and another having four notes to each note of the subject, may be classified under this species

(Transposed.)

^^^^^^ Counterpoint may be in 5, 6, 7, 8 or even 16 parts, but enough has been said to give the reader an insight into its principles. Counterpoint (Double) has been well de- The fourth species of counterpoint in three scribed as a " kind of artificial composition parts contains one syncopated part where the parts are inverted in such a manner Counterpoint. that the uppermost becomes the lowermost, ^ and vice versa." Or, in other words " the fO^ -fCf-ff^^fr P_(=^ t art of making melodies grammatically conver- Counterpoint. \^j tible at certain intervals." m If the melodies are interchanged at the in- terval of an octave, the double counterpoint is Canto fermo. said to be " at the octave," but if the inverted melody is transposed one note, the other ''-' =fe ^^^ melody remaining untransposed, the double i -^ rJ^i^ t^ r^f ^^f counterpoint is said to be at the gth. Simi- larly, the double counterpoint may be at the ^ loth, nth, i2th, 13th or 14th. But double counterpoint at some of these intervals im- The fifth species of counterpoint in three poses such difficulties in the construction of the parts contains one figurate or florid part. It component melodies, that it is rarely met with. is unnecessary to g^ve an example of this Double counterpoint at the 8th, loth and species. i2th, are the kinds most commonly used, In counterpoint of four parts, the rules of and shall be explained in order. It will be two-part and three-part counterpoint are seen if the following passage necessarily relaxed to some extent in the case of the inner parts, unless the inner parts consist of the canto fermo and the counterpoint spe- 1 cially characteristic of the particular species to which the example belongs. The following rules and regulations apply

to four-part counterpoint generally : be inverted by playing the lowest line an octave 1. In the first species, only common chords higher, and the highest an octave lower, thus: should be used, but the chord % may oc- casionally be used. 2. In every species, the different parts should be as much as possible equidistant. 3. Two parts may occasionally cross each other. 4. The laws against hidden fifths and octaves that the intervals between the two parts have do not bind inner parts, and consecutive undergone an entire change, with the excep- fifths by contrary motion are sometimes tion of the octave which has become a unison. permitted. Thus the and has become a 7th. It will be sufficient if two examples of four- 6th. part counterpoint are given „ 4th (^econd Species.) : :: :

COUNTERPOINT (DOUBLE).

the changes intervals undergo by inversion at the octave. It is evident that the following

rules must be observed : 1. As the 5th becomes a 4th, and the 4th is a discord, the 5th must be treated as a discord, if used at all. As a discord, it may be prepared, or treated as a passing If we wish to discover the changes inter- discord. vals undergo by double counterpoint at the 2. The octave must be approached by a single loth, we can, as before, write them out thus : degree, not a skip, in strict style. 3. As it is usual to place the upper melody an octavelower, leavingthe lower unchanged, the interval of an octave between the two parts must not be exceeded, otherwise the

object of inversion will be lost, e.g. :

Ex. I. I. Consecutive loths become consecutive

unisons, e.g. :

Will become when inverted r~^~^ will become and consecutive 3rds become consecutive Ex.2. octaves ; e.g. :

Will become when inverted: rrr In the first and third bars of Ex. 2, no Both consecutive loths and 3rds must there- inversion has taken place. If melodies are fore be avoided. framed with the intention of altering the pitch 2. Consecutive sixths become consecutive of both inverting them, this rule when does fifths ; they therefore must be avoided, e.g. :

not of course hold good, e.g. : Will become I when inverted : i P ^ ^ r

3. The suspension 4 3 becomes a 7th

resolved wrongly ; e.g. :

4. The melodies should be different in style, and one should commence on the up-beat. Will become

: when inverted The following is an example of double T^rr counterpoint at the octave, from Fux :

4. The interval of a tenth between the upper and lower melodies should not be exceeded, for the reason given in rule 3 of double counterpoint at the octave. The following example is from Cherubini

f "7 ) : : :

COUNTERPOINTS, TRIPLE AND QUADRUPLE. Inversion. ^ Inveraion, ^^^^^^^^^^m

Interesting examples of combinations of ^^^^^^RP counterpoints at the loth and 12th are to be found in Fux. ^^\-^^^f=\r Counterpoints, Triple and Quadruple, r \ rrrf as their names show, are the due construction of three or four melodies respectively, in such The subject of the above may also be a manner that they can be interchangeable written in the third above and the counter- without involving the infringement of the point in the octave below, throughout ; or laws of musical grammar. It will be evident, again, the counterpoint may be written in the on consideration, that the octave is the only third below, and thesubject intheoctave below. feasible interval at which counterpoints of The following example, from Fux, shows how this class can be made, unless indeed one or the same counterpoint may be used at the more free parts, that is, parts not forming same time, at the octave and the tenth, each interchangeable melodies, are added. The counterpoint being correct when taken se- following is an example of triple counterpoint, parately : written out in full. Of course three sentence^ Counterpoint. at least will be required for the exposition of triple counterpoint; four sentences for that of quadruple

Double counterpoint at the 12th is much less hampered by the change of intervals than many other species. I. The 6th becomes the 7th, if therefore introduced, it must be as a discord in

the lowest part, e.g. :

will become when inverted :

"^^'3t m ^

or, a sequence of prepared sevenths. 2. The final cadence will require special care The following example of quadruple coun- in its treatment. terpoint is from Zimmerman The following is an example of this species

( 118) :

COUNTER SUBJECT COUNTRY DANCE.

man at the top and the lady at the bottom do the same. Then the first named couple ad- vance once more, give right hands and swing quickly round each other back to places. This figure is repeated by the other couple. The lady at the top then advances, gives her right hand to her opposite partner, and passes be- hind the two gentlemen standing in the places

next to him : then, through the line and across it, giving her left hand this time to her partner, who meets her half way between the two lines, having passed behind the two ladies next to his partner's place. The lady then passes behind the two ladies next in the line, the gentleman moving in the like figure behind the two gentlemen next lowest, and so on, all down the line. At the bottom the lady gives her left hand to her partner, and they pro- menade back to their former places. Then the top couple come forward, courtesy and

It is perhaps necessary to warn the lay bow, the lady turns to the right, the gentle- reader against the confusion likely to arise man to the left, each followed by the rest of between the terms two-part, three-part, four- her or his line. Top couple meeting at the bottom join hands and raise their arms to part, counterpoint ; and double, triple, and quadruple counterpoint. The former refers form an arch for the other couples to pass only to the number of parts added to a given under, until all have reached their places ex- subject, and such parts need not necessarily cept the top couple ; these having become the bottom couple, repeat the figure from the be interchangeable ; whereas, the essence of the latter is that in each case all the parts beginning until they have worked back to their must be capable of substitution one for the original places at the top of the lines, and other. then the dance is ended. Such is a general Occasionally, specimens of quintuple coun- description of a dance which under various terpoint are to be met with, but they may titles has been popular in England for centu- be looked upon more as curiosities than as ries, has been adopted by other nations, and substantial additions to the musical art. revived from time to time with a few modifi- Counter subject. [Fugue.] cations under the several titles applied to it by Counter tenor clef. The C clef placed the people from whom it was last taken. Thus " upon the third line of the stave for the use of it has been called contre-danse " and is to be French and it counter tenor or alto voices, the viola, &c. erroneously said ; when has been named " coranto " it has been sup- posed to be Italian. John Stafford Smith, in his Masica Antiqua, Counter tenor voice. The old name for quotes a dance tune which he copied from a the alto voice. [Alto voice.] MS., now in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, Country Dance. Contre-danse (Fr.) Con- the date of which is probably about the year tradanza {It.) A rustic dance, of English 1300. The tune is in | time, in three sec- origin, in which performers were arranged tions of nine bars each, and notwithstanding face to face, " one set against another," and the fact that it has one more bar in each performed certain prescribed figures. The old section than the majority of tunes employed method of dancing the " country dance " was as country-dance melodies, can be danced to to place the ladies and the gentlemen in two without difficulty or sense of inconvenience. parallel lines, the former on the left, the latter Country Dance Tune, about 1300. on the right, facing their partners. All advance, then retreat, during the first four bars of the music, then cross to opposite places, then advance and retreat, and then re-cross to original places. Each of these movements should occupy the time of four bars of music. The lady who stands at the top, and the gentleman whose place is at the bottom, advance towards each other, courtesy and bow, and return to their places. The gentle-

( "9) COUNTRY DANCE.

^^^Jj:^^^^^^

^^m^^^^^S "Dargason" was another name given to the country dance years before the time of the Reformation. Ritson in his Ancient Songs classes it as belonging to a very early period. Mr. Chappellquotes the tune in his " Popular Music," p. 65, and it is of the rhythm common to many country dance tunes :

It is unnecessary here to enlarge upon the popularity of dancing, throughout all ages ; a reference to Strutt's " Sports and Pastimes," and to Chappell's " Popular Music in the Olden Time," will satisfy those who are curious as to details. It may be here stated that the old poets and dramatists, from the time of Chaucer and later, have frequent allusions to ^^F^=S^mH^-^^=^^ the custom, and make mention of many ^ dances by name without giving descriptions, The same character of tune which suited so that it may be inferred that their allusions the country dance was also used for the reel, point to practices in their time so popular the round, the morris-dance, the jig, and that particular description was not deemed hornpipe, all of which are offshoots from the needful. one original stem. Those among these dances One of the old English names for rustic now performed by one or at most two dancers, dances was hey digyes or rounds. were not always so done, the reel was often " While some the rings of bells and some the bagpipes " four or eight handed or even general," play, the jig and hornpipe were also dances for Dance many a merry round, and many a hy degy." many. The two last named probably derived Drayton's " Polyalbion," Song xxv. their title from the instruments employed as The " Hay," or " Raye" as it is also called, accompaniments, the usual accompaniment is probably the same as the " hey digyes." It to most country dances was anciently the was danced by many, forming a line - or a fiddle, in German Geig-e; or, pipe and tabour. circle, and the direction was to " wind round There were many other names given to the handing in passing until you come to your country dance in successive ages, and the places." variety of the titles has led many writers into " The Haye," a Countrie Dance, 1678. the belief that there were as many dances as names. The allusions found in the writings of the poets and dramatists have, to a certain ex- tent, increased the confusion in the minds of readers, and commentators not deeming the subject worthy of the consideration it deserves, have often by wrongly directed notes and glosses, made matters in a worse condition than that arising from original error. Sir John Davies (i570-i626)in his poem "Orchestra" is clearer than other authors on the subject. He identifies rounds, corantos, measures, &c., with country dances. His description of a

( 120 ) " ,

COUNTRY DANCE. country dance, to be found under "Brawl," Joan," " The Devil among the Tailors," " Moll is almost the same as that given above, which in the Wad," and the "Wind that shakes the is the process of performing the country dance Barley," are still popular: these are all dif- to this day. He calls a " measure" " a round ferent in accent and measure, yet all serve the dance for ever wheeling," and implies that " as purpose of the dance. It matters not whether men more civill grew, they did more grave th'e time be 2 or ; all that is necessary 8 > 8> I and solemn measures frame" out of the primi- is that the strains should be in four or eight bar tive country dance. The "galliard " " a swift phrases to accompany the several movements, and wandering dance with passages uncertain and every need is satisfied. to and fro, yet with a certain answer and consent." Thecoranto or " current traverses '•Roger de Coverley."

in which he says of the dancer : " Everywhere he wantonly must range And turn with unexpected change " All these forms are but slight variations of the simple original, and as it is admitted that " no rules have ever been laid down for the com- position of a country dance, nor is it indeed

confined to any particular measure ; so that ft^rr^^^rrrmm any common song, or tune, if sufficiently rh)rthmical may by adoption be made a country , dance," the diversities of tempo in the several melodies, of the coranto, rondo, galliard, and measure ought not to be taken as a proof of a distinct character of dance. In the rustic dances the motion was rapid, but when people of less humble condition deigned to adopt them, they varied the figures, made the motion more dignified, and giving a new title to the old diversion, created a certain amount of confusion in the minds of interested posterity. The "stately measure, the graceful minuet, and the courtly quadrille" are each and all country dances, and people of all conditions have indulged in the pastime they offer. Mr. William Chappell ("Popular Music in the Olden Time," p. 626) shows that country dances were popular at court in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and succeeding reigns. The custom of dancing the ancient English country dance was kept up at court during the reign of George III, as many news- papers and other records show. Thus, in the " Universal Magazine," for June, 1784, we

read : "June 4th, the anniversary of the King's birth-day, the drawing-room broke up about half-past five, when their majesties returned

to the Queen's palace to dinner ; and at about nine in the evening there was a grand ball, which was opened by the Prince of Wales, who walked the first minuets with the Princess Augusta .... The country dances began a little before twelve, and continued till past one." It has been mentioned above that the rhythm of country dance tunes is various, some are in triple and some in duple mea- sure. Among the most popular airs employed for the dance, those called " Sir Roger de Coverley," the "Tank," the "Triumph," "Gee ho, Dobbin," "Merrily danced the Quaker's Wife," "Petticoat Loose," "Gossip COUNTRY DANCE. ^^^^^^^^^" Gee ro, Doebih." ^l^^teta^^f=^ rtJlj^-^-g^^feTSST^ ^a--£^^ ^ ^ ^^

n.c.

"Gossip Joan.'

* Merrily danced the Quaker's Wife."

r* -r* r

" The Devil among the Tailors/

S'^€ I COUNTRY DANCE.

l l Ji''LL^'^J-| r, !,LlLL^^g

' MoLz. IN THE Wad."

" Rolling in the Dew."

^(^j-jtrJrf/jrrr'^jt^rr/rrrriii ; :

COUNTRY DANCE CREMONA.

Description des Figures de la Contredanse.

1. ha grande chaine, un demi tour.

2, 3. La poussette dessus, et dessous, et la pirouette d chaque bout. 4. Autre i tour de chaine, la poussette, et la pirouette au bout.

5, 6, 7, 8. Gager d'une place sur le cite; deux se tenant les mains passent en dedans et les deux autres en dehors, continuant dpasser de cette maniere ^fois,jusqu'd ses places, faisant deux balance d chaque place. 9. La chaine des dames sur les cites. 10. Un tour allemande en pirouettant. 11. Refaire la chaine des dames. 12. Un tour d'allemande. La Main.

LAN^50CIETE et deux fois chaque rep^ 2 fois la rep. du majeur en rondeau, da mineur. PLAN d'archet {Fr.) Stroke of a DesFfgures dela Confredanfe Coup bow, Couper le sujet {Fr.) To abbreviate or curtail a musical subject or theme. Coupler. The mechanism which connects

pedals with the manuals ; or, different manuals together. [Organ.] Couplet, (i) Two lines in rhyme, which contain a complete sentence. (2) A verse of a song. (3) Two notes occupying the time of three, e.g.

^ I jH r r J^

Courante (Fr.) [Coranto.] Couronne (Fr.) The name for the sign

of a pause /^ . Courtaut, Cortaud, Corthal. An ancient instrument of the bassoon kind. [Bassoon.]' Covered consecutives. Hidden consecu- tives. [Consecutives.] Covered strings. Strings of silk, wire, or gut, covered with a fine wire by means of a machine, by a process technically termed string-spinning. Covered strings are used for pianofortes, violins, violoncellos, guitars, &c., the wire covering,by adding weight and strength to the string, makes it slower of vibration, while, on the other hand, it is more elastic than an uncovered string of the same diameter. Cownterynge yn songe (Old Eng.) In Lat. concentus or accentus, singing an accom- paniment to a tune. [Descant.]

The subjoined is the melody to which it Cracovienne. [Polacca.] was 4anced Crackle. A direction in lute playing, thus explained by " Maister " Thomas Mace,- '*Lk Nouvelle Societe," Contre-danse Allemande. 1676: "To crackle such three part stops is only to divide each stop, with your thumb and two fingers, so as not to loose time, but give each crotchet its due quantity." [Arpeggio.] Credo {Lat.) One of the movements in a mass. [Mass.] Crembalum. [Jew's Harp.] Cremona, (i) A violin made in the town of Cremona. (2) A reed stop in the organ. A corruption of the word Krum or Cromhorn.

( 124 ) :

CREMORNE GUSTOS.

Cremome (Fr.) [Krum horn.j Croupeza, KpoimE'Ca, Kpovirai^a, Kpovirava, Crepitaculum or Crepundia {Lat.) An Kpovirera {Gk. from Kpnvia, to knock, strike). ancient instrument of a character like the casta- High wooden shoes worn by flute-players or nets, but with sound produced more by friction others, with which the time was marked by than striking. [Castanets, Bones, Knicky- striking with the foot; c.f. Lat. scrupedae, knackers.] women who wore high-heeled boots. Crescendo {It.) Increasing, a gradual Crowd. Crwth, an ancient instrument, increase in the force of sound expressed by like a violin, with six strings, four of which the sign _ or the abbreviation cres. were played upon by a bow, and the other The sign was first employed in England by two played, or plucked with the thumb, as an Matthew Locke, in 1676. accompaniment. The neck had a hole, through Crescendo-zug {Ger.) The swell box in which the player thrust his hand, so that he the organ. [Organ.] could only command the notes lying under his Creticus (Lat.) A metrical foot consisting fingers. [Violin.] of one short syllable between two long — ^ — Crovs^le. An early form of the word corolla Croche (Fr.) A quaver, JN the hooked {Lat.) a crowd, q.v. note. [Nomenclature.] C-schliissel {Ger.) The C clef. Croma {It.) A quaver ^ Cum sancto {Lat.) A portion of the Gloria Cromatico {It.) Chromatic, as, fuga cro- in the mass. [Mass.] matica, Cue. A catch word or phrase. The last a chromatic fugue ; fantasia cromatica, a chromatic fantasia, &c. notes or words of other parts inserted as a Crom horn. [Krum horn.] guide to singers or players who have to make Crooks. Short tubes either straight or an entry after rests curved, adapted for insertion between the mouthpiece and the body of the horn, trumpet, or cornet-a-pistons, for the purpose of altering the key. [Metal wind instruments.] npright on an beap. And the depths were con Crotalum {Lat.) xporaXov {Gk.) A rattle, or clapper, used sometimes to mark the Currende {Ger.) Children carol-singers rh)rthm of dancing, in the worship of Cybele. in Germany. They were generally made of wood, having a Cushion-dance. An old English round loose piece hinged about midway, so that, dance, in which each woman selected her when shaken in the hand a clattering noise partner by placing a cushion before him. " was produced, called by the Greeks n-Xarayri. Taylor, the Water Poet, calls it a pretty little provocatory dance," for that reason. There was a dialogue carried on, according to the description given in the " Dancing

Master" of 1686 ; and the note appended to the same description points—perhaps unwit- tingly—to the probable origin of the dance : " Note. The women are kissed by all the Instruments of this kind were in use among men in the ring at their coming and going the ancient Egyptians, as the following illus- out, and likewise the men by all the women." tration shows: Therefore, it is not at all unlikely that the Cushion-dance was the " Kissing dance." One of the tunes to which it was danced is subjoined, and another melody is printed in Mr. Chappell's " Popular Music," where it is shown that the dance was also called a Gal- liard. [Cotillon.] [Country Dance.] Cushion Dance.

Custos {Lat.) (i) The chief of a college

Crotchet. A note I one-fourth of the value of minor canons. (2) A direct, the sign -w or of a semibreve. [Nomenclature.] V, placed at the end of a line or page to show

( 125 ) :

CYCLISCHE FORMEN CZIMKEN.

the position of the first note of the line or copper and silver, and in outline are identical page following. with those now used by modern Egyptians. Cyclische Formen. Rondoforms.[Form.] As has been the case with other musical Cymbalista. A cymbal player. instruments, the name cymbal has been ap- Cymbals. Cymbalum (Lat.) kvii^oKov (Gk). plied in various ways. At one period the Musical instruments of percussion, consisting Italians called a tambourine by this name, of two metallic basins, which are set in vibra- and at another a dulcimer. As the harpsi- tion by being clashed together. The shape of chord was the actual outgrowth of the dulci- cymbals varies, from that of the actual form mer, the harpsichord came to be called of a cup or basin to an almost flat plate. The cembalo, a word still to be found occasionally following illustration shows those used by the affixed to the pianoforte part of full scores. It Assyrians. It will be remarked that the lower is probable that the peculiar clang produced basin is held in a stationary position, while the by striking the wire strings of a dulcimer with upper one is dashed on it. a wooden hammer gave rise to the associa- tion of the name cymbal with dulcimer. In modern military bands cymbals are used in the ancient manner. One plate is held in each hand of the performer, and the sound is produced by clashing the plates together. In the orchestra of the concert-room, one plate of a cymbal is attached to the upper side of the rim of the big (upright) drum, and the other held in the left hand of the drummer. The tone produced by the beating of these is largely increased in power and depth by the connection with the drum. Very small cym- bals were introduced by Berlioz, tuned a fifth The Hebrews had two kinds of cymbals, apart, as an orchestral instrument, hut have mentioned by name in Psalm cl. 5, " Praise not come into common use. Small cymbals Him upon the loud are sometimes attached to the fingers and cymbals ; praise Him upon the high-sounding cymbals." The - are hence called finger-cymbals : bians have two sorts at the present time, Fig. 4. the larger they use in their religious cere- monies, but the smaller are rarely used but for the purpose of accompanying the dance. In India cymbals are used called talan, and a smaller sort called kintal. An illustration of

Indian cymbals is given :

Fig. 2.

These naturally became associated with castanets; and they have also found their way into the rim of the tambourine, of which instrument they form an important element. It should be stated that cymbals are not struck together, actually face to face, for by so doing not only would the free vibration of the plates be very much arrested, but they would in all probability be split by the blow. Turkey is The Burmese instruments of this class are still celebrated for its manufacture of cymbals and of the true basin shape, as shewn in the other instruments of percus- following sion, and exports them in large quantities to all parts Fig- 3- of the world. The exact composi- tion of the metal used in Turkey is not known' to the manufacturers in other countries. Cypher-sysfem. [Notation.] Czakan. A flute made of cane or bamboo. A pair of ancient Egyptian cymbals are in Czardasch {Hung.) [Chica.] existence; they are about five inches in Czimken [Polish). A dance similar to the diameter, and are made of a mixture of country dance.

( 126) -DANCING.

D. (i) The first note of the Phrygian, Damper, (i) Certain moveable pieces of afterwards called Dorian, mode. mechanism in a pianoforte, made of wood (2) The second note of the normal scale C. covered with cloth, which, after the finger has {3) The scale having two sharps in its sig- struck the key and left it, immediately check nature. the vibrations of the strings, and prevent that (4) The name given to a string tuned to D, confusion of sound which would result if they e.g., the third string of the violin, the second were allowed to continue in vibration. (2) of the viola and of the violoncello. The mute of a horn, and other brass wind- (5) The name of a clef in old mensurable instruments. music, D excellens. [Clef.] Dampfer [Ger.) A damper. (6) A bb. for Discantus, Dessus, Destra, &c. Dancing. A graceful movement of the Da ballo (It.) In dance style. feet or body, intended as an expression of

Da camera {It.) For chamber use. In various emotions ; with or without the ac- the style of chamber music. companiment of music to regulate its rhythm. Da cappella (It.) In the church style. Dancing is mentioned by the earliest writers, Da capo (It.) From the beginning. An both sacred and profane, as a constituent part expression first used by Scarlatti in his "Theo- of religious ceremonies. There are many in- dora," signifying that the performer must re- stances narned in the Bible, needless here to commence the piece, and conclude at the particularize, anH the ancient Greek poets double bar marked " Fine." have abundant allusions to the practice in Da capo al fine (It.) From the beginning their writings. Homer mentions dancing and

to the sign Fine. music at social entertainments ; tells Da capo al segno (It.) Repeat from the of dancers who were able to express manners, sign (H) at the beginning. passions, and deeds in rhythmical gestures; D'accord (Fr.) In tune. Herodotus, , Athenseus, and others of Dach (Ger.) Sounding-board. Resonance- later date refer to the practice. Donaldson says body of an instrument. that all ancient dancing was " either gymnastic Da chiesa (It.) For the church. In the or mimetic; it was gymnastic when intended church style. merely as an exercise, it was mimetic when it Dachschweller [Ger.) Swell-box. was designed to express some mental feeling, . A metrical foot, consisting of a or tO' represent by corresponding gestures the long syllable followed by two short syllables. words of the accompanying chorus sung." Dactylion {Gk.) An instrument invented Athenseus speaks of three divisions of the

by Henri Herz, for strengthening the fingers Greek dance : the Emmeleia [e/jiniXeia), the for pianoforte playing, [c.f. Chiroplast.] Sicinnis [trkivvie), and the Cordax (Ko'pSa?); Daina or Dainos. A term given to some the first named from the melody played to it, little Lithuanian love-songs. the second from its inventor Sicinnos, and the Daire [Turkish). A tambourine. third probably for the reason hereinafter ex- Da lontano [It.) In the distance, e. g.', plained. The Emmeleia, the tragic dance, corni da lontano, horns heard in the distance. was a kind of slow dignified movement or Dal segno [It.) To the sign (%). [Da capo.] ballet. The Sicinnis was of a grotesque Damenisation. The syllables da, me, ni, character, and was performed with a peculiar po, tu, la, be, which Graun employed for the shaking of the body and violent motion of the notes of the scale in his vocal exercises. [Sol- limbs. The Cordax was less decent in style mization.] than the last named. It was introduced into Damp, to. (i) On instruments played comedies, and was performed by actors assum- by plucking the strings, as the harp, guitar, ing to be under the influence of wine. In &c., to check the vibrations by placing the addition to these there were the Pyrrhic or hand lightly on the strings. (2) To apply war dances, expressive of the pursuit and mechanical dampers. encounter of an enemy.

( 127 ) ; ; :

DANCING DECANI.

The Roman dances, at first connected with unloosing, the stamping, shrieking, and sing- " chain," or religious observances, became by degrees sepa- ipg in some dances ; the grand rated from them, and perhaps degenerated, as the gallopade which generally marks the con- it was considered disgraceful for a free citizen cluding figure of a quadrille, are merely mild to dance, excepting during devotional exer- versions of some of the several peculiarities cises. of the ancient prototype. The Alm6e, or dancing and singing girls The Itahans of the i6th' century are cre- of Egypt, the Nautch girls of India, perform, dited with the distinction of having invented at feasts and solemn occasions, certain dances that form of dancing known by the general akin to those which formed part of the ancient term of ballet: they arranged the motions observances. and gestures of the body in an expressive There is ground for the belief that dancing pantomime, and reduced the various actions was not discouraged among the early Chris- to a series of well-defined and understood tians, and there are records showing continu- rules, so that the performers were able to ance of the custom among the less orthodox impart to the spectators a perfect story with-

sects at different periods of the history of the out the aid of words ; but their claim cannot Church. be upheld, as the like thing had been done Dancing and pantomimic actions formed by the Greeks ages before. part of the amusements sometimes offered by The rhythm of the more important dances the jongleurs, a body of the minstrel class will be found described under their respective their dancing often included acrobatic per- titles. formances. The common dances, popular Darabooka or Darabukkeh. An Arabian

among the people in various European coun- drum ; the body, to which is attached a handle, tries, vary more in name than in character is of hollowed wood. There are various kinds and as they are unquestionable legacies of of this instrument. heathen days, have been condemned from Darmsaiten (Ger.) Strings of catgut. time to time by the more serious-minded. [String.] The force and original meaning of dancing Dash, (i) A line drawn through a figure is now lost sight of. It is not now regarded in thorough-bass, showing that the interval

in the light of an act of worship, but is en- must be raised one semitone, e.g. : couraged only as a means of social enjoyment. The rude forms of dancing have been softened and polished during successive generations, their character changed, and their identity or connection with their origin disguised under (2) A line drawn through the duple time- modified motions. Each country in which sign, e.g., (^, implying a division either of dancing is practised has considered itself free measurement or of pace. to change the steps, arrangement, and signifi- A short stroke placed above notes or cance of the dance, or to give preference to (3) chords, one directing that they are to be played portion of a complicated whole ; and such staccato. alterations have been accepted as new dances, In harpsichord music, a dash passing when they are not really so. The German (4) between two notes, called a slur, or coul6 waltz, the French cancan, the English country- dance, the Spanish bolero, the South American chica, the Italian saltarello, the Hungarian was thus played ^~^^T^ czardasch, are all forms traceable to one source. The allemande, the brawl, the co- Da teatro {It.) In the theatrical style. ranto, the fandango, the forlana, the gavotte, Dauer (Ger.) Duration or continuance of the hornpipe, the jota, the kalamaika, the notes or sound. loure, the measure, the minuet, the passecaille, Daumen (Ger.) The thumb. the quadrille, the ringeltanz, the saraband, the D dur {Ger.) D major. , trenchmore, zapateado, &c., are Debut {Fr.) A first appearance. only different names of the several motions of Debutant, e {Fr.) A performer who ap- that called in England the country-dance, pears for the first time. with such variations in melody and rhythm Dec, abb. of Decani. as would arise from the use of accompanying Dec, abb. of Decrescendo. musical instruments more or less perfect in Decachordon {Gk.) An instrument with their construction, or, on account of the speed ten strings. at which they were danced, by which means Decani {Lat.) A term used in cathedral a rapid triple measure may be made t© seem music, to signify that the part so distinguished duple measure. The advancing and retreat- is to be sung by the singers on the dean's, or ing in the various figures ; the embracing and south side of the choir, in contradistinction

( 128) : ; : ; —

DECEPTIVE CADENCE DEDICATION. to " cantoris " the cantor's or prsecentor's not be unacceptable or troublesome to you. side. [Cathedral Music] Be pleased therefore to intermit awhile those Deceptive cadence. [Cadence.] seraphical raptures, in the excellency whereof, Decide (Fr.) Firmly, with decision. and your thereto tuned piety, you are so Decima (Lat.) A loth, an interval of a famously happy. And vouchsafe an eare to loth ; decima plena de tonis, a major loth the mean addresse of these rudiments (as it decima non plena de tonis, a minor loth ; were) of Church Musick, which, like other decima quarta, a 14th or octave of the 7th ; perfections, hath suffer'd meerly through the decima quinta, a 15th or double octave peoples ignorance. To you therefore more decima tertia, a 13th or octave of the 6th. especially doe I dedicate this essay, whose Decimole. [Decuplet.] alone competent skill and judgement in the Decisio. [Apotome.] highest -mysteries of this divine science, if it Deciso {It.) Determined, decided, with shall please you to descend and deign a firmness. favourable approbation thereunto, cannot but

Decke (Ger.) (i) Cover, an upper or lower comand reception from others : since my plate of a resonance box. (2) The cover of knowledge at Oxford (improved further at stopped metal organ pipes ; e.g., lieblich London) of your eminency this way, cannot gedeckt, the sweet toned stopped-diapason. so far disoblige the world as not to believe Declamando (It.) In a declamatory you have the supreme mastery in religious style. musick ; by which, as you charm the soul, Declamation. The proper rhetorical ren- and all its affections, no doubt you can prevail dering of words set to music. [Recitative.] upon and perswade publick acceptance. Decompose (Fr.) Unconnected, incohe- " I submit this piece in this (howsoever rude) rent. manner to your judgement, having attempted, Decoration (Fr.) Signature of a piece of I hope something of tendency to the churches music. peace and harmony, whereof though I am a Decres., abb. of Decrescendo. smal and an unworthy member, yet a mite

Decrescendo (It.) Decreasing gradually even from such is justly expected : For the volume of tone. Indicated in music by higher works God hath fitted and prepared the abbreviations Dec, Decres., or the sign your most artfull hand, and hath placed you in an orb from whence your melody (as of the Decuplet. A group of ten notes played in spheres) of holiness and constant goodness in the time of eight or four. and for the church is universally heard with Dedication. An address or inscription to joy and delight. In which happiness, God a patron or friend, prefixed to a work. Almighty long continue you here and late

Dedications frequently form a valuable translate you to the angelical choire : So guide to the historian, as by them it can be prayes, Reverend Sir, your most devoted and ascertained whether the author designed to obedient Servant, James Clifford." honour any special individual, or, in the case Master Thomas Mace, in a more manly of early works, whether a production was mood, dedicated his famous book called issued at the " cost and charges " of any " Musick's Monument" (1676) to a higher particular patron. power than a sub-dean, on the principle that Before the time when an author could a man's work should be " dedicated " to God, command a large sale amongst the general and only " inscribed " to a fellow-m.an. His " pliblic, it was not an uncommon practice to " Epistle Dedicatory runs as follows : dedicate a book to one who had borne the " To Thee, One-Only-Oneness, I direct my protect chief expense in the production, and the weak desires, and works ; please to ingenuity of the author was exercised in both them and me ; for Thou alone art able finding expressions sufficiently flattering in (and none but Thee) to make us acceptable return for money expended or presented. unto the world. Th* character of these addresses became at " I am not of that Catholic belief (I mean the Roman's faith) who seek relief one time somewhat fulsome, as may be seen (At th' second hand) from saints ; but I thus take by the following, prefixed to Clifford's "Divine My freedom, and (sans complement) thus make

Services and Anthems:" London, 1663; the My seeming bold address : not judging it but rather count it fit first book of its kind printed in England: A crime with Thee ; Part of my duty call'd for, which I owe " To the Reverend Walter Jones, Doctor in Unto Thy goodness ; therefore thus it show. Divinity and Sub^Dean of his Majesties I've wondered much to see what great ado Chappel-Royal, &c. Men make, to dedicate their works, unto mortals, who themselves can no way save " Sir,—Under your able patronage I^iave High From the sland'rous tdngues of every envious knave. presumed to shelter this my weak endeavor, Thou (only) art the able-true protector other reason than the wel- which if for no Oh be my shield, defender and director. meaning devotion thereof, I was sure would Then sure we shall be safe.

( 129 DEDUCTIO DESCANT.

Thou know'st (O searcher of all hearts) how I, Del, della, delle, dello (7^) Of the, e.g., With right-downright-sincere-sincerity, sopra il soggetto della fuga seguente. On the Have longed long to do some httle good follows, (According to the best I understood), subject of the fugue which &c. With Thy rich talent, though by me made poor-; Delicato, delicatamente {It.) Delicately; For which I grieve, will and do so no more, delicatissimo, very delicately ; con delicatezza, By Thy good grace assisting, which I do with delicacy. Most humbly beg for : Oh adjoyn it to D61icatesse {Fr.) Delicacy of performance. My longing ardent soul ; and have respect

To this my weak endeavour ; and accept Delirio, con (7^) With excitement, with (In Thy great mercy) both of it, and me, frenzy. Ev'n as we dedicate ourselves to Thee." Delyn (Welsh). The harp. This is followed by "An epistle to all Demancher {Fr.) To cross hands, in divine readers, especially those of the discent- pianoforte playing. To shift, in violin playing. ing ministry, or clergy, who want not only Demande {Fr.) The subject, dux, or pro- skill, buf good-will to this most excelling- part position of a fugue. of divine service, viz., singing of psalms, Demi-baton {Fr.) A semi-breve rest. hymns, and spiritual songs, to the praise of Demi-cadence {Fr.) A half cadence, or the Almighty, in the publick assemblies of the cadence on the dominant. [Cadence.] His saints ; and yet more particularly to all Demi-jeu {Fr.) Half power. Mezzo forte, great and high persons, supervisors, masters, applied to organ or harmonium playing. or governors of the Church (if any such Demi - mesure, demi-pause {Fr.) A should be) wanting skill, or good-will there- minim rest. unto." Demi-quart de soupir {Fr.) A demi- In 1713 Mattheson published a sonata semiquaver rest. " dedicated to the person who will best per- Demi-semiquaver. A note of the value form it," and if it were necessary, many ,* curious instances of remarkable dedications of one-fourth of a quaver might be quoted to swell the list, but one only Demi-soupir {Fr.) A quaver rest. must suffice. There is extant a composition Demi-ton {Fr.) A semitone. by Samuel Wesley, containing a series of Demoiselle {Fr.) A coupler in the organ. intended violations of musical grammar, all Denis d'or. An instrument having a of which are duly pointed out, and the whole finger board like a piano, and pedals like an is dedicated " without permission to William organ, capable of producing a vast number of Horsley, Esqre., Mus. Bac, fifth and eighth different qualities of sound. It was invented catcher in ordinary and extraordinary to the in 1762 by Procopius Divis, in Moravia. Royal Society of Musicians." Derivative, (i) The actual or supposed Deductio {Lat.) The succession of notes root or generator, from the harmonics of as they appear in their proper places in the which a chord is derived. (2) A chord de- hexachords, which are in consequence called rived from another, that is, in an inverted prima deduction secunda, &c., up to septima. state. An inversion. [Notation.] Des {Ger.) D flat. Deficiendo {It.) Gradually dying away. Descant, Discantus {Lat.) The addition D6gr6 {Fr.) Degree of a scale. of a part or parts to a tenor or subject. This Degree of a scale. A step in the tone- art, the forerunner of modem counterpoint ladder it ; may consist of a semitone, a tone, and harmony, grew out of the still eariier or (in the minor scale) of an augmented tone. art of diaphony or the organum, of which it Degree in music. The rank or title con- is necessary to give a slight sketch. ferred by an University on a candidate who Diaphony {Siaipoivia.) signified in Greek music has matriculated, and passed through the discordant sounds or dissonance (voces dis- necessary examinations. They are of two crepantes vel dissonae), as opposed to sym- kinds. Bachelor in (or of) Music, and Doctor phony {trvftijxiivia.) consonance. But the term of Music. latter The is generally taken by came afterwards to be applied to those first bachelors of several years standing, but in attempts at the harmonic combination of special cases candidates are allowed (by a voices, and polyphony, which may be looked grace) to accumulate, that is, take both upon as the first life-pulse of modern har- degrees at the same time, mony. It is indeed strange that the term Dehnung (Ger.) Expansion, extension. diaphony should have been selected for these Dehnungstriche (Ger.) A long stroke early efforts, for, crude and painful as they with the bow. are to our ears, they gave undoubted pleasure Ddlassement (Fr.) A light trifling enter- to those who first listened to them, who speak tamment. of their " melodiae suavitas " and " dulcis Deliberatamente ; {It.) Deliberately. concentus " moreover, diaphony was well Deliberate {It.) Deliberate. known to signify dissonance, intervals being

( 130 ) : —

DESCANT. divided into symphonic and diaphonic, the former including. 4ths, 5ths, and octaves (and their compounds); the lattef znds, grds, 6ths, and 7ths. That they should not have called it "harmony" would not surprise us if they were only cognizant of the exact force of the Greek hpfiovia, but it happens that Isidorus of Seville (in the 6th century), gives the following definition of harmony, " consonantia plurimorum sonorum et coaptatio," a defini- tion which so far diverges frOm that of the Greek, that it might have included all the efforts of the. diaphonists, and indeed might almost pass muster as a definition of modern harmony. Why diaphony or the diaphonia cantilena was also called organum it is diffi- cult to say. A later explanation, namely, that it was because of a supposed similarity to the music of the instrument "organ" is plainly untenable (apte similitudinem exprimat instru- menti, quod organum vocatur)—J. Cotton in Gerbertus Script. II. 263. In time of Charle- magne the art of diaphony must have reached some degree of perfection, as it is certain that Roman cantors were called upon to teach certain French chanters the ars organandi, and pueri symphokiaci were part of the musi- cal staff of Vitalian at the end of the 7th century. The earliest forms of diaphony were of four kinds ; when the organum was added to the "principal" or subject throughout at the interval (i) of an octave, (2) of a fifth (3) of a fourth, (4) at an octave above and below. These species were combined in three or four-part music, thus presenting to the ear a simple succession of consecutives. It is unnecessary to give examples of each of the above ; the following (from Gerbertus) will

Suffice as illustrations :

tris

In the above S stands for semitone, T for tone. It is thus rendered by Gerbertus (De

Cantu, &c., I. 112.) —

DESCANT, and their present position in music. These semibreves proportionaliter adasquantur, et in proportionari authors (see Coussemaker, p. 49) classify the scripto per debitas figuras ad unison and octave as perfect invicem designantur" (Johan. de Moravia). consonances ; altered semitonally the 4th and 5th as middle consonances ; the It also included notes by major and minor third as imperfect conso- accidentals, under which circumstances it was nances. called musica ficta vel falsa, feigned or false The next important step in the progress of music. This fact adds interest to a discus- harmony seems to have been the giving due sion which took place between M. Fetis and consideration to what we now term the rela- M. Coussemaker. The former taxed the latter tive motion of the parts. In the early examples with having misinterpreted his published (i to 3) it must have been observed that there specimens of diaphony, because, in it were tritone and the lesser 5th. is nothing but similar motion ; in Ex. 4, introduced the oblique motion is mixed with similar; and M. Coussemaker's answer seems conclusive next we find authors boldly laying down the it is to the effect that if the parallel motion law that when the principal (or melody) of diaphony were consistently preserved, ascends, the added organum should descend, either such intervals must occur, or acciden- and vice versa (ubi in recta modulatione est tally altered notes, outside the scale, must elevatio, ibi in organica fiat depositio et e have been introduced : and such has not been converse). This acknowledgment of the proved to have taken place. beauty and value of contrary motion must The rules of descant are numerous, and have given a new impulse to the art. Thus they provided for the regular addition of one step by step did it grope its way, till in part to any other part according to the move- the nth century important treatises on it ment of the tenor. The particular interval were produced, and there can be also traced by which the tenor proceeded, dictated to the that sure sign of a healthy circulation of descant its own progression. It would be thought, a marked 'partisanship of different useless to give the rules here, as they can and opposed systems. After this period, in- only be mastered by the student who carefully stead of the "principal" and its "organum," reads the many treatises on the subject, so we begin to read of a " tenor " and its elegantly reprinted by the indefatigable M. "descant," and by almost imperceptible de- Coussemaker (Script, de Musica Medii JEvi). grees the old. system dies away as the new is The scope of these rules was from time to grafted and feeds on it. It must not, however, time expanded, and in a treatise of the be supposed that the successive changes in 14th century by Theipred, reprinted by diaphony, above sketched, occurred in the W. Chappell (in the "Choir" newspaper of exact order in which they are presented to the April g, 1870), the divergences of the later reader. Systems of art are never of sudden from the earlier systems are apparent. growth, they overlap each other; they perhaps At this time, or even earlier, such expres- grow side by side for years, perhaps for cen- sions as cantus firmus and contrapunctus begin turies, until those which have in them the from time to time to be used, giving the first smallest power of development decay, and intimation of the art of adding counterpoint leave the less-matured but better-constituted to a canto fermo, which was soon to supersede systems to survive, with fresh opportunities descant, as descant had superseded diaphony. of thriving. Opinions have been divided as to whether Descant, Discantus (Lat.), may be said to descant was merely a form of regulated im- have come into existence at the end of the provisation, or whether it was a written art. nth or beginning of the 12th century. The In all probability, it grew from one state into word itself is thought by some to be merely the other. At first, without doubt, its rules

a latinized synonym of diaphony ; others, were intended to direct a musician how to among them Franco, considered it to be con- add " contrapunto alia mente ;" afterwards, nected with de cantu, something framed on or when an interesting and successful descant growing out of a melody. Originally, as had had been framed, and perhaps often repeated, been previously the case with diaphony, it it would indeed be strange if the author had consisted of two parts only, but later in its made no attempt to lengthen its existence by

life developed into motetts and various other committing it to paper ; indeed, one sentence forms of composition. The real difference from Johannes de Muris substantiates the fact between diaphony and descant seems to have beyond dispute. He says, " Nihil enim pro- been that the former was rarely, if ever, more hibet in duobus cantibus simul esse cantantes complicated than note against note, whereas plures, tam in tenore quam in discantu." It descant made use of the various proportionate is inconceivable that a number of voices could value of notes— "Discantus est aliquorum be found to add descants impromptu without diversorum cantuum consonantia, in quo illi serious discrepancies. Descants were some- diversi cantus per voces longas, breves, vel times sung without words.

( 132 ) ;

DESCENDING DIAPASON.

Descending. Passing from a higher de- close to the bottom (c) which is a fixture, and gree of pitch to a lower. the handle {b) with its levers are in the posi- Des dur {Ger.) The key of D? major. tion described by the dotted lines. Starting Des moll {Ger.) The key of Db minor. thus, if the handle be pressed down, as it Dessin {Fr.) The design or plan of a leaves the dotted line, the top (a) will ascend, composition. and air will enter the bellows through the Dessus {Fr.) One of the old names for apertures e, e, e. When the handle, having the treble or upper part in vocal music. reached its maximum depression, is released, Desto {It.) Sprightly. the surface weights (/, /, /) exercise their in- Destra {It.) The right, as destra mano, fluence to restore the top {a) to its horizontal the right hand. position; but in the mean time, the valves D6tach6 {Fr.) Detached, or staccato notes. {g, g, g) inside the bellows have fallen over Determinato {It.) Resolutely, definitely. the apertures {e, e, e), and prevented the egress

D6tonation {Fr.) -False intonation. of the air through them ; the air, therefore, is

D6tonner {Fr.) To sing out of tune : to necessarily forced through z, the only exit left, sing harshly or coarsely. into the sound boards below the pipes. It is

Detto (/f.) The same ,. as, il detto voce, evident from this, that during the time the the same voice. handle is being pushed down, no air is being Deutsche Flote {Ger.) The German flute. forced into the sound boards, because, the [Flute.] handle while being depressed negatives the Deutscher Bass {Ger.) An instrument of effect of the surface weights. Hence, two the viol kind, with five or six gut-strings, diagonal bellows, at least, were absolutely midway in size between a violoncello and a necessary in every organ, whilst some had as double-bass. many as 10, 12, or 14. The organ in St. Deuxifeme position {Fr.) (i) The second Paul's Cathedral had originally 4 large dia-

position or half-shift on the violin. [Shift.] gonal bellovvs, measuring 8 feet by 4 ; and (2) The second on a guitar. that in St. Sulpice, Paris, 14 diagonal bellows. Development of a subject. The elabo- This large number of bellows was sometimes ration of a given theme according to the rules arranged in a row, side by side, sometimes in of art. [Sonata.] two rows, one of which was placed over the Devoto, Devozione, con {It.) With de- other. In the latter case, ropes attached to votion, affection. the handles of those in the upper row allowed Dextra {Lat.) The right, e.g., dextra them to be blown from the same level as manu, with the right hand. those below. Sometimes diagonal bellows Dextrae tibiae (Laf.) Pipes -held in the were inflated by treadles, so arranged that the of the tihice easily another, right hand ; gtenerally, the shorter blower could step from one to impares. Hence, tihice dextrce seems to imply whence the Ger. " Balgetreter," " Calcant."

a pair of treble pipes ; tibice sinistns, a pair One of the chief defects in the diagonal bellows of lower-toned or bass pipes. [Aulos.] was its inability to supply wind of an uniform

Di {It.) By, of, for, with. Di grado, by pressure. This arose from two causes : the degrees; stromenti difiato, wind instruments first, because the sides of the folds as they

di chiesa, for the church ; di bravura, with turned inwards, changing from an obtuse to bravura passages. an acute angle, gave more pressure as the top Diagonal Bellows. An old form of organ of the bellows gradually fell ; the second, be- bellows, the construction of which may be cause the surface weights would exercise more thus explained. and more pressure as the top, starting from an inclined plane, approached the horizontal. This defect was in time remedied by attach- ing to the rod {h) or end of the handle {b) a spring, whose tension was greatest when the top {a) was highest, and when therefore, as explained above, the air was least compressed, [For an account of Horizontal Bellows, see Organ, § 2.] Dialogue. A duet. Diana {It.), Diane {Fr.) An> aubade, huntsup. Diapason {Gk.) (i) An octave. [Greek music] (2) The name given in this country to the most important foundation stops of an termed in other countries more properly When the bellows are empty, the top {a), organ, Principal. There are two kinds of diapasons, which is moveable (being hinged at d), lies

( 133 ) ;:

DIAPASON CUM DIAPENTE DI SALTO. the open and stopped. Opeh diapasons on table dumb instrument, invented by M. Marks, the manuals are nearly always of metal, but for the purpose of strengthening and giving on the pedals are often of wood. Stopped flexibility to the fingers for pianoforte playing. diapasons were formerly, in most cases, of It consists of a key-board with five keys, kept wood, but now are frequently made of metal. in their places by springs of metal. When two or more open diapasons are on the Di grado (It.) By conjunct intervals. same manual, they are of different scales. Dilettante (It.) [Amateur.] (3) Fixed pitch; normal diapason, a recog- Diludium. An interlude. nised standard of pitch. [Pitch.] Diluendo (It.) Wasting away, diminish-

Diapason cum diapente. The interval ing ; decrescendo. of a 1 2th. Diminished. Made less, (i) Diminished Diapason cum diatessaron. The inter- intervals are those made less than minor, e.g. 7th, val of an nth. G ( to F 1) is a diminished because Diapente {Gk.) The interval of a 5th. G to F being a minor 7th, G# to F contains Diapentissare (med. Lat.) To descant at one semitone less than the minor interval. the interval of a 5th. Some authors, however, apply this term in a Diaphony. [See under Descant.J manner liable to lead to much confusion, Diaschisma (Gk.) lia.a)(i(Tfia. An approxi- namely, to a perfect interval when mad© mate half of a limma^ smaller by one semitone, and to an imperfect Diastema {Gk.) StaaTrjfia. An interval. interval when made less by two semitones Diatessaron (Gk.) The interval of a fourth. thus, according to them, C to G b is a dimi-

Diatonic, (i) of the three genera nished 5th, but to or C to E 1? a One C E bb j); of music among the Greeks, the other two diminished 3rd. [Interval.] (2) Diminished being the chromatic and enharmonic. [Greek subjects or counter-subjects are subjects, or Music] (2) The modern major and minor counter-subjects introduced with notes half scales, (3) Chords, intervals, and melodic the value of those in which they were first progressions, &c., belonging to one key-scale. enunciated. (3) A diminished triad is the A diatonic chord is one having no note chro- chord consisting of two thirds on the sub- matically altered. A diatonic interval is one tonic, .e-gf., B„ D, F in the key^f C. formed by two notes of a diatonic scale un- Diminue (Fr.), Diminuito (It.) Dimin- altered by accidentals. A diatonic melody is ished. one not including notes belonging to more Diminuendo (It.) Decreasing in power than one scale. A diatonic modulation is one of sound. by which a key is changed to another closely Diminution. [Canon.] related to it. Di molto (It.) Very much ; as, allegro Diaulion (Gk.) SiavKiov. An air played di molto, very fast. upon the aulos or flute during an interval in Din-din. An Indian instrument of the the choral song. cymbal class. Diazeuxis (Gk.) Sia^evhe. The separation Di nuovo (It.) Anew, again, of two tetrachords by a tone : opposed to Dioxia. The interval of a 5th, This term synaphe (awcKjiri), or the overlapping of tetra- was afterwards supersed by diapente. chords. [Greek Music.} Direct. A sign (w) used at the bottom of • Dichord. (i) An instrument having two a page of music, to indicate the note next to strings. (2) An instrument having two stringsi be sung or played ; to each note. [Bichord.] Di coho (It.) Suddenly, at once. Diecetto (It.) A composition for ten in- struments. Directeur (Fr.), Direttore (It.) Director. Diesare (7i.), DiSser (Fr.) To sharpen. Manager, guide, conductor of an orchestra. Diese (Fr.) A sharp. Direct motion. [Motion.]

. Diesis (Gk.) SUine. Originally the name Dirge. A solemn piece of music, of a of a semitone, called afterwards a limma. In funereal or memorial character, so called from later writings, applied to a third or quarter of the first word of the Antiphon, " Dirige, a tone in the enharmonic and chromatic scales. Domine Deus- meus, in conspectu tuo, viam The modern enharmonic diesis is the interval meam." The office of burial of the dead was represented by 125 : 128; that is, the difference called in the Primer (cir. 1400) Placebo and between three true majorthirds and one octave. Dirige, and in the Primer of Henry VIII Dieze (Fr.) A sharp. (1545) is called The Dirige. Diezeugmenon. [Greek Music] Diretta, alia (It.) In direct motion. Difficile (It.) Difficult. Dis (Ger.) D sharp. Di gala (/if.) Merrily, cheerfully. Di salto (It.) By a leatp, spoken of melody Digitorium. The name of a small por- progressing by skips.

( 134) : ;

DISCANT-—DOLCIANO.

Discant. [Descant.] Divisi (It.) Divided. A direction that Discant-Geige {Ger.) An old term for the instruments playing from one line of music violin. are to separate and play in two parts. The Discant- Schllissel (Ger.) The soprano reunion of the parts into unison is directed clef. Descant clef. i [Clef.] by the words a due, e.g. : Discord. A chord which when struck or Viole. divisi. | J sung requires to be resolved into a concord. [Harmony.] Discrete, con discrezione (It.) Pru- dently, discreetly, with judgment. Disdiapason (Gk.) An interval of two octaves ; a 15th. Disinvolto (It.) Free, unfettered, natur- ally. Division. An elaborate variation for voices Disjunct motion. [Motion.] or instruments upon a simple theme ; a course Dis moll (Ger.) D sharp minor. of notes so connected that they form one Disperato, con disperazione (It.) De- series. Divisions for the voice are intended spairing, with desperation. to be sung in one breath to one syllable. The Dispersed harmony. Harmony in which performance of this style of music is called the notes composing the chord are at wide running a division intervals from each other Handel.

Disposition. Arrangement (i) of the parts of a chord, with regard to the intervals between Division viol. A violin with frets upon [Violin.] them ; (2) of the parts of a score, with regard the finger-board. relative divoto (It.) Divozione, to their order ; (3) of voices and instru- Divotamente, ments with a view to their greatest efficiency con (It.) Devoutly, devotedly, with devotion. or to the convenience of their positions Dixidme (Fr.) The interval of a loth. ; (4) of the groups of pipes in an organ, or of the D moll (Ger.) The key of D minor. registers or stops bringing them under control. Do. The first of the syllables used for Dissonance. Discord. [Harmony.] the solfeggio of the scale. The note c, to Dissonare (It.) To jar, to make discord. which it is applied, was originally called Ut Distanza (It.) Distance, an interval. [Aretinian syllables], and is still called so in Distinto (It.) Clear, distinct. France. Its introduction dates from the 17th Dithyrambus (Gk.) A song in honour of century. Lorenzo Penna in his " Albori Bacchus, from which arose the first dramatic Musicale," 1672, uses do for ut, and speaks representations in Athens. The choruses to of it as a recent practice. [Solfeggio.] [Nota- the early tragedies were in dithyxambic form. tion.] Dito (It.) A finger. Doctor of, or in, music. [Bachelor.] Dito grosso (It.) The thumb. [Degree.] Ditone. An interval of two major tones. Dodecachordon (Gk.) An instrument This interval exceeds the major third, which with twelve strings. consists of a major and minor tone, and is Dodecuplet. A collection or group of discordant. twelve notes to be played in the time of eight, Ditonus (Lat.) [Ditone.] Doigtfe (Fr.) (from Doigter, to finger). Ditty. A short, simple air, implying or Marking by signs or numerals the manner in

containing a moral application. The word which , a piece of music should be played by is said to be derived from the Latin word the fingers. [Fingering.] dictum, and signified a saying or sentence, Dolcan. [Dulciana.] not always connected with rhythm or music. Dolce. A soft-toned 8-ft. organ stop. [Ballad.] Dolce (It.) Sweet ; dolce maniera, in a Divertimento (It.) A composition of a sweet style. light, pleasing character, whether vocal or Dolcemente, Dolcezza, con (It.) With instrumental, written to engage the attention softness and sweetness. in a cheerful manner. Dolciano, Dolcino (It.), Dulcan (Ger.), (Fr.) [Divertimento.] Dulzaginas (Sp.) [Dulciana.]

( 135) : : ;

DOLCISSIMO DOUBLE BASS.

Dolcissimo {It.) With the utmost degree ferred to that for the pianoforte, and sometimes of sweetness. for the voice. Tablature for wind instru- Dolente, dolentemente, dolentissimo, (5) A system of con dolore, con duolo, doloroso (It.) In ments, the dot system. [Tablature.] formerly placed over a note to a plaintive, sorrowful style ; with sadness. (6) Dots were Dolzflote (Ger.) The old German flute, show its subdivision into lesser repeated notes, with seven ventages and one key. e.g., '^' would be equal to ^ # # * Domchor (Ger.) The choir or body of singers in a cathedral church, usually consist- Double {Fr.) A turn : ing of boys and men. ji}^ Dominant, (i) The fifth degree of the Written. irformed^^-^ "^ scale. [Harmony.] (2) The reciting note of Gregorian chants. [Chant.] Double, (i) An old term for a variation. harpsichord Dominante (Fr.) Dominant. In some of Handel's lessons, the variations of a theme are marked Double r. Donna, prima (It.) The principal female singer in an opera. Double 2, &c. A variation on a dance tune is called a double. The repetition of words Doppelbe (Ger.) A double flat, W. (2) Doppelfldte [Ger.) An organ stop, con- in singing was also called the "doubles or in- sisting of wood pipes having each two mouths. geminations thereof." (3) An artist who understudies a part in an opera, that is, who Doppelfuge [Ger.) A double fugue ; a fugue with two subjects. [Fugue.] prepares a part on the chance of the accidental Doppelgeige (Ger.) One of the names by absence of the principal. (4) That which is which the viol d'amour, q.v., is known in Ger- an octave below the unison in pitch," e.^., many. double-bass , an instrument whose sounds are DoppelgrifFe (Ger.) Double-stopping on an octave below those of the violoncello double-bassoon, an instrument sirnilarly sound- a violin ; playing on two strings at once. Doppelkreuz {Ger.} A double sharp x- ing an octave below the bassoon ; double- Doppelschlag {Ger.) A double beat or diapason, an organ stop of i6-ft. pitch. grace note. [Beat.] Double action. [Harp.] Dopio (It.) Double, e.g., doppio movi- Double backfall. An ornament in old music, e.g. mento, at double the pace ; doppio peddle, the pedal part in octaves. Dopo {It) After. Written. H-[^ Played. Dorian mode. [Greek Music] [Plain ^ Song.] Double bar. A sign formed of two single Dorien (Fr.) Dorian. bars showing (i) the end of a piece, (2) the end of of a work, the end of Dot. (i) A point added to a note, or rest, a movement (3) a portion to be repeated, the commence- which lengthens its value by one-half, e.g. : (4) ment of a change of key, the commence- . is ic^ . (5) d equal to cs <2i ; [• is equal to ment of a change of time, (6) the end of a *1 1 When a second dot follows the first 1 line of words set to music, as in a hymn tune, (when the note or rest is doubly dotted), the [Bar.] second dot adds one-half of the value of the Double-bass. Violone {It.) Contre-basse previous dot e.g. : <& . . is equal to m\

[. . . is equal to (• -| a A dot was called the played with a bow. The strings are usually point of addition (punctus), hence a dotted tuned a fourth apart to the following notes three strings are : note was called formerly a pricked note ; this when employed expression must not, however, be connected with prick-song, which signifies written music, m as opposed to music sung by ear. with the addition of the lower E (2) When placed over a note, the dot is a direction that the note is to beplayed or sung staccato, m or four (3) When two dots are placed in the when there are four strings. The compass spaces of the stave, either on side of a. double generally written for the instrument extends bar, they are a direction to repeat so much of to the upper F the music as is enclosed between them. When placed under a slur, dots are a . . (4) direction to play spiccato, that is, in violin playing, played by the same how, but the bow with every intermediate semitone from its must remain stationary between each sound. lowest note. The actual sounds produced are From violin music the term has been trans- an octave lower than written, hence the double

( '36) DOUBLE BASSOON DOUBLE REED. bass is sometimes called a transposing in- double bass does to the violoncello, that is to strument. The four-stringed double bass is say, its sounds are actually an octave below more common abroad than in England, so it those written. Its compass is is not unusual to find passages written Ijelow the lower A, which a three-stringed bass per- forms on the octave above. Double notes are w. possible upon the instrument, but are rarely ^= employed as they are ineffective. Continuous rapid passages are best divided between two that is to say, from the Bb below CCC to instruments, but short quick runs are very tenor F. It forms, in the orchestra, a mag- telling especially when in unison or at the nificent support to the wind band, but good octave with the violoncello. Beethoven in players are not commonly to be met with, the Pastoral Symphony takes his double bass partly because the large size of the instru-

down to C, an octave below the violoncello : ment renders it very unwieldy, partly on account of the fatigue which the performer necessarily must undergo. The common habit of replacing it by an ophicleide should be discouraged, as the qiiality of the two a passage which is impracticable upon the in- instruments differs greatly. strument as now generally constructed. Double beat. An ornament of old music, Beethoven also wrote passages for the in- consisting of a beat repeated. strument which, in his time, were considered Double bourdon. An organ stop of 32-ft. too difficult for performance, and it was the tone. On the manuals it rarely goes below " custom for the players to simplify" whenever middle C ; on the pedals it extends of course his works were performed. But the improved through the whole compass. It consists of skill of the players of the present time has stopped wood-pipes. It is found difficult to justified the composer's foresight, and all the produce a pure tone in the longer pipes, as the so-called difficult passages are given with first harmonic has a strong tendency to assert ease and distinctness, even by the least dis- itself. [Bourdon.]

tinguished double-bass player in the orchestra. Double chant. [Chant, j The bow employed is the only representative Double chorus. A chorus for two sepa-

now in use of one of the primitive forms, and rate choirs : the several themes may be dis- although it has the advantage of producing a tinct, or so constructed that united they form thick, heavy quality of sound in slow move- one harmony. [Chorus.] ments, it is not always successful in eliciting Double counterpoint. [Counterpoint.] an even tone in quick passages. Double croche (Fr.) A semiquaver, The harmonics on the double bass are of a Double demisemiquaver. A note whose beautiful flute-like character, and have been value is one half of a demisemiquaver. made available by solo players in exciting Double diapason. [Double, § 4.] wonder and admiration. Double dieze (Fr.) A double sharp. The mute is rarely, if ever, employed, but Double drum. A drum with two heads, the pizzicato on the instrument has a very used in the bands of foot regiments, and being fine effect, as in the overture to " Der Frei- suspended from the neck of the player is schiitz," and elsewhere. struck with drumsticks held in the right and The invention of the double bass is attri- left hands. [Drum.]

buted to Gaspar di Salo, 1580 ; but as the Double flageolet. A flageolet having two members of the Confr6rie de St. Julien were tubes and one mouth-piece, admitting of the " distinguished as players upon " high and low performance of simple music in thirds and instruments, it is probable that the reputed sixths, &c. in invention was after all only an improvement. Double flat. A sign ([7l>) used music The introduction of the instrument into the before a note already flattened in the signa- orchestra is due to Michael Monteclare, about ture, which depresses the note before which it the year 1696. Before this time the Bass- is placed another half tone. It is contradicted

vial or Viola da Gamba was the deepest»toned by a natural and a flat. . stringed instrument employed. The "Contra Double octave. The interval of a 15th. Basso di Viola," mentioned in the score of Double pedal point. A portion of a Jacopo Peri's " Eurydice," is held to have fugue or melody in which two notes are long been a larger sort of tenor violin, less in size sustained, generally the tonic and dominant. than a bass-viol, and not a double bass. [Fugue.] [Sustained note.] Double Bassoon. The deepest-toned Double quartet. A composition for two instrument of the Bassoon family. It stands sets of four voices or instruments soli. in the same relation to the bassoon as a Double reed, (i) The vibrating reed of

( i37) DOUBLE RELISH DRUM-MAJOR. instruments of the oboe class. (2) A reed- sung at the celebration of the Holy Eucha- stop on an organ of i6-ft. pitch. rist. The greater doxology. Doxologia parva (Lat.) [Doxology.] Double relish. An ornament in old Drag, (i) An ornament consisting of music : descending notes in lute-music ; strascino, glissade. rallentando, Written. portamento, (2) A Dramma lyrica, or per musica {It.) [Opera.] Played. Drammaticamente (7^)) In a dramatic

Drammatico {It.) ) style. Double root. [Sharp sixth.] Dreichorig {Ger.) The triple stringed Double sharp. A sign (x) used before grand pianoforte. A trichord. a note already sharp, to indicate that it is Dreiklang {Ger.) A chord of three sounds. desired to raise the pitch by a semitone. It [Triad.] is contradicted by a natural and a sharp. Drei-stimmig {Ger.) Music in three Double sonata. A sonata for two solo parts. instruments, as pianoforte and violin, or two Dritta {It.) The right hand. pianofortes, &c. Driving notes. Syncopated notes. Notes Double stopped diapason. [Bourdon.] driven through the ensuing accent.

Double-stopping. The stopping of two Droite {Fr.) Right ; as main droite, right strings simultaneously with the fingers in hand. violin playing. The practice was first sug- Drone, (i) The monotonous bass pro- gested by John Francis Henry Biber in 1681, duced from the larger of the three tubes of in a set of solos for a violin and a bass : one bag-pipes. As there are no governing holes of these pieces is written in three staves, two in the drone the sound it gives forth serves as for the violin playing in double-stopping, and a continuous bass to any melody; the pipe the third for the bass. He also in the same second in size is tuned to give out the fifth work suggests a varied tuning in fourths and above the drone ; and the smaller pipe, called fifths for the purpose of making the double- the chanter, has ventages by which the melody stopping easy. is made. [Bagpipes.] (2) The chorus or Double-tongueing. A peculiar action of burden of a song. the tongue against the roof of the mouth Druckbalg {Ger.) A reservoir of wind, used by flute players, to ensure a brilliant as in an organ, &c. and spirited articulation of staccato notes. Drum. An instrument of percussion, of The term is sometimes applied also to the cylindrical form, having discs of vellum or rapid repetition of notes in cornet playing. parchment at each end, so made that the Double travale. A direction in tam- discs can be tightened or slackened at pleasure bourine playing. [Tambourine.] by means of braces acted upon by sliding Down beat. The first beat in each bar knots of leather, or by the later application of is so called, because in counting time the screws. There are three kinds of drums : hand or conducting stick is allowed to fall at (i) The long drum, with two heads, held that place. laterally and played on both ends with stuffed- Down bow. The bow drawn over the nob drumsticks held in the hands of the per- strings from the heel or holding part of the former. (2) The side-drum having two heads, bow to the point; the greatest power of tone the upper one only being played upon by two in the strings is elicited by the down bow. sticks of wood ; the lower head has occasion- [Bowing.] ally strings of catgut stretched over its surface, Double trumpet. An organ reed-stop and then it is called a . (3) The similar in tone and scale to, but an octave kettle drum, always employed in pairs. lower in pitch than, the 8-ft. trumpet. The drum is a very ancient instrument, of

Doublette (Fr..) A compound organ-stop Eastern oj-igin ; it was employed by the consisting of two ranks, generally a twelfth Hebrews, Romans, Parthians, and other na- and fifteenth. - tions in religious dances, and as signals of Doucement (Fr.) Softly, sweetly. war, and was probably first broaght to Western Doux (Fr.) Soft, sweet. Europe by the Crusaders or their followers, the Douxieme (Fr.) A twelfth. old name for the drum and drummer being Doxology {Gk.) The hymn or song of almost purely Eastern. [Naker, nakerer.] praise—the Gloria Patri—used at the end of [Kettledrum.] the Psalms in the Christian church ; also any Drum-major. The name of an officer in metrical form of the same. the British army who is responsible for the Doxologia magna (Lai.) The version of instruction of drummers in the various roll- the angels' hymn, "Gloria in excelsis Deo," calls, and for the invention and construction

( 138) — ;

DRUM SLADE DULCIMER. of new beats, communicated by order of the almost all parts of the world, and which, in major of the regiment to the drummers. The shape and construction, has probably under- office does not appear to be older than the gone fewer changes than any other instrument. time of Charles II. There was formerly an In its earliest and simplest form, it consisted officer in the Royal Household called the of a flat piece of wood, on which were fas- drum-major general, who granted licenses to tened two converging strips of wood, across other than the royal troops for the use of which strings were stretched tuned to the drums in their regiments. national scale. The only improvements since Drum slade. A drummer. made on this type are the addition of a series D string. The third open string on of pegs, or pins, to regulate the tension of violins, the second on tenors, violoncellos, the strings ; and the use of two flat pieces of and three-stringed double basses, the fourth wood formed into a resonance-box, for the on the guitar. body. The word dulcimer is probably con- Duan (Gaelic). A verse, stanza. nected with dolce, sweet, through the inter- Due, a {It.) [Divisi.] mediate word dolcimela ; but the German Due corde (7^.) Two strings. A direc- name, Hackbret {chopping-board), points to tion that the same note is to be played simul- the manner in which it is played, the wires taneously on two strings of a violin or other being struck by two hammers, one held in instrument of its class. The bow is made to each hand of the performer. Perhaps the impinge upon two strings, one open, the greatest divergence of form is to be seen in other stopped to the pitch of the open string. the Japanese goto, or koto, an illustration of

Duet. A composition for two voices or which is now given : instruments, or for two performers upon one instrument. Duetto (It.) A duet. Duettino (It.) A little duet. Due volte {It.) Twice. Dulgaynas (Sp.) The name of a larger sort of oboe, or small bassoon, " Se usa un genera de Dulgaynas que parecen nues- tras Chirimias." Don Quixote. As it is sup- The next figure shows a dulcimer of posed that the instrument was brought into Georgia : Spain by the Moors, the word may be derived from the same root as the Egyptian Dalzimr, both instruments being of the oboe or reed kind. Dulcian, or dulcino {It.) The name of a species of small bassoon. [Bassoon.] [Dulciana.] [Dulfaynas.] Dulciana. A word now applied, in this country, solely to a soft and delicate-toned organ stop consisting of very small-scale flue pipes. Originally, a dulciana (dulcan, dulcian, dolcan, dolcin, or dulzain) was a kind of hautboy [Waits], and these terms are still found on some foreign organs as the names of soft reed-stops, as at Rotterdam, The Italians, who have ever been note- the Hague, and elsewhere, but in some cases worthy for combining beauty with utility, the stop is not actually reed, but the pipes by have not failed to improve upon the original their peculiar shape, narrow at the mouth and simplicity of the dulcimer, as the following widening gradually towards the top, produce illustration will shew a reedy quality of tone. The dulciana stop was introduced into this country, or perhaps invented, by the celebrated organ-builder Snetzler. The first known specimen was included by him in the specification of the organ of St. Margaret's Church, Lynn, in 1754. Stops of this class are universally used, and are of great utility. They are most commonly found on the Choir organ. Dulcimer. One of the most ancient mu- The form of the instrument given in the sical instruments, used by various nations in next figure, the dulcimer of Benares, suggests

( 139) :

DULCIMER DUMP.

that it is not placed, .for use, in the ordinary position :

But, the fact which makes the dulcimer of the greatest interest to musicians is, that it is the undoubted forefather of our pianoforte. A modern grand pianoforte is, in reality, nothing more than a huge dulcimer, the wires of which are set in vibration, not by hammers held in the pianist's hands, but by keys : it is a keyed-dulcimer. It is remarkable that in the immediate fore- runners of the pianoforte (the spinet, harpsi- chord, &c.) the strings were plucked, so, the invention of "hammers" which constitutes the real difference between a pianoforte and a harpsichord, was in truth a return to a primi- tive type. At one period the dulcimer came to be called in Italy a cembalo, possibly from its " ringing " cymbal-like tone, hence the same term was afterwards bestowed upon a harpsi- chord (clavi-cembalo). In full scores it is not even now an unusual thing to find the piano- forte part marked cembalo. The dulcimer is much less commonly met with in England than formerly, but it is still to be heard in some rural districts, as the musical accom- paniment of a puppet-show. The following Swiss dance of the Canton of Appenzell, as arranged for a violin, dulci- mer, and baSs (from a collection of Swiss songs, &c., Berne, 1826), will give a fair notion of the capabilities of the dulcimer

Violin.

Dump or dumpe. The name of an old dance in slow time with a peculiar rhythm. It is doubtful whether it was entirely " dull and heavy," or merely the slowness of the measure that made the title of the dance synonymous with wearisomeness, for Shake-

( 140 ) DUMP DUODENE. speare makes Peter, in " Romeo and Juliet," say, " O play me some merrydump," which may either have been descriptive of the character of the dance, or it may be a humorous contra- diction in terms. Some authors have supposed that the dance is called dump from a trick of lute players who struck the open strings with the fist at certain marked intervals of the rhj^hm.

" My Ladye Carey's Dumpe." (cir. 1600.)

jJ- -^,^^-i^ . ^-J . J J d_pL , h-- -^ N J >HH

^ m^^f^^-^^ m^^r^^^^f^tf^ — A

DUODENE. note in relation to that of C is therefore given by its symbol. The marks x quint, + major, — minor, Greek minor, placed between two symbols, I show that they form a Fifth ^, a major Third |, minor Third Pythagorean minor a §, or a tf Third |^, respectively, or their alterations consequent on changing either note by octaves, t El? G An harmonic cell, as in the mar- C E gin, contains C x G vertical, C+EandtEb+G horizontal, and C — f E!7, E — G oblique from bottom up to left, and hence all the elements oi tertian harmony (i.e., excluding harmonic Sevenths) and its triads C -f E — G major, and C — t Ef -f G minor. C is called the First, G the Fifth, E the major Third, and f E b the minor Third of the C cell. t Eb G An harmonic heptad, as in the t Ab C E margin, consists of two cells, F A the Fifth of the lower cell being the First of the upper cell. It contains four cell .triads, major F+A — C, C + E

— ; minor b G F— t A t C, C— f E P t G ; and two union triads, resulting from the union of the two cells into a heptad, major t A b + C — t E b. and minor A — C + E. It has therefore all the six consonant triads containing C, its First, and all the con-disso- nant triads containing two notes consonant with C and dissonant with each other (of which the trine f Ab + C -t- E must be noted), and hence all the elements of chord-relation- ship. t B b D An harmonic decad, as in the t Eb G B margin, consists of two hep- t Ab C E tads (of C and G) having a F A common cell (of C), and hence contains three cells, having 3 major and 3 minor cell triads, and 2 major and 2 minor union triads, and hence all the related elements of scalar harmony of Thirds, Fifths and Sevenths. The First of the central cell is called the tonic of the decad. A trichordal consists of three cell triads, selected one from each cell in a decad, form- ing 8 combinations of 7 notes, giving all the scales in use, with their harmonies, named by using ma, mi (with Italian voWels) for major and minor cell triads, and reading them in order from lowest to highest, thus C. Mamama. B — F-hA— Ch-E — + D G D | F + I B— C. Mimima, B—D|F-tAb-i-C—fEb-hG-HB—D|F—fAb To show with what note the scale begins, change the m of the name of the chord con- taining it to p (for pv'ima), or t (for iertia), or' qu (for qumta), as in C mapama (ordinary major), C mipima and mapima (two ordinary forms of ascending minor), C mipimi (ordi- —

DUODENE DYSTONIC. duodenal points out the actual decadations in For further details and illustrations, refe- the composition, that is, the actual process of rence must be made to the citations at the the modulation. Thus, to take a simple but commencement of this article. crucial example from " God Save the Queen," Duodramma (It.) A dramatic piece for where the duodenals are written above : two performers only. Duolo, con (It.) With grief, sadness, pathos. Dur {Ger.) Major, as C dur, C major. Dur {Fr.) Hard, coarse. Durate, duramente, duro {It.) With harshness, roughly. Durchfiihrung (Ger.) The development of a theme or subject. [Form.] Observe chords 3, g, and 13. The duo- Durchgehend {Ger.) Passing, transient. ( denal G makes chord 3 from D — f F + A Durezza (7^.) Rigour, harshness. (in the dominant duodene), because the melody Dutch concert. A so-called concert in requires the true D in order to sink by a per- which every man sings his own song at the fect minor Third to B, and the harmony does same time that his neighbour is also singing not treat chord as the dissonance F-f- A. his, a practice not necessarily so national as 3 D | But the duodenal F, makes chord g from convivial. There is another form of Dutch jD — F -^ A (in the subdominant duodene), concert, in which each person present sings because chord 8 contains A, and the change in turn one verse of any song he pleases, A to f A is unmelodic. But chord 13, in some well-known chorus being used as a duodene of C, is marked as the dissonance burden after each verse. When every person D F + A, which is duly resolved by the fall has sung his song, all sing their respective I of D to C in 14, A being retained from 12. songs simultaneously as a grajidi finale. It would of course be possible, and smoother, Dux {Lat.) The proposition, theme, or to us'e the F duodenal, making chord 13 from subject of a fugue, the answer being called J D — F -h A. In this way, three theoretical Comes. methods of treating the triad on the second Dystonic {Ger. from Gk.) False intona- of a major scale are accurately shown. tion or discord.

1 H3 ) -EAR.

E.

E. (i) The note Hypate in Greek music. days, and which are very little more than [Greek music] simple masses of protoplasm, manifest this has observed these (2) The key-note of the Church mode called faculty. Any one who Phrygian. occupants of almost any drop of water, with of power, will have seen (3) The note Elami in the system of Hexa- a microscope low chords. [Notation.] enough to convince himself of this. As to objection, the fact remains that in (4) The E ahove tenor C, the octave above the second it being represented by e, the octave below it some animals which have no undoubted by EE. nerves, in some medusae* or jelly-fish, f we their crystals (5) The key having four sharps in its find in the mass forming body signature. of carbonate of lime, which substance must Ear. The Ear is the organ of hearing, in intensify the vibrations of the water in which other words, the organ for the appreciation of they live, and must, when put into a state of sound, i.e., of vibrations of the air or water. motion as a whole, or into one which affects All that is necessary to form an ear is a nerve- its particles inter se, cause by its relative mass capable of appreciating these vibrations. density greater disturbance of the soft matter Its simplest actual expression is a sac, filled in which it lies, than would be the case if it with fluids, containing " otoliths " (oZg, liroe, were absent. an ear, and \19oq, a stone), and supplied with a But leaving this as somewhat problematical, nerve, a condition best exemplified in the and taking the hearing organ of molluscs as sub-kingdom of MoUusca, represented fami- the type, we shall find this type essentially liarly by the oysters, the mussels, snails both adhered to in the higher animals in spite of terrestrial and aquatic, and the octopus. The endless complications. Let us propound the " otoliths " are masses of carbonate of lime, bold paradox without fear of contradiction, as may readily be seen by placing one of that a man as well as a snail hears in water, them dissected out from any of the above and that the essential parts of his marvellous mentioned animals {e.g. a snail) on a glass hearing apparatus are a sac containing fluid slide, covering it with an object glass with in which are otoliths, and round which are sufficient water to fill the interspace between distributed the ultimate filaments of a nerve. the two, and adding at the side of the cover- The typical physiology, as well as the ing-glass a drop of any acid (acetic acid, or typical anatomy of hearing, is very simple. indeed ordinary vinegar will do very well) These " ear-stones," by the vibrations con- while the experimenter observes it through ducted to them, are made to rattle in this bag the microscope. Air bubbles—really bubbles containing fluid, and, by beating against its of carbonic acid gas—will be seen to pour out sides, cause more disturbance to the nerve fila- from the otolith, and when these have ceased, ments there distributed than would be caused that body will have entirely disappeared. by the same vibrations if they acted directly It is true that we are suspicious of a on the nerve. specialised organ of hearing even in such The power of hearing must be very widely animals as possess no specialised nerve if not universally distributed through the system. This is somewhat apparently of a animal kingdom, though the hearing organ is paradox, for it may be asked. How can an not always easy to find. Von SieboldJ has animal without nerves feel at all ? and is it however discovered this organ in the Euro- not highly improbable that if no nerve system pean field-cricket, situated in the front legs exists, any special sense-organ can be de- * veloped ? The answer to the, first of these These medusae are by som,e said to possess a ring of nerves, but this is disputed. objections is very plain : all animals, even " those who possess no specialised organs t Gegenbaur, Grundziige der Vergleichenden Ana- tomie," p. 129, fig. 15 e, and p. 131. whatever, manifest the simple phenomena of + " Lehrbuch von Vergleichender Anatomie," von sensation ; all, even the Infusoria the and ' Siebold und Stannius. , 1848. Erster Theil, p. Amoeboe, of which we hear so much now-a- 582.

f 144 ) ;

EAR. of both sexes. That the lower animals have The external ear (see fig. i.) consists of the power of making music very widely dis- two parts, the " pinna," or auricle (i), and " tributed among them is a fact of which any the external auditory canal or " meatus (2). one who reads Mr. Darwin's " Descent of The pinna (i) is that part which is quite Man," part ii., can very easily convince him- external, and which we unscientifically call self; the references to this work would be too " the ear," as when we say that a certain numerous to give with completeness, and person has large or small " ears." It is com- extracts would be impossible, seeing that the posed almost entirely of cartilage or gristle, subject occupies a considerable portion of the and has complicated foldings, to all of which whole work. It is, however, sure that this names have been given, but which it is not power is possessed by some spiders (vol. i. our business to give here in detail. The order general shape is that of an irregular funnel, P- 339) ; by many insects, as e.g. of the having its apex in the auditory canal. The Homoptera (p. 350—352), including the Cica- the order Orthoptera 360), in- only part of which we shall speak particularly dos ; of (352— " folded cluding crickets and grasshoppers ; of the is the helix," or the margin which is order Hymenoptera (366), including bees and in. At the upper and posterior part of this is or to be found, in many individuals, a small wasps ; of the order Coleoptera (378—385), point or process, generally folded in like the beetles ; of the order Lepidoptera (387), or moths and butterflies. All these animals rest of the helix, but sometimes projecting possessing the power of music, which they use outwards. This is considered by Mr. Darwin principally for attracting the other sex (the to be a strong fact in determining the gene- male being generally the musician), must alogy of man (" Descent of Man," vol. i. p. possess also organs capable of appreciating 22, fig. 2), for this point is well marked in such music—auditory organs. many of the lower monkeys, as baboons and When we reach the sub-kingdom of Verte- some species of macacus, and in them is not brata we find the same type throughout, folded inwards, but stands erect. He thus gradually becoming more complicated as we considers it a reminiscence of some pointed- proceed from the lowest fish to the highest eared progenitors. He remarks (p. 23, note : " This rudiment apparently is somewhat mammal, man ; and it will be convenient to 26) reverse the philosophical order and to describe larger in negroes and Australians than in " the human ear first, since after the description Europeans (see Carl Vogt, Lectures on these races being of this it will be easy to allude to deficiencies Man," Eng. transl., p. 129), or modifications in the less compHcated organs confessedly lower and more like the lower of the lower vertebrata. animals than Europeans." The pinna is fur- The Human Ear may be divided into three nished with nine muscles, three of which are whole, while parts—the external, middle, and internal ear. called extrinsic and move it as a The two former have the function of convey- the remaining six would, if they contracted, ing vibrations to the latter which appreciates move its parts on one another, and are called them. intrinsic. The extrinsic muscles are situated in front, Fig. I. above and behind, and move the pinna there- LEFT EAR. fore forwards, upwards and backwards re- (Transverse Gection). spectively. The anterior muscle is called the " attrahens aurem," the superior is called the " attoUens aurem," and the posterior the " retrahens aurem." These muscles are in man without any function whatever; they do not have any effect on his hearing powers; they are capable of moving the ear only in some individuals, and are only rarely move- able at will. The " retrahens aurem," which is the strongest, is also the most commonly contracted moveable ; in some people it is involuntarily in fright, just as in a timid it is horse who throws back his ears ; much auditory meatus or canal I. Pinna ; 2. external more rarely under the control of the will, but and membrane of tympanum 3. cavity of tympanum so than the other muscles. eustachian is less seldom (between 3 and 6 chain of small bones) ; 4. Darwin (" Descent of Man," vol. i. p. 20) tube 5. internal auditory canal or meatus giving pas- Mr. ; " could sage to the auditory and facial nerves ; 6. bony labyrinth says : I have seen one man who draw petrous bone h. in- (above fenestra ovalis) ; a. apex of ; his ears forwards, and another who could styloid process d. facial ternal carotid artery ; c. ; draw them backwards;" but this gives too nerve passing to supply muscles of face ; t. mastoid an idea of the rarity of such an accom- process. great

K. ( 145 ) "

EAR.

III. ni, and fig. i. which plishment. A case has been observed in branatympani(fig. 3), making an angle of 45° which a boy was able to move his scalp froni inclines outwards, is a cavity which is not side to side by alternately contracting the with the floor. It the " Eustachian " attoUens aurem" of either side, this muscle shut off from the air, for a communication rising from the " aponeurosis" (or flat tendon) Tube" (fig. I. 4) forms "pharynx," the upper of the " occipito-frontalis " muscle, which between it and the throat. aas the power of moving the scalp forwards part of the cavity of the and backwards. The intrinsic muscles are situated, four on Fig. HI. the outer, two on the inner side of the pinna. OSSICULA AUDITUS AND MEMBRANA TYMPANI IN SITU. They have never been known to contract. In some animals, however, they are functional, as any one can see who carefully watches the pinna of the ear of a cat when intent on some sound. In spite of the complicated structure of the pinna, it is nearly sure that it possesses no effect on our powers of hearing, either by collecting sound to a focus or by conducting a. Malleus; &. tip of handle of malleus, the letter it along its substance ;* that it is in fact of lies in the cavity of the tympanum; 6. incus; c. no use as far as hearing is concerned. This stapes; m. external auditory canal; ^. membrane of is the result of the observations of no less an tympanum ; t. line of tension of tensor tympani muscle

part of malleus inwards ; I. line of tension authority than Mr. Toynbee.f It seems also pulling lower of laxator tympani muscle pulling upper part of malleus similar ears of the that the nearly precisely process of malleus. The axis inwards ; g. slender orang and chimpanzee are equally function- round which the chain of bones rotates passes through less (" Descent of Man," vol. i. p. 21). its base. The external auditory canal (fig. I. 2) is about i;|-in. long; rather less than the external In the tympanum are situated three small half is formed of cartilage or gristle, the bones (fig. I. 3 to 6, and figs. 11. and iii.), the remainder of bone. Its direction is not Malleus (A), Incus (B), and Stapes (C), the directly inwards, but slightly forwards also. names being derived from their shape. The It is closed at its inner end by the " mem- malleus (hammer) has a round head (i), and branatympani " (fig. i. 3), or membrane of the a handle (2), and from the base of the head, a drum. The glands which secrete the wax thin spike of bone, the " processus gracilis in the carti- (ceruminous glands) are situated (3) projects. The Incus (anvil), B, is more laginous part of the canal, and agree in their like a tooth with two fangs, a long and a structure with the sweat-glands. short one. The long process (2) carries a knob or tubercle which is originally a sepa- Fig. II. rate bone, as it remains in some animals SMALL BONES OF TYMPANUM OR OSSICULA AUDITUS. through life. The stapes (stirrup), C, is just like a stirrup. It is very difficult to under- stand the arrangement of these little bones from description or even from drawings, a model or the actual objects being almost necessary. It may, however, give a general idea of their position to say that the handle of the malleus and the long process of the incus

are directed vertically downwards ; the slender process of the malleus and the short process of the incus are horizontal, the former being A. Malleus.—i.head; 2. handle; 3. processus gra- cilis; 4. short process. B. Incus.— i. body; 2. long directed forwards, the latter backwards ; the process with orbicular process short ; 3. or posterior stapes is also horizontal, but with its base process 4. articular surface receiving head of ; malleus. horizontal and directed inwards. The malleus C. Stapes.— I. head; 2. posterior leg; 3. anterior leg; is anterior in to incus. 4. base. C*. Base of stapes. D. Bones in natural position the The mutual relations. head of the malleus fits on to the body of the incus (the crown of the tooth), the long pro- The middle ear or (fig. tympanum i. 3) is cess of the incus fits on to the head of the separated from the external ear by the mem- stapes (the part where the stirrup-leather would be attached), and the base of the stapes • In using a stethoscope, however, we use the con- " ducting power of the cartilage of the ear. fits loosely into the Fenestra Ovalis," an " The Diseases oval window in the bony wall of the internal + of the Ear," by J. Toynbee, F.R.S. i860, p. 12. ear or labyrinth. The whole chain of bones

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EAR. turns round an axis formed by the slender The bony labyrinth may be briefly described process of the malleus and the short process as a chamber, the "Vestibule" (fig. iv. i), of the stapes. The handle of the malleus is which sends one prolongation forward (the firmly fixed to the membrana tympani on its "cochlea," 6, 7, 8), three others backwards inner aspect its a little below the middle. There (" semi-circular canals," 3, 4, 5), and has are three muscles in connection with this outer and inner walls perforated, the outer chain of bones, two are attached to the mal- by the fenestra ovalis (2), in which lies the leus, one to the stapes. The two attached to base of the stapes, and by a round hole closed the malleus are the tensor and laxator tym- by membrane, and called the fenestra rotunda pani. The former is depres- attached just below, the (g) ; the inner by a series of holes in a latter just above the origin of the processus sion called the " Fovea hemispherica," which gracilis (see fig. iii. t, V), which, as we ob- transmit branches of the auditory nerve from served, is the axis of this chain of bones. the internal auditory meatus in which lie the The stapedius muscle is attached to the neck auditory and facial nerves. By these two of the stapes. These bones are exceedingly lateral perforations it communicates with the important from the point of view of compara- cavity of the tympanum externally, and with tive anatomy, since their homologies play very that of the cranium internally. Close behind different parts in the lower animals. The homo- the "Fovea hemispherica" is a small canal, logue of the malleus, for instance, in fish, the " Aquasductus Vestibuli," to which refer- amphibia, reptiles, and birds, is the " os quad- ence will be given later, in describing the " ratum which suspends the lower jaw ; and course of the development of the ear. the stapes is in batrachia, reptiles, and birds, The bony semi-circular canals (fig. iv. " the columella," a long bone, shaped some- 3, 4, 5) are three tubes bent so as to form what like a straight post-horn, or stethoscope, about two-thirds of a circle. They are situated which alone discharges the function which at the upper and back part of the vestibule these three bones discharge in mammalia. with which they communicate by five open- Other interesting points will be related later ings, one end of the superior having an opening on in connection with development. common also to the posterior semi-circular The cavity of the tympanum is practically canal. Each tube at one end has an expan- enlarged by communicating with the " Mas- sion, called an " Ampulla " (fig. iv.*) These toid Cells," air cavities which occupy the canals are called from their position, superior, mastoid process of the temporal bone, that posterior, and external. The superior canal process of bone which may be felt behind and is vertical and transverse, the posterior is ver- below the pinna, and is supposed by phreno- tical and longitudinal, and the external is logists to be the residence of " Pugnacity," horizontal. The directions of these canals, or though they have never explained the connec- the planes in which they lie, will be best tion between that propensity and the function understood by placing a book with the two which these air-cells really discharge, that of covers at right angles to one another, up- increasing the tympanic cavity. right on end on a table, so that one of the The internal ear or labyrinth, (fig. iv.) is the covers faces the reader, the other being at essential part of the organ. It consists of right angles to the side of the table at which two parts, a bony cavity enclosed in the he is seated. Then the reader will be on thickness of the base of the skull, and a mem- the outer or t3mipanic side, the side of the branous sac within this. table opposite to him will be the side of the cranial cavity. The plane of the table plane of the external or Fig. IV. will represent the horizontal canal, the plane of the cover oppo- RIGHT BONY LABYRINTH site to the reader the posterior, and that at

(Smaller figure real size). right angles to the side of the table at which he is seated the superior canal, which is also the most anteriorly placed of the three. Thus it will be seen that the planes of these three canals are the three planes of a cube, a fact to which allusion will be made here- after.

* With regard to the terms anterior, posterior, ex- superior semi- ternal, and internal, it may be necessary to explain that I. Vestibule ; 2. fenestra ovalis ; 3. towards the face posterior or external semi-circular anterior means on the side ; circular canal ; 4. horizontal the back of the head, and external semi-circular canal ; 6. first turn of on the side towards canal ; 5. posterior fenestra and internal remote from or near to an antero-posterior cochlea 7. second turn ; 8. apex ; g. rotunda ; the back of the head. * ampullae of semi-circular canals. axis drawn from the face to

( 147 ) EAR.

books describe the Fig. V. the tympanum. Most cochlea as divided into two passages, the VERTICAL SECTION OF COCHLEA, SHOWING ITS THREE scala vestibuli and scala tympani, but it is PASSAGES OR SCAL^. both more accurate and plainer to describe three passages from the first, otherwise it is impossible to account for the canalis membranacea in the description of the membranous labyrinth. The difficulty in understanding this part consists, as will be presently seen, in the fact that whereas all other parts of the membranous labyrinth lie freely in the bony labyrinth, the canalis membranacea is not free at its outer side, the side farthest from the modiolus, but is there attached to the bony labyrinth. The membranous labyrinth lies, except in sv. Scala vestibuli ; cm. canalis membranea, or one part already alluded to, freely in the cavity canalis cochleae, or ductus cochlearis ; st. scala tym- labyrinth, and corresponds almost pani; >n. modiolus. of the bony exactly with it. Between the two is a fluid, " " ;" The cavity of the vestibule is prolonged the perilymph," or liquor Cotunnii and anteriorly by the cochlea (fig. iv. 6, 7, 8), within the membranous labyrinth is the so-called from its likeness to the shell of a " endolymph," another fluid. The membra- snail. As a whole, it forms a blunt cone with nous labyrinth is the part of the internal ear its apex outwards ; this cone is formed by a which is essential to hearing, the bony laby- gradually tapering spiral tube, the first curve rinth serving to enclose and protect it. The vestibule is divided con- having its concavity upwards ; it is coiled" 2^ membranous by a times round a central column or " Modiolus" striction into two halves, which do not com- (fig. v. m), which sends an incomplete parti- municate. The posterior and larger is called " " ;" tion into the cavity of the tube (fig. vi. 3). the common sinus," or utricle with it This partition is called " Lamina spiralis communicate the membranous semicircular ossea," and winds in the cavity of the spiral canals, which correspond in arrangement cochlea like the thread of a screw or the stair- with their bony cases. The anterior and " ; case in a turret ; it is wanting at the apex of smaller chamber is called the saccule " it the tube. This lamina is completed by two becomes constricted anteriorly into a narrow membranes, that nearer the apex of the canal, called the " canalis reuniens," which " cochlea called the " Membrane of Reissner opens into the " canalis membranacea" of the (fig. VI. i), that nearer the base, the " Mem- cochlea. This latter canal is, as above de- brana basilaris " (fig. vl. mb), so that three scribed, interposed between the scala vestibuli canals are formed, that on the side of the and scala tympani. It ends blindly above at the apex of the cochlea being called the " Scala apex of the cochlea. " Otoliths," or " oto- vestibuli " (fig. v. and vi. sv.), that next the conia" (ear-dust, Gr. ove, ibrbe, an ear, and base called the " Scala tympani " (fig. v. Kovia, dust), are found in the common sinus or and VI. st), and the intermediate one, belong- utricle, in the saccule, and in the ampullas of ing to the membranous labyrinth (here on the the semicircular canals ; and besides them, outer wall of the cochlea not lying free), the ampullae are lined with long, stiff, hair- called the " Canalis membranacea, vel like filaments, called " fila acustica." They Cochleas," or " Ductus Cochlearis" (fig. v. cm are six-sided crystals of carbonate of lime, with VI. a). The scala vestibuli and scala tympani pointed ends, and lie in the walls of these communicate at the apex of the cochlea, for parts of the membranous labyrinth. They the lamina spiralis does not extend quite to the are occasionally absent. In these parts we apex, the scala vestibuli communicates below also find pigment cells, which seem in some with the cavity of the vestibule as its name mysterious manner to be essential to the sen- implies, the scala tympani would communi- sitive parts of nearly all the special-sense cate below with the cavity of the tympanum organs ; for they are present in the olfactory through the fenestra rotunda, but that this is region of the nose, as well as in the globe of closed by a membrane. Thus it Would be the eye, and only in the latter is their func- possible to get through the fenestra ovalis into tion known. It is a well known fact, that the vestibule, thence enter into the semi-cir- white cats (cats which have no pigment) are cular canals posteriorly, or anteriorly through deaf. the scala vestibuli to the apex of the cochlea, Within the canalis membranacea cochleae, there into the scala tympani, through it to the and separated from it by a membrane called fenestra rotunda, and through it again into the " membrana tectoria," lies an assemblage

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EAR. of structures known as the " organ* of Corti," edge of the lamina spiralis ossea, and are " after its describer. This is one of the most called the Cells of Claudius." They stand beautiful, as well as marvellously complicated, in a single line ; their upper ends are provided of all the structures in the body. with stiff bristle-like prolongations, or " cilia." The outer set are like them, but are placed Fig. VI. between the outer series of rods and the cir- Transverse section of one complete passage of cumferential wall of the cochlea. They are COCHLEA. called the "pedunculated cells of Corti," and are set three deep, their cilia projecting through holes in a membrane extending from the junc- tion of the rods of Corti over the outer cells of the organ of Corti to the circumferential wall of the cochlea, and called by Kolliker the " membrana reticularis." Between the rows of the pedunculated cells of Corti are inter- posed the " spindle-shaped cells of Deiters," which are fusiform, as their name implies. All of the basilar membrane not otherwise covered, is covered by six-sided cells of epi- I. membrane of Reissner : 2. auditory nerve 3. la- ; thelium. mina spiralis ossea ; 4. spiral ligament ; sv. scala vesti- buli ; St. scala tympani ; u . canalis membranacea or The auditory nerve, by which we appreciate ductus cocblearis, or canalis cochleae ; be. sulcus spiralis sounds, does not rise from the brain, properly

merabrana tectoria ; d. rods of Corti /. cells of Corti p. ; so called, but from the medulla oblongata, or and Deiters; i. cells of Claudius ; mb. membrana basi- that uppermost part of the spinal marrow latis ; sm. scala media. which is enclosed in the skull, in company The organ of Corti, then, has a floor called with the facial nerve, which supplies all the' the " membrana basilaris," attached at the muscles of the face with motor power. The inner side to the lower lip of the free edge of fibres of the auditory nerve can be traced to the lamina spiralis ossea, and at the outer the floor of the fourth ventricle, i.e., the ex- side to the circumferential wall of the cochlea. panded upper end of the tube which the spinal This membrane separates it from the scala marrow really forms ; and across this floor, tympani. Its roof is a membrane attached to the fissure or furrow which separates it on the inner side to the upper lip of the free into two halves. Here they are found to rise edge of the lamina spiralis ossea, and at the from a mass of gray matter, i.e., an assem- " outer side to the circumferential wall of the blage of nerve cells called the auditory cochlea. This membrane separates it from nucleus." Other inconsiderable fibres are the canalis membranacea vel cochle£e,'or duc- added from nerve centres in the neighbour- tus cochlearis. The essential part of the hood, and some fibres are said to be connected organ of Corti is a double series of rods, with the sensory roots of the fifth or trigeminal whose bases are separated by some distance, nerve, the nerve of facial sensation.f It is while their upper ends meet at an angle, the connected by a small filament with the facial continuous series of rods forming a sort of nerve. These two nerves run together along spiral gabled roof, gradually diminishing as it the floor of the cranial cavity outwards and " follows the spiral course of the cochlea. The forwards, and leave that cavity by the in- regularity of their arrangement, seen from ternal auditory meatus," a hole in the petrous above, suggests the key-board of a pianoforte. part of the temporal bone. The facial nerve They have been estimated by KoUiker as about traverses a canal in that bone, and leaves the behind the 3,000 in number, and are composed of a dense bone to emerge by a hole just the tem- material. The inner series are more closely socket of the lower jaw. While in branch called set and more numerous than the outer, which poral bone, it gives off a slender " they overlap. Both series are enlarged at the chorda tympani," which crosses the the,malleus, their bases and heads, especially the latter. membrana tympani and handle of The space between their bases and below and gives a twig to the laxator tympani It subsequently joins the gustatory their junction is called the " scala media " of muscle. the cochlea. Thus there are four canals in nerve, the nerve of taste. Besides this, the gives to the the cochlea, though this last belongs really to facial nerve a twig stapedius internal auditory meatus, the canalis membranacea. Besides these muscle. In the the auditory nerve divides into two portions, both rods, there are other bodies called " Cells of contain nerve cells. is the organ of Corti." Some are placed be- of which One division tween the inner series of rods and the free supplied to the cochlea, the other to the vesti-

'Zeitscbrift fiir Wissenschaftliche Zoologie, torn. iii. t Hiisbhfeld and Leveille, pi. 15, fig. v; 5.

( 149 ) EAR.

bule. The division which goes to the cochlea the cavity of the gullet here communicates pierces the bony wall of the internal auditory with the outer world. These all close except meatus, not by one but by .many foramina in the first, which remains as the external ear, the centre of the base of the cochlea. The cavity of the tympanum, and eustachian tube. central foramen is larger than the rest, and Some of the clefts however remain occa- contains a nerve destined for the last half-turn sionally during life. Out of the first arch are of the lamina spiralis. The rest of the nerve developed in order from above downwards, fibres surround this, and ascending in the the malleus, a piece of cartilage called substance of the modiolus, they are distri- " Meckel's cartilage," and the lower jaw, an

buted to the rest of the spiral lamina, piercing arrangement persistent in fish ; out of the its substance, and running outwards to the second arch the stapes, stapedius muscle, scala media. These nerves form a continuous incus, besides other structures which in- spiral ganglion, i.e., a plexus or network Of directly suspend the larynx, viz., the styloid nerve fibres, with the addition of nerve cells process, stylo-hyoid ligament^ and part of the near the edge of the spiral lamina. It is pro- hyoid bone. During the whole of foetal life, bable, but not proven, that their ultimate ends according to Kolliker, the tympanic cavity is are connected with the organ of Corti. filled with connective tissue which embeds The vestibular division of the auditory nerve the little bones, and this only becomes ab- is distributed to the saccule, utricle, and am- sorbed after the child begins to breathe. The pulla of the semi-circular canals, i.e., the parts pinna is a lappet developed behind the first containing otoliths. branchial cleft. The development of the Ear is conducted, Propagation of Sound.—In order correctly in its first stages, like that of the eye or nose. to understand the sense of hearing we must The skin becomes bulged in on the side of the have acquaintance with the principal laws of head, and forms a pit which sinks deeper and acoustics involved. Sound travels through deeper, while the opening gradually narrows, air at about the rate of 1050 ft. a second, in and at last closes. Thus a closed cavity is water at about four times this velocity, and formed, and this becomes the membranous in very elastic solid bodies eighteen times as labyrinth. Towards it the auditory nerve rapidly. In passing from solids to water the grows from the developing medulla oblongata. velocity is diminished, and from solids to air a Next prolongation grows upwards and back- still more so ; the passage from water to wards, persistent in the lower vertebrata but solids is easy, but that from water to air or not in mammals, except as the rudiment from air to water, very difficult. Vibrations called the "Aquaeductus vestibuli." Next, lose much of their intensity in passing from three portions of the sac get pinched up in an air to solids. The cases of passage therefore elongated form^these ridges rise higher, and from the medium of least to that of greatest by-and-by the middle or most elevated por- density, i.e., from air to solid, or from the tion of each becomes separated from the medium of least to that of considerably under-lying sac, by its walls coalescing in this greater density, i.e., from air to water, are the part. Thus three tubes are formed open at cases of greatest difficulty in the transmis- each end, and one end of each becomes sion of vibration. A dry stretched membrane dilated. These are the three membranous easily receives and transmits vibrations semi-circular canals. Another prolongation of the air ; and such a membrane placed on grows forward and gradually becomes spiral. the surface of water overcomes in a great This is the canalis membranacea cochlese. degree the difficulty of the passage between The bony case becomes developed round air and water. This assistance is enhanced these from cartilage or gristle, from three when the membrane is combined with some originally separate pieces called " prootic," solid body. Any membrane conducts sounds " opisthotic," "epiotic" respectively; i.e., well- when only in water. Sounds, like light, anterior, posterior, and superior ear-bones or are liable to be reflected whether travelling cartilages. These are separate in cold-blooded in water or air. vertebrata throughout life. The space be- Certain terms require explanation. Sounds tween the membranous labyrinth and its bony are " communicated " "when they are merely case is filled up by connective tissue which conveyed from one sounding body to another, gradually liquefies and forms the perilymph. and this can take place in a noise as well as a The cavity of the tympanum, the external musical sound. Sounds are " excited " * under passage and the eustachian tube are developed two circumstances : when the body which is out of what is called "the first branchial sounding and that to be excited have the same ; cleft " for in the embryo there are formed note and the vibration of one produces sym- four arches which lie on the sides of the neck exactly like the arches of the gills of a fish, * This prdperty has been utilized in such instniments and between them are similar slits so that as the viola d'ainore.

( 150) EAR.

pathetic vibration of the other, the bodies are proves that the vibrations must reach the mutually called " reciprocating," while if the tympanum after manifold reflection from its vibration of one produces its harmonics in walls and not directly. It serves to conduct the other, the latter is said, with regard vibrations without dispersion to the tympanic to the exciting " body, to be resonant." Ac- membrane. The column of air which it con- cording to Helmholtz, "timbre" or "quality" tains increases the strength of the vibrations depends on definite combinations of certain which reach it, and by lengthening the tube secondary sounds or harmonics with a primary of the meatus by adding a tube externally, or fundamental sound, and such combinations arid thus lengthening the column of air, the " he calls sound colours." sounds are much increased in intensity. Its Hearing.—Sounds may reach the auditory walls must conduct vibration to the mem- nerve either through the combination of spe- brane of the tympanum, but this function is cialized structures lying between the tym- so inconsiderable that we may practically panum and the filaments of that nerve, or neglect it. through the bones of the skull. In the normal The Middle Ear or Tympanum. — The state the latter road is so much less effica- Membrana Tympani serves to conduct vibra- cious that it may be disregarded ; but when tions received from the external air to the the other route is obstructed or rendered im- three small bones, the malleus, incus, and pervious, it then becomes the medium of the stapes, and thus to the internal ear. It is communication of sound. That sounds do usually in a state of moderate relaxation, and however reach the auditory nerve in health is made more tense by the action of the by this way, anyone may learn by closing his tensor tympani muscle, and less tense pro- ears and then speaking or singing. Under bably by that of the stapedius and perhaps some circumstances the bones of the skull the laxator tympani. The vibrations which

are the better conductors of the two ; a tuning- it receives are derived from the air in the fork held between the teeth gives a distinctly- external meatus, and perhaps also from the audible note long after its vibrations have bony ring in which it is set. become inaudible through the air. Sounds The state of moderate relaxation which is are heard under water by this means. usual to it, is the most favourable state for The External Ear.—The pinna or auricle vibrating in sympathy with sounds of a wide is said by some authors to help us to hear by range. The membrane vibrates reciprocally reflecting sound into the meatus and by pro- as a whole if the sound is in unison with the pagating it through its substance to the bony note to which it is (so to say) tuned by the part of the meatus and thence to the mem- muscles of the small bones, i. e. its funda-

brana tympani. Reflection can only be mental ; or in resonance in divisions, if the helped by the large hollow behind the meatus note sounded is higher than this, one of its called the concha, and by the point in front harmonics. That it is not always tuned to of the meatus called the tragus, the concha the very note sounded is obvious, when we reflecting the vibrations on to the tragus, and consider that this can only be the case when this reflecting them in turn into the meatus. one note only is sounded. It cannot, of The other parts of the pinna have been sup- course, vibrate reciprocally to a note lower posed to assist sound by conduction, their than its fundamental. A membrane has a various folds having the function, according large power of vibrating sympathetically since to this view, of receiving vibrations in various its harmonics are very numerous. The effect planes perpendicularly and thus most favour- of increasing the tension of the membrane ably for propagation. Another view regards may be easily tested by closing the nose and these folds as instrumental in neutralizing mouth and either blowing air out from the conflicting sound waves, that the principal lungs or drawing it in. By the former we vibrations may be able to enter the meatus blow air through the eustachian tube into the without interruption. All these are mere cavity of the tympanum, and force the mem- speculations. An animal with moveable ears, brane outwards, by the latter we decrease the such as a horse, turns his ears to the source pressure in the tympanic cavity, and the ex- of sound, but we have no such power, the ternal air forces the membrane still more extrinsic muscles of our ear are generally inwards than is naturally the case. The quite functionless, and never, in any case, pos- result is in either case the same, the sense of sess this power, the only one which would hearing is on the whole impaired, though very help us to utilize our pinna. Mr. Toynbee high sounds are heard better than before. We believed the pinna to be quite functionless have stretched the membrane, raised its fun- in man (see above). damental note, and diminished its power of The External Meatus is undoubtedly func- vibrating in sympathy with low notes, though tional in conducting sounds, its closure will we have at the same time increased its range instantly prove this. Its curved course of s}mipathy upwards. StiU it is chiefly im-

( 151 ) ;

EAR. proved for reciprocal vibrations, for a lax the palate, inserted on opposite sides of the membrane divides itself far more readily into tube are put into action and pull its sides segments which vibrate in sympathy with apart, thus temporarily opening it. During harmonics, the strength of such vibrations a bad cold in the head we often become deaf, being increased by the number of the seg- especially after blowing the nose. We simply ments into which it divides itself. perform the experiment mentioned above of The tensor tympani (perhaps the laxator blowing air through the eustachian tube into tympani, though some deny that this is a the tympanum, forcing the membrane out- muscle at all) and the stapedius are the wards, and also rendering it too tense. The muscles which regulate the tension of the eustachian tube, however, is often swollen membrane. These two muscles are generally during a cold, and is pervious only to great considered antagonists, and are supplied by pressure of air; it therefore collapses and different nerves ; the former renders the imprisons this extra amount of air. Some membrane tenser, the latter, more lax.* They people know that their best chance of relieving simply tune the drum of the ear, making the this uncomfortable state is to swallow or yawn, membrane tenser for high, laxer for low though they do not know the reason. This sounds ; there being practically a degree of sometimes opens the eustachian tube, and tenseness which is most fit for perceiving the much compressed air escapes, the hearing vibrations of a certain average pitch. For being at once regained. If this does not exceedingly loud noises, as explosions, the succeed it is sometimes necessary to pass a probability is that the membrane is made catheter, a tube appropriately bent, along the tense, since in this state it canned vibrate floor of the nose and into the eustachian tube, so freely. Thus is probably ;explained the thus opening it. A very ingenious method sense of effort which we feel when expecting was invented by Politzer for this purpose a loud noise which may never occur, the patient, whose eustachian tube is imper- The ossicula auditus or small bones of the vious, is given a glass of water, and the tympanum, that is, the malleus, incus and surgeon, having closed one of his nostrils stapes, move as one piece, though they are with one hand, inserts a tube into the other; not so tightly joined together but that they the patient is then told to drink. As he does can play on one another. It is possible so, the surgeon blows through the tube, and that their particles may also vibrate, but while the muscles of the palate open, or tend they are not adapted for this, seeing that to open the tube, the additional pressure dis- much vibration must be lost at the joints lodges the plug of mucus or whatever was between them. The direction of the applica- closing the tube ; it becomes pervious, and tion of the force to the malleus is the same as hearing is at once restored. that in which it acts through the stapes ; a The air of the tympanic cavity probably line perpendicular to the membrane is parallel plays little or no part in the production of with the long axis of the stapes, or perpen- sound, though some effect must theoretically dicular to the membrane closing the fenestra be produced through it on the membrane ovalis. Each time the membrane of the closing the fenestra rotunda, and through it tympanum is bent inwards the base of the in turn on the labyrinth, especially the scala stapes is driven more deeply into the fenestra tympani of the cochlea, by means of the ovalis. The axis of the chain of bones is perilymph. That this effect must, however, described above. Since the tensor tympani be very small is shown by experiment ; for is attached to the malleus below, the laxator vibrations are very ill-conducted from the tympani above this axis, as far as their action moist side of a membrane to air, and from on the membrane of the drum is concerned, this air to water through a membrane stretched the malleus is worked by the former muscle on its surface, i.e. from the inner moist side as a lever of the third, by the latter as a lever of the membrana tympani, to the air of the of the first order. These bones are covered tympanic cavity, and from it to the perilymph with mucous membrane which must insulate by means of the membrane of the fenestra them and tend to prevent the propagation of rotunda ; whereas they travel with remarkable vibrations from them to the air in the tym- intensity between air and water when con- panum. ducted from the first membrane vibrating in The Eustachian Tube serves to equalize air to the second membrane stretched over the pressure on the outer and inner sides of water through a chain of insulated solid the membrane of the tympanum. It is bodies capable of vibrating as a whole, the naturally closed, being only open during last of which communicates with a solid body swallowing or yawning, when the muscles of in close apposition with the second membrane, i.e. from the membrana tympani to the mem- * Some, howftver, consider both as tensors of the brane of the fenestra ovaljs through the raembraRe. ossicula, covered with moist mucous mem-

( ISO EAR. brane, the last of which, the stapes, has its series, dense as they are in structure, and base in close apposition with the membrane elaborate as is the distribution of the cochleal of the fenestra ovalis, being in fact imbedded nerve in their neighbourhood. They are sup- in it. This is, therefore, the principal route posed to vibrate each in sympathy with one of the vibrations in their passage through the note, and to transmit the vibrations to the tympanum. special twig of the auditory nerve with which The membranous labyrinth is, as above each is supposed to be connected. Not only said, the essential part of the auditory ap- would they thus appreciate pitch, but since paratus, and hearing remains even if all the "timbre" or " quality " depends on the de- structures between it and the external air are finite combination of harmonics with a fun- disorganized. damental note (as Helmholtz has shown) they As to the special function of its constituent would thus convey what he well calls " sound- " parts, we know nothing certainly ; suppositions colours to the sensorium, these sound- have been made, but the theories propounded colours being combinations of a fundamental on the question have not advanced beyond tone with harmonics, various both in pitch the region of hypothesis. The vestibule is and relative intensity. Dugfes, who first pro- probably the most essential part, inasmuch as pounded the theory that the cochlea was the it is not only the first part of the ear to be organ by which we appreciate " pitch," called developed in man, but is also the first part to attention to the concomitant variations in the appear in the series of vertebrate animals, evolution of the cochlea and the range of the being present in the lowest fishes, except the voice in the three classes of mammals, birds amphioxus, which has no distinct organ of and reptiles ; the former having the largest, the hearing. latter the smallest development of both cochlea The semi-circular canals are supposed to and . help us to determine the direction of sounds, A " musical ear " consists in the power of since they would, if prolonged, intercept vibra- appreciating and distinguishing aerial vibra- tions in any direction, being in the three tions both simple and compound, just as "the planes of a cube, and this arrangement is good eye for colour" consists in the power of found in nearly all cases where they are appreciating and distinguishing the simple present at all. But whether they actually and compound vibrations of light. fulfil this function is quite unproved. M. When we hear a sound all that is proven is Flourens * has experimented on the subject that particular filaments of the auditory nerve by cutting one or other of these canals, but have been excited, not necessarily that there has not removed the difficulty. has been any external cause for the sensation. The otoliths are supposed to intensify sound Aural delusions occur, though not so com- by striking against the fine endings of the monly as optical delusions. The singing in auditory nerve as they vibrate. the ears which people often hear when they The cochlea, by far the most complicated are out of health, overworked, when the blood- part of the ear, is involved in the same vessels of the head are congested, when blood obscurity as regards its functions as the rest is extravasated, when they are under the of the ear. The complicated structures of influence of a narcotic poison, when they are

the scala media have been supposed merely about to faint ; all belong to this category. to deaden vibrations after they have produced Many people are painfully conscious, even for their effect on the auditory nerve, thus pre- many hours after a long railway journey, of venting confusion. But it is by far more the note to which their carriage has been likely that they have a higher office to fill, vibrating. arid it is now generally believed that they Comparative Anatomy.—The lowest sub- serve to distinguish pitch. The rods of corti kingdom in which we find any specialised hear- especially seem adapted to this function, ing organ is that of the ccelenterata, the arranged as they are in regular graduated familiar representatives of which are the jelly-fish and sea-anemones. In them the ear is simply a sac filled with fluid, in which * Solucha. PflUger's Archiv, vol. viii., quoted in the are crystals of carbonate of lime, the whole London Medical Record, Feb. ii, 1874. Solucha has " " " made further experiments which make this still more called a lithocyst or stone-sac," by which probable. On cutting one or more of these canals the ani- the vibrations are intensified. This is analo- mal executes certain disorderly movements. These are gous with the primitive auditory vesicle of animal has lost probably due to the fact that the proper man. conceptions as to the position of its head, since some- what similar movements follow from merely fixing the A similar structure is found in the sub- head unsymmetrically. These canals, probably, possess kingdom " Vermes," or worms, in certain the function of informing the animal, by a series of marine worms called " Turbellaria," a fami- unconscious impressions as to the exact position of its liar representative of which is the worm head in space, and each canal has an exact relation to a dimension of space. often seen on the sea-shore and called the

( m) EAR.

" sea-man's bootlace." Many of the higher necessary apparatus of a sense of hearing. This organ represented in the Acrididae by a depression or worms, or annelids, represented by the leech is pinna surrounded by a horny ring and more or less and earthworm, have a pair of such organs in vaulted over, in the bottom of which a tympaniform the head, connected by a nerve with the membrane is spread out ; on the inner surface of the nerve-ring surrounding the gullet. latter a pair of horn-like appendages rise, between filled with clear fluid, extremely deli- Arthropoda, the sub-kingdom containing which a vesicle cate, is fastened as a membranous labyrinth. Con- Crustacea (crabs, lobsters, shrimps, prawns, nected with this is a special auditory nerve, coming swells and the wood-louse) ; Insecta ; Arachnida from the third thoracic ganglion, which to a on the tympanic membrane, and ends in the (spiders and scorpions) ; and Myriapoda (cen- ganglion immediate neighbourhood of the labyrinth with a tipedes), have not all of them distinct hearing number of little and extremely Slender club-shaped rods; organs. In Crustacea both closed and open loosely surrounded with ganglion cells (? are these end- hearing organs are found. In the higher ings primitive nerve fibres). The locusts and achetidse Crustacea they are found at the base of the (grasshoppers) possess a similar hearing organ in the ' ' both forelegs. Some of the locusts possess inner or smaller pair of antenna or feelers, shins of on both sides of the ' foreshins,' close under the knee- and in them they are In another crea- open. joint, a depression, while others of this family of the ture called Mysis they are placed in the tail, orthoptera are provided on the same spot with two and are composed of an otolithic sac lined more or less spacious hollows, opening forwards, by an pits and also with hair-like bodies, reminding us of the aperture (auditory capsules). In these in the hollows of both anterior tibiae of the locusts human " fila acustica," which are, like them, an oval tympanic membrane is fitted. Between the connected with the endings of a nerve. In two tympanic membranes the main tracheal stem of those which have open hearing sacs, the par- the forelegs forms a vesicular swelling, on the superior ticles of sand which are washed in are end of which the auditory nerve rising from the first thoracic ganglion and running down with the main utilized for otoliths, being fastened in regular crural nerve swells to a ganglion. From this ganglionic order to certain of these hairs. This variety enlargement a band-like nerve mass runs down on the of hearing sacs among Crustacea is very in- gently excavated anterior side of the tracheal vesicle, upon which nerve mass a linear series of vesicles with structive ; whether closed or open they are watery contents rise which again contain those remark- closely connected with the integument, and able club-shaped and slender rods (? primitive nerve the fact of their being sometimes open, some- fibres). The two great tracheal trunks of the forelegs times closed, reminds us of the gradual open with two wide funnel-shaped openings at the development of the human ear, which is at posterior edge of the Frothorax, so that here also part of the tracheal system as in acrididae allows of a compari- first merely a pit in the integument, and after- son with a tuba eustachii. In the achetidae an opening^ wards becomes a closed sac (Gegenbaur, loc. closed by a silvery membrane (membrana tympani) cit. p. 388). may be seen on the external side of both forelegs close Among Insects the power of hearing must under the knee-joint, behind which a similar hearing organ is concealed. be almost universal, since music is so widely "Note.—In acheta achatina and italica an equally distributed them, but the organs among large tympanic membrane is situated also on the inner themselves have not been satisfactorily made side of the forelegs which, in acheta sylvestris, domestica, out in many cases. Some have thought them and campestris is only feebly indicated on this inner to be represented by a tight membrane near the side of the tibias." base of the feelers, others by the feelers them- Hearing organs are also found in cock- selves; among the grasshoppers and crickets chafers in the root of the posterior wings. by a sac filled with fluid, connected with a nerve, In the larva of crabs Heusen has described enlarged as it spreads over the sac, the whole an ear consisting of an otolithic sac, in the sac being placed below a delicate membrane adult the otoliths disappear and the sac is forming the floor of a pit on both sides of the curiously composed of three demi-canals. In first abdominal ring. In some locusts it is the diptera or flies they are situated in the placed on the basal division of the front pair rudimentary wings called halteres. of legs, and is composed of a vibrating mem- Auditory organs are found in all classes of brane like the tympanum, in the neighbour- molluscs either connected with the nerve hood of which is an air-chamber connected ganglia in the " foot " or motor organ, as in with one of the tracheae or air-tubes which the lower forms (oysters, muscles, snails, and pervade the bcidy.* slugs), or with the ganglia below the oesopha- It may not be uninteresting to insert a de- gus, as in the higher forms. In the cepha- tailed description of a very elaborate hearing lopoda (octopus, &c.) they are placed in the organ which is found in some orthoptera. mass of gristle which composes the head, and The passage is translated from Von Siebold in them the sac is complicated. In all, the and Stannius, " Lehrbuch der Vergleichenden type is essentially the same, viz., a mem-

Anatomie," part i. p. 582 : branous sac containing fluid and an otolith or " Only in certain orthoptera has a paired organ been otoliths and supplied by a nerve. In certain successfully discovered which seems provided with the mollusca called brachiopoda, hearing organs are found only in the larval state. In > all Gegenbaur, loe. cit. p. 389. molluscs the otolithic sac seems to be lined

( 154) EAR. with ciliated epithelium, i.e., epithelium cavity and connected with a third member, a which is furnished with eyelash-like hairs small cartilage which is attached to a tym- which continually lash the fluid in which they panic membrane, and has another muscle live.* attached to it (like the tensor tympani in Vertebrate Animals (Fish).—No hearing man). In these animals the middle ear or organ has been found in the lowest iish, the tympanum first appears ; this cavity is filled amphioxus or lancelot. In all other fish it is with air and communicates by an eustachian present, and it is very interesting to trace its tube with the cavity of the mouth. The tym- gradual evolution as we proceed towards the panic membrane is on the level of the surface higher representatives. In the myxinoids the of the body—there is no external passage or vestibule, the only part of the ear constant meatus. , in fishes, consists of a simple ring-shaped Reptiles. —We divide reptiles into ophidia tube lined with cilia, and lies freely at the or serpents, lacertilia or lizards, chelonia, or sides of the head, like the primitive auditory turtles and tortoises, and crocodilia, crocodiles vesicle of the human embryo. In the lamprey, and alligators. the ear consists of a vestibule with two semi- In serpents we seem to have an ear in- circular canals each of which has an ampulla. ferior to that of frogs ; they have no eustachian In all the higher fishes the labyrinth is en- tube, the tympanum does not contain air, but closed in the bony or cartilaginous skull, and a sort of packing material called cellular or consists of three semi-circular canals, the connective tissue, the tympanic membrane, vestibule being divided into two divisions as as such, is absent, the tympanum being in man, with " endolymph " and " otoliths." closed externally by skin. This substitution The otoliths are often very large, as in the of cellular tissue for air is very interesting cod tribe. In the whiting, for instance, they when we remember that in the human embryo may easily be found as two porcelain-like the reverse change takes place. With this bodies, somewhat crescent-shaped and grooved exception the ear is the same as that of transversely. In the rays the vestibule is frogs. prolonged by a tube which opens on the In lizards we again find a tympanic mem- upper flat surface of the head. No fish has brane and cavity, a eustachian tube, and in an external ear, tympanum, membrana tym- some the commencement of an external ear. pani, or cochlea, but the labyrinth is often In the iguana, for instance, there is a slight connected with the air-bladder, either by a fold of skin beyond the tympanic membrane, tube or by a chain of bones. The air-bladder and this is again instructive, for in the human is thus pressed into the function of assisting embryo the tympanic membrane is at first on " the hearing (Weber, De aure et auditu," p. the level of the skin ; and the external ear, 1245). In typical fishes we thus get the both the bony and cartilaginous parts of the representatives of the vestibule, saccule and meatus and the pinna, are subsequent ad- utricle, each with its otolith, and three semi- ditions. circular canals of man. In turtles and tortoises we find the tym- Amphibia.— In those amphibians which panic cavity divided into two by a bony septum retain their gills through life, such as the or partition, which, however, is incomplete. newt and salamander, we have very little The cochlea makes its first appearance as a more than we found in fishes. They possess slight conical bud, as it does in the human an internal ear only, which consists of a embryo, and there is a fenestra rotunda.f vestibule, three semi-circular canals ; and as In crocodiles the cochlea becomes bent and an addition to the ear of fishes, a " fenestra divided into two seals. The tympanic mem- ovalis," with a small plate closing it, repre- brane is placed at the bottom of a deep fissure, senting the base of the stapes. In one called and protected by a flap of integument con- the axolotl (that animal on which Cortez fed taining cartilage and capable of closing the his army) this plate is connected with a little slit by muscles attached to it ; thus we have bone, but none of these creatures have a an external ear. The tympanic cavity com- middle or external ear. municates with air-cells in many of the bones In those amphibians which when adult of the head as in birds. Indeed, to the com- have lost their gills, we find the following parative anatomists to whom the striking dif- additions. The labyrinth or internal, ear has ference between feathers and scales is the in the world and quite unim- an otolithic saccule ; in addition to the plate least difference of cartilage closing the fenestra ovalis, which has a small muscle to move it (like the stape- f There is one lizard of very exceptional structure which possesses a cochlea with an indication of the dius in man), we find a long thin bone curve which afterwards produces the form which running through a tympanic spiral "columella" we find in man. Its name is Hatteria, but it is indeed so full of anomalies that it is best mentioned in a note, representative of lacertilia. Gegenljaut,' loc. cii.- p. 313. and not as a

( 155 EAR E DUR. portant, the crocodile is nothing but a bird in them the tympanic bone, forming the wall with certain practically unimportant distinc- of the tympanum and supporting the drum, tions. is very dense and hangs almost independently, The ear of birds is composed of an internal reminding one of the large otoliths of fish ear consisting of a vestibule with a foramen (Owen), though whether it really fulfils the rotundum, and a foramen ovale, a cochlea with same office it is difficult to say. an incipient spiral turn, three semi-circular The pinna is absent in most seals, the canals, and two cartilaginous bands represent- mole, cetacea, and the ornithorhynchus, in it is small. In ing the lamina spiralis ossea ; of a middle ear most diving animals very consisting of a cavity, filled with air, com- some bats it is enormously developed, and municating with air-cells in most of the bones has vibratile movements by which it seems of the head, provided with a membrana tym- to act as a sort of tactile organ " relating to pani and eustachian tube, and with a colu- the perception of atmospheric impulses re- mella or stapes. This columella which we bounding from surfaces near which the bat says that have seen from amphibia upwards, is, as we , approaches in flight."t Spallanzani ' have said, the stapes of man. It is shaped a bat, after being deprived of the power of like a long post-horn, or like a stethoscope. sight, hearing, and smell, by haying the eyes The external ear consists of an external put out, and the ears and nostrils plugged, auditory meatus, and an indication of a pinna was still able to avoid obstacles and to pass in the form of a fold of skin just in front of through openings only just large enough to

the meatus ; this is largest in the owls. In admit its body. some birds as the bustards the meatus is sur- Some animals have the power of volun- rounded by a ring of specialized feathers, tarily closing their external meatus—the ele- which perhaps serve to reflect vibrations to- phant and the water shrew, for instance. wards the tympanum. Ecbole (Gk.) The terms eclysis (iiihitng) The Ear of Mammals is in the main so and ecbole {iK^oXii) refer to the flattening and like that of man that it will be sufficient to sharpening of sounds to adapt them to a mention such differences as we find in dif- change of key-note. ferent classes. Eccedente (It.) Exceeding, augmented, a In the internal ear we find that the cochlea term applied to intervals. has a very variable number of turns. The Ecclesiastical modes. [Plain song.] hedgehog has one-and-a-half turns, the seal Echelon, iix^iov {Gk.) (i) A hollow two, many ruminants somewhat more, next vessel, generally of metal (xoXkeioj') used as a the camel, horse, and elephant, and many drum or gong. (2) Metallic vases so ar-

bruta (ant-eaters, sloths, &c.) ; the bats, apes, ranged behind the seats of the ancient theatre and man, two-and-a-half; most carnivora as to reinforce the sound of the actors' voices.

three, the pigs nearly four ; the guinea-pig An account of them is to be found in Vitru- and agouti quite four; and the paca (a rodent) vius. (3) The resonance box of a lyre.

five ; marsupials have a very varying number Echelle {Fr.) A scale, as echelle chro- of turns, the kangaroo two-and-a-half (like matique, echelle diatonique; chromatic scale, ruminants which they represent among mar- diatonic scale. supials), and the opossum nearly five.* Echo. A sound produced by reverbera- The otoliths are not universally found tion, an imitation of a sound so produced, among maminals. The labyrinth has many (i) In old organ music the use of this term variations, for which reference must be made signified that a passage so marked was to be to the larger treatises. The " ossicula audi- played upon the echo-organ, a set of pipes " tus are very variable in shape ; in the lowest enclosed in a box, by which a soft and distant order of mammals, the monotremata, includ- effect was produced, incapable however of ing the ornithorhynchus (duck-billed platypus), so great expression as that obtained by the and echidna (Australian ant-eater), the stapes use of the swell, which is an improvement is shaped like that of amphibia, reptiles, and upon the echo-organ. (2) Echo-stop on a

birds ; it is a long and thin bone without any harpsichord was a contrivance for obtaining division —a " columella," in fact. In cetacea a soft and distant effect. or whales, dolphins and porpoises, the ear is Eclisses {Fr.) The sides of a lute, guitar

very remarkable ; the external auditory meatus or violin. is almost obliterated, in one dolphin hardly Eclysis. [Ecbole.] admitting a pig's bristle. It is probable that Ecole {Fr.) A school or style of music. the vibrations of sound are communicated in Ecossais {Fr.) In the Scotch style. them to the auditory nerve, not by the meatus E dur {Ger.) The key of E major, the but by the bones of the head, as in fish, and key having four sharps in its signature.

Gegenbaur, p. 773. f Owen, Anat. of-Veitebrates; voh iii. p. 189.

( 156 ) EFFECT ENHARMONIC.

Effect. Effet (Fr.) Effetto {It.) The Elegiac. In the style of an elegy ; of a mental impression produced by the perform- mournful character. ance of music, arising from the genius of the Elegy, kkeyeiov (Gk.) (i) A distich con- composer in the novel invention of pleasing sisting of an and pentameter. (2) or striking remedies, or telling harmonies, A poem in elegiacs. (3) A composition of a and the happy fitness of choice of certain mournful and commemorative character. passages, vocal or instrumental, in certain Elevatio (Lat.) (i) Arsis q.v. (2) A

understood situations ; or the clever inter- motett at the sung elevation of the host. (3) pretation of those passages by the performers. The raising of a mode beyond its ambitus. Eguaglianza {It.) Equality, evenness. Elevato {It.) Raised, exalted. Eguale {It.) Equal, as voci eguali, equal Elevazione {It.) A composition founded voices. upon a special theme, as Elevazione sopra il Egualmente {It.) Equally, evenly. Pange lingua. Eighth. The interval of an octave. Eldve (Fr.) A pupil.

Einfach {Ger.) Simple ; as, einfache In- Eleventh. The interval of an octave and tervalle, simple intervals ; einfacher Contra- a fourth. A compound fourth. punkt, simple counterpoint. Embouchure {Fr.) The mouth-piece of

Einfalt {Ger.) Simplicity ; as, mit Einfalt a wind instrument. und Wurde, with simplicity and dignity. Emmeleia, kfifiiXsia {Gk.) (i) Consonance, Eingang {Ger.) Introduction, as, Eingang concord in musical sounds. (2) A Tragic schlussel, introductory key. dance accompanied by music. (3) The music Eingestrichen {Ger.) Having one stroke, of the Tragic dance. as c', d', &c. [Pitch.] E moll (Ger.) The key of E minor. The Einheit {Ger.) Unity. relative minor of G major. Einleitungs-satz {Ger.) An opening Empiter les sons (Fr.J To sing legato,

phrase, or introduction ; an overture. or with a portamento. Einschlafen {Ger.) To slacken pace and Empfindung (Ger.) Emotion, passion, diminish the power. feeling. Einschlagend {Ger.) Lit. striking in- Emphasis. Accent. [Arsis.] [Accent.] wards, is the as case with a percussion reed ; Emport6 {Fr.) Passionate, hurried. whereas aufschlagend is used with reference Empress6 {Fr.) Eager, hurried. to a. free reed. [Reed.] Enarmonico {It.) Enharmonic. Einschnitt (Ger.) An incomplete musical Enbadinant (Fr.) Scherzando. [Scherzo.] sentence or motive. Encore {Fr.) Again, more. A word used Eis {Ger.) E sharp. in England when a repetition of a piece is Eisenvioline {Ger.) Lit., iron fiddle. A desired. It is used both as a noun and as a

nail violin, an instrument the sounds of which verb in common writing ; as, an encore, to are produced from pointed pieces of iron. encore.

Ger,,Nagel-geige. Encoenia. Dedication festivals ; in old

Eisteddfod {Welsh). A congress or session English, chyrche-holy ; Anglo-Sax., cyric- for the election of chief bards, called together halgung, church hallowing.

for the first time at Caerwys by virtue of a Energia, con ; energicamente ; ener- commission granted by Queen Elizabeth, May gico {It.) With energy, forcibly. 26th; 1568. Eisteddvodau have been since Enfant de Choeur {Fr.) A chorister-boy. held in variotis places at uncertain intervals, Enfatico (It.) With- emphasis, earnestly. and now (1875) will probably take place an- Enfler {Fr.) To swell, to increase in nually in localities made known some time sound. before the assembly. The object is the Enfasi, con {It.) With emphasis. encouragement of native poetry and music. Enge {Ger.) Narrow, close, straight. A Eklysis or Eclysis {Gk.) [See Ecbole.] term used in reference to the small scale of Ela. The name given by Guido to the organ pipes, or to the closeness of subject highest note in his scale. and answer in a stretto. Engel-stimme {Ger.) [Vox Angelica.] Engraving of music. [Printing of music] Electric organ. An organ, the key and Enharmonic. (1} One of the three genera stop-action of which are connected with the of Greek music, the other two being the pallets and sliders by the force of an electric Diatonic and Chromatic. (2) Having inter- current. vals less than a semitone, e.g., an enharmonic Elegant {Fr.) Elegantemente {It.) Ele- organ or harmonium is an instrument having ganza, con {It.) Elegantly, with elegance of more than twelve divisions in the octave, and style. capable, therefore, of producing two distinct

( '57) H

ENOPLIUS ENTREMETS. sounds where, on the ordinary instrument, who, flattered by the preference shown to him one only exists, as, for instance, Gff and A\>, in being selected as the king's agent in the &c. An enharmonic scale is one containing matter, sought every means to carry his intervals less than a semitone. (3) An enhar- wishes into effect. He gave a series of monic modulation is a change as to notation, banquets and entertainments to the nobility, but not as to sound, e.g. : who at that time were noted for their luxury,

not to say licentiousness ; and in the course of these feasts certain allegorical poems, commemorating the deeds of the old warriors and kings, their ancestors, were recited or g— ia , . ,—«. sung. Appeals were made to the chivalric spirit still supposed to exist in the breast of It is important to notice that an enhar- the scions of a warlike stock, and they were monic modulation is not so termed in strict implored to unite in aiding the defenders of propriety, because, it is only feasible on an their religion in a crusade against the un- ordinary keyed-instrument by actually ignor- believing occupants of the sacred cities. The ing the existence of intervals smaller than a stratagem succeeded, the nobles and princes semitone. joined with the Duke of Burgundy and bound Enoplius. evowXioe {Gk.) Warlike music. themselves by oath to follow and support Music of the war-dance. him. Ensemble {Fr.) Together. The whole, The Entremets thus originated were con- (i) The general effect of a musical perform- tinued on great occasions, and ultimately ance. (2) The union of the whole company of became diverted from their primary intention. performers in a concerted piece. The performers, mimes, farceurs, baladins, Entr'acte {Fr.) Music played between the menetriers, &c., as they are variously called, acts or divisions of an opera, drama, or other followed the fortunes of their lords, and in stage performance. course of time invented new entremets, no Entrata {It.) EntrU {Fr.) Entry, intro- longer confining themselves either to patri- duction, or prelude. Scena d'entrata, the otic or religious subjects. These entremets first scena allotted to a vocalist in an opera. suggested more extended performances, and {Fr.) scene d'entree. what can now be gathered of their character Entrechats {Fr.) The peculiar bounds has led many, not unreasonably, to assume, with which a dancer leaps across the stage that in them was the germ of the modern on entering. opera. Entremese {Span.) A short musical In later times when acting was better un- interlude, in one or two scenes, played by a derstood, a further change was made in the few actors, rarely more than four. Entre- style of the subjects selected, and the entre- meses were mostly of aburlesque character, and mets were almost always of a humorous when performed between the preludes and the character, though heroic subjects were some- plays, Autos, or Loas, made an interlude of a times chosen. In 1237, upon the occasion nature peculiarly acceptable to the Spanish of a marriage, Alberic, in his chronicle, speaks mind. The subjects were chosen from pos- of the entremets then and there performed, sible events of a droll character in common and also adds that " Illi qui dicuntur minis- life, and were mostly wijtten in verse. They trelli in spectaculo vanitatis multa ibi fecerunt, cannot be traced to a higher antiquity than sicut ille qui in equo super cordam in aere the 17th century, and are still popular in re- equitaret, et sicut illi qui duos boves de scar- mote parts of Spain. When more than ordi- late vestitos equitabant cornitantes ad singula nary prominence is given to the music, the fercula quae apponebantur regi in mensi." name Saynetes (the Spanish for dainties) is In 1378, at a feast given by Charles V. to given to them. his uncle in the castle of St. Germain, two Entremets {Fr.) Short dramatic or alle- entremets representing the conquest of Jeru- gorical entertainments. A remote antiquity salem, by Godfrey de Bouillon, were per- is claimed for this species of diversion, which formed. And at the marriage of Charles IX. some writers declare to be the origin of the in 1572, the entremets were on the subject of opera and drama. The date of their inven- the destruction of Troy. Jean Antoine de tion has been fixed at an epoch during the Baif in 1573 published " Mimes, entremets, reign of Saint Louis (1226-1270). enseignmens et Proverbes," which were simply The king desired to re-awaken the en- epigrams, and the change of opinion with thusiasm of his nobles and warriors that they regard to the use of the word in De Baif's might join him in the endeavour to wrest the mind, shows that even then a gradual altera- Holy Land from the hands of the infidels. tion in the meaning and force of the entre- He sought the aid of the Duke of Burgundy, mets was taking place. The word is now

( 158 ) ; :

ENTUSIASMO EQUIVOCAL CHORDS.

employed to signify any small entertainment Epithalamium, EwieaXa/xiov {Gk.) A between two greater ones. c.f. Entremeses. nuptial song. Entusiasmo. Entusiastico {It.) With Epode, £irj)Sde {Gk.) (i) An after song, enthusiasm. the strain of a lyric song after the strophe Entwurf {Ger.) A sketch. and antistrophe. (2) A burden or refrain. Eolian Harp. A musical instrument made E poi {It.) And then, after ; as, e poi la of a long narrow box of thin even-grained deal, coda, then go to the coda. about five or six inches deep, having a circle Equabilmente {It.) Equally, similarly. of small holes drilled in the centre of the upper Equal voices. A term for an assortment side. On this side the strings, six or more, are of men's voices or women's voices. Thus, a stretched in parallel lines over bridges fixed piece is said to be set for equal voices, when at each end, the tension being preserved by the voices of men only are needed, though the means of screwpins. The strings must be quality of those voices are not equal, the alto tuned in unison, and the box placed in a free voice differing from the tenor as the tenor current of air. A delicate combination of does from the bass. The like difference in a sounds is then produced, somewhat resem- less marked manner, also exists among bling the effect of a full orchestra, without women's voices, but when all men's or all instruments of percussion, when heard at a women's voices are required, the term equal distance, the sound increasing or decreasing is applied to each group. The union of the in power with the force of the wind. The voices of the two sexes is styled " mixed." usual method of using the instrument is by In its most true sense the term should only placing it on the ledge of a half-opened win- be applied to groups of voices of like register

dow ; but the tone is best produced when the and compass. box is made of the exact length of the window Equisonans {Lat.) The name given to opening, and the lower sash of the window the consonance of the unison and octave. closed as far as the box will allow. The Equivoca {Lat.) Equivocal, or doubtful, Eolian harp is the invention of an English- nota equivoca was, in mediaeval music, a man of the name of Pope, and was improved note whose value varied according to the by Kircher, a. German (1670). The har- length of the notes on either side. monics heard are due to the overtones of the Equivocal or doubtful chords. A name strings. given to combinations of sounds which are common to two or more distinct keys, and " Behoves no more. which, when heard, make the listener doubt- But sidelong, to the gently waving wind ful as to the particular key-tonality into To lay the well-tuned instrument reclined which they are about to be resolved. From which, with airy flying fingers light, Beyond each mortal touch the most refined, The simplest form of chords of this class The God of Winds drew sounds of deep delight." is to be found in the so-called diminished

Thomson's Castle of Indolence. triad, e.g. :

Eolian mode. The fifth of the authentic Gregorian modes. It consists of the natural notes La, Si, Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol. The above chord may be resolved into the Epicedion. kiriKriZEiov {Gk.) A dirge, keys of C major, C minor, A minor, B minor, elegy._ or B major (the last two by means of an (Gk.) eviydvEwv. A musical in- enharmonic change), thus strument, named after its inventor Epigonus, the date of whose existence is matter of doubt, ^ I and the character of the instrument is also somewhat uncertain. It is described as hav- ing forty strings, but the method of tuning is absolutely unknown. Epilenia, ciriKrivia (Gk.) Vintage songs. Epinette (Fr.) [Spinet.] Epinicium. iwiviKwv (Gk.) A song of victory. Episode. A term in fugue writing, applied to those phrases which are supplemental to the main subjects or their answers. [Fugue.] Epitasis {Gk.) eirhaaie. (i) The raising of the voice from a low to a higher pitch. (2) The tightening of the strings of an instru- ment, as opposed to avseric;. :

ERHOHUNG EXERCISE. alteration has been made in the notation of Essential notes. Notes belonging to a the chord key-chord. The essential notes of the chord of F major are F, A, C. [Chordae essentiales.] Estinguendo. Estinto (It.) Dying away, gradually reducing both power and pace. Estravaganza (It.) A work fanciful and far-fetched in composition or execution. Estremamente (It.) Extremely. If this chord be struck and held down while Estro poetico (It.) Poetic rage, or fer- the eye traces the various changes of nota- vency. tion through which it is capable of passing, Etendue (Fr.) Extended. it will be found that an impression of an en- Etouffe (Fr.) Lit. stifled. Damped, by tirely new key is given at each successive means of pedal, mute, or palm of the hand. change. [Damp.] Composers have not been slow to avail EtoufToirs (Fr.) Dampers. themselves of the suddert flights into remote Etude (Fr.) A study, exercise, or lesson. keys, which such combinations suggest, Et vitam. One of the movements of the every hey being easily and naturally reached mass. [Mass.] by a judicious treatment 'Of this chord in the Etwas (Ger.) Somewhat; as, etwas position given above or in' its other three langsam, rather slow, &c. positions. Another class of chords are used Euphonia (Lat. and It.) (i) Sweet sound, as doubtful chords, though less frequently suavitas vocis. (2) A consonant combination than those just described, namely, the chords of sounds. of the extreme sixth (called also sharp or . A brass bass instrument, augmented sixth), e.g. : properly belonging to a military band, but frequently introduced into the orchestra as a substitute for the third or bass trombone, to the tone of which the sound of the Euphoniumi has not the slightest affinity. [Metal wind instruments.] Euphony. Sweet sound. An agreeable The use of doubtful chords is only to be combination of sounds. traced in moden\ authors ; old writers used Evacuant (Ger.) An exhaust-valve, in them rarely, and then only to produce some an organ or other wind instrument. startling effect, justified by the character of Evacuatio (Lat.) Lit. an emptying. In the words in vocal music, or by the professed mediaeval music, the making of a note in owi- drift of a piece of orchestral sound-painting. line only, by which its value was reduced by

Erhohung (Ger.) Elevating, enhancing, one-third, e.g. : raising; as, Erhohungs-zeichen, the sign of o chromatic elevation, a sharp or natural. Semibrevis plena Semibrevis vacua Erniedrigung (Ger.) Lowering, depress- et perfecta. et imperfecta. ing, as Erniedrigungs - zeichen, the sign for Other notes were similarly affected by eva- chromatic depression, a flat or natural. cuatio. Erst (Ger.) First; as, ersterSatz, first part. Eveill6 (Fr.) Sprightly, quick, lively. Ersterben (Ger.) To die away, morendo. Evirato (It.) [Castrato.] Erweitert (Ger.) Extended, augmented, Evolutio (Lat.) The working out or amplified. development of a subject. Es (Ger.) E flat. Evovae. The vowels of the words " secu- Esatto (li.) Strict, exact ; as, esatto in- lorum amen" at the end of the Gloria Patri. tonazione, just intonation. Hence used as a name of the endings of Es dur (Ger.) The key of E flat major. Gregorian tones, e.g., the following are the Esecuzione (It.) Execution. evovae of the fourth tones : Eses (Ger.) E double flat. Es moll (Ger.) The key of E flat minor. ^" ^rjt: Espace (Fr.) space of the stave. l- ^"^" A ^ i Espagnuolo, (It.) In the Spanish style. a Evovae

Espirando (It.) Dying away ; gasping. -^-^ = ^'^ 1 Espressione, con (It.) With expression. T "I 1 ^ Espressivo (It.) Expressive. Bvovae Essential harmony. Harmony inde- pendent of grace, auxiliary, passing, synco- Exercise. (i) Preparatory practice in pated, anticipating, or pedal notes. order to obtain skill. (2) A composition.

( 160) EXPRESSION EXTEMPORE. intended for the improvement of the singer or power of the tone produced. Hence, by a player. (3) A composition or thesis, required proper sympathy between the pressure of the of candidates for degrees in music in the uni- foot, and the force of sound required, the versities. most delicate contrasts of light and shade Expression. The power or act of render- can be obtained. ing music so as to make it the vehicle of deep Extempore. . The and pure emotion ; the spirit of music, as art, or rather gift, of creating melody and har- opposed to the mere mechanical production mony without premeditation. The ancient of sound. In rendering works of a high class, Greeks were said to have possessed the talent a true expression involves the merging of the of poetical improvisation ; and the gift is artist's personality in an enthusiastic effort to found in many races in which the imagination carry out to the highest extent, the fullest is free and vivid, such as the , and some meaning of the composer. Hence the diffi- tribes of Negroes. Among the former, the culty of giving a reading of classical works extempore effusions relating to small customs which shall satisfy those critics who have and superstitions such as those contained in formed their own ideal of the author's concep- the Sonnah, among the latter, hymns, religious tions. Compositions of a low order, often poems and songs (generally with some rude achieve great popularity owing to their clever kind of vocal and instrumental accompani- treatment by practised artists, who know how ment), form the themes improvised upon. to create an artificial interest in such a work, Some of their songs, originally extempore, which its internal merit does not warrant. afterwards remembered and made traditional, Marks of expression are of comparatively are not without a savage kind of beauty, but modern use. It is said that Locke (c. 1677) like most productions of the class to which was the first Englishman who used signs for they belong, do not appear to produce the crescendo and diminuendo, but there can be no effect upon paper it is known they do when doubt that an expressive treatment of music sung by an excited body of singers. has at all times been known and appreciated, In Europe the Italians, above all other although the signs or directions for this ex- nations, cultivate the gift of reciting extem- pression were unwritten. This remark applies pore verses, which are not always mere simple equally to solo and concerted music ; in the effusions of a few stanzas, but are sometimes latter, whether vocal or instrumental, sacred, marked by extraordinary talent, and are ex- or secular, the proper treatment of certain tended to the length of an epic poem. Even passages would, if not traditionally received, tragedies and comedies have been made on be suggested by the leading musicians among the spur of the moment. It is said that the the performers. If this be true, directors of people of Tuscany and of the Venetian terri- modern choirs qr orchestras are to some tories possess the gift in the strongest degree, extent justified in adding marks of expression and that females as well as males have exhi- to unmarked works to be performed, it being bited powers of this sort. a fact that, where none exist, singers and Petrarch is said to have introduced the players now-a-days sink into an uninteresting custom of singing extempore verses to the dead-level of production. lute, and many names of eminent improvisa- The absence of such marks gives the tori are preserved, one of the greatest being greatest latitude to the artist who renders Metastasio, who, however, gave up the art at music, and allows him to stamp his reading an early period of his long career. Among more with his own individuality than, where musicians, the gift of performing extempore the expression required is definitely indicated. upon an instrument is more remarkable than

Thus, some of the old simple songs or tunes the power of making, verses ; for it not only depend entirely upon the performer for their requires a special aptitude, but also demands true expression ; whereas modern music is so an extensive knowledge of art at ready com- full of directions that any intelligent reader mand. John Stanley, the blind organist, con- may see the drift of the author's meaning. temporary with Handel, was an extraordinary But the fictitious expression obtained only impromptu player, capable of clothing any by a strict attention to orders, is vastly dif- suddenly suggested theme with every resource ferent from that true expression which is the of art. The stories told of J. S. Bach, in this offspring of sympathetic genius, which will respect, would be incredible, if his works did ever remain the real test of the taste, culture, not show how great and free was his command and ability of an artist. over the technicalities of composition. The Expression-stop. In a harmonium the list of eminent musicians who have excelled expression stop when drawn, closes the waste- as extempore performers might be swelled to valve of the bellows. Any alteration of the a large extent, if it were necessary; but it will pressure of the feet on the wind-pedals, causes be sufficient for the present purpose to name therefore a corresponding alteration of the only one or two, who may be said to repre-

( 161) : — r :

EXTEMPORIZE EXTREME SIXTH.

sent the historical sequence of the existence Ex.1. Ex.3. of the faculty of performing at a moment's notice a subject arranged according to any ^^^^|^^^:^fl^ I that might for the time fonn be selected. A A ^- -d--^. Mozart possessed the power in no mean degree, for there are records of the fact of his having performed a concerto with only blank It will be noticed that this chord occurs on the sheets of paper before him, he having been sixth degree of the minor scale, but like many either too idle or too busy to write out more other chords originally formed of notes in the than the accompanying parts. Clementi, minor scale, it is as frequently resolved into the

Moscheles, and Cramer, were famed for this major key of the tonic, as into the minor ; e.g. gift, in their day, and the elder Samuel Ex- 4- Ex. 5, Ex. 6. Wesley also was noted for his skill. Secular or trifling melodies have frequently been made themes for improvisation of an amusing or grotesque character. One of the greatest pleasures Mendelssohn gave to his friends was, that of listening to his extempore playing, and many living musicians The dominant chord G, Bi}, D, which is of eminence have also displayed their powers common to both C major and C minor, forms as well in public as in private. the connection between the resolutions given It is a singular fact that many performers in Ex. I, 2, 3, and those in Ex. 4, 5, and 6. highly gifted as extempore players, have Various explanations of the origin of this failed, where it, might appear at first sight chord have been suggested. Some consider it "the they were eminently qualified to shine ; a merely a chord of | on sixth of the good exte.mpore player often proving an in- minor scale, or the first inversion of the different, if not wholly bad accompanist or subdominant common chord with the 6th composer, and the reverse. Tlie union of the chromatically raised (Ex. i). Others look different qualities in one and the same indi- upon it as a chord of % on the sixth of the vidual is rare. major scale, or the first inversion of the sub- Extemporize. To play extempore. dominant common chord, with the bass-note Extended compass. A range beyond flattened (Ex. 4). These two opinions obtain the ordinary limit of a voice or instrument. favour in proportion to the supposed major or A pianoforte was formerly said to be of ex- minor tonality of the chord. tended compass, when a few notes more Some authors find a much more compli- than the old five octaves were employed cated solution, namely, that it contains the ; now, a pianoforte is not considered of ex- minor ninth of the Dominant, combined with tended compass if it has less than seven the major 3rd, 7th, and other notes of the octaves. fifth above the Dominant. Hence it is called Extended harmony. [Dispersed har- a double-root-chord, and would be given mony.] ^ Extraneous modulation. A modulation as its derivative in all the above examples. to an extreme or unrelated key. [Modula- This chord, as constructed in Ex. i and 4, tion.] is sometimes known as the Italian Sixth ; as Extreme, (i) Outsi&s; as, extreme parts, constructed in Ex. 2 and 5 as the French the highest and lowest parts in part-music. Sixth ; as constructed in Ex. 3 and 6 as the (2) Expanded to its furthest limit ; as, extreme German Sixth. intervals, intervals greater than major or The component notes of these are often normal; e.g., C to GJf an extreme fifth. Such converted and form different inversions or intervals are called also augmented, super- positions, e.g. : fluous, or sharp. (3) Not closely related ; a modulation into an extreme key is one into any key, other than, its own relative minor, its dominant, and sub-dominant, and their relative minors. (4) An old term for 1 t—"< ——'—"-1 any key having more than three sharps or — -i — flats. Chords of this kind are occasionally met Extreme sixth, chord of the. A chord with in the works of Bach and Handel, but of modern growth, so called because the in- are not of frequent occurrence at that date. terval of an extreme or augmented sixth is Among modern authors, Spohr makes most contained in it, either directly or by inversion. use of them, and they fo.rm an important in- It exists in three principal forms gredient ofMs flowing chromatic progressions-

( 162 ) -FAGOTTO.

F. (i) The note called parhypate in the Greater Perfect system of the Greeks. The letter-name of Trite in the upper tetrachord. (2) The first note of the Eolian mode, or church scale, commencing four notes above the hypo-Eolian. [Greek music] (3) The note called "Fa ut" in the hexa- chord system. [Notation.] (4) The key-note of the major scale requir-

ing one flat in the signature ; and the key- note of the minor scale related to A flat. Fa. The syllable used in solmisation for F. [Aretinian Syllables.] Fa bemol {Fr.) F flat. Fablier {Provencal). [Troubadour.] Faburden, Falsobordone {It.) Faux- bourdon {Fr.) One of the early systems of harmonising a given portion of plain-song, or a canto fernio. As the word implies, to faburden signified originally to hold a drone {bordonizare). It was afterwards used as a term for a sort of harmony consisting of thirds and sixths added to a canto fermo. It will be remembered that the organum was similar in construction, being only note against note, but consisted of fourths, fifths, and octaves. [See Descant.] But when counter- point had superseded both diaphony and descant, the term faburden still was retained, and applied to certain species of counter- point, sometimes (but not always) note against note. The following examples of Falsobordoni, by Bernabei (middle of 17th century), (from Proske's Musica Divina) are specially interest- ing as showing that composers, even at that time, ventured to alter church song when it suited their convenience. The intro- duction of the F# in the tenor at the close of Ex. I, to secure a good cadence, disturbs the tnode of the second tone ; and in Ex. 2, the introduction of Gj is equally fatal to the tonality of the fourth tone.

Ex. I. — — —

FAGOTTONE FARANDOLA.

Fagottone {It.) A large bassoon [Double bassoon.] Fall, A cadence.

" That strain again It had a dying fall." Shakspeaee.

Fal las. Short songs with the syllables fal la at the end of each line or strain. Morley (c. 1580), who composed some, speaks of them as being a kind of ballet. The fal las of Hilton (c. 1600) are held in highest estimation for the freedom of their construc- tion and the beauty of their melodies. Gas- toldi is the reputed inventor of fal las. Falsa musica (Lat.) called also musica ficta. False or feigned music was that in which notes were altered by the use of acci- dentals. " Falsa musica est quando de tono facimus semitonium et e converse " (Johannes de Garland). False cadence. [Cadence.] False fifth. A fifth altered from its per- fect or major state. False intonation, (i) The production of an unnatural or improper quality of tone. Fanfare {Fr.) A flourish of trumpets, a (2) Singing or playing out of tune. call. False string. A badly woven string, Fantaisie {Fr.) [Fantasia.] which produces an uncertain and untrue tone. Fantasia (it.) Fantasia {Ger.) A compo- Falsetto [It.) The artificial or supplement- sition in a style in which form is subservient ing tones of the voice, higher than the chest to fancy. [Form.] or natural voice. Falsetto is present in every Fantasiren {Ger.) To play as fancy di- voice with more or less power or quality. rects ; to improvise. The similarity of the character of the natural Fantasticamente {It.) Fantastico {It.) and artificial voice in boys or females renders Fantastique {Fr.) Fantastically, in a gro- the two tones less distinct ; but the chest tesque manner. voice and head voice in the man being of Farandola {It.) Farandoule {Fr.) A two qualities, the falsetto has a special char- dance popular among the peasants of the acter. The control of the falsetto requires South of France and the neighbouring part great skill. The voce d'evirato is not falsetto, of Italy. It is performed by men and women although high in pitch. [Larynx.] taking hands, and forming a long line, and Falso-bordone {It.) [Faburden.J winding in and out with a waving motion. Fancies, (i) An old name for composi- The manner of taking hands is peculiar. are placed alternately, tions in an impromptu style ; a fantasy. The men and women (2) Short pieces of music without words. each man's right hand is held by a woman's right hand, afld his left by the left hand of "And sing those tunes to the over-scutched hus- so that along the line, when wives that he heard the carmen whistle, and sware another woman, they were his fancies, or his good-nights." (Shak- seen from the front of the row, there is a speaee.) woman's face and a man's back, and the dance is sometimes made the Fandango (S/.) A lively Spanish dance reverse. The means of fanning popular excitement. A in triple time, derived from the Moors. It is recent traveller, describing his experience of it, a mild form of the Chica, q.v. It is danced : — all the roughs by two persons, male and female, and accom- says " As the night wore on out, and began dancing panied by the sounds of a guitar. The dancers in the town turned a kind of exciting dance pe- have castanets, which they beat in time to the farandole— : hand the measure, though sometimes the male culiar to the south men and women, dancer beats a tambourine. in hand, form a long chain, and to a very quick step turn and twist along the various thoroughfares. This dance has the same

^^^rrFSg^--^ I JJ^ effect on the fiery Southerners that the scalp dance has on the Red Indians, and makes them quite wild. It was after they had thus "^^ —\ ^^^-^^ worked themselves up to a proper state of

( 164 ) :

FARSA IN MUSICA FIGURED BASS.

excitement that the mob of Avignon massacred times into the pipe of a key, whence the Marshal Brune in 1815." expression colla chiava. The figures of the Farandola by the Fiato {It.) (i) Wind ; as, stromenti dl name of the " Spanish dance," were well fiato, wind instruments. (2) Breath, in sing- known in Enghsh ball-rooms thirty years ing ; as m the French une longue haleine, a since. > long breath, a long note or passage performed Farsa in musica {It.) A musical burletta with one respiration. or farce. Ficta musica {Lat.) [Falsa.] • Fascia {It.) (i) A bind or tie. (2) The Fiddle. [Violin.] sides of a fiddle. Fidicen (Laf.) (From fides and caito.) A Fastoso, fastosamente {It.) Proudly, lute or harp player. haughtily. Fiedel {Ger.) Fiddle. Fattura {It.) [Facture.] Fier {Fr.) Fiero {It.) Proud, fierce. Fausse corde {Fr.) [False string.] Fieramente, fiero {It.) Proudly, fiercely, Fausset {Fr.) [Falsetto.] boldly. clef. F [Clef.] Fife. Fifre {Fr.), Qiierpfeife {Ger.), Pif- F dur. {Ger.) The key of F major. fera {It.) An ancient musical instrument, Federclavier {Ger.) Spinnet. the name being cognate with pipe. The com-, Feier {Ger.) A festival. Feierlich, in a pass is two octaves from D festival style, grandly. Feld {Ger.) (i) The disposition of pipes in an organ. (2) Feld-fibte, a rustic flute or pipe. Feld-musik, military combination fifes (3) music. (4) A of and drums is the only Feld-ton, the key of E flat, in which military music officially allowed in the British army instruments are often set. and navy. Although of ancient use in Eng- Ferial. Non-festal ; as, ferial use, music land for military purposes, it was discontinued for use on ordinary days. in the reign of James I., and was not restored Fermamente, fermato {It.) Firmly, with until the siege of Maestricht in 1747. The decision. fife in the orchestra is called Flauto piccolo. {It.) A pause (from fermare, to Fife. An organ stop. A piccolo, generally stay, or stop). of two feet in length.

Fermo (it.) Firm, fast ; as, canto fermo, Fifre. [Fife.] the subject or part held firmly, while descant Fifteenth. The interval of a double or counterpoint moved about it. octave. Bis-diapason. Feroce, con ferocita {It.) Wildly, Fifteenth. An organ stop of two feet in fiercely. length on the manuals and four feet on the Fertig {Ger.) Quick, dexterous. pedals, consisting of open metal pipes. Fervente, ferventemente {It.) Fer- Fifth. A diatonic interval of five notes. vently, vehemently. Its ratio is 2:3, the diapente of the ancients. Fes {Ger.) The note F flat. Figura {Lat.) A note. Figura simplex,

Fest {Ger.) A festival ; as, Festgesang, a note standing by itself. Figura ligata, a a festival cantata. ligature, or a single sign expressing more Fest {Ger.) Firm; &s, fester Gesang, ca.nto than one note. fermo. [Fermo.] Figure. A form of melody or accompani- Festivamente {It.) Solemnly, pleasantly. ment maintained throughout the phrase in Festivita, con {It.) With joyfulness. which it is suggested. In a melody, figure Festive (it.) ' Festive, solemn. is called sequence. In harmony a figure Festoso {It.) Joyous, gay. relates to the rhythmical observance of a FF. ff., abb. of fortissimo. Very loud. certain form in all the accompanying chords Fiacco {It.) Weak, weary, faint. to the melody. (2) A musical phrase. (3) F holes. The openings in the upper plate A florid melody. of a violin or other instrument having a re- Figurato {It.) Figure {Fr.) Figured. sonance-body, so called from their common Figured Bass. A bass having the accom- shape /. panying chords suggested by certain numbers Fiasco {It.) lit. a flask or bottle. A term above or below the notes. It is at present applied to a failure in singing, playing, or the most satisfactory system of musical short- representation. The fistula pastoricia was hand. The whole of the notes are not always blown by the Romans to signify their dis- indicated by a corresponding number of satisfaction, and it is possible that the present figures, because one number generally implies use of the term arose from the similarity two or more to complete the chord. When between the shape of a flageolet {flasckinet) there is no figure, it is understood that the and a flask. The- Italians now blow some- common chord of such a note is to be used as

( 165 ) — —

FILAR LA VOCE FINGERING. its harmony. The following table will show belonging to the same period, it is difficult the manner in which figures are used : to conceive that a clear, distinct, and rapid performance could ever be attained by those The figure 2 implies a 4th and 6th. methods, for they are of a cramped, stiff and „ „ 3 „ 5th perfect, or dimi- awkward character, while the compositions nished, according to the position of the are of an opposite nature, considering the note in the key. state of the art at the time. The figure implies a 5th, or 5th and 8th. 4 Such a thing as acquiring a knowledge of 3rd and 8th. » ,, 5 » a keyed instrument without a master was out .. 6 „ 3rd. » of the question, and it is not at all unlikely 5th and 3rd. „ „ 7 „ that this was contemplated by the authors or 3rd 5th. „ „ 8 „ and compilers of the books of instruction. 3rd and 5th. „ „ 9 „ One of the earliest printed books in which A stroke through a figure directs the raising rules for fingering are laid down was Euse- of the interval by a natural or sharp, as the bius Ammerbach's " Orgel oder Instrument- case may be. Tablatur," Leipsic 1571, where in the fourth An accidental standing alone implies a cor- chapter a scale is fingered in the following responding alteration of the 3rd of the chord. manner : lines direct Horizontal the continuance of the Recbte Hand (Right Hand). harmony of the previous chord. If there are no figures under the previous chord, the line or lines direct the continuance of the common 232 first chord of the note under which they were Linke Hand (Left Hand). placed. Filar la voce (It.), Filer le son (Fr.) To m- m prolong a sound, swelling and diminishing m32121 ai23 the tone by degrees. o Stands for the thumb, i for the forefinger, Fin {Fr.) The end. 2 for the middle finger, and so on. Finale {It.) The last movement of a con- The thumb of the right hand was never piece, certed sonata, or symphony; the last used in scale passages, that of the left hand of piece an act of an opera ; the last piece in only occasionally, the little fingers were only a programme. used with the thumbs in spanning chords. Fine {It.) The end ; used to show the end The rules for fingering in striking or play- of a piece or movement, after a repeat, or ing chords are thus stated : 3rds in either partial repeat. hand were to be struck with the first and third Finger-board. Fingerbrett {Ger.) (i) first fingers ; 4ths, 5ths, and 6ths with the The flat or slightly rounded piece of wood and fourth ; 7ths, octaves, gths and loths attached to the neck of instruments of the with the thumb and third finger, and only violin guitar class, and on to which the strings occasionally with the little finger and thumb. are pressed when stopped by the fingers. (2) Before saying anything further of other manual or clavier. A works on the subject, it may be as well to Finger cymbals. [Cymbals.] refer to a private MS. book of lessons pre- Fingering. Applicattira {It.), Application served in the British Museum, and quoted by {Fr.),Doigter {Fr.), Applicatur {Ger.), Finger- Stafford Smith in his Musica Antiqua, in setzung {Ger.) The art of placing and using which the master has marked the fingering of the fingers properly in performing upon a a passage in a very different manner to that musical instrument. laid down by the German author. It is true (i) instruments were for the first When time that there is a difference of nearly thirty years that the constructed so leverage of their keys in the dates between Ammerbach's book and light of rapid was and admitted and ready this, but as treatises published later preserve motion, musicians soon formed rules for the and teach the like awkward system of finger- employment of the fingers in such a manner ing, a curious confirmation of the conjecture as to give the greatest facility to the player. that there was a considerable difference be- These rules properly were improved and ex- tween the theory and the practice cannot fail tended by each master who taught the use of to strike the thoughtful reader. The MS. a keyed instrument, and there is reason to referred to bears the date 1599, and the first suppose that they were kept or less more lesson with the fingering (i being thumb, 2 secret by each teacher, long before it was forefinger, &c.) is as follows : deemed expedient to set forth the methods in Right Hand. a general publication. , Comparing the earliest published methods of fingering with the musical compositions 343434543232

( 166 ), FINGERING.

Now in this fingering all the fingers are brought into play, and though it is somewhat clumsy according to modem views, it is less unhandy than that of Ammerbach, and as we have no ground for assuming that the English teachers had better principles to guide them than their German neighbours, and as it is known moreover, by tradition, that the most skilful players only imparted the secret of their power to favoured pupils, not only at that time but in later years, the assumption is not made without reasonable support. A modern player would find it a very diffi- cult task to perform the following extract from a " Gagliardo by ," printed in " Parthenia," 1611, if he confined himself to the use of three of his fingers in either

hand :

or to exfecute with ease any such a piece as that by Frescobaldi quoted in the article Canzona, belonging to about this period. And yet not only was the peculiarity of fingering as set forth by Ammerbach taught at that time, but was also continued to a later date. There is a lapse of more than 100 years before the next important book made its appearance, " Das Musikalische Kleeblatt" of Daniel Speer, 1697, in which the improve- ments suggested are few, the chief of which was the more frequent use of the thumb of the left hand, as will be seen in the following scale fingered according to his directions :

R.H. * 2 3 2 3 2 3 :

FINGERING.

Couperin, in the work alluded to above, but Dussek, in his " Book of Instructions," calls the fingers of either hand 1,2, 3, 4, 5, published about 1798, when he began business

commencing with the thumb : as a , laid down a code of rules which have served as the basis of teaching fingering from his time onward. Main droite. He recommends the pupil not to play his scales after the old method of fingering, by suffering the fingers to cross each other Main gauche. 54321 unnaturally, as in this example, right hand : And in order to make his fingering acceptable, gives instances of the old style of playing con- trasted with his own improvements. In some cases his suggestions are good, in others thereby implying that the old clumsy methods

still ; " to set it as an there is little if any help out of long-standing were taught but down awkwardness, as the following fingered scale invariable rule, and without any exception, will show that whether ascending or descending, the assistance, or rather, the displacing the Frogrds d'octaves. thumb only is sufBcient to effect the necessary change of position in the other fingers, the 1234343 45432323 thumb being naturally formed to glide easily under them, without, displacing the proper His next improved example is better, and position of the hand." in accordance with modern methods : more + 1 2+123+1 2+ 123 432 1+21 + 3 2 1 + 21 + Right Hand. " ManjSre ancienne de faire plusieurs tierces de suite."

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4. 4 4 3 2

'"^TTTj I I M IJ I +321+21 3+2I+2I+I2H 123+12+1234 Left Hand. 22 2222 222222 The free use of all the fingers is now common, and the old rules with regard to the sparing ' Facon moderne pour couler les m&mes tierces." of the thumb so little observed, that there is a tendency to go the opposite extreme in employing it more often than is absolutely necessary. Space cannot here be allowed, or 454545 454545 3 5 433 2 the whole of Dussek's rules for fingering Bach never published his method, but it might be reprinted with advantage as a set-off was made known through Forkel, who ac- against modern extravagance, but those who quired it from Emanuel Bach. The peculiar have leisure and inclination might study them methods of fingering shown in the quotations with profit, for no better code of rules for from the German books seem to have been pianoforte playing have as yet been given to confined to the country in which they were the world. first given forth, the style adopted in England (2) In violin playing the fingers serve as and France appearing to be borrowed from stops shortening the length of the vibrating Italy. Many of the harpsichord instruction portion of the several strings as they are re- books printed in England in the early part of quired, a like practice being followed in the the last century profess to be based upon the performance upon such instru- " Italian method of fingering," which per- ments as the lute, mandoline, or guitar, as mitted the constant employment of all the are plucked with the right hand. Upon the fingers. guitar the places of the several degrees are The invention of the pianoforte called a marked on the fingerboard by frets, which, new set of instruction book writers into ex- when the string is pressed—always a little istence, but it required the genius of Cramer, behind the one required—serve as a temporary Clementi, and Dussek to liberate learners nut. from the trammels of the harpsichord finger-, (3) This is not the place to enter deeply into ing. dementi's " Introduction to the Art of the anatomy of the hand, which can be found Playing on the Pianoforte " was written soon in any text-book on anatomy, and more espe- after his return to England, in 1784, and cially in the elaborate Treatise of Sir Charles went through many editions., In 1810 he Bell. The bones of the hand are joined to- greatly improved the work, and added an gether by various sorts of joints, some of appendix to it. Cramer made but few,, if them fixed, some moveable. The joint by any, advances on the method of fingering which the thumb joins the bone on which it suggested by Clementi in his " Introduction," plays is a remarkable one, admitting of a

( 168 ) ;

FINGERING.

most complex series of movements, and since to be absent in 'all the apes, and there was an the brain of man is indebted to the hand of old saying, " no ape can point," which was man as much as the hand to the brain, each quoted in favour of human superiority—this, rendering higher development in the other however, is not true Qournal of Anat. and possible, and thus helping to constitute a Phys., vol. vi. p. 185) ; we trust, notwith- couple of mutually perfecting factors—by far standing, that the pre-eminence of man in the greater part of this potentiality on the the animal kingdom rests on somewhat more side of the is hand owing to this articulation important foundations, and need not be ceded, of the thumb. The thumb of is man pre- however much apes may point. The little eminent in the animal series. finger has a special muscle to extend or a musical From point of view another straighten it which the old anatomists called subject is of interest. If " we straighten our the auricularis," because it is used to fingers we shall see that no two of them are of straighten the little finger when the extremity the same length. Now let us bend the fingers of that member is inserted into the ear. Thus on themselves, so as to bring the finger-tips did these_ ingenious men infuse an element of into the middle of the palm, and we shall find humour into the driest and apparently least that the finger-tips form an almost straight comic of all subjects. line with one another. The convenience of this to the musician is obvious, in playing keyed instruments such as the pianoforte or Palm of Hand, Fig. 1.

organ ; or any wind instrument like the oboe, flute, or clarinet, we have a series of evenly arranged finger-tips ready to the notes. This is a point of what we may call accidental convenience, for the hand of man was not TENDONS OF especially adapted for playing instruments. FLEKOR MUSCLES The question now arises howthis curious effect

is produced, and a few words will explain it. If any one will take the trouble to measure as accurately as he can the length of the first and of the third joint of each finger (the "proximal and distal phalanges") omitting the middle joint, he will find that by subtracting the length of the end (distal) joint which carries the nail from the length of the nearest (proxi- mal) joint which joins the " knuckle," he will get a constant number, in other words, if the There are a set of muscles called " lumbri- proximal phalanx is long, and would carry the cales " (from "lumbricus," a worm, because finger-tip far beyond the middle of the palm, they are not unlike an earth-worm in size the distal phalanx is proportionately long and and shape), which are of great importance to in a bent position of the finger carries the musical performers, and in pianoforte players finger-tip proportionately far back towards become very largely developed. They are the palm, or in yet other terms, the number attached to the flexor tendons (which bend the of linear units obtained by subtracting the fingers) as they pass along the palm. They length of the distal phalanx of each finger help to bend the fingers, but their individual from the length of the proximal phalanx of action is somewhat complicated, viz., to the same finger is constant in all the fingers. bend the finger at the knuckle-joint, but to This is not absolutely correct, for the angles straighten the finger. at which the phalanges are bent are not But there is one point in the anatomy of exactly right angles, so that the middle the hand which is of great interest to musical phalanx cannot be quite neglected, but the performers, especially to pianoforte and organ principle nevertheless we beheve to be correct. players. If any one will place the tips of The muscles which move the fingers and his fingers on a table in a bent position, as if thumb are situated some in the forearm, some playing the pianoforte, and then try to raise in the hand. If any one grasps his forearm, them one at a time, he will find that he can and moves the fingers, he will feel the muscles raise his thumb easily, say four or five inches, moving under his grasp. The thumb has the the forefinger is also very moveable, and can greatest number of muscles attached to it, and be raised so that the tip is about three inches therefore takes the precedence in importance from the table, the middle finger about two- the first or index-finger has a special muscle thirds of that height, and the little finger to extend or straighten it called the extensor rather higher. Now let him try to raise the ring indicis or " indicator." This muscle was said finger, keeping the middle and little fingers

( 169) FINGERLEITER FISTULA. down, and he will find a peculiar difficulty in to detach one without the rest. They are doing so. If he is a pianoforte or organ- present in monkeys (see paper before alluded player he will probably call to mind many to), and in them would be useful in climbing, exercises which he has toiled at, all of them in which exercise, strength of grasp is of easy enough but for that unlucky ring finger. course of great importance. The forefinger In fact, all good writers of exercises have the is not included in this association, as its education of the ring finger very prominently value depends largely on its freedom of inde- in view. What is the cause of this ? It has pendent movement, especially on its capability been asserted popularly that this finger has a of being opposed accurately to the thumb. tendon too little, but this is just the opposite These slips have an historical interest. of the fact. , painfully aware of their presence, and acquainted with the cause of the difficulty connected with the ring finger, Back of Hand. Fig. 2. tied back that finger for a long time. Not

being successful - in his operation, he irre- coverably damaged his hand, and injured his pianoforte playing most seriously, and in con- sequence turned his attention to writing, to which fact we are largely indebted for the number of his masterly compositions. What was a loss to him and to his contemporaries has become a rich gain to posterity. A case is recorded in which an accidental wound to the back of the hand partially divided one of these tendinous slips, and the ring-finger gained a considerably increased degree of mo- tion. The subject of the accident noticed the change on playing the pianoforte after the wound was healed. With regard to the feasibility of this as a definite operation, If we look at figure 2. we shall see the ex- there is no doubt that if it could be done tensor tendons (the tendons which extend or safely and well, it would be well worth straighten the fingers) running to the fingers, every pianist's while to have these slips but, in addition, we shall see that the tendon divided. But firstly, there is a strong feeling which goes to the ring-finger gives off a small amongEnglish surgeons against " improving" slip (*) on leach side, one of which joins the ex- nature; and secondly, there would be some tensor tendon of the little finger, the other that risk of inflammation after the operation, of the middle finger. Now we observed that which would result in matting the tendons none of these three fingers is as moveable as at the back of the hand together, and making the forefinger. If we observe, also, the direc- matters worse by limiting the freedom of tion of these slips we shall see that they do not motion still further. Apart from this risk, run straight across from the ring finger to the the operation is simple, easy, and would not two on each side, but run at the same time a be painful. little towards the fingers. Now if we see Fingerleiter. [Chiroplast.] what happens when we raise the middle [Fi"g«ring.] finger alone, we shall observe that the slip FinSrleSung} C^^''-) will become tight at a certain point, but not Finite canon. [Canon.] until it has passed through a considerable Finite {It.) Finished, ended. space, the first action being to relax the Finto (it.) A feint, a term applied to de- tendinous slip ; the same with the little finger. ceptive cadences. [Cadence.] But if we raise the ring finger alone, the slips FiochettO {It.) Slightly hoarse. almost immediately become tight, and prevent Fioco [It.) Hoarse. its being raised, and the exercises before ^^^'^ Ornamented, florid. alluded to have for their purpose the stretch- Fiorito^" } ing of the tendinous slips, especially in Fiorituri {It.) Ornaments, cadenzas, florid youth, when growth and change are active in passages in a melody or an accompaniment. the tissues. Now these slips must have some Fis {Ger.) F sharp. purpose, though it is not at all certain that Fisfis or fisis {Ger.) F double sharp. we know it. It is probable that their pur- Fis dur {Ger.) F sharp major. pose is to make the grasp firmer, the three Fis moll {Ger.) F sharp minor. fingers being so associated together that each Fistula {Lat.) A pipe. Fistula dulcis, a as it were assists the other, and it is hard Jliite a bee. Fistula, cui semper decrescit

( 170 ) ;

FITHELE FLUTE. arundinis ordo, pan-pipes. Fistula ehurniola, played with a mouth-piece, whence they were the ivory pitch-pipe, from which an .orator called flutes d, bee. [Flute.] took the pitch of his voice. Fistula pasioricia, Flebile, Flebilmente {It.) In a doleful, the shepherd's pipe, sometimes blown in tearful manner. the theatre as a sign of dissatisfaction. Flessibilit^ {It.) [Flexibility.] [Flute.] Flexibility. The power of free and Fithele {old Eng.) The ancient name of rapid execution, in vocal or instrumental the fiddle, probably derived from fidicula, a music. small stringed instrument of the cithara Fling. A dance performed by Scottish class. Highlanders to a tune in common time. Flageolet, (i) A small pipe with a [Reel.] mouth-piece inserted in a bulb (hence the F Locher {Ger.) [F holes.] derivation of the name from the same root Florid counterpoint. A counterpoint from which the word flagon comes), producing not confined to any special species, but in a shrill sound, similar, but much softer in which notes of various lengths are used. It quality than that produced from the flauto is opposed to strict counterpoint. [Counter- piccolo. It is an instrument of English in- point.] vention, and was formerly employed in the Florid music. Music in which the melody orchestra. The obbligato in the song, " O, and accompanying parts are of an ornamental ruddier than the cherry," in Handel's "Acis and embellished style. and Galatea," is for a flageolet. (2) The tone , Flote {Ger.) [Flute.] produced from a violin by lightly press- Flourish, (i) The execution of profuse ing the bow near the bridge upon lightly but unmeaning ornamentation in music. (2) touched strings, is called flageolet or flute The old English name for a call, fanfare, or tone. prelude for trumpets or other instruments to- Flageolet tones. The natural harmonics gether or alone. (3) The preparatory cadenza of stringed instruments, so called from their for ".tuning the voice," in which singers pure flute -like quality of tone. [Harmo- formerly indulged just before commencing nics, § 2.] their song. Flaschinett (Ger.) The flageolet. Fliichtig {Ger.) Light, rapid. Flat, (i) The sign b, which directs the Fliigel {Ger.) A grand pianoforte or harp- lowering of the note to which it is prefixed sichord, so called because of the wing-like by one semitone. Its shape is derived from shape of the top. the ancient b. [B quadratum..] (2) Singing Fliigel-horn {Ger.) A bugle. A valve- or playing is said to he flat when the 'sounds horn. (i) widely used produced fail to. reach the true pitch. (3) Flute, One of the most of ancient musical instruments, and at this Minor ; as, a flat 3rd, a flat 5th, &c. Flatter la corde [Fr.) To play expres- day one of the most important instruments sively upon a stringed instrument with a in an orchestra. It has been remarked in bow. speaking of the aulos, that the general idea Flat tuning. One of the varieties of of a " flute," probably included anciently, not only open tubes, but also instruments having tuning on the lute ; called also French tuning, or French flat tuning, because the French a reed, such for instance, as the oboe. But pitch was formerly lower than that used else- the word has for many centuries been used where. Hence the German term Franz-ton only in the former sense. for a low pitch. Of tubes without reeds there are only two Flautando, flautato (7^.) Like a flute kinds —the flute played by a mouth-piece, a direction to produce the flageolet tones on and that played by placing the lips close the violin, &c. [Flageolet tones.] against a hole on one side. The former kind bee; the latter, " Flautino (It.) (i) An instrument of the was formerly called flUte a traverso, the cross- accordion kind. (2) A little flute, piccolo, or flAte traversiere, or flauto flute, which still is in use, is flageolet. (3) [Flautando.] ^he flageolet, bee, but it is Flauto (It.) [Flute.] a familiar example of a flAte a Flauto amabile {It.), flute d'atnoiir (Fr.) the smallest of its kind, for these instruments An organ stop, consisting of sweet-toned were at one time made sufficiently large to closed, or sometimes open, pipes. It is be called "tenor" and "bass" flutes; and complete four-part harmony could be obtained generally of 4 ft. pitch. Flauto dolce (It.) [Flute.] from a set [Bass flute]. The larger kinds Flautone {It.) [Bass flute.] only exist now as curiosities. Th&fliite a bee Flauto piccolo {It.) [Piccolo.] was used so commonly in England that it Flauto traverso {It.) The German flute was called on the continent_^iii« d'Angleterre. held laterally, flutes having been formerly They came to be called beak-flntes, because

( 171 ) :

FLUTE.

of the similarity of the mouthpiece, through Fig. 4. which the wind is directed against a sharp edge, to the beak of a bird. FlAtes a bee were single and double. Such double flutes were familiar both to Egyptians and Assyrians, and illustrations of them will be found on p. 40 (Aulos). The following illustration, from Boissard's RomarT Antiquities, is interesting from its great likeness to the modern double-

flageolet :

Fig. I.

Fetis having obtained the exact measure- ments of an ancient Egyptian flute preserved in , caused a flute to be made of the like dimensions and shape. The following figure shows it

Fig. 5-

He found the lowest note it was capable of producing, to be the A below middle C. But if Egyptian artists are to be trusted, the gave The Romans various names to their flute in Fig. 4 must have been of even graver flutes : calamus from the material (reed)' of pitch. it tibia, which was made ; because anciently Cross-flutes were known to the Greeks by out of flutes were formed a leg-bone, as shown the name plagiaulos {irKayiavXoe), and to the in the following illustration : Romans as tibia obliqua, both of these terms leave no doubt as to their nature. By the

Fig. 2. Romans the cross-flute was sometimes called also tibia vasca, the meaning of which is very doubtful. It may be necessary to say, that although the tibia represented flutes of all kinds, yet if a real tibia or shinbone be made into a flute, It is a remarkable fact that flutes of this it is held crossways, and the player blows * barbarous construction are to this day used into a hole in the side. in parts of Asia. many The word fistula (2) The " German flute," so popular in seems to have been applied both to flageolets England during the last century, has entirely and pan's-pipes. Flutes a bee have at all superseded the old 'English flute a bee in our times been a favourite object for ornamenta- orchestra, and is now known as the flute. Its tion, and the next illustration shows a very construction has, from time to time, been beautiful example in carved ivory in the improved, until it has now a compass of three Kensington Museum : octaves.

Fig. 3.

But as the lowest note is very soft, and three or four of the highest notes are exceedingly shrill, it is safer to consider it. as possessing The ancients possessed cross-flutes, and it a chromatic scale of about two octaves and a is strange that their real value should have half. Notwithstanding the vast improvements been found out, and their use made general, in the key work of flutes (of which, by the after so long a period of disuse, that on their way, the ancients seem to have been entirely re-introduction they were called German flutes ignorant), there are shakes on certain notes as opposed to the old English beak-flute. which are absolutely impossible, and others They were used by the Egyptians, as the fol- which are of excessive difficulty, for instance, lowing illustration shows : between CJf and' DJf a shake is impossible in

172 ) : ;

FLUTE A EEC FOLIATED.

either octave ; and shakes between D and El? flute (having pipes larger at the top than at are almost impossible. The lovely effect of the mouth). Flagfluit (Dutch). FlachflSte this instrument in an orchestra must be so {Ger.) (having flat lips). Spitz-flote (Ger.), well known to all as to render it unnecessary and Flute pointue (Fr.) (having pipes smaller to quote special examples of its use. at the top than at the mouth). Rohr-flote (3) The piccolo-flute has the same extent (Ger.), and FMte a cheminee {Fr.) (having a of compass as the ordinary flute, but is one chimney in the stopper). octave higher in pitch. When used in an (5) Intimating their quality of tone, as full orchestra with moderation and skill, it is flute. Hohl-flSte (Ger.), and Fliite creuse {Fr.)

capable of producing delightful effects ; but, (hollow toned). Clear flute. Hell-flote {Ger). unfortunately, it is so commonly abused that Lieblich flbte {Ger.) (lovely toned). Zart-flote it has got an undeserved bad character. The {Ger.) (delicately voiced). Flute douce {Fr.), lower portion of its notes are bright and joy- Dulcet. Flauto dolce {It.) (sweet-toned). ous, but in the upper part of its compass it is Oboe-flute. Clarinet-flute (slightly reedy in so shrill as to only justify its use when rare tone). SiflU'ote (i ft.) (whistle-flute). and special effects are required. (6) After their supposed nationality, as (4) As all open organ pipes of the flue class German flute, flauto tedesca, or allemande. are made on the same principle as the flMe Flute a bee, or English flute. Suabe flute. a bee, it will be easily understood that flutes Schweizer-flote (Swiss flute, the German name are one of the most essential class of organ for what was called in England the German stops. They are of two kinds—open and flute). Flauto Francese. Flute Ravena. Cza- stopped, and are equally common in metal kan flute. and wood. The construction of the stopped (7) Implying that the quality of tone is flute, so far as the mouthpiece (foot) and lips similar to the modern flute, more powerful are concerned, is identical also with that of than the fl{ite a bee, as orchestral iiute, flauto the fl{ite a bee, only, of course, its first har- traverso {It.), fliite traversiere {Fr.), and monic will be the twelfth, not the octave, of Traversfldte, Querflote (Ger.), (cross-flute), the primary sound. When organ builders concert flute. describe some of their flute-stops as flauto (8) Names which are merely fancy titles, traverse, or flute douce (another name for as flute d'amour, jubal flute, portunal flute, the cross-flute), it must be understood that old flute, recorder (flfite a bee), Wald and they have only imitated the quality of tone, Bauer-fldte{Ger.) (pastoral pipe), echo flute not the construction of that instrument. By (soft toned), ^Mie , cordedain, &c. slight modifications of the shape of the dif- It would be an advantage alike to organ ferent parts of a flute pipe, an almost endless builders and organists if some definite system variety of tone may be produced, and organ of nomenclature of flute stops could be devised builders avail themselves of this fact to coin and universally adhered to. an endless variety of names. If the names Fmte a bee {Fr.) [Flute.] so chosen carried with them a hint as to the Flute d'amour {Fr.) A low-toned flute, special construction of each register, it would an A flute, sounding a minor third below the be unfair to complain of their multiplication notes actually written. It is now obsolete. but, with a very few exceptions, this is not Fl^te douce {Fr.) An organ stop. [Flute.] the case. Flute traversiere {Fr.) The German The following are some of the titles ap- flute. pended to flute-stops on English and foreign Fly. A hinged board which covers the organs keys of the pianoforte or organ when not in use. (i) Describing their material, as wood flute, F moll {Ger.) The key of F minor. woud, andwoude-fluit (in Holland). Metal flute. Foco {It.) Fire, spirit. {It.) spirit, ardently. (2) Stating whether the pipes are open or Focoso With closed, as open flute. Flute ouverte (Fr.) Foglietto {It.) A first violin part ; the Stopped flute. Gedacktflote {Ger.) leader's part, which contains cues, &c., used pitch of the stop, as bass by a conductor in the absence of a full score. (3) Showing the flute (16 ft. and 8 ft.) Flautone (16 ft.) Fois {Fr.) Time, as premiere fois, first Flauto grave (16 ft.) Flute principal (8 ft.) time; derniere fois, \&s,ttvme (of repeating), &c. Flute major (8 it.) Unison flute (8 it.) Flute Folia. A Spanish dance, similar to the minor (4 ft.) Flute octaviente (4 ft.) Quint fandango. The tune of a folia was some- flbte (5^ ft.) Quintaton (sounding unison and times written on a ground bass, as was also twelfth). Piccolo flute (2 ft.) Flautino (2 ft.) the Chaconne and Passacaille. [Follia.] Klein-flote (2 ft.) Terz-flote (if ft.) Flute Foliated. A melody or portion of plain- discani. Flute dessus (treble flute). song is said to he foliated when slurred notes Describing the shape of the pipes, as have been added above or below those of (4) Doppel-flote (with two mouths). Pyramid which it originally consisted.

( 173 ) FOLLIA- -FORM.

FoUia (Sp. and It.) Variations upon an air or melody, in which the ingenuity was held of more value than beauty. The name " FoUias da Espana " became applied to laborious trifling in other matters besides music. Fondamentale (Fr. and It.) Funda- mental. Basse fondamentale, basso fonda- mentale, fundamental bass. Fondamento (It.) (i) Fundamental bass. (2) The root or generator of a chord. Fonds d'orgue (Fr.) The foundation stops, the diapasons and 8 ft. flutes on English organs, the principals of foreign instruments. In general, all flue stops of 8 ft. pitch, except sole stops of peculiar quality of tone. Foot, (i) A metrical measure, pes {Lat.) (2) A drone bass. (3) The chorus of a song. (4) The part of an organ pipe below the mouth. (5) To foot, to dance. Forlana {It.), foiirlane {Fr.) A dance much in favour with the gondoliers of Venice. The tune is a lively measure in 6-8 time, and is similar to the Tarantella, but not so varied in its motions. It is said to have been first danced upon the Frioul, and to take its name from that fact. La Fourlane Venetienhe ou La Barcaridole.

S .=£===J- f m

it^trrrrr : : : : : :

FORM. bar, having been first suggested at the begin- ning of a bar Beethoven.

Two motives form a section :

Sentences may be said to be compound when two or more are united to form a musical subject. All musical subjects may be analysed Sometimes three motives are found in a by resolving them into their elements, which section consist, as shown above, of themes, sections, phrases, sentences, and compound sentences ; the union of these, and the connection of the subjects they make up, constitute what is A simple phrase consists generally of two called Form.

sections : The use of the word Subject in the higher Mozart. development of Form, must not be confused with its special meaning in the art of counter- point and fugue. Fugue-form will be found treated sub voce Fugue. The study of form is most important to the tomposer. Without an adherence to its rules compositions are liable to become in- which may sometimes be expanded beyond coherent, unintelligible, and amorphous, es- that limit to five or even more bars, with pecially in these days, when there' is a great added motives tendency, arising from ignorance or mistaken Beethoven. intention, to create music without much or

any regard to form ; which is as much a necessity to a musical composition, as it is to the design of a picture, a building, or a Phrases of more than four bars may be piece of sculpture. In classical compositions called compound the sonata form is the basis upon which is constructed the Symphony, the Concerto, the Overture and the class of work from which it derives its title. The sonata may consist of three movements in contrasted tempi and varied forms, but the first movement must be written according to given rules, which will be shown in detail after a general description of the ordinary arrangement of the sonata. Of the three A sentence is formed of two phrases whether movements the first should be an " allegro," simple or compound with or without an introduction in slow tempo, Beethoven. though sometimes this is dispensed with. It mfiy here be remarked, that whatever key their first movement is written in is the key by which the symphony is known, and all the other movements must be written in keys akin to it, but the last one must be the same as the first. The second movement marked with any tempo from andante to adagio, is sentence be shortened A may usually called the "slow movement;" the Beethoven. last movement is usually an allegro, and may be written on the plan of the first movement, or in what is called rondo form. As the symphony is the most important work in or lengthened ; the sonata form is Beethoven. which employed, a des- cription of the usual method of constructing it is subjoined, on the principle that the greater includes the lesser. In addition to

( 175) FORM.

the number of movements in the sonata ingenuity of the composer, but the chief thing proper, the symphony has a minuet and trio to be borne in mind is to make the subjects or a scherzo, movements vyhich are not melodious, striking, and workable. There necessary in the sonata. may now be introduced one or two sub- The minuet or the scherzo—the latter most sidiary or episodal subjects, growing out usual since Beethoven's day—ordinarily oc- of, and in keeping with either the first or cupies the third place in the order of the second principal subjects. With this ends movements in the symphony, but occasionally what is called the first part of the first move-

the adagio and scherzo change places, as in ment ; a double bar is usually made here, and Mendelssohn's 3rd Symphony. Sometimes, a repeat marked to the beginning of the as in Beethoven's Symphonies, Nos, 7 and 8, allegro. This repeat in the first part of the an allegretto appears instead of the andante first movement of a symphony is a sine qua or slovif movement, but as there is no iixed non, as without it the movement loses its dis- rule for the order of the intermediate move- tinctive form. The composer must end this ments, a composer is at liberty to make such portion of the work in the dominant if the key

changes as he pleases. of the symphony is major ; or in the relative Taking a symphony as a standard, the major if it is written in a minor key. The following is the usual order or form of each most interesting part of this portion of a sym-

movement. The first of these, as has already phony now follows ; it is technically known been said, may begin with an introduction of as the "free fantasia." Here the composer's a slow or moderately slow tempo. This in imagination may be employed to its utmost

its design may foreshadow what is to appear limit ; but he must bear in mind only to use in the succeeding allegro. If this is so material already brought forward in the sub- written, it would give a coherence to the jects of the first part of the movement. A entire first movement; and, on account of disregard of this injunction is the great mis- the frequently mysterious nature of this kind take which composers (especially young ones) of instrumental music, coherence and intelli- make now-a-days, and leads to diffuseness. gibility is a thing much to be aimed at. The Again, this portion of the symphony may be length of the introduction may be left to the spoilt by the composer having to develop sub-

discretion of the composer ; care being taken jects which are not clear, well defined, and

to lead well into the allegro or first move- interesting ; therefore to avoid this he should ment proper. For an admirable example of be careful to write subjects in the first part this sort of treatment, the student is referred of the movement which will admit of much to Beethoven's Symphony No. 4. The allegro varied treatment. Having done this, he is at

must contain two principal subjects : varied, liberty to produce with them any legitimate

and well contrasted, and written so as to give effects : at the same time he should never opportunity for good instrumental effect. The allow his music to resemble a vague sort of first of these is given in the tonic, and when improvisation, such as is frequently heard in

, the key of the symphony is well established many modern compositions, by so doing, all the composer should prepare the introduction beauty of form vanishes, and the composer of his second principal theme. The old- betrays a weakness and want of control over fashioned way of doing this, if the symphony his subjects. These remarks apply with equal were in a major key, was to work up to a force to each portion of the entire work. Not major chord on the supertonic of the original more than a third of the movement should scale, sometimes with the 7th added, and by be devoted to the free fantasia ; and when it that means to glide into the second subject is finished, the first principal subject is re- in the dominant, thus, if the key of symphony introduced in the original key, which in due were Bb the movement would eventually course should be followed by the second prin- arrive at a cadence on the chord of C with cipal subject, heard this time in the tonic. major third, the second principal subject Then a coda may follow, after which the being then heard in the key of F, or if the movement may come to a close ; but it is symphony were written in a minor key the suggested, for the sake of coherence, that the composer worked up to a cadence on the coda should be formed out of the material dominant of the relative major—thus in a already employed, and it should not be too movement in C minor, the second subject prolonged. always appeared in Eb major. But the student The second, or slow movement, may be is warned against blindly following this rule; similar in form to that of the first, but its it should be his aim to make his second theme character is entirely opposite ; and further,

' grow out of the first ; thereby avoiding the no repeat is made at the end of the first part. angularity of what may be termed the cut-and- The prevailing character should be that of dried school. The many ways of doing this pathos and repose ; but though the two prin- must- be left to the choice, guided by the cipal subjects should partake more or less of (175) ;

FORM.

this, the rhythm of each should be arranged usually introduced towards the close of either so as to form a striking contrast to the other. the first or the third movement, sometimes In this movement the themes are usually written by the composer, sometimes left to much more elaborately treated than those of the performers' improvisation. In all other the Allegro, and sometimes variations are respects the form of the concerto is identical made upon the first of the principal subjects ; with that of the symphony. examples of this latter style of treatment will An improvement in the form of the concerto be found in the slow movements of Beet- may yet be made in two particulars. The old hoven's Symphonies, Nos. 5 and 9. The key plan of beginning the first movement by the should not be the same as that of the opening orchestra playing the leading subjects in the Allegro, such an arrangement would very tonic, before the entrance of the solo instru- likely produce monotony—the exception to ment, might be dispensed with as unneces- this rule is when the original key is minor, sary, because the themes must appear towards the second movement could then appear in the close of the movement in that key. Men-

the same key ; but it should be in the major delssohn's , and that for the

mode, or vice versa ; any key may be chosen Pianoforte in G minor, are examples of the that has some kinship to that of the preced- advantage gained by beginning with the solo ing movement. instrument at once, or after a few bars of If the minuet is selected for the third part, orchestral prelude. The other suggestion for the composer must write it in accordance with improvement is the abolition of all cadenzas, the form of the dance of that name. But as being redundant. If they are written for should the Scherzo be decided upon, he will the display of the performer's skill, surely the find he has a much wider field for the expan- composer should give him sufficient oppor- sion of his thoughts. The form of this move- tunity for this during the movement. If they ment may partake of that of the minuet, only are to show that the subjects can be treated the time should be generally double or three in a different manner, they should be included times as fast ; it may also be in f instead of f in that treatment in the body of either allegro time. Its character is usually light, fantastic, or finale. and even humorous. It is sometimes written The modern overture in strict form should be with two trios, sometimes without any, as in written in one movement, usually an Allegro, the case in the Scherzo of Mendelssohn's 3rd with or without an introduction in a slower S3rmphony. The key is usually the same as tempo, and partakes of the nature of the first that of the first movement. movement of a symphony, without the repeat

The last movement is an Allegro ; and is of the first part. The subjects of an overture generally somewhat lighter in style than the may be lighter in character than those of a

first movement; though its form may be symphony ; but they must appear in the the same. Rondo form may be adopted for same order, and be worked out in the same

this movement ; or it may take the shape manner; greater importance being given to of an air with variations, as in the Finale to the coda in the overture than in the symphony. Beethoven's Symphony, No. 3. It is not neces- The introduction and allegro must, of course, sary to repeat the first part of the finale, if it be in the same key. is written in the form of the first movement The form of the sonata is, as already and the free fantasia need not be elaborated shown, identical with that of the symphony

to the same extent as in the opening Allegro. in all points ; the only exception being that a

' The key of the first and last movements minuet or scherzo is not necessary. The de- must of necessity be the same. velopment of the subjects of a sonata ought The form of the Concerto is somewhat not to be of the same extent as those of the

similar to that of the S)miphony ; but it symphony, concerto, or overture ; for the

diifers from it in these respects : (i) The obvious reason that the tone-colour is much

opening movement never appears with an less varied ; sonatas never being written for introduction placed before it. (2) The orches- more than two instruments. Trios and tra usually plays both the leading themes in , &c., for strings and pianofortes, the tonic before they are heard on the solo though written in this same form need not extent. instrument in the usual symphonic form. (3) be developed to the same Nor should The repeat of the first part is not a necessity. the attempt be made to introduce grand effects these (4) The Concerto never contains a Scherzo, symphonic in works. A warn- and therefore consists but of three move- ing may be given to composers by pointing ments—the first of which should be an out how incomparably finer in effect Mendel- Allegro, the second an Adagio, and the third ssohn's D minor trio is to that of his trio in an Allegro. (5) The movements do not re- C minor, for the reason that in the latter quire to be developed at such great length as work, especially in the last movement, pas- those of the symphony. (6) A cadenza is sages are given to the violin and violoncello

( 177 ) : .

FORTSETZUNG FREE STYLE.

which never produce the effect they are composer ; but, as a rule, the order indicated intended to convey : but nothing of the kind above is followed. is found in the trio in D minor. Here every- Fortsetzung (G«r.) Continuation. Further thing has the character and form of chamber development or expansion of an idea. music ; and composers should bear in mind Fort (Fr.) Forte {It.) Loud ; expressed not to write symphonic music when they are in music by the abbreviations for. or/. composing musica di camera; though the Fortemente {It.) Loudly, vigorously, form of the work and its movements may be with force. the same as those of a symphony. For a Forte -piano {Fr., It., and Ger.) [Piano- model pianoforte quartet the student is forte.] referred to that in Qc minor, from the pen Forte possibile {It.) As loud as possible. of Mozart. Fortissimo {It.) Lit. the loudest. Very The for two violins, viola, loud. The letters ff or ffor are used as and violpncello, is composed in the same abbreviations of the word. form as the symphony ; but also should Forza, con {It.) With emphasis. be written without any striving after sym- Forzando {It.) Lit., Forcing. Emphasis phonic effect or development, care being or musical accent upon specified notes or taken to give each instrument, as much as passages, marked by the signs sf or ==-. possible, its equal share of work and inde- Forzato (7^) [Forzando.] pendent motion. The quintet, the sestet, Fourchette tonique {Fr.) Tuning-fork. septet, and should all be written in Fourier's theorem, [Acoustics, § ii.] sonata or symphonic form, each instrument Fourniture {Fr.) A mixture stop on an having proper but not obtrusive prominence organ. and independence. The student is reminded Fourth. An interval of four notes. that the whole of these remarks are not to be Fourth flute. [Quart flute.] considered absolutely final ; since a com- Fran^aise {Fr.) A dance in triple measure, poser may some day arise, who may alter the similar in character to the country-dance. present forms of classical instrumental music Franchezza {It.) franchise {Fr.) Free- as much as Haydn and Mozart did in their dom, confidence. day. However, as such an one does not Franculus {Lat.) A mediaeval sign or exist who has shown us any new form which is for an ascending brevis plicata. better than the old one, the student is exhorted [Neumes.] to abide by the rules herein laid down, which Franz -ton {Ger.) French pitch; lower are based upon precedent founded by the than the recognised concert pitch. great masters. Frasi {It.) Phrases. Rondo form differs from sonata or sym- Freddamente, con freddezza {It.) With phonic form, in that the first part is not coldness, indifference. marked for repeat. The original subject Fredon {Fr.) (i) Vocal ornaments at the does not modulate, reappears but in its key- will of the performer ; a tremolo or quavering chord at the close of the first period, and upon every note, {z) The humming of a again after the modulation of the second sub- tune. ject, so that it must be heard three times. Free chant is a form of recitative music The arrangement of a movement in rondo fpr the Psalms and Canticles, in which a form is a,fter the following order phrase, consisting of two chords only; is ap- The first subject enters, sometimes without plied to each hemistich of the words. The introduction, and remains in its original key, author of the form, Mr. John Crowdy, in his Then follows an episode, modulating into the " Free Chant Cadences," claims for it that it relative major if the key be minor, or into the removes all difficulties in dividing the words, dominant if the key be major; after which and enables the unskilled worshipper to join comes the second subject in the dominant or confidently in the chanting, without the assis- relative major, as the case may be, followed tance of any marks beyond the colons pro- by a modulation into the original key, to bring vided for the purpose in the Prayer Book. back the first subject. This ends the first Free fugue. A fugue in which the answer part, which is not marked for repetition. The and general treatment are not according to second subject, modulating into distant keys, strict rules, [Fugue.] commences the second half. This is followed Free parts. Additional parts to a canon by the first subject ; then an episode, prepar- or fugue, having independent melodies, in ing the way for the second subject, and a final order to strengthen or complete the harmony. episode and coda, generally in the original [Canon.] key, with slight passing modulations. It Free reed. [Reed.] must be understood that this general outline Free style. Composition not absolutely is sometimes varied by the genius of the according to the strict rules of counterpoint.

( 178) FREGIATURA FUGUE.

Fregiatura {It.) An ornament, embellish- ricercata, a florid fugue, a fugue with florid ment. episodes ; fuga sciolta, a free fugue. French horn. [Horn.] Fugato (7^) In the fugue style ; a com- French sixth. [Extreme sixth.] position containing fugal imitation, but which French flat-tuning. [Flat-tuning.] is not in strict fugue form. French violin clef. The G clef, placed Fuge {Ger.) A fugue. upon the first line of the stave. [Clef.]

Fugue. A polyphonic composition con- structed on one or more short subjects or Frets. Small pieces of wood or ivory themes, which are harmonized according to placed upon the finger-board of certain the laws of counterpoint, and introduced stringed instruments, to regulate the pitch of from time to time with various contrapuntal the notes produced. By pressing the string devices; the interest in these frequently down to the finger-board behind a fret, only heard themes being sustained by diminishing so much of the string can be set in vibration the interval of time at which they follow each as lies between the fret and the bridge. Frets other (the stretto), and monotony being are, therefore, nothing more or less than little avoided by the occasional use of episodes, or

bridges ; hence the word ixayac came to sig- passages open to free treatment. nify a bridge or a fret. The Egyptian lutes So varied are fugues in their character, had frets made of camel-gut, tied or glued that it is impossible to give any definition round the finger-board. All the viols con- which shall include all kinds, but from what tained in a chest had frets, and some of the has just been said above, it will be at once early forms of the violin were even furnished seen, that they differ from all other formal or with them. But not only do they prevent the set compositions (the canon only excepted) rapid fingering of diflScult passages, but en- in that each component part (which might in tirely deprive the violin of one of its most other works be only a means of harmony) must charming qualities, that of slurring or porta- stand in important relationship to every other mento, an attempt to produce which will, on part, sometimes even to the extent of being a fretted instrument, result in a well-defined interchangeable with any one of them. The chromatic scale. Another reason for the key-relationship, and also the rhythmical form abandonment of fretted violins was that, in of the sections and phrases of a fugue, have extreme keys, the intervals could not be tem- always been modified by contemporary art, pered. and by this means a fugue of an early period Fretta, con (It.) With speed, haste, hurry. may be easily distinguished from one of a Freie Schreibart (Ger.) writing later date, until in some modern examples Free ; composition in a free style. the influence even of the sonata form is Frisch {Ger.) Lively. plainly discernible. As the growth of the Frolich (Ger.) Joyous, cheerful, gay. splendid form now known as a fugue has Frosch (Ger.) The nut of a violin bow, been gradual, having extended over more into which the lower end of the hairs is than three centuries, it is not surprising that fixed, and which, when moved up or down by the name should, from time to time, have means of the screw, tightens or slackens their borne various meanings. In old writers it is tension. sometimes used to signify a short theme, the Frottola (It.) A ballad. measure or figure of which is to be frequently

F Schliissel {Ger.) The F or bass clef. repeated ; at other times, a canon, because Fuga {Lat.) A fugue, aqualis motus, a herein one part enunciates a subject and then

real fugue ; authentica, a fugue with a subject as it were, takes to flight {fuga), while the

in the authentic part of the scale ; canonica, other, or others, pursue it closely note for a fugue in canon ; contraria, a fugue by in- note. Canons often formed an important version ; impropria, or irregularis, a free or ingredient of early fugues. irregular fugue ; in contraria tempore, a fugue, It is easy to trace the germ of the fugue in the answer of which is differently accented the higher developments of counterpoint. in con- to the subject ; libera or soluta, a free or When music in two parts was written laws of double counterpoint, irregular fugue ; per arsin et thesin, by inver- formity with the sion (i) of rhythm, (2) of interval; retrograda, each performer found himself setting forth a fugue by contrary motion ; obstinata, a the theme proposed by the other, and the fugue in which a definite figure is main- good effect thus produced would naturally tained, &c. &c. [Fugue.] suggest a repetition of the theme at other Fuga {It.) A fugue, as fuga doppia, a intervals (as in counterpoint), and also in of double fugue ; fuga ostinata, a fugue in other keys. The two elements a fugue it which a definite figure is maintained ; fuga which separate from the higher forms of

( 179 ) — — ;;

FUGUE. counterpoint are, first, the enunciation of the and the pedal point forms the basis of in- answers, subject by itself, without harmony ; next the genious treatments of the subject or stretto or drawing of subjects and answers and sometimes even as the basis of the more closely together. The former is not stretto. The first giving out of subjects and properly included in counterpoint, as point answers is called the Exposition ; and when (or note) is no longer against point when one repeated with a different arrangement of the

part is heard alone ; nor is the latter trace- parts, the Counter-exposition. able among the various devices of the art of It can be seen from the above, that handled counterpoint proper. by a genius, fugue may be infinitely plastic Fugues have been divided into many classes in regard to form. But it must not be according to the point from which they have forgotten that in its earliest existence it was been regarded. wretchedly mechanical, as the following direc-

(i) By number of parts ; as, a fugue in tions how to compose a fugue in two parts two, three, four parts, &c, (a 2, a 3, a 4, from Fux (Welcker's English Translation) &c.) will prove. " First choose a subject suitable in, (2) By number of subjects ; as a double to the key you intend to compose and fugue, having two subjects ; a triple fugue, write down your subject in that part where- three subjects, &c. with you intend to begin. This done, and (3) By the relation of subject and answer having first examined your subject whether

as a fugue by inversion, when the answer it be comformable to your key ; if so, repeat moves by the intervals of the inverted sub- the same notes in the second part, either in ject ; by augmentation or diminution, when the fourth or fifth, and whilst the second the answer has notes of double, or half part imitates the first wherewith you have the length of those of the subject respec- begun, put such notes in the first part as tively. will agree with your imitating part according

(4) By the scale-relation of subject and to the directions given in the figurate or

answer ; as a tonal fugue, when the answer florid counterpoint, and after having con- is modified according to prescribed rules, so tinued your melody for some bars, regulate that it shall remain within a given compass, the parts thus, that the first cadence may be

or, within a given key ; a real fugue when made in the fifth of the key. Then resume the answer is at a measured interval to the your subject mostly in the same part you subject note for note. have begun with, but by another interval,

(5) By its adhesion to, or neglect of, the after having first put a rest of a whole or

laws of fugue form ; as a free fugue, a fugue half bar, which however may be omitted in in which strict form is occasionally, or for case there should happen to be a great skip the most part disregarded. instead of it. After this, endeavour to bring (6) By its scale, or the scale which pre- in your second part after some rest, and that

dominates in it ; as a Doric fugue, when the before the subject, of the first part draws subject, and perhaps also development, is in- towards a conclusion, and having carried on

the Doric mode ; a diatonic fugu£, in which your subject a little longer, make your second

diatonic harmony prevails ; a chromatic fugue, cadence in the third of the key. Lastly, in- when chromatic passages abound. troduce your subject again in either part, and

The chief elements of a fugue are : contrive it so that one part may imitate the (i) The subject. Dux, propositus, {Lat.) other sooner than at first, and, if possible, guida, (It.) antecedent, &c. after the first bar, whereupon both parts are (2) The counter-subject, or, contrapuntal to be united, and the fugue finished by a harmonization of the answer by the part final cadence." which has finished the enunciation of the The musical example which he then gives subject. as embodying the result of all this learning,

(3) The answer. Comes, Responsio {Lat.) is as follows : consequenza (It.) ; consequent, &c.

(4) Episodes. (5) The stretto. (6) The pedal point point d'orgue (Fr.) Orgel-punkt (Ger.) j.jyij The whole of these are bound together into TTTi^' perfect unity, from the fact that the answer is either identical with, or a prescribed imita- tion of the subject; the counter-subject or fragments of it are of frequent use as the

material of episodes ; the stretto is usually founded on the subject or counter-subject

( 180) : : j : : :

FUGUE.

Ex.6.

'J I II i J. 'J.JUL.^1. I ^=t i^^5g5 ^j j i j-j

But the art of fugue was not long to remain Cum Sanc-to Spi - ri tr thus lifeless. The successive improvements

: &c. made by great masters have exalted it to the highest perfection, and have made it one The following is given in order 40 show a of the noblest walks of the art of music. grand subject in this compass, although not The best way of showing the construction strictly worked out of a fugue will be to describe in detail the Ex. 9. Besthovkn. nature of the six constituent parts just now enumerated. Cum Sanc-to Spi - ri - tu (i) The subject should not be very long if Diatonic subjects may, however, reach a it does not contain any modulation, because very extended compass, especially in instru- a lack of interest may result. On the other mental music hand, if it be very short, its treatment in the

, ^ Handel. stretto will be difficult. It generally com- mences on the tonic or dominant of the scale. Subjects may be broadly divided into dia- tonic and chromatic. Of course, a vast number of fugue-subjects lie between these diatonic two boundaries, but by a subject must The following is remarkable both for its be understood one on which an author in- extended c6mpass and length : interest tends to construct a fugue whose Ex. II. {Fuga a ire voci con licenza.) shall arise from genuine contrapuntal treat- ment and device, and simple modulations from key to key. By a- chromatic subject is meant one whicia a composer takes with the avowed intention of constructing a fugue whose in- terest shall result from a complicated inter- weaving or frequent contrasting of changing key-tonality, with ordinary development of the subjects. The simplest form of diatonic fugue-subject is that which lies in a compass of a fifth, e.g.

Ex. I J. S, Bach.

Scale passages, or such as move up or down an octave, have always been largely Ex.3. Graun. used as subjects, both in the major, e.g. Ex. 12. Benevoli.

Tu Rex glo ri a,

Or, when it reaches the compass of the sixth, e.g.

Ex. 4. Haydn.

In glo-riaDe-i Pa-tris, J. S. Bach. Ex. 5.

( 181 ) : : : :

FUGUE.

Sometimes the octave compass of a subject Subjects, most commonly begin the key- lies between the fifth above and fourth below note or its fifth, but there are exceptions to the tonic, both in the major, e.g. : this rule, e.g. :

Ex. 13. Handel. Ex 25. (On the Second of the Scale.) Bach.

And also in the minor, e.g.

Ex. 14. Bach.

Chromatic subjects are also of varied ex- tent and difficulty. The following, which is capable of much contrapuntal treatment, is commonly met with :

Ex. 15. Sala.

More elaborate chromatic subjects are often found, e.g. As a rule, the answer enters before the sub-

Ex. 16. ject is finished, but exceptions are frequent. " He trusted in God " (Handel) may be cited ^^^^^^m as a well-known case. Sometimes after the subject has finished, a few notes are intro- . S. Bach. duced to link it to the answer. These few notes are called a subject-coda or codetta. The name is also applied to the short passage Sometimes both diatonic and chromatic sometimes connecting the answer and coun- of the passages are included in the subject, e.g. ter-subject with the re-introduction original subject (see Exs. 43 and 68). Ex. iS. J. S. Bach. (2) The counter- subject is primarily an accompaniment of the answer, and in a secondary sense, of the subject; but as such, must be according to the laws of strict coun- The interval of a diminished seventh has terpoint. It is usually written according to always been a favourite element of fugue sub- the laws of double counterpoint, in order that jects, e.g. it may be used both above and below the Ex. ig. subject or answer. Of course, the counter- subject may be in any species of counter- point, but it most commonly is figurate, or florid, e.g.

Ex. 30. , :: :

FUGUE. notes of greater length than those of the sub- of a tonal fugue it will be shown that the ject in a rapid fugue, e.g. counter-subject sometimes has to undergo a change in order to suit both subject and answer. Ex. 31 Bach. The term counter-subject is often applied in a manner which leads to much confusion. If in a fugue with two subjects the second subject is given out at the same time as the first, thus forming an accompaniment to it, it is by some called the counter-subject, instead of the second subject, e.g.

Ex. 35. Subject or zst Subject.

Counter subject y^.^'.iiJjJijj-^^£

And vice versa, shorter notes of counter-sub- ject to those of the subject: Counter subject or 2nd Subject.

It were well if this use of the word counter- Ex. 32. Subject. Counter subject. J. S. Bach. subject for second subject could be dispensed with, the former being limited to the significa- tion of that counterpoint added to an answer or subject by a part which has already gone through the subject or answer. Nothing is gained by limiting the use of the words But something more is required of the second and third subjects to such as are intro- counter- subject than to be a mere accessory duced separately. to the subject and answer ; it is very often (3) The answer of a fugue is one of the used as an episodal theme, either just as it most important parts of its construction. If stands, or in a slightly modiiied form. In the subject be wrongly answered, the effect the following example the counter-subject of and success of the whole composition is Bach's beautiful E major fugue is given ; marred. For not only does a wrong answer Ex. 33. Subject. Answer. compel the construction of a false counter- subject, inasmuch as the counter-subject must be the accompaniment of the answer whether it be right or wrong, but also, it overthrows those episodes founded on the counter-subject, and not unfrequently the stretto too, as being founded on a close combination of subject and Counter subject. answer. Before the development of the Fugue has The large class of fugues called tonal, are proceeded far, this (from *) is used as the so termed because the answer undergoes some subject of an episode, e.g. slight modification in order to prevent a de- parture from the key-tonality of the subject. Ex. 34. Roughly speaking, all answers are a fifth above or a fourth below the subject. If this relation of answer to subject were strictly carried out, a modulation in every answer would be inevitable. The answer is, however, often purposely made at strict intervals to the

subject ; in which case, the fugue is called strict or real. These two classes of fugues must be considered carefully. First as to tonal fugues, The idea which underlies all tonal treatment of answers is, that the scale is equally divided into two parts, namely, from the tonic up to

If, therefore, the counter-subject is intended the dominant, one part ; from the dominant for separate use and treatment, it is necessary up to the octave-tonic, the other. But as a that it should be melodious in itself, as well matter of fact the first half, tonic to dominant, as capable of forming good counterpoint in contains five diatonic steps, while the second, combination with the answer. In speaking dominant to tonic, only contains four. This

( 183 ) : :

FUGUE, is the source of the whole difficulty of making a correct answer to any given subject, e.g.

Now when the subject proceeds from tonic to dominant direct, the answer must proceed from dominant to tonic, e.g. :

Subject. „ Answer.

and vice versa, e.g. :

Subject. Answer,

But if notes lying between the tonic and dominant are introduced, or if the subject exceeds the compass of a fifth, it is not easy to say that any uniform principle governs the relation of answer to subject, except that two notes must be represented by one, e.g.

Answer. : : : :

FUGUE. re-entry of the subject. In the fugue just Answer. quoted Bach inserts two bars between the close in G minor, as above, and the re-entry

of the subject, namely :

Ex. 45. (Codetta.)

This is more noticeable in short chromatic

subjects, e.g. : ,

Ex. 50. Subject. Answer. Re-entry of Subject, As minor subjects naturally lead to a modu- lation in the answer, it happens, as might be expected, that the minor fugues are chiefly

real : for if a modulation must take place at all, it may as well include the whole of the Enough has been said to show the general subject as its closing portion, tonal alterations force of the laws of tonal answer. Study and of the answer are therefore rendered to a experience are the only means of cultivating certain extent unnecessary. a true perception of this peculiar relation of But in strictly chromatic fugues the tonal subject to answer. Many writers have at- answer is very common, as the following ex- tempted to draw up a regular code of laws, amples will show, although it will be observed but the exceptions which persistently come that, in some cases, the answer, before many forward render thern almost useless. transcript notes are past, becomes a mere A real or strict fugue is one in which the at a fifth above or fourth below of the original answer is throughoift at the interval of a fifth subject. above or fourth below the subject, e.g. The next example is purely tonal Ex. S2- Subject. ^ m-l'--l»-m-0--r-

Ex. 46.

Answer.

IJ J J I r r ^|4^^wil f [I'l^ n° ^jpjf=j

The following is mixed, being partly tonal, partly at a strict interval

Ex 47. Subject (8ve. lower). Hahdei,. \- i i^r nnj - J \ fX^rM They loathed to drink. Answer.

The tonal alteration of the answer to minor subjects often extends no further than the first

note, e.g. : Mendelssqhn. ^^^^^^^^Ex. 48. Subject

In major subjects this also happens, e. g.

Ex. 49. Subject. Bach. :

FUGUE. giving an unpleasant effect of unnecessary It has already been stated that the counter- in double counterpoint, change of key ; whereas, if the subject consist subject is often written of a series of grades of the scale, it is difficult so that it may be used without grammatical to make the answer tonal, without producing error, both above and below the subject. the effect of unnecessary alteration of melody What has been said of a counter-subject (inasmuch as two notes have to do duty for applies with equal force to a second subject, one, and vice versd). This is all that can be as the above example (56) shows. said, except that special prominence of the But the first and second subject are given sub-dominant in the subject seems to demand out very frequently, each at its own proper a strict answer, e.g. : tonal distance, e.g. :

Ex. 54. Subject. Ex. 57.

h es gj eg CT P P 1

In cases where a fugue has more than one subject, if the second subject partakes of the tonality of the expected answer, and is intro- duced in the position ordinarily occupied by the answer, the answers of both first and second subjects may take place at the octave, sometimes without any alteration of the posi- tion of the parts, e.g. :

Ex. 55. Bach.

S ^ CTjwTP^

The subjects are as often apswered in the octave, but in inverted positions, e.g. Ex. 56, ^m ^jt- -I h i r :

FUGUE.

the four following subjects are given out suc- cessively by solo voices

Ex. 62. 1st Subject^

In fugues having three or more subjects, there seems to be no rule whatever as to the order or position of their entry. Sometimes they are enunciated in their order immediately after, or overlapping, each other ; e.g. :

Ex. 60. 3rd Sub, Cherubini. ^i sac ^^^ -Ff

Quam o-]lm a - bra~hs

1st Answer.

They are not unfrequently introduced and developed separately, at long intervals of time, and only brought together towards the close of the work ; in this case, of course, the answers are each true to the subject as de- livered, and the fugue has the form of two or more separate developments which are capable of coalition ; e.g. :

Ex. 61. xst Subject.

In some cases the subjects are given out one by one, without any development being attempted till all have been heard, as in the well-known movement, "Let old Timotheus," from Handel's "Alexander's Feast," in which FUGUE.

(Alti.) ^ :

FUGUE.

Coda connecting close of answer with re- entry of subject

Episode founded on the figure of the above coda:

Episodes founded on a theme not part of subject, countersubject, or coda, are very

commonly met with ; in the following example the theme is quite congruous with the sub- ject:

letfaimde-liv- er him.

A fine example of episodes of a totally different character to the fugue into which they are introduced is to be found in Bach's organ-fugue : rrri :

FUGUE.

Stretto, by augmentation or diminution, is when the subject, or subject and answer, are simultaneously introduced in notes of longer

or shorter length, e.g. :

J • J J ii^ : J ^ 1 Jh 11 ^^^^lagc^a^^^g^ li j ^F

A pedal-point is a long-sustained note, gene- rally the dominant, on which imitation, sub- ject and answer (simply or by augmentation and diminution), or even the stretto itself, are constructed. It is not always found as an essential part of a fugue, a vast number of fugues, especially for the pianoforte, are without it. But in vocal fugues with accom- paniment, and in fugues for the organ, it can always be introduced with fine effect. Modern composers have not neglected this interesting element of the art of fugue, as the next example shows

Ex. 73. Subject. Gounod. — — ,

FUGUE RENVERSEE FUNFFACH. a specimen of modulation, and so take away ttie fugue has gradually developed from an their attention from the treatment of subject unartistic music-puzzle into a noble and and answer. Hence, fugue-modulation is in splendid form, and it behoves modern com- a general way limited to related keys. The posers to add their special share to its possible same object is kept in view by the rule, " if future development. It is quite true that a there is a tonic pedal-point, it should never very large number of fugues, more or less in be heard before the dominant pedal-point." the old style, are at this time issued by so Of course a breach of this rule would entirely called scientific composers, and are considered undo the wonderful effect which the massive clever, and favourably received by those who imitations or stretto have, when heard over are not familiar with any music but that of

the dominant, for dominant harmony always the igth century ; but, were it worth the causes a yearning for tonic-harmony, and labour, such modern-antique fugues, could be when the tonic is at length reached, then it proved to be mere rescripts and collections is time to add yet more to the delay by of what has been written long ago, not only multiplying superposed tonic harmonies. once or twice, but scores of times. Having A glance at the subjects of fugues given in carefully examined the various periods in the the examples will show that there is not much life and history of fugue, and having accus- room for originality left to modern writers. tomed himself to treat with respect the rules The more the vast literature of fugues which which fence in its earlier rudimentary forms, has come down toius is studied, the more the student who reads aright will unhesitat- apparent does this fact become. It is indeed ingly endeavour to make fugue-form the almost impossible to write a short diatonic handmaid of modern music, and so avoid the subject, capable of easy handling, which shall too common error of wilfully casting aside all be in any sense original. The true lesson to that accumulation of experience and progres- learn from this is, that the modern treatment sive improvement, which we happily possess, of fugue subjects should at least be original, and should learn how to use. and the composer who now sets about writing Fugue renvers6e {Fr.) An inverted fugue. a fugue, should feel himself compelled, as an Fiihrer {Ger.) (i) Subject of a fugue. artist, to make use of all the freshness and (2) A leader, director. novelty which modern chords, key-relation- Full anthem. An anthem in which there ship, and rhythm are capable of producing. is neither solo nor verses. [Anthem.] It may be objected, that such a modernized Full cadence. A perfect cadence. [Ca- fugue ceases to be a fugue at all. But the dence.] history of fugue clears away such objections. Full chord, (i) A chord, some of the Starting from the early time when fugue had essential notes of which are doubled. (2) A barely commenced a separate existence from chord for the full power of an instrument, counterpoint, the word fugue meant nothing orchestra, or voices. more than the subject, hence /«§•« composita, Full score. A score in which all the or fuga recta was, when the subject moved parts for voices and instruments are dis- about by single degrees, or in conjunct played. [Score.] the Full service, (i) A setting of the Canticles motion ; and fuga incomposita was when subject had skips in it, or proceeded by dis- for voices in chorus, with or without organ junct motion. Again, when the subject went accompaniment. (2) An Office in which music upwards from the tonic it was called fuga is used to the fullest extent allowed by the authentica ; when it went downwards from rubrics. the tonic it was called fuga plagalis. Such FuUstimmen. Additional chorus parts expressions point out a very elementary stage remplissage {Fr.), ripieni {It.)—either of voices in the art of fugue. What would now be or instruments. almost distressing to us,, namely, a fugue Full stop, (i) In lute playing, a full without any episodes, one in which subject chord followed by a pause. (2) A chord in and answer never cease to be heard, was at which all available fingers are occupied in one period considered the perfection of a stopping the strings. fugue. It was called fuga ricercata. Again, Fundamental bass. [Harmony.] it is easy to trace the gradual introduction of Fundamental tones. The tones from episodes, and modulation, and the discarding which harmonics are generated. [Acous- of the complicated laws which bound subjects tics, § 10.] and answers to the tonality of the ancient Funfebre {Fr.) \ Funereal, mournful, in the

{It.) style of a dirge ; as, church modes. Funerale J marche Then, again, an extension both of the com- funlbre, a funeral march. pass and length of subject gave new scope to Fiinffach {Ger.) Five-fold. When applied composers, while " licences " in counterpoint to a mixture stop of an organ having five became of more frequent occurrence. In short, ranks.

( 191 ) FUNFSTIMMIG FZ.

Funfstimmig (Ger.) In five parts. Furore, con (It.) With fury, passion, en- Funzioni (It.) Functions, duty. The thusiasm. general title for services, oratorios, and other Fusa (Lat.) A quaver, ^ musical compositions performed in the Roman (Fr.) Rapid division. shake, or church. Fus6e roulade. Fuoco, con ; fuocoso (It.) With fire, spirit, dash. Fusella (Lat.) A semiquaver, »^

Furia, con ; furibondo, furiosamente, Fuss (Ger.) Foot, (i) The part of an furioso (It.) With fury, energy, vehemence. organ pipe below the mouth. (2) The measure Furlano (7^) A dance. [Forlana.] by which the pitch of organ stops is deter- Furniture. of the mix- The name of one mined ; as, 8 fUssig, of 8 ft., or unison pitch. ture stops in an organ. Fz. Abbreviation for forzando.

( 192 ; ;

-GALLIARD.

G.

G. (i) The note Lichanos in Greek music. Musick," 1636), " the triple is oft called gal

[Greek Music] Hard time ; and the duple, pavan time." (2) The first note of the church mode, called Brawls, corantos, and galliards were danced Eolian, the highest in pitch of the authentic at court from the reign of Queen Elizabeth modes. to that of Charles I., as country dances^and (3) The lowest note of the grave hexachord minuets were in later time. Dowland's in the Guidonian system, gamma ut. beautiful and well-known melody, " Now, " (4) The fifth note of the normal scale of C, O now," published, with words, in the First called Sol. Booke of Songes or Ayres, of foure parts," (5) The lowest or fourth string of a violin, 1597, had been known before that date as a the third of the viola and violoncello. dance tune, under the name of the " Frog's (6) The key-note of the major scale, having Galliard." It is usually written in | time one sharp in the signature. but as it is of slow pace, the subsidiary accent (7) The letter-name of the treble clef. might be made a primary one, and so bring G. abb. for gauche (Fr.) Left; as, m.g,, it within the general character of the measure with the left hand. of the galliard. Ga. The fourth syllable in the system of The composers of the early part of the Bobibation. 17th century frequently employed the rhythm Gabel (Ger.) A fork •,Stimmgabel, a tuning- of the galliard as a vehicle for " fancies,"

fork ; Gabelton, the note A, as given for the with ilorid passages for the virginals. A pitch. good example of this form of writing may Gagliarda {It.) [Galliard.] be seen in " Parthenia, or the Maydenhead Gai (Fr.) Gajo (It.) Lively, merry, gay, of the first musick that ever was printed for Gaillarde (Fr.) [Galliard.] the Virginalls," 161 1. The following tune, Gaiment (Fr.) Gajamente- (It.) Gaily, by , 1637, will show the

cheerily, merrily. measure of the dance : Galantemente (It.) Gracefully, in good taste, bravely. Frescobaldi. Galliard, Gaillard (Fr.) Gagliarda (It.) An ancient dance, so called because of its gay rhythm and motion. It is said by some to have been similar in character to the Cushion danpe, and is described by Sir John Davis as: '

" A swift and wandering dance, With passages uncertain to and fro, » • • • » With lofty turns and caprioles in the air, Which to the lusty tunes accordeth fair."

Like the minuet, of which it was probably the parent, the galliard was danced by a lady -1^^ n J J 1 and gentleman. If more than one couple per- formed the dance, they did so independently of other dancers. The tune was generally written in triple time. " Hence," says Butler (" Principles of GALOP—GAVOT.

rr^ '('^rrf^ jjJ| 1^ J . ,.. r\rT't GAVOT. ports this resemblance. The gavot seems to have been more popular as an instrumental piece th^n as a dance, and to have been a favourite movement in suites, lessons, and sonatas from the latter part of the 17th cen- tury, the time when the word appears to have been brought into use. The descriptions of the measure and rhythm .of the dance are many, and slightly different, one writer maintaining that it should begin ", with two crotchets, or the half of a bar, with a rise, of the hand in beati^ig, ending also with two crotchets that begin the last bar." .Another says, " It may begin with an odd quaver, as that in the gth of Corelli's concerto does ; or with a whole bar, as the same com- poser shows us in Sonata i. Op. 2." Hawkins says that the dance is in triple time, of two strains of four and eight bars respectively, the first ending in the key of the dominant; aqd quotes Walther, who states that the first strain should have its cadence in the third or fifth of the key ; " for that if it be in the key-note itself, it is not a gavot, but a rondeau." It would be easy to produce numerous examples of gavots by well-known composers, in which the conditions mentioned above are not present. The following ex- arnples, selected originally with the intention of showing some early specimens of this .dance, will also be interesting as bearing upon the question :

Gavot in Gamut, by Dr. John Blow, 1700.

-«-^- iff fif rii iir .L=£.

j ; i J. »P^aJ. f^tnrrt-^^f^m^M^^

Francois Coupekin, b. i66S, d. 1733.

( 195 ) GAVOTTA GHAZEL.

-^J STj^ GHIRIBIZZI GLEE. is a short " ghazel," written by Dr. Hiller on movements, with the parts so contrived that the theme, G, A, B : they may be termed a series of interwoven melodies. It may be written for three or more

voices, either equal or mixed ; but it is neces- sary that there should be only one voice to a part. It may be designed with or without in- strumental accompaniment, and set to words in any style — amatory, bacchanalian, pas- toral, didactic, comic, or serious. As a com- Ghiribizzi {It.) Fantastic devices. position, the glee appears to have historically Giga (/<.) Jig. followed the catch, and to have had its origin Gigelira [It.) Giga vel lira. A name at the time when part-singing began to be given to the strohfiedel (Xylophone). revived. But when musical skill was at a Gingras. A small ancient flute, of Phe- very low ebb, a satisfactory performance nician origin, afterwards adopted by some of existing vocal compositions for combined

European nations. voices was neither possible nor desirable : not

Gingrina {Lat.) [Gingras.] possible ; because the madrigal, to be eifec-

Giochevole (It.) Merry, jocose. tive, required many voices to a part ; and not Giocondamente {It.) Joyfully, merrily. desirable, because the words set to the catches, Giocondezza {It.) Mirth, jocundity. the other sort of secular part-music, were not Giocondato {It.) Happy, joyful. of a character which fitted them for the ears Giocondo {It.) Jocund. of decent folk. The earliest glees, so called, Giocosamente, giocoso {It.) Sportively, were set to words of a pastoral character. playfully. One of the first, if not the very first, printed Giojante, giojosamente, giojoso {It.) composition for voices to which the title With mirth, joyfully. was attached, was " Turn, Amaryllis, to thy Gioviale {It.) Jovial, pleasant. swain,"' by Thomas Brewer, included in the Giovialita, con {It.) With jollity. second book of Hilton's " Catch that catch Giraffe. An ancient form of the spinnet. can," 1652. The most ancient collection in [Pianoforte.] which glees are specially mentioned, was pub- Gis {Ger.) The note (i sharp. lished by Playford. It is called, " The Musi-

Gis moll {Ger.) The key of G sharp cal Companion, in two books : the First Book minor. containing Catches and Rounds for Thiee

Gittern. [Guitar.] Voyces ; the Second Book containing Dia- Gittith {Heb.) This word, which is found logues, Glees, Ayres, and Songs for two, in the titles of Ps. viii., Ixxxi., Ixxxiv., is by three, and Four Voyces," 1673. The com- some supposed to signify a musical instru- positions contained in these books can only

ment (perhaps as used at Gath) ; by others, a be regarded as exhibiting the qualities of pre- vintage-song, or well-known tune, to which liminary attempts to fix and form the style, the Psalm could be sung. Various other which afterwards became known as the " glee explanations have been offered, which it is style." Many other species of musical works unnecessary to give here. have grown to their present proportions by

Giubiloso {It.) Jubilant, slow degrees ; but the glee seems to have Giustamente {It.) Strictly, accurately. started into existence in its modem form all

Giusto {It.) Strict, correct, moderate ; a at once, and not to have been the result of a tempo giusto, at a moderate pace. series of developments. From the time when Glass. Musical instruments of this ma- Playford's book was published until between terial are of two kinds, percussion and fric- the year 1760 and 1770, the specimens of

tion ; the first consists of a series of small part-writing to which the authors attached the plates of graduated sizes, supported on tapes word " glee," are somewhat rare, the terms secured in a wooden box, the several tones " ," or " three, four, or five-part song," in being regulated by the size of the glass : this is being preferred for vocal compositions a mere toy. For a description of the best of harmony. the second class see Harmonica. Another Sir John Hawkins does not mention the form of a glass friction instrument is made of word once in his " History of Music," pub- a number of tubes of various lengths, and as lished 1776, although institutions for the the tone is brought out by stroking the length encouragement of glee-writing were already of the several tubes with flannel or india- established in his time. rubber, it is only capable of producing slow The period of the existence of the glee, as melodies. we now understand it, was about seventy

Glee. A composition for voices in har- years, namely, from 1760 to 1830 ; the most mony, consisting of two or more contrasted successful of the glee-writers during that time

( 197 ) : ; ;

GLEEK GONG.

were S. Webbe, Dr. Cooke, Dr. Callcott, come from gligg, the Anglo-Saxon term for

R.J. S. Stevens, Reginald Spofforth, J. Stafford joy or merriment ; or from gleek, which signir Smith, W. Horsley, Sir Henry Bishop, Charles fies to scoff, sneer, or banter. Neither of Evans, and to this list must be added. Sir these derivations point to the musical use of

John Goss. the word ; for the majority of glees are of a The compositions of these writers, with a character too serious to be called merry, and few by their contemporaries, form the whole too earnest to be called bantering. literature of this class. The so-called German The early writers of glees frequently used glees are, for the most part, simply harmo- a qualifying term with the word, as " serious nised melodies, and belong to the order of glee," " chearfuU glee," &c., a practice which part-songs rather than to that of glees. The might be considered superfluous if the word application of the term to this class of com- only meant merriments It may be, therefore, position is correct philologically, but not gathered, .that they attached a meaning to the formally. The old word glee meant harmony word similar to that found in the writings of

or combination ; and, therefore, all composi- the early poets and others, namely, combina- tions for voices in harmony may be rightly tion. That glee meant consort or harmony designated by the term. But the word is implied in the following extract from a poem is understood to signify a special sort of by Robert Manning, of Lincolnshire, in the

vocal harmony, and if the pieces so called do reign of Edward I., c 1303 : not fulfil the conditions of the character, " Yn and tabour and symphan gle already described above, they ought to not Worship God in trumpes ant sautre be called by the term. Yn cordes, yn organes, and bells ringying, The glee, like the anthem, is of, English Yn all these worship the hevene Kyng." growth, and has never beea successfully imi- and in Davie's poem, the Life of Alexander, tated by foreign writers. The increase of [temp. Ed. II.] musical taste has led to the formation of large choral societies, by whom the master-works " Orgues, chymbes, uche maner gle ••••••• " of the great composers are given with effect Withouten the toums murey ; (Organs, chimes, all manner of harmony but it has also led to the neglect of private Outside the town's Vail). social musical gatherings, and, consequently, to the disuse of one of the most delightful [Catch.] [Madrigal.] [Part-song.] musical pleasures, the performance of the Gleek. [Glee.] glee. Glee-singing is almost a lost art in Gli [It.) The ; as gli stromenti, the instru- England. The tradition has not been pro- ments. perly maintained, and we are in the somewhat , glissato, glissicato, glissi- anomalous position of a people in the posses- candb (It.) (i) Playing a rapid passage in sion of a special literature, which we cannot pianoforte music, by sliding the tips of the rightly interpret or appreciate. fingers along the keys instead of striking each A few remarks upon the origin and mean- note with a separate finger. (2) A rapid slur ing of the word Glee may not be considered in violin playing. uninteresting or out of place here. The Glisser (Fr.) To slide. [Glissando.] word comes from the Anglo-Saxon " gle," Glockenspiel (G^r.) An instrument made meaning music, or the performance of music. of bells tuned diatonically and struck with For example, the " Story of Genesis," written hammers, or by levers acted upon by a key- about 1250, and reprinted by the Early En|;- board. It is occasionally employed in the lish Text Society, has the following words : orchestra, notably by Mozart in his opera, " " Jobal is brotJer song and glew, The Magic Flute." [Bells.] [Carillon.] Wit of music well he knew." Gloria {Lat.) A movement of the Mass. Chaucer, in his " Troilus and Creseide," uses [Mass.] the word with a like meaning . [Larynx.] Glottis (Gk,, yXunris); Lot., Lingula. The " For though that the best harpair upon live Would on the beste sounid jolly harpe reed used in some of the ancient flutes. These That evir was with all his fingers five reeds were moveable, and were carried about Touch aie o string, or aie o warble harp in a little box called yhaaaoKoiitiov. Were his nailis poincted nevir so sharpe. G moll {Ger.) The key of G minor. It shuldS makin every wight to dull Gnaccare {It.) [Castanets.] To here his gle and of his strokis fiill." Gong. An Eastern pulsatile instrument, In " the Promptorium Parvulorum" (1440), composed of several metals mixed in propor- the same word, spelt glu, probably in accord- tions as yet unknown in this country. The ance with the provincial pronunciation of gong has no distinct or appreciable note, but the writer, is , translated armonia, minstrelsy. gives out a sound consisting of a combination Some modern writers suppose the word, to of harmonics. It has been introduced with

( 198) ;

GORGHEGGI GREAT ORGAN. remarkable effect as an orchestral instrument Gradual modulation. A change of key by Meyerbeer, in his opera " ," by diatonic progreasion. and by Rossini in " Semiramide." Graduate in music. One who has taken Gorgheggi, Gorgheggiare (//.) Trills, a degree in music at a university. quaverings, warblings. Gran.cassa (/f.) Grosse caisse (Fr.) The Gosba. An Arabian flute. There are two big drum. sorts of the gosba, the one with three holes Grand (Fr.) Grande (It.) Large; great, in the lower extremity, producing four sounds complete ; as, grand bourdon, a double bour- which with their harmonics at the fifth complete don ; a grande orchestre, for a complete band. the octave. The instrument is employed to Grand barre (Fr.) A position in guitar guide the voice of a singer. The other gosba playing, the object being to alter the pitch of is larger and pierced with six holes, with a the instrument by making a temporary nut of double hole at the back. the forefinger laid lengthwise across the Grace notes. [Graces.] strings. [Guitar.] Graces. A general term for ornamental Grande mesure k deux temps (Fr,) notes or short passages, introduced as em- Common measure of two beats. bellishments into vocal or instrumental music, Grandezza (It.) Grandeur. not actually essential to its harmony or melody. Grandioso (It.) Grand, in a lofty manner. In former times, in vocal music, the selection Grandisonante (It.) Loud, sonorous. of graces was left to the judgment of the Grand jeu (Fr.) The power obtained by performer to a great extent, but in instru- th#'use of fhe whole of the stops in an organ, mental music numerous signs have from time or by the employment of a stop so called in to time been used, explanations of which will the harmonium which calls into use the whole be found under their distinctive names. Harp- of the available registers. sichord and lute music was always lavishly Gran gusto (Jt.) Elevated taste or ex- ornamented, and in lesson books for these pression. instruments, much care and space is often Grande orgue (Fr.) (i) Full organ. (2) given to a full explanation of their force and The great organ. meaning. [Harpsichord.] Music for viols Grand pianoforte. [Pianoforte.] was also graced in various ways, but never to Gran tamburo (It.) The big drum.

so great an extent as that above named. As Grappa (It.) Ltt., a stem ; a brace which all these instruments are now obsolete it is connects staves. unnecessary to enter further into the subject. Grave (Lat., It., Fr., Eng.) (i) Deep in

In our own time a reaction has taken place pitch ; as, grave hexachord, the lowest hexa- against the absurd embellishments indulged chord in the Guidonian system. (2) Slow ia in by our forefathers, and it has become pace, solemnly. fashionable to sing and play music just as it Gravecembalum, gravicembalo (It.) is written. This is perhaps to be regretted, [Harpsichord.] as those who are rendering music should Gravement (Fr.) Slow, and in a solemn carefully consider whether the writer wished style. ornaments to be excluded, or, omitted to write Gravita, con (It.) With dignity, weight, them under a belief that they would certainly majesty. be introduced in performance. [See Cadenza.] Grazia, con (It.) With grace, elegance. [Accompaniment.] Graziosamente, graziosO (It.) Grace-

Gracieux {Fr.) Graceful ; in a graceful fully, elegantly. style. Greater. Belonging to the major scale to Gracile (It.) Small, thin ; as, voce gracile, as, a greater third, a major third, as C E ; a thin voice. greater sixth, a major sixth, as C to A. A Grad {Ger.) A degree or step of a scale. piece of music, said by the old writers to be Gradation (Fr.) Gradazione (It.) Grada- in any key with the greater third, was in the tion, by degrees of the scale. major mode; with the lesser third, in the Gradevole, gradevolmente (It.) Grate- minor mode. ful, gratefully. Great octave. The sounds lying be- Graditissimo (It.) Most grateful. tween Gradleiter (Ger.) A scale. Grado (7^) Degree or step of a scale; as, di grado, by conjunct motion, as opposed to di salto, by a skip. Graduale {Lat.) A gradual. A piece of represented, according to one system, by music performed between the reading of the single capitals, C, D, E, &c. ; in another, by Epistle and Gospel in the Roman Church. double capitals, as CC, DD, EE, &c. [Pitch.] Graduellement (Fr.) By degrees. Great organ. [Organ.]

( 199 ) —

GREEK MUSIC.

Greek Music (Systems of ancient).* From same names would have been retained if the the time of Homer down to that of Terpan- lyre had been tuned one, two, or three notes der, who seems to have flourished some 300 higher. The longest string was called Hypatfe, years after Homer, the of the Greeks although it gave the lowest sound. If pitch had but four strings. At that early date the had counted for height instead of mere length instrument could only have been used for the of string, the order of Nete and Hypate would purposes of a pitch pipe, just as orators sub- have been reversed. sequently employed it to regulate the pitch of The lower four strings of the lyre were the voice. No tune could be drawn from played by the thumb and three fingers of four notes. the left hand, the string that fell under the raised the number of strings forefinger being called lichanos (the licking- from four to seven, for the service of the up finger), and the thumb upon the key Gods. The following two lines, from one of note or Mese. The three treble strings were his hymns, are preserved in the Introductio played upon by a plectrum, which was a Harmonica, ascribed to, but evidently not piece of ivory, ebony, horn, or any hard written by, Euclid.f wood. This was held in the right hand, " H|i£te rot Terpdycpw cmoaTip^avTce aotS^v, and its use being only occasional, the right hand in ETTT-ardrj) ^opfuyyi viovQ KeXaS^aofisv vfivove."X was a measure left free for action —(p. 19, edit. Meiboin.) in addressing the auditors. This scale of seven notes was formed by The next improvement in Greek music is connecting the first tetrachord, or series of four connected with the most important of all dates notes, with a second series of four, by one in Grecian History—that at which Egypt was sound common to both. To represent these thrown open to the Greeks by Psammetichus sounds in modern notes, they would be as E, the First, King of Egypt. From that event sprang the rapid F, G, A, and A, B flat, C D united by the A advances of the Greeks in in the middle, which was the key note to the science, in art, and in literature. Philosophers, two. The Greeks had the same number of law-givers, historians, astronomers, mathe- perfect fourths in a scale that we have, but maticians, musicians, architects, physicians, when they formed their scales by tetrachords, and alchemists—indeed all who were intent the or fourths, they selected that position of the upon acquisition of learning—sought it in fourth, in which the semitone came between that world of ancient civilization. It was the lowest two strings—as E, F, G, A. The there that Thales learnt to measure the height ORIGINAL SEVEN-STRINGED SYSTEM OF THE of a temple or of a pyramid by the length of its shadow there to divide LYRE was then as follows : — the year into 365 days. Itwas there 'd. Nete (shortest string, giving that one of the philosophical the highest sound). re-discoveries of the last and of the present Upper century, c. Paranete (beside Nete). viz., that sounds may be both too Tetrachord. bjlat. Paramese (beside Mese). high and too low to reach the human ear, was known thousands of >a. Mese (middle string and key years ago. note, connecting the two Until the reign of Psammetichus the Greeks had been going on a wrong road to Lower fourths). Lichanos (forefinger music. The seven strings could produce TetrlchoTdA^- string^. F. Parhypate (beside Hypate). nothing worthy of the name of tune with such a scale as E. Hypate (longest string, giv- they had ; at least so long as ing the lowest sound). the middle string remained the key note of The above are names of the strings of the that scale. All the ancient fables of Orpheus and lyres, and not of notes of a fixed pitch. The Amphion must rest upon their skill in poetical recitation, which was one branch of music in the Greek sense. As to Amphion, * " The Systems ot Ancient Greek Music compared he, no doubt, sang in such lively with Modern Music," abbreviated from Chappell's rhythm as History of Music. to expedite the builders in order to keep time to it, and hence the fable of his raised + Two treatises on music are ascribed to Euclid, the having the Introductio Hannanha and the Sectio Canonis. The walls of Thebes by his lyre. second is a mathematical treatise quoted by Porphyrius Psammetichus I. began his reign in 664, as Euclid's, but the first is an Aristoxenian or practical B.C.§ He was the first of the Pharaohs who musician's treatise in a different school. (It is none the less valuable, whoever may have been its author.) With this reservation both will hereafter be quoted § In Dr. W. Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman as Euclid's, to abbreviate references. Proclus says Biography, the date of Psammetichus I. is given as 671, only that Euclid wrote on the elements of music. B.C., and to this is added a note that Boeckh dates (Kara fioviriKrlv aTov^fetiiaeis.') his reign as 654, B.C. As Egyptian dates can be carried back with tolerable certainty from the conquest % But we, loving no more the four-toned song. of Egypt by Cambyses, and the above is rather vague Will sing aloud new hymns to a seven-toned lyre. for a matter of such importance Cespecially when early

( 200 ) —

GREEK MUSIC. cultivated the friendship of the Greeks; he After new lyres had been made to carry eight invited them as settlers, and engaged Carian strings the entire octave was included upon and Greek mercenaries in his army. It was the instrument. The old system of tuning the change in Egyptian policy that enabled the lyre was then called Synaphe or Conjunc- Pythagoras to go to Egypt, where he is said tion [avva^rj),* and the new, or octave, system to have lived 22 years. He is the reputed was called Harmonia {hpnovla), the " fitting discoverer of the octave system of music, in " system, because it fitted in the lesser which was certainly known in Egypt at least consonances of the fourth and fifth into the a thousand years before his visit. greater consonance of the octave. (Verb. The popular myth of the Egyptian hpfioZtLv, and the participle, used as an adjec-

' and the lyre, is that, when walking by the tive, iiftfiodfiivoQ.') When the principle was banks of the Nile, he accidentally kicked the fully established, harmonia became a syno- shell of a dried tortoise, in which there was nym for music, in our sense of the word, nothing remaining but dried sinews, and that for the Greek word, Mousike, embraced all it emitted musical sounds, and thus suggested the arts and sciences over which the to him the idea of forming it into a musical presided. instrument. The Egyptian name of the ^ The old dissonant seventh (from E to d) God was Thoth. The instrument was the was made into an octave (from E to e) by the Egyptian nefer, in hieroglyphics nfr (without interposition of a tone between the two, the vowels), so sometimes translated nofra or previously, conjoined fourths or tetrachords. nefru. This musical instrument is found This interposed tone was called the dia- in hieroglyphics at as early a date as the zeuktic tone, or tone of disjunction {tovoq building of the second pyramid. The meaning expressed by the hieroglyphic is The following is the scale for the seven, " good." and for the eight stringed lyre upon the The difference between the Greek lyre and Egyptian or Octave System. It is here the Egyptian lute was that the former had no printed in the Greek " common" musical neck, against which the strings could be scale—our A minor with a minor seventh : pressed. A lyre with an open back could give but one sound from each string, but Seven Stringed Lvre. when the same string was pressed against a finger-board it would produce notes in every variety, according as the vibrating part of the string was shorter or longer. The first lesson to be learnt from it was that the half of a string would produce the sound of the octave above the whole length; next, that, by stop- ping one-third of it, the remaining two-thirds would sound the musical interval of a fifth

above the whole length ; and that by stopping a fourth part, the remaining three-fourths would sound the interval of a fourth above the whole. In this way the Greeks learnt to produce every note of a scale, as well as the relation between geometrical proportions and musical sounds. At the time of this discovery Greek lyres had only been made, on the Terpander model, to carry seven strings, so that, on learning the octave system, which required eight, they were obliged to leave out one of the notes.

authorities differ also by ten years in the length of his reign), the assistance of Samuel Birch, Esq., LL.D., F.S.A., keeper of the Antiquities in the British Museum, was sought for to decide between the discrepancies, and most kindly given in the following words : —" The highest monumental date known of Psammetichus I. is 54 years, according to the Apis tablets of the Sera- peium, which agrees with the statement of Herodotus. The date of 664, B.C., is the lowest probable date of the accession of Psammetichus, which might be a year or two higher, and Boeckh's date is inadmissible." .

GREEK MUSIC.

above and below. He could then produce (apfioviKif) had the same meaning. The Pytha- something more like to a tune than was pos- gorean writers on music were called Har- sible upon the old scale. Before that time monici {dpfioviKot),i and some of them, before any Greek chant would have sounded to the time of Aristoxenus, had given such exclu- modern ears as never ending, for their key sive preference to the seven-stringed system^ note would be to us as the third of the key, coupling with it the enharmonic division of because we have a major scale (which the the octave, and calling this enharmonic branch Greeks had not), and we could associate such of the system "harmonia," that the word was recitations with the key of F major through not infrequently used, instead of enharmonia, the B flat. The scales of the Greeks were all for a long time after. This, however, was in minor keys, and the nearest approach they not the original meaning, as the following had to a major scale was one of five tones, extract from Philolaos, who first published which might be extracted from the chromatic the Pythagorean doctrines, will show. It scale, of which hereafter. refers to the seven-stringed octave, so Trite The reason why Pythagoras preferred to is B, not C, which it became on the eight- omit C, which was a major third from the top stringed lyre. on the seven stringed lyre, and a minor third § 'Apfioviag Se fiiyedoQ ivTi (TvWafia KalSio^etdv above the key note (a), was because, at that ' TO Se Sio^sidv ftei^ov rdc (rvXKa(iai iiroySo^ time (but not after Didymus, Claudius £<7rt yap airo virarae ie p-iaav

* TlvOayopaa S'6 ag/ivos . . . Trj FavaXoynaj Harmonia [contains] five tones and two limmag [or kpfiovl^ airapKcc revd/iil^e fie\pi tov Sid traawv semitones], the fifth [contains] three tones and a semitone, and the fourth two tones and a semitone. tTTYJa-ai rhv YiJQ fiovaiKric iirlyvitxiiv —Plutarch, De

Musica, cap. Philolaos, edit., Boeckh, p. 66, Svo : Berlin, 18 zg. 37. II

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GREEK MUSIC.

Mese, which means middle, had also the —Tilv SeKafia/jLOva to^iv 'c\ovira office of key note at the time when it only Tae avfKfiiavovaaQ apfioviae TpwSovg. connected the two fourths in the old seven- Uplv fiey akirTOTOVov i//dX\o>' lia riaaapa irayrsc stringed system. It retained the name in the EWtji/ec, tTTtaviav fiovaav aeipafiEvoi \ latter sense, as the centre and turning point Ion produced his first tragedy (according to of the system, when the ten lyre had eight or Suidas), B.C. 453, and died B.C. 421. It is strings, and consequently no middle ; for clear that he here refers to the old system, " eight has no middle," says Aristotle, re- and not to the new, by nanjing only three " ferring to it.* Systems without mutation," harmonies or concords [avfiri]. \\ quotations might be given to the same effect. After the time of Ion, the original Greek Mese was not only the key note to all Greek scale received only one more string, the scales; it is to this day the key note of our eleventh, which was added at the base to minor scales, which we derived wholly through make an octave to Mese, thus borrowing from the Greeks. the octave system. It was a great improve- Although the Greeks had now arrived at ment, for in this form it gave an octave of the only true system of music, yet their old the Hypo-Dorian or common Greek scale (our one was not allowed to die away. There A minor with a minor seventh) from A to a, were, no doubt, ancient hymns to the Gods and an octave of the Dorian scale (our D upon that system, and so they continued to minor with a minor seventh) from D to d use it. Terpander, who first added a second the last through having the b flat in the upper tetrachord to the lyre, was a hymnologist, and part of the scale. more than 200 years after him, Ion of Chios, In this, its completed form, it became "The another hymnologist, added a third conjoined lesser perfect system" of the Greeks, until tetrachord, and so increased the number of Claudius Ptolemy disputed the claim of such strings from seven to ten. The following a scale to be called " perfect." The defect he extract from one of Ion's hymns is preserved saw in it was that it did not include the by Euclid :— twelfth or fifteenth.

The Lesser Perfect System.

The Synemmenon Tetrachord d. (trvvriiifitvtiiy) or Conjunct Fourth.

The Meson Tetrachord (^fiEtrur) or Middle Fourth. The Hypaton Tetrachord (biraTiiv) or Lowest Fourth (added by Ion). The acquired note not included in any Tetrachord. GREEK MUSIC.

new Hypate (B) became H)rpate-Hypaton, other writers, has been to understand Greek or lowest of the lowest tetrachord. And now, octaves. It was very natural to suppose that to quit the lesser perfect system and revert to a Greek octave scale would begin and end the greater, and more important one. like one of two octaves, viz., upon the key

Many have written of Greek music without note ; but it was not so. The Greek octave distinguishing between the two systems, and scale took from the middle of the two-octave as one instance, we may name Dr. Burney. scale, and began a fourth below the key note tte mixes the two into one as " the great, and ended a fifth above it. In other words,

the perfect, the immutable system . . . com- when the octave scale was increased to two posed oi five tetrachords" (p. 3), and then octaves, it was by the addition of a new " says : after ascending regularly thus, up to tetrachord or fourth at each extreme, and D, by three conjoint tetrachords, the fourth in then joining on at the base, the "acquired the great system is begun by descending a tone " to make an octave to the key note,

minor third to B natural . . . Something of Mese. So that, whether they had a one this dodging kind is to be found in the scale octave or a two octave lyre, the key note was of Guido" (note to p. 5, vol. i). This is in or near the middle, and a Greek could altogether a mistake, there is no " dodging." recite or sing at least a few notes above, as The d, to which he refers, is the highest note well as a few notes below it. of the lesser system, which was perfectly dis- The following is the "disjunct," two octave tinct from the greater. system complete. Another difficulty of Dr. Burney's and of

The Greater Perfect System.

{avarrifia rsKdov)

The extreme, or Hyperboleon. a. Nete Hyperboleon. {yiTEpjioKaliov) g. Paranete id. Tetrachord. f. Trite id. e. Nete The disjunct, or DiezeugmenOn d. Paranete Diezeugmenon. c. Trite Tetrachord. id. b. Paramese id. The tone of disjunction, or Diazeuktic tone (rovoc ZiaievKTiKoe) The middle, or Meson a. Mese (key note). (jutffwv) G. Lichanos (or Diatonos) Meson. Tetrachord. F. Parhypate id. "E. Hypate The lowest, or Hypaton id. D. Lichanos (inrarwv) or (Diatonos) Hypaton. Tetrachord. C. Parhypate id. B. Hypate id. The acquired tone not belonging to any A. Proslambanomenos. Tetrachord. I

This two-octave scale is at least as old as When the Greeks changed from one genus, the fourth century B.C., and it was a sliding or kind of scale {yivoe) to another, they never scale, to be taken to the extent of an octave altered the tuning of more than the two inner higher. Aristoxenus speaks of the highest strings of each tetrachord. The Lichanoses of the above tetrachords in one of his extant and P^rhypates of the lower octave, and the fragments, as well as of the art of writing Trites and Paranetes of the upper were alone down music (pp. 39, 40). He also enumerates moveable (Ktvovfiivol or (pspoixivoi). Of' these the six different modes of tuning the lyre, viz., it was only in the enharmonic genus that two diatonic, three chromatic, and one both second and third string of each tetra- enharmonic (p. 50 et seq.). Of these here- chord were tuned differently. In the Chro- after. matic the third from the top (Trites or Parhy-

( 204 ) f;

GREEK MUSIC. pates) remained as they were. The extremes scales, viz., five Principal scales, Dorian, of tetrachords and the "acquired tone" (Pros- lastian or Ionian, Phrygian, jEolian, and lambanomenos) were fixed sounds (iffriiree). Lydian. Each of these had its attendant This did not prevent the re-tuning of the Hypo and Hyper, or Dominant and Sub- whole lyre to any other pitch. Dominant. The Hypos were a fourth below A comparison of the greater with the lesser their principals (which gives the same scale system will show that the lower octave is the as the fifth above) and the Hypers were a same in both. It is only from the key note up- fourth above. wards that any change is made. In the lesser When they modulated from one key to system, after a, it goes to b flat, c, d, and stops another they did it as we do, by some sound while the greater system carries up a second common to both, and the greater the con- octave of the same kind as the lower one. nection between the two scales, the better The Greeks had in all fifteen Diatonic was the modulation esteemed.*

The Fifteen Scales of Alypius are:

Principals.

(A.) Hypo-Dorian. (D.) Dorian. (G.) Hyper-Dorian or Mixo-Lydian.

(Bb.) Hypo-Ionian (E|7.) Ionian. (Ai? .) Hyper-Ionian. (B.) Hypo-Phrygian. (E.) Phrygian. (A.) Hyper-Phrygian.

(C.) Hypo-^olian. (F.) ^olian. (B t».) Hyper-^olian. (C#.) Hypo-Lydian. (F#.) Lydian. (B.) Hyper-Lydian.

It will be observed that the classical Lydian curious instance of self-contradiction remains^ was F sharp, and not F, as in church scales, The in his second edition. true Lydian was a tone above the Phrygian. As all Greek scales were tuned with per- In Pindar's time the Hypo-Dorian scale fect fourth, fifth, and octave, and all (till about was called .^olian ; the above arrangement the birth of Christ) with major tones only, of intervals between scales is therefore less there could not possibly be any musical differ- ancient than his date. ence, other than that of relative pitch, between The Greeks had no fixed pitch-^neither one scale and another, if the lyre was tuned have we at this present time. The only for each scale. Differences of character be- directions about it are to tune the lyre from tween one key and another arise from one the lowest distinctly audible tone of the voice, key being less perfectly in tune than another. and every man had a different voice. Instru- But inasmuch as certain metres were asso- ments made to be played together would ciated with particular scales, and the character necessarily be at one pitch ; but there was no of the music would correspond with the spirit fixed rule for them. of the verse, there might be as much differ- The Greeks had, in the fifteen scales, one ence between them as between a hymn and a beginning upon every semitone of the octave march. The difficulty is that Greek authors and two beginning beyond it. The five Hypos were not agreed upon the character of any extended from A to C sharp, the five princi- scale but the Dorian. That was to be severe, pals from D to F sharp, qnd the five H)T)ers grave, and manly. But as to Phrygian, while from G to b. esteemed it as smooth and fit for prayer, The three highest Hypers were therefore Aristotle speaks of it as enthusiastic and the same scales as the three lowest Hypos, bacchic. These contradictory estimates have only taken an octave higher. These double been collected by Boeckh in his Metres of names for the same keys were unnecessary, Pindar (lib. iii. c. 8.) except in relation to their principals. The usual way of tuning the lyre was to the Dr. Bumey says "That the ancients had Dorian, the central scale of the seven, -and no G sharp or E flat" (p. 26, vol. i); but at esteemed as the true Greek system. This p. 41 of the same volume he shows by a preference for the Dorian is proved by all the table of the modes that they had both. This accounts of the Greek octaves. The seven principal scales are therefore presented in * Euclid, p. 21. I that form, showing what notes would come All Greek writers are agreed upon this ; see, for f octave lyre (within the cross instance, Bacchius, p. 12. upon the lines) lyre. + Gaudentius, p. 22, &c. and upon the two-octave

( 205 ) GREEK MUSIC.

Scales for the Lyre.

ixo-Lydian, or 1 Octave Lyre. Hyper-Dorian. " minor. J -^ -^ Mese. jC2Z c l?o m^-- mi ^ ~gy Lydian. FS minor. le- ^ Mese. 1^=1S2Z ^M 321 JM^^:^!! i ^^a^ Phrygian. E minor. ff Mese. >r> W- 32: ^ -s> czz %'' "^ Mese. PN Dorian. D minor. ~73~ >3- Mt rj «g- - ^ ?^» g*- Mese. i Hypo-Lydian. C^ minor. 1^=1^ - ucaz ^la -ib ^ ^ Mese. i^ Hypo-Phrygian. B minor. ^^ 321 ^ Mese. Hypo-Dorian. A minor. Q- Miz 123= -!e| i T7~ In the above diagram the sharps and flats has been this. Although the, Greeks had are marked to the notes (as well as at the different signs {ai\\itia) for writing down musi- signature.) only for the purpose of showing to cal notes, and they wrote down music in the the eye, at a glance, which of the strings 4th century B.C., they had no fixed name must be retuned to change from one key into for any note. Some readers may remember another. The Dorian, being the centre scale, that there was an old plan of teaching singing has its entire fifteen notes; but the three in England (which has been partially revived), scales above it want one, two, or three of in which the key note was always called Do, their upper notes, while the three below it and consequently every modulation or change want one, two, or three of their lower. The of key made another Do. Just so with the octave lyre has its series complete. Greeks, only instead of Do read Mese. Ever;)' Supposing a Greek singer to begin in the string was tuned to Mese, and if a Greek knew Dorian, and to wish to take in the Hypo and the Mese he could tell the distance of any other Hyper (or Dominant and Sub-Dominant), note, So, when Euclid and others* say that he would require either to re-tune one string the Mjxo-Lydian octave begins upon Hypate for each, or else to have a ten-stringed lyre. Hypatop, they mean that it begins upon the All the other strings serve for the three con- lowest note but one of its own scale, just as nected keySj and it would be the same in any it does in the preceding example. The key is other key. Thus, in the key of C we require G minor, with a minor seventh, and the octave but F sharp and B flat for its Dominant and lyre begins upon A. The great mistake has Sub-Domjnant. A ten-stringed lyre would been to take the names of the strings for fixed include the principal and its two connected soundsj and so to make a MixovLydian octave scales. Hence the importance of a ten- in a Hypo-Dorian scale, instead of in its own stringe4 lyre, or a ten-stringed , such scale. This error underlies all the old music as we read of in the psalms. It was not the called Gregorian (although in the time of S. mere addition of an upper note or two, which Ambrose and S. Gregory there was no such was a great objection, in the public eye; as peculiar music), and in consequence of this likely to lead to extravagances in declamation. misapprehension "Gregorian tones or scales" After the Greeks had once discovered the have wrong key notes, octave system, they might have added an- When Bacchius asks '< What are the names other octave with the same facility as another of the three scales, if only three are. used?" string. he answers for himself, commencing with The preceding (as well as the f6ll,owing) the scale of highest pitch, " Lydian, Phrygian, diagram will explain that most ancient 'puzzle, the Greek octaves. The root of the difficulty Euclid, p. 15; Gaudentius, p. 19; Bacchius, p. 19; &c.

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GREEK MUSIC.

Dorian." And " when seven ?" " Mixo-Lydian, ordinary voices. Dr. Burney says that many Lydian, Phrygian, Dorian, Hypo-Lydian, persons imagined Ptolemy to have proposed Hypo- Phrygian, and Hypo- Dorian." These to raise them a fifth higher (History, vol. I., p. are the seven in the preceding example. 45, line 4I. That would have made them im- Claudius Ptolemy proposed to reduce the possible for men. They were decidedly very entire number of fifteen scales to the above high for men at the ancient historical pitch. seven, thinking them sufficient, and he pro- Ptolemy gives precisely the same rule for posed another very desirable change, viz., to transposing these scales that any musician transpose them all a fourth lower for the lyre, would give to-day, and the following is the so as to bring them all within the reach of result :

Scales for the Lyre transposed a fourth lower, by Claudius Ptolemy.

Mixo-Lydian or 1 „ Octave Lyre. Mese. ^p, '"">°'-„, Hyper-Dorian. j JJQ- mh rj o lEz: zar Mese. $ Lydian. CJt minor. — ^^: ^-> g ^r^m ^^ ^^ naz Mese. Phrygian. B minor. mf- -& E^ ~rr- $^ zaz Mese. Dorian. A minor. jQ- -^r di± O

^ o - "- n?" T3~ I Z2= minor. Mese.IVlDbC. Hypo-Lydian. gJi J. *°- f^

C. 1h frg 1 Wh^. #|r>, ¥ Hypo-Phrygian. F1 minor. Mese -Q. _cs_ -sr ^|j TT" |M t^^ * I°= HypO'Dorian. E minor. Mese. ~gy -—Q- Y^ ^

It will be observed that the key notes occupy I one which the Romans adopted, we turn to

the same positions as before; therefore the I the Chromatic Scale.

succession of intervals must be the same, for, I The Greeks had three kinds of Chromatic

as with us, the key note determines the sucr I scale, of which only one was much used.

cession. I Aristoxenus calls it the Chroma tonaion

And now, quitting the diatonic scale which is I (xpw/iarovatoj-). It ascended the tetrachord by

by far the most important of all, and the only I semitone, semitone, and minor third, as below.

On the Octave Lyre Or in our octave- A being the key note ->ri--

The outside notes of tetrachords are here five tones in minor and to change them to marked in minims, and the inner notes in five in major, but we have no proof that they crotchets, only to be more readily distinguish- ever made that use of the scale. There are able. Of the inner notes it is only the higher the necessary F sharp and the C sharp for the of each two that differs from the diatonic scale. key of A major, and, as the seventh of the This chromatic scale is of interest in the scale is altogether omitted, the G sharp, which history of music as being the first approach would be required in a complete scale, is to a major scale among the ancients that has not called into question. Five of the tones yet been discovered. It enabled them to play make a major scale, wanting the fourth and

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GREEK MUSIC.

that the seventh of the key—in other words it is a scale might think this sufficient evidence of the five tones without the two semitones. five-toned Irish and Scotch tunes (we might If the major scale were played in the Lydian add English, for there are many of them) are mode, beginning on F sharp, the succession to be traced back to ancient Egypt. Proof of notes would be the same as the five short would be wanting, but imagination sometimes (and usually black) keys of the pianoforte. goes a long way as a substitute. Divide the An enthusiastic Irishman or Scotchman scale into major and minor and it runs thus

iftfe =S=?c ^ ^ Key of major. EE Key of A minor. A i i?

There could not be a complete major scale quired were common both to the Diatonic and among the Greeks, because they had a musi- to Chromatic scales. cal law that the seventh of the scale must be The quarter tones were sometimes employed at least a tone beldw the key note. It might both in and before the time of Aristoxenus, be more, but it could not be less. for he says that a singer could neither sing This chromatic scale was of very simple them with certainty nor the hearer judge of formation on the lyre. It required but to them.f He also says that no one could sing lower the forefinger string (lichanos), and three quarter-tones in succession. such others as occupied the like position in the upper tetrachords, half a tone ; and so to Other scales but little used. make' a skip of a minor third down, instead of only a tone, between it and the highest string Euclid, at the commencement of his treatise, principal of the tetrachord, as from A to F sharp instead (p. 3) names , only the preceding of from A to G. scales, but afterwards recapitulates them .to- The Enharmonic Scale was of the same gether with others less used (p. 10). Although kind as the chromatic, but made a skip down he gives but the tuning of one tetrachord of of a major third, as from A to F, instead of each he thereby explains the entire octave, the minor third from A to F sharp, as in the because the octave (as we view it, i.e., begin- chromatic. But the whole tetrachord only ning from the key note) was made up first by extended one semitone below F, viz. to E, the diazeuktic tone, or tone of disjunction (next and as there was a string already on E, aind above the key note), and then of two conjoined that a fixed sound, which could not be altered, tetrachords above it. It would have been the otherwise useless intermediate string was the same if begun from Proslambanomenos, tuned to a quarter tone between E and F, and the octave below this diazeuktic tone. A was occasionally used as a grace note. Such tetrachord, or fourth, consists, in Aristoxenian was the simple origin of quarter-tones in a phrase, or roughly speaking, of two tones Greek scale. They could not be harmonized. and a semitone. To show the divisions of , who seems to have flourished a the tetrachord we adopt Claudius Ptolemy's short time after Terpander,* is said by Plu- plan of explaining them (lib. i. c. 13) in pre- tarch, on the authority of a lost work of ference to that of Aristoxenus and of Euclid Aristoxenus, to have discovered the enhar- (p. II and 12). monic scale by merely passing over the Aristoxenus and Euclid represent the semi- lichanos, or forefinger string, in preluding tone by 6 and the tone by 12, making the but that he did not use the quarter-tones. whole tetrachord 30. Ptolemy counts a diesis It was a later idea to utilize the unemployed or quarter-tone for 6, a semitone for 12, a the tetrachord as 60. string. The enharmonic of Olympus might i tone for 24, and entire have been played upon any lyre which had Thus he avoids fractions. The following is

I : the ordinary tuning, for all the notes it re- ! the Complete List of Greek Scales

1. The Tonal Diatonic (already given) diarovov avvTOvov 12, 24, 24 = 60. 2. The Soft Diatonic SiaTovov fiaXaKov 12, 18, 30 = 60. 3. The Semitonic Chromatic (already given) ... ^p&ixa Tovaiov 12, 12, 36 60. 4. The Soft Chromatic \piina fiaXaxdv 8, 8, 44 = 60. 5. The Sesquialteral Chromatic Xpw/ia ijfiLoKiov 9, 9, 42 = 60. 6. The one and only Enharmonic (already given) 6, 6, 48 = 60.

* " Olympus must have flourished a short time after writer is as liberal with his thousands of years for the Terpander." Mueller's Literature of "Greece, p. 202. Greeks as if they were but mille francs, (Histoire M. F^tis most amusingly attributes this invention to an Generale de la Mnsique, I. 131, 8vo., i86g.) " imaginary Olympus, who is said to have lived about t Aristox., p. 14, 1. 20. two centuries before the siege of Troy." The learned X Aristox., p. 28.

( 208 ) , "

GREEK MUSIC.

1 Aristides Quintilianus describes also six Lydian 1 enharmonic modes which, according to him, " " are of very ancient origin.* These scales Dorian 1 1 are not mentioned by any other writer on music, neither is there any kind of allusion Phrygian 1 1 to the use of any second description of en- harmonic scale elsewhere. Even Aristides 1 himself says that the enharmonic scale is lastian indivisible (at p. 133), and it must have been indivisible because the quarter-tone was 1 Mixo-Lydian . . \ the smallest intervalemployed in Greek music. The only two moveable sounds were already Syntono-Lydian(sic)J 1 1^2 quarter-tones. These "very ancient" scales can therefore be nothing more than mixed scales. In the above, the key note of the Dorian is The version of them given by Meibomius, in its right place as the central scale, and, in who first published the treatise of Aristides, that, it agrees with the manuscript. It has has been hitherto accepted without question.t the diazeuktic tone next above it. The Phry- The text that Meibomius followed was un- gian, however, is in the wrong place. It doubtedly very faulty, but, when he attempted ought to be a string above the Dorian. Mei- to amend it, he patched it in the wrong places. bomius has added a quarter-tone to this Scales were a great trouble to him, and he scale, to make it agree with the quantity but he even failed to give the conjunct scale of three stated in another line of the text ; quarter-tone tetrachords correctly. J should have placed the added The following are the scales as printed by on the left instead of on the right of the key Meibomius. The figures i, 3, 3, relate to note. The figure 2 must be found wherever placed but as it tones, and the ^ to quarter-tones. the key note or Mese is ; now stands, Dorian and Phrygian have their key note on the same string, which was im- possible. " * Ale KOI 01 iravv TraXaioTaroi Trpog rag kpfio- The scale above called Mixo-Lydian vias Kij^pijjrai (p. 21.) proves that these are mixed scales. There could be no interval of three tones with- As by Boeckh in his Metres of Pindar, and by the dia- •f- out omitting both the key note and the late learned writer of the article "Musica" in the zeuktic tone two fixed sounds—and there Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, edited by — Wm. Smith, LL.D. could not be a sequence of one tone after another in the enharmonic scale. % See his notes upon Euclid, p, 63. He has omitted As to the scale here called Syntono-Lydian Hypate at the bottom of the lowest tetrachord (but is simply Hypo-Lydian, and nothing else. Hypate was a standing sound, and could not be omitted) it its key note on and commenced it upon Parhypate, which is one of the This is proved by its having inner moveable sounds. All his tetrachords are there- the third string, and in that it accords with fore wrong. The origin of this mistake is that he has the manuscript. There was no such enhar- made Trite and Paramese into two strings, whereas in monic scale as Syntono-'Lyd.ia.n, nor could the conjunct scale they were never other than one, B be applied to any flat. There should have been no Paramese in the scale, such a prefix as Syntono because it is the conjunct scale of Ion, and so dating enharmonic scale whatever. § more than 200 years after the octave system had been in The true positions of the key notes will be use, Paramese then belonged only to the octave system. best exemplified by subjoining the enhar- At some long previous time the names of Paramese and their proper order on the Trite had been indiscriminately applied to B flat in the monic scales in conjunct scale, but never as separate strings in that octave lyre. system. It is singular that an editor of the Greek writers upon music should not have been able to vmte out a scale, and perhaps equally singular that such trvvreivo), to draw together. In the enharmonic errors should have passed for 200 years unobserved. It § instead of being drawn tight, is desirable to draw attention to them because these scale the moveable sounds, are by no means soUtary errors in Meibomius. One were relaxed to the extreme. " Suvrovwrdrtj liarovoe instance more : in his notes upon Aristides Quinti- koTiv," says Aristoxenus, p. 25, line 11, and again lianus (p. 209, column I, line 6) he says that the two 26. Further he says, "KadoXov yap jiap-vTarai jxkv most ancient tetrachords were joined together by a p. a'l evapfiovioi \f)(avoi -^irav, kxof'-^vai Se at •)(jpb>fia- string common to both, and that that string was called hypate meson. This is an entire mistake; the string TiKai, avvTov

( 209 ) GREGORIANISCHE GESANG GROUND BASS.

The Greek Enharmonic Scale. but Greeks are every thing that is good (pp. and Clearly he was a Greek. But even Mese 72 73). 1 if he lived undef the Roman empire, the Mixo-Lydian . 2 I 1 i than the one / Romans used no other scale 1 diatonic, so that all others were matters of Lydian . . . in society a man of / history. We may meet 1 1 1 large general information, and yet if we ask Phrygian . . him to define a "sackbui," he may fail;

1 1 although he has probably seen one every time Dorian . . . he went to opera or concert, and the name / 1 of the instrument was only changed in the Hypo-Lydian . 2 I an / last century. Or, we might even ask I musician to define a scale of Hypo-Phrygian 2 I accomplished / Chaucer's time, and he might fail; so, like- 1 wise, may Aristides Quintilianus have failed. Hypo- Dorian . 2 I The corrections are supplied by his own an- The diagonal line shows the key note of cestors. The passage referred to by Aristides each scale with its tone of disjunction next is in the third book of the Republic of Plato.* above it. The other figures of 2 are the high- The prefix of "Syntono" is usually unneces- est notes of other tetrachords. lastian (or sary, because it means the ordinary Lydian, Ionian) has no place in these scales, because and therefore is rarely expressed, but Plato it would require the position of one of the employs it, because he wishes to distinguish above, seven, and it was for such reasons it from the Malakon (or laxly tuned) Lydian, Claudius Ptolemy proposed to reduce the to which also he adverts in the text. number of scales to seven. As to the Syntono- Aristides Quintilianus is not the only Greek Lydian of the manuscript, it is clearly a mis- writer of comparatively late date, whose works take for Hypo-Lydian. It may seem strange require testing by those of his ancestors. that I should have to correct a Greek writer, The two Lexicographers, Hesychius and Sui- but this is an unmistakable case, and one in das, explain musical terms indifferently, and which he was only speaking of something the difficulties that have been found in trans- "very ancient," of which he had no intimate lating certain passages of Plato and Aristotle, knowledge. The date of the writer has been are in a measure due to reliance upon their clearly over-rated, and the manuscript of his imperfect definitions of technical words relat- treatise is exceedingly corrupt. In order to ing to the art. make one line of the text agree with another, Gregorianischer Gesang {Ger.) Gre- Meibomius twice changed the word "tone" gorian chant. [Plain song.] into"ditone" in the Lydian scale; he added a Gregorian. [Plain song.] diesis, or quarter-tone to the Phrygian, the Griffbret {Ger.) Finger-board of a stringed same to the Mixo-Lydian, and the final ditone instrument. to what is called Syntono-Lydian. All these Groppo (It.) A bunch, or, group of notes. additions and alterations will be seen by com- Gros Fa. The square notation used in paring his Latin translation with the Greek old church music. text (p. 2i), and they are admitted and justi- Grosse {Ger.) (i) Major, applied to in- fied in Meibomius's notes. tervals. (2) Grand, or great ; as grosse Sonate, Meibomius was the first to publish the grand sonata. (3) Double in pitch ; as, work of Aristides Quintilianus, and he seems grosse Nazard, a quint, an organ stop, an to have been desirous of magnifying such an octave below the Quinte, a pedal twelfth ; grosse to acquisition to literature, by ascribing the stop of lof ft. in length. author as remote a date as he could guess. Grosse caisse {Fr.) The big drum. overlooks his having copied from Meibomius Grosso {It.) Great, full, grand ; as con- Claudius Ptolemy (the numerical estimate of certi grossi, grand concertos. 6o for a tetrachord is taken from Ptolemy) Gros tambour {Fr.) The big drum. and thinks that Martianus Capella (who lived Grottesco {It.) Grotesque, comic, hum- about the end of the fifth century), copied orous. from Aristides. The numberless petty differ- Ground Bass. Basse contrainte {Fr.) ences between the two upon a common sub- Basso ostinato {It.) Bassthema {Ger.) A ject seem greatly to militate against the bass passage of four or eight bars in length, theory, and Meibomius's own notes afford the constantly repeated, each successive time evidence. Aristides had evidently studied

Latin, because he quotes Cicero ; he passes * M.l^oXvdl

( 210 ) a;

GROUND BASS. accompanied with a varied melody and har- tempore performance. Well known "grounds" mony. were often selected by composers for a species The idea of this peculiar form of composi- of writing called folias or follias. Thus Fari- tion was probably suggested by the practice of nelli's or Fardinel's ground was used by singing a varied descant upon a given plain song. Corelli, Vivaldi, and others. The old writers contemporary with, and Grounds by Purcell, Tollit, Moteley, Pe- immediately succeeding Palestrina, frequently pusch, and others, are often found as the made use of the church-tones as themes bases of many compositions published, even for counterpoint, but did not always give so late as the latter part of the last cen- those themes to any one particular voice, but tury. The practice of performing upon a assigned them to all by turns. This form of given ground bass gave rise to treatises pro- writing was called by them " Falso-bordone." fessing to instruct the ambitious in the art. Monteverde in his opera "Orfeo," represented One of the most famous of these works, at Mantua 1607, has a Moresca, a dance " Chelys Minutionem, or the Division Viol," written upon a sort of ground bass in a form by Christopher Simpson, 1665, gives, as far that may be said to be the connecting link as possible, all the necessary rules, with many between one form of the falso-bordone and examples. His description of the jnethod of the basso ostinato. Strictly speaking, in this performing " division on a ground," is inter- case, it is an imitated bass, as it appears each esting, and may not be out of place here. successive time in a new key, but the intervals He says that " Diminution or division to a are imitated throughout. It is repeated four ground, is the breaking either of the bass, or times. The first time it is in ,G major, the of any higher part that is applicable thereto. second in C major, the third in A minor, the The manner of expressing it is thus— fourth time in D minor, each section ending ground, subject, or bass, call it what you with a major chords please, is prick'd down on two several papers Monteverde. one for him who is to play the ground upon an organ, harpsichord, or whatever instru- ment may be fit for that purpose; the other for him that plays upon the viol, who, having the said ground before his eyes as a theme or subject, plays such variety of descant or division in accordance thereto as his skill and present invention do then suggest unto him." As the " grounds " given were very short, and the compass of the viol was in those days limited, this quaint sort of extempore descant was perhaps not difficult, neither could it have been very varied or interesting, except perhaps, to those immediately concerned. The kind of ground bass given in the " Chelys " may be seen by the subjoined

specimen :

There are also several " Divisions " on this ground given, which it is not necessary to quote. The opera, " Dido and Eneas," written by Purcell in his 19th year, contains a very good example of a song vyritten on a The employment of a ground bass as a ground bass. The melody is beautiful and regular musical device became more general plaintive, and the harmonies rich and appro- later in the same century. In the works of priate. '' Dido and Eneas," itiyy. the composers of that period, pieces with - • ground basses are frequently found, either m-\ 1 1 1 -t strictly continued or with short digressions. They were employed for compositions in all styles, for the church, for the stage, or for the chamber; for movements in suites, , dance tunes, &c. Many famous musicians furnished " grounds" for the purpose of ex- GROUP GUITAR.

" Saul," " Susannah," and other works suffi- ciently prove.

Whea I am laid, am laid ... in . earth, may my Group, (i) A series of notes, of small

time-value, grouped together ; a division or run. (2) The method of setting out band parts in score.

|lt [=Sgzzgp:[=tes-^=i?p (Ger.) bass part. ^ ['- Grundstimme The Grundton (Ger.) (i) The bass note. (2) Fundamental bass. ^^^-J+^.^^^tH^^^=^zg^^=Lj Gruppetto, gruppo (It.) A series of notes

wrongs ere - ate no trou - ble, no trou-ble in thy grouped as a cadenza, division, or ornament. Playford (Introduction to the Skill of Musick) gives the name Double relish to the gruppo and the following directions for its per-

*° ^-' H)^- formance : ^S= ^grzjrlt Gruppo, or double Relish.

by which it would appear to have been similar to the grace now called a " shake." He

writes the latter as follows :

Trill, or plain shake.

G String. The name of the first string on the double bass, the third on the violoncello, viola, and guitar, and the fourth on the violin. G Schliissel (Ger.) The G or treble clef.

Guaracha. A lively Spanish dance in | or I time, usually accompanied on the guitar by the dancer himself. Guddok (i?MM.) A Russian fiddle. [Violin.] Guerriero {It.) Warlike, martial. Guet {Fr.) A flourish of trumpets. Guida {It.) (i) A guide, a direct. (2) The subject of a fugue. [Fugue.] [Direct.] Guide-main (Fr.) A hand-guide, a mecha- nical contrivance for regulating the position of the wrist in pianoforte playing, invented by Kalkbrenner. Guidonian syllables. [Aretinian syl- lables.] Guidonian system. [Notation.] Chacones, and Passacailles or Passacaglios, Guimbarde {Fr.) [Jew's Harp.] were generally written on ground basses, and Guitar. Guitare {Fr.) Chitarra {It.) the ingenuity and skill displayed in many exist- Guitarra {Sp.) A stringed instrument, ing examples are both interesting and instruc- played by plucking or twitching the strings tive. There are Passacailles ana Chacones by with the right hand while the left is engaged Couperin and Rameau, Bach, Handel, and in forming the notes by " stopping " or pres- others, too long to quote here. Handel, whose sing the strings against the frets on the finger sixty-two masterly variations on a ground board. bass in his famous Chacone are well known, The modern, or Spanish guitar as it is has shown also how the like artifice may be called, has six strings, the three highest effectively employed in choruses, as those in of gut, the three lowest of silk, covered

( 212 ) :

GUITAR. with a fine wire. The accordatura is as The Egyptian frescoes and other paint follows * ings, valuable as showing the frequent use (Sounding an octave lower.) of musical instruments, include several specimens of the harp and guitar family. The Nefer, one of the latter class, had a neck, sometimes with a carved head, anc The guitar is but little used now in England, was furnished with three strings, and had fin- though at one time it was very fashionable. a resonance box. Upon the neck, or frets tied or fastened, Other nations who still employ it, call it by ger-board, were as several names, most of which will be described in the modern guitar. Each string is hereafter. The guitar is rarely, if ever, em- said to have been able to produce two ployed as an orchestral instrument, but is octaves. very valuable as a portable means of accom- The three strings were supposed to cor- paniment. The existence of frets upon the- respond with of the Egyptian guitar limits the number of modulations year. capable of being performed in the normal Grecian writers, describing Egyptian in- struments, not afford real information tuning. When it is desired to make a com- do much reconcile plete change of key the capo tasto screwed coneerningthem, and all attempts to confusion for over the finger-board alters the tuning at any their statements only lead to ; trust desired point, or a temporary change is made conjecture is not conviction. Too much has been placed in the accuracy of sculptured by the grande barri, that is by laying the theories have forefinger of the left hand completely over the and painted images, and various musical strings, the remaining fingers being engaged been founded upon the character of their represented in stopping a chord. In the classification of instruments as deduced from forms. As with ancient, so with modern musical instruments it is convenient to speak countries, of three general sorts, wind, string, and musical instruments of far away travellers' tales been trusted, pulsatile. The guitar belongs to the second have too often kind, and may be said to represent a very and their statements received as conclusive, large family universally distributed, bearing a when in the majority of instances they variety of names according to the tongfue of are confessedly ignorant of the subject upon which they give "authoritative judg- the nation by which it is used. All instru- ments may be considered as belonging to the ment." guitar family, which possess a resonance Philology does not, after all, furnish the best body or sound box, together with a finger- assistance towards determining relationships board, against which» the strings with in this matter, and, as a rule, the picture which they are furnished may be pressed or of an instrument offers but a little help or guide in the matter. References to musical stopped. FoUovTing the course of history, we find instruments by the poets of several ages offer no aid whatever, on that instruments of the guitar kind are of but the contrary, tend to mislead. If they great antiquity, as well as of general use by often were trust- worthy, it might reasonably be assumed that people of all nations. The kinnor and nebel, mentioned in the no other instruments but the lyre and harp were ever employed to " assist the Bible, were stringed instruments, of the guitar muse." But colloquial terms often despised by clas- or harp family, but of their exact nature it — sical poets are of most value to the historian, must be confessed little is known, though — and it is therefore found that the common much is conjectured. naipes applied to a stringed instrument with

a, finger-board, kissar, cittern, , kitra, kithara, geytarah, guitar, point to a common origin. There is no question but that the guitar was introduced into Europe after the Crusades. The name, purely Eastern, has been adopted with only such a variation in spelling as« European use demands. The modern Egyp- tians call it " gytarah barbaryeh," the guitar of the Berbers, the people who are the direct descendants of the ancient race of the country; and as names and words in the East vary in the course of ages less than those in tho' West, it is likely that the word is of high Egyptian Nefer. antiquity.

( 2»3 ) GUITAR.

This " gytarah," or kissar is of the following form :

Hindoo Guitar. The Chinese, though a people of a different stock, have an instrument called Yue-kin or moon guitar, having four silken strings ar- Nubian Kissar, ranged in pairs, each pair being tuned in unison, and the two pairs a fifth apart. It is usually mounted with four strings tuned, The instrument has been called by travellers fol- according to Engel,as below : lowing the method of pronouncing the name in Canton, gut-kum, which may or may not be philologically related to guitar. The gut- kum, yue-kin, or moon guitar, has inside its Its form is not unlike some of the instruments resonance box some pieces of loose metal which represented on ancient Egyptian and Assyrian are occasionally shaken during performance. monuments, and although the name would imply some connection with the modern guitar, its shape would identify it rather as belonging to the lyre kind. But there are other stringed instruments used by Eastern people more in the form of the modern guitar. The kitra or kuitra popular in Morocco sometimes has the resonance-box or body made of a tortoise shell, after the manner that Hermes is said to have constructed his lyre. Chinese Yue-kin or Moon-guitar. The lute, another member of this family, also comes from the East, the name is the Euro- pean method of spelling its title " el 'ood." The pandore, bandore, pandoura, and mando- line are simply other names for a lute or guitar, arising from fancy or accident. Tunisian Kitra. The or mandoline, for example, derives its title from the almond shape of the resonance-body. The Italian word for almond is mandola. Variety of names for the same thing, together with slight differences in form, often tend to confuse the enquirer. The method of performance, the shape, the Kitra or Gunibry. mounting, the material of which they are con- structed, and various other causes, are often The resonance-body of the Gunibry is taken into consideration in the naming of made of a bottle-pumpkin cut longwise, and instruments. If these reasons are lost sight covered with sheep skin. Its two strings are of, a certain amount of confusion naturally of catgut. arises in the classification of musical names The sitar, choutarah, or tamboura of Hin- titles and ; and things are treated and spoken dostan had originally but three strings of of as dissimilar, which are really closely con- wire as the name sitar — — implies ^which were nected. If, for example, we were five thou- aftervs^ards increased to four or five. The sand years older, and no specimen of a piano- body is made of a gourd, the neck of cocoa forte or of its musical literature existed, and wood furnished with pegs. The strings are we were left to judge of the form and use of played with a plectrum of twisted wire called the instruments called by the several names by the name of mizrab, worn on the fore- applied to it, we might say with good autho- finger of the right hand. There, is another rity out of existing documents, that our ancient form of Hindoo guitar of a somewhat peculiar English ancestors were accustomed to listen construction called Vina or Bina, which has for hours to a performance upon a broad wood, a gourd at each end. [Bina]. probably an extensive forest or a wide plank.

( 214 ) GUITAR GUTTURAL. as the acute future critic would say. Further, forth, must have been great. If the descrip- it might be inferred that our German contem- tion be amended thus : "The \owf&T part of poraries were enraptured with the skill of the strings of the kithara were stopped by the one who was able to produce similar effects fingers of the left, and the higher part of from a fltigel, the wing of a bird. The con- the strings played by the plectrum," &c., the nection between a forest and a bird's wing whole matter becomes perfectly clear, and the might suggest some very ingenious comments. kithara shows its relationship to the guitar, as In cases where titles are given independently well as its power of sounding octaves on each of those already applied to certain things, and string like its Egyptian prototype. detailed descriptions are wanting, the differ- When the drawings of ancient performers ence becomes apparently wider each succes- on stringed instruments are examined, it will sive age until all ends in . If the be found that if, as they are represented in ancient Eastern title geytarah had not been the majority of cases, a modern player were adopted with the instrument by the Spaniards, to hold his instrument in a similar fashion, and by other nations following them; the he would be unable to support and play it at changes in the form of the instrument might the same time. As the human form appears have been held as indicating many origins. to have been pretty much the same in old time There seems to be no connection between the as it is at the present day, it is more than words Defer, nebel, pandoura, lyre, and likely that the artists "evolved" the represen- kithar'a, still it is not unlikely that they had tations out of their " inner consciousness," a common start-point. and, therefore, that they are not to be confi- An instrument of a form like the Egyptian dently trusted. Nefer is found depicted upon Assyrian monu- Plato, quoted by Hawkins (p. gi, Novello's ments, but strange to say there are no repre- Ed.), " advises to train up children to use the sentations of a finger-board instrument among right and left hand indifferently." In some the Greek antiquities. That the Greeks things, says he, " we can do it very well; as knew of the pandoura is evident from the when we use the lyre with the left hand, and fact that it is mentioned by Nicomachus, and the stick with the right." Unless some other subsequent historians. The modern conclu- occupation than that of merely holding the sion that they preferred their own instruments instrument were intended, such a piece of without necks, "although they adopted the advice would be superfluous. The cithara is system of the Egyptians for the subdivision mentioned by Ovid, Horace, Virgil, and othei and measurement of strings," is very doubt- Latin authors, with but little reference to the ful, for the one could not have been done manner of performing upon it, other than that without the aid of the other. For if we are it was held in one hand, while the other struck to believe that the strings of the Egyptian the strings with a plectrum. Nefer had a compass of two octaves each, The number of strings upon the guitar has

those two octaves must have been obtained been varied from time to time in Europe ; and by means of a finger-board, and if the Greek since its introduction, the instrument has been instruments were without finger-boards, and more or less popular. By the name of , the strings were open from end to end, without gittron, gitteron, &c,, it is spoken of by the

a backing along their lengths, how were they medieval poets ; and as the lute, it was familiar stopped, or how could a string be subdivided ? during the i6th and 17th centuries. It is therefore probable if Greek music was as In France, Spain, and Italy, the guitar is perfect as it is said to have beei), that finger- employed as an accompaniment for the dance boards, fretted or otherwise, were known and as well as for the voice ; and at one time, used, and poets and sculptors, disdaining to during the last century, it was so popular in employ common forms, gave fancy shapes to England that the sale of pianofortes was inter- musical instruments. rupted, until an ingenious maker bethought The ancient Greek kithara (KiSapa) is ad- him of a plan by which to weaken and ulti- mitted to have been portable ; and Mr. Chap- mately to destroy its popularity. There is an pell (" History of Music," p. 37) says, " the extensive literature of guitar music, called lower strings of the kithara were played by into existence by the revival in favour of the the fingers of the left hand, and the higher instrument, brought about by the number of strings by the plectrum held in the right hand." Spanish refugees resident in England during And again, that the instrument " was held on the Carlist rebellion of 1834-1839. But in the the left side of the body, with the left arm present day, the instrument is but little culti- behind the instrument, for the purpose of vated ; in fact, it may be said to have become reaching the base strings which were furthest undeservedly neglected. from the player." Now, the difficulty of per- Gusto, con ; gustoso {It.) With taste forming upon an instrument of the lyre or and expression. harp kind under the conditions above set Guttural. Tones produced in the throat.

( 2^5 ) H HARDIMENT.

H.

H. The note B natural in the German (twice). Come to security I (twice). God is system of nomenclature, the letter B being most great ! (twice). There is no deity but used only for B flat. God! Hackbrett (Ger.) [Dulcimer.] Halbcadenz (Ger.) Half-cadence, or half- Hadan or hadan (Egyptian). The call to close. [Cadence.] prayer sung by the mueddins from the towers Halbnote (Ger.) A minim. or minarets of the rnosques, thus given by Halbtone (Ger.) A semitone. Lane: Half cadence. [Cadence.] Halfnote. (i) A minim. (2) A semitone. Half shift. A position of the hand in playing on instruments of the violin family. It lies between the open position and the first shift. [Shift.] Hallelujah. [Alleluia.] Hailing. A Norwegian dance, somewhat of the character of a country dance. A HALLING.

Hals (Ger.) The neck of an instrument. Hammer, (i) A piece of wood having a E^E^^^E^^^i padded end or a nob, with which strings are Hei-ya - h. 'a-la-1-fe lah. struck, in the' case of the dulcimer the

hammers are held in the hand ; in keyed instruments the hammer is acted upon by leverage from the end of the key. [Dulcimer.] [Pianoforte.] (2) The iron or wood striker of a bell. According to Denison, the weight of the hammer shoiild be a fortieth part of a bell whose diameter is equal to twelve times 1^ - ha i-1 - la-1 - l^h. the thickness of the sound bow. But the distance the hammer is made to rise for the which : means —God is most Great ! (repeated blow must of course influence the weight of four times). I testify that there is not a deity the hammer. but God ! (twice). I testify that Mohammed Handguide. [Guide-main.] is God's Apostle! (twice). Come to prayer! Hardiment (Fr.) Boldly, daringly. (216) HARFE HARMONY.

Harfe {Ger.) [Harp.J Harmonie-musik (Ger.) Music for wind Harmonica. An instrument, the tones of instruments. which are produced by striking rods or plates Harmonique. (Fr.) Harmonic. of glass with hammers, either held in the Harmonist. One who can sing or play hand or acted upon by keys. It has a compass in harmony. of about two octaves from middle C or D Harmonium. A keyed wind instrument upwards. whose tones are produced by the forcing of Harmonica. A name sometimes given to air through free-reeds. The better class of a mixture stop on foreign organs. harmoniums have several sets of vibrators of Harmonic Flute. [Harmonic stops.] different pitch and of various qualities of tone. Harmonichord. An instrument played The stop called expression is a mechanical like a pianoforte, but sounding like a violin. contrivance by which the waste-valve of the 'The tone is produced by the pressure of the bellows is closed, so that the pressure of the keys, which sets a revolving cylinder of wood, foot has direct influence on the intensity of the covered with leather, and charged with rosin, sounds produced. A tremolo is produced by in action over the strings. It has also been causing the wind to quaver as it passes called piano-violin, violin-piano, tetrachordon, through the reeds. The Vox Angelica gives &c. a delicate undulating tone which is produced Harmonic!. The followers of the Pytha- by two sets of vibrators to each note tuned gorean system of music as opposed to that slightly apart. [Reed.] taught by Aristoxenus. They were also Harmony. In its earliest sense among called Musici. The Aristoxenians viewed the Greeks this word seems to have been a music as an art governed by appeal to the general term for music, a sense in which our

ear ; the Pythagoreans, as a science founded own poets often use it. But from its meaning on physical laws. of " fitting together" it came to be applied to Harmonicon. An instrument only used the proper arrangement of sounds in a scale, as a toy, which consists of free reeds enclosed or, as we should say, to " systems of tuning." in a box in such a way that inspiration pro- Whatever opinions may be held as to the duces one set of sounds, respiration an- antiquity of harmony in the sense of sym- other. phony or " sounds in combination," it is quite Harmoni-Cor. An instrument invented certain that among the ancients the art of by Jaulin of Paris, consisting of a series of harmony never advanced beyond the use of free reeds similar to those used in the Har- accompanying chords. Treatises on music, monium, placed in a tube shaped like a which we in these days call on "harmony," clarinet. The compass of the instrument is dealt (among the Greeks) with the following two octaves with intermediate semitones, the subjects : —The divisions of the monochord, keys are arranged in a maijner similar to the three genera, the sounds proper to the those of a pianoforte, that is to say, all the different modes, the shape and position of notes of the normal scale are in one row and the letters representing musical sounds, and, the chromatic notes in another. The wind is to a limited extent, the art of tune-making, supplied by means of a mouth-piece. about which, however, but little is known. Harmonics. The sounds produced by a Boethius, who turned into the Latin tongue vibrating string or column of air, when it is all the most important elements of Greek subdivided into its aliquot parts. [Acous- music, writes, on the rudiments such as

tics, §io.] sound, interval, consonance ; on the ratios of

Harmonic scale. The scale formed by a intervals ; on letter-notation ; on the modes ; series of natural harmonics. [Acoustics, § ic] on the discussions arising from the use of Harmonic stops. Organ stops, both flute the monochord. When this work was written and reed, having tubes twice the normal (in the early part of the sixth century) there length, but pierced with a small hole in the had already been growing up for a consider- middle. Harmonic flute stops are of great able period a school of church music, probably purity and brilliancy, they are of 8 ft. or 4 ft. started by Ambrose in the fourth century, pitch. Harmonic piccolos are of 2 ft. pitch. whose function it was to form a practical Harmonic reed stops (tromba, tuba, trumpet, school of music rather than scientific. But &c.,) are generally on a high pressure of wind, notwithstanding this fact, writers thought it one of the great advantages of all harmonic "either fashionable or necessary to found all stops being that they will take a very strong their works on the then defunct Greek system. pressure of wind without . The Even in the eleventh and following centuries, fact is, that the harmonic-tube, having two when the Hexachord system had rendered a synchronous vibrating columns of air, par- study of the Greek scales practically useless, takes of the nature of a pipe already over- their discussion formed an important part of blown to its first harmonic, the octave. every treatise. Under the word Descant will

{ 217 ) : —;

HARMONY.

be found a short description of the different part of the Temple of Fame devoted to dis- stages through which early forms of harmony coverers. The majority of the treatises of passed. But although a treatise on Descant the 1 6th century were very learned and and Counterpoint in one sense is a "treatise doubtless very clever, but they add nothing on harmony," yet, a very different meaning to literature not already known. Neither is carried by the word in its more modern Salinas " De Musica," Salamanca, 1577 " sense—it signifies, in fact, a statement of the Calvisius Melopeian," Erfurth, 1595 ; Zar- system of forming chords with an account of lino,"InstitutioneHarmoniche," Venice, 1592; their proper movement or progression accord- Valerio Bona, " Regole di Contrappunto," " ing to key-relationship. Milan, 1595 ; Zacconi, Prattica di Musica," " The authors of the earliest treatises upon Venice, 1596 ; Bottrigari, II Melone," Fer- " harmony, in the sense just described, seem rara, 1602 ; Cerone, El Melopeia," ,

to have laboured to reconcile the old teaching 1613 ; nor the multitude of lesser writers of with new discoveries, and though ostensibly the period in which the above named authors treating with harmony, they began with ratios existed, do an3?thing but repeat the received and proceeded into counterpoint, avoiding theories, in a more or less wordy manner, harmony in its proper sense altogether. In rather increasing the confusion into which some cases the writers quietly and cleverly the knowledge of the science of harmony had avoided the main question, giving apparently fallen by their controversies and partisanships. elaborate descriptions of the subject, which While the writers of Italy, Spain, and Ger- after all amounted to nothing. Thus Bateman, many were adding to the "learned ignorance," who in 1582 published an edition of Trevisa's our countryman, Thomas Morley, was not translation of " Bartholomseus de proprieta- a whit more far-seeing than his contem- tibus rerum," gives to posterity the accepted poraries. If the state of music could be

signification of the word harmony in his own judged by the treatises alone, it might reason- , time, for although he is supposed only to ably be considered that no new musical dis- have translated into more modern English covery had been made for centuries, and the the work of Trevisa, written in 1400, he constitution of music was such that new actually altered and added to the text in such discoveries were impossible. But while the a fashion that his changes are as valuable as theorists sought to confine all music to certain the original " proportions and ratios," practical musicians were quietly finding out new and forbidden " De Armonya. combinations of chords, to the utter confusion " Armonya Rithmica is a sownynge melodye, and of the theorists, who gradually had the con- comyth of smything of stringes, and of tynklyng other ryngynge of metalle. And dyverse instrumentis seruyth viction forced upon them in such wise that to this manere armonye, as Tabour, and Tymbre, they were compelled, reluctantly however, to Harpe, and Sawtry, and Nakyres, and also Sistrum. confess that, " II senso d'udito h stato e sara " And the melodye of musyk is nemdnyd and callyd sempre il solo legislatore dell' arte musica." by the names of the nombres. Dyatesseron, Dyapente, and Dyapason have names of the nombres whyche The more daring musicians were supported precedeth and gooth tofore the begynnynge of those by a large, and to a certain extent, an in- sayd names. And the proporcion of theyr sownes is fluential crowd of admirers who delighted in founde and had in those said nombres, and is not founde, the unscientific pleasures the new music nother had, in' none other nombres." brought to the ear. We read of Claudio One of the earliest books printed by its Monteverde, in the year 1600, being engaged author on the subject of harmony was the in dispute with "some of the ablest musicians " Theorica Musicse " of Franchinus Gaffurius, of his time," in consequence of his use of Milan, 1480. The doctrines taught are essen- certain dissonances which were employed in tially the same as those of Boethius, and as an unprecedented manner. Also of Ludovico this has been described already nothing more Viadana, about the same time, inventing or need be said. It may here be noted, that the rather perfecting the system of musical short- examples of harmony by Franchinus are hand now known as " thorough bass." And more modern in style than those of other in later years Frescobaldi, following the path writers contemporary with or previous to him. laid open by Monteverde, boldly introduced a, The next writer of any note among the series of progressions in his works, which scores of authors who wrote upon music was were against all accepted rules. By this Andreas Ornithoparcus, whose " Micrologus," time—the first quarter of the 17th century written in Latin and printed at Cologne in writers on theory silently abandoned the iS35i was translated into English by John " proportions and ratios." Though it is easy Douland, and published in i6og. His chapters to trace the effects of the old teaching, even on harmony (concentus) show no advance of when it is not expressed openly. thought notwithstanding the fact that some The principles of harmony or composition, modern writers claim a place for him in that as set forth by Dr. , 1620,

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HARMONY. and later by Christopher Simpson, 1678, treat key must have a sharp third. These two are, of nothing more terrible than such common as it were, the only chords in harmony." chords as could be formed out of the unaltered The main principle of this book, the re- notes of the scale. Throughout the whole of ferring all harmony to a regular fundamental the works by these authors the chord of the bass on which chords are constructed after seventh on the dominant is introduced but the above plan, led its author into some sparingly, and when it is used, its "dis- errors, which were copied and increased by cordance is softened as much as possible." subsequent writers. In order to make the There is little, if anything, entirely new theory fit into and agree with practice, in these books, nothing at all to account Rameau considered suspensions as essential for the new chords that musicians were occa- chords, chords by supposition as he calls sionally introducing into their compositions. them. His desire to derive all the chords As Simpson's " Compendium " had a con- of modern harmony from a construction of tinued and steady sale, running through third upon third was a praiseworthy one, and many editions, teaching the same old and nearer the truth than many other theories. worn-out principles, while Purcell was writing He avoids the chord of the ninth, calling it with all the hardihood of enthusiastic youth a secondary seventh, speaks of the fourth as such chords and progressions as those found an eleventh, admits that the judicious use of in the song quoted in the article " Ground discords gives greater liberty to composers, Bass " theory running in a widely different states F and D to be the fundamental bass of direction from practice, did not hesitate to the same chord, the chord now known by the condemn these inventions ; and, moreover, to name of the added sixth, and adds one or wonder " how any judge of correct and pure two other peculiar notions needless here to harmony could tolerate such licences." It particularise. was probably owing to the fact of this diver- The following is a figured bass passage sity of opinion between the laws that were with the fundamental bass, as given by made for composers and those they made for Rameau themselves, that there are but few treatises 6 on harmony belonging to the latter part 4 3 of the 17th and the early part of the i8th i^. ^ centuries. The many editions of Simp- son's "Compendium," Elway Bevin's " Briefe and Short Introduction," Morley's " Plaine and Easie Introduction," show how little improvement had been effected, and how rare a thing a new idea on the subject was. This state of things continued for some years more, when the publication of Rameau's "Traite D'Harmonie," Paris, 1722, turned all thinking minds into the direction suggested by that book. Looking at it by the improved light of the igth century, it is difficult at first to trace the cause of the enormous popularity of the work, and its powerful influence on all classes of theorists. The plan is very simple but incom- plete, accounting for a part, but not attempting to grapple with the whole science of harmony. The eagerness with which it was received and imitated, goes to prove how ripe men's minds were for the subject, and how willing they were to receive that which attempted to account for some, if not for all the intricacies of their art. The marrow of the whole work, the plot of the whole scheme proposed by Rameau, is comprised in the following words, according to the English edition of 1752 : " All notes that carry the perfect or common chords may be deemed key-notes, and all notes that carry the chord of the seventh may be deemed governing notes, with this difference, that the governing note of the :

HARP.

He allows that " the composer (especially in in unisons or octaves, the third or inner row ,few parts) may compose as many sixes either arranged to supply the accidentals, sharps or ascending or descending by degrees as he flats. The strings are thin, and the tone is thinks fit," but he does not lay claim to consequently consonant with the character novelty in suggestion, though he might have of the strings. " It is simply impossible to done so safely. modulate upon this instrument farther than The next writer on harmony, Roussier to touch an occasional accidental from among (" Trait6 des Accords," Paris, 1764), simply the inner row of strings." This harp is de- copies Rameau without acknowledgment. rived from, and is almost identical with, the Following a rough chronological order, Irish harp, of which more will be said pre- Marpurg next demands attention. In his sently. "Handbuch bey dem General-Bass," Berlin, (2) The double harp (arpa doppia) with 1755, he professedly agrees with Rameau, but two rows of strings is less inconvenient but differs from him throughout by making the equally imperfect ; all alterations ofthe pitch of added_ thirds, which are to form chords by the strings having to be made with the thumb. notes contrary to supposition, fundamental (3) The single-action pedal harp, with one Rameau's teaching. Tartini, in his " Trattato row of strings, containing a compass of nearly di Musica," Padua, 1754, and " De' Principii six octaves deirArmenia Musicale," Padua, 1767 ; Kirn- berger, in his works, " Die wahren Grundsatze" and "Die Kunst des reinen Satzes," pub- m lished in Berlin in 1773 and 1774, considered ^ suspensions and all interruptions as no real in the scale of E flat. There were seven part of a system, but, as the last named pedals which altered the pitch of the note to writer regarded them, " as clouds may be which each pedal belonged, a semitone. The considered in astronomy, viz., as occasional imperfection of the mechanism of the pedals occurrences, which must be tolerated when involved the player in many difficulties, and there, but which are passed by as if they rendered some keys perfectly useless. had not been there at all." A very con- (4) The double-action pedal harp, the in- venient, if not a satisfactory, method of vention of Erard. The compass of this in- getting over a difficulty. Twenty years later, strument : KoUman (" Essay on Musical Harmony," London, 1796) endeavoured to found an w entirely new system or theory; the gist of his arguments is that " No interval, or chord, Sva. bassa. ought to be judged of or treated according six octaves and a quarter, and the power of to its individual appearance alone, but accord- the pedals to change the pitch of each note ing to the proofs of a regular connection," two semitones, made it almost equal to the which is almost the same idea as that pro- pianoforte in facility of modulation. This pounded by Rameau seventy years before. last-named harp is the one now generally Our own countryman, William Shield (" In- employed for concert or orchestral purposes. troduction to Harmony," 1800), does not The invention of pedals to the harp has progress a single step in a new direction, been variously attributed to Hochbrucker, of but Weber ("Versuch einer geordneten Theorie Donauworth, in 1720, and to Paul Velter, of der Tonsetzkunst," Mainz, 1817) does ad- Niirnberg, in 1730. The harp in use before vance, for he says that " The harmonical those times was generally tuned according truths are by no means (as many have to the key of the piece it was required in. thought, or affected to think), as in a philo- In the single harp passing modulations sophical science, deducible from one inde- were made by stopping certain strings with pendent superior principle, and subordinate the thumb, for continued change of key, all one to another, as it were in a tabular the notes in the new scale not in the ordinary manner," and therefore every combination is tuning of the harp were made by turning the explained according to its individual appear- wrest pins during the progress of the music ance. of all the notes required to be altered. Musio Harp. Harpe {Fr.),Arpa (It.), Harfe {Ger.) for the harp is written on two staves. The A stringed instrument of triangular form, fur- instrument is capable of playing a melody nished with gut strings. It has a compass with accompanying harmonies similar in varying from three to six octaves and a half, character to pianoforte music. Successions according to the size of the instrument. There of staccato chords have a fine effect upon the are several .kinds of harps still in use : instrument, but broken chords (arpeggio) are (i) The triple or Welsh harp, with three better and more characteristic. The harp rows of strings, two rows tuned diatonically has been introduced into the orchestra with

( 220 ) :;

HARP.

good effect, by several modern composers, hair, each string composed of six or eight Wagner and Gounod more especially. There hairs. It is about two feet in height, and is at present but little variety in the manner has no forepillar. A specimen of this kind in which it has been used, arpeggios accom- of harp is preserved in the South Kensington panied by violins playing on the high register Museum. tremolo with or without mutes, whenever The harp is mentioned in the authorised angelic voices or exalted or heavenly ideas version of the Bible, Gen. iv. 21, "The father are intended to be presented. of all such as handle the harp and the organ." The harp, like the guitar, may be traced to The word in the original, " kinnor," appears in

a very remote ancestry ; it has, likewise, been thirty-six other places in the Old Testament subject to many vicissitudes of fortune. A in every case it is translated " harp." But favourite instrument with kings, it has also while there is reason for believing that the been the companion of beggars. Inspired Hebrews were acquainted with the harp, it is strains have been sung to its strings, and it not certain that the word kinnor really means has accompanied verses neither pious nor harp. The form of the kinnor is a matter of inspired. By turns cultivated and neglected, much uncertainty. it has never been wholly without a witness in Kalkbrenner, who is considered as an the several ages of the history of music. authority on the subject of Hebrew music, Engel, in " The Music of the Most Ancient in his Histoire de la Musique, Paris, 1802, Nations," says, that many Eastern nations makes no attempt to describe it, but merely have harps of different sorts, names and contents himself with a commonplace remark methods of stringing. The Burmese harp, after quoting the early writers who speak of called saun, has thirteen silken strings wound it. " Le kinnor, en grec kinnyra, qui d'aprfis round a curved bar at one end in a way la description de Saint Jerome, avoit la figure which admits of their being pushed up or d'un A et qui 6toit monte de 24 cordes down to be tuned. The harp is called chang I'autre description hebraique du livre Schilte in Persian, and junk in Arabic. The Negroes Haggeborin, donne au kinnor 32 cordes, in Senegambia and Guinea call it houlon or tandis que I'historien Joseph et beaucoup

ombi, and use strings made of fibre. d'autres ne lui en attribuent que dix ; quelles The harp in its primitive form is supposed contradictions!" These contradictions may to have been suggested by the warrior's bow. be reconciled by supposing that the kinnor, Many barbarous tribes preserve this form like the Egyptian boutia (both of which words with some slight degree of variation. The are translated " harp "), was of various sizes, " Nanga," or Negro harp is of this kind, as variously strung. will be seen in the subjoined figure. There are numerous representations of harps upon the Assyrian bas-reliefs, from which it would appear that the instrument consisted of a slightly curved frame acting as a resonance body and as a stay for the strings at one end, while at the other they were secured to a horizontal bar. There was apparently a sort of tassel, supposed to be made of the unstretched ends of the strings.

Nanga or Negro Harp, It is said that some savage tribes still use their bows in times of peace as musical instru- ments. The harp of the Ossetes and Indo- Germanic tribe of the Central Caucasus have an instrument which supplies the connecting link between the form of the Nanga and the harps represented on ancient monuments. It is furnished with twelve strings of horse-

( 221 ) HARP.

A slight difference of form may be seen in for the drawings. and sculptures often deli- the various sculptures, but the general cha- neate a performer actively engaged in playing racter of the Assyrian harp is the same as upon an instrument in a position in which it that showa above. It will be seen that there cannot possibly be supported. But admitting is no front pillar such as modern harps pos- them to be correct in form, and acknowledg- sess, by which it may be assumed that these ing that the artist may have omitted to show harps were similar in construction to the the means by which the performer steadied Egyptian harp.' The ancient Egyptian harps his instrument, it is doubtful whether the were of many sizes, and according to the repre- ancient harps had either power or sweetness ; sentations preserved were strung with various for the ornament which overloads many of numbers of strings, from three upwards. The the depicted musical instruments must have player stood, 'knelt, or supported his instru- greatly interfered yvith the tone. ment upon a stand while performing. Of the The Greeks, who borrowed all their musical scale to which these harps were tuned, or of instruments, and, as some say, even the very the manner in which they were kept in tune, names from foreign nations, must have known no reasonable idea can be formed. the harp, but they do not appear to have chosen it as a subject for representation, either in their paintings, sculpture, or pottery. The famous vase now in the museum, dating from the time of Alexander the Great, offers one of the few instances in which it is depicted. The instrument is in form like the Assyrian harp.

Egyptian Harp.

Grecian Harp.

The most favoured instrument in Grecian art was the lyre, which like the harp is des- cribed, in , as having different numbers of strings, and to have been mounted Egyptian Harp. occasionally on stands. The Pektis, the Simekion, and the Epigoneion, are supposed If they were kept in tension by the simple to have been actual harps. The first had process of twisting with the finger and thumb only two strings, the others thirty-five and round the horizontal bar, it is difficult to forty respectively. There was another instru- realise the idea that anything like a pre- ment, the , usually understood to arranged melody could be performed upon be a lyre, which is sometimes translated harp. them. It is, moreover, probable that the The monuments of show greater part of the time of the performer was very few examples of the harp in the forms engaged in tightening the strings which his familiar in those of Assyria and Egypt. The gripping had stretched. These views are word " cithara," which is translated, harp, grounded upoh the assumption that the lyre, lute, guitar, &c., indifferently, offers no Egyptian and Babylonian artists have been help in clearing away the cloud obscuring all as accurate in their delineations as they are knowledge of this matter. The claim of the said to be. But it was shown in the article Irish, asserted by Vincentis Galilei, in his " Guitar," that ancient artists are not always " Dialogue Delia Musica," 1581, to the in- trustworthy as regards their pictures of lutes'. vention of the harp cannot now be supported

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HARP.

since the discovery of the Assyrian remains, The harp was a favourite instrument among but there is no doubt that they were ac- the ancient Britons. The old laws of Wales, quainted with it at a very early period of the Triads, if they are to be trusted, specify the world's history. They had four kinds of the use of the harp as one of the three things harp (i) the clar-seth, — clar-scat, or clar-seach ; necessary to distinguish a freeman or gentle- the Keir-nine {2) ; {2) the cionar-cruit ; (4) the man from a slave. Pretenders were discovered cream tine cruit. by their unskilfulness in " playing of the The first was brought to Ireland by the harp." The same laws forbade a slave to Celto-Phoenicians, the second was similar to touch a harp, either out of curiosity, or to the Eastern Kanun, and like it, was played acquire a knowledge of it, and none but the with plectra. The third had ten strings king, his musicians, and other gentlemen stretched over a resonance-body ; and the were permitted to possess one. The harp fourth was the same as the Crwth, had six was exempt from seizure for debt, as it was strings, four of which passed over a finger presumed that he who had no harp lost his board, and could be stopped at the will of the position, and was degraded to the condition player, the two others formed a drone. The of a slave. clar-seth, also called •ce4"Dlo)t] pronounced The harp was a familiar instrument with Tealoin, or Telin, was the instrument adopted the Anglo-Saxons, as many references in from the Irish by the Welsh. It received its existing chronicles prove conclusively. The new name from the fact that its adopters harp-player was respected for his skill, strung it with gut and hair, instead of the whether he was known or unknown. Harp metal strings as used by the Irish. in hand he might wander scot and scathe free even in the camp of an enemy. Colgrin, the son of Ella, when besieged in York, about 495, received assistance from his brother, who went through the camp of the

besiegers disguised as a harper ; an artifice also adopted by King Alfred four hundred years later. Bede states that it was the custom at festive meetings to hand the harp round for each of the company to sing and play in turn, and mentions the fact that Caedmon, the poet, had so neglected his studies in this respect in the pursuit of more serious knowledge, that at an assembly where he was present, and the harp Irish Harp. was sent round, he being unable to play, rose from the table in shame, and went home to Vincentino Galilei (p. 143 of his " Dialogo his house. " Surgebat a medea ccena, et della Musica Antica e Moderna," Florence, egressus, ad suam domum repedebat," or as

1602), speaking of ancient instruments, says : King Alfred has rendered it into Saxon, " Ci S prima mente I'Harpa, la quale non & " Thonne aras he for sceome fram tham symle, altro che un' antica Cithara di molte corde ; and ham yode to his huse." se bene di forma in alcuna cosa differente, Performers upon the harp of special skill non da altro cagionatagli dagli artefici di quel were notable before the reign of William the tempi, che dalla quantita di esse corde & First. The services rendered by Taillefer, dalla loro intensezza; contenendo I'estreme the harper, on the battle field are well known graui con I'estreme acute piu di tre ottaue. matters of history, as also is the foundation Su d'Irlanda a noi questo antichissimo of the priory and hospital of St. Bartholomew strumento (commemorato da Dante) doue si in Smithfield, by Rahere, harper to King lauorano in eccellenza & copiososamente Henry the First. gli habitatori della quale isola si esercitano Musicians were courted and respected in molti & molti secoli sono in essa, &c." By olden times, the harp was a sure passport which it will be seen that the Welsh were not everywhere, and a warrant of welcome in the only people who adopted the hftrp from every society from the highest to the lowest, the Irish. The old Italian harp had two rows among kings or churls, among friends or foes. of strings, arranged after the manner of the Where other men failed, the minstrel suc- old Irish harp, from which it is supposed to ceeded ; admission to a house or castle was be derived. An instrument of this sort, an granted to a " gleeman," which was denied " Arpa doppia " is mentioned as one of the to all else. The existence of this privilege accompanying instruments in Monteverde's is frequently taken advantage of by writers of " Orfeo," 1607. the old ballads, romances, &c., who often

( 223 ) : :

HARP.

describe a luckless lover or chivalrous adven- the " moderns have much improved " the turer, gaining access to some giant's fortress harp. The name of " inverted spinet " is or enchanted castle, in the garb of a minstrel singular, as one of the names for the spinet or harper was the " Couched harp." The harp was " Horn sette him abenche not popular in those days, it required closer Is harpe he gan clenche application to master its difficulties than the He made Rymenild a lay." musical young people of the time cared to The Romance of Horn and Rymenild. devote to it. One instrument of the harp Well-known historians and poets, besides the kind, called the " Bell-harp," was in constant anonymous ballad writers of mediaeval times, use in the time that Hoyle wrote, and has make frequent mention of the harp, thus not completely disappeared in the present showing its continued popularity. The intro- day. No great skill is required to perform duction of the guitar made the harp less upon it, all that is necessary is prehensile cultivated by private people, and as lutes, power and strength of wrist. The instrument viols, and other more easily portable instru- is a wooden box a little more than two feet ments became known, the harp was more and long, all closed except over the wrest pins, more disused. That which the guitar and and a space near the opposite end. It is viol had begun, the clarichord, virginals, and strung with steel wire, with eight strings or harpsichord completed, and the harp became more, tuned with the lowest notes outside rarely seen and still more rarely used. It never became wholly silent, but was to be Left thumb. heard in rural districts played in the same Right thumb. style, strung in the same fashion, and tuned after the same mode, as when it belonged to The fingers of each hand grasp the body of a more remote generation. It was a sort of the box, leaving the thumbs free to strike the a Rip van Winkle among instruments, living strings. The player swings the instrument through many changes, yet unconscious of as he strikes, producing the effect of the them. Older than all of the existing members sound of a peal of bells borne on the wind. of the great family of musical instruments by To return to the main subject ; when, in which it was surrounded, but uninfluenced 1820, Erard improved the harp, it became and untouched by the progress towards per- suddenly and widely fashionable ; nearly all fection which all else were making. Before the music published was " arranged for the Hochbrilcker's invention, the harp had been pianoforte or harp." The instrument was as unchanged for centuries, remaining in the indispensable in the drawing-room of those condition it had been left by the ancestors of calling themselves "musical," as the piano- the various peoples with whom it was found. forte is now. It was chiefly played by ladies, When Handel's oratorio " Esther " (written especially by those who possessed the ad- in 1720) was produced at the request of the vantages of a pretty hand and arm, not to Duke of Chandos, harp parts to one of the mention a " neat foot," all these motive choruses, for two Welsh players of the name powers being well shown in harp playing. of Powell were inserted by the composer. As the fair performers grew old, the charms The harp they used was the old Welsh harp of the harp decayed, and although the instru- already described. Even after Hochbrucker ment is still played and taught, it is not and Velter had made their improvements, cultivated to the extent which its merits might and rendered the harp more available as an seem to warrant. orchestral instrument, it was rarely employed The derivation of the word is a matter of as such, all harp effects being made by pizzi- doubt, none of the earlier terms supplying cato playing on the violin. the least etymological link. Du Cange, in Hoyle (" Dictionarium Musicse," 1770) de- his " Glossary," asserts that the harp takes scribes the harp as having, in his day, "three its name from the Arpi, a people of Italy who rows of strings, which in all make seventy- were the first who invented it. In this he is eight; the first row contains twenty-nine, not quite correct, as will be gathered from the which makes four octaves, the second row foregoing account. Arpi was a very ancient makes the half turn : the third is unison with city, without doubt, it was of a higher an- the first row. It's musick is like that of a tiquity than Livy, who mentions it as an spinet, all the strings going by semitones, Apulian city. It is not at all improbable that and is played on with both hands, by pinching the people of Arpi may have been the first to them in the same manner together. Some adopt the instrument upon its introduction give it the name of the inverted spinet." As into Italy, and as it is not at all unlikely that this style of stringing is nearly the same as the Northern people adopted it from the Ro- the Irish method of tuning in use ages before, mans, the name may have been transmitted it is difficult to believe Hoyle's statement that in its present form from the Arpi, the people

( 224 ) : : : : :

HARPE HARPSICHORD GRACES. whom the Romans may have believed to have commenced a note lower than the one over been the inventors. That the word has a which it was written : common origin, its similarity in most modern tongues may tend to prove. is evidence There written played enough in music to show that the name of a ^fc people may give a permanent title to a com- preceded by a small position, and also to an instrument. There When the double was line or space, the is no apparent connection between the words note or notes on the same note Kinnor, Bouni, Saun, Chang, Junk, Boulon, turn was to commence from that Ombi, Nanga, Pektis, Simikion, Epigonion, Phorminx, Cithara, Clar-seth, played Telyn, and written : Harp, the names by which the instrument has

been called by various peoples ; but the words When the marked note was tied, the turn was Earpe, Harp, Harpe, Harfe, and Arpa, point to be commenced from the preceding note conclusively to one origin, and Du Cange may be right with regard to one part of his written' played statement, for it is not at all unlikely that the ; harp, when brought by the conquering legions indicated by the to, and adopted by the more northern nations, Battery, Cadence {Fr.), written thus : would be called by the title given to it by the sign + , When the cadence was people from whom it was most favourably received. Harpe {Fr.) A harp. Harpist {Eng. and Ger.) A, player upon it was played the harp. Harpsecol. Harpsichord. Harpsichord. Clavicembalo, Cembalo {It.) a full Cadence or Cadence Clavecin (Fr.) Flugel {Ger.) A stringed in- and was caUed strument with a key-board, similar in form to pleine ; when it was written : a modern grand pianoforte. As the pressure + of the fingers upon the keys, when heavy or light, made no difference in the quantity of it was played tone produced, the harpsichord sometimes had two key-boards, one for the loud, the other for the soft tones. There were also stops in instruments, some by means of and was called cadence brisee, or broken which the tone could be modified by connect- cadence. ing the mechanism with or detaching it from Sliding trill, Flatte {Fr.), Schleifer {Ger.) : the three or even four strings with which each tone was furnished. The keys were written played attached to levers, which at their ends had slips of wood, called "jacks," furnished with plectra of crow-quill or hard leather; these occasionally struck or twanged the strings and produced the Or played tone, which has been likened to " a scratch written with a sound at the end of it." [Clarichord.] [Spinett.] [Pianoforte.] Harpsichord graces. Cei-tain turns and Trill; Tremblement {Fr.),Pralliriller {Ger.),

ornaments : employed in playing upon the expressed by the signs ir, ^, w t»D. It was harpsichord, introduced foe the most part as in effect a trill without the final turn, unless for the lack of compensation sustaining power altered by other signs. There were six sorts in the instrument; They were called the by of tremblements ; namely, (i) the simple general term of agremens' in French, and tremblement {tremblement simple) Manieren in German. The chief of these w no ornaments were the following, other signs

played \ are explained according to alphabetical order. written Turn or Double {Fr.), Doppelschlag {Ger.)

(2) The doubled or turned trill {tremblement played written doubU) :

When the sign was placed upright it was written played understood to signify that the turn was to be

( 225 ) : : :

HAUPT—HOCKET.

(3) The detached trill {tremblement dilachS), Head-stall. A head-band or Cdpisfrum,- which was performed when the note which q. V. The Use of the v/ord stall in the sense should begin the trill had a place in the oi bandage is Still to be found in Our word melody preceding the marked note : finger-stall. Head-voice. [Voice.] /?<> Heftig (Ger.) Boisterous, impetuous. written played Heiss (Ger.) Hot, ardent. Heiter (Ger.) Clear, calm. Feierlich heiter, solemn and calmi (4) The tied trill (tremblement lie) was almost (Gk.) iKikuv. An instrument used the same at the preceding, only that the first by the Greeks in the calculation of musical two notes were tied ratios. Hemidiapente. An imperfect fifth. written played : Hemiditone. The lesser or minor third. Hemlolios {Gk.) ^/jtdXios. (i) The ratio 3 to 2. The sanle as the sesquialtera in Latin The prepared trill (tremblement appuyS (5) treatises on music. (2) A kind df metre. A or pripare) was when a slight pause was verse consisting of a foot and a half. made before the and its commencing shake, Hemiopus (Gk.) fniiorrog. Having a small speed gradually increased number of holes, iijxiowoi ai/Xoi, small flutes with three ventages.

Hemitone. ' semitone. written pilayed A »«- : ^^ Heptachord, (i) A series of seven notes. A diatonic octave without the upper note. (2) An instrument with seven stringSi A slided trill (tremblement coule) when (6) Herabstrich (Ger.) The down stroke of the shake was preceded by a slide the bow in playing stringed instruments. A down-bow. written Herstrich. [Herabstrich.] Hexachofdi A series of six sounds. [Notation.] played Hey de Guise, A country dance, " In our antique hey de guise we go beyond all natibns.'' Middleton. dance.] Haupt (Ger.) Principal, chief, head ; as [Country Hauptnote, the essential note in a turn or Hidden Fifths, or Octaves. [Gonsecu- shake, &c. tives.] (Ger.) The great organ. Hitiaufstcich Hauptmanual \ fr.„\ Ana „ up-tow.„„ i,„,„ Hauptnote (Qer.) An essential note. Hinstrich | (^^'^O Hauptperiode {Ger.) Principal isubjfect. His (Ger,) The note B sharp. Hauptsatz (Ger.) Principal theme or Hissing. A manner of showifig dissatis- subject. faction. (Applause.] [Fiasco.] Hauptschluss (Ger.) A perfect cadence. H moll (Ger.) The key of B ttiiflor. Hauptstimme (Ger.) Principal part. Hoboe. [Oboe.] Hauptwerk (Ger.) The great organ. Hoboy. [Oboe.] [Waits.] Hausse (Fr.) The nut of a violin bow, Hocket, Hoket, Ochetus. A species of Hausser (Fr.) To raise, lift, to sharpen, part music, in which the voices seem to h&ve

Haut {Fr.) High ; as, haute centre, the had to keep a large number of rests, the notes

alto part ; haute dessus, treble part ; haute being divided into several parts for the purpose. taille, first or high tenor. It was the same as truncatio (truncatio idem Hautbois (Fr.) [Oboe.] est quod hoket). The truncatio was certainly Hautbois d'amour (Fr.) A small species a division of a long note into many smallet of oboe, now obsolete. Music written for it ones with rests between (pausatio), and was can be played on the ordinary instrument. founded either on an original theme (ten^rem Hautboy. [Oboe.] excogitatum), or a well-known tune (certum H dur. (Ger.) The key of B major. cantum) either popular (vulgare) or ecclesi- Head, (i) The membrane stretched upon astical (latinum). The application of the a drum. (2) That part of a violin or other word to part-music seems to have been stringed instrument in which the pegs are brought about by its Latin synOnym conductus, inserted. (3) The portion of a note which for the Greek dxeros signifies also a conduct determines its position upon the stave, and or conduit, atiid this name was commonly to which the tail is annexed. given in the 15th century to a kind of motet.

( aafi ) : —:

HOCHZEITMARSCH HORN.

probably from the " bringing together" of " " the open notes ; that is to say, they can be voices. produced by simple blowing, and certain Hochzeitmarsch(Ge»-.) Aweddingmarch. modifications of the form of the lips. There Hohlfiote {Ger.) [Flute.] are other sounds called " closed," which are Hold. An old English name for the sign obtained by closing the bell in a certain man- of a pause /t\. ner with the hand. Holding note. A note sustained in one The closed notes are less free in quality part, while the others are in motion. than the open notes, and they are therefore Homophony {Gk.) Unison of voices or only employed when especial effects are re- instruments of the same character. 6u6(p

Lauds, at daybreak ; Prime, or first hour, a those in C are called transposing instruments, later service ; Tierce, or third hour, at nine because the actual sounds produced are dif- a.m. Sext, or ; sixth hour, at noon ; Nones, ferent to those represented on paper. And or ninth hour, at three p.m. ; Vespers, or strictly speaking, the C horn is also a trans-

evening service ; Compline, or final service, at posing instrument, because the notes are bed time. Each of these has fixed Psalms, written an octave higher than they are played. except Vespers, which has certain Psalms read Thus the passage: in course, and a Canticle. The Anglo-Saxon names of these services were, Uhtsang, Primesang, Undersang, Middaysang, Noon- sang, Evensang, and Nightsang, The book would differently to the horn for these OfSces came to be called Breviary sound according employed towards the end of the nth century. It was sometimes called in England the Portifory. Written, in C. inD. in E eat. in B flat basso. Horn (Cor, Fr.; Corno, It.; Horn, Ger.) A metal wind instrument, formed of a con- tinuous tube twisted into a curved shape for the convenience of holding. It is furnished with a mouthpiece and a bell. The mouth- piece is moveable, so as to allow additional pieces of tubing called crooks, to be added to its length in order to alter the pitch, and the bell is sufficiently wide to admit the hand of the player. The horn sounds the harmonics of the fun- damental note of its tube. That is to say, a horn in C, or sounding C as a generator has H^4*ti^ the following compass :

If in D, it would be a seventh ; in E flat a major sixth; in E a minor sixth; in F a fifth;

in G a fourth ; in A a minor third ; in B flat

alto a second ; in B flat basso, a ninth lower than the notation. Notes written in the bass clef sound as In movements in a major key, in which they are written, those in the treble clef, an four horns are used, two are generally in the octave lower. key of the tonic, two in that of the dominant. The notes in the section marked B are Sometimes, two are in the tonic key, two in more difficult to produce than those in the sec- that of the mediant. tion marked A. When horns are required for minor keys, The whole of the above notes are called the one is set in the key of the relative' major, the

( 227 ) : : :

HORNER HORNPIPE.

other in the tonic major. Thus in G minor, " bell " or open end was sometimes made of one horn would be in B flat, another in G. horn. In Wales, Ireland, and Cornwall, in Composers, however, vary in their use of Brittany, it was called pib-corn. " Pib " or horns in minor keys, so that no definite rule " piob," meaning pipe, and " corn," horn. can be laid down. Chaucer uses the word to describe an instru- There are other kinds of horns used in the ment of music in his translation of the orchestra, which, by means of valves, pistons, " Romaunt of the Rose." " or ventils, are capable of producing the " open " Controve he wolde, and foule fayle and " closed" sounds in a scale of semitones With hornepipes of Cornewaile." throughout the compass, of very nearly even The original (written in 1260) is : quality, and with comparatively little difficulty " Une bore dit l^s et descors to the player. Et sonnez doux de controvaille The horn, sometimes called the French As Estives de Cornoaille." horn, to distinguish it from the English horn The word " controve " comes from the (cor Anglais), which is altogether a different same root as that from which " Trovere " or instrument, introduced into the orchestra was "Troubadour" is derived, and means to invent, towards the end of the 17th century, and or compose, so that the passage translated as it became very fashionable and popular into modern English would be : in the early part of the i8th century, it is " He would compose and play songs (Ws) frequently found in the scores of orchestral To the accompaniment of the hornpipe." compositions, and is also employed as an That the hornpipe was harsh-sounding may accompaniment to hunting songs. A horn- be gathered from the context in Chaucer when player, named Spandau, was one of the first he says in the preceding lines who discovered the art of producing the closed " yit would he lye or stuffed notes {sons itouffes) on the instru- Discordaunt ever &o armonye ment. Sir John Hawkins makes a note in And distoned from melodic." his " History of the performance of a Con- In some editions of the " Romaunt of the certo in of this player, " part whereof 1773," Rose," the words " chalemeaux de Cor- was in the key of with the minor third." C nouaille," stand instead of " estives de Cor- The "improvement was effected by putting noaille." That the' Waits or Shawms had his right hand into the bottom or bell of the reeds is well known, and that the hornpipe, instrument, and' attempering the sounds by its rustic relation, was not likely to have a the application of his fingers in the different softer tone may be assumed. Robert Bell parts of the tube ;" by which means '• the supposes that Chaucer " wrote corn-pipes, intervals seemed to be as perfect as in any which," says he, " would be the proper trans- wind-instrument." lation of Chalemeaux." Thus Virgil The earliest attempts to make the scale of " Musam meditaris avenS." the horn perfect are attributed to Hampel, of And Shakespeare Dresden, in 1748. Twelve years later Kolbel " invented his amor-schall, which was a horn And shepherds pipe on oaten straws.' with ventils. Claggett, a Londoner, attempted Others imagine the word " estive" to come further to improve these plans ; but all these from Mstas, the hot season, whence our inventions were forgotten or laid aside, in word Estivah for summer, and the word favour of Miiller's system of ventils, first pro- " Chalameau " employed as a synonym for posed about the year 1830. These in time " estive " to be derived from " chaleur," heat. " " " were superseded ' by the inventions of J. G. That the estive," Chalameau," or horn- Saxe and others. Although the horn has been pipe," is "a shepherd's pipe made of corn so far improved, that the difficulties of pro^ which, growing in summer, furnishes the ducing the tones intermediate to the har- material for the instrument." These theories monics have been considerably lessened, it are, to say the least, ingenious. It is, however, cannot be said that any great improvement much more in accordance with probability to has been effected in the quality of the added infer that the word " Chalameau," or " Chale- sounds, and the old French horn, the plain meaux," comes from Calamus, a reed ; which tube, whose sounds are " attempered by the is only similar to a straw in being hollow, fingers of the player," is still unsurpassed in and that the word " corn " has no connection brilliancy of tone by any of the modern with either reeds, straws, or oats. The word inventions. " corn " comes from " idpae" through " comu," Horner. Horns. Corni (It.), as Horner and as the hard " c " is only one form of the in Es, Horns in E flat. guttural sound sometimes represented by the " Hornpipe, (i) The name of an old wind letter " h," the words " corn " and " horn instrument of the shawm or waits character, are the same when applied to a musical in- receiving its name from the fact that the strument. It may not necessarily be formed

( 228 ) "

HORNPIPE.

part a gaine. of horn or have horn in its composition, but jst may receive its name from being bent or curved as a horn. The horn-pipe was probably the same kind of instrument as that now known as the " Cor Anglais " or English horn. The words corn, cornet, cornamusa, &c., are applied to dif- ferent sorts of* wooden wind instruments with End with ye 1st fart. reeds. The hohoy, shalm, shawn, wait, or reed-pipe were common instruments in days gone by, and often furnished the melodies to which dancing was performed. Therefore the supposition that the " hornpipe " gave the name to the dance so called may not be very far from the truth. dance of English origin, so-called (2) A RAVENSCROFT'S HORNPIPE (1730). from the instrument which played the tune to which it was danced. The measure or rhythm of the Hornpipe is as varied as that of the tunes for country dances, therefore all descriptions of the dance, which are founded upon the supposition that there is only one form of rhythm, are misleading. One writer says, " It is in compound triple time of nine ; crotchets in a bar, six down and three up another says, " It is in triple time of six crotchets in a bar, four whereof are to be ;" beat with a down, and two with an up hand another says, that it is in " common time of four crotchets played lively ; " and another says, " It is always in double triple time of two parts of four and eight bars each with repeats." These descriptions tally with the character of the measure of the dance which was called hornpipe at the time the descrip- tion was written. But the hornpipe is, and has been, often danced to tunes called by other names, such as Brawl, Coranto, Canaries, Fandango, Jig, Loure, Reel, Matelotte, &c., the steps being varied to suit the several mea- sures. The hornpipe now-a-days is danced by a single performer, to a tune in duple measure. The performer generally stands still with arms folded during the time the first phrase of the melody is played, and then commences the dance by running round in a

circular direction ; and when dancing a horn- pipe called by some special title, such as " The Sailor's," " The Jockeys," " The Countryman's," or " The Monkey's " horn- pipe, generally introduces some gestures cha- racteristic of the distinguishing title. The following are some specimens of the various sorts of melodies of hornpipes : HORNPIPE. Mr. Jerry Clark, 1700.

( 229 ) :

HOSANNA HURDY GURDY.

THE COLLEGE HORNPIPE. Hummelchen {Ger.) A kind of small bagpipe. A drone. The word Hummel is cognate with our humble ; see Bombaulius, a bagpiper. Hunting Horn. Cor de chasse [Fr.) uLiA,^^^J25 Corno di caccia (It.) Hief horn (Ger.) [Horn.] Hunting. A term in change-ringing. There are two kinds, hunting up, and hunting down. The first is performed on any number of bells, " by pulling after the bell which pulled last after you ;" the second is accom- plished by looking out for which bell strikes first of the set, and alter his number in the set at each change until he has gone through the full number of the bells, and then return MISS CATTLEY'S HORNPIPE. to his original place. Thus, if he be first, he will next be second, then third, then fourth, PERFORMED AT SADDLER'S WELLS, 1780. fifth, sixth, and so on, according to the number of bells, and return backwards in counting sixth, fifth, fourth, &c. Huntsup. A morning song, of a noisy boisterous character, afterwards applied to any unseemly clamour at any time of the day.

" I never was yet At such a hunts up." MASsiNOER, The Duke of Milan.

There is an old song of the time of Henry VIII. called " The King's Hunts up/' the tune of which is lively and spirited. The term "hunts up" may have been derived from the noise of horses, dogs, and men setting out on a hunting expedition. Butler, in his " Principles of Musick " (1636), defines " " a hunts up as morning music ; as does Cbtgrave (1660), " Resveil, a hunts-up, a JACK AT GREENWICH. morning song for a new made wife." This last is an allusion to the custom of perform- C. DiBDIM, 1800. ing an aubade before a bride's window, thus mentioned by Gay

" Here rows of drummers stand in marshal file, And with their vellum thunder shake the pile. To greet the new made bride."

Hurdy gurdy. An instrument of ancient origin, popular among most of the European nations under the names of Leyer or Bauem- leyer. It consists of a flat oblong sounding board, upon which are stretched four gut strings, two of which are tuned a fifth apart to form a drone bass, and placed where they cannot be acted upon by the ten or twelve keys fixed upon one side of the belly of the in-

strument ; the other two are tuned in unison, and are so arranged that they may be shortened by the pressure of the keys. The instrument is thus capable of sounding a scale of ten or twelve notes. The strings are Hosanna. [Mass.] set in vibration by the friction of a wooden Huchet [Fr.) A postman's horn. wheel charged with rosin and turned by Hiilfslinien (Ger.) Leger lines. means of a handle at one end. The hurdy gurdy Hulfsnote (Ger.) An auxiliary note. is only adapted to the production of melodies

( 230 ) : a"

HURRY HYMN TUNES.

of the simplest character. The old name for the No. I, / hurdy gurdy (vielle) has misled many authors with regard to the derivation and description of the instrument. Dr. Burney says, " That the instrument called a rote, so frequently mentioned by Chaucer, as well as by the old French poets, was the same as the modern ^ , - vielle, and had its name from rota, the wheel with which its tones were produced." No. 2. The word rota is simply a Latinised form of the word crwth, chrotta, rotta, which was originally a sort of cithara or guitar, played by plucking the strings with the fingers. In after time when an instrument of similar shape was played with a bow, it still retained ^ the ancient name crwth or crowd. ^ Hurry. The technical, theatrical, o^ stage In No. I there is nothing but the " mono- name for a tremolo passage on the violin, or tone " of the ancient chant in phrases i and 2, a roll on the drum. The " hurry " is generally while every phrase of No. 2 commences with played as a preparation for the culminating the same, and ends with the simplest inflection point of a dramatic incident, the leading to a by way of melody. The strong " measure " " picture," during stage struggles or like or accent of both is noticeable—the latter exciting actions. would fall naturally into the following chant

Hurtig [Ger.) Nimble, quick, agile. form : Allegro. Hydraulic organ. [Orgaiv.] Hymenaion, vfiivaioQ {Gk.) An epithar lamium or marriage song. Hymnology. The art of composing hymns. The Latin hymn tune, dating from about tunes. The keen attention paid, Hymn the 4th till the end of the 12th century, and in our time, to all forms of Church music, as it appears in the office books in present particularly to such as come under the term use, must be considered as the first distinct interesting "Congregational," renders doubly " style " for the attention of the student. The the distinction of style which can be traced in distinctive characteristics of it are : i. The the " Corale," as find it at different periods, we scales to which its melodies belong—not and in the different churches of Christendom. the modern major or minor modes of the We shall probably, from year to year, become diatonic scale, but the so-called " modes better historical relations informed of the of the Church [Plain Song]. 2. The peculi- especially between sacred and secular music, arities of their rhythm, partly derived from into as our method of translating modern the metrical flow of the verse itself, partly notation the neumas of the manuscripts from the continually advancing sense of of the loth and nth centuries becomes accent, or the alternation of " heavy and more certain and less open to doubt. There light." is in " Medicine," the library of the Ecole de It is matter of "pious belief," that in the " of Montpelier, a MS, Horace," in which great majority of cases the author of the the ode to Phillis is noted to the melody hymn was the composer of the melody— assigned to the " by Guy d'Arezzo Hymn Ut point which it will always be impossible to " queant laxis." Was the melody," asks a verify or to deny. It is certain that many of modem critic, " written for the ode, or for them are truly beautiful ; as e.g. the following, the hymn ? " In close connection with the from the Salisbury Hymnal reply to this question is the inquiry of which it may be considered a part, " To what extent did the growth of musical measure or rhythm influence the manner in which the mediaeval hymns were recited or sung ? " It was the only part of the ancient church office in which this characteristic of " measure" was felt, and the form of such melodies as the following (both from the " Directory " of Guidetti) seems to point the " style of transition " from un- measured Plain Song to measured music. E - jus dul - cis pra; - sen - ti a.

( 231 ) : 1

HYMN TUNES.

Or the following, from Guidetti rences of Luther's life—the following, for example, " Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott,"

which is probably his composition : E - ter -na Chris- ti mu - ne-ra. A-pos-to-lo-rum EIN FESTE BURG IST UNSER GOTT.* M. Luther, 1529.

Glo - ri - am, Lau'- dea ca - nen- tea de-bi - taa. . . .

• na - mus men i r i i r r f- f- r^ Others, on account of these two pecu- ^ liarities, are probably wanting in that appeal to the popular sensibility which would make them " popular" in the vulgar sense. The following authorities may be consulted on this part of the subject " Vesperale Romanum Mechliniae," 8vo. F. J. Hanicq, 1848. This is one volume of a mag- nificent reprint of office books, carried out with great care and exactness, under the influence of Cardinal Sterkx, Archbishop of Mechlin. " Manuel de L'Organiste ou Accompagne- ment diatonique des Chants Liturgiques les 1 r-e^^ h-i— , 1^ J , plus usuels (particularly as to accompani- ment according to the laws of the Gregorian Modes), par P. G. C. Bogaerts et Edmond Duval. Malines, Dessain. "Hymnal Noted." Rev, T. Helmore. Novello. " Accompanying Harmonies to ditto." The period of the Reformation was one of great musical activity. For some time pre- vious a quiet and half unconscious preparation had been going on, in the circulation among the people of popular hymns and their tunes in the vernacular, and of course only sung in private ; and when Luther furnished his fol- lowers with metrical versions of the Creed, the Lord's. Prayer, and other portions of the old Office Books, there were no bounds to the popularity of both hymns and tunes. Edition followed edition of books under the title of " Geistliche Lieder," &c., and in their multi- plication many slight changes occurred in the origfinal melodies ; even in some that by the popular voice are accredited to Luther himself, and even during his lifetime. As it has become the custom in Germany for each diocese to be provided, by authority, with its own " Gesang-Buch," the variations of these popular melodies have themselves become stereotyped, as it were, in different localities, so that the original is often difficult to trace. The great Sebastian Bach has often har- monized different forms of the same melody, and has even (so it seems) not hesitated to alter it, if it suited the counterpoint of his accompanying " parts " to do so. The place occupied to this day by these "melodies of the i6th century in the heart of the German people is perhaps only just less in reverence than that due to Holy Writ. Some of them were intimately associated with the occur- )

HYMN TUNES.

VARIOUS READINGS OF THE MELODY KNOWN IN ENGLAND AS " LUTHER'S HYMN," WITH THE AUTHORITIES FOR EACH. j'j" j Jj i[JjX j j | i^^r M Jill^l^i^^fef^-^^^y^Vfl'rfr^a r

( 233 —:

HYMN TUNES.

1. Is the original melody, ascribed to , 1847. "Sixty-one Choral Melodies Luther, from the " Klugfschen Gesangbuch," to Paul Gerhard's Hymns ;" Becker, Leipizig, 1535- 1851. 2. " Geistliche Lieder," Wittemberg, 1545 11. "Chorale Book," Adolphe Hesse, (Luther died 1546). -"Geistliche Lieder," Konig. Preus. Musick-direktor und Ober- " 'Leipzig, 1557. Geistliche Lieder D. Martin Organist, Op. 6g ; Breslau, 1851. Luther," Nuremberg, 1570. " Kern des 12. " Evangelische Chorale Buch." Adolph Deutschen Kirchengesangs," Lairiz, Nord- Bernard Marx, Dr. and Prof, in the University lingen, 1854. "Zion's Harpe," Kocker, 1855. of Berlin. 1832. " Chorale Book," dedicated Tucker, Stutgart, 1854. D. "W. Volkmar, to the Queen of Prussia, D. H. Engel, Erfurt and Leipzig, 1853. Winterfeld's Berlin, 1844. edition of " Luther's Gprales," 1840. 13. "460 Choral-Melodien." C. Karow, of " 3. Geystliche Lieder," Nurmberg, 1558. Bunzlaw-in-Schlesten ; Dorpat, 1848. "Alte 4. " Ein schon geistliche Gesangbuch, und newere Chorale-Melodien," C. G. darinnen Kirchen Gesange und geistliche Schramm, of Halle ; Leipzig. Lieder, D. M. Lutheri und anderer frommen 14. " Evangelische Choral Melodien Buch." Christen, so in den Christlichen Gemeynden A. G. Fischer, Musik-Direktor und Dom- zu singen gebrauchlich begriffen." Durch Organist zu Merseburg ; 1846-7. Melchiorem Vulpium, Cantorem in Weymar, 15. From Martini's " Ecole d'Orgue," dedi-

i6og. cated to the Empress Josephine ; Paris, " 5. From Graun's Oratorio, Der Tod 1804. (?) Jesu." Followed by Sir Henry R. Bishop, in 16. The modern form of the melody: sup- his " Twelve Corales," as performed from posed to have been introduced by the tenor time to time under his direction at the singer Braham, who also interpolated an " Ancient Concerts," dedicated to H. R. H. imitation of the trumpet of the " Dies Irae." Prince Albert. This form is also known in France (Chants

6. 7. From J. S. Bach's, 371 Vierstimmige Chretiens ; Paris, 1857, et ante). Choralgesange : Ed. C. F. Becker, Organist 17. From "Choral-Melodien for , : an der Petri Kirche, Leipzig, 1831. No. 6 is Luneburg and Hildesheim " Heinrich Enck- " also to be found in his Choralvorspiele," hausen : Adolph Nagel, Hanover (Modern). Griepenkerl's Ed., Peters, Leipzig, in the key 18. Choral-buch, von . August Haupt, Or- of G (vol. vi., p. 36). See also J. S. ganist der Parochial Kirche, in Berlin. Berlin Bach's "Choralgesange und Geistliche Arien, Schlesingerschen Buch und Musikhandlung herausgegeben von Ludwig Erk." Peters, Robert Lienau. 1850. 19. 20. Both said to be of 1535, from 8. " Evangelische Gesang Buch," Elber- Winterfeld's " Der Evangelische Kirchen- feld, " 1843. Chorale Book," Heinrich Wach- gesang," 3 vols, quarto ; Leipzig, 1843 ter, organist in Wiburg; Halle,i856. "Chorale a work to which reference may be made on Book," Adolphe Hesse, Breslau, 1840. the whole subject of German Hymnody. 9. " Chorale Gesang Buch," C. H. Strube, 21. From the " Introduction " to the of Wolfenbiittel, 1841. " Wirtemberg Choral "Woman of Samaria," by Sir Sterndale Book," 1841. " Stutgart Choral Book," 1857. Bennett. Here inserted as an example oj 10. "Chorale Book." John Augustus Bechel, the Melody, really in Common Tune, driven

( 234 ) ;;

HYMN TUNES. against and in combination with a move- version, the joint production of Sternhold ment in Triple Measure. and Hopkins, was first printed with these

Among the early labourers in this field melodies ; and in the year after, under the should be mentioned two French composers, editorship of John Day, " The whole Psalms, Claude Goudimel and Claude Le Jeune, of in foure partes, which may be sung to al whom the former published " Lcs pseaumes musical instruments," &c., &c., in which mis en rime frangaise, par Clement Marot et Thomas Tallis, William Parsons, Thomas Th6odore de Beze. Mis en Musique ^ quatre Causton, Richard Edwajds, and three others parties par Claude Goudimel." Without were the harmonizers. This was followed in name of placej but with these words at the 1579 hy another publication by Day, the <* foot of frontispiece : Par les heritiers de music arranged by William Damon, and in Fran9ois Jaqui, 1565," i2mo. The melody 1585 and 1591 other contributions of a like is in the tenor (see below.) A second edition nature appeared ; but inferior in their pre- was published at , in the same year tensions and interest to the collection pub- a third at the same place in 1580; and another lished in 1592 by Thomas Est or Este, " the at Charenton, in 1607. assigne of.William Byrd, dwelling in Alders- By the latter, i. Do de ca corde con- gate Street, at the signe of the Black Horse." tenant douze pseaumes de David, mis en The arrangers of the tunes were Richard musique selon les douze modes approuves Allison, E. Blancks, Michael Cavendish, des meilleurs autheurs anciens et modernes, Wm. Cobbold, , John Farmer, a 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 et 7 voix, par Claude Le Giles Farnaby (Bac. Mus., Oxford, 1592), Jeune, compositeur de la Musique de la Edmund Hooper (Organist and Gentleman ot Chambre du roy. A La Rochelle par Hierome the Chapel Royal), Edward Johnson (Mus. Haultin, 1598, 6 vol., in 4° obi. The words Bac, Cantab.), and George Kirbye. Of this are from Clement Marot. The form of com- work, a second edition appeared, in 1594, and position is that of the motets of the early a third, in 1604, and during the next twenty Italian masters. Other editions of this work years more than twenty editions of the old appeared at Paris in 1608 and in 1618. 2. version with Church tunes were published by Premier livre contenant cinquante Pseaumes the Company of Stationers, into whose hands de David, mis en Musique S. 3 parties, par the matter had fallen. Claude Le Jeune, natif de Valenciennes, com- In 1 62 1 appeared "The whole Book of positeur en Musique de la Chambre du roy, Psalmes, with the hymnes evangelicall and Paris, 1607, 3 vol., in 4° obi. The second songs spirituall, composed into 4 parts by and third books were published in 1608. No sundry authors, to such severall tunes as have second edition of the work is known. 3. Les beene and are usually sung in England, Scot- psaumes de Marot et de Theodore de Beze, land, Wales, Germany, Italy, France, and the mis en Musique a 4 et 5 parties, par CI. Le- Netherlands, never as yet before in one vol. jeune, natif de Valenciennes. La Rochelle published," &c., &c. As it is also said to be 1608, 4°- Premiere edition, publi6e par Cecile " newly corrected and enlarged," by Thomas

Lejeune, soeur du compositeur, et dedi6e au Ravenscroft, Bachelor of Musicke ; it is pos- due de Bouillon, prince de Sedan. This sible this may not have been the original

edition is very rare. A second was published edition. Every Psalm of the old version ife in full, its at Paris, 1613 ; a third at Geneva, in 1627 printed with tune, in four parts ;

another at Amsterdam, in 1629 ; one at Paris, some tunes, however, being several times re- from which the Psalms in 5 parts had dis- peated, so that the total number is ninety-

appeared ; one at Amsterdam, in 1633 ; and eight, of which forty are new compositions. one at Leyden, in 1635. Tiie music was also Of these Psalters, two particulars should be

printed with a Dutch translation of the words noted : ist, that many of the tunes, though at Schiedam, in 1664. not all, are distinguished by names—" Nor- The first portion of the Church Service wich," " Martyrs," &c., a custom which was printed in the English language was the English and Scotch exclusively; and 2nd,

Litany, 1544 ; the celebrated letter of Cranmer that the arrangement of voices places the to Henry VIIL, in October of that year, men- tune in the tenor part, not in the treble, as is tions also his effort at translating the Hymn the modern custom. Though the vocal parts in " Salve festa dies," to which he had " put the Ravenscroft are much more difficult than in Latin note " as being " sober and distinct." Este, it is doubtful whether either became a (See Jenkyn's Cranmer, i. 315.) Within the manual for use in Church, or whether it was next few years the custom of psalm-singfing ever intended to be so. If it were, the skill had become common enough to warrant the necessary for the correct execution of these " Church Tunes" being referred to as "usual" parts must have been much greater then or "wonted tunes." In 1562, the version of than is common in any but the best Church " the Psalter, now known as the " old choirs now.

( 235 ) . : ; : :

HYMN TUNES.

The following arrangement of the " Old frequent occurrence of syncopation in the

Hundredth," by John Douland, is from Este, accompanying parts should be noticed ; the and will give a fair idea of his book correct execution of this harmony would not be easy, even for an accomplished church choir: zst Treble.

All peo pie that on earth do dwell, 2nd Treble.

;^ When as we sat in Ba U jlj J rU^r^ peo - pie that on earth do dwell, . Tenor (the TurTune). ^ ^ All peo pie that on earth do dwell, Bass.

round a- bout, And in re - mem-brance of Si - o All peo - pie that on earth do dwell,

»^= :?=: T~~rrT 3^ =1= Sing to the Lord with cheer - ful voice; $ sga ^S Sing the Lord with cheer - ful voice ^ f=p---H^^f—^-N^ Sing to the Lord with cheer - ful voice m^ ^^^^^ ^ _ _ -&- and. in struments, The wil-Iow trees up - on Sing to the Lord with cheer - ful voice; *-^S- p=ii:a^^E^=^-^—^i-m Him serve with fear. His praise forth tell,

r r ' r T?r^ _31L xJrr_ tt;_ ; r^^rli. aTTi Him serve with fear, His praise forth tell, For in that place men for their 1^ ^ m ^

1) J J J r > Him serve with fear, His praise forth tell,

/7S

Come ye he - fore Him and

The following is Ravenscroft's Harmony of the old 137th ; the melody, as before, in the tenor. It is thought better for the general reader to reduce this to " short score." The —

HYMN TUNES. melody only appears, the harmonized edition being dated 1635. It contains a tune for each Psalm. and lift up your voice To Ja cob's That the versifications of Tate and Brady, known as the " New Version'' of the Psalms, had any beneficial influence on the culture of psalmody has never been pretended ; but with the cbmposition of hymns by Wesley and his followers came a new poetic material of which musicians were not slow to avail them- selves. New compositions, in the new measures, and with the greater warmth of feeling suggested by the words, and differing entirely, both in melody and harmonization from the older school, follow naturally. The tune books and hymnals with which the piress abounds, present every variety of these from the very time of Wesley to the present —and these lie open before the student'. In both melody and harmony they reflect not unhappily the style of the time in which they were written. In the following example the employment of the voices is akin to that in a glee, and short passages are employed " a la fug^e."

It is from " Melodia Sacra ; or. The Devout Psalmist's New Musical Companion," &c., &c. By William Tans'ur, Senior. " Musico Theorico," &c., London, G. Bigg, 1772. The method employed has long been acknow- ledged as utterly unsuited to any good pur- pose:

WESTERHAM. CM.

As Ps. Ixxxi. Old or New Version.

Ih Four Parts. W. T.

' The following is from ' Parochial Psalmody," dedicated to His Majesty George the Fourth,

( 237 ) HYPEJK HYPORCHEMA. by Thomas Greatorex, Conductor of His Remark in both the above (though separated Majesty's Concert of Ancient Music, and by an interval of fifty years, and the latter

Organist of Westminster Abbey ; London, about fifty years only from our own time), " 182 . . (?) Many good examples of this style the frequent occurrence of the tr," even on of writing may be found in the works of the four notes of the same chord.* composers of the same date : The following are examples of a style " to be avoided." They are reprinted without WESTMINSTER. CM. words, and in melody only, to show how Psalm cv. New Version. " Sing praise to God." unlike any accepted or acceptable form of tr music suited for Divine worship they are :

8.7.8.7. (DOUBLE.) ^^^S ^m ?z

' Hyper, ymip (Gk.) Above. A prefix to the names of modes one fourth above the authentic; as, Hyper-Eolian, Hyper-Dorian, Hyper-Iastian or Ionian, Hyper-Lydian, Hyper-Phrygian. [Greek Music] Hyper-diapason. Super-octave. Hypo, viro (Gk.) Below. A prefix to the names of modes commencing one fourth below the authentic, otherwise called Plagal, as, Hypo-Dorian, Hypo-Eolian, Hypo-Iastian or Ionian, Hypo-Lydian, HyQO-Phrygian [Greek Music] [Plain Song.] Hyporchema (Gk.) viropxni^"^- A religious hymn and dance connected with the worship of Apollo from the earliest times.

* For some interesting remarks as to the trillo as an integral part of a composition, see Preface to Hullah's A quotation from an older melody. edition of Pergolesi's " Stabat Mater."

(238 ) : : :

IAMBUS IMITATION.

Iambus. A metrical foot consisting of a short syllable and a long. [Metre.] Hynins are roughly said to be Iambic when thej' Consist of such feet, the music com- mencing on the upbeat, e.g., " All praise to Thee, my God, this night." lastian. Ionic. [Greek Music] Idyll (Gk.) sldvWiov. Lit., a small form. Hence, a beautiful form, (i) A poem of elegant structure, frequently, though not always, on a pastoral subject. (2) Music set to a poem of this character. II doppio movimento {It.) Double time, twice as fast. II fine {It.) The end. II piil (it.) Lit., the most, as, il pih piano be treated in parts possibile, as soft as possible, &c. This subject may three follows, including imitation at third Imhoccat\iTa{It.), Embouchure {Fr.) Birn as the {Ger.) The mouth-piece of a wind-instrument. and sixth : Imitando {It.) Imitating, as, imitando la voce, imitating the voice part, &c. Imitation. The repetition of a short subject by another part. The subject pro- posed is sometimes called the antecedent, and the passage which afterwards imitates it the consequent. If the consequent is at a fixed Examples of imitation at various intervals interval from the antecedent throughout, the and numbers of parts might be multiplied to imitation is said to be strict, e.g. any extent. Imitation by augmentation is when the consequent is in notes twice the length of those of the antecedent, e.g.

Antecedent. If the consequent only roughly follows the Imitation by diminution is when the con- antecedent, the imitation is said to be free, sequent is in notes half the length of those of e.g.: the antecedent, e.g. : -^-^---^ t&c.

Imitation by inversion is when the intervals of the antecedent are inverted in order to form the consequent Imitation may be at any interval, and may Bach. be supprorted by any number of parts, and though it often forms an important element of fugue, it is unrestricted by the laws of subject and answer which are binding in that form of composition. The following are examples of imitation at the second :

( 239 ) : —

IMMER INSTRUMENT.

Imitation is said to be convertible when Improviser {Fr.) To improvise. antecedent and consequent are interchange- In alt {It.) All notes in the first octave able. If strict imitation be continued for any beyond the range of the treble stave. [Pitch.] length of time it is said to be canonical, In altissimo {It.) All notes beyond the Immer (Ger.) Always, as, immer langsam, range of the first octave in alt. [Pitch.] slow throughout. Incantation. The utterance of a charm or spell in a singing, monotonous tone. Impaziente, impazientemente {It.) Inchoatio {Lat.) The Intonation or in- Impatient, impatiently. troductory notes of a plain-song chant. Imperfect. Not perfect, (i) An imperfect Indeciso {It.) Undetermined. In an interval is one which is a semitone less than undecided manner. perfect. (2) The imperfect consonances are the third and sixth, as opposed to the fourth {ndi£rlmlmentel(^^-) With indiifer- and fifth. An imperfect cadence is one ^"'=^' °' ""concern. (3) Indifferenza. con j which does not give complete rest in key. Inferior. {Lat.) Lit., lower. At an All cadences not having a dominant or sub- interval below, as, Inversio in octavam in- dominant penultimate are said to be imper- feriorem; inversion at the octave below, &c. fect. [Cadence.] imperfect (4) An stop on Infinite Canon. [Canon.] an organ is one, the pipes of which do not Inflexion. A departure from the Monotone extend through the whole compass of the in chanting. [Accent, § 4.] manual. A short stop. Duple measure (5) In fretta {It.) In haste. Hurriedly. was formerly called imperfect, as opposed to Inganno (it.) Lit., deception, as, cadenza tempus petfectum,triple time. d'inganno, a deceptive cadence. Imperioso (It.) With grandeur, dignity, Inner parts. Those portions of the imperiously. harmony that are not at the top or bot- Impeto, con (It.) i tom. pedal. Impetuosatnente (It.) I Impetuously. Inner A sustained note in one of the inner parts. [Sustained note.] Impetuoso (It.) J Inno {It.) A Hymn. Implied discord. A discord, the actual Innocentemente {It.) Innocently. In percussion of which is not found unless other ") Innocente Va child-like artless parts be added to the chord, e.g. Innocenza, con J manner. In nomine, (i) The name given to a free fugue as opposed to one constructed in strict accordance with the rules of fugue-form. The intervals forming the above chord are (2) A piece in fugal style, that is, consisting practically minor thirds, which are not in largely of imitation and of contrapuntal themselves discordant. devices, sometimes vocal, sometimes for in- Implied intervals. Intervals not ex- struments alone. When used in this sense pressed in thorough bass figuring. [Figured the name has been by some traced to the bass.] words forming part of the Benedictus in Imponente (It.) In an emphatic, pom-, nomine Domini, and by others from the words pous style. of the Antiphon "in festo sanctissimi nominis Impresario (It.) A designer, conductor, Jesu," commencing "in nomine Jesu omne or manager of a concert or opera party. This genu flectatur." Others again trace it to- term is often applied to a man who trains verse 5 of Psalm xx. " We will rejoice in singers, or obtains them for public per- Thy salvation, and triumph in the name (in formances. nomine) of the Lord our God." The in Impromptu (It.) (i) A piece of music nomines which exist are chieiiy the pro- written or played without previous prepara- duction of composers of the i6th century. tion of the subject. An extempore perform- Inquieto (It.) Restless, agitated. ance. [Extempore.] (2) A composition not Insensibile {It.) ) Imperceptibly, by in any set form, having the character of an Insensibilmente {It.) ) degrees. extempore piece. Instrument k I'archet {Fr.) An instru- Improvvisamente {It.) Unprepared, un- ment played with a bow. premeditated, extempore. Instrument & cordes (Fr.J) A stringed Improvvisare (7^) To found an extem- Instrumento a corda. {It.)) instrument. pore piece upon a suddenly suggested sub- Instrument. Any mechanical contri- ject. vance for the production of sound : The Improvvisatore {It.) Improvisateur {Fr.) musical instruments employed are divided One who has the gift of improvising. [Extem- into the following classes. Stringed,, wind, pore.] and pulsatile. The stringed instruments are

( 240 ) : —

INSTRUMENTATION INTERVAL.

the pianoforte and older instruments of its Intervals kind which are played by means of a clavier Consonant Dissonant or key-board ; the guitar and others whose strings are struck or All aug- plucked by the fingers ; Perfect Imperfect 2nd, 7th and the violin class played with a bow. Wind 4th, 5th, 8th. 3rd, 6th. mented

instruments are of wood or metal ; those that and di- are of wood are the flute, piccolo, hautboy, minished cor anglais, clarionet, basset horn, and intervals. bassoon; those that are of metal are the So far, this division seems plain enough. horn, trumpet, cornet-a-pistons, trombone, But modem music requires that intervals shall ophicleide, , bombardon, &c. The be designated according to their scale value. pulsatile or percussion instruments are the Hence a perfect interval when accidentally kettle-drums, great drum, side drum, triangle, flattened becomes imperfect, and a major cymbals, and tambourine. A description of interval minor. But the application of the each will be found under its proper head. word imperfect to a perfect interval made Instrumentation. The art of using smaller led to serious confusion, because, several musical instruments in combination ; an imperfect fifth came as a subdivision of also, the style or treatment of orchestral in- perfect intervals, while imperfect intervals of struments with a view to the production of themselves formed a separate class. To special effects. [Orchestra.] avoid this cross-division, theorists have in Instrument a vent (Fr.) \ A wind in- the last few years used the name diminished Instrumento da fiato {It.)\ strument. for perfect fifths reduced by one semitone. Instrumentirung (^Ger.) Instrumentation. But it is important to note that by this change Intavolare {It.) To set in notes, to score, of name a new difficulty arises, for diminished to copy. has almost fey universal consent been applied In tempo (It.) or a tempo, in strict time. to certain intervals when made less than minor, A direction to follow strict time after any for example, C# to BP is a diminished seventh passage in which has occurred a rail., &c. because C# to B# is a major seventh, CJf to Blj Interlude, interludium (Lat.) A piece a minor seventh, C# to B!7 one semitone less of music either impromptu or prepared, than minor. The word diminished when played between the acts of a drama, the applied by these authors to a fourth or fifth verses of .a canticle or hymn, or between signifies that it is reduced from its normal certain portions of a church service. state by one semitone, but the same word Intermede (Fr.) Intermedio (It.) An " diminished " when applied to a seventh interlude. signifies that it is reduced by two semitones. Intermedietto (It.) A short interlude. That utter confusion should result from such (It.) An interlude. an undigested system is absolutely inevit-

Interrupted Cadence. [Cadence.J able ; and it will be found that professors and Interruzione, senza (7^) Without hin- teachers of music to this day are unable to drance, without pause. talk intelligibly to each other on the simple Interval. The distance between any two subject of " Intervals." For many years a sounds. In discussing all subjects relating system has been taught in Germany which to melody, or to the construction of chords, it makes the whole matter perfectly plain. It is necessary to find names for the various is this : kinds of intervals. Hence, in the earliest 1. Intervals are reckoned upwards, inclu- treatises on music they are divided into sively, and by the number of names of notes classes. The old axiom that consonance they contain. depends on simplicity of ratio naturally led 2. Intervals are in their normal state when authors to draw a line at the point at which reckoned from the first note of the major two sounds ceased to be consonant and became scale. The lowest note of the interval being dissonant. Among the Greeks, the unison, considered for the time as a tonic. octave, fifth, and fourth, were considered 3. Normal intervals are major. Thus, D more perfect than the third and sixth and to Fjt is a major third, because F# is the third other intervals. In mediaeval treatises an degree of the scale of D ; F to Bt7 is a major interesting division of intervals into perfect, fourth, because Bb is the fourth of the scale of medium, and imperfect is found ; the unison F ; B to FjJ is a major fifth, because FJ is the and octave belonged to the first class, the fifth of the scale of B ; and so on. In other fourth and fifth to the second, the third and words, all the intervals of any major scale sixth to the last. In later works appeared a reckoning up from the tonic respectively are division which is to this day followed by major. many writers, namely, into Perfect and Im- 4. Intervals one semitone less than major perfect. This division runs thus are minor. Thus, C to Dl? is a minor second (241) . : ; ;

INTIMO INTONATION.

because it is one semitone less than the Bb to At| is a minor seventh, therefore BJ to norrrial D in the scale of C ; B to FJj is a AH, being a semitone less than minor, must minor fifth because one semitone less than be a diminished seventh.

the normal F}f in the scale of B ; and so on. The following is the simplest form of 5. Intervals one semitone greater than stating the rule for naming intervals accord- major are augmented. Thus, C to D# is an ing to this system. "When asked thp augmented second, because it is one semitone nature of any interval, bear in mind the greater than C to D, the normal interval major scale of the lower note, then, if the

C to Gj, an augmented fifth ; and so on. upper note is higher by a semitone than it 6. Intervals one semitone less than minor would be in the major scale of the lower note, are diminished. Thus, F# to E!7 is a diminished it is augmented ; if the upper note is actually seventh ; C# to Gt>, a diminished fifth; CJ to a note of that major scale it is major ; if it is El7, a diminished third ; and so on. less than major by one semitone it is minor The simplicity of this system is already if it is less than minor by one semitone it is apparent; The following diagram shows it diminished. When the lower note is a at a glance sharpened note, which has no scale of its Major 8th own, consider it as one semitone lower, when Major 7th the interval can be easily determined, e.g., Major 6th Cjtjt to G# is a minor fifth, because the in- Major 5th terval is one semitone less than CJ( to Gg, Major 4th the normal fifth. When the lower note is a Major 3rd flattened note, which has no scale of its own, Major and consider it as temporarily raised before deter- CDEFGABC mining the nature of the interval, thus Cbb to Gb is an augmented fifth, because it is one

Minor 8th , semitone greater than the normal fifth Cb to Minor 7th Gb."

Minor 6th , The only obstacle to the general , adoption Minor 5th of this excellent method of tabulating intervals

Minor 4th , is to be found in the pertinacity with which

Minor 3rd . professors adhere to the expression, perfect Minor 2nd fifth and perfect fourth, and abhor the term C Db El? Fb Gb Ab Bb C? major fifth and major fourth. This absurd prejudice, which arguments drawn from the Augmented 8th history and science of music seem to have no Augmented 7th power to remove, must be allowed to die of Augmented 6th,. old age. If there is any real distinction Augmented 5th!, between the perfection of a fifth and the Augmented 4th' imperfection of a third, it might even then Augmented 3rd be allowed to students to call fourths and Augmented 2nd C DtE|F|:G|A|B$Ct fifths major, on the understanding that they also possessed a remarkable perfection which Diminished 8th no other intervals possess. Diminished 7th| It has been suggested that intervals should Diminished 6th' be called, instead of (i) minor, (2) major, and Diminished 5th. (3) augmented; (i) minor, (2) normal, and Diminished 4th (3) major. This would certainly be a better

Diminished 3rd. system than any yet devised ; but it is to be feared it Diminished 2nd, ^, ( that would be impossible to disturb C T)i>\> Ebb Fbb Gbb Abb Bbb ebb the universally accepted meaning of the word or CS Db Eb Fb Gb At? B£> Ct> major. Intervals greater than major or normal It will seen be from this last that diminished have been termed (besides augmented) ex- intervals are produced in two ways—either by treme, sharp, superfluous, pluperfect, &c. making the note upper of a minor interval Intimo (Jf.) With inward emotion. flatter, or by making the lower note of a Intonare (If.) To tune, to sing. minor interval sharper. Hence it is that Intonation, (i) The method of producing some intervals have to be calculated from sound from a voice or an instrument. (2) notes not having a diatonic scale of their Correctness of pitch ; e.g., just intonation, own; thus, B# to A% In such cases, the singing or playing in perfect tune. The nature of the (3) interval is readily found by method of chanting certain portions of the temporarily reducing the lower note; thus, church services. [Accent, § 4.] (4) The C242) INTONATOR ITE MISSA EST.

notes which precede the reciting-note in a note, and by this means as many inversions Gregorian chant. can be made, as there are actual notes in the Intonator. A monochord, or single string chord, not counting the root. In such inver- stretched across a flat sound-board. Below sions the harmony remains the same, although the string is a diagram of the exact divisions the order of component parts is changed. of the monochord necessary for the produc- (2) Intervals are inverted by making that tion of the true musical scale. By means of which was the upper note the lower, and the a moveable bridge, the student is able to reverse. The inversion of an interval within sound the notes represented on the diagram, the octave may readily be found in the differ- and so, to educate his ear to a true sense of ence between the figure g and the interval

relative pitch. known ; thus an interval of a second becomes Intonazione {It.) Intonation. a seventh by inversion, &c. Intoning. The practice of chanting in (3) The inversion of a subject is produced the Anglican church service, which includes by inverting the intervals of which it con- the delivery of the prayers in monotone, and sists. [Al rovescio.] the precenting or leading of the plain song of Invitatorium {Lat.) A sort of introduc- the Psalms, Credo, Cantioles, &c. tory sentence or antiphon immediately pre-

Intrada {It.) (From intra, between). An ceding one of the of&ces of the Church ; such, interlude or entr'acte. for instance, as"' parts of the Venite exuUemiis,

Intrepidamente l ,j. , „ , or other words inviting the presence or atten- {It.) Boldly, '' dar- Intrepidezza, con V- \ .^, tion of the congregation. with courage. Intre?ido Jingly, Invitatory. [Invitatorium.] Introduction. A preparation for, or pre- Ionian mode. The Church mode com- amble of, a movement or series of movements. mencing on the note C. Introductions were formerly employed only Ira, con before larger musical works such as oratorios Iratamente {It.) WrathfuUy, with anger. and operas, but are now used as preparations Irato j to works of nearly every kind from a cantata Irish bagpipe. [Bagpipe.] to a waltz. Irish harp. [Harp.] Introducimento {It.) An introduction. Irlandais {Fr.) In the Irish style.

Introduzione (/f.) Introduction. Ironicamente) ,,, N t n |(^'-) Ir°n;«=^%- Introit. Introito {It.) Introitus {Lat. Ironico from intro-eo). An antiphon sung while the Irresoluto {It.) Uncertain, without set- priest proceeds to the altar to celebrate mass. tled purpose, in an undecided manner. In the Anglican Church, a short anthem, Isochronism. Periodical recurrence. psalm, or h3mttn, sung while the minister pro- [Acoustics.] ceeds to the table to administer the Holy Ison {Gk.) In the music of the early Communion. Formerly, in some English Greek Church, the ison was the key-note or cathedrals, the Sanctus was sung as an In- tonic of a chant. The ison was moveable. troit. This practice arose probably from the Istesso {It.) The same; as, I'istesso tempo, fact that the Communion Service soon after at the same pace. the Reformation ceased to be performed Istrumento. An old form of stromenta, chorally, a proof of which is found in the an instrument. fact that for nearly two centuries—namely, Italian sixth. The name of a chord con from 1660 to 1840—the Sanctus was never taining a bass note accompanied by a majoi set to music except as an Introit, nor was the third and a sharp sixth. Gloria in excelsis set, but as an anthem. [Cathedral music] Invention, (i) The gift of finding new melodic ph'rases, or new combinations in har- [Extreme sixth.] mony. The possessor of such a gift is fre- Italian strings. Catgut strings for violins quently the founder of a school or style in and similar instruments, prepared in a pecu- manner, so that they are more transparent music. (2) Suites das pieces. [Suite.] (3) The liar name of a piece of music of a fanciful in appearance, and less liable to become false character. in use than ordinary strings. The majority of in Invenzione {It.) Invention. real ItaUan strings are made Rome. [Catgut.] 1' Inversion. The transposition of certain Italienne, a {Fr.) \i^ the Italian style. phrases having a common root. There are Italiano {It.) ] The concluding three kinds of inversions in music— (i) of Ite missa est {Lat.) intervals of subjects. words of the Mass in the Romish Church, chords ; (2) of ; (3) that service (Mass) (i) The inversion of a chord is effected by from whence the name of making one of the inner notes act as a bass is derived.

( 243 ) JACK JIG.

J.

Jack. The name of the hoppers attached Kilda were formerly great proficients upon to the keys of a harpsichord ; the end of the this, which was their only instrument of jack was furnished with a quill, as plectrum, music. to pluck the strings. [Pianoforte.] Jig. Gigue (Fr). Giga (It.) (i) A lively Jager-chor (Ger.) Hunting chorus. dance which may be performed by one or Jaleo. Zaleo {Sp.) A national dance of more dancers. It is popular among many Spain. nations, is distinguished by various titles, Janitscharen-musik (Ger). Janissary and has a certain amount of difference in the music, noisy music on instruments of per- steps according to the habits and customs of cussion. the people by whom it is adopted. With Jeu (Fr.) A stop on the organ, or har- some it is a sober, steady, jog-trot sort of a monium. Grand jeu, the full power. country dance, with others it is a wild, savage Jeu d'anche (Fr.) Reed stop. exercise, without point or meaning. With Jeu d'ange (Fr.) The vox angelica stop. some it is made a means of displaying the Jeu de &tte (Fr.) Flute stop. agility of the lower limbs of a combined

Jeu d'orgue (Fr.) An organ stop. company of dancers ; with others it is a Jeux doux (Fr.) Sweet or soft stops. terpsichorean drama for two performers, in Jeux forts (Fr.) Loud stops. which all the emotions excited by love are Je'w's harp, yew's trump, tromp de Mam, represented by gestures and monosyllabic (Fr.), Mundtrommel, Brummeisen (Ger.) A cries. The, Hornpipe, La Matelotte, La Segui- simple musical instrument held between the dilla, the Czardasch, the Reel, the Rant, lips, the musical sound coming from the vibra- are portions of the country dance ; the Bolero tions of a tongue of metal, bent at a right angle, and the Chica are only jigs in various forms. which is set in motioti by being twitched with The term has been derived from the word the forefinger. The sound is increased in chica, the name of a dance identical with the intensity by the breath, and altered in pitch by jig in some of its characteristics. But the the shape of the cavity of the mouth, which similarity of the title of the instrument acts as a reflector. This name some derive " Geige," a fiddle, with which the dance was fromjeMj/iZayjfrom thefact of its being a toy; usually accompanied, with the name of the others find the derivation of the word in the dance, would seem to point to an origin manner in which the instrument is used, Jaw's similar to that of " hornpipe," where the trump ; the German word Maultrommel seems character of the instrument gave the name to to confirm the latter derivation. Insignificant the tunes played upon it. as the instrument seems, it is capable of The jig, gigue, gighe, or giga, as it is producing the most beautiful and pleasing variously spelt, was one of the instruments sounds of a melancholy character. used by the musicians of the I2th and 13th A common soldier, named Koch, who served centuries, and this is generally understood to in the army of Frederick the Great, first raised have been a sort of fiddle. the Jew's harp from a toy to a solo instru- The "Geige," or "jigg" may have received ment, and a M. Eulenstein gave concerts in its name from the " up and down " motion London some fifty years ago, during which with which it is played. A fiddlestick is still he performed upon sixteen instruments, by called in the west of England a "jigger," which means he obtained a compass of four and there is a sort of pump used by brewers octaves. The Jew's harp is an old invention, which has the same name. In the east of being mentioned under the name of Cremba- England a sieve is called a "jigg'in," and lum by Prffitorius in his Organographia, in there are many other words of cognate origin, the year i6ig. It is a favourite instrument which it would scarcely serve the present with the Hottentots, at the Cape, who load purpose to quote. the end of the elastic spring or vibrator with ' Songs sung by clowns in the interludes to small portions of hard wax to deepen the the plays were called jigs, and any ambling tone. The inhabitants of the island of St. rhyme was also called a "jig."

( 244 ) ;

JIG.

In the romance of " Gawaine and the example of duple measure and unusual Green Knight," the word Bauderyk is used. rhythm. It is explained in the " Promptorium Parvu- lorum" as meaning " guige," a transverse strap, by which the shield was suspended round the neck. The use of the word with such a meaning may account for the fact that the vielle or hurdy-gurdy is called geige, gigalira or giga-vel-lira from having been /brCTJCr slung round the body. Jig-tunes or fiddle-tunes are frequently found in old MS. and printed collections from the 1 6th century onwards. They are all of lively character though of no special or dis- tinctive rhythm. Jigs, though now danced by one, or by two at the most, were formerly " round dances," in which many did indulge.

" the mad lads And country lasses, every mother's child With nosegays and bridle-laces in their hats Dance all their country measures, rounds, and jigs." Heywood " A woman killed with kindness."

Mr. Chappell (Popular Music, p. 792), says that "the jig is now associated in the public mind with Ireland," but he further, says that he has " not found one called Irish before the latter part of the 17th century." Scotch jigs were noticed before Irish jigs, as for example,by Shakespear in " Much Ado about Nothing," comparing " wooing, wedding, and repenting " with a Scotch jig, a measure and a cinque-pace ; and this comparison im- plies that the Scotch jig was of a lively character. (z) As a movement in a " suite," the jig is found in works produced towards the latter part of the 17th century, and onwards to the time of Haydn. At first the phrases were short, and of no more variety than was needed for the purposes of the dance, for the jig was occasionally one of the figures of the country dance. But later it was made the vehicle for display in harpsichord playing, and was lengthened and elaborated and became the origin of the last movement of the sonata. in and time It was written |, |, |, |, f , %, V^ the peculiarity of the rhythm of triplets was nearly always preserved if not insisted upon. Sir John Hawkins says that the character- istic of the jig " is duple time, thus marked f or i^," and " that the air consists of two strains, undetermined as to the number of bars;" others say it is "of compounds of " threes in time," and many of the " gigues belonging to the "suites" are written to show the prominence of the triplets. But the following "jigg" out of " Compositions for Broken and Whole Consorts of two, three, fibwer, fiive and six parts, made by Matthew Locke, composer in ordinary to His Majesty Charles the II.," written in 1672, is an JIG.

^ ^ r^ i f"'' ' ij.r r ^

GIGUE.

J. Mattheson, i68ir—1722.

(246) JINGLES JUSTESSE.

Jingles. Discs of tin, brass, or bell metal, fastened at intervals round a tambourine. [Tambourine.] Jobel (Heb.) A word applied in the Holy- Scriptures to certain trumpets or horns. It

is probably equal to the affix jubilee ; but, jubilee-horns were used for other purposes besides that of proclaiming of jubilees. Joculator. [Troubadour.] Jodeln (Ger.) Jodie, Jodl. A peculiar ^^^= method of singing adopted by the Swiss and ^f-^^^^ Tyrolese, by the rapid alternation in melodic progressions, of the natural and falsetto voice. The following is a specimen of a jddl at the close of a national Swiss song.

(8ve. lower.)

Ben i nit e lus- ti - ge Bue ? jo lia ho al li

i M_j^-I ^f

Jongleurs. [Confr6rie de St. Julien.] [Troubadour.] Jump. Another name for the dance called a dumpe. [Dump.] Just intonation. The correct sounding of intervals in singing or playing. [In- tonation.] Juste {Fr.) Lit., just. In tune. Justesse {Fr.) Equality, purity, and cor-

rectness ; as justesse de la voix, purity of intonation, jfustesse de I'oreille, correctness of ear.

( 247 )' ;

KABARO KETTLE-DRUMS.

K.

Kabaro. A small drum used by the Egypt- Kemangeh. An Arabian instrument of the ians and Abyssinians. fiddle class. [Violin.] Kalamaika. A Hungarian dance. Kent Bugle. [Metal wind instruments.]

Kammer (Ger.) Chamber, e.g., Kammer- Keras {Gk.) Ktpae , a horn. Originally, any concert, chamber- concert ; Kammer -musik, instrument made out of the horn of an animal. chamber-music {q.v.) ; Kammer-ton, concert Lat., cornu. pitch. [Chorton.] Kerana or Kerrena. The name of the Kandele or Kantele. The ancient min- Persian horn which is sounded at sunset and strel's harp of the Finns. The name is also at midnight. given to a species of dulcimer, having five Keraulophon. An organ stop, invented by strings, in use among the same people. Gray and Davison. Its pipes are of small Kanon. [Canon.] scale, and are surmounted by a moveable ring Kanonik. [Canon.] of metal. Its tone is soft, delicate, and reedy. Kanoon. A dulcimer. [Canun.] Keren. A Hebrew trumpet. The word is {Ger.) The leader or con- sometimes used in the Bible as synonymous ductor of a band of music. [Capellmeister.], with shophar, and to it is sometimes affixed Keckheit {Ger.) Boldness, audacity, Jobel, rendered in the English version rams'- vigour. horns. Keeners. Irish singing mourners, who, in Kern {Ger.) The language of an organ- olden times, were hired to howl at funerals, pipe. in perpetuation of a heathen custom derived Ketten-triller {Ger.) [Catena di trilli.]

from a Phoenician ancestry. The duty of Kettle-drums. (Fr.) ; Timpani

professional keeners was undertaken by the {It.) ; Pauken {Ger.) Instruments formed of females of the family, or acquaintance of the shells of copper or brass, over the top of deceased. After the body had been dressed which parchment is stretched. Parchment is in grave-clothes, adorned with flowers, and considered best when most transparent. placed upon a bier, the chief keener arranged There are two drums usually employed, the his followers at the foot and head of the tuning of the larger being limited to the notes corpse, and recited at the first the Caoinan, in between which were described the virtues and pos- sessions of the departed. This eulogy sung m softly, and accompanied upon the harp, was And of the smaller between followed by a full chorus of all assembled the ullalu, or hubbaboo as it was sometimes ^ te called, next followed, joined in by every one

in a louder voice ; and after this was ended, So that the two drums overlap each other in the goul, or lament, followed, in which the compass by a tone. sounds were often raised to howls and yells. The tuning is effected by tightening or The process was repeated during the wake or loosening the head or skin by means of a vigil before the burial, the keeners sometimes ring of metal moved by screws turned by a following the corpse to the grave. When the key. Several plans have been invented by body was laid down for the purpose of resting v/hich they may be tuned from one screw. the bearers, or the procession came in sight Cornelius Ward's plan was by means of an of a wayside cross or chapel, the keening was endless cord passing into the interior of the suspended, and all present knelt to say in drum. Potter's is by curved rods outside the silence an Ave or a Pater noster, a practice shell and meeting in the centre at the bottom. which may be held to denote that keening Drums are usually tuned to the tonic and was felt to be incongruous with Christian dominant of the piece in which they are em- usage. ployed, but other tunings are found in some

( •^48 ) : !

KEY KEY-BOARD. scores, as, for example, in Mendelssohn's A long roll upon the drum is thus in- Rondo in in Bt|, which the drums are in D dicated : and E. Beethoven, the first who elevated the drum from a mere noise-producing machine into an orchestral instrument, has his drums tuned in various way^ in his scores, as a reference to his symphonies will show. In A short roll thus ; No. 7, 1st and 2nd movements, they are in fifths played as written ; 3rd movement, in sixths as written. In No. 8, ist and 3rd movements, in fifths played as written 4th ; Kettle-drums are said to have been intro- movement, in octaves. In No. g, ist move- duced into the orchestra by Handel, who in fourths written ment, as ; 2nd movement, employed a pair taken as part of the spoil at in octaves 3rd movement, in fifths 4th, in ; ; the battle of Dettingen, in the score of the fourths. Te Deum, written in celebration of that Drums for all modern scores are of 8ft. event ; but the drum was first employed by tone, giving a definite and accurate note. Lully to strengthen the tutti parts of his When the drums are required simply for and choruses. marking rhythmical measures, the i6ft. tone Among many remarkable passages for the is best. For this reason modern writers add drum may be noted that in A in the slow the long drum (grosse caisse, Fr.; gran cassa, part of the overture to " Der Freischiitz," Ji.; Trommel, Ger.) to their scores. The bass also one note C piano when the first subject clef is usually employed in writing for the (syncopated) of the middle movement returns. kettle-drums. Sometimes the notes required Four notes in Violin Concerto, Beethoven. In are written in their proper places on the stave, Haydn's Mass No. 2, and of " Agnus Dei," but the notes to which they are to be tuned is on the words " Dona nobis pacem," some always stated, as soft notes of the drum are introduced which at first seem inappropriate. Timpani in D, A. Key. (i) A mechanical contrivance for closing or opening ventages, as in flutes, Neither sharps nor flats are ever written clarinets, ophicleides, &c. By means of keys as signatures for the drums. If the sounds on such instruments, apertures too remote to required are the tonic and dominant of the be reached by the outstretched fingers are key, the drum part may be written in C. If brought under control of the player. (2) A other notes are needed, the rule is to write lever which brings the pallets of an organ the actual notes, but without sharps or flats : under the control of the hand or foot of an organist. (3) A lever which controls the Timpani in Bb, F. striking apparatus of a key-stringed instru- ment. In the harpsichord it acted on the jack,

Drums were formerly used in combination in the pianoforte it acts on the hammer. (4) with trumpets [Dettingen Te Deum, Mozart's The wrest or key used for tuning instruments No. 6 Symphony], Beethoven being the first having metal pegs. Its end is hollowed out, to employ them as a means of gaining special so as to fit over the four-sided end of the peg, solo effects (see his Symphony in F, No. 8, and the crossbar with which it is surmounted and Scherzo of No. g). gives leverage to the hand of the tuner, so Snare, or side-drums, are employed in the that he is enabled to tighten or loosen a string, same manner that the long-drum is, that is or (in the case of a drum) slacken or strain a to say for rhythmical, not for harmonic effects. parchment. (5) The sign placed at the com- [See Rossini's overture to " La Gazza ladra," mencement of the musical stave which shows and the " Benedizione de pugnali " scene in the pitch of the notes, was originally called a Meyerbeer's " Huguenots."] clavis or key. This sign is called in modern The long-drum being played with one stick, music a clef. [Clef.] (6) Key, in its modern the player is frequently called upon to per- sense, is the starting point of the definite form upon the cymbals at the same time, not series of sounds which form the recognised with the best eff'ect with regard to the cymbals, scale. Different starting-points require the for cymbals ought to be slided one over the relative proportion of the steps of the scale other and not struck flat together. to be maintained by means of sharps or flats The best sort of sticks for the kettle-drums in the signature. The key of C requires no are those having whalebone handles with a flats or sharps for this purpose, hence it is wooden button covered by a piece of sponge ; called the normal key. by the use of these the finest gradations of Key-board. Clavier {Ger.) The range tone may be gained. of keys upon a pianoforte or organ. Keys

( 249 ) KEY-BUGLE KYRIE ELEISON. played by the fingers are called manuals; Klappe {Ger.) The key of any y^ind in- those by the feet are called pedals. strument. A valve. Key-bugle. [Metal wind instruments.] Klappen-fliigel-horn {Ger.) Keyed bugle. Key-chord. The common chord of the' Klappen-trompete {Ger.) Keyed trumpet. tonic, e.g. : C, E, G is the key-chord of C. Klein {Ger.) Small, (i) Minor, as kleiner

Key-note. The note which, according Halbton, a minor semi-tone ; kleiner Nonenak- to the signature, forms the starting point of kord, the chord of the minor ninth, &c. the scale. The tonic. The doh. (2) Small, SlS Klein-bass, or kleine Bassgeige,

Key-trumpet. [Metal wind instruments.] a violoncello ; klein gedackt, a small stopped Khalil, Chalil, or Halil {Heb.) The diapason, a stopped flute. flute of the Hebrews. As the word is traced Klingel {Ger.) A small bell. to a root signifying bored through,it is quite Knee stop. A mechanical contrivance possible that it may have been like the on harmoniums, by which certain shutters aulus, used to describe either a flute or an are made to open gradually when the knees oboe. are pressed against levers conveniently placed Kin. A Chinese musical instrument, the for the purpose. A crescendo and diminuendo scholar's lute, a sort of dulcimer. are thus produced. King. A Chinese instrument of percussion, Knell. A stroke upon a bell made at consisting of metal plates, which are struck periodic intervals, at the time of a death or with a hammer. funeral. Kink. A twist in a catgut string from " When thou dost hear a toll or knell, close laying, which, by uncoiling and weaken- Then think upon thypassing bell." ing that part of the string in which it occurs, Old Proverb. frequently makes it useless for the instrument A single stroke is made for a child, two for which it is intended. strokes for a woman, and three for a man. Kinnor. One of the most ancient of the Knicky-knackers. The common instru- Hebrew string -instruments, being the first ment of percussion known as bones. " " mentioned in the Bible ; Jubal was the Then let our armies join and sing," father of such as handle the harp {kinnor) And pit-a-pat make our knackers ring." MiDDLETON. The Rout, • Gipsy 1623. and organ (M^a&) " (Genesis iv. 21). The Kniegeige {Ger.) German version has it, " from him descended A Viola da gamba. fiddlers (Geiger) and pipers" PfeifFer). Several Knoll. [Knell.] theories have been brought forward as to the Kopfstimme {Ger.) Head voice. Voce nature of the kinnor. It has been variously di testa. {It.) described as a small harp, a lyre, and a Koppeln {Ger.) Couplers. [Organ.] guitar. Kraft {Ger.) Energy, vigour. Krdjtig, Kirche [Ger.) Church, as Kirchencom- energetically. circle or series ponist, church composer ; Kirchenmusik, Kreis-lieder {fier^ A of songs. church music ; Kirchenstyl, church style, &c. Kit. Pochette (Fr.) Bretgeige \Ger.) Kreuz (G^r.) The sign for a sharp. A small violin, about sixteen inches long, Doppelkreuz, a double sharp. played with a bow of nearly the same length, Kriegslied, or Kriegsgesang {Ger.) A used by dancing masters because of its con- battle song. venience for carrying in the kit or pocket. Krome {Ger.) A quaver J^{Lat. chroma). It should be stated that some have derived Krotalon. [Crotalum.] the word from the Persian kitar, cithara, Kroumatic. Instrumental, KpovfiariKi'i guitar. The Italian name of kit, sordino, is IMvaiKti {Gk.), instrumental music. Sounds given to it because of its small stifled tone. produced by striking. Klang {Ger.) Sound, Quahty of sound, Krummhorn {Ger.) Lit., crooked horn. timbre. {Fr.) Cornetto curvo {It.) Corno storto {It.) An Klangboden {Ger.) Sound board. Re- organ stop, consisting of reed pipes. It is of sonance box. 8ft. pitch. This name has been corrupted to Klangfarbe {Ger.) Lit., sound-colour. Cremona on English organs, Quality of sound, timbre. {Fr.) Krustische instrumente {Ger.) Instru- Klanggeschlecht {Ger.) A kind or genus ments of percussion (from Gk. Kpovoi, to strike). of sounds, as diatonisches, chromatisches, und [Kroumatic], enharmonisches Klanggeschlecht, the diatonic^ Kuhhorn {Ger.) Cor de vache {Fr.) A chromatic, and enharmonic genera. cow horn. The common Alpine horn. Klangleiter {Ger.) A scale. Lit., sound- Kurz {Ger.) Short. ladder. Kyrie eleisoti {Gk.) [Mass.]

( 250 ) -LANTURN.

L.

L. The letter employed as the abbreviation of the word left or linke (Ger.), as L. H. left -I - -I ^ J J I I hand or linke Hand. J j_^ -L ^ La. (i) The solfeggio name for the sixth de^ee of the scale. (2) The key-note of the minor scale without a signature. La b6mol (Fr.) The note A flat. La bemol majeur (Fr.) The key of A flat major. ^"^^ La bemol mineur (Fr.) The key of A flat minor. Labial. Organ pipes with lips. Flue pipes. Labial-stimmen {Ger.) Stops belonging to the^Mfi work. Labium. The hp of an organ pipe. Lacrimoso (It.) Mournfully. Lade (Ger.) Wind-chest of an organ. La destra (It.) The right hand. La diese {Fr.) The note A sharp. Lagrimando {It.)\ Mournfully, sadly,

Lagrimoso {It.) j tearfully. Lai {Fr.) A lay, song, lied. Lament. The name given to some Scotch melodies of a mournful character, or to tunes set to words of a melancholy cast. Lamentabile {It.) Lamentabilmente {It.) Lamentando {It.) \ Mournfully, Lamentevolmente {It.) plaintively. f Lamentevole {It.) Lamentoso {It.) Lampons {Fr.) Drinking songs, from the word lamper, to gulp down, whence, pro- bably our word lampoon, a libellous ballad. Lancers. The name of one of the arrange- ments of sets of country dances. Landler {Ger.) The name given to a dance popular among the Styrian peasants. The tune is of a lively, graceful character in or time. Many of the melodies proper to f I- this dance are of a beautiful and simple style.

- -e- , r , ^^ t_ f ; a

LARGAMENTE LARYNX. the accordion, concertina, or harmonium. the paired are the two arytenoids, the two The air is supplied by a rotatory bellows, the " cornicula laryngis " or cartilages of Santo- handle of which is at the bottom of the in- rini, and the cuneiform cartilages of Wrisberg. struments and the series of small square Fig. 2. buttons or keys which are in front are played BACK VIEW OF LARYNGEAL CARTILAGES. upon by the fingers. Largamente {It.) Slowly, widely, freely, fully. Large. A note formerly in use of the value of two longs, or four breves. [Nota.] Largement (Fr.) [Largamente.] Larghetto (It.) Lit., rather broadly, widely. At a slow pace, but not so slow as largo. Larghissimo {It.) Exceedingly slow, as slow as possible. Largo {It.) Slow, broadly. Largo assai (It.) Quite slow. Largo di molto {It.) Very slow. I. Epiglottis. 2. Thyroid cartilage: a. attachment of epiglottis ; b. of false vocal chords ; c. of true Largo ma non troppo {It.) Slow, but vocal chords. 3. Cricoid cartilage: a. facet for ary- not too slow. tenoid cartilage ; b. facet for lower bone of thyroid

Larigot {Fr.) (i) An old name for the cartilage. 4. Arytenoid and accessory cartilages : a. flageolet. (2) An organ stop of 1 6 inches pitch. arytenoid cartilages ; 6. cornicula laryngis or cartilages of Santorini ; c . cuneiform cartilage or cartilage of Wrisberg. Larynx is the organ of voice ; the organ by means of which we produce vocal sounds. The cricoid cartilage is ring-shaped, as its

It is situated at the top of the trachea or name {icpiKoe, a ring) implies ; it is the base of wind-pipe, of which it forms a continuation, the support of the other cartilages. It is not and its position is known popularly by that equally deep in all dimensions, but is much of the " Adam's apple," the prominence of deeper, from above downwards, behind than one of the cartilages or masses of gristle in front. At the hindermost part are two which form it. small smooth elevations, and lower down are

Fig. I. two other smooth surfaces. The former FRONT VIEW OF HYOID BONE, LARYNX, TRACHEA, AND pair of these smooth surfaces serve as the BRONCHI IN THEIR MUTUAL RELATIONS. articulations or joints for the arytenoid carti- lages which are perched on them and work

• with great freedom ; the latter pair are the joints for part of the thyroid cartilages. The movements of the latter pair are not so free as those of the former, but are limited to a movement round an imaginary axis running across and through the cricoid cartilage, being thus a horizontal and transverse axis. The arytenoid cartilages {apvraiva, a pitcher) are perched on the two smooth elevations on the hinder part of the upper border of the cricoid cartilage. They are more or less pyramids of three sides in shape, but of the sides which form their base, two, viz., the posterior and internal, are at right angles to h. Hyoid bone ; e. epiglottis ; t. thyroid cartilage ; one another. The anterior tips are called the c. cricoid cartilage ; tr. trachea ; b. right bronchus b'. left bronchus. "processus vocales," or vocal processes, and The essential parts are two semi-lunar to them are attached the , of membranes, placed with their flat sides next which we shall speak further on. On the to one another, and called the " vocal cords," summit of each of these pyramids are placed and the cartilages which support them. The two other small cartilages, the " cornicula accessory portions are certain other carti- laryngis " (little horns of the larynx) or lages, the muscles which move these cartilages, " cartilages of Santorini." and the nerves and blood-vessels by which The thyroid cartilage (shield-like, from the whole structure is nourished and fur- flujOfde, a shield) is the largest of the carti- nished with sensation and motion. lages of the larynx. It is of a somewhat The cartilages are nine in number, six complicated shape. Take a thin book— paired, three unpaired. The unpaired carti- note-book will do vefy well—open it in the middle, place it upright, so that the lages are the thyroid, cricoid, and epiglottis ; two

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LARYNX.

covers shall be at an angle somewhat more noid cartilage of each side. This fold is acute these than a right angle ; cut away the upper called the glosso-epiglottidean fold. In third of the back, or junction of the covers, folds lie two small conical cartilages, the so as to leave a notch above, and to each of cuneiform cartilages or the " cartilages of the corners stick a piece of thin wood, such Wrisberg." Below the level of the hyoid bone as a pencil, the two upper pencils pointing on the posterior surface is placed a pad of upwards, the lower downwards, and you will fat and mucous membrane called " the cushion have a fair idea of the thyroid cartilage. of the epiglottis," functionally a very im- The two lower horns articulate or join with portant structure. the two lower smooth surfaces or "facets" on Fig. 4. the cricoid cartilage ; to the two upper horns, INTERIOR OF LARYNX FROM BELOW. ligaments are attached, which suspend the (About life-size.) thyroid cartilage to the hyoid bone, a horse- shoe shaped bone, with its convexity forward, forming the base of the tongue. The ante- rior part of the thyroid cartilage projects much more in adult men than in women or children, and the upper part of the anterior ridge, with the notch, form the projection known as the " pomum Adami," or Adam's apple, from an old tradition that the forbidden fruit stuck in his throat. The thyroid carti-

lage at the passage from youth to adult age cc. Cricoid cartilage; ac. ; tc.

grows very suddenly larger in men, and as thyroid cartilage ; am. arytenoid muscle ; cap. crico- arytenoideus posticus suddenly but to a less degree in women. On muscle ; vc. vocal cord ; ta.

thyro - arytenoideus muscle ; cal. crico - arytenoideus this relative size and .prominence of the lateralis muscle. thyroid cartilage depends the deepness of the The true vocal cords, otherwise called voice, as will be hereafter mentioned. the "vocal cords," aretwosemi-lunarmembranous Fig- 3- folds which project on each side towards the BACK VIEW OF HYOID BONE, LARYNX, AND TRACHEA middle line ; they are attached behind to the IN THEIR MUTUAL RELATIONS tips of the " processus vocales " of the aryte- (Only cartilages and bones shown), noid cartilages, and in front, close together, h to the angle between the two sides of the thyroid cartilage just below the notch. They are somewhat complex in structure, the basis of them is formed by two elastic bands near their edges, and both along these bands, the "inferior thyro-arytenoid ligaments," and more laterally, are muscles running in the same direction, which will be described later. The whole is covered by mucous membrane.

Fig- 5- VERTICAL TRANSVERSE SECTION OF LARYNX. h. Hyoid bone ; e. epiglottis ; t. thyroid cartilage

a. arytenoid cartilages ; c. cricoid cartilage.

The epiglottis (tirt on, and yXwrra the tongue) is a soft cartilage situated at the back of the tongue. In shape it resembles what is called technically in botany an "ovate" or " obcordate " leaf, i.e., it is oval above, and has a tail narrowing gradually from its lower end. This tail is prolonged by fibrous tissue and attached to the thyroid cartilage in the angle between its two sides, just below the notch. ep. Epiglottis; th. thyroid cartilage; a. ventricle of

The front surface is free in its upper part, larynx ; v. vocal cord and its free edge ; cr. cricoid but below it is attached by an elastic liga- cartilage. ment to the back of the hyoid bone. Its The false vocal cords, called also the lateral or side borders are free at the upper- " superior vocal cords " are two folds of most part, but somewhat lower down a fold mucous membrane of the same general shape of mucous membrane (the skin lining any and direction as the former ; they are at- interior cavity is called by this name) runs tached behind to the arytenoid cartilages backwards and joins the summit of the aryte- above, and more laterally than the former, and

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sides in front to the thyroid cartilages just above glottidean fold and are inserted into the the Insertion of the true vocal cords. They of the epiglottis. enclose a ligament, the " superior thyro- Thie thyro-epiglottideus is composed of two arytenoid ligament." Their inner- edges do parts, rising from the inner aspect of the fore the not approach the middle line so nearly as the part of the thyroid cartilage and having true vocal cords. Between the upper and following course, some (thyro-epiglottideus of the lower vocal cord of each side is the opening major) curve outside the saccule to the saccule or ventricle of the larynx, a larynx and are inserted into the side of the are small saccule or cavity, as its name implies, epiglottis, others run straight up and containing some gland cells for secreting attached to the epiglottis on each side of the the larger mucus. It only remains to say that all the cushion and below the insertion of " structures are covered with mucous mem- muscle. This is called the thyro-epi- brane. glottideus minor." into Muscles. The larynx is covered with many The thyro-arytenoid is likewise divided muscles, but only those which are concerned two portions. Part of it (thyro-arytenoideus in the production of the voice will here be internus) runs just along the outer border of mentioned. the true vocal cord. The other part (externus) runs from the arytenoid cartilage piore ex- Fig. 6, ternally, and before reaching the thyroid carti- SIDE VIEW OF LARYNX FROM RIGHT SIDE. lage it surrounds the saccule of the larynx, it is therefore above as well as external to the former portion. Some of its fibres seem to lie in the false vocal cord. The nerves of the larynx are two in num- ber, called respectively the superior, and the inferior or recurrent laryngeal. Both of these are branches of the great vagus or pneumogastric nerve which rises from a special nucleus or mass of nerve cells in the medulla oblongata or upper portion of the

tc. Thyroid cartilage; fm. pomum Adami; ce. spinal cord within the skull where this ex- cricoid cartilage ; ct. crico-thyroid muscle ; ctm. crico- pands to form what is known as the " fourth thyroid membrane ; t. trachea. ventricle." It leaves the cavity of the skull The crico-thyroid rises from the fore part by the same opening as the internal jugular of the outside of the cricoid cartilage and vein, which takes the greater part of the running back, spreads itself on nearly the blood from the brain to the heart, and com- whole of the lower part of the thyroid cartilage. municates with most of the large nerves in The posterior crico -arytenoid rises from the this situation. The pneumogastric nerve back part of the outside of the cricoid carti- gives nerve-supply to the pharynx, gullet, lage and is inserted into the outer or lateral stomach, liver, spleen, larynx, windpipe, angle of the base of the arytenoid cartilage, lungs, and heart, and extends down as far sometimes called the " processus muscularis," as the middle of the abdomen. it also extends some distance along the back The superior laryngeal nerve rises from the part of the base of the arytenoid cartilage. pneumogastric nerve just below the exit The lateral crico-arytenoid rises from the from the skull, and divides into two divisions tipper border of the side of the cricoid carti- called external and internal respectively. The lage, and is inserted into the front side of the external laryngeal nerve sends branches to lateral projecting part of the base of the some of the muscles which preside over arytenoid cartilage nearly as far as the " pro- swallowing, and ends in the crico-thyroid cessus vocalis." muscle. Theinternal laryngeal nerve gains the The arytenoid is a single muscle, while insideof thelarynxabovethe thyroid cartilage,

all the other laryngeal muscles are paired ; it supplies the lining membrane of the larynx, runs across at the back of the arytenoid car- and the arytenoid muscle, and sends a branch tilages between them and joins them. which joins the recurrent laryngeal nerve. The aryteno-epiglottidean muscles rise from The inferior or recurrent laryngeal nerve the lower and outer angles of the back of the has a most remarkable course. We have arytenoid cartilages, run across to the upper mentioned that the pneumogastric nerve after and outer part of the base of the opposite supplies the lungs and heart ; just arytenoid cartilages, crossing each other as reaching the cavity of the chest, while on a they do so (like a pair of braces), and some level with, and in front of the large blood- fibres run no farther but are attached there vessels coming from the heart, it gives off on the rest pass forwards in the aryteno-epi- each side a large branch, the recurrent

.( 254 ) LARYNX. laryngeal nerve. This nerve dives under- Development. The larynx is essentially an neath the arch of the aorta (the main blood- apparatus for closing the wind-pipe, and in vessel rising from the heart) on the left side, some of the lower animals has this function and under the subclavian artery (supplying alone. The muscles, except the crico-thyroid the arm) on the right side, and then runs and posterior crico-arytenoid, which lie out- upwards to the larynx. Thus the fibres of side of the calibre of the tube, are mere the recurrent laryngeal nerve, which come differentiations of a circle of muscular fibres down in the pneumogastric nerve from the called a " sphincter," such as surround, in medulla oblongata (for each separate strand some form or other, all the entrances and in the smallest nerve has a separate con- exits of the body. The cricoid and thyroid nection with its nervous centre, brain, spinal cartilages are probably developed in two cord or ganglion, a nerve being like an separate halves. electric cable, seemingly one rope, but really composed of innumerable insulated wires) Fig. 8. DIAGRAM OF AORTIC OR BRONCHIAL VASCULAR ARCHES curve back and run upwards again. Thus OP MAMMAL, ACCORDING TO RATHKE. every separate movement of the muscles of the larynx is due to a nervous impression which travels from the medulla oblongata down into the chest and then up to the larynx again. This seemingly purpose- less length of course will be explained when the development of the larynx is spoken of. On their way to the larynx, the recurrent laryngeal nerves give twigs to the gullet and wind-pipe, and when they have reached the larynx they supply all the muscles except the crico-thyroid. Epithelium. The mucous membrane of the larynx is lined with a layer of small cells "A. P. primitive arterial stem or aortic bulb, now called epithelium (which is the name which divided into A. the ascending part of the aortic arch, it bears on all internal parts of the body ; on and P. the pulmonary ; a. the right, a', the left aortic

the skin it is called epidermis). Each of root ; A', the descending aorta. On the right side i, 2, these cells has a little hair-like filament which 3, 4, 5, indicate the five bronchial primitive arterial continually keeps lashing upwards, so as to arches ; on the left side I. II. III. IV., the four bron- chial clefts, which for the sake of clearness have been mouth. This drive any mucus towards the omitted from the right side. It will be observed that kind of epithelium is found on the air-passages while the 4th and 5th pairs of arches rise firom the part generally as well as .in some other parts. of the aortic bulb or stem, which is at first undivided, the ist and 2nd and 3rd pairs are branches above c, of a Above the vocal cords it gradually loses these secondary stem on each side. The permanent systemic which its name, hair-like filaments from vessels are represented in deep shade, the pulmonary

ciliated (provided with eyelashes), is derived. arteries lighter ; the parts of the primitive arches which These filaments are absent over the true have only a temporary existence are drawn in outline only. c. Placed between the permanent common carotid vocal cords, as if to indicate that their function arteries; ce. the external carotid arteries; ci. ci'. the is special (Quain, Vol. I. Fig. 245, p. 326). right and left internal carotid arteries ; s. the right sub- Fig. 7. clavian rising firom the right aortic root beyond the the CILIATED EPITHELIUM OF RESPIRATORY MUCOUS fifth arch ; v. the right vertebral, rising from »'. left MEMBRANE. same spot opposite the fourth arch ; s'. the A, vertical section of epithelial lining of human vertebral and subclavian arteries, rising together firom trachea magnified 350 times. the left or permanent aortic root opposite the fourth arch ; P. the pulmonary arteries rising together from

the left fifth arch ; d. the outer or back part of the left the fifth arch forming the ductus arteriosus ; /», pn', right and left pneumogastric nerves descending in front of the aortic arches, with their recurrent branches represented diagrammatically as passing behind, with a view to illustrate the relations of these nerves respec- tively to the right subclavian artery, ^nd the arch of the aorta and ductus arteriosus."

As to the recurrent laryngeal nerves, we must premise, that firstly the early embryo has no neck, the head abutting on the trunk,

thus the heart is placed nearer the head ; secondly, the arrangement of the blood- membrane ; c. lowest or spheroidal a. b. Subjacent vessels corresponds strikingly with that which superficial, cells ; d. middle or oval cells ; e. elongated, is permanent in fish. In them the heart and ciliated cells ; B. separate columnar aiid ciliated cells.

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sends off one large vessel which runs along deeper. The larynx nearly doubles its size in the base of the gills and sends off branches males, becoming about one-third larger in on each side which run along the gills, and at females. It will readily be seen, that the the opposite extremity of them turn down growth of the thyroid cartilage, and especially and join in a common trunk which runs along its increase in prominence, implies a cor- the body and supplies it with blood, purified responding lengthening of the vocal cords, by having been aerated in passing through hence the increased deepness of voice at the gills. This is substantially the same in puberty which is always noticeable in males, the human embryo, which possesses not true sometimes in females—for a contralto voice

gills indeed, but slits in the neck just like the in a child is a thing never heard ; this is

slits between the gills of a fish ; along the acquired at puberty. In old age a bone-like bridges between these slits (five in all), cor- deposit is apt to form in all the cartilages of responding to the gills, run the branches of the larynx except the epiglottis, first or most the great blood-vessel. The further changes often in the thyroid, next in the cricoid, then need not here be mentioned, but it will be in the arj^enoid. To this is due the cracked sufficient to add that the last or hindmost of quality of the voice of old age, the quality of these arched blood-vessels of the branchial or voice depending of course largely on the gill -like bridges on the left side subsequently quality of the sounding bodies. becomes the arch of the aorta, while the same Physiology. The crico-thyroid muscles rotate arch on the right side is obliterated, the last the front of the thyroid cartilage on the cricoid, but one becoming the subclavian artery. The forwards and downwards. Since the pivots on larynx at the early stage is nearly or quite on which the thyroid works are below the attach- a level with the lowest of these arches, the ment of the vocal cords, to the arytenoid, and pneumogastric nerves run in front of them, therefore practically to the cricoid cartilage, and the recurrent laryngeal nerve, in its course any forward and downward movement of the to the larynx, runs directly, or nearly directly thyroid will tend to lengthen the vocal cords. backwards, i.e., towards the spine. As the This will be evident from the diagram embryo grows, the head becomes further (Huxley's EI. Phys. Fig. 50). If the finger separated from the body, the larynx is drawn be placed on the space in front, between the up with it, the neck appears, the slits are thyroid and cricoid cartilages, and a note

filled up ; but in the upward movement of the and then a considerably higher one be sung, larynx the recurrent laryngeal nerves are the space will be found to be considerably drawn up too, and as they are hooked round diminished ; in other words, the crico-thyroid the lowest arch on each side they are drawn muscles will have pulled downwards and out to a prodigious extent round the arch of forwards the thyroid on the cricoid, and in so the lowest vessel on each side. But the doing stretched the vocal cords, the increased lowest arch on the right side is obliterated tension producing the higher note. As before and disappears, so the recurrent laryngeal said, the external laryngeal nerve supplies nerve on the right side is caught, so to say, the crico-thyroid muscles. by the last arch but one, the right subclavian The thyro-arytenoid is the opponent of artery. The gradual growth of the neck the crico-thyroid ; it rotates the front of the takes place, not only in the development of thyroid cartilage upwards and forwards, and the embryos of the higher animals, but we in so doing relaxes the vocal cords. Besides can trace it in the progress from the lowest this action as a whole, the outer and upper to the highest animals. A fish has no neck, part presses on the ventricle of the larynx, a frog hardly any, a reptile rather more, birds and tends to empty it of any contents ; the and mammals have well-developed necks. inner portion, lying in the vocal cord (the Growth, During childhood the larynx thyro-ar3^enoideus internus) renders straight hardly grows at all, and is of the same size and tense the very edge of the vocal cord in both sexes ; both have equally high-pitched after the thyroid and arytenoid cartilages voices, and in neither is that prominence of have been fixed by other muscles, and the the " Adam's apple " (which depends on the length of the vocal cord thereby determined. acuteness of the angle between the two halves By the contraction of its lower fibres, lying of the thyroid cartilage, and on the absolute below the level of the vocal cord, the column size of the whole cartilage) observable. At of air might be narrowed, and the tone raised the age of puberty, the passage to adult life, for this is the result of such a narrowing of a sudden growth takes place in both sexes, the column of air before reaching the resonant but much greater in males than females ; the membrane. It is by this muscle that the whole larynx grows much, and the two halves peculiar quality of the notes of the " head- of the thyroid cartilage are set at an acute voice," as opposed to the " falsetto voice," angle, forming the prominence of the " Adam's is probably produced, the edge of the vocal apple," the notch between them becoming cord being very tight and capable of very (256) a;

LARYNX.

rapid vibrations ; the comparative thinness of But if the posterior arytenoid acts with quality is owing to the smallness of the bulk them it brings the hinder angles of the of the vibrating body. The "crack" in the cartilages together and prevents them from voice which sometimes occurs during the being separated as they would be in rotation, attempt to sing a high note, and is so annoy- so that the whole cartilages are moved ing to performer and audience, is perhaps bodily 'backward and the vocal cords are due to the sudden . paralysis of this muscle, stretched. which strikes work when overstrained. But The lateral crico-arytenoid muscles have it may also be due to the vocal cords touching an opposite effect. Acting alone, they pull each other, nodes being instantly produced forward the outer angles of the arytenoid this is more probable. This muscle is sup- cartilages. By so doing, they rotate these plied by the recurrent laryngeal nerve. cartilages (a a) on their pivots {pp) and ap- The arytenoid muscle draws the arytenoid proximate the " processus vocales," bringing cartilages together, and also tends to prevent the vocal cords together. The dotted line

their rotation. It is supplied by the superio.r represents their action :

and recurrent laryngeal nerves. , The aryteno-epiglottidean muscles, since between them they embrace the whole orifice of the air-tube, act as a sphincter, and in so doing draw the ar3ftenoid cartilages together and forward, the aryteno-epiglottidean folds together towards the middle line, and the epiglottis downwards and backwards. The thyro-epiglottidean muscles depress the epiglottis, the greater and upper one the upper part,- the smaller and lower one the "cushion"; by their action the epiglottis is

pulled forcibly - on to the top of the vocal cords, completely stopping the passage, as It will be seen that the posterior part of the takes place in straining or in swallowing. glottis, between the cartilages, remains open, They are supplied by the recurrent laryngeal forming a triangular space with the apex nerve. forwards. This was formerly called the Before describing the action of the lateral " glottis respiratoria " on the false idea that and posterior crico-arytenoid muscles, we the position of the parts in this state was that must premise, first, that the pivot on which of breathing. The space between the vocal the arytenoid cartilages move is a very loose cor(is in front was called the " glottis vocalis "; joint, so that the arytenoid cartilages are able this name is correct, for it is only this part to be moved bodily in any direction without which assists in producing sound; but the rotation. "glottis respiratoria" is only an applicable The posterior crico-arytenoid muscles, name so far as it implies that this part is used acting alone, pull backwards and downwards in breathing, but not in producing sound. the outer angles of the arytenoid cartilages. The whole glottis, however, is " glottis By so doing they rotate these cartilages {a respiratoria " properly, as will be hereafter in following Figs.) on their pivots {pp) and explained. separate the front angles, or " processus By the action of the arytenoid muscle this vocales," separating therefore the vocal cords. triangular space is obliterated. There are The dotted line represents their actit)n. two other muscles which, though they do not properly belong to the larynx, yet assist in vocalization. These are the sterno-thyroid and the thyro-hyoid. The sterno-thyroid muscles arise from the upper part of the sternum or breast-bone, and are inserted into the side of the thyroid cartilage. Their action is to pull down the

I thyroid cartilage, assisting the crico-thyroid muscles and helping to stretch the vocal cords. They are supplied by a nerve called "descendens noni," being a descending P^ ^^^ branch of the ninth or hypoglossal nerve which supplies the muscles of the tongue " " with motor power. Thus it will be seen that the glottis or the aperture of the larynx takes a diamond-shape. The thyro-hyoid arise from hyoid bone,

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LARYNX, which forms the base of the tongue, and are soon as we really sing such a note the aryte- inserted into the side of the thyroid cartilage. noid cartilages approach aijd touch each Their action is to pull upwards the thyroid other, and bend under the edge of the over- cartilage, rotating it and helping the thyro- hanging epiglottis (Fig. 4), which gives us arytenoidei to relax the vocal cords. They much the same appearance as in quiet are supplied by a branch of the ninth or breathing. hypo-glossal nerve. During the production of the higher chest- The action of the sterno-thyroid muscle notes, especially when sung sforzando, and may be felt by placing a finger in the middle still more in using the head-voice, it is easy line of the neck just above the breast bone : in to see into the larynx. It is from these that singing a high note, the muscles will be felt we infer the position of the parts in the to contract. deepest chest notes. In uttering a piercing cry a free view is TABLE OF MUSCLES. afforded into the larynx (Fig. 5). In the middle are the vocal cords closely opposed Stretchers of vocal cords. Crico-th5Toid, then on each side of these a slit, the opening sterno-thyroid (posterior crico-arytenoid + of the ventricle or saccule of the larynx,t be- posterior ar)rtenoid), thyro-arytenoideus in- tween the true and false vocal cords; still ternus (stretches edge of vocal cords when farther outside the false vocal cords. The arytenoid cartilages are fixed). whole arj^enoid cartilages, " processus vo- Relaxers vocal cords. Thyro-arytenoid of " cales and all, are closely opposed ; and (when arytenoid cartilages are not fixed) these erected as they are, together with the thyro-hyoid. Openers of glottis. Posterior epiglottis and the intervening ar3fteno- crico-arytenoid (alone). Closers of glottis. epiglottidean folds, in which are seen the Lateral crico-arytenoid, posterior arytenoid. prominences of the cartilages of Wrisberg, Physiology of the voice. The following form a sort of additional tube on the top of remarks a,re taken from Czermak's book, the larynx, all the parts being (as one's " Der Kehlkopf-spiegel," which contains the sensations alone would tell one) in extreme best observations that have been made with tension. the back of the epiglottis one the laryngoscope. On sees the cushion which touches the insertion During ordinary quiet breathing the of the vocal cords. epiglottis touches the back of the pharynx, so On taking breath (Fig. the " processus as only to leave one aperture behind and one 6) vocales " are turned outward (posterior crico- at each side. Through the aperture behind ar3rtenoid alone) and we get the diamond- and in the middle, a deeper view is obtained : shaped glottis (diagram 1). Sometimes, one here sees the elevations of the cartilages however, we get the triangular " glottis of Santorini or cornicula laryngis, which respiratoria " with a second inverted tri- surmount the tips of the arytenoid cartilages. angular space in the "glottis vocalis " (per- In pronouncing the vowel a as in " fate," haps from the action of the lateral crico- the epiglottis raises itself and discloses the arytenoid muscles ; the posterior arytenoid laryngeal cavity, even the front wall of the and thyro-arytenoideus internus being much windpipe being visible. This is the best relaxed). Fig. 8. In these conditions all the position in which to observe the preparations parts are very relaxed. for making any vocal sound. It is seen that the upper opening of the As soon as one prepares to make a sound larynx is formed by a fold of mucous mem- with one's voice the arytenoid-cartilages brane supported by seven cartilages, epi- rise and approach each other with surprising glottis, two cartilages of Wrisberg, two of rapidity, the " processus vocales " are brought Santorini, two arytenoid. (Fig. together and with them the vocal* cords 2.) In deeper quiet breathing the diamond- by the lateral crico-arytenoid and arytenoid shaped glottis is exaggerated, as in Fig. muscles. By practice this can be performed 7. During quiet breathing the parts of the slowly, or even stopped half way, in which larynx do not move, and in some cases the case one gets a position of the parts, as in glottis is wide enough to admit a finger with Fig. 3- ease. It is impossible to actually observe the During deep laboured breathing the aryte- production of the lowest chest notes, for as noid cartilages are brought somewhat together at expiration, and are thrown into dis- * It is plain that the glottis is smaller in singing than each in breathing, and smaller in singing a high than a low orderly vibrations like the nostrils under note. This is easily proved by comparing the time taken to empty the lungs in each case. The larger the aperture, the shorter the time. No sound is pro- f Its function seems to be to ensure a free space for duced when the vocal cords are more than one-tenth the vibration of the vocal cords, and to keep them of an inch apart. lubricated.

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similar circumstances ; at each inspiration or dome-shaped upwards, resuming their they are separated to their extreme limits. position when the pressure is relaxed. It is possible, under favourable circum- In clearing the throat the glottis is firmly stances, to see as far down the wind-pipe as closed, and then the expiratory muscles exert- its division into the two bronchial tubes, that ing their force, the parts closing the glottis is as far into the chest as the third dorsal or are suddenly relaxed, the epiglottis being, so rib-carrying vertebra. (Fig. 7.) to say, blown violently up, and all the parts In the shrillest cries the cushion of the are thrown into violent disorderly vibrations epiglottis appears to be pressed down on the so as to remove any foreign body or mucus. front part of the vocal cords, and to shorten In swallowing, the glottis is also closely their vibrating portion just as a string is shut. In increasing the strength of a note stopped by the fingers on the finger-board of the cords are slightly relaxed to compensate a stringed-instrument. for the increased pressure of wind which In air-tight closure of the larynx, as in would otherwise raise the note.* straining (which is best observed in passing Explanation of Czermak's Fig. (Taf. III.) from the position of Fig. that of uttering 5, a z. Root of tongue. s. Cartilages of Santorini. piercing cry) : ist, The arytenoid cartilages h.ph. Hinder wall of the p.v. Processus vocales. "processus vocales " and all — are closely pharynx. U.St. True vocal cords. pressed together, and with them the vocal ce. Opening of gullet. O.St, False vocal cords. e. Epiglottis. v.tn. Ventricles of the la- cords. 2nd, false The vocal cords apply a. Arytenoid cartilages. rynx. themselves to each other and to the true vocal e.w. Cushion of epiglottis. v.t. Front wall of wind- cords closely, so as to conceal the openings a.e. Aryteno-Epiglottidean pipe. fold. h.t. Hind wall of wind- of the ventricles of the larynx. 3rd, The w. Cartilage of Wrisberg. pipe. epiglottis presses its cushion tightly on the g.a. Elevation between car- b.d. Right bronchial tube. top of everything. tilages of Santorini and b.s. Left bronchial tube. (It is curious that whereas these parts of Wrisberg. the larynx resent being touched so strongly Fig. that the smallest touch of them produces at least a violent fit of coughing, they suffer being touched by one another and by the epiglottis quietly. Czermak asks whether this is due to the kind of touch which they suffer, or to the peculiarity of the nervous Quiet breathing. Wide glottis. Arytenoids apparatus through which the reflex ac- apart and depressed. Epiglottis falling back tion, which a foreign body excites, is pro- obscure the view into the larynx. duced.) so as to These changes are partly simultaneous, partly so quicldy following one another that we require the greatest watchfulness to ob- serve them. For instance, the false vocal cords cannot be seen to touch one another, for the epiglottis bends down and hides them while they are still approaching each other ; but it is inferred that they do so, for on The same, but epiglottis raised by the pro- suddenly opening the closed glottis they are nunciation of a as in " fate," or ee as in seen to project as far towards the middle line " green," but the actual sounding of the latter as the true vocal cords which are known to makes the tongue rise so high, as to obscure be closely apposed to each other. the view. If we stop the closure of the larynx halfway, Fig. 3.' we get the appearance presented in Fig. g. Vm, z i/st e In complete closure we get the appearance presented in Fig. 10. Later, however, the free edge of the epiglottis sinks, and we get th? same appearance as in Fig. 4, the ap- pearance during the production of the lowest chest-notes. The preparations for sounding the voice By this complex apparatus we can under- after quiet breathing, the process stopped half- stand how the glottis can withstand the tremendous pressure put on it by the expira- * The parts to the right of the middle line of these tory muscles in straining, &c. If these are figures, obtained by a mirror, necessarily correspond to those on the left side of the larynx, and put into action the whole of the parts closing vice verscu That which is situated above in the drawing in reality are! lifted the glottis up and become convex exists in front, that which is below is situated behind.

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wa)'. The arytenoids project and approach larger, large enough to easily admit a fingei. one another with free and rapid movements. The parts do not move during quiet breathing The glottis is narrowed. with inspiration or expiration.

Position during a deep chest-note. The epiglottis lies back and obscures the view of the vocal cords. Position during . The ary- Fig- 5-* tenoids are seen near together, but not so near as the "processus vocales;" these last are however too far apart to cause a vocal sound. The "processus vocales," being closer together than the rest of the arytenoids, produces a form of glottis, the opposite of that shown in fig. 6, namely, one approaching to that of two isosceles triangles, with their

apices apposed ; the whisper becomes louder Position during a very high note. Glottis as the "processus vocales" approach one very narrow, all the parts very tense, another, until at last all that remains is a arytenoid cartilages, aryteno - epiglottidean triangular space (the hinder of the two tri- folds, and epiglottis, forming a sort of angles), between the arytenoids. In the additional tube above the floor of the larynx. louder hoarser whisper, the cushion of the In the highest possible notes, the epiglottis- epiglottis presses on the front part of the cushion is pressed on the front insertion of vocal cords and additionally prevents their the vocal cords, shortening their vibrating being thrown into vibrations, though while length. any chink remains this cannot happen. Fig. 6.*

Fig. g.'

i/C ce

Position in air-tight closure of the glottis ; Position of parts on taking a deep breath the process stopped half way. The aryte- after singing a high note. All the parts are noids and the vocal cords are firmly apposed, relaxed- and appear thicker, the arytenoid the false vocal cords are being approximated, " cartilages move apart, the "processus vocales the epiglottis with its cushion is being pressed are turned out, the glottis is larger and down on the glottis. diamond shaped.

Fig. 10.*

The state of complete closure. The epi- glottis pressed firmly on the glottis. The false vocal cords probably, the true vocal cords certainly, closely apposed. When the Position in quiet breathing. The same as epiglottis is still further pressed back, we have Fig. 6, but exaggerated. The glottis still a view similar to that during the sounding of

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LARYNX. a deep chest-note (fig. 4), except that a small are in use (Concertina, Harmonium, &c.,) it space exists in the latter case, between the is formed with a tube.* epiglottis and arytenoids, for the passage of The reed of the voice differs from ordinary the air. reeds in not being a stiff lamina fixed at one

end, vibrating at another ; it is a Fig. II.* freely stretched membrane. Membranous tongues made elastic by tension may have three forms, ist. a stretched band in an interval between two firm plates, leaving a chink on each side, 2nd. it may be stretched over part of the end of a tube, the other part being occupied by a h.ph solid plate, a narrow chink being left between the free edges, 3rd. two elastic membranes Position at the commencement of the act of may be stretched over the mouth of a tube swallowing. leaving a chink between them. The last is The laws governing the vibrations. It has obviously the case in point. But if the mem- been naturally attempted to identify the vocal branes are prolonged in a direction parallel cords with some type of sounding bodies, in with the current of air, not their edges only, order to examine the laws governing their but their whole surfaces are thrown into vibrations. They have a considerable super- vibrations. This resembles the larynx still ficial resemblance to strings, the higher more closely. An instrument on these prin- sounds are as in them produced (other things ciples has been constructed, and corresponds equal) by increased tension. But ist. no very closely in its behaviour with that of the string as short as the vocal cords could give larynx. In such an apparatus, pitch depends out so low a note, 2nd. the number of on the length, tension, and thickness of the vibrations does not (as in strings) vary directly membranes, and though their edges must be as the square root of the tension. Therefore close together to produce sounds, the size of they are not strings. the chink has nothing to do with the pitch. The human vocal organs are not a flue-pipe, A lower note is formed from a pa,ir of such there is nothing to lead us to think that they membranes than from one, their pitch is are, and besides the sound written heightened by increasing the strength of the m current of air, thus they differ from rigid reeds in which the note is lowered by a similar proceeding. requires an open pipe, nearly 6 feet long, and Their behaviour when furnished with pipes the case is clearly not one of a stopped pipe. of various lengths, corresponds in the main Is it a Reed instrument? The question is with that of metallic reeds, but it is not so best answered by adducing some of the laws precisely determinable, as might be imagined. which govern them. ist. The pitch of a length of pipe suits a certain tone reed may be lowered, but cannot be raised, by A certain best. A tube prefixed to the reed, has the joining it to a tube, and. it can never be power of altering the tone, but not so lowered more than an octave, 3rd. after being definitely as when affixed. thus lowered, the note is again raised by a Thus the human vocal apparatus is a pair further lengthening of the tube, and again of membranous free reeds, with a prefixed lowered by a still further lengthening, 4th. the tube and complex affixed resonance tube. length of tube necessary to lower the pitch of the instrument to a given point, depends * Helmholtz in his book " Die Lehre von den on the relation between the frequency of Tonempfindungen," 1862, divides membranous reeds of of reed, and vibrations the tongue the into two classes, (i) Those in which the aperture is those of the column of air taken separately. closed by the shock of the air (German " einschlagend") are opened If a wind instrument depends for its note —"beating" reeds; and (2) Those which by the shock of the air (German " aufschlagend "—lit. entirely on the length of its pipe, it must be " striking open ")—" free " reeds. The beating reeds it be a flue-pipe, if the range to which can have the free edges of the limbs of the reed pointing altered depends only partly on the length of against the current of air, the free reeds in the direction reeds give a lower tone the tube, and if the range capable of being of the current. The beating would do if vibrating freely, the free reeds a produced by lengthening the tube is never than they higher tone. The reeds of organ pipes and wooden more than an octave, (the embouchure being wind instruments are beating reeds ; the human lips constant,) it is a reed instrument. in playing brass instruments are opened by striking, and This latter is the case with the larynx. are therefore free reeds (aufschlagend). They con- give higher tones (apart from the question of The reed in the voice corresponds with the sequently the selection of a particular harmonic by the resonance since it vibrates freely back- "free reeds," tube of the instrument) than when vibrating alone. " wards and forwards, and does not beat The Larynx is also a free reed, as will be seen by against an aperture, but unlike those which Fig. 5, V.

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All the air-passages above the larynx, the cord and might favour such a splitting into pharynx, mouth, nose, and even the cells in segments. the frontal bone, form part of this resonance Others say that the falsetto differs from the tube. These tubes, forming the resonance other registers in that only the edges of the tube, have an important part to play in vocal' vocal cords are thrown into vibration, instead isation, though their complexity makes it of the whole of them. This is possible, the difficult to determine that part accurately, only objection being that the extreme tension still that they do play a part is evident from of the very edge of the vocal cords seems to the following facts. In ascending from a be an explanation involving far more labour low to a high note the whole larynx is lifted than our sensations tell us is expended in towards the skull, the thyroid cartilage being the production of the falsetto voice. This drawn up within the hyoid bone so as even seems much more likely to correspond with to press on the epiglottis ; the space between the production of the " head-voice." the thyroid and cricoid cartilages is diminished, In passing from the highest chest note to the soft palate is depressed and curved for* the lowest falsetto note, the space between ward, the tonsils approach one another. the thyroid and cricoid cartilages in front The aperture of the resonance tube is an which was closed suddenly opens, implying important point, the smaller the aperture relaxation of the vocal cords. This is con- the lower the tone. In producing low notes sistent with the hypothesis that they only the mouth is less Open than in high notes. vibrate in part of their length, for this would There is probably a certain length of both require less tension for a shorter membrane. affixed and prefixed tubes and a certain size In passing from the chest to the falsetto of the opening of the affixed tube which is register, the larynx which was elevated de- most suitable for each given note, and these scends and rises again as the falsetto voice matters are partly managed automatically, rises. and are partly the result of practice and Others have thought that the falsetto voice education. In producing the lowest notes was the result of a flue-pipe arrangement, the we retract and depress the tongue with the glottis being the embouchure, the air passage epiglottis so as to partly cover the lower the tubes. We have already dismissed the aperture of the resonance tube. flue theory as untenable. The head-voice is probably produced by the The person on whom most reliance is to vibration of the free edges of the vocal cords be placed, M. Garcia, himself a singing- only. Helmholtz thinks this is produced by master, and the practical inventor of the drawing aside the mucous coat below the laryngoscope gives a long account of the cords, the edge of the cords being thus falsetto voice. He says that in the falsetto rendered sharper, the weight of the vibrating as in the chest register the lower tones are part less, the elasticity being constant. formed by the " processus vocales," as well The falsetto voice is a problem not yet as by the vocal cords, that these processes cleared up. Many physiologists seem to have (which he calls the "apophyses") gradually quite lost sight of the fact that it is different approach one another in the middle line, that from the "head-voice." There are various the vibrating length of the glottis is con- theories on the subject. sequently diminished pari passu, that when Some believe that the vocal cords only the vibrating glottis is composed of the vocal vibrate in part of their length. We have cords and only the tips of the processus seen this to be possible by means of the vocales, the weak uncomfortable tones well epiglottis-cushion. And it has thus much known to singers are formed, that when the in its favour that some adventitious aid (if processus vocales are so closely apposed we may use the term) seems to be called in, throughout that only the vocal cords vibrate, for it is much easier to sing a very high note the head voice is formed. " If we compare in the falsetto than in the chest register, the the two registers in these movements, we former depending on sheer muscular exertion shall find some analogies in them ; the sides as we know. of the glottis, formed at first by the apophy- But on the other hand anyone can sing ses and their ligaments, become shorter by falsetto with his tongue out of his mouth, degrees, and end by consisting only of the and consequently with the epiglottis-cushion ligaments. The chest register is divided into far away from apposition with the Vocal two parts, corresponding to these two states cords. of the glottis. The register of falsetto-head Others have said that the cords vibrate in presents a complete similarity, and in a still segments and give harmonics instead of funda- more striking manner. On other points, on mental notes. This is possible, for some of the contrary, these same registers are very the fibres of the thyro-arytenoideus internus unlike. The length of the glottis necessary muscle end at various points along the vocal to form a falsetto note, always exceeds that

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LARYNX. which produces the unison of the chest. The set the vocal cords vibrating not in one seg- movements which agitate the sides of the ment but in many segments or nodes. In glottis are also augmented, and keep the the first place- this is not inconceivable, but vibrating orifice continually half opened, we must freely admit that we do not know which naturally produces a great waste of the mechanism by which it would be pro- air. A last trait of difference is in the duced. Garcia states that the length of the increased extent of that elliptic surface (the vocal cords necessary to form a given 'falsetto glottis). All these circumstances show in note always exceeds that which produces the the mechanism of the falsetto a state of re- unison of that note in the chest register, and laxation which we do not find in the same adds that the falsetto note is accompanied by degree in the chest register. a relaxed state of the glottis ; now if the " When the external fibres of the lateral length is increased while the cords are re- crico-ar3?tenoid muscle remain inactive, we laxed, we have two circumstances which would produce the falsetto. The lips of the glottis, render the pitch deeper if the cords vibrated stretched by the horizontal bundle of the in their entirety, but both these factors would thyro-arytenoid, come in contact by their be favourable to vibration in segments. But edge alone, formed at once by the ligament there is another reason for supposing this, and the apophyses, and offer little resistance which seems to us worthy of consideration, to the air. Hence arises the great loss of though it does not depend on direct observa- this agent, and the general weakness of the tion. When the voice " cracks " in singing sound produced here. During the chest a high note, it flies up not into the head but register the vocal ligaments are stretched, the falsetto register. Now we know that and are in contact to an extent corresponding this " crack " is produced by the vocal cords with the depth of the anterior apophyses of coming into contact and splitting into the arytenoid, whilst in the falsetto the edges " nodes," just as a violin string will sound alone of the ligaments are stretched and harmonics if lightly touched with the finger apposed." (this crack is due to the fact that a high note Some have tried to show that the falsetto requires that the vocal cords should be all depends on the state of the parts below, but parallel to each other and all but touch- others above, the larynx. There is nothing ing, but either owing to a want of delicate to say for these theories. Another theory muscular co-ordination or to their being again assigns to the false vocal cords a large swelled by a cold or other similar cause, they share in producing the falsetto voice, and touch in some part of their length and nodes Garcia found that in producing high notes of are at once formed). Thus we have two the chest or falsetto register they were some- modes of production of the falsetto voice, what approximated. one of which we know. Is it not likely that In reviewing these various theories, we we produce the same effect (the falsetto voice) shall be assisted in arriving at some sort of by a similar method in both cases (a splitting an opinion by eliminating such of them as into vibrating segments or nodes) ? We seem to us obviously untenable ; such as the think, therefore, that it is most probable that theory that the vocal apparatus is not used the falsetto voice is produced by the vibration in the production of the falsetto voice as a of the vocal cords not in their entirety but in reed instrument but as a flue-pipe, and that nodes, though the mechanism by which this which states that the parts above or below is brought about is unknown to us. the larynx (and not the larynx itself) are the Timbre of voice depends partly on the con- necessary instruments for its production. The formation, partly on the quality of the struc- next theory to be discussed is that which tures composing the larynx. Garcia also says states that only the edges as distinct from that the epiglottis plays a very important the whole of the vocal cords vibrate ; this part, for every time that it lowers itself and we shall put aside as accounting more satis- nearly closes the orifice of the larynx, the factorily for the " head voice," which is quite voice gains in brilliancy ; and when, on the a different thing, especially when we remem- other hand, it is drawn up, the voice im- ber the muscular effort necessary for pro- mediately becomes veiled. ducing a high head note as compared with Range of voice in man. Garcia gives the the relative ease with which the same note following table of the full extent of the human can be produced in the falsetto voice, and voice also when we keep in view the fact above Chest. Head. mentioned, that in passing from chest to falsetto register the crico-thyroid space en- larges, implying relaxation of the vocal cords. Let us now review the theory which sets forth that in producing the falsetto voice we

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LARYNX.

He says, " Let us here observe, that three of the larynx by means of " muscular sensi- registers of voice are generally admitted bility," that sense by which we learn the state chest, falsetto, and head. The first begins of our muscles, by which we know accurately lower in a man's voice than in a woman's ; the position of our limbs, &c., unassisted by the second extends equally in both voices ; the our sight, and which is essential to a proper third reaches higher in the female voice." performance of any muscular action, especially Part of this statement is remarkable, and of those beyond the regulating power of sight. would seem to imply some essential difference Thus we have two memories stored up in in- in the physiology of the voice in both sexes, timate connection, viz., the memory of a. a difference beyond mere dimensions. I definite sound and the memory of a definite must leave it to musicians to criticise his state of muscles. This process is repeated statement, which does not commend itself to for each note and fraction of a npte, for each me. possible sound. By practice and frequent The whole of his paper is worth the careful repetition of the process we get the pheno- study of every musician. It is found in mena reproduced in an inverted order, for " Proceedings of the Royal Society," Vol. whereas, in the first instance, hearing came VII., No. 13, pp. 399-410. first, muscular action with muscular sensi- In speech the pitch seldom varies more bility second, we now have muscular action than a fifth. with muscular sensibility as the first executors The nasal tone is produced by bringing the or reproducers of a definite memory, con- arches of the palate together, and bodily tinually checked, secondly, by the hearing.

raising the larynx and also the tongue ; thus After a time this process becomes automatic, the air is prevented from passing' freely and is still more obviously so when a person through the nostrils, that part' of the " re- is singing from notes, when we naturally sonance tube " being cut off. Some have have an additional factor or association, viz., stated that the air is prevented by this means that of a symbol with a definite musical from passing freely through the mouth, and sound. passes along the nose, the cavity of the nos- Instrumental music can be expressed in

trils alone vibrating freely ; but this is seen to precisely similar terms ; it is true that at first be incorrect when we remember that the nasal muscular sensibility has less to do, for the tone cannot be produced when the mouth is guiding power of the eyes is possible, but closed and all the air is driven through the this is only occasionally used as an additional nostrils, while it is produced when the nostrils sense when the performer becomes proficient. are held closed, or when they are obstructed Again some instruments, viz., those in which by mucus during a cold. Thus the expression the notes are already formed (all instruments " talking or singing through the nose," is but the stringed instruments and the trom- physiologically quite incorrect. bone), require less guidance from the ear than The power of musical intonation depends those in which the production of each note, on the power of accurate adaptation of the both in pitch and timbre, depends entirely on muscular parts concerned in the production of the performer. But these are only quantita- the voice to a state known to be capable of tive differences after all. producing the desired sound. This state is Thus we come back to what we said at first at first recognised by the effect on the ear, that all correct intonation, whether vocal or and afterwards directly through the "muscular instrumental, is checked and regulated by two sensibility" of the muscles concerned. The sensibilities, the acoustic and the muscular, in previous experience has thus been acquired varying proportions. It is plain from what we through the ear and also from the muscles, have previously said, that musical intonation and an "idea" of the sound required precedes may be imperfect from various causes; of these the production of the sound. Thus eventually the most serious is defect in the appreciation of an idea of the sound and of the necessary sounds, since this is first in importance as in muscular state are presented simultaneously time,—a "bad ear" is irremediable; but a to the mind. person may also play or sing out of tune from Let us enlarge somewhat on this. A sound several other causes. First this may occur in is emitted and appreciated by the ear as the performance of a difficult passage. In having a certain relative number of vibra- this instance the muscular adaptability is tions, and this experience is stored up as a deficient. ' Again a person may play 'or sing a memory. Secondly, attempts are made to re- single note out of tune from deficient muscular

produce this sound ; when the desired sound power, either the note is too high or too low or is produced, the ear recognises it as being the in other ways too difficult of production, or the same as that before produced, by means of the performer may be tired with previous singing

memory ; and at the same time the sensorium or playing. But when a person habitually takes cognisance of the state of the muscles plays or sings out of tune, or fails to keep in (264) ;

LARYNX.

tune in performing an easy passage, we at and is present in all but two . frogs. The " once say correctly he has no musical ear," vocal cords are stretched transversely ; above that is, his sensorium is incapable of appreci- and below them is a pouch, and sometimes a ating the delicate relations of musical sounds. cartilage between them. The muscles are It may not be out of place here to venture briefly classified as constrictors or dilators of a few remarks as to the reason why it is much 'the glottis, and one stretches the vocal cords. more irritating to those with good musical In the Toad the vocal cords are thin elastic ears to hear a person sing sharp than to hear membranes, and consist of two pairs. In him sing flat. One is, of course, as incorrect many frogs we find pouches attached to the as the other, but there is something particu- larynx or the mouth, and these serve either larly exasperating in hearing sharp singing. as resounding sacs or as reservoirs of the First of all it would be interesting to know wind supply. Since all Amphibia and Reptiles whether persons possessing good musical do not respire as we do, but swallow the ears, without any knowledge of music, would air, this, which is a laborious process, is find sharp singing more painful than flat economised by an elastic sac, in which the

singing ; we should imagine that this would air, having passed through the larynx, is re- not be the case. On analysing our feelings tained, and which, in contracting again, by when a person is singing sharp we fancy we its elasticity drives the air easily back into

detect in them a certain feeling of indignation the lungs ; by this means a continuous croak- at the singer doing something unnecessary. ing is produced. This is quite correct, he is using unnecessary Reptiles.—The Serpents have no vocal cords, muscular force, and we have a natural though and nothing beyond a hissing can be pro- not purely rational idea that if he took less duced by the passage of the air through their pains, exerted himself less, he would sing in simple glottis. better tune—^we feel he is committing a " pre- The Lizards have a better developed larynx. sumptuous " musical sin. On the contrary, Most have vocal cords, but in many of these when a person sings flat, his muscular exer- they cannot be apposed or stretched. tions are inadequate, and we feel a sort of In Turtles and Tortoises we first find the pity mingled with our annoyance, we feel cartilages divided into cricoid, thyroid, and that he is doing his best, but is not strong arytenoid. Some are capable of vocal sounds, enough to sing correctly; in both cases, how- some only of a hiss. ever, it is generally not actual force which The Crocodiles have, again, only two carti- is deficient, but the " guiding sensation," the lages, a crico-thyroid and two arytenoids

musical ear ; but there is this much correct- the vocal cords are capable of producing a ness in our feelings that a person with ever sort of bellowing tone. so good an ear may sing flat from sheer Birds.—Most Birds have two larynges, an weariness, just as he may be too tired to upper and a lower. The upper larynx is situ- perform any other muscular exercise properly, ated as in us, at the top of the wind-pipe. while there is not the same excuse for singing There are several bony and cartilaginous sup- sharp. ports, from two to ten in number. One of Comparative Anatomy. — No invertebrate these represents the thyroid cartilage. The animal possesses a larynx. In Fish we have cricoid consists of three bony pieces, the two only one or two instances of a larynx, and in arytenoids are also bony. With respect to them it is connected with the entrance of the this, we may observe that many more parts in animals. duct of the air bladder ; these fish are other- are ossified in birds than other wise remarkable, being the Polypterus and The glottis is simple, and composed of two Lepidosiren. In the latter the glottis is sup- rigid lips, which do not admit of being ported by a sort of laryngeal cartilage. An- stretched, but only approximated. The prin- other fish, named Trigla, is capable of emitting cipal action of the muscles is to close and sounds. open this glottis simply, which they can do In Amphibia we find a better developed with great accuracy. The function of this larynx. In those which keep their gills upper larynx is either simply to guard the to modify, through life it is extremely simple, as is the opening of the windpipe, or at most whole of the trachea and bronchi. The glottis and not in the first place to create the voice. of is a simple slit each side, strengthened by a The lower larynx is placed at the bottom cartilage, which is sometimes subdivided. the wind-pipe, where this divides into the two Below the glottis is a membranous chamber, bronchial tubes, and is the true organ of the laryngeal cavity strengthened by carti- voice. The purpose of its position here is lages, and from this chamber the lungs di- probably to throw the weight which neces- verge either immediately or after a short sarily accompanies a complex apparatus of trachea. muscles and cartilages near the centre of In the Frogs the larynx is well-developed. gravity, instead of at the end of a long lever

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LARYNX. like the neck. In the same way the masti- ment saved from the necessity of constantly cating apparatus of birds is not a set of teeth closing their glottis in the act of swallowing, placed at the end of this lever, but a grinding as is the case with other animals. In those machine, the gizzard, placed at the centre of aquatic Mammals called the Sirenia (as the gravity. Dugong and Manatee, the herbivorous In singing birds the apparatus consists of Whales) the glottis is very small, and T a double glottis, produced by a bony bar shaped, the transverse slit being above the called "pessulus" or "ostransversale," which longitudinal slit. runs across the lower end of the wind-pipe In the Ass the " bray " is produced by from before backwards, and supports a thin alternate inspirations and expirations, both membrane which projects into the calibre of producing, sounds, and is assisted by two the windpipe, and ends in a free concave large air sacs between the vocal cords and edge; it is called the "Membrana Semilu- the thyroid cartilage. naris." The Giraffe only has a voice at the breeding The muscular apparatus is complex, and season. The male Deer's larynx enlarges in some singing birds consists of five pairs of greatly at each breeding season and this muscles. In some birds, as the Ostrich and growth is associated with a large growth of the Vulture, the lower larynx is absent. a gland below it called the thyroid gland, the In some birds, as the Stork, Crane, Caper- two producing that graceful prominence in cailzie and Wild Swan, the windpipe is several the throat which one observes at that time. times folded on itself, being very long. The purring of the Cat is produced by the The Parrot tribe has a single glottis, with vibrations of the false vocal cords, which are a vibrating membrane on each side, thus re- well developed; the true vocal cords are small sembling ours. The adjacent sides of these and have no membranous part. are concave, and there are muscles which Many animals have large air sacs in con- stretch, approximate or separate these vocal nection with the larynx, either opening into cords. It is perhaps due to this peculiarity, the sacculus laryngis or placed in front be- as well as to the fleshy tongue of the Parrots, tween the thyroid cartilage and epiglottis, that they are able to imitate human speech. and opening between the epiglottis and true

Mammals.—The larynx of Mammals in vocal cords ; or opening between the thyroid most particulars resembles that of man. In and cricoid cartilages. In one monkey—the the Kangaroos the vocal cords are feebly de- Mycetes or howling monkey—^there are a pair veloped, and incapable of being stretched. of pouches lodged in cavities in the cricoid Most Marsupials have little or no voice. cartilage, another pair similarly lodged in the Some Rodents have fairly developed vocal thyroid and extending on each side between cords, as the Hare and Rabbit. Some, as the the thyroid bone and epiglottis, and into a Porcupine, have no vocal cords, and it is only huge sac in the thyroid bone, and another at the breeding season that they have any pair between the glottis and arytenoid carti- voice, when the male makes a low grunt. lages, three pairs in all. Most of the Old The Sloths have no false vocal cords, the World monkeys have a sac in the hyoid Armadillos have no false vocal cords or voice. bone, but smaller than that of the howling In the Whales and Porpoises, as in many monkey. of the Marsupials, the upper opening of the The Gibbon has a well-developed larynx, windpipe is modified into a conical projection and alone of all the apes can sing a complete which rises up and is embraced by the octave ; moreover the quality of its notes is muscles of the soft palate, so that a con- decidedly musical. tinuous air-tube is formed from the nose to In the Ouran-outan the air sacs in the the lungs, on each side of which fluid or male extend down over the fore-part of the solid food can continually pass to the gullet neck and upper part of the chest, being sub- without getting into the wind- pipe. The divided into several sacs. purpose of this is obvious. In the Whales Castration in all mammals which possess a the large volume of water which they con- definite voice arrests the sudden development stantly receive into their wide open mouth, which takes place at puberty. Compare the from which they extract their food, and which voice of the ox and of the bull. they eject through ' their blow-hole, is pre- Martin, in his work, general ! C. Linnseus A vented from getting into their air-passages W. introduction to the Natural History ofMam- in the young Marsupial while in the pouch miferous Animals, 1841.,^. 431, says the milk which it is constantly sucking is similarly prevented from going "the wrong " Hylobates agilis, Sumatra.—The voice of way." Marsupials are bom, as is well known, this gibbon is extraordinary, not only for its very immature, and while in the pouch are power and volume, but for the suQcession of continually suckled; they are by th^s arrange- graduated tones in which its cry is uttered.

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LARYNGOSCOPE.

In a room, it is overpowering and deafening be able to give a correct idea of the gibbon's it consists of a repetition of the syllables oo-ah, composition, excepting as regards it loudness. oo-ah, at first distinctly repeated, and ascend- The gibbon's voice is certainly much more ing in the scale, but at last ending in a shake, powerful than that of any singer I ever consisting of a quick vibratory series of notes, heard.

during which the whole of the animal's " ' frame One more fact I noticed, viz. : That the quivers with the effort to produce them ; after gibbon is usually a long time before she this, she appears to be greatly excited, and comes to the rapidly-descending passage; but violently shakes the netting or branch to when she has given it once she soon runs which she may be clinging ; which action through the preliminary part of her composi- being finished she again traverses her cage, tion, and again comes to the descending utteringthe preliminary syllables oo-ah, oo-ah, passage.' till the shake again concludes the series. It Allegro, Accelerando^ crescendo. is principally in the morning that the animal thus exerts this modulated cry, which is, probably, its natural call to its mate, and which, from its strength, is well calculated for resounding through the vast forests. The fol- lowing observations on the voice of the ani- mal were obligingly presented to the author

by Mr. Waterhouse : " ' I should endeavour to give an idea of the whooping of the gibbon (as far as the music is concerned, but not as regards the quality of To this we have only to add that the quality sound), by comparing it to the tuning of a is like that of a very powerful male alto, and harp ; first beginning with an E string, and that the sounds are produced, alternately by repeating it at short intervals ; then being inspiration and expiration—the high notes by altogether silent for a little time, and then be- the former. This alternation, of course, makes

ginning again ; next, two strings, as it were, it possible for the animal to sing continuously

are struck, E and EJ (or Ft]) : the second what would otherwise be an impossible string is then screwed up, by half-notes, until passage, exceeding any possible capacity of

it reaches the octave ; the E and F natural, lungs. E and F sharp, E and G natural, &c., being Laryngoscope. History of the Invention— struck nearly together. It must be observed Taken principally from Dr. Morell Mackenzie's that before the upper note arrives at the oc- works.—The use of mirrors for examining tave, the animal amuses herself by occasion- the teeth is of exceedingly ancient date. Such ally descending a few semitones, then ascend- mirrors were used by dentists in the Augus- ing again, and so on. But when the octave tan age, and the tubular instrument for ex- is once gained, and has been sounded a few amining the various orifices of the body, times, we may imagine the upper string to be called a speculum, is also a very old invention

very rapidly let down by semitones ; the lower one was found at Pompeii. The use of a note remaining the same as at first, and the mirror is obviously to reflect light into a dark

two strings being always struck together. cavity ; the use of a speculum is to render

{Note : It appears, all through this rapid patent a tube which is, under ordinary circum- chromatic passage, as if the animal emitted stances, collapsed, and to allow the entrance

two notes at a time, as in the music ; but this of light and, at the same time, unimpeded is the effect of the rapid transition from the vision. Both these principles have been ap- lower note to the upper.] The rapidity of the plied variously in the gradual development descending passage is equal to that of an ex- of the laryngoscope. tremely brilliant shake. The animal then In 1743, M. Levret, a French accoucheur,

remains quiet for a short time ; after which invented a mirror as a means of illuminating follow two barks, each composed of the low the nostrils, throat, ears, &c., for the removal and high E, sounded nearly together. of growths from those parts, but he considered " ' It appeared to me that, in ascending and it only an accessory of his method of liga- descending the scale, the intervals were always turing these growths, and he did not value it

exactly half-tones ; and I am sure that the as a means of diagnosing diseases of the highest note was the exact octave to the larynx. lowest. In this passage the lips were en- In 1804, Dr. Bozzini, of Frankfort-on- gaged, and rapidly vibrated during its execu- Main, invented an apparatus for examining orifices of tion. . the various the body. It consisted

" ' The quality of the notes is very musical of a lantern and a number of specula ; and and I do not doubt that a good violinist would the speculum intended for examining the (267) LARYNGOSCOPE, throat was curved at a right angle and pro- end of a stem, and that a lamp (like Bozzini's) vided with a mirror in the angle. The specu- was attached to the mirror on the forehead, lum was divided by a vertical partition into instead of being placed in any convenient two passages, one to convey the light to the position behind or at the side of the patient. larynx, another to convey the image from it. In 1854, M. Manuel Garcia, a singing- This division of the tube was, of course, quite master still well known, thought of employing unnecessary ; but Bozzini appreciated the mirrors for studying the interior of the Larynx things necessary for a laryngoscopic ex- during singing. He made his observations amination, though he over-stated them. This on himself and succeeded admirably. He invention was decried by the medical pro- used a small mirror on a long stem suitably fession, while the pubHc had an almost super- bent, and introduced this into the Pharynx. stitious regard for it, imagining that it would He directed the person experimented on to render possible a direct examination not only turn to the sun, so that the rays might be of the orifices but also of the cavities of the reflected into the Larynx, but adds that if the body. This instrument was soon forgotten. observer experiments on himself he should In 1825, M. Cagniard de Latour tried to reflect the rays of the sun into his Pharynx examine the Larynx, with a small mirror in with a second ihirror, and, therefore, stand the Pharynx and another mirror to reflect the with his back to the sun. This second mirror light on to the first, but failed. served also for the person experimenting on In 1827, Dr. Senn made a similar unsuc- himself to see the image of his own Larynx. cessful attempt, but without trying any means Little notice was taken of Garcia's observa- of illumination. tions. In 1829, Dr. Benjamin Guy Babington in- In 1857, Dr. Turck, of Vienna, who had vented an instrument closely resembling the read Garcia's paper, tried to use his mirror present Laryngoscope. A small mirror on a for clinical purposes. He used only one stem at an angle of about 120° with the stem, mirror, and employed no artificial ' light or was introduced into the Pharynx ; to the stem second mirror for illumination; He did not was fastened a spatula (a sort of flat spoon) succeed, and gave up his attempts after a few which depressed the tongue ; this spatula he months. afterwards abandoned. A hand-mirror was Later, in 1857, Professor Czermak, of Pesth, used to throw light on to the Pharyngeal borrowed from Dr. Turck the mirrors which mirror. This instrument he called a " Glotti- he had discarded, and overcame all difficulties. scope." He introduced artificial light, and the large In 1832, Selligue, a mechanic in Paris who circular perforated mirror worn on the fore- was himself suffering from disease of the head. He was the first to render the laryngo- Larynx, invented for his own case an appa- scope a practically useful instrument. He ratus like tjiat of Bozzini, except that instead was favoured by nature for examining his own of employing one tube divided by a partition, Larynx, since his Pharynx and Larynx were he used two tubes. With this Dr. Bennati of very large, his tonsils and uvula very small. Paris professed to be able to see the vocal His demonstrations of his own larynx con- cords. vinced the world of the usefulness of the In 1838, M. Baumes exhibited a mirror for laryngoscope. Since this time no real im- examining the Larynx and posterior nares. provement has been made, though the subject In i840,Liston used a mirror on a stem for has been worked continually. examining the throat, but apparently never thought of seeing as far as the vocal cords. Fig. 1. He preferred the sense of touch to that of THE LARYNGOSCOPE sight. In 1844, Dr. Warden of Edinburgh, who had used a prism for seeing the Tympanum, thought of using one for seeing the Larynx. He used a powerful Argand lamp for illumina- tion, with a second prism attached. In 1844, also, Mr. Aveiy of London, tried to use a speculum and reflector for the same purpose ; and besides, invented a circular mirror worn on the forehead and perforated a Shape of mirror, b mirror and holder in profile much

' diminished in size. in the centre ; the mirror reflected the light into the mouth, and the observer looked at The present apparatus consists of a mirror the same time through its central hole. The on a stem, bent at a suitable angle (about defects of this were that the small Pharyngeal 120°), which is placed against tlie back of the mirror in was a speculum, instead of at the pharynx ; of a circular mirror, either flat or

( 268 ) — ;

LARYNGOSCOPE.

slightly concave, perforated at the centre, Fig. 4. which is worn on the observer's forehead in some way so that his eye comes opposite the central hole, or it may be fixed to the illu- minating lamp.

Fig. 2. LAMP WITH CONVEX LENS FOR LIGHTING.

" The above diagram shows the position of the different parts, and explains their re- flection. Let m represent the plane of the laryngeal mirror, I the plane of the upper opening of the larynx, and o the observer. In the plane of the larynx, a represents the ary- tenoid cartilages, ae the ary-epiglottidean

folds, and e the epiglottis ; the rays from these parts impinge on the mirror, at a, aS, and e, The third necessary part of the apparatus is and are thence reflected to the observer at o. a lamp, which may or may not be furnished Thus the epiglottis, which is really the with a double convex lens for concentrating highest in the throat, appears at the upper the rays of light. The sunlight on a bright part of the mirror, the ary-epiglottidean folds day may be used instead of a lamp. It is appear rather lower and at each side of the possible by casting a strong light on the neck mirror, while at the lowest part of the mirror from outside to illuminate the interior of the are the arytenoid cartilages. These remarks larynx, so that in this case the larynx is apply to the vertical reflection. The only in- lighted through its walls. The principles employed in making a Fig- 5- laryngoscopic examination are the following Dr. Morell Mackenzie thus well explains them :

Fig- 3- (to illustrate equality of angles of incidence AND reflection.)

version which takes place in the formation of the image is in the antero-posterior direction ; the part which in reality is nearest to the observer, the anterior commissure of the k. Mirror in profile, ak. is reflected as kd., bk. as kc, vocal cords (ac. in B. fig. becomes furthest and vice versa, 5) in the image (ac. in A. fig. 5), and the pos- " When rays of light fall on a plane sur- terior or inter-arytenoid commissure (pc. in face, the angle of reflection is equal to the B. fig. 5), which in reality is farthest from angle of incidence. A small mirror is placed the observer, becomes nearest in the image at the back of the throat, at such an inclina- (pc. in A. fig. 5). The symmetrical character tion that luminous rays falling on it are pro- of the image which makes it impossible to jected into the cavity of the larynx; at the judge of right and left, and the antero-pos- same time the image of the interior of the terior inversion which actually takes place, larynx (lighted up by the luminous rays) is often leads people to form erroneous opinions formed on the mirror, and seen by the ob- concerning the two sides of the larynx. The server. The mirror is held obliquely, so that lateral relation of parts in the image must it forms an angle of rather more than 45° now be considered. The mirror being placed with the horizon. The plane of the laryngeal above and behind the laryngeal aperture, the aperture (bounded by the epiglottis, the ary- rays of light proceeding from the larynx pass epiglottidean folds, and the arytenoid carti- directly upwards and backwards, and the lages) is also oblique, the epiglottis being patient's right vocal cord is seen on the left hi<^her than the apex of the arytenoid carti- side of the mirror, and the left vocal cord lages. on the right side of the mirror (just as the

( 269) ;

LATERAL VIBRATIONS LEGABILE. patient's right hand is opposite the observer's dance, as Massinger in his play, " The Great :" left, and his left hand opposite the observer's Duke of Florence right)." " dance A light lavolta with her." Fig. 6. It seems to have been the precursor of the A LARYNGOSCOPIC SITTING. modern waltz, as it is thus described in a poem by Sir John Davies, called " Orchestra," 1622:

" Yet there is one the most delightful kind A lofty jumping or a leaping round, Where arm in arm two 'dancers are entwined, And whirl themselves with strict embracements bound. And still their feet an anapaest do sound. An anap^st in all their music's song, Whose first two feet are short, the third is long." Lay. A song {Ger. Lied.) {Fr. lai.) Ahallsid. Lay vicars. Lay clerks. Clerk vicars. Vicars choral. Secular clerks. Chanters. Spngmen. Secular vicars. Secundarii. The officers of a cathedral whose duty it is to sing that portion of the music of the services which can be performed by laymen or men in In making a laiyngoscopic examination, minor orders. In some of the old cathedrals " the patient should sit upright facing the they formed a corporation, often jointly with observer, with his head inclined very the priest vicars. In many cathedrals the slightly backwards. The observer's eyes vicars choral were formerly in priest's orders. should be about one foot distant from the With certain exceptions, in the new cathedrals

patient's mouth ; and a lamp burning with a lay vicars are not in holy orders and are strong clear light should be placed on a table merely stipendiary singers. at the side of the patient, the flame of the Lead. A point or short passage which lamp being on a level with the patient's ej'es. has to be given out by one particular part. The observer now puts on the reflector, fixed When the word is used as a direction, it calls generally on the forehead, and tries to throw attention to the importance of that point. a disk of light on to the fauces, so that the Leader. The name of the principal first

centre of the disk corresponds with the base violinist in an orchestra ; of the chief clarinet-

of the uvula. He then passes the laryngeal tist in a military band ; and of the chief mirror to the back of the throat, so that the cornet-player in a brass band. Before the posterior surface rests on the uvula, which introduction of a separate conductor, the should be pushed rather upwards and back- leader of an orchestra was its director, and wards towards the posterior nares. In this gave the tempo with his fiddle-bow, a custom position the light is thrown from the mirror which has led to the use of a fiddle-bow as into the larynx, while the image of the a biton in France. [Conductor.] larynx is observed on the mirror." Leading note. Note sensible {Fr.) Cha-

Auto - Laryngoscopy . The practice of racteristischer Ton {Ger.) Leit-ton {Ger.) Nota Laryngoscopy in self-observation requires a characteristica {Lat.) Subsemitoniiim modi second mirror to reflect the image from the {Lat.) Subtonic. The seventh degree of the laryngoscope to the observer. An ordinary ascending major scale. It is called leading toilet gfass does very well. because of its tendency to rise or lead up to Lateral Vibr-ations. [Acoustics, § 15.] the tonic. It is called sensitive and charac- Laud (Sp.) Lute. teristic, because it forms the essential differ- Laudi spiritual! (It.) [Oratorio.] ence between the modern scale and ancient Lauds. [Horse canonicse.] modes. The lastian or Ionic mode was the Lauf {Ger.) (i) The peg-box in guitars or only church scale having a leading note. In violins. (2) A run or division in singing or consequence of the leading note forming part playing. A roulade. of the upper of the two tetrachords of which Lauftanz {Ger.) Lit., a running dance, the modern scale is formed, that tetrachord is a coranto. by some called characteristic. Laut {Ger.) hond, forte. Lebhaft {Ger.) Lively, vivace {It.) Laute {Ger.) [Lute.] Le^on {Fr.) A piece of music intended to Lautenist {Ger.) A performer upon the develope the taste, skill and power of the lute. performer. A study. Lavolta {It.) An old Italian dance, much Ledger lines. [Leger lines.] practised in the days of Queen Elizabeth Legabile, legando {It.) Tied, connected, many of the old dramatists allude to the smoothly.

( 270 ) LEGATISSIMO LICENSE.

Legatissimo (If.) Exceedingly smooth, Leggieramente (It.) Easily, lightly, close, and connected. swiftly. Legato (It.) Bound, close, connected. A Leggiero (It.) Light, easy, swift. piece of music so marked is intended to be Leggierucolo (It.) Rather easily and sung or played in an even, smooth, and lightly. gliding manner. It is opposed to staccato. Legno, col (It.) With the wood. A Legatura (It.) A bind, brace, or tie. direction to strike the strings of violins with Accolade (Fr.) Bindungs-zeichen (Ger.) the back of the bow. Leger or ledger lines. Lit., light lines, Leicht (Ger.) Easy, light. leger {Fr.) Short lines drawn above or below Leit-akkord (Ger.) A guiding chord. A the ordinary stave at the relative distances chord which suggests an immediate resolution at which the whole lines would be placed. into another, as the chord of the dominant seventh, &c. Leiter (Ger.) Scala (It.) Lit., a ladder. The scale. Leitereigene Akkorde (Ger.) Chords On and between these lines, notes belonging proper to the scale, that is, chords made up to passages beyond the extent of the stave of the notes of any particular diatonic scale, are placed. The use of leger lines is com- as for instance, the triads on consecutive paratively modern in musical notation, for it notes which are major on the fourth and was anciently supposed that the stave, with fifth degrees, minor on the second, third, and a certain clef prefixed, was sufficient for the sixth, and imperfect on the seventh. Also, compass of the voice or instrument using chords of the seventh, and of the ninth such clef. When the compass was extended, similarly constructed on successive notes of the clef was shifted so that the music might the scale. be still expressed within the limits of a stave. Leiterfremd (Ger.) Notes foreign to the To avoid the frequent shifting of clefs, scale. " Frescobaldi, in his Toccate d'Intavolatura Leno (It.) Faint, weak, dull, flexible, pliant. di Cimbalo et Organo," Rome, 1637, employs Lent (Fr.) Slow, lento. two staves, comprising fourteen lines, as may Lentamente (It.) Slowly. be seen in the following fac-simile of the Lentando (It.) Becoming slower by composition quoted in the opening of the degrees ; slackening the time. article " GaUiard." Lentement (Fr.) Slowly. Lento (It.) Slow. Lenteur, avec (Fr.) Lentezza, con (It.) Slowly.

Lesser. Minor, as : with the lesser third, sixth. in the minor key ; lesser sixth, a minor Lesson. An assigned task, an exercise or tune for the voice or an instrument. The word formerly was applied to exercises (for the harpsichord or other instruments) of the character now known as Suites or Sonatas. Lesto (It.) Light, lively, cheerful, gay. License. Permission to break one of the rules or supposed rules of the art of music. When the gradual growth of music in the church, and among wandering musicians, had proved that the loss of the art as The name ledger is also given to account- the Greeks was only temporary, books because of the light lines drawn in the practised by to have been much more margin of the pages. attention seems the scientific side of music than Legdrement (Fr.) Leggieramente (It.) directed to doubt the progress of Lightly, easily, gracefully, rapidly. to the artistic. No considerably retarded by this, but L6gdrete (Fr.) Leggerezza (It.) Light- music was of harmony as found in crude ness, rapidity. the germ not to be stifled, and descant, Leggiadramente (If.) Beautifully, de- diaphony was canon, and fugue, came bit by lightfully, charmingly. counterpoint, existence. But writers on music Leggiadro (It.) Handsome, beautiful. bit into to long for a perfect exactitude Leggiarezza, con (It.) With much light- still continued of music which should ness. in the construction make mechanical skill of primary importance, Leggiere (It.) Very lightly, rapidly. I

( 271 ) LICENSING.

and the inventive faculty of secondary value. whether they can ever be written down and At each stage, therefore, in its development, codified is a question of great doubt. Even strong efforts were made by learned pro- if music had now reached its climax of per- fessors to build it up on a series of irre- fection, no power could succeed in converting fragable laws, and fence it round with sundry it into an exact science, and rules should be warnings to the ignorant or unbelieving. sparingly made where "license" will certainly The true artistic spirit can never submit to be craved in order to disregard them. Nor such restraint, and must ever be searching can it be' said that there is any moral fault in for new forms of the beautiful. Hence, these breaking rules, for music is unlike morality, laws were from time to time broken, and as inasmuch as the artist should first do what professors could but allow that the result was his imagination prompts, and afterwards in many cases good, they satisfied their con- enquire whether it was right or wrong, and sciences by calling these breakings of the moreover, speaking geaerally, the end will law " licenses," or in other words, they gave justify the means. On the whole, the history dispensations. of musical "license" is not very creditable to Any student fairly conversant with the those to whom has been intrusted from time history of music must have been convinced to time the training of enthusiastic musical

of this fact by the strongest evidence. youth ; and even in these very days it would The rules of descant were framed as if any be well if critics and teachers could be made further growth of the art were not only im- to understand that many innovations are possible, but undesirable if conceivably pos- legitimate growths, and not faults, pardonable sible. So too are the rules of counterpoint only " by license." as first laid down. Licensing {musical and dratnatic). The In treatises of the fourteenth and fifteenth laws relating to the licensing of musical and centuries, the novelties introduced by the dramatic performances are so closely con- then " moderni " are attacked with all the nected that it will be convenient to consider asperity and prejudice which some are direct- them in a single article. In early times there ing at the present day against the so-called were no such laws, but in the time of Queen " music of the future." Elizabeth players were declared by statute to A well-known living writer on harmony be rogues and vagabonds, unless they were recommends the student to avoid certain acting' as the servants of some baron or counterpoints, " although they have the person of higher degree. The licensing laws, sanction of great classical composers." The however, properly so called, take their origin necessity of granting dispensations is thus from the revival of theatrical entertainments made evident, for it is here admitted that after the Restoration. At that period, the great classical composers have practically irregularities of the stage became so great, repealed certain rules, yet, say the rule- and continued, notwithstanding the efforts of makers, " the laws are true, so we will say the Lord Chamberlain and his subordinate they are broken by license." Examples of officer, the Master of the Revels, so uncon- this obstructive tendency in most writers on trollable that it was at length thought ex- musical subjects might be multiplied to any pedient to include all common players of extent, but it will only be necessary to refer interludes in the Vagrant Act (12 Anne, stat. shortly to one more case. " Discords must 2, c. 24). The evil, however, still prevailed, be prepared " was a law which was enforced and was heightened by an attempt to enforce until public opinion asserted that many could the law against a player who was a house- be delightfully used without preparation. keeper. In 1735, the increased number of

Then, and not till then, students were allowed theatres {six in all !) in which the actors played to use certain dominant discords without without any legal authority, and the loose preparation by license. This dispensation is and scandalous nature of the performances, happily not enforced in later treatises, and induced Sir John Barnard to bring in a bill dominant discords "may be used without "to restrain the number of houses for playing preparation." One author, more honest, of interludes, for the better regulating of com- though less logical, than his contemporaries, mon players." But a clause being proposed has said that fundamental discords (a name to enlarge, or at least to confirm the power of given for some unexplained cause to dominant the Lord Chamberlain in licensing plays, and discords) are called fundamental, " because it being understood that the Act could not they can be used without preparation." pass without such addition. Sir John Barnard, Of course art has its laws, and every com- who disapproved of the Lord Chamberlain's poser and painter writes and paints under the jurisdiction, abandoned the bill. Two years direction of innumerable rules gathered by afterwards Sir Robert Walpole introduced him from broad generalization and experience. and carried the statute 10 Geo. II., c. 28, to He feels their force and obeys them, but explain and amend the statute of Anne, im-

( 272 ) LICENSING. posing penalties for acting without patent (3 Law Times Reports, New Series, 697), that from the king or licence from the Lord a dramatic performance, which was in fact a Chamberlain, requiring all new plays, &c., to duologue, was a stage-play within the mean- be submitted to the Lord Chamberlain, and ing of this statute. A curious case was heard empowering him to forbid the performance of in the year 1865 (Day v. Simpson, 34 Law any dramatic entertainment. The fifth section, journal Reports, Magistrates' Cases) in which prohibiting the granting of a patent or licence it was proved that at a music hall, licensed to act elsewhere than in Westminster or for music and dancing, but not licensed as a where the king shall be resident, is said to theatre, a stage was erected with lights and have been inserted at the instigation of Sir other accessories, a performance was pre- John Barnard. It has been held that " tum- sented sustained by living persons with a bling " is not an entertainment of the stage dialogue between them and a regular plot, within the meaning of this statute (see the which was distinguished only from an ordi- case of R. v. Handy, 6, Term Reports, 286). nary stage-play by all the actors except two The statute 28 Geo. III., c. 30, enables magis- (the dialogue between whom was wholly sub- trates in sessions to license theatrical per- ordinate to the plot of the piece) being not formances in places where they could not be bodily on the stage, but represented merely authorized by the previous enactment. It by a reflection of their bodies on a mirror at was held, however, that a conviction under the back of the stage. This ingenious con- that statute for performing without patent trivance was held to be a violation of the from the king or licence from the Lord Chain- statute. It seems, that whether a certain

berlain at Manchester was good ; it being for performance be or be not a stage-play within the defendant to show, if such were the fact, the meaning of the act is a question of fact

that he had a licence from the sessions. and not of law ; and that a ballet out of When, in an action, the plaintiff was a par- which any regular, story could be constructed ticipator in carrying on an unlicensed opera would probably be held to be a stage-play house, it was held that he could not recover requiring a licence. This point was argued money paid at the request of the defendant in the Alhambra case (see Wigan v. Strange, for carrying on such unlicensed house (see 35 Law journal Reports, Magistrates' Cases, De Begnis v. Armistead, 10 Bingham, 107.) 31), to which, and to the authorities cited By the Theatre Act, 1843 (6 & 7 Vict., c. therein, we must refer our readers for further 67) it is provided that all theatres for the information on this part of the subject. public performance of stage plays must be The present law with reference to licences licensed by justices, except in London, West- for music, dancing, or other public entertain- minster, Finsbury, Marylebone, the Tower ment of the like kind is to be found in the Hamlets and Southwark, and such places as statute 25 Geo. II., c. 36 (made perpetual by the Sovereign is in the habit of occasionally 28 Geo. II., c. ig). That act provided that residingin. In those places the authority of all such places of entertainment, not licensed, the Lord Chamberlain is preserved. These were to be considered as disorderly houses, licences are granted in special session of the and persons keeping the same are liable to a justices, of which session seven days' notice penalty of £100, to such person as will sue must be given by their clerk. They must be for the same within the space of six calendar under the hands and seals of four or more months after the commission of the offence. justices. The university towns of Oxford Various other stringent provisions are made and Cambridge are the subject of special in the Act, but nothing therein contained exceptions in favour of the authority of their applies to " such performances and public respective chancellors or vice-chancellors. entertainments as are, or shall be, lawfully Performing stage-plays in unlicensed places exercised or carried on under or by virtue of subjects the offender to a penalty of not more letters patent, a licence of the crown, or the than ten pounds per diem during the con- licence of the Lord Chamberlain." A room tinuance of the offence. New plays, and in which musical performances are regularly additions to old ones, must be submitted for exhibited, though it is not used solely for that the approval of the Lord Chamberlain, and purpose, is within this statute, and requires a the maximum penalty for the performance of Hcence (see the case of BeUis v. Beale, kept plays before they have been allowed, or that 2 Espinasse's Reports, 592) ; but a room have been disallowed, is fifty pounds, the by a dancing master for the instruction of his offender's licence also becoming void. The scholars and subscribers, and to which per- word stage-play includes every "tragedy, sons are not indiscrirninately admitted is not comedy, farce, opera, burletta, interlude, (see BelHs v. Burghall, ib. p. 722). It seems , pantomime or other entertain- to be doubtful whether the case is within the ment of the stage, or any part thereof." It statute, where the musical entertainment is has been held, in the case of Thorne v. Colson only the secondary object for which the place

( 273 ) : : : ;

Life—LIGATUR^E.

is open to the public, as where a supper room tive headings : it remains therefore, to is so open and no charge made for admission speak of the German lied, the sacred lied or (see Hale v. Green, 9 Exchequer Reports, 247).. chorale being the earliest and most ancient From the above resume the reader will be form. Its music was founded upon the able to gain an outline of the law of dramatic ecclesiastical modes and remained unchanged and musical licensing. The statutes and until the days of the Minnesingers, whose decisions, however, above cited, should be influence continued for a period of 400 years consulted with care. though as a guild the Meistersingers existed so We conclude with the subject of street recently as the year 1839, yet the period of music, or the law regulating itinerant per- their power was from 1 100 until 1500. formers in the public thoroughfares of the The alterations and inventions of this body metropolis-. By § i of statute 27 & 28 gave lisetotheVotkslieder, a series of melodies Vict., c. 55, a previous enactment on the of great beauty, rude in form and of a sim- subject (§ 57 of 2 & 3 Vict., c. 47) is re- plicity that vanished upon the application of pealed, and in lieu thereof it is enacted that contrapuntal treatment ; thus, as the science any householder within the metropolitan of music became cultivated the Volkslieder police district, personally or by his servant, began to fade and die, and to give rise to the or by any police constable, may require any " volksthumliche Lied," a sort of compromise street-musician or street-singer to depart between the volkslied proper and the " kunst from the neighbourhood of the house of such lied,"' in which the spontaniety of the one householder, on account of the illness, or on was enriched with the scientific decoration account of the interruption of the ordinary of the other. occupations or pursuits of any inmate of such Liedertafel {Ger.) Lit., song-table. A house, or for other reasonable or sufficient society meeting for the practice of part-songs cause. And every person who shall sound or for men's voices. play upon any musical instrument, or shall Ligaturae {Lat.) Ligatures.. An old sys- sing in any thoroughfare or public place near tem of connecting notes (notula) for purposes any such house after being so required to of singing. Notulse, says Franchinus (lib. i., depart, shall be liable to a penalty of not cap. ii.) are of three kinds, simplex, com- more than forty shillings, or, in the discretion posita, mediocris. A " Notula simplex " is of the magistrate before whom he shall be one which is not joined to another, and is convicted, may be imprisoned for any time shaped thus,H, or with a stem (virgula) thus, not more than three days. And it is lawful p. A "Notula composita" is one that is for any metropolitan police constable to take attached to another, and is of two kinds. If into custody without wari;ant any person so the ligature ascends, that is, if the second offending. The offender must, ho.wever, be note is higher than the first, the first note given into custody by the person making the has no stem, e.g. .- charge, and the latter must accompany the prisoner to the station-house and there sign the charge-sheet kept for that purpose. When- but if the ligature descends, the first note has ever any person charged with such an offence a stem on its left hand side, e.g. shall be brought to any station-house during the time when the pohce-court is shut, the constable in charge of the station-house may require the person making the charge to A " notula mediocris " has the form of enter into a recognisance to appear to pro- neither of the preceding, but appears like secute, and upon the refusal of such person ordinary " mensurable " descending semi- to do so, the constable in charge may dis- breves, of which there are not less than two charge the party from custody. in succession, e.g. Li6 {Fr.) Tied, bound. Lieblich {Ger.) Lovely, sweet-toned, as ^ Lieblich gedackt, lovely stopped diapason. The final notula of a ligature may be Lied {Ger.) The name for a composition written in three ways, ist, lower than the of a simple character, which is complete in penultimate, thus itself, a song. There are several kinds, but the chief are classed under the following |-fVN^ heads, (i.) Sacred songs or , secu- 2. Immediately over the penultimate, with lar songs, comprising national, people's a foursided body, thus : songs (Volkslieder), drinking songs, and humorous songs. The French chanson, P^^S^ the English songs with their several pecu- liarities are described under their respec- 3. Or over the penultimate, on the right

( 274 ) J

LIGNE ^LUTE. side, with a foursided body and a stem on the Until the time of Mamertus they were only right side, thus : used on special occasions, but he, at the close of the fifth century caused them to be recited bT-'^^rf^ on fixed days. Kyrie eleison, Christe eleison, Kyrie eleison, is called the Lesser Litany. It is wrong to write the ultimate of a {Lat.) A crooked trumpet^ used ligature thus 1^ , but two notes only may be chiefly for giving military signals. written thus lift, ascending p.^ ; but an Liuto {It.) A lute., (i) Abbreviation for Loco. One of oblique body may not be written upwards '', Lo. (2) the syllables used in Bocedization. at such a thing, "usus perhorrescit." {Ger.) hymn of praise. To the middle notes of a ligature no special Lobgesang A Loco {It.) In its proper place. A direction form is attached, they are either foursided, or to return to the proper pitch after having oblique. Only one syllable is to be sung to- played an octave higher. all the notes included in one ligature. Locrian {Gk.) A name sometimes applied Ligne (Fr.) A line. to the Hypodorian mode.. Ligneum Psalterium {Lot?) A series of (Z.ai.) XoytTov (Gi.) [Pulpitum.J pieces of wood of graduated lengths, so Logeum Long. An ancient musical character equal arranged as to produce the various notes of a to two breves. scale. These pieces are supported on two Long Drum. [Drum.] strings, running the length of the instrument, Longitudinal vibrations. [Acoustics, which is sometimes made in the shape of a I4-] boat. The tone is produced by striking. The in- § Lontano(7f.) Fardistant. Trombalontano, strument is very ancient and universal, modifi- a trumpet played in the distance. cations of its form beingfound in every country. Lo stesso tempo {It.) At the same pace. It is also called Xylophone (GA. wood-sound), Loure or Louvre {Fr.) A dance adapted Strohfidel, Gigelira, wooden -laughter, &c. to an air called " L'aimdble vainqueur," said Lilt. An Irish dance accompanied with been a favourite of Louis XIV. Some singing. to have authors, however, consider it to have been a " While the chanter with his merry pipes kind of jig, or a waltz. The name is perhaps, Struck up a lilt so gaily O." [Ballad.] derived from the word lourer, to bind notes Limtna {Gk.) [Greek Music] together, to slide. Linea (Lat.) Linie (Ger.) A line. Lugubre (-Fr.) Dismal, doleful, lugubrious. Linien-system {Ger.) The stave of five Lu-lu {Chinese). The Chinese official lines. collection of treatises on the art of music. Linke Hand {Ger.) Left hand Lunga pausa {It.) A. long pause. Lip, to. To adjust the lips' so as to Luogo {It.) [Loco. produce the proper tone of wind-instruments Lures. Ancient Scandinavian trumpets. played by the mouth. Some specimens discovered in six feet in Lipping. [To lip.] would, if straightened, have been

; their they were three Lira (It.) A lyre. This word was formerly length in curved form applied to manyinstruments of the viol class or and a-half feet long. Notwithstanding their others having a resonance-box, as, lira da great antiquity, they were considerably orna- mented and in sufficiently good preservation hraccio, a sort of large tenor-violin ; lira da to give out musical sounds. gamha, or perfetta, a sort of violoncello ; lira rustica or tedesca, or tnendicorum, a hurdy- Lusingando {It.) \

I in a gurdy {Bauern-leyer). Lira harherina was Lusingante (/i.) Caressingly, a bowed instrument, invented by John Baptist Lusinghevole {It.) f coaxingmanner. Doni, so named in honour of his patron, Lusinghevolmente {It.)' Lusinghiere Cardinal Barberini. (-''^Olcaressin?"-aressmg, coaxmg.coaxing- Lusinghiero (/; | Lire {Fr.) A lyre or harp. .) {Fr.) Laute {Ger.) Liuto {It.) Liressa {It.) An inferior lyre or harp. Lute. Luth instrument of the Guitar Liscio {It.) Polished, smooth. Laud {Sp.) An formerly very popular in Europe. It L'istesso {It.) The same, as I'istesso family, movimento, the same movement; l'istesso was used for accompaniments and the per- tempo, the same time. formance of solos, duets, &c. It had five to six Litany, XiTuvda {Gk.) A prayer, rogation, pairs of strings, each pair tuned in unisons or that early form octaves. The accordatura was as follows : or supplication ; in particular, of prayer in which a minister recites a peti- tion, and the people answer " Lord, have 8va. bassa. mercy." In the fourth century litanies were sung in solemn processions by the Eastern The lower G was omitted on the five-stringed', Church, but they were not employed by the and both G's on the four-stringed Lute. Western Church till about a century later. The German lutenists called the six strings,

( 27s ) LUTH—LYRIC STAGE, counting from the lowest, Gross-brummer, Lyon catlins. Thick spun strings for the Mittel-brummer, Klein-brummer, Grossang- basses of lutes or viols. [Lute.] saite, Kleinsang-saite, and Quintsangsaite, or . An obsolete instrument, in the five strings without the lower G, Prime, form like the ordinary viol, having six strings Secund, Terz, Quart, and Quint. In France, and seven frets.

Italy, and Flanders, they were similarly named Lyra mendicorum (Laf .) [Hurdy-Gurdy.] according to the language of the land, the ' Lyre. One of the most ancient stringed upper string, upgn which the melody was instruments. The word lyre {Xvpai) does not usually made being called Soprano, il Canto, occur in Homer ; he speaks only of the Chanterelle, as well as Quint. In England citharis (KiBapig) and phorminx (^dp/ity^). The the lowest string was called the Bass, the next distinction between a citharis (or guitar), and the Tenor, the next the Counter tenor, the next a lyre, is that the neck of the former runs the Great mean, the next tl;e Small mean, and behind the upper part of the strings, while the highest the Treble. Gut strings were the strings of the latter are free on both sides. generally used, for covered strings were not A reference to the article " Guitar " will show knowij when the Lute was in common use. the nature of the cithara. The following

Thomas Mace ("Musicks Monument," 1676) illustration of a , Greek lyre exhibits the describes the strings of his time in these characteristic of the instrument just alluded 10. words: "Be careful to get good strings which should be of three sorts, viz., minikins, Venice catlins, and Lyons (for basses). Music for the Lute was written in Tablature q.v. The word has been variously derived, from the Latin ludere, to play, from the Greek aXiEVTiKOQfiTOTa the lyre which was a dessicated tortoise, and from the Saxon Mud or lud, sonorous, but it is most probably from the Arabic el'ood, as the instruments came into Europe from the Moors through the Spaniards, who still call it laud.

lLijd&

The lyre was also called testudo or chelys (x«'\«c), because the back was of tortoiseshell, as shown in the next illustration.

The several frets of the lute were dis- tinguished by the letters of the alphabet, "one for each fret as many as there may be." The frets divided the strings into semitones. The Orpharion Lute had a larger number of strings than the common lute, and its strings were of wire, instead of gut. ORPHARION LUTE.

The cross bar at the top was called the yoke ^iiyov, Lat. transtillum, a little tran- strum or cross-bar. The uprights were called Luth {Fr.) A lute. the horns Trjjxetc,

Luttuosamente (It.)\ ,, - „ ,, The history of the progress of the lyre as a ^[Mournfully, sadly. Luttuoso (/f.) musical instrument, is the history of Greek Lutenist. A performer upon the lute. music itself, and the reader is referred to The office of lutenist still exists in the Chapel the article on that subject for information. Royal, but it has been a sinecure since the [Guitar], [Lute], [Greek Music] disuse of the instrument. The revival of the Lyric. Poetry or blank-verse intended to office was made in favour of Dr. Nares,in 1780. be set to music and sung. Lychanos {Gk.) [Greek music] Lyric Stage, A term applied to operatic Lydian mode. [Greek Music] representations. (276) ;

M- -MADRIGAL.

M.

M. Abbreviation of mezzo, mano, main, them, the word came to be applied to any manual. M. M. stands ioxMaelzeVs metronome, species oi intermezzo. q. V. Madrigal. In the doubt that has existed Ma {It.) But; as, vivace ma nan troppo as to the origin of the word, many specula-

quick, but not too quick. tions have been advanced ; Huet, Bishop Machalath', or Mahalath [Heb.) This of Avranches, supposed it to be a cor- word occurs in the title of Psalms liii. and ruption of the word Martegaux, because Ixxxviii., the former is inscribed to the "chief he presumed that the inhabitants of that musician upon Mahalath, the latter to the district in Provence, either invented or " chief musician upon Mahalath Leannoth." excelled in this peculiar style of composition, Mahalath is by some authors traced (like but as he produces no authority in support of Machol), to a root meaning pierced or bored, his assertion, he gives occasion to Sir John hence it is thought these Psalms were accom- Hawkins shrewdly to say, " had he known panied by flutes. It is generally thought that that there was a town in Spain called the term leannoth refers to antiphonal singing. Madrigal, it is likely he would have deduced Other writers consider the titles of these and its origin from the Spaniards." The deriva- several other Psalms to be a reference to well tion of the word from the Italian mandra, known tunes to which they were to be sung. because some of the madrigals are of a Machine-head. An arrangement of rack pastoral character, need not be entertained, and pinion for the purpose of tightening and because for every poem with such a theme, keeping in tension the strings of the double- there is at least a score having other subjects bass, and the guitar, as the ordinary pegs of a widely different nature. The modern employed to stretch the strings are of unequal idea that the madrigal may have originally leverage. been a song to the Virgin Mary, is likewise Machicot {Fr.') An obsolete term for one based upon very doubtful authority, if upon of the chori ministri minores of a cathedral, any authority at all, for in the first place, it who in singing, added passing-notes between is necessary to prove that the word madre

intervals of the plain-song ; or, according to came to be exclusively applied to the Virgin, others, added a part to the plain-song at an and in the second, that there should be some interval of a third or fourth, thus forming a applicable meaning in the latter part of the sort of organum or diaphony. The music word, for gala relates to gaiety in dress thus sung was called machicotage. or ornament, and not to joyfulness in poetry Machol, or MahhoJ {Heb.) A word often or music, and finally, that the supporters of found in the Old Testament, associated with this idea should produce specimens of such " toph" (timbrel), and almost always rendered songs in numbers sufficient to justify their in the English version by dances or dancing. ground in making the statement. The term But some authorities trace the word to a root may possibly be connected with the Spanish meaning pierced or bored, and therefore con- word madrugada, dawn of day, for many of sider it to have been a flute. It is not im- the Spanish cancioneros or madrigals have probable that Machol and toph may mean the character of an " aubade." The word " pipe and tabor," but as these two instru- was applied to a poem of a popular character ments are often associated with dancing, our as early at least as the 14th century. The version, and others which follow it, cannot in first madrigals on whatever subject they were any case be said to be incorrect. written, were always in popular versification, Machwerk {Ger.) Composition, construc- and generally contained a well-known pro- tion, the result of labour rather than sponta- verb, or the application of some common- neity. place wisdom. The words madrigal and Madriale {It.) A word derived from villancico, or villanella ballato and sonetto, madrigal, and as in the early operas madri- are frequently used to describe a popular gals were performed between the acts, with- song in popular language and versification. out necessarily having any connection with The madrigal as a poem arose out of the

( 277 ) — ;

MADRIGAL. cancionero general, the invention of the being of the simplest form, note against note, Spanish poets of the early part of the 13th each measure being similarly accented in all century. A theme or moto was selected, and the parts, they were, in fact, harmonised the poet exercised his ingenuity in varying melodies. The madrigal " Down in a flowery the motives, as a m,usician does a phrase. vale," by Constantius Festa (1517-1545), is a The' following poem or glose, by Don good example in this form. The original Jorge Manrique de Madrigal, will show the Italian words are in true madrigal style and method of treatment : rhythm. The ballets or fa las, printed at Mote. Venice in 1591, by Gastoldi, who is the reputed inventor of this form of madrigal, are , " Sin vos, y sin Dios, y mi." degrees, as it Yo soy quien libre me vi of a like character. By was Yo quien pudiera olvidaros discovered that it was possible to arrange the Yo so el que por amaros parts so that they might become melodies Estoy des que os conoci interchangeable as to form and rhythm ac- Sin Dios y sin vos y mi. cording to the plan now known as double Sin Dios, porque en vos adoTO counterpoint, a greater freedom was attained, Sin vos, pues no me quereys Pues sin me ya esto decoro and not only were madrigals improved, but Que vos soys quien me teneys the art of composition made a great advance. Assi que triste naci The motett and the madrigal, always side by Pues que pudiera olvidaros side, always written in like style, benefitted Yo soy el que por amaros Esto desque os conoci by the improvement, the only difference in Sin Dios y sin vos y mi. their construction being that as in the The early composers took the melodies of madrigal every improvement or " license " in some of the popular madrigals and constructed harmony and melody was permitted, certain counterpoint upon them, and further produc- progressions were forbidden in the motett as tions were called madrigals or motetts, either being inconsistent with the solemn character from their having a proposed theme, or from of the words to which they were usually set. the character of the poem which furnished The motett was originally in madrigal form, the theme. In Spain to this day the motetts that is to say, was arranged in short phrases sung at high mass on Christmas eve are to correspond with the versification of the called villancicos. madrigal, a matter of necessity when it is The word madrigal became a general term considered that the melodies of the well for secular compositions, of which there known and often profane madrigals were were three classes: (i.) The solo madrigal, taken as the plain song upon which new and or " Madrigale concertate con il basso con- severe harmonies were based. Richard Ed- tinuo ; " (2.) The madrigal in parts for voices wardes, 1547; Phillipo Verdelot, 1549 ; Adrian unaccompanied, or " Madrigali di tavolino;" Willaert, 1565 ; Vincenzo Ruffo, 1568

Tallis, Palestrina, ; and and (3.) The madrigal accompanied by Thomas 1575 ; 1588 several instruments, " apt for viols arid Claudio Merula, 1598 ; wrote sacred compo- voyces," or as they are described in Italian, sitions in which the motett displays signs " madrigali concertate con varie sorte di of this method of treatment. It may be need- stromenti." It was the second class that less to point out that what has been called obtained the greatest popularity in England " the Conversational arrangement of short after having been introduced by means of phrases," is essentially the character of the copies printed in Flanders in 1588, by an later madrigals, in which one part or more unknown gentleman who translated the words proposes a phrase which is replied to either in of some of the most famous Italian madrigals imitation or some such form by the other part and adapted them to English verse for his or parts in turn, as in Converso's " When own use. Immediately upon their introduc- all alone my pretty love," 1580. In the longer tion into England, the composers 'of the time madrigals a greater variety of phrasing is of produced works of a similar character which course necessary, in order to avoid monotony far exceeded in beauty of idea and construction of effect. " Shew" says Morley at page 180 of all their prototypes, and so far exhausted the his " Plaine and Easie Introduction to Prac- style that the Elizabethan madrigals have ticall Musicke," 1597, " to the very utmost never been excelled for beauty and fancy in your variety," and " the more variety you harmony and counterpoint, and the mere shew, the better you shall please." In course mention of the word madrigal calls into asso- of time the original signification of the word ciation such names as Mofley, Wilbye, Ward, was lost sight of and many compositions were Benet, Dowland, Ford, and Gibbons. styled madrigals without consideration of the The earliest compositions to madrigal words primary meaning of the term, hence has arisen were similar in character to the hymn tunes a certain amount of confusion with regard to or chorales now in use, the counterpoint this class of music.

( 278) — —

MADRIGALE-—MAGGOT.

The dates of the several productions so upon the . (2.) To play in octaves. called do not always indicate the state of the Magas {Gk.) fiayae. (i.) The bridge (Lat. madrigal, some later writers using the earliest pons) of a cithara. (2.) A fret. forms, as Dowland, Ford, and Gibbons, while Maggiolata {It.) A May song. A song the earlier writers in varying the accepted sung in celebration of the month of May. form of their time suggested improvements Maggiore {It.) . Major. which were afterwards expanded. Existing Maggot. One of the later names given to madrigals may be divided into these groups : fancies, airs, and pieces of an impromptu 1. Madrigals with melody, harmonised character. The most celebrated of these note against note. fancies or whimsical airs was that by Moteley' 2. Those in which florid and double or Motley, which is subjoined. counterpoint is employed, but rarely From "A choice collection of lessons, being consisting of more than one move- excellently sett for the harpsichord," 1705. ment. 3. Those in which two or more move- ments are used, and every variety of counterpoint. The Villanellas or Madrigals of Donati [1510-1590], the Ballets or Fa las ofGastoldi, already alluded to, and all like works belong to the first division ; the Triumphs of Oriana, • 'ir 1 ^J especially those by Weelkes and Morley, to Ij r ^ the second; and all compositions like "Sweet honey-sucking bees " to the third class. The characteristics a Madrigal should pos- sess may be thus summed up : 1. Themes suitable in character to the words. 2. Variety of rhythm. 3. Short melodic phrases. 4. Imitation and counterpoint. There are many pieces called madrigals in which certain of these conditions are more present than others, indicating the advance in thought and treatment, afterwards developed in the Glee, such as Wilbye's " Thus saith my Chloris," Benet's " Flow, O my tears," and Gibbons's " Silver Swan" and " Oh that the learned poets." The two last named are specially held to be transitions or bridges be- tween the madrigal and the glee. Madrigale (It.) [Madrigal.] Madrigaletto or Madrialletto {It.) A short madrigal. Maesta, con. \ ''^'^'^' Maestevoie'°" ) ('^i-e^''' Maestevolmente ™^J^^ y* | Maestoso / Maestrale {It.) ormagistrale, a term some- times applied to the Stretto of a Fugue. [Fugue.] Maestri secolari {It.) Teachers of secu- lar music. Maestria {It.) Skill, address, authority. Maestro del coro, or di cappella {It.) Choir master, leader, or conductor. [Capell- meister.] . Magadis {Gk.) fiayiSig. An mstrument of twenty strings, on which music could be played in octaves. Magadize, to {Gk.)ixayadi!:o,. (i.) To play

( 279) MAGREPHA MARKS OF EXPRESSION.

Magrepha. An organ mentioned in the striking the left hand with the right. Oyster- Talmud as having been in existence in the shells or bones were sometimes used as second century. It had ten ventages, each of accessories. which communicated with ten pipes, and it Marcando {It.) Marking the time or ex- was played upon by means of a clavier. pression. Main (Fr.) The hand, as main droite, the Marcatissimo {It.) Very marked. right hand ; main gauche, the left hand, Marcato {It.) Marked, or emphasized. abbreviated thus, m. d. and m. g. March. A musical composition so arranged Maitre de chapelle {Fr.) Choir master. as to be suitable for accompanying troops in [Capellmeister.] walking. There are quick and slow marches Majeur {Fr.) Major. in duple and triple time, besides marches Major. Greater. A major third consists peculiar to certain nationalities. of four semitones, a minor third of three. A Marche {Fr.) A sequence, as, Marche major tone is the whole tone having the ra,tio des accords, a sequence of chords.

8:g ; a minor tone, that having the ratio g:io. Marche redoubl6e {Fr.) A double quick Intervals have had the term major applied to march. • them in a conflicting manner. [See Interval.] Marche triomphale {Fr.) A triumphal Major mode. The ordinary diatonic scale, march. having semitones between the third and Marziale (7^) Martial, warlike. fourth, and seventh and eighth degrees. Marimba. [Balafo.] Major modus (La^) (Major mode.) Marionette {It.) A puppet. Malakat. [Ashantee trumpet.] Marks of Expression. Certain words or Malinconia, con signs used in music to regulate the degrees of Malinconicamente (It.) With sadness, accent, power, time, or tone, required by the Malinconico sorrow, or melan- composer to produce the proper effect of his Malinconioso choly. composition. The employment of elaborate Malinconoso marks of expression is a practice of compara- Mammets. Puppet-shows, usually accom- tively modern times, none of the earliest panied with music on a dulcimer. [Dulcimer.) writers making use of any beyond the time Mancando {It.) Decreasing, dying away. signs, these being all that were then needed, Manche {Fr.) The neck of a violin or as they suggested a certain pace generally guitar, &c. understood. Most of the early printed music Mandola {It.) ^ An Italian fretted had no other directions than soft and loud, and Mandoline {Eng.) l-guitar, so called from these only sparingly. Thus, in Croft's "Musica Mandolina (7^.) J its almond shape. Sacra or Select Anthems in score" 1724, the There are several varieties, each with different "First Essay of Publishing Church Musick tunings. The Neapolitan, considered the in England," printed from engraved metal most perfect, has four strings tuned like the plates, all the directions are in English, as violin, i.e., G, D, A, E. The Milanese, next loud, soft, fast, slow, grave, brisk and lively, in favour, has five double strings tuned G, C, the only foreign words employed being solo A, D, E. A plectrum is used in the right and . The introduction of Italian hand, and the left is employed in stopping music into this country in the eighteenth the strings. Mozart in , wrote century necessitated a knowledge of the an accompaniment to " Deh Vieni " for this Italian terms of expression, which led to instrument. the gradual employment of a few of the Mandora (7^) A kind of guitar. terms so acquired, and Italian words or Manica {It.) Fingering. their abbreviations ultimately superseded the Manichord. [Clarichord.] English words to such an extent that very few Manico {It.) The neck of a violin or native terms for expression are to be found in guitar,' &c. Manche {Fr.) music of modern times. The Italian words

Maniera (7^.) Manner, style, method ; as, originally introduced were in their simplest maniera affettata, an affected style, maniera forms, but as composers grew more fastidious languida, a languid, lifeless style. and exacting, the phrases became complicated Manifere {Fr.) [Maniera.] by the employment of diminutives, expansions, Manieren {Ger.) [Harpsichord graces.] and compounds of terms, so that it became Mannergesangverein {Ger.) A society extremely difficult to determine the exact formed for the performance of music for men's value of the many marks. The doubts that voices. presented tljemselves to the minds of the Mano {It.) Hand, as mano destra, diritta, performers as to pace necessitated the employ- right hand ; mano sinistra, left hand. ment of a method by which the time of a piece Manual. [Key-board.] should be taken, and a string divided into Manuductor. The man who beat time by inches was at iirst used as a standard to 280 ( ) MARQUE MASS.

regulate the time value of the notes in a bar. as 9. " Low Mass" (Messa Bassa) in which This gave rise to the invention of the the priest simply intones or reads the " metronome. [Expression.] service ; a Chanted Mass," in which certain " Marque (Fr.) [Marcato.] tones with inflections are sung ; a High Marsch [Ger.) A march."* Mass," in which the service is partly chanted Marseillaise (Fr.) A song written by by the priest, partly by the deacons who Rouget de Lisle, an ofBcer of artillery in the assist the priest, and partly sung by the choir garrison of Strasbourg in 1792. It received to an elaborate musical setting with or without its title from having been sung by a party of instrumental accompaniment. the Marseillaise club as they entered Paris It is only necessary here to speak of the on the invitation of Madame Roland ; the various liturgical divisions of the service, so song, though less sanguinary in sentiment far as they are connected with the special than most of the songs of the revolution, was form or character of their music. employed as accompaniment to many of the In early times the ancient ecclesiastical horrible deeds of that, and of later periods, plain song was alone employed as the music and by association became dangerous enough for the several sections of this service, and to be included among the songs prohibited to when musicians were possessed of inventive be sung in France. The tune to which it is skill, they still retained the old character of set by the author of the words, contains pro- the music by interweaving counterpoint, and gressions so unusual in popular songs, that it new harmonies upon the old plain-song, is difficult to account for its general adoption. -either entirely unaltered, or with slight modi-

Martel6 (Fr.) 1 -, , , fications such as those described in "Fa r hammered. Martellato {It.)\^'^-' burden." Musicians afterwards took the Martellare (It.) Lit., to hammer. A tunes of popular hymns as well as the term applied to staccato bowing on the violin, airs of vulgar songs, the latter ordinarily and to the strong percussion of notes of a allied to words of questionable character, pianoforte. instead of the melodies of the plain-song, Masque. A species of dramatic entertain- and the masses so composed were called ment in which originally the performers wore after the name of the borrowed tunes. Thus masks of peculiar forms suggestive of the Claude Merula calls his four " Missarum allegorical characters assumed. In many quinque vocum," Venice, 1573. (i.) " Missa instances the masque had no definite design Benedicta es celorum Regina ;" (2.) " Missa ;" or plot, but depended for its success upon the Susanne un giour (3.) "Missa Oncques occasion for which it was written, the wit of Amour;" and (4.) " Missa Aspice Domine." the poet who furnished the words, the skill of Baini in his " Memorie storico-critiche della the musician who supplied the music, and vita, e opere di Giovanni Pierluigi da Pales- the ingenuity of the machinist and scene trina," Rome, 1828, gives what he calls a painter by whom the stage effects were pro- short list of some eighty secular tunes upon duced. The early masques were simply which masses had been composed and sung. acted pageants, but by degrees the genius of If the language in which they are named such writers as Fletcher and Ben Jonson indicate their origin, the majority were French furnished the poetical groundwork of many songs, and if the titles are in any way sug- masques acted at Court by the children of gestive of their character, they could not have His Majesty's Chapel Royal and St. Paul's been fit for church use. This custom of em- Cathedral. The most beautiful work of this ploying popular melodies in the construction class is the "Comus" of Milton, acted at of sacred music was not a distinctive cha- Ludlow in 1634, and although produced at a racteristic of the 1 6th century, but it existed time when the taste for this class of entertain- later, and was especially favoured by that ment had fallen off, it has always been held class of religious formalists who prided them- to be the most perfect specimen of a masque. selves upon purity in thought and worship. [Ballet, Opera, Oratorio.] Shakespeare alludes to the Puritan "who Mass. Missa (Z,a^.) Messa(7f.) Messe sings Psalms to hornpipes ;" the dissenting (Fr.) Messe (Ger.) bodies of the last century showed by their The portions of the Mass usually set to collections of melodies sung during worship music, namely, the Kyrie, the Gloria, the that they would not allow " the devil to have Credo, the Sanctus and the Agnus Dei. An all the best tunes." The special hold obtained Offertory and Benedictus are sometimes over the minds of the lower classes during to these numbers. Masses are desig- the recent "revival" meetings was in a great added " nated musically after the key in which measure due to the influence of the " hymns invariably to they commence, as Beethoven in D ; and which were almost sung well liturgically, according to the character and known song tunes, either entirely unaltered, solemnity of the accompanying ceremonial, or only slightly modified.

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MASS.

There is now a recognised treatment for a claim to be considered among the com- every section of the mass to which music posers of music to the mass. Next in order may be set, as well as a received canon for stands William Byrd, who, in a mass com- the style of composition in which most of posed c. 1553, displays some degree of charac- the several subdivisions are composed. This teristic originality, together with a leaning arrangement is not set forth by written laws, towards old styles if not forms. " but is the result of traditional use of a slow The " Kyrie is simple and short, changing and gradual growth, as the appended short at the words " Christi eleison," and return- descriptions of certain representative masses ing to the first subject and words, " Kyrie from the latter part of the i6th century to eleison." The " Gloria " is precented and is the middle of the i8th will show. A short divided at the words " Domine Deus." The analysis of the manner in which the several " Credo " is also precented and is divided at the movements have been treated is subjoined to words " qui propter nos homines," and also at " help towards the formation of as correct a " Et in spiritum sanctum." In the " Sanctus notion on the subject as can be obtained there is a change of theme at the words without a reference to and study of the works " Pleni sunt." The " Benedictus " is a simple themselves. The majority of these are only Motett-like setting, so also is the " Agnus preserved in the cabinets of the curious, for Dei." they are for the most part of an obsolete This arrangement was one generally fol- character, more interesting as musical monu- lowed by other writers of the period. The ments than valuable as being available at idea influencing all seemed to have been the present time for the service for which to make the setting solemn and not dramatic. they were written. Plain counterpoint, with little points of There are many members of the church in occasional imitation, and with rarely more which this form of musical composition is than two notes to one syllable, was most most employed who do not hesitate to say favoured. The writers thus avoided the that a return to the older, and (as they say) pneumas, upon which contempt had been purer forms of musical setting is desirable, for thrown as the relic of a barbarous period, and some musicians have taken advantage of the as being incompatible with the more en- liberty allowed by non-interference with their lightened views then entertained. In the designs, to introduce a style of composition interlude of the "Four Elements" c. 1510 utterly inconsistent with the character of the there is a dialogue between Humanity and service it is intended to accompany. But Ignorance, in which the florid character of

modern writers have not only elaborated the early conterpoint is thus satirized : various movements, they have also added Hu.—Peace, man, prick-song may not be despised, music to certain parts of the service of the For therewith God is well pleased. Mass which were left untouched in older times. Honoured, praised, and served The " Introit, Gradual, Offertory and Com- In the Church oft-times among. munio" were supposed to be given when sung Ig,—Is God well pleased, trows't thou, thereby ? to the ancient plain-song settings, and there- Nay, nay ! for there is no reason why For is it not as good to say plainly fore these portions have been left alone by the " Give me a spade," earlier composers. Later writers sup- have As " give me a spa-ve-va, ve-va-ve-vade ?" pHed music for these sections, and in the desire to be original have been tempted to In later times the " pneuma" was revived write " sensuous settings " as well in these in the form of the " divisions," but these parts as in the others. The music preserved latter were made more acceptable by being by Marbecke (1550) is simply an eking out introduced as an integral part of the com- of the old plain-song with phrases of his position in which they appeared, and not as own invention in imitation of it. As there a mere adjunct. In this improved state they are no harmonies given, it is presumed are observed as early as the time of Carissimi, that either they were not sung, or, if they who in a mass in D minor for five voices has were, some sort of " falso bordone " of a introduced short divisions, contrary to former recognised character was intended to be used. custom. There is another point of impor- Whether harmonised or plain, his " use " is tance in this mass. The first trace of a very simple, and if it is, as some say, a mere fugue to the words " Cum sancto spiritu " in transcription of that employed in his time, the " Gloria" is met with, and also an attempt it is certain that no reasonable ground of at dramatic expression at the words " Et in- complaint could be made against it, for it is camatus est." not " overloaded with ornament nor spread In the " Missa ad imitationem Moduli Dixit abroad with superfluous syllabilisation." As Joseph," by Orlando di Lasso, Paris, 1607, only portions of Marbecke's settings can be we find in the setting of the " Kyrie " a few traced to a remoter date than his own, he has short simple chords note against note; a like

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MASS MEDIEVAL, MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. arrangement in the "Gloria" to the "Domine well known to render a detailed account here Deus," at which point imitation is introduced, unnecessary. and another change at " Qui tollis " as well of Mass [Ger.) Measure, time. time as character. The " Credo " changes style Massig (Ger.) Moderate, temperate. at " Et incarnatus est." The " Sanctus" like Massig langsam, moderately slow. the " Kyrie " is simply set, and the arrange- Massima {It.) A semi-breve. ment of the " Benedictus " as a trio or tria Masternote. An old term for the sensible upon a subject used in the "Kyrie" and or leading note. " Sanctus," probably the " Dixit Joseph," Masure, Masurek, Masurlsa (Ger.) completes the Mass. [Mazurka.] In Colonnas' " Messi Salmi, e Responsori Matelotte {Fr.) A sailors' dance. [Horn- " perli Defonti," Bologna, 1685. The " Kyrie pipe.] is in imitation throughout. The " Sanctus," Matinee {Fr.) A morning concert. thirty-four bars long, is in eight part fugal Mattins. [Horse Canonicae.] writing. The " Benedictus " is short (fifteen Maultrommel {Ger.) [Jew's-harp.] bars), and in single counterpoint, the " Agnus Maxima {Lat.) A note equal to four breves. Dei," like the " Kyrie," is in imitation, and is [^—ka.J precented. MfzuS} (^-) In a " Messe a quattro voci, concertato e Mazurka. A Polish dance oflively grotesque stromenti," by Isabella Leonarda, Bologna, character, the music of which is in f or ^ i6g6, the " Kyrie " is set as a solo for alto time with a peculiar rhythm. It is generally at the words " Christe eleison." The plain performed by four or eight pairs of dancers, is setting of the "Gloria" changes at " Et in popular in Germany as well as in Poland, and terra," and again at the words " Gratias has been successfully introduced into England. agimus," an alteration of time rather than The mazurka, like the waltz, has been treated style at " Qui tollis," a return to the original in a classical manner, notably by Chopin. form of the Kyrie at " Quoniam," and so on M. D. Abbreviation of (i.) Mano destra " " " or to the end. The Credo is divided at Et main droite, the right hand ; (2.) Doctor incarnatus," " Et resurrexit," and at " Et of music. iterum veiiturus est," the last movement Mean. The name formerly given to the having little points of imitation that must tenor part as being the mean in pitch between be called "Attacati," rather than fugal the bass and treble. The middle strings of points. instruments were also called mean. Judging by the specimens existing, it must Mean clef. The C clef. be confessed that composers did not think it Measure, (i.) A general name for a slow worth while to devote their best energies to and stately dance, supposed to be like the the service of the Church during the period of minuet the first half of the eighteenth century. A " But after then as men more civile grew comparison of the Mass of Leonarda, with one He did more grave and solemn measures frame." by Konigsperger produced nearly sixty years Davies' Orchestra. later, shows little if any progress. It is true Reed says that " the measures were per- that in the meantime Bach had written por- formed at court and at public entertainments tions of his Mass in B minor, but as there is of the societies of law and equity, at their reason to believe that it is for the most part a balls on particular occasions. It was formerly pasticcio, and probably not much known at the not deemed inconsistent with propriety, even

time, its influence is altogether out of the for the gravest persons to join in them ; and question. accordingly at the revels, which were cele- In the "Jubilatio Lyturgica" of Konig- brated at the Inns of Court, it has not been sperger, Augsburg, 1750, among much that unusual for the first characters in the law to might be called time-saving writing, there are become performers in treading the measures." one or two points worthy of observation for (2.) Time, pace". (3.) Rhythm. {4.) The their early use. Thus the " Kyrie " is adapted contents of a bar. to the " Dona nobis," which appears later. Mechanism, (i.) That part of an instru- The "Osanna" is set to an elaborate divi- ment which forms the connection between sion. The " Gloria " is divided at the words the player and the sound-producing portion. " Domine Deus," " Quoniam," and at " Cum (2) The physical power of performance, as Sancto Spiritu," this last movement appearing distinguished from the intellect or taste which as a regular and well worked out, though short directs it. fugue. There is nothing in any of the other Medesimo movimento {It.) The same movements that calls for especial mention. movement. The Masses of Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Medesimo tempo. The same time. Weber, Hummel, and Schubert, are sufficiently Mediaeval musical instruments. The

( 283) — ; ;

MEDIANT MEISTERSINGER.

musical instruments known in the middle douceines," were a species of bassoon ; "tym- ages appear to have been flutes, flageolets, beres, tabour, and naquaires," were drums dulcimers bugles, and trumpets among simple tubes ; the "citole and psalterion," were ; waits, cornets, bassoons, bagpipes, &c., among "the guiterne" a guitar or cittern; " 6les," reed instruments ; the harp, the guitar, the signified harps, from their wing-like shapes ; crowd, the violin or fiddle among stringed " L'enmovache," was also a harp of a larger " instruments ; drums and , cymbals kind; the "mica mon" is probably maca and bells among instruments of percussion, man," a hand-drum or tambourine, and the but all of these dififer more or less from the rest are sufficiently obvious. Guillaume de instruments with the same names in use at Machault, the author of this poem, was pro- the present day. There is a curious catalogue bably not a practical musician, but simply of musical instruments of the fourteenth cen- made use of a list of instruments with whose tury, which may be read with interest in use he was probably unacquainted, hence reference to this subject, in a poem by his repetition of synonyms. It is no un- Guillaume de Machault, entitled Le Temps common thing to find a special ignorance of Pasiour. The description is headed Comment the use and qualities of musical instruments

I'amant fut au disner de sa dame : — among modern poets, but when such a lack of knowledge is displayed by a poet writing Mais qui veist, apres mangier Vener menestraux, sans dangier in the palmy days of minstrelsy, it is not un- Pignez et miz en pure corps. fair to imagine that Guillaume de Machault La feurent meints divers acors was more of a trouvere than a cantadour. Car je vis la, tout en un cerne

[Troubadour.] , Viole, rubebe, guiterne L'enmovache, le mica mon Mediant. Mediante {Fr.) The third Citole, et le psalterion degree of any scale. Harpes, tabours, trompes, nacaires Mediation. That part of a chant which plus de dix paires Orgues, cornes, lies between the reciting-note and the next Cornemuse, flajos et chevrettes, close. Douceines, symboles, clochettes [Chant]. Tymberes, la flauste brehaingue Medius {Lat.) The tenor part. [Mean.] Et le grand cornet d'AUemaingue Mehrstimmig {Ger.) In many parts. Flajos de sans, fistule, pipe Polyphonic. Muse d'Aussay, trompe petite, Meisterfuge. (Ger.) ricercata, , eles, monocorde A fuga Ou il n'a quime seule corde that is, a fugue without episodes, one in Et muse de blet, tout ensemble which the subject or answer is constantly Et certainement, il me semble heard. Qu' oncques mais tele melodie Meistersinger. Meistersanger [Ger.) Ne fut oncques veues ne oye Car Chascun d'eux, selon d'acort Maitre Chanteur (Fr.) A title given to the De son instrument, sans descort most renowned musician of a township or Viole, guiterne, citole district in Germany, during the middle ages. Harpe, trompe, come, flajole, When the Minnesingers or Troubadours, Pipe, souffle, muse, naquaire, Tabour, et quanque ou put faire formed from among the ranks of the aris- De dois, de pennes, et d'archet tocracy, began to die away, the Meistersingers Ois et vis en ce parchet. arose, and at the beginning of the fourteenth century formed themselves in the towns of If each name here mentioned represented a Germany into guilds or trading companies, different and distinct instrument, it might be and agreed to uphold certain supposed that there was a far greater variety fanciful and arbitrary laws of rhythm. in use in the fourteenth century than in the Adepts in the poetic art. Master-singers, present time, with all our increase of know- appear to have existed at the period the ledge and improved skill in construction, when Minnesingers were at their prime, and it is but the truth is that many of the names are supposed that the title was only more univer- simply synonyms. For example the line : sally and distinctively " bestowed when the " Cornemuse, flajos et chevrettes spirit of pedantry had become general and would seem to imply three sorts of music when the "Songschools" or " guilds " became making machines, but the names refer to one in Germany what the " consistories " and and the same thing, neither more nor less " academies" were in other countries during than the bagpipes, and the "muse d'Aussay," the then general decay of art. Wandering " muse de blet," and " muse " simply, are orators in connection with the " Chambers of varieties of the same instrument. The "viole Rhetoric " who recited a miserable doggrell and rubebe," refer to the fiddle, the " flajole composed by themselves or others, afterwards pipe, souffle, and fistule," to the flageolets formed themselves in Flanders and Brabant, " la flauste brehaingue" to the English flute into societies by the name of ; Chambers of " le grand cornet d'AUemaingue, buisines. Rhetoricians (Kamers der Rhetorykers or

( 284) MELANGE MELODY.

- Rederykers) and offered prizes for the most flowery paradise Weise ; Hans Fogel's meritorious poems written according to their fresh Weise ; Henry Frauenlob's yellow barbarous rules. Weise ; his blue Weise ; his frog Weise, and The ornaments and illustrations of this his looking-glass Weise. The code of criti- class of poetry were drawn from mean sources. cism to which the Master-singers were sub- Instead of princes, nobles, and knights, we jected was contained in the rules or "Tabula- have clerks, schoolmasters, and mechanics. .tur" of the societies, some of which rules Some of the poems, it is true, are not un- were certainly severe. They were prohibited worthy of notice and survive in one form or from employing " sentences which nobody another to the present day ; others have sunk could understand," or " words wherein no into an oblivion not altogether undeserved. meaning could be discovered," interdictions The " Masters " were always anxious to which would completely disqualify many a clothe themselves with the ancient glory of the so-called poet in the present day for member- " Minnesingers." They were fond of trac- ship. ing the origin of their school to a very remote Melange (Fr.) A medley. antiquity ; and the most celebrated names (Gk.) fieXur/ia. (i) A song, were placed by all sorts of anachronisms tune, melody. In i6ri, Ravenscroft pub- among the supposed united band of founders. lished " Melismata; Musical Phansies fitting " Wherever the " hoch-deutsch was spoken, the Court, citie, and country humours." (2) there the Master-singers founded a colony and A grace, roulade. Fioritura. indulged the vulgar propensity of giving im- Melismatik. (Ger.) The art of florid portance to bombast, parade, and external vocalisation. distinction to their hearts' content. A candi- Melodia (It.) Melody. date was admitted into the school of the Melodia (Gk.) /xtXwSta. (i) The sing- "Master-singers" with great form and cere- ing of an ode to a melos. (2) The tune to mony. Four " Merker " sat behind a silken which was sung. curtain to pass judgment upon his qualifica- Melodicon. An instrument made of steel tions. One of these had to decide whether the bars in different lengths tuned to the diatonic diction of the novice was pure and his gram- scale, struck with hammers held in the mar accurate, the others attended to the rhyme hand. and metre of the composition and the melody Melodico, melodicoso (It.) Melodiously, to which it was sung. If they united in sweetly. declaring that the candidate had complied Melodie (Fr.) Melody, tune. with the statutes and regulations, he was de- Melodrama. A dramatic piece in which corated with a silver chain and badge—the the interest is heightened by the character of latter representing King David playing on the the vocal or instrumental music accompany- harp—and he was honourably admitted into the ing certain situations. The melodrama is of " Society. The poems of the " Master-singers French invention, and was introduced into

were always lyrical and sung to music. The England at the end of the last century ; the entire poem was called a "bar" and it was subjects are generally of a romantic character, divided into five ormore stanzas, or " Gesetze," illustrated with picturesque and and each " Satz " also fell into three portions, scenery, and having serious and sensational the first of which was a " Stole," the second an incidents, and effective and striking tableaux. " Abgesang," and the third a " Stole " like the Although sometimes confounded with the " first. The rhymes were classed into stumpfe opera, it differs from that higher class of work Reime," " klingende Reime," "stumpfe Schlag- insomuch that the action is carried on in speak- reime," and " klingende Schlag-reime," and ing and not in recitative and aria. [Opera.] other denominations needless to particularise. Melodrame (Fr.) (It.) The poets, singers, and merkers counted the [Melodrama.] syllables on their fingers, and if there was Melody {melos Gk. /ie'Xoc). An agreeable the proper number it was of no consequence succession of simple sounds, produced by a whether they were long or short. The length single voice or instrument, and so regulated of the verse, the number of the lines, and the as to give a pleasing effect, or to be expres- " " order of the rhymes in each " Stole or Ab- sive of some kind of sentiment. It is often o-esang" was variable and consequently the founded on relative harmonies and yet is poems were susceptible of a great variety of completely distinguished from harmony by forms, which were called tunes or "Weisen." not needing the addition of parts to make it The invention of a new " Weise " was con- perfect. The construction of melody is guided sidered the test of a Master-singer's abilities. by certain rules in rhythm, and by the capa- Therewere some hundreds ofthese" Weisen," bilities of the voice or instrument for which as Hans Tind- it is intended. Melos had a very general all named after their inventors; Schmeirer's meaning among the Greeks, for it is said by eisen's rosemary Weise ; Joseph

( 285) MELODY ORGAN METAL, WIND INSTRUMENTS.

Plato to consist of " speech, music, and raising the hammers gradually further from rh)rthm." In its more limited sense it sig- the string, causing them to descend with nified any succession of musical sounds. more force. It was invented by Caldara of Melody Organ or Harmonium. A Turin in 1870. harmonium so constructed that the upper Melos (Ger.) (jiiXoe). A succession of note of the chords played is louder than the musical sounds as opposed to noises. A rest of the sounds.. tune. A song. [Melody.] Melograph. An instrument invented for Meme mouvement (Fr.) The same the purpose of writing down melodies when movement. L'istesso tempo {It.)

played upon a pianoforte. It has not yet Men, meno {It.) Less ; as meno forte,

been brought into use, as its action is not so loud ; meno piano, not so soft ; meno

imperfect. presto, less rapid ; meno vivo, not so quick. Melopoeia (Gk.) liEXomita. (i.) Music in Menaaneim {Heb). This word occurs general. (2.) The art or system of making a once in Holy Scriptures, in 2 Sam. vi. 5, tune or melos. In this sense it is said, by where it is improperly translated cymbals. Aristides Quintilianus, (Ed. Meibom, p. 28) Its derivation points to a root meaning to to be of three kinds with reference to the swing to and fro, to vibrate. It is probable, pitch, namely, hypatoeides, mesoeides, and therefore, that it was a sistrum. [Sistrum.] netoeides. He then divides Melopoeia into Menestrals (Fr.) [Troubadours] [Con-

three parts, Sumptio (X^-^ts)^ Mistio (jj-i^ig), fr6rie de St. Julien]. Usus (xprjaii). Meno {It.) [Men]. Sumptio, or the "taking," is the settle- Menschen-stimme {Ger.) (i.) A man's " ment of the pitch from which the " system voice. (2.) Vox humana. or scale is to be reckoned. Mistio, the Mensur {Ger.) (i.) The measurement of mixing, is the co-ordinating or fitting together intervals on stringed instruments. (2.) The the sounds with regard to each other, or the, scale of organ pipes. modulations of the voice, or the key-systems. Mensurable Music. [Cantus mensura- Usus, the use, is of three kinds, Ductus bilis.] {aywyfi), Petteia (TTETTeia), Nexus (irXoKq). Mensuralgesang {Ger.} [Cantus men- Ductus is of three kinds, direct, reverse, cir- surabilis.] cumcurrent (see Agoge). Petteia is the Mensuralnotenschrift {Ger.) Nota- choosing of sounds that are suitable, and tion of Time measurement. rejecting those that are unsuitable. Nexus Menuet {Fr.) ) [Mmuet.Jttv/t- 4. 1 is the interweaving of intervals or movements Menuetto (/i.) } by skips. Quintilianus sums up by giving Mescolanza (//.) Cacophony. the following plain statement of the different Mese {Gk.) [Greek Music] kinds of melopce'ia.. Messa {It.), Messe {Fr.) Mass. Enharmonic. {It.) The swelling and Chromatic. Genus . diminishing of the sound of the voice upon a Diatonic. holding note. Hypatoid. [Coryphaeus.] System Mesoid. Mesochorus {fiEo-oxopoe.) Netoid. Mesopycni {Mediceval Lat., from Gk. Melopoeia Dorian. p-iaoQ, middle, and wkvoq close.) Church Scale (tones) • Phrygian. modes having the close interval or semitone is of different Lydian. in the middle of their primary tetrachord, Gnomic. kinds as ta Mode (tropos) Dithyrambic. e.g.— Tragic. Dorian. Hypodorian.

/ Systaltic. Manner or (Producing sadness.) character Middle. ^Producing calmness.) (ethos) Diastaltic. cf. Barupycni. Oxupycni. . {Producing excitement.) Mesto, mestoso {It.) Sad, pensive. Melopiano. An invention by which sus- Mesure {Fr.) Measure, time, as mesure tained sounds can be produced on a piano- a deux temps or trois temps. Duple or triple forte. It consists of a series of small ham- time. mers set into very rapid vibration by the Metallo {It.) lit. metal.. The ringing winding up of a spring. When a note is quality of tone, as bel metallo di voce. struck and held down, the constant repetition Metal pipes. [Organ.] of the blows of the hammer causes a con- Metal plate of pianoforte. [Pianoforte.] tinuous vibration of the string which is of a Metal wind instruments. Instruments most charming character. A beautiful cres- formed of various lengths of brass tubing cendo is obtained by the ingenious device of gradually enlarged towards one end called the

( 286 ) — — — ;

METAL WIND INSTRUMENTS.

"bell" and with a mouthpiece at the other end. player, Koenig, made his appearance from The tubing is folded into a size convenient Paris with an instrument of similar make which for carrying about, either into an oblong or he declared was by a French inventor, there circular form. A single length of tubing is was some controversy at the time, and as no capable of sounding the primary harmonics of one suspected the honesty of Macfarlane, it its tonic with that note, in the following is possible that the same idea may have order, according to the power of lip possessed occurred simultaneously to the two claimants. by the player, the key note being taken The application of the third valve to the cor- as C : net or cornopean was claimed by a horn player named Kilback, but, on what grounds, it is difficult now to determine. Valves or pistons were employed in Germany before the intro- duction of the Russian valve (so-called) into A double length of tubing enables the player England, these were the double cylinder and to produce another octave with some addi- the rotatory valve, and the instruments played tional harmonics, thus : by Kalozdy's Hungarian band were on this latter principle. The principle of the Sax-valve was a Ger- man invention, and was introduced to the and sometimes public by a man named Stolzel. The tuning slides for the piston notes, and the improve- ment of Stolzel's valve are due to the maker whose name is connected with the invention. as in the French Horn and Trumpet. These Since the time that the Sax-horns were intro- are called the open notes, the intermediate duced into England by the Distin family, tones many modifications and improvements have been effected, the object of each alteration being to obtain the easiest and most accurate means of lengthening and shortening the tube are made by inserting the hand in the "bell" at will, so as to produce chromatic into- of the Horn as well as the Trumpet, these nation. are called closed notes and are less full The metal valved-instruments now in use and beautiful in character than the open tones, may be thus classified : and being also difficult of production, are Soprano Compass.—^Trumpet in F and E rarely written. flat, both with slides and valves; soprano Upon the application of the slide to the cornets in E flat and C, with 3 valves or pis- flat, valves trumpet, an application probably suggested tons ; soprano saxhorn in E with 3 flat by the trombone, the uncertainties of intona- or pistons ; soprano fltigel horns in E and

tion were made somewhat less. The first C, with 3 and 4 cylinder valves ; bugle in C instrument of the tube kind in which an im- and B flat, with keys (rarely used now). provement was sought to be effected was the Alto or Contralto Compass.—Cornet in alto Bugle, which was formerly without keys, like B flat, with crooks for A, A flat, and G ; flugel the horn and the trumpet. The bandmaster saxhorn in B flat, with 3 valves ; alto of an Irish regiment, named James Halliday, horn in B flat, with 3 and 4 cylinder valves about the year 1814 or 1815, introduced a alto trombone in E flat, both slide and keyed bugle of his own contrivance which he valved. called the Kent Bugle out of compliment to Tenor Compass.—^French horn, with and

the Duke of Kent, the father of Her Majesty without valves, with 10 crooks ; tenor sax- horn, Queen Victoria, who was colonel of the regi- horn, with 3 valves ; tenor flugel- with

ment. The instrument became exceedingly 3 or 4 cylinder valves ; tenor trombone, both popular, in consequence of the excellent per^- slide and valved. formance of the elder Distin, who introduced Bariton Compass.—Bariton sax-horn, with it into the orchestra of Her Majesty's Theatre 3 valves; bariton flugel- horn, with 3. and 4 in 1830 ; and the French composer, Adolphe cylinder valves. Adam, wrote several solos for it. Bass Compass.—Trombone in F or G, both in or flat A bugle player named Macfarlane claims to slide and valved ; euphonium C B have been the first who applied pistons or with 3 or 4 valves. valves to the Cornopean. He called his Contra-basso.—Bombardon in F or E flat, contrivance " Russian valves," and he fur- with 3 and 4 valves ; bombardon, circular nished his model with two of them, the first for shaped ; contra-bombardon in BB flat, with the whole tone and the second for the half tone. 3 pistons or valves ; contra-bombardon, cir- As about that time (theyear 1834) the celebrated cular shaped. (287) ;

METHODE METRE.

Most metal wind instruments are formed Ex. 3. from a sheet of brass cut into the proper Mozart. Symp. No. i. size. The sheet of metal is turned in the shape of a pipe until the edges meet correctly. The edges are welded together in a brazing . forge and the tube is " pickled" in a chemical bath to remove the traces of brazing. It is g^r-f-^ perfectly cylindrical ^ then made by means of a " draw bench," and afterwards is bent into Ex, 4* Beethoven. Symp. No. i. the required curve, the tube being filled with molten pitch, for slight curves, or with lead for " U " curves. As both pitch and lead will melt at a lower temperature than brass, there is no difficulty in removing the in- terior "filling" by heat, leaving the tube in the required form without breaking or flattening it. The " bell" is made by careful hammering on a "mandril" of the required size and form, and is fitted to the tube by means of solder and the blow pipe. Shanks, crooks and the other parts are then put together the instrument is tested and polished, and is ready for use.

Methode (Fr.) Metodo (It.) (i.) System of teaching, as, Kalkbrenner's method, Cri- velli's method, &c. (2.) School or style of music, as, the Italian m,ethod. Metre. A term used with various signi- fications (i.) A foot, as a subdivision of a ; bar or measure The relation between ; (2.) r^ two feet having the same subdivisions of Trisyllables or feet consisting of three time-units, but in a different order of suc- time-units are of eight kinds. cession ; (3.) The proper grouping of a number of consecutive feet. ^ M \J . Authors who use the term in this last Beethoven. sense, consider it as equivalent to rhythm Ex. 7. Symphony No. 2. and divide it thus : Metre (rhythm).

Measures (bars with accents).

Feet (groups of tirne-units).

Units of time (short and long).

But it will be seen further on that this division is not good ; and also that the in- corpora.tion into music of the terms of is not desirable. Before entering on this dis- cussion, it is necessary to give a list of the names and nature of the most important feet. Dissyllables have two units of time capable of a four-fold arrangement ; e.g.,

Ex. I.

- - .

Ex. Pyrrhic. i METRE.

Ex. lo. Mendelssohn. u w Anapaest.

Ex. II

Molossus. Weber. Ex. 12. Voices. Mass in £i7.

•

]l^n , mnij i^^F-M- r'- ^ :

METRE.

Again, in the following, the same length is given to the short syllables of the words as to the long

Ex. ig. ; —

METROMETER METTE. a single melody, or a simple harmonised clock-work machinery, was common in Eng- tune, whereas, we know that one of the land before the metronome was introduced. highest forms of modem music is harmony This was a tape like that used by surveyors, which consists of a combination of many and as the length was in actual inches, it melodies. was necessary to have so great a length that 4. Lastly, is it of any practical use to its general use was inconvenient. Many of adopt names and symbols of metre, if metre the glees of Calcott, Horsley, Webbe, and and musical rhythm are contradictory ? That some of the compositions of Crotch and they may be so is shown by a comparison of other writers of the latter part of the last Exs. 16 and 17, the former of which is per- century have the time indicated by such a fectly correct metrically, perfectly ridiculous pendulum. Twelve years before the date musically. Scholars explain this by saying of Stoeckel's invention, namely, in 1784, an that whereas metre depends on quantity amateur violinist and composer of Paris, alone, rhythm depends upon a combination Jean Baptiste D'Avaux, wrote to the " Journal of quantity and emphasis. Be it so, but in Encyclopedique," describing a newly-invented modem music, quantity without emphasis is pendulum for measuring time in musiic : inconceivable, therefore any nomenclature " Lettre sur un instrument ou pendule nou- founded on quantity only is of no practical veau qui a pour but de d6terminer avec value. la plus grande exactitude les differentes It may be thought strange that so much degres de vitesse, depuis le prestissimo space has been given to this subject of metre, jusqu'au largo, avec les nuances impercep- solely for the purpose of depreciating its tibles d'un degre a I'autre." This could value and discouraging its use. But the hardly have been the invention of three- classical names of feet are largely used as quarters of a century earlier, namely, in 1710, musical terms by certain writers, more per- alluded to in the sixth edition of a work by haps from a desire to appear learned at a Michel D'Affilard, published under the title of little cost, than from a knowledge of their " Principes tr6s-faciles,pourbien apprendre la real bearing on the art. musique, qui conduiront promptement ceux Metrometer. [Metronome.] qui ont du naturel pour le chant jusqu'au Metronome. An instrument said to have point de chanter toute sorte de musique et a. been invented in 1815 by Maelzel, for the livre ouvert," in which the time of the exer- purpose of measuring the relative duration of cises or airs is regulated by a " pendule." the notes in a piece of music. The ma- Taking the date into consideration,this instru- chinery is of clockwork, and the various ment was probably the metronome or sono- grades of time are measured on a balance-rod meter of Etienne Louli6, invented in 1696, serving the purpose of a pendulum, the speed described as a " chronometre ou instrument being regulated by a shifting or sliding weight. de nouvelle invention, par le moyen duquel les To be correct the metronome should beat compositeurs de musique pourront desormais seconds when set at 60. marquer le veritable mouvement de leurs Maelzel's claim to the invention rests on compositions, et leurs ouvrages, marquez par very doubtful authority, that is to say, only rapport a cet instrument, se pourront, exe- upon his own word; for in the "Journal fur cuter en leur absence s'ils en battaient eux- Deutschland " 1796 is a description of a time memes la mesure." If this had been simply measurer in the form of a chronometer, a cord or tape it would have indicated the

J. S. Stoeckel, of Burg, claiming its invention time only while the motion lasted ; but the but this being of large and inconvenient size, contrivance was of clock-work, as " I'estampe Maelzel suggested to Winkel the desirability repr6sentant le chronometre " shows. In of a new contrivance, which Winkel succeeded 1759 Henri Louis Choquel also advocated the in producing, Maelzel exhibited the instru- use of a chronometer, probably that of Loulie; ment as his own invention, and his name is and in 1807 Jeanne Etienne Despreaux pub- always associated with it, though all the part lished a chart or table of the different measures he really had in the matter was in dividing the in music, under the title of " Chronometre balance-rod to agree with the varieties of musical etabli sur les bases du pendule astro- musical tempi. The claim to this portion of the nomique," the machine employed being a invention was allowed before the Dutch com- modification of Loulie's invention. All that mission appointed to enquire into the subject Maelzel did was to suggest the construc- at the request of Winkel. But neither of these tion of an instrument more portable than has the right to be considered as the inventors any already in use, but the principle he of the machine, although Stoeckel and Winkel worked upon was that which had been acted in good faith, and in ignorance pro- carried out nearly 100 years before he was bably of what had been done before them. A bom. pendulum for measuring time, independent of Mette {Ger.) Matins.

( 291 ) ;

METZILLOTH MINUET.

Metzilloth, Metzillthaim, Tzeltzelim Middle C. The note standing on the (Heb.) These words are rendered in our first leger line above the bass stave, and the version as cymbals, except in Zech. xiv. 20, first leger line below the tr.eble stave. where they are translated "bells of the horses," [Stave.] which is substantially correct, as little cym- Mi difese {Fr.) The note E sharp. bals were formerly used in the trappings of Militairement {Fr.), Militarmente {It.) horses. The cymbals used by the Hebrews In a military style. were probably similar in form to those of the Military Band. [Band, § 5.] ancient Egyptians, some existing examples Minaccevole \ of which are here depicted. They were Minaccevolmente [{It.) In a menac- found in the tomb of a certain musician- Minacciando > ing, threatening priest named Ankhapd, lying close to his Minacciosamente I manner. to side. They are very small compared Minaccioso ) modern instruments of the same class, Mineur {Fr.) Minor. being not more than five inches in diameter. Minikin. A small sort of gut string for- [Cymbals.] merly used on the lute, viol, and other stringed instruments. Minim. Halbnote {Ger.), bianca {It.), blanche {Fr.) A time character of the value of two crotchets. In modern music it is second in value to the semibreve now held to be the time standard, but in ancient music it was, as its name implies, of the shortest duration. Morley, in his " Introduction to Practical Musicke," 1601, ascribes the first use, if not the invention, of the minim to PhiHppo de Vitriaco, a musician of the 14th century, who is also credited with the inven- tion of crotchet. [Nomenclature.] [No- Mezzo, Mezza (It.) Half or medium, the tation.] as, mezza bravura, semi bravura style ; mezza for manica, half shift ; mezza orchestra, with half Minnesingers. The German name Troubadour character, who de- the orchestra ; mezza voce, half the power, of poets of the to the production of love the voice ; mezzo carattere, with a moderate voted their talents certain degree of expression or execution ; mezzo songs (Minnelieder). They enjoyed a the higher grades of forte, moderately loud ; mezzo piano, mode- amount of popularity in years rately soft ; mezzo soprano, a voice lower in society for more than two hundred range than a soprano and higher than a con- (i 138-1347), when they fell out of popular and were succeeded by the Meis- tralto ; mezzo staccato, , slightly detached estimation, mezzo tenore, a voice of tenor quality and tersingers, q. v. [Troubadours.] tuono, half the power baritone range ; mezzo Minnim {Heb.) This word, which occurs

of the voice ; &c. in Ps. xlv. 8, and Ps. cl. 4, is probably a M. F. [Mezzo forte.] poetical allusion to stringed instruments M.G. Abbreviation oi main gauche {Fr.), generally. It is so rendered in the Bible and the left hand. Prayer-book versions of the latter psalm. Mi. (i.) A syllable used to indicate E, the " Praise him with stringed instruments and third note in the scale of C [Aretinian syl- organs." {Bible.) "Praise' him upon the lables]. (2.) In solmisation Mi always indi- strings and pipe" {Prayer-book). In order to cated the leading note. [Solfaing.] bring out its meaning in Ps. xlv. 8, it has note flat. Mi bdmol {Fr.) The E been proposed to alter the text thus : "out of Mi bemol majeur or mineur. The key the ivory palaces, stringed instruments have of E flat major or minor. made thee glad." fa. The name given by the Mi contra Minor (Laf.) Less, smaller, (i.) Intervals old contrapuntists to the ^ijkane, which was are said to be minor when they contain one always to be avoided—"mi contra-^a est semitone less than major. (2.) A scale is diabolus." • It is not as some suppose, the said to be in the minor mode when its third simultaneous sounding'of the tonic 'with the and sixth are minor. Formerly minor music leading. as the notes, of the scale of note ;;but, was described as " with the lesser third." -fa, sol, la/.fa- C in old solfaing were named— fliite, a small flute- (3.) Flute minor, Klein sol, la, mi, fa the union or siiccessibnofthe' — stop on the organ,- of 4ft. or 2ft. pitch. fa and mi would form the-tritone,' the'leadirig'

.Minstrel. ; [Troubadour.] note in the old scales always being called wi.'

• ' of a graceful [Solfaing.] Minuet (Fr.) -The 'name

( 292 ) 1

MINUET.

dance said to have been invented in Poitou about the middle of the 17th century. The tunes for the first minuets are said to have been composed by Jean Baptiste Lully. A minuet was danced by Louis XIV. before his courtiers at Versailles. The Marquis de Flamarens introduced it into England in the reign of Charles II., who made the dance fashionable by having it frequently danced at Court. It continued to be popular as a court dance until the reign of George III. The minuet form was used by many composers after Lully as a movement in sonatas, overtures, and the like, but com- posers made a few slight variations in the time and treatment in order to obtain as much originality as possible. The minuet with ^^^ :jLi\ia$^^ more or less success continued to be employed ^ as a movement in instrumental music to the time of Beethoven, who abandoned it in ^ :rt(^m^ favour of the Scherzo. Independently of its use for dancing pur- poses the Minuet, almost immediately after its introduction, was adopted as part of a Suite, sometimes in the simple form as required for the dance and sometimes with a second m minuet of a slightly different character and 2^gT iL^r l o^n key appended. This second minuet was so g arranged as to demand a return to the original key. The title of Trio for the second minuet is said to have been first suggested from the circumstance that only three parts or instru- ments were employed in the performance of it is that section ; is also stated that J. S. Bach entitled to the credit of being the first so to call the second minuet. But the subjoined Round O (Rondo) minuet by Mr. Jerry Clark, c. 1700, shows an earlier division of the composition "into three parts or strains, and the form itself suggests that the third part which takes the place of the trio in more modern minuets, is more likely to be called trio because of its third place than because it was written in three parts or for three instruments.

MINUET. Lully.

i" r-9- P— — .

MINUETTO MODE.

MINUET. H. PuRCELL. Chorus Lessons.

End at ye zst Straine.

Minuetto {It.) [Minuet.] Miscella. A mixture stop of an organ. Miserere. The 51st Psalm sung in the TenebrcB service in the Roman Catholic Church. F~^ Mishrokitha, or Masrakitha {Chaldaic) This word occurs four times in the book of Daniel, and is probably rightly interpreted in the Septuagint by Syrinx. Missa (Lat.) A mass, as, missa fro

defunctis, a requiem mass ; missa solemnis, a

solemn mass ; &c. Misschallig {Ger.) Dissonant, discordant. Missklang [Ger.) Discord, cacophony. Misteriosamente, Misterioso {It.) Mys- teriously. [Mass.] Misura {It.) A measure, a bar. Misurato {It.) Measured, in strict time. Mit {Ger.) With, as mitBegleitung, with ROUND O MINUET. accompaniment ; mit Bewegung, con moto, &c. ist Straine. By Mr. Jerry Clark. Mitos {Gk.) ixirog. A thread, a term some- times used for the string of a lyre. Mittelcadenz {Ger.) An imperfect ca- dence, or half-close. [Cadence.] Mittelstimmen {Ger.) Inner parts. Mixed Cadence. An old name for a cadence, consisting of a subdominant followed

by a dominant and tonic chord ; so called be- cause the characteristic chords of the plagal and authentic cadences succeed each other. Mixolydian. [Greek music] Mixture. An organ stop, consisting of several ranks of pipes to each note. It is only used in combination with the foundation and compound stops, as it consists of high harmonics of the ground tone. [Organ.] Mode, (i) A scale [Greek music]. (2) A species of scale, as, major mode, minor mode.

( 294 ) MODERATAMENTE MODUS.

Moderatamente Beethoven, Symphony No. 3. Moderate (It.) Moderately. Moderazione, con Moderatissimo (7f.' Very moderate. Modificazione (7^) Modification, light and shade in expression. Modinha. A Portuguese love song. = Modo (7^.) A mode. /t-'; ^r r Modulation, (i.) Movement or gradu- ation of sound A change of key. ; (2.) One of the chief characteristics of modern music is the constant change of key. In many of the recognized "Forms" it is absolutely necessary to introduce "second" subjects in a different, although a related key to the chief theme. Hence, in old Treatises on Music the subject is barely touched upon, whereas modern authors enlarge upon it. Modulation is of three kinds, Diatonic, Chromatic, and Enharmonic. The first of

these is sometimes called natural ; the last two, artificial. A Diatonic modulation is the passing from one key to another by using chords from relative keys.

Ex. I. Beethoven, Symphony No. i.

=«=«=I I ^^ 'Key of A minor. &c. 13 bars in A viitioT.

In the above (Ex. i) a modulation is made from G minor to C, thus : G minor is a re- lative key of D minor, which is a relative key of A minor, which is the relative minor of C. When a remote key is reached by relative keys, the modulation is by some said to be extraneous. A chromatic modulation is the passing from one key to any other, by means of unrelated keys. MOLL MORRIS DANCE. division of a Maxim (notula maxima) into Longs. Modus minor the division of a Long into Breves. The " Modus major " was per- fect vv^hen the Maxim contained three Longs, imperfect when it contained two. The "Mo- dus minor " was perfect when the Long con- tained three Breves, imperfect when it con- tained two. The following (from Franchinus) exhibits the different kinds of Modus. :

MORTE MOTO.

The pipe and tabor were the ancient vidant de I'eglise, les enfants d'autels can- and are the present accompaniments to the terent le motet ou pulpitre, tournez le visage dance, which is still occasionally performed at vers I'autel." rural festivals. Tunes of various kinds were Morley, in his " Introduction to Musicke," associated with it. imperfectly describes a motett as " a song Morte (Fr.) The death note of any hunted made for the church, either upon some hymn " animal sounded upon a bugle. And whan or anthem, or such like ; and that name I take the hare is take, and your houndes have to have been given to that kinde of musicke ronne well to hym, ye shul the morte blowe in opposition to the other, which they called oftirward, and ye shul yif to your houndes the canto fermo, and we do commonlie call plain- halow." Twety in Rel. Ant., i, 153, quoted song, for as nothing is more opposit to stand- in Furnivalle's reprint of the Percy MS. ing and firmness than motion, so did they give

" And then to sigh, as't were the motet that name of moving, because it is The mort of the deer." in a manner quight contrarie to the other, Shakespeare. which after some sort, and in respect of the standeth still." Mosso {It.) Moved, as piii mosso, more other, Probably for the reason above quoted, Du moved or faster ; meno mosso, less fast. suggests that the motett was originally Mostra [It.) A direct y/'. A sign, sug- Cange gested by Avison, for pointing out to a per- of a gay and lively nature, and the similarity former the entry of a particular point or of style between the motett and madrigal of subject. the i6th century would point to the conclu- Motett. A vocal composition in harmony, sion that the titles were interchangeable until' set to words generally selected from the Scrip- the character of the words of the madrigal tures, or to paraphrases of the sacred writings. fixed the title for this sort of writing, and the The motett was, at one time, a varied treat- word motett remained to describe movements ment of a given theme similar to the poem more especially intended for the church ser- called in Spanish a "moto," referred to in vice. the article Madrigal. Like the madrigal, the Metrical psalms and hymns in which the are to a varied setting motett was at first set to words of a profane several verses sung Catholic character, and there are ecclesiastical decrees are called motetts in the Roman sacred cantatas of uncon- extant forbidding its use in church. We read Church. Many also described as in Durandus " De modo generalis concillii nected movements are the place celebrandi," cap. xix. " Videtur valde hones- motetts. The early anthems took church, and turn esse quod cantus indevoti et inordinati of the motett in the Anglican compositions of the motetorum et similium non fierent in ecclesia." many of the church are of the motett And that the character of the motett was at Elizabethan musicians one period the reverse of sacred, the following form. [Anthem.] [Madrigal.] quotations from " Le Roman de la Rose," Motetto {It.) [Motett.] a single conjectured by Warton to belong to the 13th Motion, (i) The movement of intervals taken by it. century, will show part with reference to Conjunct motion takes place when the sounds " Qu'il faist rimes jolivettes of the scale, e.g., Motes, fabliaux, et chansonettes move by single degrees Qu'il veuille a sa mie envoier." C, D, E, F ; disjunct motion is when they The And further: move by skips, e.g., C, F, D, G. (2) parts with relation " Chantant en pardurablete movement of two or more Motes, gaudias, et chansonettes." to each other. Similar or direct motion is when parts move in the same direction either In the Constitut : Carmelit : Lib. IIL : contrary by single degrees or by skips ; " vel aliquam Neque motetos, neque uppaturam _ parts move in opposite cantum magis ad lasciviam quam devotionem provo- motion is when part cantem, aliquis decantare habeat, sub poena gravioris directions; oblique motion is when one culpas." remains stationary while another moves. And Du Cange quotes (verbo Motulus) a Motivo {It.) Motive, (i) The sort of move- notes of a decree of Odo, Archbishop of Rouen, in which ment indicated by the opening proposed for develop- : — sentence. A subject it is said " In festo S. Johannis et Inno- (2) centium nimia jocositate et scurrilibus can- ment. as tibus utebantur utpote farsis, conductis, Moto {It.) (i) Motion, movement, con pracepimus quod honestius et cum moto, with spirited movement, keeping up the rnotulis ; majori devotione alias se haberent." interest of the music. Hence con moto has The word motett was synonymous with become a time-sign, signifying rather fast. pulpitre in the 15th century. In the account (2) Moto continuo, continuous motion, the of the solemn entry of John of Burgundy, constant repetition of a particular musical Bishop of Cambray in 1442, we read, "en figure or group of figures. (3) Moto coit-

{ 297 ) ; ;

MOTTEGGIANDO M. V.

trario, contrary motion ; moto ohhliquo, oblique people of Europe. (2) The name of a melody,

motion ; moto retto, direct or similar motion of a soft and sweet character written in [Motion]. (4) Moto precedente, at the pre- imitation of the bagpipe tunes. (3) Dance

ceding pace ; moto prima, at the first pace. tunes and dances in the measure of those Motteggiando {It.) In a bantering, jest- melodies. (4) A reed stop on the organ. ing, jocose manner. Musica (It.) Music. Musica di camera,

Motus (Lat.) Motion ; contrarius, contrary chamber music ; musica chiesa, church music

ohliquus, oblique ; rectus, direct or similar. musica da teatro, operatic music.

Conjunctivus, conjunct ; disjunctivus, dis- Musical Box. A portable instrument the junct. [Motion.] sounds of which are produced by a steel comb

Mounted cornet. [Cornet, § 3.] having teeth of graduated length. Projecting Mouth. The speaking part of an organ pegs or stops, in a metal barrel which is pipe, as opposed to the foot, through which turned by clockwork set the teeth in vibra- the wind enters. tion. They are chiefly made in Switzerland. Mouth organ. [Pan-pipes.] Small specimens were formerly called musical Mouthpiece, Embouchure (Fr.) ; Imboc- snuff-boxes. A set of free reeds is now some- catura (It.) ; Mundstuck (Ger.) That part of times inserted for the purpose of sustaining a a wind instrument which is put into the melody, in which case, the same mechanism mouth of the performer. In the case of which causes the barrel to revolve, also works brass instruments the end of the instrument a small bellows. is placed on the exterior of the lips, and in Musical Glasses. A series of goblets the case of reed instruments the reed itself is of graduated sizes fixed in a case. The tone inserted in the mouth. The name Kessel is is produced by the friction of the fingers of given by the Germans to the hollow or cup the' player on the edge of th^ glass. The in the end of a brass instrument through instrument has been recently revived under which the air is forced, and Schnabel or beak, the name of Copophone. [Glass musical in- to the pointed end of oboes, clarinets, &c. struments.] Movement, (i) Motion of melody, or of Musici. A name given to the followers parts [Motion]. (2) A division, or definite of the Aristoxenian system. See Canonici. portion of a work, as first movement, slow Musico {It.) A musician, a term for- movement, &c., of a sonata or merly applied to a Castrato v.) ^ symphony, or {q. other extended composition. (3) A portion Muta {It.) A direction to a- player on of a musical piece separated from the rest by a horn, trumpet, &c., or on drums, to change a complete change of time or key. the key of his instrument, as, muta in A, B, Mund {Ger.) Mouth of a pipe or musical S'C.

instrument ; Mundstuck, mouthpiece. Mutation {Fr.) Mutazione {It.) Change. Munter {Ger.) Lively, allegro. Mute. A small instrument of brass, Murky. A piece of harpsichord music, wood, or ivory, so made that it can be readily having a bass consisting of broken octaves, fixed upon the bridge of a violin or violon-

thus : cello, to damp or deaden the sound. The direction for its use is written con sordini or muta, its discontinuance by senza sordini. A leather pad of a pear shape is employed as a mute for brass instruments, which, inserted Musars. Ballad singers of the troubadour in the bell, produces the effect of sound at a period. distance. Musette, (i) A small bagpipe {coma Mutiren {Ger.) The change of voice. tnusa) formerly much used by the various M. V. Ahhieviation oi mezs([voce.

zgS ) : : —

NABLA NATIONAL AIR.

N.

Nabla vi(iXa (Gk.) [Nebel.] the same society. " Belshazzar's Feast." Nablium (Lat.) [Nebel.] (No. xiii.) Nacaire (Fr.) A large drum. " & ay ^e nakeryn noyse, notes of pipes, Naccare or Gnaccare (It.) [Castanets.] Tymbres & taborns, tulket among, Symbales & sonetez swared ^e noyse." Nacchera (It.) A military drum. [Na- .] Chaucer, too, makes mention of them in his Naccherone (It.) A large military drum. knight's tale Nachahmung (Ger.) [Imitation.] " Pipes, trompes, nakerers, and clariounes, Nachdruck (Ger.) Emphasis, accent. That in the bataille blowen blody sounes." Nachspiel (Ger.) A postlude. In " Nachstverwandte Tone (Ger.) The Strutt's Sports and Pastimes," a pay- ment to Janino le Nakerer of sixty shillings as nearest Relative Keys, q. v. Nacht-horn (Ger.) Literally "Night- one of the minstrels of the King (Edward II.), horn," an organ stop consisting of stopped is recorded. wood pipes of a moderately large scale, the Nanga. A negro harp. [Harp.] (7f.) direc- tone of which is somewhat like that of a horn. Narrante As if narrating. A tion Naenia (Lat.) A funeral song of the to a singer, implying that the music is to Romans, mentioned in the laws of the twelve be subordinate, as it were, to the recitation tables. " Honoratorum virorum laiudes in of the words. Nasard, Nazard or Nassat. An organ concione memorantor ; easque nsenis ad Tibicinem prosequuntor. stop sounding a twelfth above the foundation Nafiri. An Indian trumpet. stops. It will therefore be 2f feet in length. Nagaret or Nagareet. An Abyssinian Nason Flute. A stop of 4ft. tone, some- drum; a kind of kettledrum. [Nakeres.] times found in old organs. It is of a soft and Naguar. An Indian drum with one head delicate quality of sound, and consists of only. stopped pipes. Naif (Fr.) Simple, na'ivement, artlessly, Nassat. [Nasard.] unaffectedly. National Air, or National Music. Nail Violin. [Eisen violine.] Popular music, peculiar to, or characteristic of, a particular nation. It often happens, Naked fifth. The interval of a fifth with- out a third. from the fact of a melody possessing the it generally Naked fourth. The interval of a fourth characteristics which render it voce without the addition of any other interval. popular, that is passed rapidly viva Naker. A drum. [Nakeres.] from one person to another, with less con- Nakeres {Old Eng.) The explanations of sideration of the author than of the music : to lose this word given by various authors are some- he has composed hence a tendency of national what conflicting. Albert Way, in his edition the names of the composers of the " Promptorium Parvulorum," considers music ; but of course, music is none the less author's the word identical with the nagirah, or drum national because it has its name research has discovered of the Arabs and Moors. Joinville speaks of attached, and recent the minstrels of the Soudan " qui avoient cors the authorship of many a tune which was sup- posed to have this small claim to nationality. Sarrazinois, et tabours, et nacaires." Most probably nakeres were small metal drums, It is impossible to describe a piece of music of any kind as national, until it has proved, used in pairs. In the poem, "Sir Gawayn and the Grene Knyzt," (Early English Text by its continued existence, that it has those qualities which will enable it to live. Thou- Society,) the word occurs : sands of melodies, some of them unfortunately " Trumpez & nakerys of the most worthless kind, from time to time Much pypyng per repayres." take a firm hold of the common people of this " " in A genitive case nakeryn is found the and other countries ; but the hold is not early English alliterative poems published by lasting, their popularity is but ephemeral,

( 299 ) NATURAL,

hence they are not truly national airs ; and enharmonic, that is, contains intervals smaller the airs which have become entitled to be than a semitone ; while that of the Chinese called national, numerous though they are, is pentatonic, that is, consists of five soifnds are probably a mere fraction of the vast succeeding each other in a series similar to number which have had a short existence, that which would be produced by playing and then sink into complete oblivion. Bear- only on the black keys of a pianoforte. The ing these considerations in mind, it will not power of the ear to distinguish between be difficult to give a definition of a " national sounds differing from each other by only a air," as follows : an Air which, by its reflection very small interval, varies considerably in or representation of a sentiment, taste, or habit different nations, some savage nations, the of a nation, either through the music alone, Maories for instance, having a perfect power or words and music combined, has become so of distinguishing between quarter-tones. The commonly known and used by that nation, as study of national music leads to the inevi- to be inseparable from the idea of its special table conclusion that all musical scales are or characteristic music. purely conventional ; the modern diatonic When the customs or tastes of nations are scale having no better claim to be founded very similar, if their musical scale has also on nature, or natural harmonics, than the great similarity, we shall, of course, find many complicated scales of the Arabs, Egyptians, tunes common to all, and claimed bv each. or Hindus. Closely connected with the history The more general the adhesion to the sen- of national music, is the history of national timent, or the greater the area over which musical instruments, the two subjects throw- the custom extends, or the more general the ing much valuable light on each other. The use of the scale from which it is formed, quality and pitch of that particular voice the more cosmopolitan will a piece of music most common in any nation, will also much become. The climate of a country, by influence the style of the popular music. acting upon the temperament of the in- " Some Asiatic nations," says Engel, " sing habitants, influences indirectly the style of in shrill notes by straining the voice to its its music. It is incorrect to suppose that highest pitch ; others delight in a kind of the minor mode is a universal charac- vibration or tremolando. Some sing habitu- teristic of national music. From a state- ally in an undertone ; others in a nasal tone. ment drawn up in a tabular form by Others, again, cultivate with predilection the Carl Engel, in his important work, " An falsetto, and usually introduce it into their Introduction to the Study of National Music," vocal performances." It is a fact generally it appears that in Sweden, Norway, , known in this country that Russia abounds and Hungary, the minor mode pre- in deep Bass voices, and Italy in fine Tenor dominates in the national music. In some or Baritone voices. It is said that Hottentots countries, as for instance, in Moldavia, and are chiefly Tenors, and that the Chinese sing Wallachia, and in Russia, the music seems entirely in falsetto. A proverb current in the to vacillate between the two modes, the tunes 14th and 15th centuries (see Chappell's Pop. sometimes commencing in the major and Mus., p. IX., Vol. I.) says, " Galli cantant, ending in the minor. Sometimes also, tunes Angli jubilant, Hispani plangunt, Germani commence in the minor and end in the ululant, Itali caprizant." The allusion to the major. As might be expected, some melodies English is undoubtedly meant for a compli- become altered in various ways in passing ment, they "sing cheerfully;" in "caprizant" from generation to generation by oral tra- is probably an allusion to the frequent use of dition ; our English Ballad literature, so ably the tremolo. It was commonly stated by collected and arranged by W. Chappell, English authors that England possessed no abounds with examples. Some nations add national music, but the researches of Chappell profuse grace notes to a well known melodies melody ; have brought together a collection of this is the case with the Spaniards, but of various kinds, which cannot be surpassed chiefly with the Arabs and Persians. The by any European nation. Unfortunately, our Welsh performance called Pennillion consists national songs are but little known in our of varied accompaniments to the voice parts, large towns and cities ; they are, however, and the tunes played on the violin by the handed down carefully in many rural districts Transylvanian gipsies abound in flourishes. where they may be heard in a more or less As regards the scale in use in different correct form. countries, it does not happen, as might be Natural, t|. A sign which restores a note expected, that a simple form of scale is used to its place in the normal scale of C. It has among nations of a low order of civilisation, the effect of sharpening a note previously and a more complicated form by a more flattened, or of flattening a note previously civilised race. The contrary is often the sharpened. It is an accidental, that is, it case. The scale used by the Maories is does not occur in the signature of a piece

( 300 ) :

NATURAL HARMONICS NEBENGEDANKEN.

of music, unless at a sudden change of the minor scale of the subdominant, in its

key, e.g. : modern form, e.g.

The earliest known use of the sign is found If we combine i 3 6 of the above scale, we in Bonaffino's "Madrigali Concertati," 1623, obtain the chord under examination. That it a work in which also bars are employed as is so derived seems the more probable, inas- marking the correct divisions of time. much as it is often preceded by a common

Natural harmonics. The sounds given chord of that key-note, e.g. : off by any vibrating body over and above J- its original sound. Overtones. [Acoustics.] Natural key. Key of C. Natural modulation. Diatonic modula- tion, as opposed to Chromatic. [Modulation.] Natural pitch. The pitch pf a pipe before soTsxttiraes one, e.g. it is overblown. and followed by

! ^-^-1- Nay. A flute used in modern Egypt, but J-T-fcd almost identical with the long flute anciently employed in that country. The most common nay is called the " Dervish flute," because with it those people accompany their songs at their zikrs or religious dances. Lane describes It is sometimes followed at once by a it as "a simple reed, about eighteen inches in major tonic chord, e.g. : length, seven-eighths of an inch in diameter at the upper extremity, and three-quarters of an inch at the lower. It is pierced with six holes in front, and generally with another hole at the back." It seems to have been played like our own flute, and like ^t to be capable of additional compass when blown Nebel (Heb.) One of the hard. most important of the stringed-instruments of the ancient Nazard. [Nasard.J Hebrews. It was not as ancient as the Neapolitan sixth. A name, apparently kinnor, but was probably of more elaborate without much reason, given to a chord construction. It is almost always rendered, occurring on the subdominant of a minor in our version of the Bible, by the word key, and consisting of a minor third and psaltery, two or three times by viol, once minor sixth, e.g. : (Ps. Ixxxi. 2) by the word psalm, "Take a Psalm, bring hither the tabret." This use of the word psaltery is most unfortunate, because it has by almost universal consent been the name of the ancient dulcimer, psanterin, •psalterion, psaltery, sautry, &c. This has led to a double error, many theo- logians thinking that a psaltery is a harp, It evidently can have nothing to do with many musicians thinking that a nebel was a the key of D7 major in the position given dulcimer. In all probability the nebel was a above, although it appears at first sight to be harp. It was portable because Saul met a the first inversion of the common chord of company of prophets " coming down from Dl?. Nor can it be derived from the root G, the high place with a nebel." That it was inasmuch as a flattened fifth of a root is not used on secular occasions is proved by admitted to exist by the best theorists. Some Isaiah's words (v. 12), " The harp, and the authors have explained the nature of the nebel, the tabret, and pipe are in their feasts." chord by calling the F Ab, notes derived David was proficient on this instrument, and from G, and the Dt? a note derived from C. the list of his nebel-players is given in This would make the chord a double-root I Chron. xxv. i, and elsewhere. chord (from G C) having the minor ninth of Nebendominant {Ger) The dominant of both roots, heard with the minor seventh and the dominant, as D is in the key of C. major third of the upper root. Another Nebengedanken {Ger.) Accessory ideas, explanation found, is that it is derived from or subordinate subjects.

(. 301 ) — ; :

NEBENSTIMMEN NEUMES.

Nebenstimmen (Ger.) (i.) Unessential The names above are as follows : — I Ac-

instance notes centus acutus ; 2 accentus gravis per- parts, as for those which may ; 3 triad, brevis percussionalis longa be added to a or those parts which are cussionalis ; 4 ; in unison with others. (2.) Accessory stops 5 inflatilis ; 6 circumflexa ; 7 muta. of an organ. The next illustration of neumes is part of Nechiloth (Heb.) The generic name for an interesting list given in Gerbertus " De wind-instruments. Cantu et Musica Sacra," Vol. II. Neck. That part of instruments of the violin and guitar class, which lies between JScjvndl.Mt<•<&(*9l^c'cl1.macttPrl^i^1tt' unt the peg-box and the belly. To its upper sur- face is attached the finger-board or fret-board. Nefer. An Egyptian guitar, called also Nofre. [Guitar.] Neghinoth. [Nechiloth.] It will be seen that the above shews Ihe Negligente, negligentemente, negli- form of the scandicus, salicus, climacus, tor- genza, con. {It.) In a negligent or careless culus, ancus, pentafon (spelt also penta- manner. phone)i strophicus, gnomo, porrectus, oriscus, Nel battere {It.) At the down stroke of virgula, cefalicus (cephalicus), clivus, quilisma,

the bar ; on the beat. podatus. These are ^is-arranged for the Nel stilo antico {It.) In the old manner purpose of getting them into verse. But or style. those who are curious on the subject will find Nel tempo {It.) In time (after an ad two admirable explanatory tables in the work libitum), or, in the previous time. above alluded to, pp. 184, 185. Nerves of hearing. [Ear.] Neumes were originally written above the Nete {Gk.) [Greek music] words to be sung to them. After the ninth Nettamente, netto {It.) Neatly, with century they began to assume graduated precision. height and position, this was succeeded by Neumes. The musical notations employed the addition of lines and clefs. Neumes from the eighth or ninth to the twelfth cen- then grew into ligatures and into notes repre- tury. Their origin is doubtful; Kiesewetter senting sounds of different lengths. The considers them to be the ancient nota Romana, foundation of the modern system of musical others believe them to have been of Asiatic notation was thus laid. [Notation.] The origin. There can, however, be little doubt word neuma is probably connected with the that the earliest system of musical notation Greek pneuma {itvevfia), a breath, and signi- was merely a series of directions as to the fied originally a group of sounds to be sung

the voice ; the intonation (accentus) of to a syllable ; but later on this particular acute accent, directing the raising of the voice meaning seems to have merged into the the grave, the flattening of it ; the circumflex, more general one of notes; and neumes and a movement up and down. These afterwards notes are 'used almost as synonyms. When were modified into conventional cadences of applied to the system of notation the word is various kinds, new signs being added from spelt without letter the p (neuma) ; when time to time to those already recognized, and applied to a series of notes to be sung to one the force and meaning of the old signs being syllable, the word seems generally to have amplified. retained its p (pneuma). The practice of The progress of these signs from the acute, singing pneumas has been at times carried grave, and circumflex into neumes of different to an almost ridiculous extent. They may be shapes can be traced with tolerable precision. divided into two classes : first, the expansion The acute accent grew into the virgula, the of a melody in the middle of a word, as in grave accent into the punctus, the circumflex modern runs or divisions ; e.g.: into the clivus and podatus. Hence, Cousse- valuable " Historie de q^t =q=*^ maker has, in his ^ =*=«=S: L'Harmonie au Moyen Age," divided neumes into generators and derivatives, separating the " ^ * former into two kinds, " simple (virgula and ^E^ punctus) and " coiiipound " (clivus and po- 3fc datus) ; the latter class also into two kinds, » "^ . S: "bound" and "conjoint." The following - le - - - lu shews the accentual neumes as used in the {From the Compline Office on Holy Sunday.) eleventh century : This is not opposed to modern notions of musical form. *^ 1 ^ ^ 1 The second kind may be described as a sort of coda, or tail-piece to the final word of a

( 302 ) — : : ; :

NEUVIEME NINTH, CHORD OF THE MINOR. sentence, and such pneumas were generally sung to the last syllable of the last word; e.g.:

1st Inv. 2nd Inv. 3rd Inv. 4th Inv.

Al - le - - lu ia In the above, the ninth is made to resolve first, leaving the seventh to be resolved after- wards. In the following, both discordant notes are resolved in the next chord Neuvieme {Fr.) The interval of the ninth. Nexus (Lat.) One of three branches of Melopoeia Ductus, nexus, extensio. Ductus was the movement n'p {rectus) or down {rever- tens) by single degrees. Nexus was move- by an interval, ment and was of three kinds ; The fourth inversion, having the ninth in rectus, as fa-gb-ac ; revertens, as ca-hg-af the bass, is not so commonly met with as the circumstans, as af-gb-af-ge. others. In the resolutions given above it will be seen that the third of the dominant, that

is, the leading note, ascends to its tonic ; the

minor seventh descends ; the major or added ninth descends also. The first inversion of this chord is sometimes termed the " chord of the seventh on the leading note," because the leading note of the scale is in the bass, and an interval of a seventh is found in the chord. Extensio was the holding on of the same note. For similar reasons the second inversion is See Agoge. sometimes called the chord of | on the super- Niederschlag {Ger.) The accented part tonic, the third inversion that of * on the of a bar. sub-dominant, the fourth inversion that of Nineteenth. An organ stop. [Larigot.] 4 on the superdominant. This chord and its Ninna, (It.) cradle song. nanna A inversions (excepting the fourth) are often Ninth, interval of a. A compound used without preparation. interval, equal to in the superior a second Ninth, chord of the minor. One of the octave. It may be major, minor, or aug- most important ingredients of modern music. mented, e.g. Not only is it exceedingly beautiful to the ear, but from its peculiar form it gives the greatest possible facilities for modulation from key to key, whether closely related or not. It Major Ninth. Minor Ninth. Augmented Ninth. consists of a dominant, its major third, major Ninth, chord of the major. A chord (perfect) fifth, minor seventh, and minor formed by a combination of thirds starting ninth, e.g. : with the dominant or fifth of the scale, called by some writers the " added ninth," because it consists of a chord of the dominant seventh, with the addition of the ninth others the ; by W " dominant ninth," because it occurs on a dominant bass. In its inversions the dominant, that is, the root or ground-note, is nearly always omitted, ir e.g.: ^

It is composed of five sounds, and, there- fore has four inversions. Like all chords of the ninth, in its inversions the root or ground- In the above examples the ninth only has note is seldom heard. They may be there- been resolved, leaving the seventh unre-

fore written thus solved ; but in resolving the seventh it will

( 303 ) : : : :

NINTH, CHORD OF THE SUSPENDED. be found that the major or minor third of the E, C#, and their tonics, C, A, F*, Eb, or Af, * succeeding chord may be used, thus : C, a'F|, D|, we get the following :

which will be found to be identical with those derived from them when separated into ground- notes, both as to the nature of their construc- tion and their capability for enharmonic modulation. The first inversion of this chord is often called the chord of the diminished seventh, because of the interval between the bass note and minor ninth of the root. Hence the chord is as often found in music in Ninth, chord of the suspended. A a major key, as in that in a minor. The name given to the chord of the ninth on the beauty of the inversions no doubt arises from tonic, as opposed to that of the ninth of the the fact that they consist practically of a dominant, owing to the fact that the former is combination of minor thirds, e.g. more often used as a prepared discord than the latter. The ninth may or may not be accompanied by the seventh (in this case the leading note). In the following examples the The alteration of the notation of the inver- seventh is omitted sions of this chord gives scope for rapid en- harmonic modulation. Take for example the second inversion

The seventh is included in the following examples

No. I is derived from G, dominant of C

No. 2 „ E, ,, A No. 3 „ CJt, „ Fjf (No. 4 „. Bbl „ El?) lNo.5 „ At\ „ m\ Nos. 4 and 5 are a complete change from a flat to a sharp key. Without altering the sound of the above chord it may be made to lead into any of the above keys or the keys related to them. Such a change of notation as this, without a change of sound, is termed an enharmonic modulation. It has already been shewn that the chord may resolve either It will be seen that the note on which the suspension resolves is not heard with the into the major or minor mode ; therefore the tonic minors of the above notes, and also the suspension, except in the original position of

the also, , keys related to them, may be reached with chord ; that the third inversion is equal facility. On looking at the five changes only to be obtained when the seventh is used. given above, the reason why the ground-note The ninth is not unfrequently resolved up- or root is omitted from the chords becomes wards, in which case some authors would not " obvious, for not only would the symmetry of call it a suspension," but a "retardation," form produced by the conjunction of the e.g.: minor thirds be destroyed, but also a definite resolution would become absolutely necessary, or, in other words, the invaluable property of "doubtfulness of key" belonging to such chords would be removed. One more fact should be noticed. If the list of the notes The ninth and seventh are both used with given above as the ground-notes of the five the fourth, or, as it is more properly termed, examples be read separately, thus : G, E, Ci' the eleventh on the tonic; under" Suspension," Bi?, or, as Nos. 4 and 5 are convertible, 1: examples of their combination will be found.

( 304 ) ; ; —

NOBILE NOMENCLATURE.

The division of discords into discords of They show at once that eight quavers = one suspension, discords by retardation, dis- semibreve, but not at once that four quavers cords by addition, and fundamental dis- = one minim. But I have a much more cords, is purely arbitrary, consequently hardly serious charge to bring against them. They any two authors apply these names in the assume what, if not always false, is, as it same way. It is highly desirable that a seems to me, not always true—that the semi- simple and consistent method of arranging breve is, or that any form of note can be chords should be generally adopted. absolutely a ' whole note.' What is, or what Nobile, nobilmente, con nobilita (It.) should be regarded as a whole note ? If I With grandeur, nobly. were sure that the word "phrase" represented Nocturns. Services of the church held to all of us the same idea'as it does to me, I during the night, for which certain portions should answer unhesitatingly that a whole of the Psalms are set aside, each of which is note was any note that could be divided into termed in the Breviary a nocturn. [Horse a phrase, or—to be a little more precise—any Canonicae.J note divided or undivided, which would fill Nocturne {Fr.) [Notturno.] either an entire measure or require as many beats as would one. This would give Nodal line. [Acoustics, § 7.] make practically four the title Node. [Acoustics, § 7.] us claimants to of Nodus {Lat.) Lit. a knot. A Canon. So whole note; —the breve, the average whole called because compositions of this class were note of the sixteenth century ; the semibreve,

sometimes given as enigmas, the meaning of the average whole note of our own time ; the which had to be unravelled. [Canon.] minim, and even the crotchet. For, that Noel (Fr.) "Good news." Old Eng.: movements innumerable of four beats in a Nowell. A word used as a burden to Carols measure, each of which is a quaver, exist, at Christmas. Hence, Carols are sometimes I need not say, nor that the measure even of called noels, or nowells. [Carol.] four semiquavers has been occasionally em- Nofre. [Nefer.] ployed. " Noire {Fr.) A crotchet J. The black note. It is certain that a sound lasting four beats Noise [Old Eng.) Music, or a performance may be expressed, and has been expressed by of music. As in Shakespeare's Henry IV., part six different forms—the maxim, the long, the II., Act 4, " See if thou canst find Sneak's breve, the semibreve, the minim, and the noise." So also in Milton's " Ode on the morn- crotchet. Perhaps some musician of the " ing of Christ's nativity : future may think proper to express such a note by a quaver. "When such music sweet " Let us now consider the names used by the Their hearts and ears did greet. As never was by mortal finger strook French—a people possessing in high perfec- Divinely warbled voice tion the power of clear exposition of what they Answering the stringed noise, themselves see clearly. As usual, they leave As all their souls in blissful rapture took." or throw on one side whatever they regard as The prayer-book version of the Psalms has uncertain, or equivocal, or not commonly " God is gone up with a merry noise." (" As- accepted, and proceed to deal with the undis- cendit Deus in jubilo." Vulgate.) puted and indisputable facts or portions of Nomenclature. In music the terms facts before them. And what is there in applied to the various signs employed to stand respect to the forms which express the relative as the representatives of time, sounds, pitch, durations of sounds ? First, that they are pace, and expression. Mr. HuUah, in a paper forms, and secondly, that they are different recently read before the Musical Association, forms ; —that one is an oval or circle, that says: "The signs relating to time are the another is a circle with a stem, and another a breve, semibreve, minim, crochet, quaver, circular spot also with a stem ; and that all semiquaver, and demisemiquaver. Of these other notes are opaque and have not only names the first three have lost their signifi- stems but hooks varying in number. They cance ; the fourth is no longer appropriate call these notes or forms as they find them, the fifth, sixth, and seventh, are arbitrary. round, white, black, hooked, twice-hooked, and " The Germans call these notes, beginning thrice-hooked. I certainly prefer the German from our semibreve, the whole note, the half nomenclature, which, though raised on a note, the quarter note, and so on. These false basis is consistent, to our own, which appellations, so far as they express the pro- is inconsistent as well as false ; but I prefer portion of the first note named to those which the French to the German, because, not pre • follow it, are convenient ; they form of them- tending to do so much, it does what it pre- selves a time-table. But it is an imperfect tends to do perfectly. " one ; for they do not show, without further The nomenclature, not of sounds, but of calculation, any intermediate proportion. the relations between them—the nomen-

{ 305 ) — —;' ;

NOMENCLATURE.

clature of musical intervals, is a subject on reconciled to modern tonality, which above which English theorists and practitioners are all things demands, as the unequivocal sign, by no means agreed. seal, or confirmation of a key, the combina- " I believe that the seconds and thirds and tion known as the ' discord of the dominant their inversions the sevenths and sixths found seventh.' Such a combination on the 5th of in the so-called 'natural' scale, and all the natural minor scale is only possible by an scales made like it, are very generally called alteration or non-naturalization which at once among us, major and minor ; and that six of brings it under Dr. Crotch's definition. In the fourths and their inversions the fifths are the series A, B, C, D, E, Fj}, G#, and A, we as generally called perfect. Here, however, find three semitones, and one interval greater agreement ends. 'For the one exceptional than a tone. Moreover, by skips from one fourth and the one exceptional fifth rejoice each note to another of a scale so constituted, in as many aliases as a swindler finally run we get three other intervals alien to the down by the police detective. To the excep- natural scale, the inversion of the altered tional fourth, which, according to the old second formed by F-Gjf, the altered fifth theorists ' diabolus est,' I have heard and seen formed by C-Gj(, and its inversion. These applied the name 'tritone,' and the epithets intervals are, I conceive, augm-entations or sharp, superfluous, redundant and augmented diminutions of intervals which would have to the exceptional fifth the epithets flat, false, remained unaltered, but for the artificial pro- imperfect, diminished and equivocal. Others cess needed to reconcile the minor key with might possibly be added to this list. To the modern tonalitj' ; they are therefore, I name tritone no objection is, I think, open ; believe, generally called augmented and it expresses the contents of the interval diminished accordingly. So all intervals, three tones ; but it carries with it the dis- which the cultivated ear does not reject as advantage of there being no corresponding cacophonous, formed by notes one or both of name for its inversion, the exceptional fifth. which are foreign to the key to which they Augmented and diminished are no doubt are introduced, are but augmentations or di- antonyms ; but both are epithets which, as I minutions of those that are natural to it. shall try to show, ought to be reserved ex-, Without change of key we can augment cer- for another class of intervals—^the tain of the unisons, fifths, clusively seconds, and sixths ; chromatic. Superfluous and redundant are, and diminish certain of the octaves, sevenths,'

I think, clumsy epithets ; but if either is to be fourths, and thirds. Now, as we have seen, applied to the exceptional fourth, its antonyms in the unaltered or natural scale, major or scanty or insufficient should be applied to the minor, we find no examples ofany one of these exceptional fifth. If this last interval is to be intervals ; they are uniformly the result of called false, its inversion (the tritone) should artificial treatment. But, with the exceptional be called true. Only one of these epithets fourth and fifth the case is altogether different seems to me quite unobjectionable imperfect they are not the results of artificial treatment, as applied to the exceptional fifth. As an we find them ready to our hands ; and they are antonym to this I have long used the epithet as much constituent parts of the scale in which pluperfect, which has been very largely we find them as is the semitone between the adopted. third and fourth sounds. How then can the " I objected just now to the epithets aug- interval F-B in the scale of C, be augmented tnented and diminished as applied to these or B-F diminished ? Of what are they aug- particular intervals, the exceptional fourth mentations or diminutions ? Of F-Bl?, or of and fifth. I think these should be reserved FJ-B ? Are Bt? or F# constituents of the scale exclusively to chromatic intervals. I know of — I do not say the key—of C ? If they are, our course that my objection involves a principle, modern tonality must be reconstructed defond or rather begs a question. What is a chro- en comble, and every scale must be allowed matic interval ? This question, as often hap- three dominants instead of one. Again, we pens, throws us back on another. What is a find that the intervals of the natural scale chromatic scale ? A chromatic scale I should which bear augmentation are the largest of define, with Dr. Crotch, to be a scale contain- their kind in it, and those which will bear ing more than two semitones. The so-called diminution the smallest. Of the seconds we

' natural ' scale, and all other scales made can augment only the major ; of the thirds we like it, is not a chromatic scale, neither are can diminish only the minor. Can we aug- any of the ancient scales formed from the ment the tritone, the largest fourth in the scale, arrangement of the same series of sounds in or diminish its inversion, the smallest fifth ? a different order. Of these last the ' natural Both have reached their utmost limits, and minor scale is one, and the only one familiar resist and defy all attempts to put them further to the modern musician. Only however by asunder orbringthem nearer together. If it be means of a most serious alteration has it been answered that they are already augmented

( 306) — ;

NOMENCLATURE.

and diminished, I ask again what was their sion, under which term we may class words or original condition ? The tritone and its inver- signs indicative oi pace, intensity, and style. sion are, I repeat, constituents of the diatonic "A growing disposition has been observable

scale ; and they are diatonic intervals accord- of late among the different musical peoples of ingly. For the latter an epithet, imperfect, is Europe to use their own languages as vehicles

already largely accepted ; I submit to you, in for these indications. I think this is to be

the absence of a better,the epithet pluperfect regretted : (i) as inconvenient to foreigners for its inversion. among whom their music is likely to go. It " Before quitting this second division of my seems hard on an English, French, Italian, subject—pitch— I will ask you to give me your Hungarian, or Bohemian musician, that to attention for a few moments longer. It seems understand a piece of music by any eminent to me that musicians have much cause to modern German master, he must not only be a

complain of the way in which not merely musician, but a linguist ; that he should not general litterateurs but even scientific writers merely be able to appreciate the musical employ words to which, since music has been sound of the notes in the score before him, an art, musical artists have agreed in attach- but have also a vocabulary, practically un- ing certain definite significations. Perhaps limited, of German words. He opens, say, the most glaring instance of this, and it is the Schumann's Overture to ' Genoveva.' He only one which I shall give, is the employment sees by the position of the stave, headed by

' ' of the word tone ' to express the thing or the C clef and designated Bratsche,' what is

sensation which we and they also sometimes the meaning of that word ; he need not have

' call sound. ' A tone with us is not a much doubt about the stave similarly headed sound, but the relation or difference between and holding three parts, against which is one sound and another. This acceptation of the written Posaunen ; by the shapes of the pas- word would seem to be, if not as old as the sages intended for them, he may construe musical art itself, at least of great antiquity, Ventilhorn in Es, Waldhorn, and Pauken as is shewn in the co-existence of two such and by the help of the metronome mark he words as tetrachord and tritone ; the one, ob- may coijie at the meaning of langsam. But serve, representing a passage of four sounds, a little further on he encounters leidenschaft-

or strings which produce them. The other, lich bewegt, which is harder upon him ; and an interval which, though it includes four a little further still, sehr frisch, which is really sounds, is named after the three intervals too bad. This example has lately found tones—which separate them. We hear now imitators among the Scandinavians, who of over-tones, or the acute sounds resulting expound their musical intentions in words

from spontaneous vibration ; and of under- which a German of philological tastes and tones, meaning grave sounds resulting from pursuits could doubtless make out, but which the combination of others. Some of us have to the average German must be as unintelh- occasionally been at a good deal of pains to gible as to the average Englishman. Strange explain that a major third consists of or to say, the French, who take it for granted

includes two tones : if a tone be a sound, a that everybody understands their language, major third must consist of three or even of or ought to, have not sinned in this way so five tones—or of both three and five. The much as the Germans. It is true that the most recent and extravagant employment of scores of their operas are covered with

this word, in this sense, is in its application phrases like ' avec chaleur,' ' trfes-simplement,' to great composers. Beethoven especially we ' a demi-voix,' ' avec ironie,' but these may

' ' often hear of as a g^eat ' tone-poet.' I should be regarded as stage directions addressed say that if this terminology is to be accepted to, and inevitably intelligible to those who at all, it should be graduated or made more are to play the parts as well as sing the music to which they refer. Otherwise French precise ; so as to express the rank of the poet to whom it is applied. If Beethoven be a tone composers limit themselves in their scores poet, some of our contemporaries should be to a few native words such as detache, douce- ment, the like. for ourselves, authorized to call J. S. Bach an augmented and As our tone poet, and, e converso, Rossini a semitone modem musical publications would indicate, poet. What designation should be applied to what certainly is the reverse of true, that we the vast crowd of less successful aspirants to are the greatest linguists on earth. It is musical fame I know not. Perhaps they might needless to present examples of what every-

be put off with some of those minute intervals body is familiar with ; we have all seen, and the excess or insuificiency ofwhich disturbs the see daily, title-pages, for instance, in which minds of those who still generously devote two, three, and even four languages are themselves to the search afterthat philosopher's employed. (2) Irrespective of its practical stone of our art—Perfect intonation. inconvenience, which I do not wish to over- "I pass on nowto the consideration oiexpres. rate, this practice takes from music its noblest

( 307 ) — " ;

NOMOS NOTA. characteristic—its catholicity. We musicians NomOS. yo/iOf (GA.) A song. vofionroXefJ-iKoi, are able to discourse in a language touching war-songs. to the hearts, if not always clear to the intel- Nona (It.) A ninth. ligences, of every people on the face of the Nonenakkord (Ger.) The chord of the globe ; and we are furnished with an alphabet ninth. in which to write this language, which is not Nonetto (It.) A piece of music for nine the invention of a single mind, but of a voices or instruments. thousand minds—a thing which has marched Nonny, or "Hey nonny." A common on to its present perfection pari passu beside burden to old English ballads, as " fa, la, la," music itself; an alphabet so clear, to him was to madrigals. who knows how to read it, that a musical Nonuplet. A collection of nine notes to composition, no matter of what intricacy, be played in the time of eight, or six. composed, let us say at , can, with- Normal Pitch. [Pitch.] out any serious violation of the intentions of Normalton (Ger.) The standard sound. its author, and without his personal assist- [A. § 5-] ance, be performed within a few days, weeks, Normaltonart (Ger.) The normal scale, or months, in London, Paris, New York, or C major and its relative minor A. Melbourne—^wherever there are artists to Nota (li.) A note, as, nota buona, an interpret it. Let us cherish this accented note ; nota cambiata, in counter- possession, and do what we can to prevent point, the proceeding from a discord to a its acquiring a sectarian, provincial, or even concord by askip, e-.g. : national character, through the introduction J—I- of any peculiarities whatever. The directions of which I have spoken were, up to a compara- tively recent time, made all the world over in nota caratteristica, a leading or characteristic one language — Italian. And even to this note ; nota cattiva, an unaccented note ; nota composers hour, the most Teutonic of musical d'abellimento, a grace note, note of transition ; are still obliged to resort to that language. nota di , a passing note ; nota sen- In the score of which I have just spoken, sibile, the leading note or subtonic. Schumann's ' Genoveva,' there are as many Nota, or Figura (Lat.) (i) In general, Italian words or abbreviations of Italian words any musical sign. (2) In particular, the as there are measures, very often more. The signs placed upon the stave which shewed words dolce, sempre, basso, soli, divisi, and by their shape and position the duration and the like, are of frequent occurrence ; and as pitch of sound. They constitute the essence for the contraction of piano, forte, crescendo, of mensurable music (cantus mensurabilis) as diminuendo, sforzato, and the like, they may opposed to mere " signs of intonation," such be counted by hundreds. Granted that Italy as were the neumes. The first division of has not been observant of Andrew Marvel's notes was, as might be expected, into long caution and short (breve or brief), "mensurabilis musica est cantus longis brevibusque men- " The same arts that did attain suratus." (Johannes de Moravia.) The long A power, must it maintain : was a four-sided note with a tail (No. 2) granted that she has not held her own against the breve a four-sided note without a tail such competitors as Germany during the last (No. 3) ; the semibreve a diamond note field, hundred years has brought into the are (No. 4)- we to lose all veneration for the people whom the slightest acquaintance with musical his- tory will show to have been the musical teachers of all the world ? Are we to kick 123456 down the ladder by which we have risen to These notes varied in length (i) according our present superiority — to turn a cold to the time-signature, (2) according to the shoulder on old friends because we have notes which preceded or followed them, (i) become better off, and it may be wiser than In duple measure each was equal to two of they ? Not, however, to throw more sentiment the next order ; in triple measure each was round this matter than it will bear, it does equal to three. Thus, an imperfect (duple) seem unwise to subject ourselves to the in- long was equal to two breves ; a perfect conveniences of which I have spoken, when (triple) long to three breves, and so on. (2) they can be avoided by the simple process of A long was perfect when placed before an- using only one vocabulary, and that not a other long ; imperfect when preceded or new or unaccustomed one, but one with followed by a breve, &c. The double long or which every musical people is at least maxim or large is shewn in No. i. It was partially familiar." in form like a long, but had an extended head. (308) NOTATION.

The introduction of the dot (punctus) fortu- Bumey ; but there are evidently riiistakes, as nately relieved musicians of the complications well as omissions,' in the manuscripts from above mentioned, by adding half its value to which the printed copies were derived, and a note regardless of its position or the time- the results are therefore unsatisfactory. The signature. In course of time six musical system of Alypius does not supply an adequate figures were admitted, as shown above: i, clue to the scales that are included in the double long ; later treatise 2, long; 3, breve ; 4, semibreve ; Greek of Aristides Quintilianus.

5, minim ; 6, semiminim. Scales are a sure test as to whether a clue be In the fifteenth century an extraordinary right or wrong, especially where the accom- movement to create novelties in notation panying text gives an explanation of the in- seems to have arisen, and treatises of that tervals that should occur, as in that case. date abound with rules as to the position of The system of Alypius has therefore become, for practical purposes, useless. It may suf- the tails of notes ; for their absolute length or proportion to each other was made to depend fice then to say, that it may be referred to in on this. A breve was allowed a tail to the the collection ofGreek writers upon music pub- left, a long to the right. Also, notes with lished by Meibomius at Amsterdam in 1652. If any further specimens of Greek music tails up and down were invented, called should be discovered, it seems more probable dragme or fuiscee, and notes with two tails in that the later system of musical notation in- the same direction ^ cluded in the treatise of Aristides Quintilianus Then, again, open notes (evacuatas) were will be of avail than that of Alypius. Aristides used, and when the head was black they begins with the double omega for gamma—the were one-third less in value. These, and g on the lowest line of the bass clef—and other similar complicated systems, never carries up the scale to the extent of three appear to have been generally received. octaves and a third, viz. to b, including every On the disuse of the double long (No. 1) intervening semitone as well as tone. This the note No. 2 seems to have been made into notation will be found on the lower half of the breve. No 3 into the semibreve, and No. p. 27 of his treatise, which is also included in 4 into the minim. The note No. 5 then Meibomius's collection of the Greek Authors became a semiminima (crotchet), and No. 6 on Music. The notation may be described the fusa or unca (hooked-note or quaver). as a later form of that employed by Alypius. The notes Nos. 2, 3 and 4 were adopted Variations between the manuscripts used by by Marbecke, 1,550, as his breve, semibreve, Meibomius and others are noted at pp. 243 and minim, and are so named in one of the to 245 of the same work. latest and best treatises on Church-song, One other Greek system remains to us of " ". Les vrais principes du chant Gregorien uncertain date. This is the ecclesiastical (Malines, 1845). But it should be remarked notation of the Greek Church. It is supposed that in the " Trait6 th6orique et pratique du to have originated in Greek accents, and to plain-chant" (Paris, 1750). No. 2 is called have been gradually enlarged into a compli- the long, and No. 4 the breve. Other author cated system of signs for chanting. These rities might be cited to show that uniformity were written over the words without lines or of nomenclature has never existed with regard spaces. Specimens of this kind of writings to this subject. In the majority of modem of various ages, may be seen in Gerbert's De works on Plain Song, No. 2 is the breve. No. Cantu et Musica Ecclesice (vol. ii. p. 56 et seq.), 3 the semibreve, No. 4 the minim. and the signs are explained by Chrysante de Notation, Early Systems of Musical, down Madyte, Archbishop of Durazzo in Illyria, in to the invention of Notes.—The most ancient the third chapter of his Introduction to the system known to us of expressing musical theory and practice of ecclesiastical music,* sounds upon paper, or other material employed published in Paris in 1821. for that purpose, is that of Alypius for the The Chinese have a good diatonic scale, . This treatise sup- but have now degenerated into a state of mu- plies a complete method of representing the sical barbarism, and do not know how to notes by letters of the Greek alphabet, the use it. The Chinese system of musical no- letters being sometimes upright, sometimes tation is explained by Morrison in his Dic- on their sides, and sometimes upside down, tionary of the Chinese language. Chinese or broken in half. Unluckily, there are but musicians use principally the five tones of three extant specimens of Greek music, in the scale without the semitones, but they oc- the genuineness of which any reliance can be casionally use semitones also, as is proved by " placed, to which this system can be applied. the song, Nien lai yun chue koo woo e," The three are Greek hymns, of uncertain date, which were first published by Galilei in * Eiirayuy^ els to dewprjriKov Koi jrpaKTiKoy tijq 1580, and by successive writers down to Dr. eKK\j]aiaaTiicrje fxovaiKijs (8vo.) Paris, 1821.

( 309 ) !

NOTATION. and by some others, printed in China about tem of illustration by letters being adopted 1790. In these cases, supposing the interval throughout his treatise. between E and F to be a semitone as in our The mediaeval system of musical notation tonal system, it is to be found in passages was sometimes by letters of the alphabet, both ascending and descending. As the fact from A to G for the lowest seven notes, and of the use of semitones by the Chinese is from H to O for the second seven ; but it was denied by M. Fetis, it is well to give the title fa,r more generally by marks or signs over the of the work from which this opposite conclu- words called neumes, or pneumata, breathings sion is drawn. It is " Sin ting kew kung ta for sounds. These names were taken from ching nan tsze kung poo," and is compiled the Greek words, Trveviia and its plural irvti/i- by Chow Tseang-yiih and others. The music ara. There are cases, but they are rare, in and the words of the song were kindly trans- which the two systems of letters and neumes cribed for the writer by Mr. Robert K. Douglas, are combined, the letters giving greater cer- of the British Museum, who adopted Morrison's tainty to the neumes. An early instance of interpretation of the musical notes. this combination is found in a collection ot We next come to the Romans, who de- Latin hymns, anciently used at St. Augus- rived both their system of music and of mu- tine's, Canterbury. The writing is of the sical notation by letters of the alphabet, from tenth century, and the hymn is addressed to the Greeks. The Romans adopted only one the Saint Augustin of the English (Austin the of the Greek divisions of the scale, viz., the Monk). It begins: "Gemma sacerdotum diatonic, consisting of tones and semitones, -rutilans lux alma piorum Anglorum." as in modern music. They had therefore a The compass of this hymn is ninenotes,from sufficient number of characters in their alpha- bass C to tenor D, and the letters go up to L. bet without breaking the letters into parts, and (Cotton MSS.,Brit. Mus.Vesp.D., vi. fol. 77.) without turning them round about, like the A book was printed in facsimile in Brussels, Greeks. a few years ago, entitled Antiphonaire de Saint We have no extant specimen of the music Grl^ojra, supposed at first to be from a con- of classical Rome, and there remains but temporary manuscript, and afterwards from a one Roman treatise on music that has any copy made about the year 790. The facsimile claim to completeness, and yet it is far from shows writing not older than the tenth cen- being complete. This is by the " ultimus tury, and Father Schubiger conclusively dis- Romanorum" Boethius, who was put to death proves the assumed age and character of the by Theodoric the Goth in 525. It is entirely manuscript by identifying one of the se- copied from the Greeks by a philosopher quences included in it, " Laus tibi, Christe" who had read Greek treatises, but who seems (p. 62) as written by Notker, Abbot of the to have had no practical knowledge of music, Monastery of Saint Gall. There is little rea- and in many cases to have mistaken the son for believing that the chants in any anti- meaning of Greek musical terms, even of phonajy of the time of Gregory the Great those which express the lowest and the would he intelligible now, or indeed that they highest sounds. ever were legible without living help, for Saint In later ages, Boethius was claimed as a Isidore, Bishop of Seville, who was a junior Christian, and as he wrote in Latin, instead friend of Gregory's, and one who had long of Greek, there was a double reason why his outlived him, says in the third book of his work should be chiefly followed by writers on Origines, or Etymologies, that "unless sounds Church music* are retained in the memory, they perish, be- Nevertheless, the seven letters of the alpha- cause they cannot be written."! This Saint bet, A to G, which were used as names for Isidore wrote at the beginning of the seventh the seven notes of the scale, were referred century. It seems to argue that the letters of back by them to Virgil, as the " septem dis- the Roman alphabet were not in use for noting crimina vocum," alluded to in the .^neid (vi. down Church music at that early date. 645)- Neumes which had neither lines nor letters In the treatise of Boethius the letters run added to them were but marks or signs beyond G, and up to and P,t for the second over the words, to serve as rough guides to octave, but they are intended as demonstra- the eye, whether the voice should rise or fall. tions of the diagrams in the fourth book, ra- They could only serve to remind the singer of ther than as musical notes. This is proved chants which he had first learnt by ear. He by A being there marked to the note that could not tell exactly how far to ascend or would be C in music, and by the same sys- to descend, and whether by tone or semitone, nor the riote to begin upon. There was no * This had an unfortunate effect upon Church music, and we propose to show elsewhere that at least one of " its defects may be traced back to this cause. J Nisi enim ab homine memoria teneantur, soni quia scribi non possunt." f Our i and j count but as one letter. pereunt,

( 310 ) NOTATION. precise measure of time in them. The earlier et nos Ambrosiani "—" We who follow the neumes were but an expansion of the system use of Rome, and we who follow the use of of accents and stops. At a later date, the Milan." As another proof that the music is flourish at the end of a chant, or of an alleluia changed since the tenth century, a second was called the neume. These had no writer of the same age may be cited. words to them, and were to be sung in one Notker says in his De Octo Tonis, that every breath. chant of the first and second tones ends in B ;

The next system was one without neumes, of the third and fourth in C ; of the fifth and

but with a ladder of letters placed one above sixth in D ; and of the seventh and eighth the other at the beginning of the chants. in E.f This differs much from the law of The syllables of the words were then discon- later times. nected in order to place each syllable on a The " Gregorian" tones have been changed level with the letter which represented the by altering the positions of the semitones in note to which it was to be sung. the scales. The first and second of later dates

This system seems to have been invented end on D ; the third and fourth on E ; the

in Flandfers, by Hucbald, a monk of Saint fifth and sixth on F ; and the seventh and Amand, who died at an advanced age in 930 eighth on G. The music cannot be the same, or 932. Instead of using seven letters, he because the intervals follow in a different suc- employed but four (on the Greek tetrachord cession. It is not surprising that the music system), viz., D, E, F, and G. He turned should have been changed since the tenth these four into four different positions, to century, the only wonder would be, if it had make four disjoined tetrachords or fourths. not. The twisting about of the letters was probably Hucbald's tetrachord, with its semitone in borrowed from the Greek notation of Alypius. the middle, became the parent of the hexa- They were first in their ordinary position, chord system, or six-note scale. It consisted then faced the reverse way, and then turned of a tetrachord of the same kind as Hucbald's upside down, and faced to the left and to the in the middle, and a tone added at each end. right. By this means he obtained a scale of It had quite the same object—that of bringing sixteen notes, and, for the seventeenth and the semitone into the middle (between mi and eighteenth, to complete his number, he turned fa) so as to make the succession of intervals the first and second lettei-s jacent on their the same whether the scale were taken up or faces. down.

It must be noted that Hucbald's scale was Hucbald's scale was as follows : P (gamma) " " not what the ecclesiastical, or Gregorian A, Bi7, C—D, E, F, G,—a, btf, c, d,—e, f$, scale is commonly supposed, and said, to have g, a,—h, c4. His letters were placed in spaces been. He made all his fourths to have the formed between lines, which lines were de- semitone between the second and third notes, signed to represent strings. In the following as in D, E, F, G. This has been overlooked example, our ordinary letters are used, instead by all who have written about his notation, of Hucbald's oddly shaped antiquities, because and Kiesewetter, in his History of Music, has they are more readily intelligible to general translated Hucbald's examples without mark- readers. ing a single sharp or flat. Yet Hucbald's A text is clear enough to any one not prepos- sessed with the immutability of " Gregorian" music, for he says repeatedly that his tetra- chords have the same succession of intervals whether taken up or down.* It is a mistake to suppose that what is called " Gregorian music " is of the age of Saint Gregory. The word means nothing more than the " use of Rome." " Nos Gregoriani

* See Hucbald's Musica Enchiriadis, in Gerbert's Scriftores de Musica EcclesitB, v. i, p. 152. In col. i, lines 17 and 18, " ut semper qnatuor et quatuor ejus- dem conditionis sese consequantur." In col. 2, lines 2 and 3, "Secundus deuteros, tono distans a proto; tertius tritos, semitonio distans a deutero." At p. 156, lines I to 4, " Sed dum forte in sono aliquo dubitatur qualis sit, turn, a semitoniis quibus constat semper deuterum tritumque disjungi ; toni in ordine rimentur." P. 152, col. 2, " Sive sursum sive jusum sonos in ordine ducas." If it is to be the same up or down, the semi- tone must always be in the middle. NOTATION.

laws. He had bJJ, f$, and c J as octaves to use abroad, neither does the use seem to have B[7, F, and c. Surely then some licence extended beyond the southern half of England, must have been taken by the singer, for no all yet discovered belonging to the province man with ears about him could sing such of Canterbury. octaves. These were indeed the dark ages Early English advances in music are to be of music. Hucbald's harmony is equally traced to the same cause as the early pro- barbarous. ficiency in other arts and sciences, and in In all countries which were in communion Greek and Latin. It was the fortune of with the Church of Rome, the system of England, about seventy years after the con- writing down the music of the chants, either version of the southern part of the kingdom by neumes or by letters, endured for several by Saint Augustine, to have a very learned centuries. The great preponderance was by Greek as Archbishop of Canterbury, and he neumes; indeed, the use of letters was com- came to England, accompanied by an almost paratively rare. The neumes were written equally learned African, who became Abbot of over the words, without either lines or spaces Saint Peter's, afterwards called Saint Augus- to fix them to any pitch, or to distinguish tone tine's, at Canterbury. from semitone. The earliest improvements Pope Vitalian had offered the Archbishopric upon this general practice are to be found to Hadrian, but Hadrian pleaded his youth and in the Prosse et Sequentias (Hymns of Praise) unworthiness, and recommended Theodore which each country produced for itself. in his place. The Pope was doubtful whether The earliest use of four lines and spaces is Theodore might not introduce some of the to be found in England. There are extant usages peculiar to the Eastern Church, and hymns with the neumes written upon alternate therefore sent Hadrian to accompany him, and line and space, and with an index letter at the to keep an eye over him in that respect. signature to fix the position of all, and these in Theodore remained in England till his death, a manuscript of the reign of Ethelred II, who viz., from 66g to 6go, and Hadrian survived him is prayed for by name in the Third Litany as till 709. These two taught the arts and sciences " our King" (regem nostrum), and whose reign as well as the languages of Greece and Rome, was from 978 to 1016. The manuscript was and the gain to the nation was soon apparent then in use at Winchester Cathedral, and is through the many learned men that England now in the Bodleian Library at Oxford (MSS. speedily produced. Bodley, No. .775). The difference between this The venerable Bede says that some of their early English notation and that of later general scholars were living in his own time, who use is neither great nor important. It con- were as well versed in Greek and Latin as in sists only in the English use of any letter of their native tongue.* Aldhelm, who was one the octave at the signature, instead of con- of Hadrian's pupils, was also one of the first fining it to F, C, or G. Yet this is a suffi- Englishmen who became celebrated for his ciently distinctive mark. skill in music, in poetry, and in other liberal Only the new hymns are upon four lines arts. It is clear that the organ was intro- and spaces. The prayers and the psalms duced into England about the time of, and have the old indefinite neumes. probably by, Theodore, from Aldhelm's full The English continued to use any one of description of it in his Laus Virginitatis. the seven letters at the signature down to the It was a great advantage for us to have a first half of the thirteenth century. At that Greek master, for the Romans, from Boethius time notes had been invented, and neumes downwards, knew very little about music. were being gradually changed into the forms Boethius seems only to have known, or taught, of notes. the antiquated Pythagorean division of a scale, Although early Eijglish service books are with all major tones in it, and so false thirds. exceedingly scarce, owing to the wholesale The celebrity of Greek teachers endured at destruction of them enforced by the severest least till the nth century, for Guido d'Arezzo, penalties for having any in possession in the in his letter De ignoto Cantu, thus alludes to reign of Henry VIII., yet there are a few them: "I have seen many very acute philo- still extant. Among these are the Saint sophers who, for the study of this art of music, Alban's Gradual in the British Museum (MSS. have not only sought Italian, French and Reg. 2 B. iv.), and an equally beautiful manu- German masters, but even the very Greeks script in the Cotton Collection (Caligula A. themselves. t Neither did the cultivation of 14). These contain some of the same hymns music, once introduced, die away in England, which are included in the Winchester manu- for, in the time of St. Dunstan, who was him- script, and to the same music. An examina- self an organ-builder, the Winchester organ tion of the foreign collections of hymns, enu- merated by Daniel, Mone, and G. Morel, does * Bede's Ecclesiastical History, Book 4, cap. 2. not reveal any of the same as having been in f " Ipsos que etiam Grsecos qusesivere magistros."

( 312 ) :

NOTATION. had 400 pipes. The large number of men it may have been an accidental stepping-stone necessary to blow this organ (which was to be to the use of the major scale, by placing C heard all over Winchester), seems to prove the below Hucbald's D, and thus making the in bellows to have been on the Greek construction. tervals in that position, C, D, E, F, G, A, but Wolstan (or rather Wulstan) of Winchester, this order of notes already existed in the scale. who describes this great organ in his metrical The ancient Greek scale was wholly minor, life of Saint Swithun, was the author of a and beginning and ending on the third note of a scale must make a "relative" major. treatise on harmony [De Tonorum Harmonia) ; minor which continued in use in the 13th century. The sharp seventh is a comparatively modern William of Malmesbury describes it as a addition to minor scales. most useful book {valde utile), nearly a hun- The following is the Hexachord system dred and fifty years after it had been written, included in the octave scale : while St. Dunstan was the author of a still (ef la for extant "Kyrie," a creditable specimen d la sol the age, in good Greek Dorian or D minor. c sol fa Super-acute. - Some of the Anglo-Latin hymns, written mi upon lines and spaces, are of a very florid ft:;;:; fa character. (See, for instance. Cotton MSS., ^a la mi re sol re ut Julius A., vi. fols. 18 and 19.) g The next musical system in order of date f fa ut e la mi was that of the hexachord. This endured for d , la sol re Acute. many centuries, and yet it seems impossible c sol fa ut to find any thing in it to commend. It is Hue- mi bald's system applied to the later church-scale, h9 fa and with extra complexity. a la mi re re The one argument in its favour adduced /G sol ut F fa ut by old writers is the ultra-perfection of the E la mi number 6. This admirable quality is dis- D sol re within itself Grave octave. covered through its containing C fa ut " all its aliquot parts, viz., 3, 2, and i, and such B mi perfect numbers are rare."* To all this, it A re might have been answered that the hexachord ,r ut does not contain six equal parts ; but, in any All this surplusage of names does not suf- case, its perfections will weigh lightly in mo- fice to distinguish the notes of one octave dern estimation against the far more ancient, from another. There are two E-la-mis, two the one and only true system of the octave. F-fa-uts, two G-sol-re-uts, two A-la-mi-res, Eventually the hexachord system was combined two b-fas, and three b-mis. The only notes with that of the octave. distinguished are C and D, so there could The hexachord required not only the alpha- hardly be a more complicated and useless betical name for the note (which sufficed by system of nomenclature. It was taken from tag itself in the octave system) but also to the initial syllables of a hymn to Saint John the on two or three other names. Wherever the Baptist, which is too short to be omitted. interval between two notes was but a semi- Ut queant laxis Solve polluti tone, there was placed a mi for the one, and i?esonare fibris. Labia, reati, a b flat a. fa for the other; and as there was Mira gestorum Sancte Johannes. in use, as well as a b natural in the acute and Famuli tuorum super-acute parts of the scale, so there must Here was a sa for the seventh note of the hexachord for each of the two, be a separate scale ; but, on account of the perfection of the tone, the first and at the interval of only one number 6, it was not employed. In later use, hexachord beginning on F, and the second in order to mark another semitone by the of the tone below Hue- on G. The addition vowel i (as in mi) sa was turned into si. Ut bald's tetrachord seems, by accident rather was also changed to Do (France excepted) than by design, to have changed the hexa- for the sake of openness of the vowel, although part of a major scale, chord from minor into it was already included in sol. by moving the position of the semitone to the Guido Aretino, or d'Arezzo, had for a long interval of one tone higher. If any one had time the credit, or discredit, as some may for the change, designed such a reason think it, of having invented the hexachord in the there would have been some sense system. He makes no claim to it in any of imperfect system, although it was still but an his works, and as M. F6tis has justly re- attempt to return to the octave. As it was,

" e " the super-acute part of the scale is an * Walter Odington, apud De Coussemaker's Scripto- f This in addition made in the 14th century. rum, I. 215.

(3 13 ) ; ; : —

NOTATION.

marked, Guide's fame has rested far more music is now just as deficient in tonality as

upon what has been attributed to him, than the Chinese ; but a skilful organist can, by upon what he really did. His reputation as the use of anti-Gregorian harmonies, bring a teacher was well deserved, for he directed some of it into shape. his pupils to sing intervals without always re- It will be observed that Guido does not ferring to the monochord, but, instead of it, claim to have invented the use of the red or to think of similar intervals in some well- yellow line, but to have employed them. There known hymns, such as this " Ut queant laxis." are specimens of both colours, among the It appears from John of Cotton,* who wrote fragments printed in Martini's Storia delta soon after Guido, and who was one of his great Musica, which have been judged to be, de- admirers, that this had been long the practice cidedly older than Guide's time, and M. F6tis with French, Germans, and English, and even (in his memoir of Guido) states that he has upon this particular hymn, but it was unknown in his own library some more ancient still. to Cotton that the Italians had ever employed The superior antiquity of the red line seems to it for that purpose before Guide's time.f be beyond question. This system was un- A second system, which has been attributed doubtedly an improvement upon the oldest to Guido, is that of the red and yellow lines for that of having neither line nor letter to the " F and C. In his Micrologus Guido says : In neumes—but it was not one that would lead order that sounds may be discerned with cer- up to the use of alternate line and space, be- tainty, we mark some lines with various cause the lower C, the third of the scale, was colours, so that the eye may immediately dis- below F, the sixth, and there could be no line tinguish a note, in whatever place it may be. between them, unless lines only, and not lines For the third of the scale [C] a bright saffron and spaces, were employed. D and E only line. The sixth [F], adjacent to C, is of bright intervened between C and F, and so a single vermilion, and the proximity of others to these line with its space on each side would have colours will be an index to the whole. If there been too much.§ were neither letter nor coloured line to the Guido himself makes claim but to one in- neumes, it would be like having a well with- vention, which tie describes as "most useful" out a rope—the water plentiful, but of no use and "hitherto unheard."|| John of Cotton gives to those who see it."| This exactly describes him the credit for the same.^T It is but a mo- the state of all music with neumes only, and dified copy from Hucbald, utilising the spaces it sufficiently accounts for all the changes that without employing the lines. Instead of have occurred in the traditions of several cen- twisting round the four letters, as Hucbald turies. Of the fact of change there can be no did, Guido placed the five vowels, a, e, i, o, u reasonable doubt. Much of the Gregorian at the ends of the spaces; and when more notes than five were wanted, then the a, e, i, o and u were repeated. The system is shown in the * This author is largely quoted by foreign writers, following example and always as Johannes Anglicus, but his precise birthplace is not known. There are four places named Cotton in England (besides Cotton Abbots and tu Cotton Edmunds). They are in Suffolk, Yorkshire, Cheshire, and Shropshire. It may be conjectured that he was one of the monks driven from England in the time of William I., for, if he had remained here, his ex- cellent treatise would surely have been quoted by some English writers, such as Odington, and he could hardly have escaped notice by Bale and others. Cotton dedi- cates his treatise " Domino et patri suo venerabili an- tistite Fulgentio"—not " Anglorum antistite," as printed by Gerbert. There is an imperfect copy of his treatise, written in the I2th century, in the Cotton Collection (Vespasian, A., xi. fol. 131). It is to be inferred that he went from one of the northern counties, in the province of York, as he does not seem to have known Canter- bury use.

f Cap. i. apud Gerbert's Scriptores, 2, 232. % Regulae Musicas Rythmicse, apud Gerbert, ii. 30-31. " Ut proprietas sonorum discernatur clarius, Quasdam lineas signamus variis coloribus Ut quo loco quis sit tonus mox discernat oculus. Ordine tertise vocis splendens crocus radiat, Sexta ejus, sed affinis, flavo rubet minio Et afSnitas colorum reliquis indicio. At si littera vel color neumis non intererit, Tale erit quasi funem dum non habet puteus, Cujus aquae, quamvis multae, nil prosunt viden- tibus." §; ^

NOTATION.

might be either gamma, the lowest note of intelligimus Joannem Benedicto successorem, the scale, the E above it, or the c above E. Vigesimum ordine nuncupatum ejus nominis Guide's invention was dying out of use Romanum Pontificem." [Annates Ecclesice, about I220, when Walter Odington wrote his anno 1022.) As Benedict VHI. was Pope treatise.* Odington does not in any way in 1022, that date could not be right for either notice the red and yellow line system, which, if of the Johns. John XIX. succeeded Bene- it was ever adopted by English scribes (and dict VIII. in 1024, and John XX. followed that seems doubtful), must soon have passed Benedict IX. in 1044, and was deposed by away. His own examples are upon the the Council of Sutri in 1046, after which English plan of employing any one of the Benedict IX. was restored. The short reign || seven letters as a clef note, and of utilising of John XX., his speedy deposition, and the four lines, and spaces, changingthe clef (cZauis) restoration of Benedict, have caused John to when the compass extended beyond them.f be overlooked by some chronologers, and There are some difficulties in fixing the there is a gap in the list of Johns which they exact date of Guido Aretino, or d'Arezzo. supply variously. M. F6tis has adopted The one fact which ought to be beyond ques- John XIX. as Guide's John XX., and it has tion is the evidence of Guide's cotemporary, seemingly been the cause that induced him Adam of Bremen, who says that, about 1067, to question, if not wholly to reject, the most Hermann, Archbishop of Bremen, called reliable of all the evidence—^that of Adam of Guido, the musician, to Bremen, to correct Bremen—because Guido might be supposed the music, as well as the monastic discipline to be too old to be sent for in 1067. But the of his See.t At the other extreme of date date of John XX., 1044 to 1046, would restore stands the prose version of the Micrologus, the probability, and Baronius's error of 1022 which is dedicated to Theobald, Bishop may be accounted for by a confusion between of Arezzo, who, according to Ughelli, died Guido Aretino the musician, and another in 1037. There seems but little doubt that Guido Aretino, who became prior of the Cardinal Baronius (writing in the i6th century) convent of Santa Cruce at Avellano in 1029. was wrong in placing Guido*the musician, The latter has often been mistaken for Guido under the year 1022. The very quotation the musician, and M. Fetis has enumerated that he copies supplies a sufficient correc- some of the cases. tion. It is from a manuscript of the Micro- Having touched upon the date of Guido,

logus, ending : " Explicit Micrologus Gui- it is of more importance to our present subject donis, suae setatis anno trigesimo quarto, to point out some anachronisms in the copy of Jobanne Vigesimo Romanam gubernante ec- the Micrologus, printed by the Abbe Gerbert. clesiam, sub quo ejusdem Guidonis librorum A manuscript of the earliest date should have editio facta est." The Cardinal adds of been selected for publication, for, in so popular

Pope John XX. : " Successit hie Benedicto," a work, it might have been expected that the

and again : " ex cujus numeratione pariter notation of the examples would be adapted by the copyist to the use of his own age. Those at pages 10 and 12 of Gerbert's edition * "Sed talis modus componendf jam evanescit." See Coussemaker's Scriptorum, I. 217. have been thus modernised. They are printed lines did f See " De Clavibus," p. 214. " Unam dictarum on and spaces, which Guido not use clavium semper una linearum lineatur, aliter spaciatur together, and a comparison of the whole text linearis pro eo quod lineee applicatur ; spatialis pro eo with that of one of the manuscripts in the quod spatium occupat, ut hie." This most useful British Museum,** proves that large additions treatise has been recently printed by M. E de Cousse- maker, in his Scriptorum de Musica medii Mtvi nova have been interpolated to Guide's text in Series a Gerhertina alterum. The only writer unques- Gerbert's edition, not only in the- Micrologus, tionably English in Gerbert's Series is John of Cotton. but also more largely in the De ignoto Cantu. M. de Coussemaker has added (called John Hothby The transition from neumes to notes was Ottebi by Italians), Walter Odington, John of Garland, John of Tewkesbury, Simon Tunstede, Robert de an easy one. It was called "quadrating" Handlo, John Hanboys, Theinred of Dover, and the works of some anonymous writers, together " with a || Silvestre III., antipape, etoit eveque de Sabine, greatly increased number of good foreign authors. lorsqu'apres avoir chasse Benoit IX., en 1044, les The limited number of copies printed makes the speedy Romains le mirent a sa place. Trois mois apres,

acquisition of this collection desirable to all those who Benoit fut retabli par sa famille : son rival force de are interested in the subject. ceder, vendit sa dignite a un pretre, qu'il sacra sous le + " Musicum Guidonem Hermannus, Archiepiscopus, nom de Jean XX., mais resta luimeme a Rome, et con- Bremam adduxit, cujus industria melodiam et claustra- serva ses partisans. Le conseil de Sutri, 1046, les lem disciplinam correxit." Historia Ecclesiarum Ham- d^clara tons les deux usurpateurs—^Voyez Benoit IX. et burgensis etBremensis, &c., ab anno 788 ad 1072, lib. 2, Gregoire VI." (Dictionnaire General de Biographic et cap. 102, p. 30. d'Hisioire, par Ch. Dezobry et Th. Bachelet, Paris, 8vo, 1857.) § M. Fetis has printed it 24 instead of 34 in his Memoir of Guido. Biographic Universelle des Musi- ^ Biographic Universelle, v. 4, p. 148, col. 2. ** ciens, v. 4, p. 147, col. i. Addit. MSS., No. 10,335, eleventh century. (3'5) NOTAZIONE MUSICALE NUT. them, i.e., squaring them like the old shape which he should bear in mind to be only a of the natural B. They thus filled the spaces facsimile of a manuscript of the tenth cen- between the lines. But although such tury. The names of the neumes transformed changes were easy, they were practically into notes will be found in Walter Odington's slow, because old habits and prepossessions treatise (p. 213). and in some other treatises worked against them. in M. de Coussemaker's collection. The best explanation of neumes is that of Notazione musicale (It.) The system M. de Coussemaker, in his Histoire de I'Har- of musical notation. monie au Moyen Age, where two tables of Note. A sign of a sound made of various neumes with their interpretations, will be shapes to denote relative duration. Hence, found at p. 184. Whoever shall desire to the term is used generally for the sounds of modernise neumes will do well to consider which notes are signs, as when we say of a first the country and the age in which the singer that his high notes are good, or that manuscript was made. For instance, the a player plays wrong notes. [Nota.] Quilisma may be either a mark for a tremu- Note (Fr.) A note, as, note dilsee, a lous expression without altering the note,* sharpened note ; note d'agrement, a grace note, it and may be a sign of graduated ascent of note of transition ; note de passage, a passing- two or three notes.f The first is the earlier note ; note sensible, the leading note or sub- use (and just what its form would seem to tonic ; notes de goAt, (Fr.) notes of embellish- have been invented to express) and the ment. second is the later use, when neumes were Notturno {It.) Originally, a kind of soon to be altered into notes. The reader serenade ; now a piece of music of a gentle will find many pages of facsimiles of neumes and quiet character. in M. de Coussemaker's great work, and Notula {Lat.) The notes used in writing some in Gerbert's De Cantu et Musica Ec- ligatures. [Ligature.] clesicB, v. 2, about and after p. 60. A third Noursingh. An Indian horn or trumpet, source for the student is at the end of the formed of a straight metallic tube. It is so-called Antiphonaire de Saint Gregoire, supported in ^horizontal position by means of a long stick. * [Quilsima est] "unisonum quia not habet arsim et Novemole. [Nonuplet.] thesim" \i.e. neither rise nor fall] " nee, per consequens, Nuances {Fr.) Shades of musical ex- intervallum vel distanciam, sed est vox tremula : sicut est sonus flatus tibiae vel cornu, et designatur per neu- pression. mam qu« vocatur Quilisma" (B. Engelbertus, per Ger- Nuovo, di {It.) Again. bert, De Cantu, v. 2, p. 60). Nut. The fixed bridge formed by a slight f " Has Aritiphonse, licet a finali incipiant, tamen, prominence or ridge at the upper end of the quia per Quilismata, quae nos gradatas neumas dicimus, magis gutturis." (Bernonis Augiensis Tonarius, Gerb. strings of instruments of the violin and guitar Serif. V. 2, p. 80.) family.

(3i5 ) ;

-OBOE,

O. A circle, formerly the sign of Tempus shalm or shawm in England. The immediate perfectum, as the incomplete circle C was of forerunner of the modern oboe was the bom- Tempus imperfectum. [See Tempus, Modus bardino, or little bombardo, called by the and Prolatio.] Italians bombardo piccolo, a kind of chalumeau. O (It.) Or, as Jlauto o violine, flute or The date of the introduction of the oboe is violin. about 1720, but from the mention in Bach's Oaten-pipe. The simplest form of a reed Passion-music of two kinds of oboe, the oboe pipe, a straw with a strip cut to form the reed, d'amore and oboe da caccia, it is evident at the end closed by the knot. that well-known varieties were in use in his

Ob. Abb : of Oboe, also of obbligato. time. The oboe d'amore, which was also Obbligato. An instrumental part or called oboe luonga, produced a delicate and accompaniment of such importance that it sweet tone, while the oboe da caccia corres- cannot be dispensed with. ponded to the tenoroon oboe, or corno inglese. Ober {Ger.) Over or upper, as, Ober- The latter, though not in common use, is inanual, or Oberwerh, the upper manual occasionally introduced into the scores of Oberstimme, and Obertheil, upper part. modern operas, as in Halevy's Jewess, Oblige {Fr.) [Obbligato.] Meyerbeer's Huguenots, &c. Oblique motion. When one part moves The oboe now in use owes its large com- and the other remains stationary. [Motion.] pass, like many other wind instruments, Oboe. One of the most ancient, as also to the overblowing of the player, which brings one of the most charming instruments of into existence a set of overtones. The over- music. In some of the Egyptian pipes in tones of the oboe are similar to those of an the British Museum were found pieces of open pipe, that is, they are represented by thin wood or straw inserted into the tubes in the numbers i, 2, 3, 4, &c., while on the such a manner as to suggest at once the other hand, the overtones of a clarinet similarity between them and the oboe. In all correspond to those of a stopped pipe as re- probability the Greeks used instruments of presented by 1, 3, 5, 7, &c. The notes lying just this class, although they called them by the between the sounds produced by the natural general name of " flute." That the reeds length of the pipe (as shortened also by used were very small, and of more perishable finger-holes and keys), and those produced material than the tubes into which they were by an altered pressure of wind from the inserted, is quite sufficient to account for the player's mouth, always present difficulties of fact that we have not discovered a pipe with execution when required to be played in a reed fixed in it ready for use, among Greek rapid succession. The clarinet has a single antiquities. Moreover, it must be remembered reed ; the oboe, a double one. The extreme that musicians do and always did carry their compass of the oboe now in use is two reeds and mouthpieces about, separated from octaves and one fifth, namely : the instrument. The word yXbiaaoKo/iov proves that Greek players were not exceptions to this rule. Almost all European nations have some form or other of the oboe in use, though the different kinds vary much in their merits with the intermediate semitones, subject to as musical instruments, some being in the certain limitations in their use. Some in- simplest form of a reed-pipe played by struments have the low BIT mountaineers, as the chalumeau (from calamus, a reed), which is still played by the peasantry in the Tyrol, and the piffero pastorale of the Italians, a similar instrument to the chalumeau, but it is not yet commonly met with. The zaWed SchaPney by the Germans, and formerly compass given above should be very much

,( 317 ) : :

OBOE OPEN DIAPASON.

curtailed for general use, the four or five 8ft. on the pedals. (4) The eight days follow- lower notes being weak and thin, the two or ing a great festival of the Church. three upper notes harsh, and shrill. The Octiphonium. [Ottetto.] latter, however, are not objectionable in Octochord. An instrument with eight fortissimo passages in tutti parts. The strings. following shakes, lying between intervals Octuor. [Ottetto.] played with difficulty, are given by Berlioz Octuplet. A group of eight notes which (Instrumentation) as difficult are to be played in the time of six. Odeon. uSclov (Gk.) A building in which -1 or other compositions could be performed for public approval or private rivalry. Odeum (Lat.) [Odeon.] CEuvre {Fr.). Opus or work, as, ceuvre

premiere, Opus i ; chef d'ceuvre, a masterpiece.

Offen {Ger.) Open ; as, Offenflote, open flute. [Flute.] The following are impossible (and all tonal Offertoire (Fr.) OfTertorio (It.) Offer- or semitonal shakes above this) torium (Lat.) [Offertory.] Offertory, (i) The collection of alms during the celebration of Holy Communion. (2) A piece of music performed during the Offertory.

The oboe is more effective, because more Oficleida (It.) [Ophicleide.] easily played, in simple keys, than in keys Ohne (Ger.) as, ohne Fed. without Pedals. Ohne Begleitungen, without accompaniments. with many sharps or flats ; and in simple passages, than such as are complicated or Oioueae. The vowels of "World without rapid. As an instrument of a pastoral cha- end. Amen," an imitation of the Evovae, the vowels of " seculorum amen," used to desig- racter it can be cheerful or plaintive ; it pos- sesses also in its peculiar quality of tone, the nate the ending of a mode. [Evovae.] Oliphant. of an obsolete wail of grief or agitation, but it has also the The name power of soothing and calming the mind species of Horn, so-called because it was after disturbing influences. made of ivory (olifaunt, olivant, olyfaunce, Oboe. An organ stop consisting of reed being old forms of the word elephant). Three pipes slightly conical and surmounted by a specimens of this instrument are in Ken- sington of the eleventh century, bell and cap, of 8ft. pitch. The tone is thin Museum, two of the fifteenth. and soft. An orchestral oboe is an organ one stop intended as a more perfect imitation of Ombi. A harp used by negroes in Western the orchestral instrument than that ordinarily Africa, the strings of which are made of made. fibrous root or creepers. It bears a strong Oboe da caccia. The " hunting " oboe, resemblance to the Oriental harp. a large kind of oboe. [Oboe.] Orrines, omnia (Lat.) Chorus or Tutti. Oboe d'amore. The oboe " of love." A Omquad. The name of the refrain of " small oboe. [Oboe.] some old Danish ballads, called the Kampe Oboist. A player on the oboe. Viser." drum. Oboista (It.) An oboist. Onagon. A Chippawa ondeggiante (It.) With Ocarine (It.) A series of seven musical Ondeggiamento, instruments made of terra cotta pierced with an undulating, or quivering sound ; making small holes, invented by a company of per- a tremolo.

• tremolo, formers calling themselves the Mountaineers Onduliren (Ger.) To make a of the Apennines. With these instruments, or produce an undulating tone. [Ondeggia- which are of a soft and sweet, yet "travelling" Ondul6 (Fr.) Undulating. quality of tone, operatic melodies with simply mento.] hannonised accompaniments were given. 'Ood or . An Egyptian instrument of a similar character to guitar, v. It is Octave, (i) The interval of an eighth. the q. flat on the upper surface and convex at the It may be major, minor, or augmented, e.g. : back. The neck is like that of the guitar but without frets, and there are seven pairs of strings, each pair tuned in unison. The player uses a plectrum formed of a strip of It was the diapason of the Greek system. vulture's quill. [Lute.] (2) The first note of theharmonic scale. (3) An Open Diapason. The name in England organ stop of 4ft. pitch on the manuals, or of the chief open foundation stop of an (318) ;

OPEN HARMONY^ OPERA. organ, called by Germans " Principal " or Opera, also argue against Rousseau's defini- "Prestant," and by French "Principal," or if tion, for if opera meant all he declares it does, in front, " Montre." On the manuals it is of there would scarcely be any need to speak metal, on the pedal organ of metal or wood. of operas as scenica, tragiea, sacra, regia, The metal pipes of this stop are cylindrical, contica, esemplare, regia ed esemplare, etc. and of the best material. A great number of Algarotti calls his work on the opera " Saggio foreign organs, and a few in England, contain sopra rOpera in musica," a title he could open diapasons made of pure tin (Organ, scarcely have given with propriety if the § 13). It is, however, more commonly made word Opera implied even music, much less if of spotted metal, or of an equal mixture of it included all the terms used by Rousseau. tin and lead. If two or more open diapasons The opera, as we now understand it, is are allotted to one row of keys, they are made composed of solos, recitatives, duets, trios, of different scales, in order that they may not quartetts or other pieces for single voices

destroy each other. One is then sometimes choruses and finales ; accompanied throughout called large, another small. This stop is of with instruments variously combined to pro- 8ft. length on the manuals, and i6ft. on the duce certain desired effects. Overtures or pedals, unless stated to the contrary on the introductions precede the whole work or its register. several acts in nearly every case. The dra- Open Harmony. Chords formed by as matic effect is aided by the accessories of equidistant a disposition of the parts as pos- costumes and scenery, but they are not abso-

sible, e.g. : lutely indispensable portions of an Opera. The libretto or book of words, rarely possesses any claim to literary merit, but serves as a ' as opposed to mere framework for the purposes of the com- poser. m Recitative is a species of musical decla- mation, not necessarily in rhythmical form, Open Notes. Of stringed instruments, but so arranged or designed as to assimilate —the notes of the open strings [q. v.) Of musical sounds as near as possible to ordinary wind instruments, such as the horn, trumpet, speech. &c., the series of natural harmonies which In many of the German and French operas can be produced by the lip of the performer of a lighter qharacter, spoken dialogue is in- without the assistance of a slide, key, or troduced in the place of recitative, and the piston. same practice is often observed in English Open Pipe. A pipe open at the top, as opera, so called. opposed to one closed at the top. The pitch There are many varieties of opera, but the of a closed pipe is approximately one octave chief are : the or , the lower than that of an open pipe of the same romantic opera, or opera drammatica; and the length. [Organ, § 14.] comic opera, or opera huffa. There are of Open Score. When each part has a course many works which partake of more separate line assigned to it, music is said to than one of the styles indicated by the above

be in open score. When more than one part divisions, but as . a rule, these three classes is written in each line, in close or short score. are sufficiently distinct. Strings producing the The opera is of Italian origin, and of com- Open Strings. _ sounds assigned to them according to the paratively modern date, and is the immediate " accordatura," or system of tuning belonging successor of the miracle-plays with music, to the particular instrument. Strings are as the Oratorio is of the ancient mysteries. said to be stopped when their pitch is altered The consideration of the important part

by the pressure of the finger. played by music in the performance , of the Opera (It.) A dramatic entertainment, in ancient Greek drama, has given probability to which music forms an essential and not merely the idea of a high antiquity for opera; and an accessory part. Rousseau declares that Menestrier (c. 1670) whose ingenuity has Opera does not mean so much a musical work, made him a favourite authority in musical as a musical, poetical, and spectacular work history, considers the song of Solomon as all at once, and the same definition is insisted the earliest opera extant. The first compo- upon by Wagner. This, scarcely the exact or sition in any way resembling the lyric true meaning of the term even now, was still opera of later date, is said to be a work by " less true in the days in which it was first Adam de la Hale, called Le gieus de Robin written, as many works well known at the et de Marian," produced some time in the 13th time, Rousseau's among the number, do not century. But as few trustworthy particulars answer this description. The various titles have descended to us, there is nothing but the given to works included in the general term mere statement to rely upon. The title of this

( 319 ) OPERA.

early opera implies, however, that it had employed. As the study of music progressed, some degree of connection with the ancient and the capabilities of the instruments form- secular plays sometimes performed as a relief ing the orchestra came to be better understood, to the mysteries. The deeds or " gests " of the lyric drama began to assume its present " Robin Hood and Maid Marian," form the character. Of the vast number of Italian subject of more than one early play. Sir operas produced up to the middle of the last John Hawkins, in his " History of the Science century, only one, Cimarosa's Matrimonio and Practice of Music," declares that " the Segreto, retains its place upon the stage. invention of the musical drama or opera is Though not absolutely the founder of the due to Emilio del Cavaliere, who in the year modern Italian school, Cherubini may be said 1590 exhibited in the palace of the Grand to have inaugurated it. After the production Duke of Florence, II Satiro and La Dispera- of his first operas at Milan, he settled in zione di Fileno, two dramas of the pastoral France, leaving the direction of the opera to kind set to music." Others state that Ottavio the illustrious Rossini. The versatility of Rinuccini is the inventor, and that the first Rossini's genius is well shown in those of his opera (performed privately) was called , operas that keep their places upon the lyric and that this was followed by the production of stage, for although Semiramide, II Barbiere, Burydice, in the year 1600, the music to both Otello, La Gazza Ladra, and Guillaume Tell, works being furnished by Jacopo Peri, one of contain much that is bad.and unworthy, among the inventors of recitative. But there is evi- some noble thoughts nobly expressed, yet dence to show that a musical drama by Claudio each opera is distinct in style and treatment. Merulo was performed in 1574 at Venice, As a melodist Bellini ranks next in order when Henry HI. passed on his way from of merits as he does in point of time, and his Poland to France to claim the crown. Claudio operas , , and La Sonnambula Monteverde, a member of a society called the give greater pleasure through the beauty Florentine Academy, who also set to music of their melodies, than they do by their dra- 'Rmaccini' sDafne, introduced an improvement matic force. The same power of melody is the by giving great importance to the accom- chief attraction in Donizetti's operas, but this paniments. One of Monteverde's operas, last named composer has shown in Lucrezia L'OrfeOjWSiS the first of the kind printed with Borgia, La Favorita, and in Lucia di Lammer- the music. The dramatis personce and the moor, that he was also gifted with the spirit instruments used in performance are worth of conveying dramatic expression, though quoting. scarcely in so great a degree as his successor Verdi. Rossini who found weak Personaggi. Stromenti. from inanity, by the efforts of his genius, La Musica Frologo.., Duoi Gravicembani (Cla- made it strong and powerful, but the" charm of vicembali.) melody with which he graced the revived form Orfeo Duoi Contrabass! de had greater fascinations for his followers than Viola. Eurydice Dieci Viole di Brazzo. dramatic vigour, the real life and soul of Choro di Ninfe e Pastori Un Arpa doppio opera. Italian opera has quietly subsided Speranza Duoi Violini piccoli alia into the lifeless state in which it was found by Francese. Rossini, for there is no representative com- Caronte Duoi Chittaroni per- Choro di spiriti inferni Duoi organi di legno. poser worthy or willing to develop and Proserpina Tre bassi di gamba petuate that which is considered as the true Plutone Quattro tromboni. Italian school, the characteristics of which Apollo Un Regale. are wealth of melody, sentiment without Chpro di pastori che effect. fecero la Moresca Duoi Cornetti. pathos, and little regard for instrumental nelfine Un Flautina alia Vigesima Rossini, by the infusion of a foreign element, seconda. departed in some degree from the standard Clarino con tre trombe Un models, for until his time German music was sordine. held in the greatest contempt in Italy, but he There was scarcely any difference between laid the foundation for a taste among his the church music of the period and the countrymen for the despised music by quietly operas, inasmuch as both were in the same introducing in his works many of the charac- conventional forms, and with little attempt teristics held to be essentially Teutonic, and at religious or dramatic expression. The at variance with the established orthodox style choruses in the early operas were written of operatic music. Verdi, the next great in what is called the Madrigal style, and were composer after Rossini, shows in his com-

seldom essential parts of the work ; there were positions the result of the grafting of German instrumental preludes to each of the acts, and ideas upon an Italian stock. the artifice of accompanying a certain voice His works, while possessing many points with a special instrument was occasionally peculiar to Italian music, really belong to

( 320 ) OPERA.

the German school of art, as much because of of national opera in England would be a mere the freedom displayed in the instrumentation, record of rash and unfortunate speculations. as the evident and often successful attempt to The example set by Purcell has never been impart the expression of passion by means of successfully followed, and while he has been pure declamation. Therefore, as Verdi is proudly pointed to as the founder of the accepted as the modern exponent of Italian English school of opera, two centuries have opera, it may be safely said that Italian opera passed, and scholars are still wanting to the proper has almost ceased to exist. school. The introduction of the opera into France is Purcell's operas, judged by the ordinary said to have been the work of LuUy, but it is standard, and not by the three-fold character- stated upon better authority, that the credit istics demanded in our own days, have

rests with Cardinal Mazarin ; for there exists especial claims to consideration. The happy the record of the performance in Paris of an union of words and music in them was far in opera in Italian in 1645, a time when Lully advance of anything that had been produced was.only in his twelfth year. It is also affirmed before. The delicacy of expression with that the first opera performed in Paris was which his compositions abound has not been the composition of an Italian, named Baltza- surpassed by any subsequent English opera rini, also called Beaujoyeux, who came to composer. His occasional " barbarisms," as France in the year 1580, and was afterwards they have been called, may be considered as made valet de chamhre to the queen of Louis " unavoidable compliances with the false XIII. In the year 1669 the Abb6 Perrin taste of the age in which he lived." obtained a patent from Louis XIV. to estab- After Purcell's death there was no attempt lish an academy of music, the former privilege made to continue English opera. Works in granted by Charles IX. to Antoine le Bai'f Italian alone occupied the attention of the having become valueless. Under the rule public, until burlesqued and driven out of the Abbe the first opera in French delighted of fashion by the " Beggars' Opera." The the ears of the Parisians. Notwithstanding " Beggars' Opera," which keeps a certain the popularity of Lully and his successors, and place upon the stage, is a mere pasticcio of the influence of court patronage—^which may old tunes, popular for that reason, but value- be said, in passing, to be not always of the less as a representative of English opera. best advantage to art—the French have failed With the exception of " ," by to establish a school of grand opera peculiar Dr. Arne, the majority of the operas of the to themselves, and it was not until the time last century were composed of old fragments of Auber that they were able to claim any by various writers, borrowed either with or individuality in opera at all. without acknowledgment. The support of the French court dying with The pioneer of modern English opera was Louis XIV., opera in France suffered many Sir Henry Bishop, who deserves to be honour- vicissitudes, until new life was infused into ably named, some of his concerted works being operatic taste at the beginning of the present remarkable for originality and vigour, and century, from which time opera has been others for beauty of melody and form, so that steadily encouraged, many of the best works the ungrateful neglect into which his music has of modern time having been first produced fallen is inexplicable. It is true that he quoted in Paris. thoughts from other writers, when he found The encouragement given to the production those ideas better suited to his purpose than of grand opera in Paris, does not establish a his own inventions, but it has yet to be deter- right for the French to lay claim to the works mined how far in music such a license is so brought out as belonging to their school of damaging to general originality. In literature art, a mistake which they and others seem quotations are frequently considered to inclined to make.* enhance the force of the subject treated of, The greatest triumphs of musical art in and the writer is praised as the possessor of France were first gained by Gluck, and there extensive knowledge, as a scholar and as a is no doubt hut that such individuality as the man of taste ; but in music, as there are no French composers have been able to gain for means to make extracts distinguishable, all themselves, is due to the example set by him. such introductions are stigrnatised by the This individuality, if such it may be called, is ugly name of plagiarisms. Bishop's writings to be found in the writings of Gretry, Mehul, were received with great favour in their day, Boieldieu, Hal6vy, Auber, and Gounod, which and are not without value as contributions to upon examination will be found to be of a art. Considering this, and noting the success composite character, as much Italian as attained by the productions of Balfe, Wallace, German, and more Italian and German than Macfarren, and others, in recent times, some French. hope is inspired that an English opera is The history of attempts to establish a school possible in the future, more especially when

( 321 ) OPERA.

it is called to mind how immense are the dis- nally written, and the patronage bestowed is advantages under which Englishmen labour great and encouraging, though without being in their endeavours to obtain a just re- subsidised by Government, as is the case in cognition of their unquestionable musical most foreign cities. The opera is resorted merit. to less now as a matter of fashion, than as The iirst important step necessary towards the result of a real taste for this species of the founding of a good and permanent school entertainment. Many of the operas are of English operatic music, must be the dis- placed upon the stage in the most magni- covery of a poet-musician or musician-poet, ficent style, with scenery that is in many one who has perfect command over and fami- instances beautiful as artistic work, and with liar acquaintance with his language, an exact costumes and other accessories remarkable for sense of the requirements of the musician, and their historical accuracy. This excellence is the power of writing sensible, effective and not confined to operas produced in Paris or useful combinations of words in vigorous and London, but is extended to other continental telling English. cities, so that without admitting the definition Italian opera was introduced into England of Rousseau as a necessity, opera is frequently in 1706, when Arsinoe was performed at found to combine the several characteristics Drury Lane theatre, but to English words. spoken of by him. The first opera performed in Italian was It is in Germany that the highest forms of Almahide, by a company of Italian singers development have been made, the expression (ridiculed by Addison in the Spectator when of passion, the perfection of instrumental still smarting under the failure of his Rosa- accompaniments, orchestral colouring and mund) ; this was succeeded by others, and scientific writing, being especially due to ended in the establishment of Italian invention and influence. England. Handel did much towards securing Gluck, the founder of the French school this end, and was himself the composer of of opera, was a German, and as already inti- 44 operas, all of which are now forgotten. mated, to a fellow-countryman of his, George The operas of the period were not of the Frederic Handel, the establishment of Italian complicated character of the modern opera, opera as an entertainment in England is due. but consisted of a few songs, with or without That which Monteverde began, Gluck revived, recitative, and but slight instrumental accom- Mozart continued, and subsequent composers paniments, the harpsichord supplying all have expanded aind extended, and the instru- deficiencies. For the later progress of Italian mental accompaniments to an opera are opera in England see History of the Opera becoming equally as important as the vocal (1862) by Sutherland Edwards, Memoirs of portion, in illustrating the emotions aroused the Musical Drama (1851) by George by the story upon which the general subject Hogarth, and Eber's Seven years of the King's is based. In Mozart's operas, , theatre. Le Nozze di Figaro, Zauherflote, and Don For some years past there have been two Giovanni, the construction is such that, companies performing Italian opera in Lon- while they delight the educated musician don, and it is not an uncommon occurrence by the ingenuity with which the resources to find excellent representations in the more are managed, they also give the highest

important provincial towns. In addition to pleasure to the unscientific lover of music ; a large staff of principal singers of both sexes, and by this means, the widest and most an opera company consists of from 60 to lasting popularity is secured. Following 80 chorus singers, male and female, about Mozart, the greatest operas are Fidelia 10 first violin players and 10 seconds, 8 violas, by Beethoven, , , and Der 8 violoncellos, 8 double basses, 2 flutes, 2 Freischiitz by Weber, Faust by Spohr, Les hautboys, 2 bassoons, 2 clarinets, 4 horns, Huguenots, Robert le Didble, L'Etoile du 2 trumpets or cornets, 3 trombones, i pair of Nord, and Le Prophete by Meyerbeer. It kettle-drums, i great drum and cymbals, was Mozart's music that dealt the first with a military band occasionally appearing serious blow to the supremacy of Italian in the supposed to be proper music in Europe—a blow which it has not upon the stage, a conductor, a , yet recovered. maestro al piano, and chorus master. When The further extension of musical expedients the score requires the use of the cor anglais, has been attempted by Wagner, with large , and other rarely used instru- and growing success. In his early operas, ments the players upon instruments of like Rienzi and Der Fliegende Hollander, Wagner character in the orchestra perform on those has few of the advanced thoughts upon which instruments. The works are produced in later he founded his claim to originality. In Italian in London, independently of the his volume of essays, " Oper und das Drama," language in which they may have been origi- he sets forth his ideas upon the composition

( 332 ) OPERIST—ORATORIO.

of opera. He maintains that " opera consists instrument, but starting from a note one of music, poetry, and dramatic effect, and octave higher, that is from these should not be made separate objects, but should mutually combine and aid each to other." In taking credit to himself for having m reformed the opera by effecting this com- m bination for the first time he is wrong, for But as the alto ophicleide is in F or El?, the the same union was attempted by Meyerbeer real sounds produced will be a major fifth or in his operas ; he is in error also in believ- major sixth lower than the notes written. ing that the contrivance of announcing or Three or four of the lowest notes and two or accompanying certain characters" by the use three of the highest notes should be avoided. of special instruments is his own idea, for This instrument is not so satisfactory as its Monteverde, and nearly all the early opera bass fellow, and is therefore but rarely heard. composers, with very limited resources at The quality of the tone is not unpleasant, their disposal, had adopted the like plan. but it does not combine well with that of The innovations for which he deserves most other members of the orchestra. This un- credit are those which he does not insist upon pleasant prominence of character tends to as novelties, yet for which his name will be limit the use of the instrument. remembered by posterity as the pioneer of a Opus {hat.) A work. Composers number new path. The first is in not marring his .their works for purposes of distinction and situation by the introduction of symmetrical reference. and wearisome melodies, and the second Opusculum (Lat.) A short work. and more important is the restoration of Oratorio (Ital.) A composition for voices tonic harmonies in place of the well used and instruments illustrating some subject and almost worn out dominant harmo- taken directly from scripture or paraphrased nies. He may also claim credit for being upon some theme in sacred history. The possessed of the faculty of writing his own music consists of symphonies or overtures, libretti. The words of his later operas are airs, recitatives, duets, trios, choruses, &c., adapted to a declamatory style of recitative, with accompaniments for orchestra or organ. without what is known as "airs," and accom- The origin and growth of oratorio is panied by harmonies and instrumentation almost coeval with that of opera, both being according to the spirit of the situation. developments of the early forms of drama, or, Wagner's eccentricities, his impatience of ad- to speak more clearly, oratorio may be said verse opinions among others, have been, and to be the successor of the medieval Mystery still are, the self-imposed bars to his being play, as was the opera of the Morality. accepted as the founder of an advanced In both cases the poetical description of the school; but his firm stand against musical subjects chosen is accompanied with music, conventionalities has set many clever musi- but with this difference, that whereas the cians thinking in his train, with a result that opera requires also scenery and dramatic cannot possibly be without good influence action in its representation, oratorio is now over coming generations. performed without either. Operist {Ger.) An opera singer. The soldiers ^d pilgrims of the first Ophicleide. A keyed serpent, {ofie and crusade, in their attempts to delineate drama- cXet'c). A brass instrument of large compass tically the Passion of our Lord, and other and great power, but having so peculiar a incidents of sacred history, together with the quality of tone as to necessitate careful treat- legends of the deeds and endurance of saints ment by a composer. There are two sorts of and martyrs, imitated the practice observed ophicleides, alto and bass. The bass instru- in the performance of secular plays by the ment has a compass of three octaves and one introduction of music at these representa- note, from tions. It is probable that more than one of the hymns written by St. Bernard of Morlaix and others living about the time were contri- buted for this purpose, and that the audience joined in the singing. As many of the with all the intermediate semitones. Bass first oratorios were mystical expositions of ophicleides in Bl? produce, of course, sounds doctrine such as that described in many one whole tone below those written, and those of the early hymns, some colour is given in A^, sounds a majorthird below those written. to the supposition that musical exposi- The ophicleide is capable of a great deal of tion and teaching in the form known as execution, if not too chromatic and too low oratorio may be as old as the time of the in its compass. The alto ophicleide has a Crusades. It was not until five centuries compass similar in extent to that of the bass later that it was made a recognised and dis-

( 323 ) ;

ORATORIO.

tinct medium of instruction and pleasure. as one of the first writers, if not the inventor St. Philip Neri, in the endeavour to establish of opera. Cavaliere's oratorio was represented firmly the institution he had founded in Rome, in action on a stage erected in the church, with and also moved by a desire to win the people scenery and costumes; dances were also intro- to the observance of religious duties, relied duced. The recitatives in both his operas or upon the universal love for music to gain his oratorios were furnished by Jacopo Peri, and it object. With this intention he engaged Gio- was supposed that in the introduction of recita- vanni Animuccia, a Florentine, as his Maestro tive the ancient use of the Greeks and Romans di Cappella, who during his connection with the was recovered. In the preface to Cavaliere's oratory produced several musical pieces, con- oratorio each singer is required " to have a sisting of motetts, psalms, and songs of praise fine voice, perfectly in tune, and free from all set to Latin and Italian words; known by defects in the delivery of it, with a pathetic the general title of " Laudi Spirituali." Ani- expression, the power of swelling and dimin- muccia published his first collection at Rome ishing the tones," and is enjoined to be in 1563. The character of these compositions " particularly attentive to the articulation and is similar to that known as the madrigal expression of the words, and to have an equal style, and these " laudi " have been taken respect for the composer as for the poet." as the origin of that class of composition. The instruments, consisting of a double lyre, Animuccia was afterwards appointed choir- double guitar, a harpsichord, and two flutes, master to the Vatican, a post he held until his accompanied this oratorio behind the scenes. death in 1571, when he was succeeded by The choruses served as the music for the Palestrina. dancers, and madrigals commenced and con- The experiment succeeded so well that not cluded the performance. The violin was only only was a new form of composition origi- sparingly used in the early oratorios, one of nated, but what was probably more to the the first writers who wrote freely for that purpose of the founder, the congregation of instrument being Domenico Mazzochi, and the Fathers of the Oratory was placed upon for this reason his name deserves mention

so firm a basis that it exists to the present among the early composers ; beyond this fact day. These musical performances were there is nothing remarkable in any of the divided into two parts, a short form of prayer works produced until the time of Stradella, preceding the first, a sermon the second, the 1670, for the only noticeable points in most whole being concluded with religious exer- of these compositions are the curious mixtures cises. By this plan those who came for the of piety and profanity. Stradella's best ora- main purpose of the music were constrained to torio was on the subject of St. jfohn the take part in the devotional observances, and Baptist, and, judging from the specimens doubtless, obtained much spiritual advantage. printed in Martini's " Exemplare di contrap- If in the performance of oratorio at the punto fugato," is remarkable for beauty and

annual festivals in some of our English cathe- sublimity ; the scoring also shows some pro- drals the same or a similar arrangement were gress in musical thought, but the work is adopted, much of the scandal now accruing little known, as it still remains in manuscript. might be unquestionably avoided if not totally The next writer of importance was Carissimi suppressed. his compositions are marked by sweetness of By degrees, the psalms and spiritual s,ongs melody, clever modulations, and skilful har-

gave place to sacred stories or events in mony ; his most noted oratorios are the judg- scripture written in verse, sometimes in ment of Solomon, and ^ephtha. One of the dialogue, and set to music. The subjects most choruses in the latter work, " Plorate filise popular in early times were — The Good Israel," was appropriated by Handel, and intro- Samaritan, The Prodigal Son, Tohit with the duced into Samson to the words " Hear Jacob's " Angel, The Sacrifice of Abraham, and others, God." The chorus " Exululantes filii Ammon and the name of the place where these were also forms the conclusion of " With thunder " first heard was given to the class of music armed " in Samson. " Et clangebant tubse performed. The first work in any way cor- is imitated in the symphony of " We come in responding to the more modern form of bright array " in yudas Maccabmus, and the oratorio, with solos, recitatives, choruses, and recitative in Alexander's Feast, " He chose orchestral accompaniments was called La a mournful muse " is note for note identical Rappresentazione di Anima e di Corpo, com- with " Heu mihi, filia mea," from Carissimi's posed by Emilio del Cavaliere, performed in yephtha. Many other instances might be the oratory of the Church of Santa Maria cited of Handel's obligations to this musician, della Vallicella at Rome in 1600. Ten years the most striking and important being that previously Cavaliere had produced two pas- all his recitatives were formed upon the im- toral dramas at Florence, and he has, there- proved model furnished by Carissimi, who, in fore, claim to the honour of being considered addition to other advancements in music.

( 324 ) ORATORIO. gave great importance to the use of stringed appreciated. It is quite reasonable to assume instruments in his accompaniments, made that, had his vocal works been earlier the basses of his compositions move more known, a greater advance in oratorio music freely than former masters permitted, and would have been made than has been made. first recommended the introduction of the The Passion Music alluded to above is written cantata upon the stage. He died in 1675 for two choirs and two orchestras. The at a great age. Dean Aldrich, who was an choruses and chorales are exquisitely har- enthusiastic admirer of his works, made a monised, the airs are remarkable for tender large collection of them, which he placed pathos and truth of expression, and the reci- in the library of Christ Church, Oxford, tatives are notable for the admirable force where it still remains. After Carissimi, with which the meaning and intention of the Scarlatti deserves the next place of honour, text is conveyed. Bach's oratorios were not only as a prolific, but as a thoughtful written for the service of the church, and composer ; his works are rarely heard now, were never intended for any other purpose, except when some of the choruses with the introduction of the oratorio into secular Handel's name attached are performed. The places being a later idea. The subjects are device of accompanying recitatives with a partly in narrative and partly deductions from string quartett was first tried by Scarlatti, the incidents, after the manner of the old and this plan was followed by Leonardo Leo, Greek chortis. This is the true form of ora- whose contrapuntal writing, similar in cha- torio as adapted to worship ; but as the racter to Handel's in sublimity and massive- oratorio was disused as an aid to devotion, ness, forms the chief beauty of his oratorios and employed in the theatre and concert and sacred pieces. As a master of counter- room, the narrative form was the one most point Caldara is worthy of mention, while as favoured for the purpose, and it is in this form melodists Hasse and Pergolesi are best that the majority of Handel's oratorios are known ; the beauty and grace of melody in written. these two composers is also to be found in a Handel, who is allowed to be the repre- certain degree in the writings of Jomelli, who sentative composer of oratorio, produced his was the last of the oratorio writers of the first work. , while he resided Italian school. in Italy, before he was twenty years of age. Like the opera, oratorio arose and was Fifteen years later, while he was organist to nourished in Italy, to be developed to its the Duke of Chandos, Esther, the first oratorio highest form by German writers, and, although written by him in England, was brought it was permitted to be used in the offices of forward privately ; it was, however, not until the Roman church, and was to some extent 1732 that it was produced in public, having abused by Italian writers, yet the value of been laid aside for twelve years. In the ad- oratorio was recognised by the German vertisement announcing this performance it reformers of the sixteenth century, who en- was considered necessary to give the follow- couraged its introduction into their churches ing explanation of the plan, as oratorios were " with a result that ultimately led to its most then a novelty in England : By His complete forms. It was formerly the custom Majesty's command, at the King's Theatre in in the German Lutheran church to have ora- the Haymarket, on Tuesday, the 2nd May, torios performed with instrumental accom- will be performed the sacred story of Esther, paniments on solemn occasions ; the congre- an oratorio in English, composed by Mr. gation was encouraged to join at intervals in Handel, and to be performed by a great the chorales or Psalm tunes which were number of voices and instruments. N.B. introduced for this purpose. The Passion, There will be no acting on the stage, but the according to St. Matthew, by John Sebastian house will be fitted up in a decent manner for Bach, is an excellent example of this kind of the audience." This explanation was pro- work. [Passion music] Bach, one of the bably made in deference to the objection most original, versatile, and prolific writers popularly entertained at the time against any that the world has yet seen, was born at performance savouring of Popery and pro- Eisenach in 1685, and died at Leipsic in 1750. fanity, and was needful because of the preva- The study of his music has influenced the lent prejudice against the dramatic perform- thoughts and writings of most composers of ance of sacred subjects. After the production importance since his time, his organ com- of Esther Handel was engaged in the pro- positions have created a new school of duction of operas and other secular works, and players, and the comparatively recent know- in the establishment of his short-lived academy ledge of his oratorios and vocal music has of music—this entailed a loss of health and shown the extraordinary power and value of of much money. After the advanced age his genius, which, unknown or not under- of 53, and in defiance of prejudice and stood in his own time, is now thoroughly failure, he gave to the world those immortal

( 325 ) ORATORIO. productions with which his name is now Creation, produced in 1798. The special familiarly associated. The majority of these qualities of this oratorio, besides those already works were performed at the " theatre in the allutied to, are found in the brightness of the Haymarket," Deborah being first given in choruses and the interest of the instrumenta- 1733, Athaliah in 1734, Israel in Egypt in tion. In general design is 1738, The Messiah in 1741, Samson in 1742, inadequate to the subject treated of, and jfudas MaceabcBUs in 1746, Joshua in 1747, while the ear is pleased by the sparkling and Solomon in 1749, and ^ephtha in 1751. The varied treatment, the heart is never moved greatest works in this list are Israel in Egypt by emotions which the grandeur of the theme and The Messiah. In all these, with the ex- should have inspired. ception of the last-named, Handel availed Beethoven's The Mount of Olives is a himself freely of the license of appropriating drama rather than an oratorio, full of sublime other men's works and incorporating them in and noble thoughts, but ineffective without his own. It has been said that he has always the aid of scenery and accessories. improved and invigorated all pieces so bor- Spohr's oratorios. The Crucifixion, The Last rowed, but it is hard to believe that the mere judgment, and the Fall of Babylon, contain adaptation of words different to those origi- many grand and surprising thoughts, much

nally set can be considered an improvement. beauty of melody and clever harmonies ; the Notwithstanding this pillage there is enough restless modulations employed by him cease originality in Handel to constitute him a great to excite wonder after a time, and so, to a composer, especially when it is considered certain extent, their end is defeated. In the that the work by which he is most popularly peculiarity of enharmonic changes on a domi- and extensively known, The Messiah, is for nant' harmony, Spohr so far exhausted the the most part his own. It is in broad possible combinations, that composers in choral writing that Handel's great strength imitating his style simply reproduce his exists, forjie only sparingly employed instru- thoughts. The most successful composer in mental effects, for the orchestra was only this manner of modern date was Mendelssohn, imperfectly developed in his time, and he and his Elijah and St. Paul served to revive generally employed his instruments more for the drooping taste for oratorio. Elijah was the sake of supporting the voices than for any produced at Birmingham in 1846, and St. peculiar effects of colouring to be obtained Paul ten years previously at Diisseldorf, and from their use. There are some exceptions to both works have since held high rank as well

this plan, but they are very few ; the scantiness in the estimation as in the affections of of Handel's effects, and the more extensive musicians. Of the two, St. Paul more com- means employed for the performance of his pletely fulfils the conditions of oratorio proper, works, gave rise to the additional parts which in the happy arrangement of its narrative have been made for instruments either only and didactic portions. The production of this partly known in his time, or of subsequent form is due to the assiduous study of the invention. The first of these additional works of its great perfecter, John Sebastian accompaniments was furnished by Mozart to Bach, and for this reason, and for its intrinsic The Messiah; Mendelssohn, Macfarren, Perry, merit, St. Paul is held to be Mendelssohn's Costa, and Sullivan have supplied parts to the best oratorio. Elijah is more dramatic in other of the more frequently performed works constitution, and if the prejudice should ever with more or less success. be sufficiently overcome to permit of its per- The example set by Handel was followed formance on the stage, with proper scenery by such writers as Stanley, Dr. Arne, Dr. and action, it will attain even greater impor- Worgan,, Dr. Arnold, but little encouragement tance than that it at present enjoys. was offered to their efforts, so that no new Of the more recent contributions to oratorio oratorio of importance was heard in London music, there are few worthy to be particular- until Haydn's Creation was performed. ised, as they are for most part feeble filterings Haydn was the author of but few oratorios^ of an almost exhausted stream. The Return of Tobias, The Seasons, The Oratorio has ever been more patronised in Seven Last Words, and The Creation, being England than on the Continent, but until the all his compositions that can be in any way establishment of the Sacred Harmonic Society classed under this head. The Seven Last in 1832 the opportunity for hearing it was of Words is more in accordance with the rare occurrence, being confined almost to character of the Lutheran oratorios, being the annual meetings of the three choirs of intended to follow as many short sermons on Gloucester, Hereford, and Worcester in the the last words of our Lord. The Seasons is provinces, and to the Lenten performances

somewhat secular in character ; and the in London. The example set by this Society same sweetness of melody prevalent in this has been imitated with success, not only in ia found in Haydn's best known work, The London, hut in the country, and oratorio per-

(326 ) .

ORCHESIS ORCHESTRA. fonnances are now frequent, and upon a scale struments to accompany the music sung by of grandeur, magnificence, precision, and special characters was revived by Hoffman perfection hitherto unattained and completely in his opera Undine, and introduced by unknown elsewhere. Wagner as a new invention ; but the idea Orchesis {Gk. opxri

( 327 ) ;

ORDINARIO ORGAN.

example of Mozart, consider themselves jus- or he may have in his orchestra players of tified in adding instrumental parts to Handel's exceptional ability. Thus Weber writes so scores, not always with the laudable desire wonderfully for the horns, because he was a

of exhibiting an improved knowledge of in- player ; Spohr for the violin, an instrument

strumental quality, not always with correct on which he was a master ; Spontini loved taste or judgment. Mozart himself declared the tone of the trombone, and wrote often for

to Attwood that his sole reason for adding it ; Handel had Valentine Snow to play his parts to the scores of Handel's works was to trumpet parts, and Snow had a special gift make his countrymen think as highly of the for trumpet playing; and many other instances

compositions as he himself did ; so that all may be quoted if it were needful. the stories about his undertaking the task Haydn has been considered the father of

at the request of a noble patron, against his modern orchestralwriting ; and in the utili- own inclination, are pure inventions. Mozart's zation of accepted materials his genius as additions to the Messiah are specimens of a composer is best shown. In charm of noble orchestral colouring, and give so much orchestral shading Mozart's are perfect studies beauty to the score that a performance of the while for nobility of effect Beethoven has work without them would seeni tame ^nd never been surpassed. uninteresting to ears that have grown accus- The tendency of the present order of writers tomed to them. for the orchestra is to seek to obtain a ficti- The composer in whose works the first tious grandeur by the liberal use of " Janit- consistent and concentrated efforts in the scharen-musik," cymbals, bells, big drum, &c. ' direction of improvement of the orchestra are This is all very well when it is desirable to to be traced is Gluck. All his biographers conceal the defective playing of the strings agree in declaring that his sole aim in and wind, but when an orchestra comprises orchestral writing was " expression." He performers of excellent skill, having familiar disregarded the usages of fashion and custom, knowledge of the capabilities of their several and thought for himself, and like every in- instruments, such noise is not only needless, dependent thinker founded a school of his but offers a great temptation to carelessness own, to become in time the conventionality in playing on the more delicate instruments. of a future age. Ordinario (It.) Ordinary, as a tempo ordi- In the introduction of new instruments by nario, in the usual time, or, at a moderate pace. which fresh combinations and effects can Orecchia musicale (It.) An ear for be obtained, a difficulty will be always present, music, or musical ear. in that skilful players are not readily found, Oreille musicale (Fr.) [Orecchia.J and musicians do not care to study an instru- Organ (from the Gk. opyavov). This word ment that is rarely employed, and therefore originally signified an implement, instrument, of little profit to them professionally. This or piece of mechanism for any purpose. Hence, is the one reason why trumpet playing is it came to be applied to any musical instru- comparatively a lost art. There is no remedy ment, and later still to the compound wind- against this drawback, and therefore many instrument now known as the organ, which, instruments of unquestionable value in an no doubt, grew out of the ugah of the Hebrews orchestra are neglected and disused. and the syrinx of the Greeks (Pan's-pipes), Meyerbeer did much towards obtaining a when combined with the wind-chest, as natu- recognition for certain disregarded instru- rally suggested by the leathern reservoir of ments, and although he was fortunate enough the bagpipe. Only, it must be remembered, to find players with sufficient enthusiasm or that the pipes of Pan had, each separately, to interest in the matter to take them up and be made into a sort oi flMe h bee, having a

study -them, he could not secure a succession, foot to convey the air to the block and lips ; and, consequently, in the performance of his also, that under each pipe a little slide had to operas, such passages as are written in the be placed in order to prevent all the pipes from score for obsolete instruments have to be speaking at once. This early slide, which performed by those in general use. permitted particular pipes to speak at the will The introduction of new effects is always a of the performer, has now developed into the work of time, and the development of some pallet and the key-action ; and we now apply degree of daring. Lully wrote parts for drums the word slide or slider only to that strip of to some of his choruses to strengthen the wood which, passing under a row of pipes

deep tones ; Beethoven wrote solos for the from right to left, admits the air to a particular same instrument. The prominence given by row of pipes or stops. Neither of these two a composer to a certain instrument is to be arrangements—the Aey-slide and stop-sM&e— accounted for in more than one way. He required any special mechanical skill, and it may have had a special training in that may safely be said that they were .used at a particular instrument, a partiality for its tone. much earlier date than is commonly supposed.

(328 ) "

ORGAN.

The real difficulty of ancient organ-builders The large pipes of every key of the oldest was inequality of the pressure of wind. It is organs stood in front ; the whole instrument needless to observe that the leathern reservoir sounded and shrieked in a harsh and loud of a bagpipe could never be so equally pressed manner. The key-board had 11, 12, even all round as to produce an uniform current of 13 keys in diatonic succession without semi- air. Nor could the simple forms of bellows tones. It was impossible to get anything as used by blacksmiths to this day produce else than a choral melody for one voice only, an equal pressure, because, when they are on such an organ. being filled, the air is under too great com- By degrees the keys and pipes in organs pression, and as the top sinks ^he pressure increased in number, but no alteration was

becomes less and less. There can be but made in the register of the pipe-work ; the little doubt that the so-called hydraulic organ chromatic intervals, too, were added. The owed its utility and consequent fame to the pedals were devised in 1470 by Bernhard fact, that in it water was used in such a the German, a skilful musician at Venice, manner as to counterbalance the hitherto and so quickly came into fashion that in variable pressure. The ignorant, no doubt, Germany few organs were built without them. thought that the water went near to, or even Originally they had only eight keys—^t[B, C, entered, the pipes, but this was palpably not D, E, F, G, A, CjB, which were attached to the case. Those who are interested in the the valve,s of the pipes with cord. As time supposed details of the hydraulic organ will went on the key-boards of the manuals be- find information in the " Bible Educator came increased to three. This was the case (Parts 8 and lo. Vol. II.), in Rimbault and in the large organ (built in 1361) at Halber- Hopkins on the Organ, and in Chappell's stadt, described by Prastorius after its reno- " " History of Music" (p. 325). The ordinary vation in 1495, in " Syntagma Musicum organ in which no water was used came to (1619). It had three key-boards and pedals, be called the pneumatic or wind-organ. In the latter, however, being added at the time order to keep up a due supply of wind, while the organ was restored. The Prsestant, or bellows were being refilled, organ builders row of pipes standing in front (the Principal multiplied their number. The modern inven- or open diapason), was separated from the tions of the double-action feeder, &c., fully other portion of the pipe-work, which was explained further on, made this system of almost detached, and was called Hintersatz. blowing unnecessary. If the account given A difference of tone could thus at least be of the Magrepha {q.v.) be true, it must have obtained by using the principal alone, or by really been an organ. It will be unnecessary coupling it with the whole hintersatz and to trouble the reader with long untrustworthy pedals. The highest row of keys, called quotations from old writers in explanation of, " Discant," had a compass from Bt] C, or in praise of, the wonders of organs. It will Ci chromatic to G, A, and served for the full suffice to state where and when some of the organ principal and hintersatz coupled. oldest known instruments were built, and The second key-board of the same compass, note the progress in their construction. and also called Discant, served for the prin- Julian, the Apostate (who died a.d. 363), cipal alone without the hintersatz. The mentions an organ in a Greek epigram, but third row of keys was a bass key-board, con- in such a manner as to make it doubtful tained a large bass principal in side-towers, whether it had keys. Aldhelm, (who died with a compass from C to C, and was used A.D. 709), mentions an organ which had gilt with the left hand as principal in the second pipes. An organ having leaden pipes was row of keys. The pedals extended from C placed in the Church of S. Corneille, at Com- to Bb. piegne, in the middle of the eighth century. It must not be thought that the manner of The story of St. Dunstan's organ with its playing these old organs was anything like

brass pipes is well known. One of the most that now-a-days : the breadth of a key-board interesting of the mediaeval organs was that containing nine keys extended to three- built for Winchester Cathedral at the close of quarters the length of a yard, that of the the tenth century. According to the account single key amounted to three inches (Bedos given by the Monk Wulston it had thirteen de Celles speaks of organ keys even from five pairs of bellows and four hundred pipes dis- to six inches). The keys were of a peculiar tributed so that forty pipes were under the shape, e.g. : control of each key. By pressing down the key belongfing to any one set of pipes, they n all sounded together after the manner of the ff ^ mixture ; the separation of the wind-chest by means of slides was apparently not at- The valves of the keys and the whole me- tempted in this case. chanism being clumsy, playing with the finger

( 329 ) : :)

ORGAN CONSTRUCTION.

was not to be thought of, but the keys were hard Schmidt (generally called Father Smith obliged to be struck with the clenched fist, with his nephew and Renatus Harris, estab- and the organist was often called " pulsator lished themselves in this country. Their organorum." It was consequently impossible immediate successors were Christopher to play chords with one hand, but a kind of Schroeder, Snetzler, and Byfield. These duet or trio could be produced with the were followed by Avery and Green, and assistance of the pedals. The early organs from them sprung the present generation of were often a tone or a tone and a half above organ-builders, whose skill and ingenuity the choral pitch [v. Chorton], and lower than have done much to restore the ancient su- the kammerton by about a tone. premacy of organ-building in England. But when the organ had once attained a Organ Construction. (§ i.) A complete certain degree of perfection, it proceeded organ may be said to consist of five parts quickly towards further improvement. The choir organ, great organ, swell organ, solo keys were made gradually smaller, so that organ, and pedal organ. These are all, how- the Fifth had a width of a span, something ever, in reality constructed on the same prin- similar to our octave, as in the old organ at ciple, that is to say, the manner of connec- Braunschweig. In the keys of the organs tion between the keys and the pallets, which in the monastery at Bamberg (enlarged admit a current of air to the pipes, is similar 1493), in the church of the Barefooted Friars in principle in all. A large organ there- at Nuremberg (1475), in the cathedral at fore consists of a number of small organs Erfurt (1483), in that of St. Blasius at differing in quality of tone, and so arranged Braunschweig (1499), the width of the span as to be under the control of one per- of the octave amounted only to about one former. key more than at the present time, but the (§2.) Before explaining the connection action was still clumsy. The compass of the between a key and a pipe, it will be necessary manuals, inostly beginning at B flat, had to explain the construction of the bellows, a extended to EE and FF, but the pedals were recfeptacle which encloses atmospheric air and still limited in compass from A or B flat to B forces it through passages called "wind- flat or B natural. trunks " to the sound-boards over which the But the most considerable stride in im- pipes are arranged. The construction of provement was the division of the Hintersatz modern bellows, termed horizontal to distin- into separate registers, which could now be guish them from the old diagonal bellows ' used singly through the invention of the {g.v.), and for the invention of which organists spring-box. Prastorius, about 1619, describes are probably indebted to an Englishman, the slide-box as being quite common, and Samuel Green, who is known to have furnished further states that it had already been in use two organs with them in 1787 and 1788, for two hundred years, so that it must have may be best explained by the following been invented at the end of the fourteenth or figure the beginning of the fifteenth century, but was a long time gaining recognition. In the Fig. 1. beginning of 1500 the pipe-work itself had also begun to be perfected in different ways. Hitherto it had the scale of the principal throughout. Pipes began to be covered probably about 1530. In later times reed- pipes and pointed flutes came into vogue, and by degrees bellows of very thin board were put in the place of the old bellows, which were constructed in folds, and the port- able chamber-organ [Regals], since grown out of use, introduced. About the year 1677, Christian Former (born i6io) invented the anemometer. The top board a is substantially and strongly The mistaken zeal of the Puritans caused made of pine, ledgered at each end, or in a wanton destruction of organs and the dis- large bellows panelled ; some of the panels couragement of organ-building, so that when being moveable allow easy access to the a revival of interest in the instrument took interior for repairs. The middle frame b is place, it was found that England had lost her merely a surrounding frame of wood to which ancient supremacy, and there was no longer a is attached the lower edge of the upper ribs sufficient number of builders in the country. and the upper edge of the lower ribs. The Foreign organ-builders were invited to Eng- middle board c is slightly larger than the top- land, and the most celebrated of these—Bern- board, and on it rests a strong ridge d called

( 330 ) ORGAN CONSTRUCTION. the trunk-band or lining, to which the wind is constructed on the same principle as the trunks can be at any point joined, as at e. The little bellows of the cuckoo toy. bottom board / is the bottom of the feeder gh, and is sometimes nearly as large as the f Fig- 3- top board. In large bellows provision is for the due support of made the weight of the •r r y / -I top board by placing posts inside, or a ridge of wood extending the whole length of the middle board, of such a height that when a and h are at the position rest, a is touching the top of the posts or ridge. On the bottom of the middle board are a number of holes for the admission of air from the feeder, covered by leather valves or suckers, which fall and prevent the exit of the air by the way it came. The valves being hinged at one end only, rise for the entry of the air from the feeder, and then fall by their own weight. The bottom of the feeder/ is supplied with a similar set of suckers, or valves, so that the operation of " " blowing is as follows : To the end of/ are attached, in any way most convenient, the levers connected with the bellows handle, so that by its stroke/ is raised towards c. The atmospheric contents of the" fe.eder are then forced through the interior valves t t t and the top board rises. When / has reached its nearest point to c, and begins to return to its position in the figure, the leather valves fall over the openings t t ti and the air is forced by the heavy top board and its incumbent weights III I to depart by the only way open

to it, namely, by the wind trunk e. It will be noticed that one set of ribs is turned inwards, the other outwards. This ingenious though simple arrangement, which was first sug- gested by a clock-maker named Cummins, and immediately adopted" by Flight, the organ-

builder, ' entirely removes the inequality of pressure spoken of in the article on " diagonal bellows." But as the feeder/ is descending, no air can of course be supplied to the bel- lows. The simplest means of obtaining a constant supply of wind is to have two feeders, or, as it is termed, a double-feeder, which may, according to circumstances, be placed either under the side or end of the bellows.

Fig

i=^^=

As one feeder a is descending, the other h is the ascending. A like result is produced by because it use of the euckoa feeder, so-called ORGAN CONSTRUCTION.

Fig. 4.

When there is no air being forced through the trunk d, a reaches its nearest point to h. When the trunk is filled with compressed air the spring c just counterbalances it. When a sudden demand is made upon the contents qf the trunk d the spring forces a nearer to b ; when the air in the trunk is more than usually compressed, the spring allows a to recede from b.

(§ 4.) The wind-trunk is made of an oblong form, and is shaped so as to carry the air by the most convenient route, to the wind-chest, which is immediately under the sound-board. It will be perhaps better before entering into details to give at once a general idea' of the wind-chest and sound-board.

Fig- 5-

:/^^

The above figure (Fig. 5) represents a sectitfn of a sound-board and wind-chest viewed from front, a is the wind-chest into which compressed atmospheric air has been intro- duced either through the side or bottom, from the end of the wind-trunk b. The pallets ccc are held tightly against the openings d d d, leading from the wind-chest to the mouth of the pipes by springs underneath them, thus :

Fig. 6.

'

' \ ' :

ORGAN CONSTRUCTION. all the pipes placed over any one air-passage works of wood which keep the pipes in a d, it is evident that only those pipes must be perpendicular position. placed over d which belong to one particular note on the key-board. The air passage d is technically termed a groove, the wood which separates one groove from another is techni- cally termed a sound-board bar. Every row of keys on an organ will therefore have in connection with it a sound-board, having as JjlHHNi many grooves and pallets as there are notes in its compass ; and as many sliders as it has As the amount of room which an organ stops. Having made a slight digression in occupies is generally a matter of some im- order to give a general idea of the construc- portance, the pipes in the sound-board are tion of this important part of the instrument, rarely arranged in a straight line thus, it is now time to enter more into detail, and first, it will naturally follow that large pipes will require a larger groove and pallet than 0000 o oooo those that are smaller, hence the grooves vary in size throughout the whole sound- board.

(§ 5.) The usual arrangement of pipes on a but are placed slightly zig-zag, thus sound-board is to have the largest on the ° o outside, say on the right and left sides, and O ° o ° O then to proceed by degrees to the smallest but as the grooves run in the direction indi- which thus come nearest to the middle of the cated by the plain Hues, and the sliders as sound-board. But the arrangement of pipes indicated by the dotted lines, it is evident that must be spoken of again hereafter. If a such an arrangement only affects the piercing greater supply of wind than usual is required of the table, slider, and upper boards. The for the due speaking of any large pipe, two sliders might, if their edges touched one grooves may be allotted to that note. These another, disturb each other's position when double-grooves, as they are termed, are said pulled in and out ; to prevent this, between it is placed to have been first introduced by England, the each slider and that next to a strip of which organ-builder. By reference to Fig. 6, it will bearer or immoveable wood, be seen that the groove d runs much farther receives the weight of the upper-boards, and ' There back than the wind-chest a, a, a. This is, of to which the upper-boards are screwed. course, necessary where a large number of should of course be no pressure on the sliders, will hindered. stops has to be placed over it. The width otherwise theirfree movement be account of and depth of the grooves varies according to (§ 6.) Having thus given some the number of the stops, and the size of the the progress of the wind from the time it down of pipes. A sound-board is made by taking a enters the bellows until the drawing strong piece of wood of the required size, the pallet, and the position of the slider has into pipes and make turning it over and then glueing the sound- permitted it to enter the first, by what board bars to it, placing between the ends of them speak, it remains to show, pull the the bars pieces of wood caWed fillings in, the means the key is enabled to down next, by what method the stop'-handle width of the groove ; then the ends of the bars pallet; before and the fillings in which form the front and or register acts upon the slider. But neces- back (called the cheeks) are planed down and the former can be explained it will be covered firmly with a strong piece of ma- sary to say a few words as to the arrangement hogany or other hard wood. Then the wind- of the pipes on a sound-board, for on this will connec- chest, pallets, &c., cover over part of the depend to a great extent the kind of key and pallet. The simplest grooves, and the remainder (/, g. Fig. 6), the tion between place the openings of which have hitherto been exposed arrangement will of course be to right-hand side of the to view, are covered by parchment or leather. smallest pipe on the grada- This, of course, becomes the underside of the sound-board and to proceed thence by pipe the left-hand sound-board when it is turned over into its tion to the largest on suggested proper position. The wood to which the side. This would be naturally placed, grooves are glued now becomes the table, and by the order in which the keys are note, produced by the smallest is bored to admit air to the pipes. On the the highest

; note, pro- table are arranged the sliders, over the sliders pipe, being on the right the lowest left. This are the upper-boards, into the holes of which duced by the largest pipe, on the system, the ends (noses) of the pipe enter, above the arrangement is known as Vogler's upper-boards are the pipe-racks, simple frame- because that learned musician and organist

( 333 ) ORGAN CONSTRUCTION. brought it prominently before the public. of pipes in vogue, but of course exceptional But it has some great disadvantages, the positions for an organ necessitate exceptional chief of which are as follows : first, as the dispositions of the pipes. the means which lowest notes are produced by the largest pipes, (§ 7.) Before explaining all the largest pipes, and in consequence the connect keys with pallets, it must be pointed greater part of the weight of an organ, rests out that there are two kinds of keyboards or side which is played by the hands, on one of the sound-board ; secondly, the claviers, one of largest pipes occupy by far the greatest space, called the manual-clavier or manual; the hence, the left-hand side of a sound-board other played by the feet, called the pedal- must be proportionately roomy in length and clavier or pedals. The long keys of a manual covered depth ; thirdly, one end only of the wind-chest are generally made of lime-tree wood is taxed with the supply all ivory, and the short keys of ebony, or of the big pipes ; with lastly, if it is found necessary to convey wind some other wood stained black. Both long from the grooves to ornamental pipes standing and short keys are balanced on a ledge, of in the front, the distance is extremely great. wood called the pin-rail, 'because metal pins, In order to explain this last objection it must fixed into it and entering into punctures in be here stated that if a pipe does not stand in the keys, steady them perpendicularly whilst its proper place on the sound-board, either allowing them to move on them, as on pivots. because there is not room for it, or because it A similar rail passes immediately under the is placed at a distance in the front of the front of the keys, with another set of pins, to organ, a roughly made pipe of light metal is produce steadiness of movement, only these glued at one end into the proper hole and punctures do not go completely through the carried by any course most convenient, form- key as in the previous case. The pieces of ing sometimes the most fantastic shapes, to wood on each side of the manual, to which the base of the new position of the pipe, the the pin-rails are firmly fixed, are called key- other end is then firmly glued into a small checks. To prevent an undue rising of the hollow immediately under the pipe. There- key when the finger is suddenly removed, a fore, if conveyances (as these supplementary piece of board covered on, the underside with tubes are called) are very long, the pipe does baize, and loaded with lead, called the not speak very readily, the compressed air thumping-board, lies on the keys transversely when the pallet is opened, having to travel immediately behind the part which is used by from the place where the pipe ought to be, to the fingers. The pedal keys are made of oak, the spot where it may happen to be. The mahogany, or any hard wood, and work on third objection above stated may be sur- centres at the heel end, being steadied at the mounted by making larger wind-trunks and toe end. A spring under each key holds it in wider grooves. But even if there be no case position subject to the pressure of the foot. to an organ, the Vogler system has its dis- (§ 8.) On pressing down a manual key, the advantages, for the outline formed by an un- back of one key rises, and raises a sticker, broken succession of pipes from i6ft. to a few a thin piece of wood, round or square, and inches in length, standing side by side, in the of length varying from a few inches to a short space of a sound-board, can hardly be couple of feet, provided with a pin of wire rendered pleasing to the eye. The second firmly fixed in the upper end, which passes into system of arranging pipes has already been the end of the hack-fall, a horizontal lever, to alluded to, namely, that of placing the largest which is attached a tracker, a strip of light pipes alternately on the outside, proceeding wood provided with a tap wire and leather by degrees until the smallest are in the centre, button at the end, passing through the back- and the outline formed by the tops of the fall, and with a hook of copper at the end pipes nearly assumes the shape of a slightly connected with the, pull-down, thus— flattened V. The third system is the reverse of the above, the large pipes being placed in the middle and the small ones at the sides, the outline of the pipes will be therefore not unlike A. The fourth system is a compromise be- tween the first and second, most of the pipes being arranged semitonally, but some of the larger pipes being placed on either side. The outline of the pipes will, therefore, be of this kind. These four are the chief arrangements /a —

ORGAN CONSTRUCTION.

left hand side, smallest on the right), the back- When the stop is pulled out, the arms a a falls are arranged thus, on the back-fall frame, draw the trace b from right to left, the end of the trundle c being attached to the trace is moved in a similar direction, whilst the other end of the trundle d moves in an opposite direction, and draws out the slider. When metal trundles are used, this action is simplified. Sliders are sometimes made to so that the end of the back-fall may come move by means of small bellows placed under under the pull-down. This kind of move- them, which, upon being filled with com- ment is, from its appearance, called the fan- air, suddenly expand, and as they frame movement. pressed expand draw the slider. A large organ, it But if the pipes are arranged according to will be now understood, is practically several the second plan given, a piece of mechanism distinct instruments, not differing in the prin- called the roller-board comes between the ciples of their construction so much as in end of the back-fall and the puller down. It quality of tone. But if this were all, the is a series of rollers so arranged on a flat interior of an organ would appear very board standing upright, that whilst one end simple there are still to be considered those of the roller is under the pull-down, to which — contrivances which enable a performer to play it is attached by a second tracker, the other end upon more than one set of keys simultaneously. is over the corresponding back-fall, the back- (§ 10.) The draw stops producing combina- falls, in this case, lying parallel to each other. tions of manuals or of manuals to pedals are Thus, by means of the roller board, the finger terpied couplers. Suppose an organ to consist is enabled to communicate with pipes on either of four manuals and pedals, viz.: solo organ, side of the sound-board. The system employed swell organ, great organ, choir organ, and must, however, depend greatly on the position pedal organ, the couplers assigned to it would of the sound-board with relation to the keys. probably be "Solo to Great," "Swell to Great," Where corners intercept action, or where it " Swell to Choir," " Choir to Great," " Solo is necessary to carry actioi> at right angles, to Pedals," " Swell to Pedals," " Great to either horizontally or perpendicularly, squares Pedals," " Choir to Pedals." To these are are largely used. The square is of wood, and sometimes added couplers combiningthe super- of this shape, and generally in two r^^^-i" octave or sub-octave of the swell with the great, pieces, dove- '--^^^ -i tailed, so that no of the swell organ on itself. s'trainmay W cause one arm to snap or similar intervals The construction of unison manual-couplers off. The arms ^ are generally about 3 is generally of the following kind. A rod inches in length. The block in which the passes between the back of two sets of manual squares work is termed the square-frame. Of keys, which is pierced with a series of holes course the length of stickers, trackers, and in which are placed little stickers of this shape. back-falls must entirely depend on the space length of the sticker is the distance to be occupied by an instrument, or the position fThe between^he two sets of keys to be com- in which it is placed. Long stickers or trackers bined, so that when the lower one is are steadied by being made to pass through pressed down by the finger the sticker is holes in a flat piece of wood called a register. pushed up by the back of the key and raises The connection between pedal-keys and the back of the key lying above it. When not pedal-pipes does not differ in principle ffom required for use the coupler-stop leaves the that between manual-keys and manual-pipes, stickers standing in a hollow purposely made but from the usual position of the pedal organ in the keys, thus : squares have frequently to be used. draw-stop handle acts upon the (§ g.) The slider by means of a series of levers, the position of which varies greatly in different instruments. The most common system is called the wooden-trundle draw-stop action. a representing the coupler when ready for use, or " drawn," b when not required, and c the regulating button. The tumbler coupler is now almost obsolete. It consisted of a rod containing stickers, which were turned at an angle when not required for use thus : — - but it will be seen that if a "^^ coupler bf this kind is " C<^- " drawn while the fingers ''' are on the lower row of

( 335 ) —

ORGAN CONSTRUCTION. keys, the fingers will have to withstand a each of them part of the stops, changes of sudden pressure. This evil is avoided in combination are sometimes obtained by the modern coupler. Octave couplers, coup- pedals or pegs, called ventils, which admit ling the octave either above or below, are the wind to, or cut the wind off from, the of the backfall description. As the pedal- separate sound-boards. keys occupy more space than the manual- (§ 12.) The pneumatic action is a contrivance keys a roller-board is used, made on the same for lightening the touch of manual or pedal principle and practically for the same purpose keys by placing near each key a small bel- as that already described. One end of the lows, having two openings on the under side, roller is over the pedal-key and the other under one of which is a pallet in a chest of com- the manual-key desired to be affected. A pressed air, the other a waste-valve. The sticker rests on the end of the backfall, when following diagrams will explain this : the pedal-coupler is " out," but is thrown out of the perpendicular when the coupler-stop is " in." A coupler attaching the great to the swell organ, termed a sforzando coupler, CLOSED capable of being used for a single chord if required, is formed by a double backfall thus,

a*^ End of swell organ key.

End oi great organ . key. so that when a rises b is depressed and forces down c which in turn raises d. (§ II.) To enable a performer to make rapid changes of stops, short iron pedals are placed over the pedal-clavier, called composition- pedals or combination-pedals, whose office it is to produce certain definite arrangements of the registers when pressed down with the foot. A single-action composition pedal is one that When either the finger or foot is pressed draws out a certain number of stops, but does upon a key connected with k, the outer end of not alter the arrangement of the other stops the back-fall gg is pulled down, which opens on the same manual during the operation. A the pallet p. The compressed air in a then double-action composition pedal is one that rushes through the groove bb into the bellows has the power of drawing in any stops not cc, which rises and lifts with it all the action belonging to its prescribed combination which attached to it by I. As the top of the bellows cc may happen to be owf; for example, supposing rises, it lifts up the throttle-valve d (regulated the trumpet and sesquialtera on the great by the wire m) which prevents the ingress of organ are drawn out, and the foot is then any more compressed air by bb. But the placed on the composition pedal which draws action of the key on gg, which opened the out the diap3.sons, if the action of the pedal be pallet/! also allowed the double-acting waste- single the trumpet and sesquialtera will remain valve e to close, and the tape / hangs loose. out as the diapasons are drawn ; if the action The compressed air, therefore, as it is ad- be double, as the diapasons are being drawn out, mitted through bb cannot escape, but on the the trumpet and sesquialtera will be drawn in. other hand when the key releases the outer Composition pedals act by leverage either end of g, and lets it rise up again, the tape/ on the back of the draw stop handles or on becomes tightened and opens the waste-valve, the ends of the sliders, but it would exceed t^e bellows cc then drops into its closed the due limits of this article to explain even position. a few of the many systems of connection The principle of this invaluable inven- between composition pedals and sliders which tion was introduced by Mr. Hamilton oi are in use among organ builders. Pneumatic Edinburgh, or Mr. Barker. The latter gentle- bellows are not unfrequently employed for man succeeded in making its importance purposes of combining registers, and are understood by some leading French organ- often set in motion by small pegs or nobs builders, by whom it was at once adopted, projecting between the manuals, instead of and whence it found its way back to this iron pedals. In cases where several sound- country. English organ-builders have, how- boards are attached to one manual, containing ever, altered very much the original form of

( 336) ORGAN CONSTRUCTION. the pneumatic lever. The diagrams given of the same length, the cause of which is, above represent the lever as itnproved by the that in an open pipe the vibrating column of eminent organ-builder, Henry Willis, to air is divided by a node (or point of rest) at its whose talent organists are also indebted for centre, whereas in a closed pipe the column the compressed-air action instead of trackers, of air is undivided. An open metal flue pipe for long distances— a simple and safe com- consists of foot, and language, and body. munication between two sides of a church. The foot is that on which it stands, and into The organ in St. Paul's Cathedral which is which the compressed air enters. divided into three portions on this principle, the Pedal-organ being under one of the arches of the chancel, the great and solo organs on the north-side, and the choir and swell on the south-side, deserves to be called a master- LANGUAGE. piece of mechanical skill. The language is a flat piece of metal

(§ 13.) Organ pipes are divided, with refer- fastened by its edge to the top of the foot, ence to their and which by its shape, only material, into metal or wood ; permits the with reference to their manner of producing air to leave the foot in one direction. The tone, into reed and flue. Of the metals used in whole of the pipe above the foot and lan- making organ pipes tin is the best, lead the guage is termed the body. The lower edge worst. A mixture of tin and lead in equal of the body is indented in front thus, proportions is technically termed " metal." the indentation is called the leaf. The An excess in the relative quantity of lead lower edge of the leaf forms the upper renders " metal " of proportionately less lip and the corresponding edge of the value. Zinc is used sometimes for large foot which is also indented is termed n pipes, where cheapness is an object. Anti- the lower lip. The space between the mony may be used, but not in too great lips is termed the mouth. A wooden quantities, its brittleness being a serious flue-pipe consists of a foot, cap, block, drawback to its durability. Spotted metal is and body. The foot is a hollow wooden so called because of the mottled appearance tube on which the pipe stands, and of its surface. The spots are considered a through which the air enters into it. guarantee of a fairly good material, as they do not rise unless there is one third of tin in the metal. Metal is prepared for use by being, when melted, poured into a wooden The air on entering is arrested in its up- trough with a slit in the back, and passed ward course by the block. rapidly along a bench faced with tick. The thickness of the sheet of metal depends, of course, on the size of the slit in the trough. It is afterwards planed down carefully to an uniform surface. Deal, pine, and cedar, are the woods most commonly used for pipes ; more rarely, oak,

mahogany, maple, &c. ; , the harder woods being generally chosen for pipes to be used It, therefore, comes out towards the front in hot countries. through the throat, as the opening in the The tone of a flue-pipe is produced by the block is termed, and passes along the cap resonance of a column of air, which is set by which it is forced through the small in vibration by a current of compressed air opening between the top of the cap forced through a slit, over which is placed a (the under-lip) and the top of the block, sharp edge. The pitch is therefore dependent called the wind-way. The four boards on the length pf the pipe. The tone of a used in making the pipe form the body. reed-pipe is produced by a thin strip of metal The upper-lip of a wooden pipe is generally which is placed over the entrance of a tube, made' by bevelling off that part of the body of in such a manner that the compressed air, in the pipe just over the upper edge of the cap, trying to force its way into the tube sets the strip of metal into vibration. The pitch of the reed-pipe is, therefore, dependent on the number of vibrations of the reed (strip of metal), not necessarily on the length of the tube. (§ 14.) Flue pipes are of two kinds, open or closed. The tone of a closed pipe is, in its m pitch, an octave below that of an open pipe

( 337 ) —

ORGAN CONSTRUCTION,

but the mouths are sometimes inverted thus : bottom, having a narrow orifice over which lies the tongue, a thin elastic piece of brass large enough to cover the orifice .and its edges.

Occasionally also the block is superseded by a wooden " language," similar in its position It is kept in its position by a small wedge of forced into the orifice in the and office to that in a metal pipe, thus : wood which is block with the reed. The lower end of the tongue is therefore perfectly free. The tuning- wire is a piece of common wire bent in such a manner that a flat part of it lies across the tongue. By moving the wire from the outside, more or less of the tongue is a allowed to vibrate, and thus the pitch is regulated. The upper end stands just in front of the tube of wood or The block is sometimes bevelled off on its metal, into which the air passes when underside, while the cap remains straight, leaving the reed, apd which adds so ^\. thus : materially to the tone of a reed-pipe. \M is generally of In small pipes the tube \y^. \ metal, but in large pipes often of wood; V'-',' ^-' it is conical in shape if a full tone is

required ; if not, circular or circular with a

bell-top ; and is either soldered to the top of the block, as is the case in small pipes, or is KJ dropped into a small socket on the top of the block. Though, as before stated,the tube is not essential for the regulation of the pitch, its length and shape greatly influence the quality The following section of a flue- of sound produced. The closed reed is a reed pipe will probably make its construc- which a.dmits a much smaller quantity of tion clear: t is the foot through wind than the open or common reed. which air enters ; c the space between r (§ 16.) The free or common harmonium the block and cap; dethe slit through «^ reed is a reed the tongue of which does not which the air is directed to strike lie over the edge of the aperture, but is able against the lip, a b ; and r is inside to pass freely backwards and forwards. Hence of the pipe, which acts as a resonance- its name free, in opposition to the kind of box, i- reeds above described which are termed " per-

(§ 15.) A reed-pipe consists of a boot, Mock, cussion reeds." They are not commonly reed, tongue, wedge, tuning wire, and tube. used in organs, but are more often met with The boot is a metal case corresponding in continental than in English organs. somewhat in its office to the foot of a flue- (§ 17.) The swell organ is the successor of pipe, inasmuch as the weight of the pipe rests the old echo organ, a portion of a few to ?upon it, and through it the air passes stops enclosed in a wooden box in order upwards. The block is a round piece produce a subdued tone, or the effect of of metal fitting into the boot, pierced distance. In 1712, Abraham Jordan invented in two places, one to contain the reed, the " Nag's-head swell," as it was afterwards the other to admit the tuning termed. It consisted of an echo organ, wire. It would appear thus in having, instead of a fixed front, a moveable section. Into the larger orifice shutter working up and down in a window pedal on the right hand side of the the reed is forced, through the P sash. A raised ' and closed the shutter at smaller the tuning wire is passed. The rim performer thus producing a crescendo and dimi- prevents it from being forced into the boot will But the mechanism of this old by the superincumbent weight of tube. nuendo. " swelling organ " was most unsatisfactory. The reed is a brass tube rather wider at heavy pressure on the pedal was the bottom than the top, and closed at the A very (338) —

ORGAN CONSTRUCTION.

required before the shutter would stir, but measured in inches. The usual weight of once in motion it would often run up to its wind on the swell, great, and choir organs of extreme limit against the wish of the per- a church organ, is from two and a half to former, coming down to its closed position three inches, the pedal organ (where a sepa- again when the pedal was released with a rate bellows makes it feasible) receiving loud " bang." After half a century, England, rather a higher pressure. The fourth manual and Avery, and afterwards Green, made use or solo organ is nearly always voiced to a of the Venetian Swell, which consists of a very high pressure, as very fine effects are in series of shutters from six to ten inches in this way obtained both from reed and flue breadth, and from a half to two and a half pipes. Organs in concert rooms and public inches in thickness, each hung on an axis buildings are often voiced throughout to a one-third from the top of its breadth. The higher pressure than those in churches. The edges of each shutter are bevelled away at an average amount of surface weight on the bel- angle of about forty-five degrees, so that each lows required to produce a three-inch wind is two contiguous boards overlap each other, nine pounds and three quarters per super- and also are covered with felt in order to fit ficial foot. close, shut quietly, and shut in the sound (§ 21.) As regards the disposition of the vari- thoroughly. The inside of the whole box ous qualities of tone between the manuals, may be lined with thick brown paper, glued the choir organ, being as its name implies,

on to the wood-work ; this prevents the intended for the accompaniment of voices, escape of sound, and does not injure the generally receives stops of a delicate and sub- reverberation when the shutters are open. dued quality of tone, such as the Spitz- The Venetian Swell is so named because of flote, Gemshorn, Viol di Gamba, Dulciana, the similarity of the appearance of the Keraulophon, &c. The great organ being shutters to that of a common Venetian blind. required for grand effects, has allotted to it The shutters sometimes are placed perpen- the large scale Diapasons, together with a dicularly instead of horizontally, and occa- complete set of octave, twelfth, super-octave, sionally open at the sides or back, as well as mixture stops, and a proportionate number of in the front. large scale reed-stops. The swell organ has (§ i8.) The quality of tone, and to some a larger proportion of reeds than any other extent the pitch of pipes, whether they are manual, chiefly because of the fine effects they wood or metal, reed or flue, depends upon produce during the opening and closing of their shape or outline, their scale, and the the shutters of the swell box. The reed-stops pressure of the wind to which they are sub- are generally placed in the front of the swell ject. Metal pipes are in shape either cylin- sound-board, just inside the box, not only be- drical, conical, or inverted-conical, or sur- cause in that position the effect of a crescendo mounted by a bell whether cylindrical or is increased, but also because they are more conical. Wood pipes are four-sided, the easily within the reach of a tuner. The Pedal opposite sides being equal in width, or pyra- Organ, as an independent organ, cannot be midal, or inverted-pyramidal. said to have been known in England for more (§ ig.) By Scale is meant the relation than the last half century, although ap- between the width and length of a pipe. If parently always a constituent part of a good a pipe is wide in proportion to its length it is German instrument. The deepest tones (32

said to be of a large scale ; if narrow in pro- feet) are consigned to the Pedal Organ, as portion to its length of a small scale. Inas- also a large number of 16 feet stops, to serve much as scale affects to some degree the as a bass to the manuals, which have rarely pitch of a pipe, it necessitates a proportionate more than one or two of that pitch, on any alteration in its length, thus a pipe of a small separate manual. scale must be made somewhat longer than a (§ 22.) An organ is tuned by means of pipe of a large scale sounding the same note. hollow cones and (§ 20.) The amount of the pressure or weight reed - knives. The of wind is regulated by the weights placed former are used for on the bellows. It is found, by using a wind- tuning metal flue- gauge or Anemometer, a bent glass pipes, and are used tube, which is fixed into a socket, in this manner. If a and into which a little water is pipe is too flat, poured. On placing the socket on the apex of the cone one of the holes in the upper board is inserted into the of a sound-board, and admitting the top of the pipe, and the cone being forced in air from the bellows, the water is enlarges the orifice and raises the pitch. forced up the tube, and the difference between If a pipe is too sharp, a cone whose base is the level of the two surfaces of water is so broad that it will admit the top of the pipe.

( 339 ) ORGANETTO OTTETTO. is placed on the pipe and squeezed down Organetto (It.) A little organ. until the orifice is reduced in size, and the Organic Music. A mediaeval name for pitch is flattened enough. Cones are made instrumental music. of metal or wood, more often the latter, be- Organo (It.) Organ. Organo plena, the cause of its comparative lightness. Wooden full organ. flue-pipes are tuned, if stopped, by w Organochordium. An instrument having if pipes strings, Vogler. moving the stopper up or down ; fsfs and invented by open, by a piece of lead placed on Organo di legno. A claque bois. [Xylo- the back of the top of the pipe for the phon.] purpose. Organophonic. The name assumed by Large open wood pipes are a band of Polish performers, who imitated tuned by cutting off part of the the sounds made by various instruments with top if too flat, and by raising their mouths. a piece of wood screwed for the Organo portabile (It.) A portative organ. purpose near the top if too sharp. A small organ capable of being easily carried The largest metal-pipes have generally an about. opening at the back of the top, which can Organ-point. [Fugue.] be opened or closed as it is necessary to Organum. (i) An early form of harmony, make them flatter or sharper. called also diaphony [Descant.] (2) An organ. Organum hydraulicum {Lat.) Hydraulic organ. Organum pneumaticum [Lat.) The common organ. Orgel {Ger.) [Organ.] Orgelgehause [Ger.) An organ case. Orgel-punkt (Gen) A pedal point. [Fugue.] Orgue (Fr.) Organ or harmonium. Orgue expressif {Fr.) Harmonium. Orgue portatif {Fr.) A portable organ. Orificium {Lat.) The mouth of an organ- pipe. Original position. A chord is said to be Metal pipes, with soldered covers, with or in its original position when the ground-note without chimneys, are tuned by altering the is in the bass ; in other words, before it has position of the ears, which are made specially undergone inversion : or, when its upper long. notes are in the order 3, 5, 8. Ornamenti {It.) Grace-notes and other embellishments. Ornatamente, Ornato {It.) With em- bellishments. Orpharion. A kind of lute, having wire strings. [Lute.] Osservanza, con {It.) With exactness. Ossia (//.) Or else, as ossia piU facile, or else in this more easy way. (§ 23.) The reed-knife is a long piece of Ostinato {It.) Lit. obstinate, used in the common iron or steel in this shape, hence sense of " frequently repeated," as basso its name. ostinato, a ground-bass, q.v. Oton. An Indian wind instrument pro- c v ducing only a single sound, employed during The tuning wire is provided at its upper the dancing' of the Bayaderes. The player extremity with' a hook or projec- \ ! holds the oton in his left hand while with his tion by which the edge of the 1 ! right he beats a tambourine fastened to his I \ knife is able, by gentle taps, to I belt. [Tabor.] . 1 ,' gradually raise it. The wire isIS \r! Ottava {It.) An octave, as ottava alta (to pushed in by being struck on thehe U/ be played), an octave higher, ottava bassa, an top. By referring to the accountint \"W.'i^ db octave lower. of the tuning wire given in §15,* I Ottavina {It.) The little .or higher octave. it will be understood that raising Ottavino flauto {It.) [Flute.] the wire flattens the note, de- Ottemole. [Octuplet.] pressing it sharpens it. Ottetto {It.) A composition in eight parts.

( 340 ) ;

OUiE OXYBAPHON.

Ouie (Fr.) The hearing. fewer instruments were employed, so that the Ouvert (Fr.) Open, as a livre ouvert, at scoring might afford a strong contrast to the sight. other portions. A near approach to the Ouverture (Fr.) [Overture.] arrangement of the Sonata and Symphony Overblovw. A pipe is said to be over- was thus made, and the Italian overture or blown when the pressure of air forces it to " Sinfonia" may be called the immediate speak an over-tone, instead of its fundamental precursor of the symphony as it now stands. note. The modern overture dates from the latter Overtura di ballo (It.) An overture in part of the i8th century, and may be described the style of dance-music. in a few words as a composition in the form Overture. Overtura (It.) Ouverture of the first movement of a sonata, concerto, {Fr.) An introductory symphony for instru- or symphony, with the exception that the ments. It is usual to say that there are four sections are not always marked for repetition. kinds of overtures, two in the ancient, and It has occasionally a short introduction two in the modern style. This may be true in a slow tempo, of a marked and stately with regard to the limit placed upon the character. Its principal themes are often ancient overtures, but it is not entirely so taken from the work it precedes. Some- with respect to the modern ones, for they are times the "free fugue" style is chosen, and as various as the fancies of composers, and occasionally the sonata and fugue form are " defy all attempts to reduce them to classi- happily united, as in Mozart's overture Die fication. Zauberfliite." Old overtures may be arranged into two Many modern overtures consist almost en- classes, the French and the Italian, or to tirely of a series of clever contrasts indepen- describe them by the names of their reputed dent of form. These should be described as inventors into the Lully and Scarlatti over- medley overtures, though the medley overture tures. The Lully overture usually opened proper includes portions of the chief melodies with a slow and stately movement, by way of in an opera. One of the most effective works of introduction. The succeeding theme was this class is the overture to " Guy Mannering" treated in imitation in the old Canzona style by Sir H. R. Bishop. The invention of the if divided into sections, the first section ended medley overture is attributed to Richard in the key of the dominant if it began in a Charke, the son-in-law of Colley Gibber. major key, and in the relative major if it Overtures not connected with, or part of a larger work, are known as " Concert Over- , began in the minor. All kinds of free imitation were allowed in the next section. After this tures ! " but it does not follow that overtures a "grave" was repeated, and a minuet, or originally written as preludes to a special " some lively movement concluded the overture. work, may not be treated as Concert" pieces, This form is employed by Handel, Bach, even if the work to which they were attached Keiser, Telemann, Hasse, Graun, and other has ceased to be known. composers of the early part of the i8th Oxupycni (Med. Lat. from G^. djue, acute, century, with more or less alterations accord- and ffuKfoc, close.) Church Modes having a ing to fancy. When Sonata Form began to pycnon or semitone high in the tetrachord be understood, overtures in the form described e.g.: above were more rarely written, but the style Lydian^ Hypolydian. was not wholly disused until the commence- ment of the present century. The Scarlatti form of overture consisted of three movements or sections; the first and Oxybaphon {Gk.) 6h>^atj>ov. Lit. a vinegar third were quick or lively, and the second was jar. Hence (like the acetabulum) an earth- slow. In the slow movement, a change of pace, enware vessel used for experiments as to and also of accent or rhythm was used, and sound.

( 341 ) -PART-SONG.

One of the movements of P. Abbreviation oi piano, soft. Pantalon {Fr.) Paduana, Padouana. [Pavan.] a quadrille. [Parallel motion.] , irai&v. The ancient choral song Parallelbewegung. Consecutives. addressed to Apollo, named after its burden, Parallelen {Ger.) Parallel motion. The movement of two i(I» Traiai/. It was sung sometimes before at fixed intervals, as thirds, battle, and sometimes after a victory. Donald- or more parts Parallel fifths are under certain son thinks it probable that it was at first sixths. accompanied on the phorminx, which, how- limitations forbidden. [Consecutives.] [Greek music] ever, was afterwards superseded by the Paramese (Gk.) irapafdari.

irapayriTri. [Greek music. I flute. From the ancient Psean sprang Paranete {Gk.) [Greek music] the gymnopoedic, pyrrhic, and hyporchematic Parhypate {Gk.) Trapiurar?/. {It.) In a declama- dances. Parlando, Parlante Pseon. A foot consisting of one long tory manner, as if speaking. speaking, (i) In the syllable and three short. The position of Parlante {It.) Lit. recitative played in the style the long syllable can be varied in four ways, style of a ; (2) hence the is said to be primus, secundus, of vocal recitation. ; as. Sans paroles, tertius, or quartus. [Metre.] Paroles {Fr.) Words Pair of Organs. The word pair simply without words. of a piece of music, or means a set, and it is used in this sense Part, (i) So much any one voice or in the expression a " pair of stairs," or a work, as is performed by instrument Division of a work. " pair of scissors." It was formerly in more ; {2) Parte cantante, vocal general use than now, and " pair of cards," Parte {It.) Part. and " pair of beads," are met with in the old part. Partie {Fr.) tones. Those simple sounds which poets. A " pair of organs " means, then, an Partial sound and organ having a complete set of pipes. in combination form an ordinary Palalaika. [Balalaika.] cause its special quality of tone. [Acoustics.] {It.) Figured basses, used as Palco {It.) The stage of a theatre, &c. Partimenti Palilia. The rustic dance at the Festival exercises. [Score.] of Pales, in which the shepherds leapt round Partition {Fr.) Partitur {Ger.) and over burning straw. It may have been Partitura, Partizione {It.) [Score.] Music in two or more parts, to some extent the origin of the May-pole Part-Music. one person. dance. performed by more than vocal comp'osition, having Pallet. [Organ, 4.] Part-Song. A § by other parts Palmula (Lat.) Manual of an organ. a striking melody harmonized which counter- Pambe. small Indian drum. more or less freely, but from A The Pandean-pipes. [Pan's-pipes.] point is for the most part excluded. preva- Pandora. [Bandore.] Part-song owes its origin to the habit Pan's-pipes, or mouth-organ. The lent among the Germans of adding simple to their " Volksgesange." On earliest form of a compound wind instrument, harmonies harmonized airs, fresh undoubtedly the precursor of the organ. It the model of these compositions have from time to time been was the irtrpiyS of the Greeks, fistula of the little more elabo- Romans, and probably the ugab of the produced, sometimes with a construction than their models, Hebrews. It was formed of seven, eight, or ration in their that there is now an exten- nine short hollow reeds, fixed together by in such numbers, kind of music Alnaost wax, and cut in graduated lengths, so as to sive literature of this has its " Singverein," produce a musical scale. The lower ends of every town in Germany " " Mannergesangverein," all the reeds were closed and the upper open Liedertafel," or largely encourage this special class and on a level, so that the mouth could easily of which Germany Part-songs pass from one pipe to another. of composition. From and our Pantaleone. An instrument invented by have been imported into England, have produced a large Hebenstreit in 1705. It was a sort of dul- native composers of which are of great merit. cimer, but strung with catgut and metal number, many Part-song holds now the position which strings in two series. The

( 342 ) ;

PAS PASSING NOTE. the glee held in this country from the middle of the last century to the beginning of this, and which the madrigal held from the middle of the sixteenth to the middle of the seven- teenth century. The simplest form of Part- song is that in which the same music [tutti)

is repeated for each verse of the words ; the most elaborate that in which soli parts occur, or a separate solo accompanied by the other parts, either pianissimo or con boccha chiusa. Part-songs may be for soprani, contralti, tenori, and bassi, or for men's voices only. In the latter case, the upper part is in Germany sung by high tenors, but in Eng- land, where the alto voice is still cultivated by alti, the score includes an alto, two tenor parts, and a bass part, instead of the ordinary two tenor and two bass parts of those by German authors. A Part-song differs from a madrigal in its exclusion of contrapuntal

devices ; from a glee, in its being sung by many voices instead of by one only to each part. The treatment of the chords and the harmonica] progressions sufficiently stamp the madrigalian style, while the peculiar melodiousness of the inner parts of a glee, coupled with its special adaptability for chamber use, mark its character distinctly and on the other hand, the Part-song by its strong outlines and modern harmonization can easily be distinguished from a glee. Pas (Fr.) A dance, as pas seul, , a dance by one or two performers. A step, as pas redouble, a quick step, or march. Paspy. The English name for the dance Passepied, called also Passamezzo by the Italian and Paspie by the Spanish writers. It was a precursor of the minuet, some of the tunes called by the title Paspy resembling the minuet in rhythm and measure. Hawkins says it " is said to have been invented in Bretagne, and it is in effect a quick minuet." The old English writers call it passa-measure, passy-measure, passing-measure, or simply measure. It was a favourite dance in the time of Queen Elizabeth, and from the fact that ex- amples exist by writers as late as Purcell and Croft, it could not have been out of fashion in their time. PASPY. H. Purcell.

"

H^r r I r I* r PASSIONATAMENTE PASSION MUSIC.

which is not objectionable because it is a the congregation or choir. To one priest was fragment of a scale. It is a necessary cha- assigned the part of Jesus, to others those of racteristic of a passing-note, that it should Pilate, Judas, the High Priest, &c., and the have a degree of the scale on each side of it. connecting portions of the narrative by a Passing-notes having degrees of a diatonic narrator. All these parts were recited accord- scale on each side are said to be diatonic ; ing to the rules of the accentus ecclesiasticus, those having degrees of a chromatic scale on while the turbas or people's part was delivered each side, are said to be chromatic. in monotone. Passion was played at other ± if * * When the times than during the course of the service, it is supposed that the words were spoken with- out the aid of music. So popular did these plays become that as early as 1264 a company Diatonic passing notes. of monks was formed for the express purpose of performing the " Sufferings of Christ." Bayle, Burney, and others give a series of dates of several notable mediaval perform- ances of the Passion, for example, at Padua Chromatic passing notes. in 1243, at Friuli in 1298, at Civita Vecchia in the same year, at Paris before Philip le Bel, Passing notes generally occur on unac- and our own Edward II. in 1313, at St. Maur cented parts of a bar. When unessential near Paris in 1404, at Constance during the notes occur on accented parts of a bar, they Council in 1417, by the English fathers, at are generally called auxiliary notes, e.g. : Paris, on the entrance of the Kings of England and France into that capital in 1420, in the same city in 1424, in 1431 on the occasion of the entry of Henry VI. of England, as King of France, and at Poitiers with great magnifi- Passionatamente, passionate, pas- cence in i486. In the Imperial library at Paris sionate, con passione {It.) In an im- is preserved a copy of " Le MystSre de la passioned manner. Passion Jesus Christ," printed on vellum by Passione {It.) A cahtata founded on the Antoine Verard, 1490, in which a MS. note incidents of the Passion, or on the seven last describes the performance of this play at Metz words. and at Veximiel, with some curious details re- Passion Music. Music set to the narra- specting the representation at the latter place. tive of our Lord's Passion in the Gospels. In Rymer's " View of Tragedy," there is a Dramatic representations of the subject date quotation from the Register of the Parliament from a very early period, there being still ex- at Paris in which the Procureur General du tant a play ascribed, though somewhat doubt- Roi lays a complaint against four laymen fully, to Gregory Nazianzen, Bishop ofAntioch. for having undertaken to perform Christ's It is in 4th century Greek, and is entitled Passion and the Acts of the Apostles, " with a " xp'Toc uao-xwy." This, like many of the company of illiterate and incompetent men ; religious plays of a subsequent date, was de- ,that they had moreover introduced apocry- signed only to be spoken as in ordinary phal matters, and interlarded their plays with dramatic representations, and is independent drolls and farces, so as to spin out the play of musical aid. For, although music was and make it last six or seven months ; that occasionally employed to add to the attraction they had played for lucre, and made their of the performance of these Mysteries or performance so attractive that nobody went Miracle plays in early times, it was only in a to church, charity grew cold, and immoral secondary manner, and not so connected with excesses were occasioned." Their proceedings or inseparable from the action as in still later were stopped during the King's pleasure, and times, or in the form now known. Passion they were condemned to pay a fine of 800 plays are still occasionally performed in livres out of their profits. remote continental places, with music as an The reformation witnessed, among the accessory. many important changes to which it gave The dramatic performance of the Passion rise, the modification of the representation arose in imitation of the ancient custom, still of the Passion. Luther encouraged the con- observed in the Roman Catholic Church of tinuance of the practice, and a development dividing the recital of the Gospel of the of the ancient custom by which the several Passion in Holy Week between two, three, incidents told in the gospels were recited by or more readers, assigning those parts which different individuals, gave opportunities to reproduce the words of the people (turbas) to the composers of the period to set music of

( 344 ) PASSY.MEASURE PATIMENTO. their own to the story, in the place of the who added to the Bible narrative, soliloquia, traditional church tones, and by this means or reflections for the "Daughter of Sion," the story was told, not only at the times com- and " The Believing Soul." Telemann, manded by the ritual of the church, but at Mattheson, and Handel set Brockes' poem other periods, in other places, and on other to music, and traces of the influence of the occasions. One of the first versions of the poem are to be found in Bach's Matthew text of these improvements was printed at " Passion." A statement is made by Rietz that Wittenberg in 1573, with the music for the in the MS. score in Bach's handwriting certain recitative and the choruses for the turbee in solos, and solos with chorus, are marked as four-part harmony. The author of this in- though they were to be sung by the Daughter teresting specimen of composition is unknown, of Zion, or Zion, or the Faithful. As there though some writers attribute it to Antonio are several pieces in both the existing works Scandell. Fifteen years later, namely, in on the Passion by Bach (the St. Matthew and 1588, Bartholomasus Giise, or Gese, produced the St. John), similar, if not identical with a more elaborate composition, in which the Brockes' soliloquia, there is a reasonable expressions uttered by the priests, people, ground for believing the statement of Rietz. or disciples, were called by the general name The credit of the introduction of the chorale " Turba." These were set in harmony or has been assigned to Bach, but although he plain-song and sung in chorus. The words employed it freely, Telemann, Mattheson, and of our Lord, of Peter, Pilate, Judas, the High Handel, also used chorales in their works Priest, &c., were usually sung by separate on the Passion. The earlier writers, Gese,

solo voices ; but in the work of Bartholo- Schutz, Keiser, and Sebastiani did not use mseus Gese, a different practice is resorted the chorale as Bach probably did, with the to. The words of the maid-servant are set design of enlisting the voices as well as the for two voices, thoge of Peter and Pilate for sympathies of the congregation. Bach three, those of the Saviour for four. In this selected from among a wealthy store of well work, the words of Holy Scripture alone are known hymn-tunes those which had the used as the text. greatest influence over the minds of German There was little attempt to vary the old plain- worshippers, tunes set to various words in- song in the early settings of the Passion, separably associated with the sentiments, until Heinrich Schutz, or as he sometimes affections, life, and citizenship of the people. styled himself in accordance with the fanciful Passy-measure {Old Eng.) A corruption custom of his time, Henricus Sagittarius, of the word passu mezzo. [Paspy.] introduced a new feature into the Passion Pastete {Ger.) [Pasticcio.]

music ; that of the reflective chorus, as sup- Pasticcio {It.) Lit. a pie, or pasty. posed to be sung by the " Christian com- Pastiche {Fr.), Pastete {Ger.) An opera, munity,"—and while the greater part of his cantata, or other work, the separate numbers harmonies are based upon the old church of which are gleaned from the compositions modes, there is a noteworthy attempt in his of various authors, or from several discon- recitatives to free himself from the accentus nected works of one author. ecclesiasticus, and to make them more in- Pastiche {Fr.) [Pasticcio.] dependent. The design thus suggested was Pastoral, (i) A simple melody in six- carried out by Johann Sebastiani, who was eight time in a rustic style. (2) A cantata, organist and Kapellmeister at Brandenburgh, the words of which are founded on pastoral in 1672, to whom also the introduction of incidents. (3) A complete symphony, wherein orchestral, in the place of an organ accom- a series of pastoral scenes is depicted by paniment, is due. A still further deviation sound-painting, without the aid of words. from the ancient plan was made by Reinhard Pastorale {It.) [Pastoral.] Keiser at the beginning of the i8th century. Pastorella {It.) A short pastoral. Taking, instead of the gospel narratives of Pastorelle {Fr.) [Pastorella.] the Passion, original poems on the subject Pastorita. A shepherd's pipe. Fistula as his libretto, he made his " Passiori pastoricia {Lat.) An organ stop, the Nacht- Music " of like character with his many horn. operas. In one of these works, " Der Pastourelle {Fr.) One of the movements Blutige und Sterbende Jesus," the libretto by of a quadrille. " Menantes, he employs the term " soliloquia Pateticamente, Patetico {It.) In a to. describe the reflective or interjaculatory pathetic manner. passages set in " arioso recitative," so fre- Path6tique, Pathetiquement {Fr.) In quently employed later by John Sebastian a pathetic manner. Bach, Patimento {It.) Suffering, as con espres- The words of Reinhard Reiser's " Passion" sione di patimento, with an expression of were written by Brocies, a poet. suffering. (345^ — ;

PAUKEN PAVAN.

Pauken (Ger.) [Kettle-drums.] PAVAN, TRANSLATED FROM TABLATURE IN WOLF MECKEL'S "LAUTTEN BUCK," 1562. Pausa (Lat.) A sign for silence. A rest.

Ancient authors allowed four kinds of rests : the long res.t being a perpendicular stroke drawn from a line to the second line below J=J= the breve rest, a similar stroke from line to ^ line ; the semibreve rest, a stroke com- mencing from any line, and descending half

Way between the lines ; the minim rest, the reverse of the semibreve, that is, a stroke ascending half way between the two lines; the semiminima rest (crochet), a line equal to half the distance between the lines, but bent to the left. These are, of course, practi- cally the same as modern rests, but the way in which they were written was far from preventing confusion. There were also varie- ties of form or position to indicate rests in triple or common time.

Pausa (It.) A rest or pause. Pausa generate, a rest or pause for all the per- formers.

Pause (Fr.) (i) A rest or pause ; (2) a bar's rest. Pavan. A dance tune of a stately cha- racter, deriving its title from Padua, where it is said to have been invented. Others find the origin of the word in " Pavo," a peacock, because it was danced with " such circum- stance of dignity and stateliness." Morley's " Introduction to Practicall Mu-

sicke," speaks of it in these terms : " The next in grauitee and goodness vnto this is called a pauan, a kinde of staide musicke, ordained for graue dauncing, and most commonly made of three straines, ^^^^m whereof euerie strain is plaid or song twice. A straine they make to contain 8, 12, or 16, semi-briefs, as they list, yet fewer than eight I haue not seen in any pauan. "After every pauan we vsualy set a galliard. The Italians make their galliards (which they

tearm salta relly ) plain, and frame ditties to them, which in their mascaradoes they sing and dance." By this it would appear that the galliard and the pavan, when played upon the virginals, harpsichord, or spinet, formed a primitive sort of suite or sonata. That the pavan was not used entirely for the dance maybe gathered from the title of a

' work published by John Dowland, ' Lachrymse or Seaven Teares, figured in Seaven pas- sionate Pavans, with divers other Pavans, Galliards, and Almands." The pavan, when in duple time, is not unfrequently spoken of as a " quadron or quodran pavan." The " saltarello " or " salta relly," as Morley calls it, was in triple measure. When the pavan was played faster it was called a passamezzo. (346) PAVANA PERDENDO.

Pavana (It.) [Pavan.] Peg of an Instrument. A small round Pavane {Fr.) [Pavan.] piece of wood or metal, placed in a hole, or Paventato, Paventoso {It.) With an two holes, so as to be capable of being turned expression of fear. round, and pierced to receive that end of a Pavilion {Fr.) The bell of a horn, or string or wire which is not fixed. It is pre- other instrument of a like kind. Flute a vented from slipping round under the in- Pavilion {Fr.) an organ stop, the pipes of fluence of the tension of the string or wire, which are surmounted by a laell. Pavilion either by being made slightly tapering in chinois, an instrument consisting of little form, and then forced into its hole as in a bells attached to a staff. violin ; or by being made with serrated edges, Pectis. A Greek instrument of the lute as in a pianoforte. The outer end of the peg or dulcimer kind. expands into a broad flat surface which can Ped: Abb. (i) of pedal. In pianoforte be easily turned round between the thumb music a direction to press down the pedal and forefinger, or has a four-sided head on which raises the dampers. (2) Of pedals. to which a key can be fixed. In organ music a direction that the lowest Penillion singing. A Welsh custom of part is to be played by the feet. singing improvised verses on a given theme Pedal. Any projecting piece of metal or to a melody either well-known or then and wood which is to be pressed down by the there learnt from the harper who accompanies foot, (i) On the pianoforte there are usually the Penillion. There is a similar custom two pedals, one of which enables the per- among the Hungarian gipsies called the former to play only on one string {una corda); "Verbunges." [Dutch concert.] the other, to remove the dampers {sordini). Penorcon. An obsolete instrument of (2) On the organ there are combination the guitar family, somewhat broader and pedals, which alter the arrangement of the shorter than the Pandora, with a very broad registers, and a pedal clavier or keyboard, on neck over which passed nine brass strings, which the feet play. (3) On the harp there which were played upon by the fingers. are pedals, each of which has the power of Pentatone. An interval of five whole flattening, sharpening, or making natural, tones, an augmented sixth. one note throughout the whole compass of Pentatonic scale. The name given by the instrument. Carl Engel to the ancient musical scale Pedal-claviatur {Ger.) The pedal key- which is easiest described, as that formed by board of an organ. the black keys of the pianoforte. It consists Pedal coupler. An accessory stop of an of the ist, 2nd, 3rd, 5th, and 6th degrees of a organ, by means of which the pedal keys are modern diatonic scale, e.g. : enabled to draw down the keys of a manual. Pedale (It.) (i) A pedal key of an organ. {2) A pedal note, or pedal point. [Fugue.] diminutionem, (3) The pedal of a pianoforte, which raises Per {Lat.), by, as per by inversion. the dampers. diminution ; per inversionem, by

Pedalfliigel {Ger.) A pianoforte, to Per {It.), by or for ; as, per il violino, for which a set of pedal keys is attached. the violin. Pedaliera {It.) The pedal keys of an organ. Percussion. An ingenious contrivance Pedalion. A set of pedals acting upon whereby a hammer strikes the tongue of a strings, producing notes of a deep pitch, so reed and sets it in motion simultaneously constructed as to be capable of being used with the admission of air from the windchest, with a pianoforte. thus securing the' rapid speech of the reed. Pedal-pipes. The name given to the one Were it not for the percussion, the reed would stop which was often, in former times, in be only gradually set in motion by the ad- this country the sole representative of an mission of the current of air, and the sound independent pedal organ. It generally con- would not instantly follow the striking of the sisted of open wooden pipes of a large scale. key. It is commonly used in harmoniums, Pedal Sound-board. The sound-board but has also been applied to the largest reeds containing the pipes belonging to the pedal of an organ. organ. Percussion of a discord. The striking of Pedicula, Scabella, or Scabilla {Lat.) a discord, which takes place after its prepara- [KpovTre^a.l [Croupeza.] tion, and which is followed by its resolution. Pedarii, Podarii, and Pedicularii. The Percussione {It.) The striking of a beaters of time in the performance of Greek chord. music. It was done with the foot, which Perd. Perden. Abbreviations of was furnished with wooden or iron sandals Perdendo, Perdendosi {It.) Losing time tor the purpose. [Croupeza.] and power, implying both dim. and rail.

( 347 ) "

PERFECT PIANO DROIT.

Perfect. Complete, (i) Perfect cadence, Pesante [It.) With weight, or importance. an authentic or plagal cadence. [Cadence.] Impressively. (2) Perfect concord, a common chord in its Petite flflte {Fr.) Kleine Flbte {Ger.) original position. (3) Perfect consonance, Piccolo. [Flute.] the consonance produced by the intervals Petite mesure a deux terns {Fr.) Two- fourth, fifth, or octave. (4) Perfect in- four time. ' terval, one of the divisions of intervals. Petteia {Gk.) Aterm of Greek ' Melopoeia. [Interval.] (5) Perfect time. An old name Perhaps the same as extensio, the holding out for triple time. of a sound, or its frequent repetition to Perfetto (It.) Perfect (of intervals, &c.) different words or syllables. Perijourdine. A song-dance, a ballad, Petto {It.) The chest. Voce di petto,the named after the district in which it was used. . {Fr.) Little by little, gradually. CHANSON A DANSER DE SARLAT EN PERIGORD. Peu a peu Pezzi {It.) Pieces, as pezzi concertanti, concert pieces or concerti ; pezzi di bravura, pieces for the display of rapid execution and manual dexterity. P.f., abb. of (i) Pianoforte. (2) Piano, forte, soft then loud. (3) PiiL forte, louder. Pfeife {Ger.) Pipe, fife, little flute. Pfeifenwerk {Ger.) The pipe work (of an organ), including both reed and flue pipes. Phantasie {Ger.) [Fantasia.] Phantasy, pi. Phantasies {Old Eng.) [Fancy.] Phonascus {Lat., from Gk. ^wvao-Ko'c). A master who trained the voices of those who were preparing themselves for orators, singers, &c. Phonometer. An instrument for ascer- taining the number of vibrations of a given Period, Periode '{Fr.), Periodo (It.) A sound. complete musical sentence. [Form.] Phorminx {Gk.), (^opjutyf. The ancient Periodenbau (Ger.) The construction of lyre or cithara, which had probably not more musical periods. than seven strings. [Lyre.] Periodic Vibration. [Acoustics, § 9.] Phrasing. The proper rendering of music Period of Vibration. [Acoustics, § 3.] with reference to its melodic form. A per- Perle (Fr.) Lit., pearled. Cadence perlee, former who brings into due prominence the a brilliant cadence. pearly touch is an ex- A grouping of sounds into figures, sentences, pression of our own for a delicate and bright &c., is said to phrase well. Formerly the touch in playing the pianoforte. phrasing of music was left to be discovered Perpetual canon. canon so constructed A by the intelligence and taste of the performer. that it may be repeated constantly without Modern writers use various signs as indica- a break in the time or rhythm. [Canon.] tions of their wishes, such as, the slur, sf, Per recte et retro. species A of imita- &c. [Expression.] tion in which the antecedent is repeated at Piacere, a {It.) At pleasure (the time the unison, reading the notes backwards. be modified at the performer's pleasure). following chant The by Dr. Crotch is a sim- Piacevole, Piacevolezza con, Piace- ple example. The numbers over the bars volmente {It.) In a playful or light style. will the retrogressive show movement. Pleasantly. 6 Piacimento {It.) [Piacere.] Piangendo, Piangevole, Piangevol- mente {It.) As if weeping. In a plaintive manner. Pianette {Fr.) A small pianoforte. - "' Pianino {It.) [Pianette.] Pianissimo {It.) As softly as possible^" abbd. pp. Piano (/f.) Softly, abhd. p. Piano a queue (Fr.) A grand pianoforte. Piano carr6 {Fr.) A square pianoforte. Piano droit {Fr.) An upright pianoforte. (348) PIANOFORTE.

Pianoforte, Forte-piano {It.) Ham- more than one sound could be produced from merclavier, Fliigel {Ger.) (i) A stringed the same string. Forkel says that " Bach instrument with a key-board. The name soft- delighted in the instrument as he considered loud was given to it because the gradations of it best for study, and, in general, for private sound are under the control of the performer. musical entertainment. He found it most (2)- It is a development of the harpsichord, convenient for the expression of his thoughts, which in itself was an improvement upon the and he did not consider it possible to produce clarichord and spinet, but it differs from each such a variety in the gradations of tone from in the manner in which the tone is produced any harpsichord or pianoforte as from the and the strings set in vibration. In the earlier clavichord." instruments this was effected by the scratch- The names clarichord, manichord and ing of quills or hard leather, acting as plectra. monochord were also applied to the clavichord. In the pianoforte the strings are struck by The clavicymbalum, mentioned above, means of hammers. The dulcimer is un- differed from the clavicytherium and clari- doubtedly the origin of the pianoforte ; in fact, chord in having strings of steel wire, which the pianoforte is nothing but a keyed dulcimer. were set in vibration by means of quill plectra. The possession of" keys " and other mechanism The clavichord is frequently mentioned by often assisted the makers in finding titles for writers of the sixteenth and seventeenth cen- the early instruments. Thus we find key- turies in such a manner as to show that the board instruments called clavicytherium, or instrument was in general use at that period. keyed cithara ; clavichord, or string struck by were made in Germany as late means of a key ; virginells or virginal, from as the middle of the eighteenth century. The the rods attached to the keys ; spinet, from last maker of any note, according to Dr. the quills which struck the strings, and clavi- Rimbault, was Kramer of Gottingen, " some cymbalum, from cembalo one of the Italian of whose instruments may still occasionally titles for a dulcimer. be met with in the old baronial residences (3) The clavicytherium, clavierharpe, cla- with which that romantic country abounds." viercither (Ger.) is supposed to be the oldest (5) The virginal, or spinet, used a long of the stringed instruments with a key-board. time during the same period, gradually super- It was at one time arranged in an upright posi- seded the clavichord in England and else- tion, but was afterwards placed in a horizontal where. It was an improvement upon the position similar to the grand pianoforte of the clavicytherium, having brass instead of gut- present day. The earliest representation of strings. The plectrum was of quill, attached the instrument is to be found in the " Musur- to the tongue of a piece of wood called " a gia seu praxis musicse " of Luscinius, Stras- jack." When the key was struck the jack string, bourg, 1536 ; but the picture, as well as the rose up, forced the quill past the and accompanying description, is very vague, and set it in vibration. The quill remained above it is therefore difficult to gain a correct idea the string so long as the key was held down. of its construction. According to the picture As soon as the finger was moved from the and description, the clavicytherium must have key, the jack returned to its place, when a been an oblong box with a lid, having a num- small cloth damper on its top checked the ber of catgut strings arranged in triangular vibrations of the string. form. When the keys were pressed the strings were set in vibration hy plectra of hard leather. (4) The clavichord, clavicordo (It.), Clavier (Ger.) had strings of wire instead of gut. In other respects it was at first identical with the clavicytherium. The " action was simply a brass wedge or tangent, which was placed vertically at a point where it could be struck VIRGINAL AND or pressed against its proper string; this wedge could be held against the string as HARPSICHORD JACK. long as required by the firm pressure of the finger. It thus formed the wrest-pin for the string, which vibrated only while the key was held down." The shorter length of the string had a cloth or list damper which checked the vibration of the whole length of the string when the finger was raised from the key, allowing the tangent to return to its place. The tangents struck and " stopped " the In " Musick's hand-maid, new lessons and strings like a violin player's finger, so that instructions for the virginals or harpsichord,"

( 349 ) PIANOFORTE.

" c. 1660, it is said, that the virginals, accord- (7) The Harpsichord, or horizontal Harp, ing to the ancient standard, were made to had sometimes two rows of quills and jacks, contain 29 keys (with the half notes 48 keys), and there was a contrivance by means of but of later times they add to that number which one set of jacks could be moved out of both above and below." It was usually placed reach of the strings if the player desired a upon a table or stand when performed upon. soft effect. If power was required the me- The instrument was a favourite one in the chanism was moved so that both rows of time of Queen Elizabeth, and continued to jacks could act upon the string at once. be popular until the commencement of the Additional rows of jacks and additional key- eighteenth century. boards were added to^ the Harpsichord until The virginals or were sometimes it became a very intricate piece of mechanism. highly ornamented with inlaid work of different The effects produced were pleasing but very woods, and sometimes with mother-of-pearl weak. Some had three and and precious stones. It is needless to say even four strings to each note, so arranged that these ornaments did not improve the that, upon using certain " stops," the octave tone. above or below the strings could be sounded. It was difficult to keep such an instrument in A " PAIR OF VIRGINALS." tune. The quills in a well -used instrument required constantrenewal;and, as the process of " quilling" took some hours, tortoiseshell, ivory, and leather plectra were sometimes substituted for quills, but not with any per- manent success. The general appearance of the Harpsi- chord may be imagined from the subjoined drawing of Handel's Harpsichord, presented by Messrs. Broadwood and Sons to the South Kensington Museum.

Handel's harpsichord.

(6) The Spinet, absorbing the title of the Virginal, the instrument next in historical order, differed from the older Virginals in that it was always of a triangular shape.

SPINET, OR COUCHED HARP.

The action of the Harpsichord may be seen upon reference to the following diagram.

It had the wires carried over a bent bridge, which modified their sounds. Like the Vir- ginal it was furnished with one string to each note, which string was set in vibration by means of the jack before described. The following is a diagram of the Spinet or Clavichord action.

K Key, J Jack, S String.

Harpsichord makers made many attempts to improve their mechanism so that the per-

K Key, J Jack, and S String. former might gain expression in playing.

( 3S0 ) PIANOFORTE,

Fetis, in his " Sketch of the History of the Cristofali's invention was earlier by five Pianoforte," says that " Harpsichords were years. It was made known in 171 1, and constructed with more than twenty different there is little doubt, from the description of modifications, to imitate the sound of the the instrument existing, that, of the above- harp, the lute, the mandohne, the bassoon, named makers, Cristofali has the strongest the flageolet, the oboe, the violin, and other claim to the invention of the pianoforte. instruments. In order to produce these The description, which is too long to quote different effects new rows of jacks were here, is printed in Rimbault's " History of the added, which were furnished with various Pianoforte." It was originally inserted in the materials for dampers ; and yet, with all the " Giornale de Litterati d'ltalia," Venezia, complications of stops, springs, extra rows of 171 1, and its title runs thus : " Nuova inven- keys, and Venetian swells over the strings, zione d'un gravicembalo, col piano e forte ; the grand secret—the real shading of the aggiunte alcune considerazioni sopra gli piano and forte—was still wanting." strumenti musicali." By this account it is Godfrey Silbermann of Freyburg, about the shown that Cristofali made improvements in middle of the eighteenth century made several every part of the instrument. The invention improvements in the harpsichord, by lighten- is also claimed for Father Wood, an English ing the touch, and extending the keyboard. monk at Rome, who made a pianoforte in He also advanced one step towards the inven- 171 1, and sold it to Samuel Crisp, who re-sold tion of the pianoforte by constructing his it to Fulke Greville. It admitted of much clavecin d'amour in such a manner that the greater expression than the existing harpsi- tangent, which he restored, struck the string chords, but it was incapable of rapid execution. in the middle, leaving each half to vibrate This particular instrument became very cele- freely. brated, and was known as " Mr. Greville's The compass of the harpsichord, originally pianoforte." only three octaves, was gradually extended to In 1760 some German makers settled in five. Many of the Italian and Dutch harpsi- London, and gave an impetus to the new chords were ornamented with elaborate paint- instrument. A succession of improvements ings inside the lids, often the work of famous were made from time to time by such makers artists. as Broadwood, Erard, Stodart, Clementi, The most famous of the harpsichord makers CoUard, Wornum, Hopkinson, Brinsmeadand of England in the last century were Kirkman, others, and the instrument has arrived at a Schudi, and Broadwood. wonderful degree of perfection, chiefiy through (8) It is difficult to determine now who was the labours and thoughtfulness of Englishmen. the original inventor of the pianoforte, as it The compass of the instrument, originally appears, by the evidence brought forward, to five octaves, has been gradually increased have been conceived by three persons, very to seven. The mechanism, however varied nearly, if not actually at one and the same it may be by the several makers, is as time : a German organist named Schroter, ingenious as it is effective. a French harpsichord maker named Marius, (g) There are four chief parts of a piano- and an Italian named Bartolomeo Cristofali. forte : the back or framework, the sounding- In 1717 Schroter, when only eighteen years board, the mechanism or action, and the case. of age, constructed the model of a "Clavier," The construction of the framework is of great with hammers upon which one could play importance, for as it has to bear the enormous loudly or softly, which model was exhibited tension of the strings, a tension amounting, at the Court of. Dresden, and received the in a full-sized grand piano, to sixteen tons, it approval of the Elector of Saxony. His is necessary that it should be strong and invention was copied by Silbermann of durable. The method of " framing," though Strasbourg, Stein of Augsburg, and Spatt of varied in details by several makers, is upon Dresden, without acknowledgment or profit the same broad plan. " The strings are to the author. Silbermann submitted two of fastened to pins upon a wrought iron string- his instruments to the judgment of Bach, who plate, which is curved to follow the hollow praised the mechanism, but found fault with side of the instrument. From this plate, and the tone. Silbermann ultimately conquered fastened to it, metallic bars or tubes are this defect, and produced an instrument which extended parallel to and above the strings, Bach pronounced faultless. their ends being so connected with the string- Marius is said to have " submitted two plate at one end, and the wrest-plank at clavecins a maillets to the examination of the the other, as to take upon themselves the Acad6mie des Sciences, in February, 1716." whole tension of the strings. At the same

The mechanism was very imperfect ; a piece time the string-plate, being screwed down of wood covered with sheepskin fastened at firmly upon the wooden bracings or framing the end of each key formed the hammers. below, the whole forms one combined trussing

(351 ) PIANOFORTE,

lo which both wood and iron contribute to motion given to the hammers when the keys the strength. The reason for the use of so were pressed caused them to strike the strings, great a quantity of metal in the grand piano after which they immediately fell back on is, that the wood framing under the strings to their buttons, leaving the struck strings is necessarily severed completely across the free to vibrate. This was called the " single opening through which the hammers rise to action." As the hammer, when resting on strike the under part of the strings." The the button with the key pressed down, was bracing or " back-making " is simpler in up- necessarily at a little distance from the string, right pianofortes. There is no opening through the effectual working of this action required the framing for the hammers to pass, and that a certain impetus should be communi- there is less strain to be resisted. The cated to the hammer to enable it to touch the "sounding-board," usually made from the string. Hence it was next to impossible to best Swiss fir, is carefully selected and pre- play very piano. This defect was remedied pared, and its edges attached to the framing by the invention of the " Hopper," a jointed so as to leave the central part to vibrate freely upright piece attached to the back end of the under the strings when they are struck. key in place of the wire and button. To The " mechanism " or " action," that is, prevent the hammer rebounding on the string, the keys, hammers, and dampers, when a projection called the " check" was fixed on inserted in the instrument, leaves it ready for to the end of the key. This caught the edge of the finisher and tuner. the hammer as it fell, and prevented it from There are differences of detail in the action rising. In this mechanism it was impossible

as constructed by different makers. ' Some to repeat a note until time had been allowed are more complicated than others, but all are for the full rise of the key. This was remedied upon the same broad plan, only modified in in " repeating or repetition actions," which shape and arrangement. The following hold up the hammers while the key is returning. diagram will show the action in use as early The upright action was invented for the as 1777, called the horizontal or common- purpose of constructing pianofortes whose grand. mechanism might be confined within a limited space. By means of this invention a piano- COMMON ACTION TO GRAND PIANOFORTES. forte can be made which will occupy a space D about a fourth of the depth of the "grand." The names given to such instruments are many and sometimes fanciful, though most of them indicate the object for which they were contrived. Many of these upright actions are very ingeniously arranged, as the following K Key, H Hammer, E Escapement, J Jack, D Damper, diagrams will show. S String. BROADWOOD's upright action. PLAIN COTTAGE. In the " first patent for pianofortes," the — above is the drawing as given in the specifi- cation, but no claim is made by any one maker to its invention.

VIENNA PIANOFORTE ACTION. D

K Key, H Hammer, D Damper, J Jack, S String.

The invention of the Vienna action is generally attributed to an organ builder of Augsburg. Its principle of action was adopted by almost all the makers in Germany. (lo)Thefirstpianofortes had the mechanism so arranged that the hammers were raised from below by buttons attached to upright wires fixed at the back ends of the keys. The K Key, H Hammer, D Damper, S String.

( 352 ) — ; —;

PIANOFORTE SCORE PICCOLO FLUTE.

BROADWOODS UPRIGHT CHECK ACTION. (12) Pianofortes have been named (i) from their shape or supposed resemblance to well known objects. Thus, the grand pianoforte has been caWedSchweinskopf from its likeness to the profile of a pig's head, and FZu^eZ, be- cause it is like a bird's wing. Upright have been called giraffes from their tall appear- ance, and horizontal ones have been called couched harp, or square pianoforte ; the latter should more correctly be oblong; (2) the number of strings used for each note for a considerable part of the compass also serves to describe pianos of some sort, as bi-chord, tri-chord, &c. ; (3) the purpose for which pianos have been made, whether for the cottage, boudoir, drawing-room, or concert- room, and (4) the size, as piccolo, semi-grand, and full grand. Pianoforte score. A score of a vocal or instrumental composition, K Key, H Hammer, D Damper, S String. under which is written in two lines a condensed form of the harmonies for the use of a pianoforte. broadwood's grand action. Pianograph. An ingenious machine, which on being attached to a pianoforte, in- scribed what is played. Invented by M. Gu6rin.

Piatti {It.) [Cymbals.] Pibroch. The wild, irregular martial music of the Scottish Highlanders played on the bagpipe. The term is also figuratively employed for the instrument itself.

K Key, H Hammer, S String, " Cast your plaids, draw your blades Forward each man set Pibroch of Donuil Dhu The following is a diagram of Erard's Knell for the onset." Scott. action : The pibroch style of music is irregular in PATENT repetition ACTION FOR HORIZONTAL rhythm, and, according to Sir Walter Scott, PIANOFORTES. those learned in the matter affect to discover in it a well-composed representation of the sounds of a march, attack, flight, pursuit, and all the conflict of a " heady fight." The pibroch has so peculiar a connection with the bagpipe that it could scarcely have preceded the use of that instrument, therefore, the pibroch called the " Battle of Harlaw," and supposed to have been written at the time of the struggle [1411], is probably of later date, K Key, H Hammer, D Damper, S String. as the old chroniclers and the ballad de- scriptive of the scene mention only trumpets (ii) The strings of the pianoforte are of and horns as being there used. [Bag- varying thickness and strength. The bass pipe.] strings are covered with a fine copper wire to Picciolo {It.) Small as, violino picciolo. give depth of tone without any very great in- a small-sized fiddle. crease of diameter. When the loud pedal is Piccolo. An organ stop of ft. used it raises the dampers, when the soft pedal 2 length— the pipes are of is pressed down it either shifts the hammers wood, the tone bright and sideways so as to allow them to strike one or piercing. two strings at a time, or else the strings are Piccolo flute, or piccolo. A small flute, covered with a strip of cloth which deadens having the same compass as the ordinary the sound. orchestral flute, but whose sounds are one

( 353 ) : :

PICCO PIPE PITCH.

octave higher than the notes as they are chord playing, indicated by the signs here written. Its compass may be said to be shown from

nt "even one note Tiigher, but the lowest octave is so weak as to be far more effective When played by the higher Octave of the The first was called pince simple, the second common flute, and the uppet notes are so pince double. The note of ornament of the Shrill as to be Only available in fortissimo pinc6 was below the note written, while the tutti passages, or for peculiar and striking added note in the tremhlement was above. A effects. Both Gluck and Beethoven use it pinc6 or trill with a flattened note. in representing a storm, the former in his Pince bemolise {Ft^ An ornament in " Iphigenia in Tauris," the latter in his harpsichord playing " Pastoral Symphony." Spontini combines the short piercing scream of the piccolo with the crash of cymbals in his " Danai'des." The tendency of modern orchestral writers is to use the piccolo too often, and in inappro- priate passages. It should be reserved for rare and special effects. Picco pipe. A small pipe having two

ventages above and one below. It , is blown by means of a mouthpiece like a JlMe a bee trill or whistle ; and in playing, the little finger is Pinc6 di6s6 (Fr.) A pinc6 or with used for varying the pitch by being inserted a sharpened note

in the end. The player, Picco, after whom written thus — played thus :— it was named, produced a compass of three T octaves from this primitive instrument.

Piccorn. Lit., horn-pipe. [Horn-pipe.J

Piece (Fr.) A piece, as suites des pieces, Pincement {Fr.) [Pinc6.] sets of pieces. [Suite.] Piqu6 {Fr.) On string-instruments a kind Pieds [Fr.) The feet, as, avec les pieds, of bowing, by which a staccato is produced with the feet, con peddle. by allowing the bow to lie perfectly still on Pieno, Plena {It?} Full; as, a piena the string between each separate note. It is orchestra, for a full band. written with dots and a slur, thus :

Pietosamente^ Pietoso {It.) With pity, tenderly.

Piffaro, or Pifiero {li.) The old form of the oboe, still in use in some districts of It is also called spiccato. Italy and the Tyrol, formerly called the Piquiren {Ger.) To play piqui. schalmy. [Oboe.] Pitch, (i) The position of a sound with Piffarari, or Pifferari {It.) Players on reference to the number of vibrations which the piffaro. produce it. The relative height of a sound. PifFerino {It.) A little piffero. It is much to be regretted that one standard been universally adopted. PifFero (7^) [Piffaro.] of pitch has not The following Table selected from that Pileata {Lat.) Capped (of an organ pipe). given in the "Journal of the Society of Arts" Stopped. Pileata major. i6 feet stopped. (June 6, i860), and from other sources, will Pileata minor. 4 feet stopped. Pileata show some of the variations. The number of diapente. Stopped quint. vibrations in each case represent the note Pinc6 {Fr.) Pinched, (i) A direction in French music equivalent to pizzicato, q.v. (2) The name of an ornament in harpsi-

( 354 ) —

PITCH-PIPE ^PLAGIAULUS.

No. of Vibs. Paris Grand Opera, i6gg 404 Ditto 1858. 448 French " Diapason Normal " (gene- rally adopted) .„ 435 Handel's tuning fork (c. 1740) 416 Sir George Smart's " Philharmonic" fork (early in this century) 433 Italian Opera (London), 1859 455 Scheibler's pitch (recommended by the Society of Arts) 440

It will be seen from the above that the tendency-to raise the pitch has been arrested in France, and to a great extent in this country also. The chief obstacle to the in- troduction of a lower pitch at our Operas seems to be the witid-itistrumetds^ An at- tempt to use the French pitch, lately made at Her Majesty's Opera, had only the unfor- tunate result of putting everybody thoroughly out of tune. For valuable information on this subject, the reader is referred to Mr. Ellis's XIX Appendix to his translation of Helmholtz. (2) The method, now generally adopted, of showing the particular octave in which a sound occurs, is as follows : fe PLAIN-CHANT PLAIN SONG.

ohliqua. The cross-flute, or fiauto traverse. the early Fathers are not without various [Flute.] interesting indications, both of the important Plain-Chant. [Plain Song.] functions discharged by vocal music in Chris- Plain Song. The kind of music used from tian worship', and also of various ritual uses ; time immemorial in the worship of the ancient in such wise, moreover, as excited then, as Jewish or Israelitish Church, as well as among they do now, the approval and admiration all the churches of Christendom throughout of some, the indignation and blame of the world. others. The first principles of all music being found Thus, " Sabellius and Marcellus took oc- in nature, and its various forms having been casion to incense the Church of Neocesarea gradually evolved by scientific and artistic in- '(a.d. 363), against their Bishop S. Basil, as dustry and research from those principles, being an author of new devices in the service there must necessarily be found much of co- of God," when he introduced the antiphonal incidence, and similarity, if not an actual chanting after the custom of Antioch, where identity, in the practical results of such in- it had been taught by S. Ignatius, a contem- quiries and experiments. Hence it is not porary and disciple of the Apostles, specially strange to find some Greek Music traced to of S. John. S. Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, the Hebrew, nor that of the early Christian was a great admirer of S. Basil, and intro- Church to both. In fact, so far as in any duced the same kind of chanting into his country the natural development of the church as had originally prevailed in the musical art has grown up healthily, according East, as we learn from S. Basil's refutation to its inner principle of life, there can be little of the heretics' charge of novelty and singu- doubt that, in all essential particulars (al- larity, alleging the example, not only of the lowing, of course, a certain amount of charac- Church at Antioch, but also "of the Churches teristic individuality) there will be so much of of Egypt, Lybia, Thebes, Palestine, the resemblance to that of other countries as to Arabians, Phoenicians, Syrians, Mesopota- lead historians (rather too fondly) to trace a mians, and of all that reverenced the custom parentage and- derivation, where, be the fact of singing Psalms together." as it may, neither are necessary to account Here, it would seem, we have ample for the likeness. The Plain Song of the grounds for the very general belief that in Christian Church is a well known, and uni- setting the music at first traditionally sung versally practised form of musical accent, to various Psalms and Hymns, and the recitation, and simple melody, written records portions specially vocal in their Liturgies, the of which are extant dating from the eighth characters then used in noting music would century; and these are themselves records be taken advantage of, to fix and perpetuate of Christian Plain Song of still earlier times, the arrangements of the early Christian music of which some, it is not unreasonable to be- to the words. But the notation of the most lieve, are the, very melodies sung by Our artistic music then known was the Greek, Lord Jesus Christ and His Apostles, and of which, like other refinements, was also at Templar origin. first used by the Romans, and subsequently The music of the Christian Church, like the improved by the use of the Roman letters, gospel itself, was doubtless propagated orally, instead of the more complicated Greek cha- and by tradition, in the first years of its racters. But with the Greek notation would, history ; and as in the New Testament traces to a great extent, be adopted Greek modes of are discoverable of a primitive liturgy and arrangement, and Greek notions as to the hymnody, so we also find in early writers construction of the scales in which any chant, indications of certain efforts to fix and rule antiphon, or hjonn tune might most fitly be the vocal performance of these, by an ap- said to stand. If its general character, e.g., pointed choral arrangement, with somewhat were major or minor, a similar mode or scale of a scientific connection. of the Greek music would be selected, and to One point of primary importance in this this it would be assigned, just as in the pre- respect would naturally be the pitch most sent day a modern musician's arrangement convenient for the singing of the various parts of any ancient melody would, in the absence of Divine Psalms, Hymns, and Spiritual of any other system to which he might be

Songs ; the relation in which the several parts able to assign it, necessarily be in the modern of the service, musically considered, were to major or minor scale. But in our inquiries stand to each other ; as also the interchanges as to the ancient Plain Song, we must always to be made as to singing, either by course in remember that both it and the Greek modes alternate choirs, or by the clergy and people, were founded simply on melodic, and not on in solo or in chorus. harmonic considerations, in our present The writings of the New Testament and of meaning of those terms. With their usual

(356) ; ;

PLAIN SONG.

acumen, the Greeks, in their diatonic, chro- lotte, Alix, and in English in the various matic, and enharmonic genera, analyzed all editions of Latin service and instruction the tone modulations of the human voice, books by Lambert, Benz, Chas. Child Spencer, with a discrimination most admirable, and and the prefaces to the Rev. T. Helmore's effects most wonderful, as all are ready to Accompanying Harmonies to the Psalter

admit who have studied their theoretic trea- Noted and Hymnal Noted ; more satisfac- tises, and the accounts recorded of the torily still in the MS. and printed books of practical results of their performances ; re- Plain Song in various libraries at home and sults, it may be suggested, such as poetic, abroad. The subject is very wide, and can- oratorical, and musical recitation can even not easily be studied without a large acquaint- now occasionally produce in the case of ance with the numerous books of Ritual sing-'s of rare eloquence and sympathetic music, both of the present time, and of all voices, on an appreciating and impressible the centuries backwards, till the very first in audience. Sentiment and feeling, the soul and which any written remains of Plain Song spirit of all true music, are not confined to any can be discovered. A sketch of what set of outward appliances, however vast, as may be gathered as the result of such

in the present orchestra ; but may be felt in an investigation is all that can be here at- the impassioned delivery of a Simple Plain tempted. Song, or the thrilling notes of an unaccom- Plain Song, then, it may be stated, is a panied solo instrument. It is probable that definite, well known system of Church Song, the first kind of musical notes used by the which all Catholic musicians are obliged by Christian Church, called pneums (from the their duties to study, and from which all the Greek -Trvlvfia, breath) were derived from the great composers, down to our own times, Greek characters, after the fashion of the have more or less tinctured their highest and Hebrew accents for reading. The diatonic best compositions. genus of the Greek music most nearly re- It has already been stated that the ancient sembled (if it was not, in some modes, church modes of the Plain Song or Gre- identical with it) the tonality of the Christian gorian music had their prototypes, if not Plain Song and the ancient Hebrew music, their very birth, from the Diatonic genus of of which it was, in part undoubtedly, the the Greeks. Perhaps it would be more true, traditional record and sacred depository after and in accordance with the notions before ex- the dispersion of the Jews and the conse- pressed, to say that the Greek Diatonic genus quent disuse by them of their Temple music, was identical with the ancient Hebrew music, which, in their state of humiliation, they and with that of the Christian Church which deemed it unlawful any more to sing. What perpetuated it. Here, then, is a digest of music they now practice in their synagogues what can be gathered from ancient writers as is still, however, eminently of the same, to the Greek Diatonic scale. character as the ancient Plain Song of the It embraces fifteen sounds, which practi- Christians. The fact above stated forestalls cally might be produced by the strings of a

any objection that might be . made from the harp, fifteen in number ; or by the voice modern Jews not now using them, to the be- of any man of ordinary medium vocal lief that the well-known Ecclesiastical Psalm power. Tones have descended, through the " ages all It is divided into tetrachords, or divisions along," the thirty centuries from the days of four sounds each,—beginning, not on the of King David, the sweet singer of Israel, first of the system, which (as its name im- in an unbroken tradition, to our own plies) was originally an extra note added be- day. low, but on the second, or B. In the lower The sources of information as to the history nine sounds the second and third tetrachords of Plain Song, in addition to the various re- are reckoned to begin, each upon the fourth

ferences scattered throughout the early writers sound of the foregoing ; and are therefore and Fathers of the Church, may be found in styled conjoined tetrachords. The first pair the voluminous pages oiBurney and Hawkins of tetrachords is also succeeded by a tetra- first, in English, and o{ Gerbertus in Latin ; as also chord, an octave above the beginning on in the original authors quoted by them, the sound next to the fourth of the second specially the Septem Scriptores Antiqui of tetrachord, and consequently denominated

Meibomius ; in the French Histoire deL'Har- the disjoined tetrachord. Then a fifth tetra- monic au Moyen Age, by E. De Coussemaker chord occupied the highest part of the system in the XXIXth Vol. of the Nouvelle Ency- all which will be better seen and understood clop&die Theologique, edited by M. L'Abbe by Diagram I., in which the Greek names Migne, being a Dictionnaire de Plain Chant, for the various sounds (written in English et de Musique Religieuse ; in the pages of letters) are given, with a translation of their Alfieri, La Feill6, Clement, Janssen, Lambil- characteristic nomenclature.

( 357 ) PLAIN SONG. ;

PLAIN SONG.

the melody ascended to the fifth above the of the Darian Modes, Authentic and Plagal, final and the fourth above the fifth, and did called the ist and 2nd. not descend below the final, it was said to be The 1st is authentic, and ranges from the authentic; when it extended to a fifth above 4th to the nth note, having a perfect fifth the final and a fourth below it, it was called from D to A, which same fifth is the upper plagal. The sounds of which these two part of the plagal mode. From A the 8th to sorts of melodies consisted being set down D the I ith is a perfect fourth, and thus fulfils in orderly succession from the lowest to the requirements before mentioned as essen- the highest, naturally arranged themselves tials of a Church mode ; while the same law

into two corresponding classes ; and the is obeyed in the case of the 2nd or plagal ecclesiastical modes are therefore matched, mode, as from A the ist to D the 4th is the or (as mediaeval writers have termed it) required perfect diatessaron. wedded to one another in pairs, authentic The terms hyper (above), and hypo {below), and plagal, in which male and female charac- are used to distinguish the two, though the teristics are respectively developed. hyper is often omitted as unnecessary ; and Now, taking the notes before given as the besides, it seems to have been used in another Greek Diapason, and supposing any Antiphon way by some of the Greek writers. or other piece of Plain Song to descend to the We are told that in Charlemagne's reign lowest note A, and, after ascending by various (about A.D. 768) a great dispute arose as to intervals to the A an octave above it, to the allowable number of the modes, and that settle do^vn and close on D, we should, accord- the Emperor at first decided in favour of the

ingly, by arranging these sounds in an first eight alone ; but that on the remon- orderly sequence from the lowest to the strance of the malcontents, the gth, loth* highest, have a scale whose final or closing nth, and 12th, were also allowed. The ritual note is D, and its range of notes from A to A, books of the church have, however, been and this, as before explained, would be the generally arranged for the eight tones only, lower, collateral, and plagal scale or mode and those portions of the Plain Song which of another beginning on D, the final, and formerly were assigned to the gth, loth, nth, rising to its octave, which would be its own and I2th modes were so re-arranged by a proper authentic, or ruling and authoritative transposition, as to appear to have been com- mode. Such, in fact, are the first two modes posed in some one or other of the first eight of the Gregorian Plain Song, and the pair, as though a careful inspection of these trans- husband and wife, have reciprocal functions, positions will serve to show that the means and though two, are yet one by participation at command were not (while no other change of one common bond of union, viz., the of sound was allowable than the B flat) diapente D, E, F, G, A. sufficient to effect a /lez/gcftransposition. This In Diagram II, we see, then, the 1 1 notes will appear in the subsequent examples.

DIAGRAM II.

1st AND 2nd MODES. Dorian or Hyper-Dorian, and Hypo-Dorian. PLAIN SONG. s .

PLAIN SONG.

DIAGRAM III.

Finals. ^ Dom. ^-^ 1. Authentic, Hyper-Dorian d f g a b c

2. Plagal, Hypo-Dorian A B c d e f g a Dom. 3. Authentic, Hyper- Phrygian e f g a b C d ^-^ Dom. 4. Plagal, Hypo-Phrygian B c d e f g a b Dom. 5. Authentic, Hyper-Lydian f S "• bed e f

,— Dom. ,—^ _ 6. Plagal, Hypo-Lydian c d e f g a b c — — — Dom. 7. Authentic, Hyper-Mixo-Lydian g abed e f g Dom. 8. Plagal, Hypo-Mixo-Lydian d e f g abed Dom. g. Authentic, Hyper-^olian abode f g Dom. 10. Plagal, Hypo-.^olian e f g a b c d e Dom. 11. Authentic, Hyper-Ionian or lastian c d e f g Dom. 12. Plagal, Hypo-Ionian or lastian g a d e^'f g

Thus A is the Final of the gth and loth, and Dominant of the ist, 4th, and 6th.

„ C „ nth „ I2th „ ,, 3rd, 5th, 8th, and loth. „ D „ 1st „ 2nd „ „ 7th. ,, E „ 3rd ,, 4th „ „ gth and I2th. )> F „ 5th „ 6th „ „ 2nd. „ G „ 7th „ 8th „ „ nth.

The following formula committed to memory will be of immense use in grasping the otherwise troublesome varieties of the Church modes.

Finals D — :

PLAIN SONG PLANXTIES.

It remains to say a few words on the time, in which the varied prosodaic metres are accent, rhythm, and metre of Plain Song, all always complied with by the Plain Song, the of which have unfortunately suffered much in accents of which correspond to those of the the opinion of mankind by being misunder- words ; and the notes fall into what we should stood in theory, and dreadfully distorted in now call bars, sometimes regular in their practice. formation, and of one time, but often in duple It is the opinion of those who, like Cousse- and triple forms mixed. maker, have most deeply studied the subject, There is, to the lovers of Plain Song who that there was by no means that monotonous have caught the spirit and intention of its equality in the length of the notes, which we various phrases, a charming variety and have found practised and thought right since freedom from stiffness in these changes of the Plain Song of the Church has been so measure, somewhat akin to the pleasure we generally neglected for more strictly mensur- derive in verse from similar departures from able modern compositions. one stereotyped succession of accents or A manifest tendency has long existed to quantities. For example, after the regular lengthen the short notes of ancient MSS., in iambics of this couplet— orderprobablythattheaccompanyingorganists " Thro' life's long day and death's dark night, may give (as they intend) a greater dignity to w I yJ f f^ tut " the solemn march of their harmonies, and O gentle Jesus, be our light get rid of the charming varieties of what may how pleasing is the introduction of the trochee be styled the bars, speaking after the fashion in the beginning of the next verse of modern music. Two striking instances of " Labour is sweet for thou hast toiled." this will explain what is meant better than further description. Something of the same kind seems to occur, There is in the British Museum, among in such a phrase as this, put into measured the Lansdown MSS. (No. 463), a fine well- time, as it should be sung from the usual written copy of the ancient Sarum Anti- notes of the Gregorian Plain Song. phonary ; and in the Bodleian Library, Ox- ford, there is a corresponding MS. most splendidly written, which formerly belonged to Archbishop Laud ; in both of these the writer of this article has found very many notes short {i.e., the diamond shaped semibreve) where in the printed folio (c 35 I., Paris, 1519. 20 B. M.), they are changed into folii gifts impart. breves thus . The difference thus made In conclusion, it may be remarked that the in the music may be compared to an altera- more highly people are educated in all that tion of all the quavers in " God save the concerns the employment of art in the Ser- " Queen into crotchets ! vice of the Church, and the more deeply they Another instance of the same perverse enter into the rationale of the use of music as treatment may be seen in the version of the the handmaid of religion, the better will they melody "Veni, veni, Emmanuel," set to the appreciate the value of Plain Song, the better words "O come, O come, Emmanuel," in will they execute it, and the better too will Hymns AiicientandModern{^o.2fi,firsit\xa€), they know and feel what other music is fittest, where all the short notes, originally printed and really the best, to stand side by side with (in the Hymnal Noted) correctly from the it in the Lord's House, as the offering of the MS. copied by the late J. M. Neale from first-fruits of man's highest art and most a French Missal in the National Library, exquisite skill, to Him from whom all skill Lisbon, are deliberately, and of set purpose, and all talent are derived, and who will be turned into long ones, seemingly to avoid the worshipped by each according to that he interspersion of a triple bar, in several places, hath, be it little or much. The Plain Song among the duple or quadruple measures. See of the Church gives all who can sing the best Hymnal Noted, "Veni, veni, Emmanuel," means of discharging this sacred duty. 65 Ac. Har., p. 213, " Draw nigh, draw nigh, Plainte (Fr.) An elegy, or lament. Emmanuel." Plaisanterie, or Pleasantrie. A kind The time or rhythm of the Plain 'Song, of concerto for a solo instrument, in which where best understood and properly rendered, various cheerful tunes or dance melodies is a most entire and definite flow of melody were introduced. in accordance with the accents of the words Planxties, or Laments. Certain melodies and the construction of the musical phrase were so called by Irish and Welsh harpers. combined. The fullest development of this They were not always of the doleful character is perhaps in the Ancient Metrical Hymns, their name would seem to imply.

(362 ) ;

PLAQUE POLACCA.

Plaqu6 (Fr.) Struck at once. A direction de Muris says, " Plica dicitur a pHcando, et that a chord is not to be played arpeggio. continet notas duas, unam superiorem et Play-house Tunes. Musical composi- aliam inferiorem " (Plica is so called from tions performed between the acts of the plicando, folding, and it contains two notes, tragedies or comedies in the old theatres of one higher, the other lower). This would London. make plica a part of the system of ligatures. After the Restoration, music became more At other times the word seems used by old general as a relief to the performers and authors as synonymous with cauda or vir-

the performances in theatres ; compositions, gula, a stem. called Playhouse or Act Tunes, were written Ploke {Gk.), n-XoKTi. [Melopoeia.] and played in concert, and not in unison as Plures ex una (Lat.) Many parts from formerly, and the theatre music was of a one. The old name of a canon because superior character. " Insomuch," says Sir originally written only on one line. John Hawkins, " that to say of a performer Plus (Fr.) More, as, plus anime, more on any instrument that he was a playhouse animated, with greater spirit. musician, or of a song that it was a playhouse Pneuma. [Neuma.] song, or a playhouse tune, was to speak of Pneumatic bellows. [Organ, § 12.J each respectively in terms of the highest Pneumatic Organ. Organum pneu- commendation." The most popular were the maticum. The ordinary organ as opposed " Genius of England," Madame Subligny's to the ancient hydraulic organ, or organum " Minuet," the " Louvre " (or " Loure,") and hydraulicum, in which water was uspd, not as many others. The principal composers of was popularly supposed at the time, for the this kind of music were Mr. John Reading, purpose of entering the sound-boards or pipes, John Bannister, Godfrey Fringer, Matthew but to act as a regulator of the pressure of. Lock, Henry and John Eccles, Raphael air. [Organ.] Courteville, &c. A coranto written by Bui- Pocetta {It.) [Poche.] strode Whitelock, one of the Lords Commis- Poche, Pochette {Fr.) A little fiddle sioners of Charles H., in conjunction with used by dancing-masters. [Kit.] Henry Lawes, was played at the theatres for Pochettino, Pochette {It.) A little, as, more than thirty years regularly " by the ritard un pochettino, making a slight rallen- Blackfriars musicians, esteemed the best in tando. London." Poco {It.) A little, as poco a poco, little, Plectrum (Lat.) irXijicTpov. A little staff by little poco animato, rather animated ;

made of ivory, horn, quill, or metal, with poco lento, rather slow ; mosso poco meno,, player rather soft which (having it in his right hand) the rather less quick ; poco piano, on a lyra or cithara, set the strings in vibra- poco piu allegro, rather faster; poco presto,, tion. It cannot yet be said to be obsolete, somewhat rapid. inasmuch as one is used by the performer on Poggiato {It.) Leant upon, dwelt upon. a modern and zither. From the Ppi {It.) Then, as piano pot fortCy soft method of using a plectrum to the cithara, then loud. Poi segue, then follows. the more perfect instrument, the dulcimer Point (Fr.) A dot. (Hackbrett), probably took its origin; and Point d'orgue (Fr.) A pedal- point. from the dulcimer came the spinet, harp- [Fugue.] sichord, and eventually the pianoforte. But Point de repos (Fr.) A pause. it should be remembered that while the Point6 {Fr.) Dotted. quill of a harpsichord plucks, as it were, a Polacca (7i.) Polish. A title applied to stn'ng, just as a plectrum would, the hammer melodies written in imitation of Polish dance of a pianoforte strikes the string. The tunes. It is synonymous with the French p]f;i;1i'jni was not invariably used by the word polonoise, or polonaise. It is a term JU-!( ients, for some of the paintings discovered of modern introduction, as neither Brossard^ Ht Heiculaneum depict citharists using the Grassineau, nor Rousseau, have the word in eijjs of their fingers. their dictionaries. KoUmann on " Style and " J Mc.in jeu (Fr.) With the full power. National Music," describes it as a particular l'Ui:a {Lat.) A term used by the old characteristic piece in f time, and its move- vriteis on mensurable music, the exact ment like a majestic but fluent andante or weaning of which it is difficult to discover. andantino. It deviates from the general rule Fraii(;o of Cologne (Gerbertus, Script, iii. 6) respecting simple measure in making every say.'i, " Plica est nota divisionis ejusdem rhythmical cassure, not on the first, but on loni in gravem et acutam" (PHca is a sign the last time or crotchet in the bar." of the division of the same note into a higher In No. 3 of Handel's twelve grand con- and lower sound). This would seem to certos is a polonaise or polacca, of a slightly describe it as an ornament or grace. Joannes different rh3rthm, and there are other polaccas (363) : :

POLKA POSITIVE ORGAN. which differ still more from the model Pont-neuf (Fr.) A common ballad, such described above. as was formerly sold on the Pont-neuf, Paris. Polka. A dance of world-wide popularity, Poogye. The nose-flute of the Hindoos. the music to which is in -^ time, with the third Probably blown by the nose instead of the quaver accented. There are three steps in mouth, in order to avoid possible defilement each bar, the fourth beat is always a rest, the of caste. three steps are performed on the three first Portamento (It.) A lifting of the voice, beats of every bar. or gliding from one note to another, It is stated that Anna Slezak, a farm Portando la voce (It.) Sustaining the servant at Elbeteinitz, near Prague, invented voice, or gliding. the polka about 1830. The room in which Portative organ. A little organ which she was accustomed to dance being of small could be carried about, as opposed to a dimensions, the movements of her feet were positive organ which was fixed. Many con- short, and so the dance was called the sider the portative organ to have been

"Pulka" dance, that is the "half" dance. identical with regals ; they were certainly of The title was changed when it was introduced the same class. A portative organ was often into France, as were also the steps and the carried in processions, on a man's shoulder, character of the dance. In Bohemia, where who, when it was required, placed it on a it is said to have originated, it is danced with stool and worked the bellows. a peculiar alternative of hurrying and halting Portato [It.) Lengthened, sustained. steps to which the music has to be accom- Port de voix (Fr.) A kind of appog- modated. giatura combined with the Pince, q.v., written

It was brought into England about the in old harpsichord music thus : year 1843, and was received with an extra- No, I. ordinary enthusiasm by all classes. It effected T a revolution in the style of dancing which and played thus : •'-"T ll had prevailed up to that period. Country- ^ dances and quadrilles were even performed or, No. 2. with livelier steps than hitherto, for the polka was so popular that it absorbed every other and played dance for a time. Articles of food, of clothing, thus and of ornament, were named after it. Comic songs and farces were written on the polka- No. I is the Port de voix simple, and mania, as it was called. To such a height No. 2 the Port de voix double. did this absurd fancy reach, that public- Port6e {Fr.) Stave. " houses were called the Polka Arms," and Porter la voix {Fr.) [Portando. J newly-built streets " Polka " terraces or cres- Portunal-flute. An organ stop, the pipes cents. When the mania subsided these of which are of wood, and are open, and names were altered to titles less suggestive larger at the top than at the mouth. of a passing folly. Posato {It.) Quietly. Polonaise or Polonoise (Fr.) [Polacca.] Posaune {Ger.) [Trombone.] Polychord. An instrument invented by Posaune. A reed-stop on the organ, of a Fried. Hillmer of Leipzig, in 1799. It was rich and powerful tone. Its pipes are of a strung with ten strings. In shape it was not very large scale. It is of 8 ft. on the manuals, unlike a double bass without a neck. It was and of 16 ft. or 32 ft. {contra-posaune) on the never generally used. pedals. The tubes of the manual stop are

Polycephalus. One of the neumes. generally, of metal, sometimes of tin ; those [Neumes.] of the pedal stop, sometimes of metal, often Polymorphous. Of many shapes, a term of zinc or wood. applied to compositions, the parts of which Pos6ment {Fr.) Gravely, sedately. are capable of inversion, as in double counter- Position, (i) A chord is said to be in its

point ; or of augmentation, diminution, per original position when the groundnote is in thesin et arsin, and other devices, as in the bass, in other positions when the relative Canon. arrangement of the component notes is Pommer. [Bombardo.] changed. (2) The position of a chord is the Pomposamente, Pomposo (It.) Pom- same as the disposition of its parts. A close pously. position is close harmony ; an open position Ponderoso (It.) With weight, impres- open harmony. (3) A position, on a violin or sively. other , is to use the fingers Ponticello (It.) Lit., a little bridge, (i) otherwise than in their normal place. [Shift.] The bridge of a violin or other instrument. Position {Fr.) [Position 3.] (2) The break in the voice. [Break.] Positive Organ. An old name for the (364) POSITIF PRESA.

choir organ. Originally a positive organ was Wells, c. 1135 ; at St. David's, 1224; at a fixed organ.. [Portative organi,] Hereford, c. 1195 ; at Lichfield, 1130 ; Lincoln, Positif (Fr.) A chamber organ. A choir 1097; York, 1090; and at St. Paul's in- the organ. reign of King John. The duties of the Pre- Positiv (Ger.) A chamber organ. A choir centor were generally alike, but differed only organ. [Portative organ.] in a few local or diocesan peculiarities. A Possibile (It.) Possible, as, ,il piU forte summary of his duties as laid down in the possihile, as loud as possible. statutes of the several places may be briefly Post-Horn, (i) A wind instrument con- told. He had to direct the divine offices as sisting of a simple metal tube, without valves regards the chant ; to select candidates to or pistons, blown by postmen. It can hardly supply vacancies ; to provide and keep the be termed a musical instrument. (2) A piece choir-books in good condition ; to table the of music suitable to, or in imitation of the weekly rota, or list of officers, with their notes or passages of a post-horn. [Bugle.] duties ; to choose and present a succentor

Postludium {Lat.) Nachspiel [Ger.) A when necessary ; to instal the dean and concluding voluntary. A piece played at the canons, and to assign stalls to the prebends ; end of service. to superintend the training of the choristers,

Potpourri (Fr.) A medley ; a collection not only as regards food and clothing, but of various tunes linked together ; a capriccio also their morals and choral instruction. On or fantasia on popular melodies. great feasts he ' ruled the choir,' when two Poule, la {Fr.) One of the movements of canons, robed in the red sontane (cassock) a quadrille. were the chanters, whom he followed up and Pousse (Fr.) [Up bow.] down the choir, regulating the offices, and PP. abb. oi pianissimo. overseeing the service in rochet and cope, Pralltriller (Ger.) A transient shake, sig- holding a staff in his hand, which was gloved nified by w. and ornamented with a ring. He further Preambulum, Preludium. Vorspiel {Ger.) observed that all the choir sang with proper An introductory voluntary. modulation, and that various and proper Precentor, Praecentor, Cantor, Caput chants, according to the day and festival, Scholae {Lat.), Capiscol, Cabischol, were used. He gave the note to the canon Armarius, Primicerio {Sp.), Prechantre celebrant at the altar, distributed the copes in {Fr.), Grand Chantre {Fr.), Vorsanger the choir, and having presented offenders to {Ger.) An officer in a cathedral, who in the dean and chapter, left correction to them." dignity ranks next to the dean. His stall is In most cathedrals, the revenues of the on the opposite side of the choir, and that office have been taken away and its dignity side is called cantoris side, the side of the and status lowered, but nevertheless, during cantor, as the other is called decani, the side the last few years there has been a general of the dean. The office of the Precentor was attempt to revive the musical responsibilities an important one in olden times, and the of the holder. duties are variously defined. The Rev. Precipitamente, Precipitate, Precipita- Mackenzie Walcott, Precentor of Chichester, zione, con ; Precipitoso {It.) With preci- in his valuable book " Cathedralia," thus pitation, impetuously, hurriedly. " speaks of the Precentor and his duties : The Precipite {Fr.) [Precipitamente.] primicerius, the first named on the waxen Precisione, con (7^) With exactitude tablets. or roll of singers, or precentor, was or precision. the bishop's vicar, who governed the inferior Prefectus Chori. Director of the choir. clergy, presided at the canonical hours, Precentor. directed the lectures by the clerks, and con- Prelude. A movement played before, or trolled the order and mode of singing by the an introduction to, a musical work or per- choir. From a mere office the precentorship formance. in cathedrals became a dignity. He only Preludio {It.) A prelude, introduction, or sang on the greater feasts. In some places introductory voluntary. he had authority over all the city and Preludium (Lat.) [Preludio.] diocesan schools, and was known as caput Premiere {Fr.) First, as premiere fois, scholce,magister scholis, being also scholasticus. the first time, prima volta {It.); premiere No one could open a song-school without dessus, first treble, canto prime. his leave. He saw that all were attentive in Preparation. The causing a discord to the choir and observant of the statutes, he be heard as a concord immediately before its corrected faults and chastised offenders. In percussion. It must take place in the same England the office of precentor was instituted part as that which has the discord. at an early period—at Exeter, c. 1080; at Preparazione {It.) [Preparation.] Salisbury in logi ; at Chichester, 11 15; at Presa {It.) Lit. taken, caught. A cha- (365) PRESSANTE PRINTING OF MUSIC. racter or mark used generally in continuous pewter, and the notes and characters are fugues or canons to inark the point of entry stamped with punches of the shape and for the voices or instruments. A lead. character required. Corrections are made by Pressante {It.) Pressing on, hurrying beating up the back of the plate, so that the time. the surface may be as equal as possible for Pressiren (Ger.) To hurry the time. making the alterations. The music is either Prestamente, Prestezza.con. Hurriedly, printed direct from the plate, or an impres- with rapidity. sion is transferred to a lithographic stone, Prestant. The open diapason of an and so printed. This latter plan is the most organ, sometimes of i6 feet, sometimes of usual when large impressions are needed, or 8 feet in length. when it is desirable to preserve the plates. Prestissimamente (It.') As rapidly as In the earliest engraved music copper- possible. plates were used, and every note was made Prestissimo (It.) Very fast indeed. with the graver. Both words and notes were Presto {It.) Fast. Presto assai. Very formed in imitation of the writing of the time. fast. " Parthenia,"—" the first musicke that was Prick-Song. Written music, as opposed ever printed for the Virginals,"—in which to extempore descant. there are compositions by Byrd, Bull, and Prima (7^) First (fem.), as -prima huffa, Gibbons, was " engraven on copper," in 1611, , and the character employed is very like writing. chief comic actress or singer ; Italy, chief female singer in the opera ; prima viola, This style prevailed in France and as well as in England, until the, commencement first viola ; prima vista, at first sight ; prima volta, the first time, i.e., before repeating. of the eighteenth century, when stamping Prime, (i) Tonic or generator. (2) The musical notes on plates became more general lowest note of any two notes forming an for this class of work. The process of interval. (3) The first partial-tone. stamping, which has been more or less im- Primicerius {Lat.) Prior scholse can- proved according to the skill of the stamper, torum. In cathedrals the precentor, suc- has always been called " engraving," though, centor or cantor. strictly speaking, it ought to be called Prime {It.) First (masc), as tempo prima, " punching." at the original pace or time ; violino prima, The invention of moveable music type is forOttavianoPetruccijWhoestablished first fiddle ; prima buffo, chief comic actor or claimed at singer ; prima musico and prima uama, prin- a printing press Venice, and was working cipal male singer in the opera. as early as 1503, the year in which he pub- Principal {Old Eng.) The subject of a lished some Masses by De La Rue. Petrucci, fugue, the answer being termed the Reply. removing to Fossombrone in 1513, obtained a Principal {Ger. and Fr.) An organ stop. patent from Leo X. for his invention of move- [Open diapason.] able types, for the sole printing of Cantus Principal. On English organs the chief Figuratus and Organoruni Intahulaturce, for open metal stop, one octave higher in pitch a term of twenty years. There is, therefore, than the open diapason. On the manual 4 good reason for believing his claim to be feet, on the pedal 8 feet in leng^th. supported by trustworthy contemporary evi- Principal. Chief, as principal violin, the dence. The very first known example of leader; principal vocalists, those to whom printed music is in the Milan edition of the solos are allotted. Franchinus. The notes there printed are Principal. The name given by Handel not, however, music types, but engraved to the third trumpet in the " Dettingen Te wood blocks, like the musical characters in Deum." Higden's " Polychronicon," translated by Principale {It.) {Principal 4.] Trevisa, and printed by Wynkin de Worde Principalis mediarum (Laf.) [Hypate in Westminster in 1495. meson.] Principalis principalium {Lat.) [Hypate hypaton.] Principalis extenta {Lat.) [Lichanos hypaton.] Principal Subject or Theme. One of the chief subjects of a movement in sonata form, as opposed to a subordinate theme. Printing of Music. Music is printed in various ways : from plates, from lithographic stones, or from moveable type. These characters were improved in a book " The plates for music are generally of published by Grafton in 1550, entitled The

•( 366 ) — — — ;

PRINTING OF MUSIC.

Booke of Common Praier Noted," by John 1595- Morley's Ballets, 5 voices ; Morley's Marbecke, Organist of Windsor. Canzonets, 2 voices. The printer thought it necessary to prefix 1597. Weelkes' Madrigals, 3, 4, 5, and 6 an explanation of the types he employed, voices ; Yonge's Musica Transalpina, 2nd which he does in the following words : "In Book ; Morley's Canzonets, 4 voices ; Kirbye's this booke is conteyned so much of the order Madrigals. of Common Praier as is to be song in 1598. Wilbye's Madrigals, ist Set. Morley's iiij. Churches, wherein are used only these Madrigals, 5 voices ; Weelkes' Ballets and sortes of notes : Madrigals, 5 voices. 1600. Weelkes' Madrigals of 5 and 6 parts,

as assigne of Thomas Morley ; Weelkes' Madrigals of 6 parts; Dowland's Songs or The first note is a strene note and is a breue, Ayres of 4 parts. Book II. the second note is a square note and is a 1601. Triumphs of Oriana ; Jones's -First semybreue, the iij. a prycke and is a myn- Book of Ayres. , ymne. And when there is a prycke by the 1603. Robinson's Scoole of Musicke. [In square note, that prycke is half as muche as tablature.] the note that goeth before it. The iiij. is 1604. M. Este's Madrigals; Bateson's ist a close, and is vsed at only y" end of a Set of Madrigals. verse." 1605. Pilkington's Songs or Ayres of 4 John Day, who in 1560 printed the Church parts. Service in three and four parts, and in 1562 1606. Danyel's Songs. the " Whole Booke of Psalmes," by Stemhold 1608. Youll's Canzonets ; Croce's Musica and Hopkins, used music types, as did Sacra, Englished. also many of the printers who immediately 1609. Wilbye's 2nd Set of Madrigals ;* * succeeded him. Rosseter's Lessons for Consort ; Ferra- 1575. Thomas VautroUier, in Blackfriars, bosco's Ayres. printed, among other works, Tallis and Byrd's 1610. M. Este's 3rd Set of Madrigals " Cantiones," under a patent to the authors. Campian's Two Books of Ayres. The patent allowed them the monopoly of 161.1. Byrd's Psalmes, Songs, and Sonnets " ruling" paper, and as music was printed on Morley's Consort Lessons ; Maynard's XII. ruled lines they managed to include it in Wonders of the World. their patent. 1612. Gibbons's Madrigals ; Campian's 3rd It would form an interesting episode in the and 4th Books of Ayres ; Corkine's 2nd Book Pilgrim's Solace. history of printing if special attention were of Ayres ; Dowland's to be given to the progress of the art of 1613. Ward's Madrigals ; Pilkington's Ma- printing music from types in Europe, so that drigals. detailed accounts of the chief works produced 1 6 14. Lichfild's Madrigals. by the several " Fathers of the Chapel " from 1615. Robert Tailour's Sacred Hymnes. time to time might be given. Such a list 1618. Bateson's 2nd Set of Madrigals ; M. would be entirely beyond the limits of the Este's 4th and 5th Set of Madrigals ; Ravens- present article. It has therefore been thought croft's Pammelia ; Mason and Earsden's advisable only to include a few of the chief Ayres in the King's Entertainment. and, to antiquarians, well-known works of 1619. Vautor's first Set oi Ayres. the early printers before Playford. 1620. Martin Pearson's Private Musicke. After VautroUier in chronological order 1621. Adson's Courtly Masquing Ayres. comes Thomas Este, the assigne of William 1622. Thomas Tomkins's Songs of 3 and Byrd, living and working by Paul's Wharf. more parts ; Attey's Ayres. The chief of his productions were the fol- 1624. M. Este's 6th Book (Anthems); Pil- kington's 2nd Set of Madrigals. lowing : Peter Short, 1588. Byrd's Psalmes, Sonets and Songs ; Contemporary with him was Younge's Musica Transalpina. at " The Starre, on Bread Street Hill." He 1589. Byrd's Songs of sundrie natures. produced Black Horse, Aldersgate Street. 1597. Morley's Introduction to Practical or Ayres of 1590. Watson's Italian Madrigalls Eng- Musicke ; Dowland's Songes 4 lished. parts, Book I. ; Morley's Canzonets, 5 and 6 Cittham Schoole. 1591. Farmer's Divers and Sundry ways voices ; Holbome's of two parts in one, to the number of 40 upon 1598. Famaby's Canzonets, 4 voices. one playn song. 1599. Cavendish's Ayres for 4 voices, M<)rley's Canzonets, voices. 1593. 3 * On the title-pages he calls himself Thomas Este, 1594. Mundy's Songs and Psalmes. Mor- alias Snodbam. He subsequently used the latter name ley's Madrigals, 4 voices. only.

•( 367 ) —— —

PRINTING OF MUSIC.

1601. Rosseter's Ayres Jones's Second Some writers declare that the Germans ; Book of Ayres. invented moveable music types, but this is 1603. Dowland's Third Book of Songs or not the case. It is certain that they were Ayres. employed in Germany for books at a very And William Barley, the assigne of Thomas early period. One of the first, if not actually Morley, in Little St. Helen's, and sold at his the first book printed in Germany with music shop in Gratious Street. was entitled : —" Musicse active micrologus, 1596. Booke of Tabliture. libris quatuor digestus, omnibus musics stu-

1599. Farmer's Madrigals ; Bennet's Ma- diosis non tarn utilis quam necessarius." drigals. Leipsic, 15 17. Andreas Ornithoparcus. It was 1608. Weelkes' Ayeres or Phantasticke translated into English by Dowland in i6og. Spi rites. When type was employed all musical notes semi- i6og. Ravenscroft's Pammelia. were printed separately ; quavers and In later years Edward AUde printed quavers, no matter how many there were in ,1614. Ravenscroft's Brief Discourse. succession, were all distinct. In or about the 1615. Amner's Sacred Hymnes. year 1660 John Playford invented what he Following next on the list was Humphrey called the " new tyed note," that is to say, he Lownes, who produced in 1608 Morley's In- used a common stroke or strokes to connect

troduction ; and in 1627 Hilton's Ayres or Fa a series of quavers or semiquavers. This las. improvement, which made music neater to John Leggatt, London, was the printer in the eye and easier to read, was soon adopted 1637 of " Sandys's Paraphrase on the Psalmes by other nations, the Dutch first, the French of David, with tunes by Henry Lawes." next, and after them the Germans. The Edward Griffin in 1641 printed Barnard's Italians did not adopt it until many years " Selected Church Music," a book of which no later, for Marcello's Psalms, printed in 1734, complete copy is known. had the old disjointed notes. To continue John Haviland, London, printed in 1636 the record of improvements made in type :Charles Butler's " Principles of Musik," a music-printing, mention must next be made book remarkable for its quaint diction; and of William Pearson, who with John Heptin- William Turner, Oxford, in 1634, the same stall mentioned above, was employed by writer's " Feminine Monarchic." Henry Playford, the son of old John. In James Young, London 1699, Playford published " Twelve New 1648. Henry and William Lawes's Choice Songs, with a Thorow Bass to each Song, Psalmes. Figur'd for the Organ, Harpsichord orTheorbo, William Godbid— chiefly to encourage William Pearson's New 1656. Matthew Locke's Little Consort. London Character." This improvement of 1657. Walter Porter's Mottets. (No place William Pearson's consisted in matrices for of printing mentioned.) Gamble's Ayres and music type, so cut that the several pieces Dialogues. cast in them could be better " ranged " than 1659. Gamble's Ayres and Dialogues, 2nd formerly.

Book ; Select Ayres and Dialogues. The commencement of the eighteenth 1662. Dering's Cantica Sacra (Inner Tem- century brought with it a change concerning

ple) ; Courtly Masquing Ayres, various authors. music printing. Music types were consi- 1668. Tompkins's Musica Deo Sacra (Little dered ugly, and the pages they formed in- Britain). elegant, and so a strong tide in favour of 1669. Henry Lawes's Ayres, Third Book. engraved music set in. In order to make the 1674. Dering and others, Cantica Sacra. present sketch to a certain extent complete, (No place.) and to show the state of music printing in William Hall, Oxford— its several branches, it will not be considered i66r. Lowe's Directions for performance superfluous if we turn back to speak of of Cathedral Service. engraved music, and of its progress up to the 1664. Ditto, 2nd edition. period at which we have traced type music. 1668. William King's Songs and Ayres. Frescobaldi's " Toccate d'Intavolatura di

J. Heptinstall, London Cimbalo et Organo, partite di diverse Arie e 1690. Purcell's Songs in Dryden's Amphi- Corrente, Balletti, Ciacdhe, Passaghali," tryon. Rome, 1637, was one of the earliest book's

1694. Purcell, &c. Don Quixote. Parts I. printed in Italy from copper plates ; a fac- and II. simile specimen of the character of the 1696. Blow's Ode on the death of Dryden. engraving may be seen in the article " Leger- Purcell's Sonatas in parts lines." Hawkins implies that the English 1697. Ten 4 ; Purcell's Ayres for the Theatre ; Purcell's adopted the practice from the Italians, in Te Deum and Jubilate for S, Cscilia's Day, 1 694. company with the Germans and the French. (368) PROASMA- -PROGRESSION.

"The English," says he, in speaking of Fres- with his wife and son, " improved the practice cobaldi's publications, " also gave into it, as of stamping to so great a degree that music appears by a collection of lessons by Dr. is scarce anywhere so well printed as in Bull, Byrd, and others, entitled ' Parthenia," England " in his time. A native of Lapland, already alluded to ; " but this work was pro- named Fougt, obtained about the year 1764, duced in 1611, twenty-six years before Fres- in England, a patent for printing with move- cobaldi's books, and it is not easy to see how able types of his own cutting and founding, but a previous work can be indebted to a later one. he was undersold by the pewterplate music en- Type, however, was most generally used gravers, and compelled to leave the country. for printing music in England as well as The French engravers exhibited more abroad. In fact, there was only one engraver taste and elegance than any others. A of music in London at the beginning of the reference to any work printed in Paris about eighteenth century, one Thomas Cross. The the years 1710—20 will show this. Their great labour of engraving music, the cost of work was expensive, as music was cultivated the plates, and other incidental expenses, only as a luxury in France. When it began made music type preferable to the pocket of to be popular it became necessary to produce the producer, although it was inferior in ap- cheaper work, but the artistic excellence pearance and elegance. Some Dutch printers which the engravers had attained in former are said to have discovered a means of times did not desert them, and their cheap softening copper so as to make it " suscepti- work was less clumsy in appearance than ble of an impression from the stroke of a that issued in England. When the French hammer or a punch, the point whereof had printed from music types they employed the form of a ." There were English founts, for they were the best in many works produced by this process, and Europe, as they had been for a century and a for more than a quarter of a century, from the half before, and are still to the present day. year 1700, the Dutch printers had the mono- Any one who has leisure, will, and oppor- poly of work. Sir John Hawkins further states tunity, may see by comparison that books that " the dif&culty of getting music from printed in Venice, in Holland, and even in abroad, and the high duty on the importation Spain, were set up from the same founts of of it, were motives to an attempt of a some- type with which English books were printed what similar kind in England." The attempt at the beginning and nearly all through the included the use of pewter for copper, as the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. former material was more workable with A vast improvement in music type took punches than the latter. The enterprising place at the commencement of the present publishers who carried this plan to a suc- century. A series of oratorios in folio size, cessful end were John Walsh, of the " Harp published by Jones and Lackington, at the and Hoboy," in Catherine Street in the "Temple of the Muses," Finsbury Square, Strand, and John Hare, of the "Viol" in St. were printed in beautiful, legible, and sharp Paul's Churchyard. The first book printed outlined characters. It is not necessary to from their plates was issued in 17 10. The trace the art of music printing beyond that method of stamping which they introduced point, or to say more than that it has arrived has been continued with scarcely any im- at a pitch of elegance and usefulness probably provement in England to the present time. undreamed of by the early and enthusiastic The Germans are more accomplished in this printers. branch of the art of music printing than other Proasma. An introduction, or a short European nations. Their punches are of symphony. more elegant shapes, and they can produce Probe (Ger.) A rehearsal. their work at a less cost than other folk. It Proceleusmaticus. A foot consisting of is, therefore, not a matter for wonder when fourshortsyllables,oroftwo Pyrrhics. [Metre.] it is found that a great many English works Program, or Programme. A list of the are engraved and even printed in Germany names of the pieces of music to be performed in the present day. at a concert or other musical entertainment. Many of the books of Walsh and Hare Progression. There are two kinds of were clumsily and inelegantly sent forth, but progression, melodic and harmonic. Speak- " still these men kept the trade in their own ing in general terms, the former is a succes- hands, and outlived all attempts to beat them sion of sounds forming a tune or melody," " off the ground. Richard Mears attempted but the term is also applied to an imitative to rival them, but ruined himself. Walsh's succession of melodic phrases," that is to a son produced better works than his father, melodic sequence. Harmonic progression is and with almost the same materials published " the movement of one chord to another," much neater music. Better punches were and is diatonic or chromatic. The term is also cut by a Welshman named Phillips, who,' sometimes used as synonymous with sequence-

(369) 2 A : 3

PROGRESSIONSSCHWELLER PROSA.

Progressionsschweller (Ger.) A con- Thus, it will be understood, that instead of trivance of Vogler for gradually drawing out, giving simply the ratio between two numbers, and then in, the stops of an organ in their early writers on arithmetic and geometry, as harmonic order, thus producing a crescendo, well as music, coined a single word to express

forte, and diminuendo. that ratio ; for example, 17 : 5 was said to be Prolatio {Lat.) Prolation, one of the Triplasuperbipartiensquintas, i.e., that the three divisions of mensurable music is, ac- larger number contained the smaller number cording to Franchinus, " essentialis quantitas three times (tripla) with two remainder semibrevibus ascripta." Prolatio is perfect (bipartiens). Again, Triplasupertripartiens-

or imperfect ; perfect when the semibreve is quartas proportio, signified that the larger divided into three minims, imperfect when contained the smaller three times and three

divided into two. The perfect, or ternary over, as 15:4, 27 : 8, &c., the last part of the division of the semibreve is called by some compound word always pointing out the "prolatio major;" the imperfect, or binary smaller of the numbers compared, or an exact division, " prolatio minor." The presence of multiple of it. Lastly, the addition of sub a dot (punctus) in the time-signature (in showed that the smaller number was com-

temporali signo) shews that the prolation is pared to the larger, e.g., 4 : 15 would be called

perfect ; the absence of the dot shows that it Subtriplasupertripartiensquartas proportio. is imperfect, unless rests are added in the This system of proportion was used not only place of the dot. Perfect and imperfect pro- with reference to intervals but also to the lation may each occur in perfect or imperfect comparative length of notes. time, that is, in time having three semibreves Proposta (It.) The subject of the equal to the breve, or two. fugue. Prolatio is the subdivision of a semibreve Prosa (Lat.) ; Prose (Fr.) ; a prose. A into minims, as Tempus is of a breve into semi- hymn sung after the gradual and before the breves, and as Modus is of a long into breves, gospel in the Roman Church. Some authors or of a maxim into longs. believe them to be of high antiquity and to Promptement {Fr.) Quickly. have had their origin in popular hymns, Prontamente, pronto \It.) Readily, sometimes metrical and written in the vulgar quickly. tongue. S. Cyprian uses the word in this sense Prope media {Lat.) [Paramese.] in his life of S. Cffisar of Aries. " Adjecit et Proper-chant. An old name for the key compulit ut laicorum popularitas psalmos et of C major which had its mi in B, that is hymnos pararet, altaque et modulata voce which had B for its leading note. instar clericorum alii Grace, alii Latine,^yosas Proportio (Lat.) " Duorum numerorum antiphonasque cantarent." ad invicem habitudo." The ratio of two Other authors say that the prose was the numbers to each other. The discussion of result of setting words to the long neumes of the ratios of intervals formed one of the chief alleluias, a specimen of which will be seen parts of mediaeval treatises on music. Pro- under the head Neume. From this cause a portio is of three kinds: (i) Multiplex. (2) prose came to be called Suite de I'alleluia, or Superparticularis. (3) Superpartiens. Pro- an alleluiatic sequence, or in short, a sequence portio multiplex, is when the larger number (sequentia). Notker, a monk of S. Gall in contains the smaller so many times without the gth or loth century, is said to have intro-

a remainder, as 2 : i (dupla), 3 : i (tripla), duced this custom of setting words to the 4:1 (quadrupla). Proportio superparticularis " notas pneumaticas." is when the larger number exceeds the smaller Their use spread with great rapidity, and only, (sesquialtera), twelfth by one as 3:2 4 : about the century they began to (sesquitertia), 5 : 4 (sesquiquarta). Proportio assume the form of rhythmical and rhyming superpartiens is when the larger number poetry set to a well defined melody. They exceeds the smaller by more than one, as, then threw off the former rule that the prose

(superbipartienstertias), : (supertri- should if possible in 5 : 3 7 4 be the mode of the partiensquartas), 9 ; 5 (superquadripartiens- alleluia, and the result is that the music of quintas). The following tables from Boethius, the proses (a large number of which are in explain fully the kinds of proportio triple time) are some of the most beautiful melodies handed down to us. I I I I I I \ Multiplex. II III IIII V VI VII Their use was limited by Pius V. to Easter- paschali laudes"), Sesquialter. Sesquiquartus. Sesqaisextus. day ("Victimse Whit- Super- 11"^ III Vl"^ sunday (" Veni Creator Spiritus "), Holy Illf^'V ^11 particularis. Sesquitertius. Sesquiquintus. Sacrament (" Lauda Sion "), and Commemo- ration of the Dead ("Dies Irse "). But a Superbipartiens . Superquadripartiens. Sujjer- mi VI VII VIII viii vast literature of proses exists, and the term m V partiens. Supeftripartiena. has often been somewhat loosely applied to

( 370 ) PROS-ffi SEQUENTI^ PYTHAGOREANS. h)mln5^ Qf various kinds, amongst which is back a wall rising as high as the uppermost the " Stabat Mater." tier of spectators ; at the front, a way down Prosse Sequentiae (Lat.) [Prosa.] to the orchestra, or space set aside for the Prosarium (Lat.) A book of proses. chorus. (2) A motett. Pulpitre (Old Fr.) Pros cenium. ( i ), The quadrangular space [Motett.] behind the logeum or stage. (2) The stage Pulsatile. A term applied to instruments front all : that part of the stage between the of percussion, such as the drum, gong, cym- footlights and the curtain. bals, &c. Proslambanomenos^ {Gk.) izooaXau- Pulsator organorum. An organ-player, Bav6jxs.voQ. [Greek Music] at the time when the keys were very large Prosody. [Metre.] and had to be struck sharply. [Organ.] Prova {It.) Probe {Ger.) A rehearsal. Punctus (Lat.) A point or dot. A punctus Provengales. Troubadours of Provence, was of various kinds. The punctus additionis, in which country the rhymers and minstrels or augmentationis, added to a note one half of of mediaeval times seem to have had their its value, as does the modern dot, making an origin. So little of their music has been imperfect note (or binary), into a perfect (or handed down that it is difficult to form a just ternary). The punctus divisionis formed thus opinion on its merits. It is certain, however, V, performed the office of a modern bar. that they paid little regard to the laws of The punctus perfectionis, similar in shape to music as laid down by their contemporaries, the former, was in effect the same as a punctus but constructed rhythmical melodies, in what- additionis. The punctus prolationis was the ever scale was pleasing to the popular ear. dot inserted in the circle or half circle Q Q The date of the rise of provengal poetry is by which distinguished prolatio perfecta from some stated to have been as early as the tenth prolatio im,perfecta. century, but was more probably the twelfth. Punkt (Ger.) Dot. Punhtirte Noten. Psallettes. Maitrises {Fr.) Schools in Dotted notes. which, at the time of Franco of Cologne, Punta (It.) The point, as colla punta descant was taught. dell'arco, with the point or tip of the bow. Psalm Melodicon. An instrument in- Puntato (It.) Pointed, detached, made vented in 1828 by Schuhmacher Weinrich. It staccato. was a wind instrument with keys and ven- Pupitre (Fr.) [Pulpitum § 2.] tages, imitating the tone of several orchestral Pyknon (itvkvov). The close note, (i) I A instruments. In 1832 it was improved by name given to those half or quarter tones I

Leo Schmidt, and named the Apollo-Lyra. i which came together in the chromatic and Psalmody. [Hymn tunes.] enharmonic genera of the Greeks. (2) In I Psalmistae. An order of clergy instituted mediaeval music, a semi-tone. I about the time of the introduction of the Pyramidon. An organ stop of 16 ft. or I

Cantus Ambrosianus ; for the special duty of 32 ft. tone, the pipes of which are closed at singing from the Ambo, such music as would the top, and pyramidical in shape, the top have been marred by the singing of the con- being more than four times the width of the gregation. At the council of Laodicea, held mouth. From a pipe only 2 ft. g in. in length, between the years 360 and 370, it was ordered 2 ft. 3 in. square at the top, and 8 inches at that no one but the canonical singing-men the block, the note C C C is produced.

should presume to sing in the church ; and Pyrophone. An instrument invented by by a canon of the fourth council of Carthage Kastner, the sounds of which are produced the following form of words was prescribed by jets of gas burning under glass tubes. It for their ordination. " Vide ut quod ore has three manuals. cantas corde credis, et quod corde credis Pyrrhic, (i) A dance among the Greeks, operibus comprobes." danced by boys in armour, accompanied on Psalterium (Lat.) (i) A Psalter, generally the lyre or ilute. In it was much warlike with musical notation above the words. (2) gesticulation and rapid movement. (2) A foot A Psaltery. [Nebel.] consisting of two short syllables. [Metre.] Psaltery. [Nebel.] Pythagoreans. Thefollowers of the system Psaltriae (Lat.) Female musicians who of Pythagoras, in which the consonance or sang and played during a banquet. dissonance of an interval was judged by the Pulpitum (Lat.) (i) The Xoyelov, or stage ratio of the vibrations without appeal to the of the Greek Theatre. A wide but shallow ear. The Aristoxenians, on the other hand, space in the shape of a parallelogram, in the held that the ear should be the sole judge of middle of which the chief actors usually right or wrong in music. The former were spoke. Behind it was another quadrangular called Canonici, because they appealed to the space termed the proscenium, not so wide as monochord or harmonic- canon for their laws, the logeum. The remainder of the logeum, the latter Musici, because they made the ear right and left of the proscenium, had at the and practice their guide.

(371 ) QUADRATE QUATRE MAINS, X.

Quadrate (or B quadratum). The sign h, in complete symphony-form, consisting of an

used originally to raise B rotundum [7, one introduction (occasionally), (i) allegro, (2) semitone. Hence arose its general use for andante or adagio, (3) minuet and trio, or the raising of all flattened notes, as exempli- scherzo, (4) finale. Each of these movements

fied in its modern form of a natural, tj. has its form. [Sonata form.] By far the

Quadratum (La^.) A breve, |tJ| . largest number of- instrumental quartets are Quadrible. [Quatrible]. composed for two violins, a viola, and Quadricinium or Quatriciniutn. A com- a violoncello, not only on account of the position in four parts. smoothness and evenness of their individual Quadrille. A well-known dance, consisting and collective tone, but also because of

of five movements ; Le Pantalon, La Poule, the compass of each instrument allowing L'Ete, La Trenise (or la Pastourelle), La an ever-varying disposition of the harmony. Finale. [Dancing.] The complete quartet, quintet, or sestet, is Quadruple Counterpoint. Counterpoint to chamber music what the symphony is to of four parts, so constructed that all the parts concert music. Both are, in their way, the may be transposed among themselves without highest production of which instrumental transgressing the laws of progression. A music, apa_rt from vocal, is capable. Attempts perfect piece of this kind of counterpoint will at a separation of instrumental and vocal be capable of twenty-four different dispositions music were mkde in this country as early as of the parts. It is only feasible at the interval the beginning of the seventeenth century, by of the octave. [Counterpoint.] John Jenkins (b. 1592), one ofwhose three-part Quadruple Croche {Fr.) A hemi-demi- Fancies has been reprinted by HuUah, in his "Transition Period of Musical History," semiquaver. p. 194. Allegri, who died in 1652, composed a quartet for two violins, a viola, and basso di Quart. The interval of a fourth. viola. But the string-quartet did not reach Quarta. {It.) The interval of a fourth. its prime until the time of Haydn and Mozart, Quarta (Lat.) An interval of a fourth, as simultaneously with the settlement of the major, minor, abundans (superflua), a major, form of the symphony. minor, or augmented fourth. Quarta modi, Quartetto (7^.) [Quartet.] Quarta toni, the fourth of the scale, the Quartfagott {Ger.) A kind of bassoon, a modern subdominant. fourth lower than that commonly in use. Quart de mesure {Fr.) A crotchet rest. Quartflote (Ger.) A small flute, a fourth Quart de soupir {Fr.) A semiquaver rest. higher in pitch than the common flute. Quarte de nazard {Fr.) An organ stop Quartgeige {Ger.) A small sized fiddle. of 2 ft. length, so called because it is a fourth . above the nazard or twelfth. Quarto d'aspetto {It.) A semiquaver Quarte du ton {Fr.) The subdominant. rest, ^. Quarter note. A crotchet, J. Quasi (7^.) As if, or in the style of. Used Quarter tones. A general name of to qualify certain terms, as, quasi allegretto, intervals less than a semitone, introduced somewhat allegretto sonata, ; quasi a compo- into enharmonic instruments. sition very similar to a sonata, but in which Quartet, (i) A composition in four parts, sonata form is not strictly adhered to ; quasi or for four performers. (2) Part of a move- fantasia, a piece in which form is displaced ment sung by four voices soli as opposed to by the style of a fantasia. coro. (3) A composition for four instruments, Quatre mains, a {Fr.) For four hands.

( 372 ) ; ; —

QUATRIBLE QUODLIBET.

Quatrible {Old Eng.) To descant by so voiced that the twelfth is heard with the singing fourths on a plain song (see Quinible). ground-tone. Quatricinium. [Quadricinium.] Quinta toni {Lat.) [Quinta modi.] Quatricroma (It.) [Quadruple croche Quinte, Quintsaite {Ger.) Chanterelle {Fr.)-] (Fr.) The E string of a violin. The lowest Quattro mani, a {It.) For four hands. string of violoncello and viola being C, Quatuor. [Quartet.] A is their fourth string, hence the higher Quaver. The eighth part of a semibreve, string of the violin came to be called the J* Achtel-note {Ger.) Croche {Fr.) Quinte, or Quintsaite. Querfiote {Ger.) Flauto traverse {It.) Quinterna, or Chiterna. A species of The flute played sideways, as opposed to the guitar not unlike a violin in shape, having flute which was blown at one end, and, held three, or four, or five pairs of catgut strings, straight in front of the performer. [Flute.] and sometimes two single strings covered Querpfeife {Ger.), FifFaro, Fifre. The with wire in addition, played with the fingers, not with a plectrum. About two centuries Swiss fife ; a small kind of flute, with six holes, but no keys. It has an incomplete ago it was commonly used in Italy by the compass of two octaves. lower orders of musicians and comedians. Querstand {Ger.) [False Relation.] Quintet, (i) A composition in five parts, Queue {Fr.) (i) The of a violin or for five performers. (2) Part of a move- or other instrument. (2) The tail of a note. ment sung by five voices soli, opposed to Quick Step. A quick march. coro. (3) A composition for two violins, two Quinible. {Old Eng.) To descant by tenors, and a violoncello ; or two violins, a tenor, singing fifths on a plain song (see Quatrible). and two violoncellos ; or two violins, a tenor, violoncello, bass, In Chaucer's " Miller's Tale," it is said of a and double having the same form as a sonata. Absolon : Quintfagott {Ger.) [Basson quinte.] " In twenty manere coud he trip and dance, (After the scole of Oxenforde tho) Quintfuge {Ger.) A fugue, the subject of And with his legges casten to and fro which is answered at the interval of a fifth. And playen songes on a smal ribible Quintole. A group of five notes to be Thereto he song sometime a loud quinible." played in the time of four Quindecima. [Quinta decima.J Quint, (i) The interval of a fifth. (2) An organ stop, sounding a fifth above the foundation stops, of 5^ ft. length on the manuals, io|- ft. on the pedal. It should not Quinton {Fr.) The five-stringed viol. be used without a double diapason, to which Quintoyer {Old Fr.) to descant at the

it forms the second natural harmonic, or fifth ; to quinible. twelfth. It is sometimes used on the pedal Quintuor. [Quintet.] organ without a double diapason (32 ft.), but Quintviola. An organ stop of the gamba with questionable effect. species, but of the pitch of a quint, or of a Quintabsatz {Ger.) A half close. The twelfth. imperfect cadence, the penultimate chord of Quire {Old Eng.) The collective title of which is a tonic triad ; the final chord, a the body of trained and authorized singers in dominant triad. [Cadence.] a church. Quinta decima {Lat.) (i) The interval of Quirister. A member of a Quire, whether a double octave. (2) An organ stop, sounding man or boy. [Chorister.] the double octave of the foundation stops, Quodlibet. (i) A sort of Fantasia; (2) fifteenth. a pot-pourri. (3) A Dutch concert. Quinta modi {Lat.) The fifth of the At the annual re-unions of the members of scale. The modern dominant. the Bach family singing or improvising quod- Quintaton {Ger). An organ stop con- libets was one of the amusements indulged sisting of closed metal pipes, of a small scale, in.

( 373 ) ; —

R RE.

R.

R, abb. for right, as r.h., with the right herds on their cow-horns or Alpine-horns (long hand. tubes of fir-wood), as signals to the animals Rabanna, or Rabani. A kind of Indian under their charge, such as the following : drum, of a small size, beaten by the hand. Rabbia, con (/f.) With fury. Rackett, Rankett. (i) An obsolete wind- instrument of the double bassoon kind, it had ventages but not keys. It was not of an extended compass, being incapable of pro- ducing harmonics. It was a double-reed The notes marked Ff are not properly thus instrument, the reed being at the end of a represented, they beyig the natural harmonic tube through which the player blew. The lying between E and G, consequently a sound tone was nasal and produced with difficulty. between F and Fjf. The rackett was improved by Denner at the Rapidamente, Rapidita, con, Rapido beginning of the last century, but was not {It.) With rapidity. able to hold its own against the then much Rasgado {Sp.) To sweep the strings of a superior bassoon. (2) An organ stop of 16 ft. guitar with the thumb, for the purpose of pro- or 8 ft. pitch now obsolete. ducing a full chord, arpeggio. Raddolcendo, Raddolcente {It.) With Rastral. [Rastrum.] gradual softness and sweetness. Rastrum (Lat.) {Ger. Harke.) A rake. Raddoppiamento, Raddoppiato (It.) The name given to the five-pointed instrument The doubling of an interval or part. for ruling the stave. Radical bass. The fundamental bass, Rathselcanon {Ger.) A riddle-canon. ground note, or root of a chord. Canon csnigmaticus, one part and the number Ragoke. A small Russian horn. of parts being given, the student to write it Rags, Raginees. Certain Hindoo melo- out in full. dies founded on fixed scales. They were of Ratio {Lat.) Relation or proportion. three kinds, sumpoornu, or those comprising [Acoustics.] [Proportio.] seven notes in a determined succession Rattenendo, Rattenuto (7^) Restrain- khadoo, or such as comprised six notes ing or holding back the time. oodoo, or those comprising only five notes. Rauscher. A passage of repeated notes. Rail., abb. for rallentando. Rauschpfeif, Rauschquint, Rausch- Rallentamento {It.) At a slower pace. werk, RauscMote, Ruszpipe. A stop in Rallentando, Rallentato {It.) Getting old organs of two ranks of pipes, consisting gradually slower. of a twelfth and fifteenth, or a fifteenth and Rank of pipes. A row of pipes (of an octave twelfth. organ) belonging to one stop. A stop is said Ravanastron. A stringed instrument to be of two, three, four, or five ranks, accord- played with a bow in use among the Budd- ing to the number of rows of pipes under the hists. [Violin.] control of its one register. Ravvivando {It.) Becoming again ani-

Rant. An old dance ; a sort of country mated. Ravvivando il tempo, quickening the dance. This name is often attached to tunes time. to which country dances were performed. It Re. The name of the second note of the is perhaps a corruption of the word coranto. scales, in the system of hexachords, and of Ranz des vaches {Fr.), Kuhreihen {Ger.) the fixed sound D, in modern solmization. The tunes or flourishes blown by Swiss shep- [See Notation, early systems of.]

( 37+ ) REAL FUGUE REED.

Real Fugue. A strict fugue. The term Carissimi and Scarlatti, but their names is now used in opposition to a tonal fugue. deserve to be- held in reverence. Recitatives The answer in a real fugue being a fifth were for a considerable period accompanied, higher or a fourth lower than the subject, at performances both of oratorios and operas, note for note ; that in a tonal fugue being so on a harpsichord with a double bass support- far altered that dominant answers tonic and ing the basso continuo. On the removal of vice versd. So that in a tonal fugue, a sub- harpsichords from our theatres and concert- ject occupying a compass of five notes, rooms, which took place at the close of the namely from a tonic to its dominant, has to last century, an arpeggio chord on the be answered in a compass of four notes, violoncello was substituted for the harpsi' namely from the dominant to the tonic lying chord-part, a double-bass (as before) sustain- above it, [Fugue, § 3.] ing the lowest note of each chord. If a band Rebab. [Rebec] did not possess a very excellent violoncellist Rebec, or Rebeck. The English name these arpeggio chords were often cruelly out of a three-stringed instrument played with a of tune. Hence modern composers had no bow. It was of Arabian or Turkish origin choice but to use soft chords in four-parts and was introduced into Spain by the Moors, played by the whole string-band. This has under the name rabel or rebel. It found its been gradually followed by the use of the full way thence, in the ninth or tenth century, band in recitatives, and as a natural result, into Italy under the name of rebica, and into pure declamation is to some extent merging England under the name rebec. In other into a semi-strict arioso. It is quite possibly European countries it was variously called that this is what the authors of aria parlante rebeb, or rebebe, reberbe, rebesbe, rubebe, were aiming at in their early efforts. [Opera,] or erbeb ; in Egypt and Asia, rebab. In its Recitative (It.) [Recitative.] Alia recti., earliest form it probably had a long neck and in the style of a recitative. small round body, made of cocoa-nut shell, Recit. accomp. Recitative with accom- or some such material, over which parch- paniment, ment was stretched to form the sound-board. Recit. @ecco. A recitative supported only After its introduction into Europe, the third by a chord from a violoncello or double bass, string was added, for although the Persians or by a cembalo. [Recitative.] have now a three-stringed rebab, the older Recit. strotnentato. Recitative accom- form was probably only two-stringed. After panied by a band. its introduction into England, the rebec Record, to. Recorders {Old Eng.) The gradually assumed the form of a viol, of verb to record is used with reference to the which instrument it was the precursor. singing of birds, as in Shakspeare (Pericles, [Violin.] Act IV.) Re bimol {Fr.) The note DP. Re bemol "or when to the lute majeur, the key of Dl? major. She sung, and made the night-bird mute That still records with ;".... Rebibe, Rebible {Old Eng.) A small moan rebec or three-stringed viol. [Rebec] The instrument " Recorder " was originally Recheat. A hunting signal, which recalls a flageolet or tibia minor, but the name was the hounds. afterwards used as synonymous -with, flute. Recht {Ger.) Right, as rechte Hand^ the Recte et retro. [Per recte et retro.] right hand. Re difese {Fr.) The note DJJ. Recitando, Recitante {It.) In the manner Redita (It.) A return. A repeat. of a recitative. As if reciting. Redondillas {Sp.) Roundelays. Recitatif {Fr.) [Recitative.] Redoublement {Fr.) Raddoppiamenta Recitative. Musical declamation. An {It.) A doubling of an interval or part. art lost to Europe in the destruction of Greek Redov<^a, Redowak, Redowazka. A music, and not revived till the early part of Bohemian dance, originally in f and ^ time the seventeenth century. It grew out of the alternately. The time was afterwards altered, aria-parlante or , which was an and the dance was made into a sort of polka. attempt on the part of certain Florentine Reductio modi {Lat.) (i) The bringing dilettanti to restore the ancient recitation of back a transposed mode to its original pitch. poetry. The names associated in this work, (2) The conversion of an old mode into its which exercised such a wonderful influence corresponding modern scale. over the art of music, were Vecchi, Galilei, Reed. A thin strip of metal or cane set

Caccini, Peri, Cavaliere, and Montiverde. It in vibration by a current of air ; the vibrations is impossible to point to any one of these as so caused, at the same time, dividing the the actual inventor of recitative, because the current of air into rapid discontinuous puffs style cannot be said to have been perfected which produce a musical sound. The reed until it had received the free handling of itself does not produce the sound, but is only

( 375 ) a

REED INSTRUMENTS OF AN ORCHESTRA RELATIVE KEY. a means of obtaining the sound from the regalls," and " five pair of double regalls." current of air directed against it. " It is Double regals had two rows of pipes. constructive, not generative " (Tyndall on Bernard Gates in 1767 received a salary as Sound, p. 192). Reeds are of two kinds, " tuner of regalls " in the Royal Chapel, but striking and free. A striking reed is rather in 1770 he is called " tuner of organs." larger than the aperture, and is placed on Snetzler the great organ builder could that side of it against which the air is remember the regals in use in Germany. directed, being slightly bent upwards at its Regales de bois (Fr.) [Claque-bois.] unattached end. As the current of air attempts Regel der Octav. [Rule of the octave.] to pass by it, the reed is forced against the Register. An organ stop (i) in a limited sides of the aperture, and the progress of the sense ; " the handle on which is written the air is suddenly checked, but the elasticity of name of the stop ;" (2) in a general sense— the reed causes it immediately to recover its stop or " the pipes belonging to, and acted former position, when the current of air upon by, one slider." again rushes through, and so on. A free Register (of an org^n.) A frame through reed is of such size that it will freely pass in which long trackers pass. [Organ, § 8.] and out the aperture. The current of air Register (of a voice.) Compass. forces it upwards, and its own elasticity R6gle de I'octave {Fr.) [Rule of the restores it to its place again, and so on. octave.] The striking reed is that commonly used in Regular form. A work is said to be " not an organ, the freereed in a harmonium. in regular form," if its subjects and their dis- The tone of reeds is greatly intensified by position depart from the plan or form con- the addition of a pipe or tube, care being ventionally considered most suitable to a com- taken that the tube should contain a column position of its kind. of air whose vibrations synchronise with the Regular fugue. A strict, as opposed to a note produced by the reed, or with one of its free fugue, or one in which the- laws are not overtones. In instruments of the horn or strictly obeyed. [Fugue.] trumpet class, the lips perform the function Regular motion. Similar motion. of the reed, the notes produced being the [Motion.] fundamental note of the tube and its har- Regulation (of a keyed instrument). The monics or overtones. The human voice is a adjustment of the touch ; in the pianoforte, reed instrument. [Larynx.] by means of the regulating-pin ; in the organ Reed instruments of an orchestra. by means of leather buttons on a tap-wire, Oboes, clarinets and bassoons, with others of which when turned round shorten or lengthen their class. parts of the action. Reed of harmonium. [Reed.] Rehearsal. Probe {Ger.), Prova {It.) A Reed of organ. [Reed] and [Organ, § 15.] general practice before a performance. Full Reed-stops [Organ, § 15.] Rehearsal, a rehearsal at which soloists, band Reel [Old Eng.) Kreol. A lively rustic and chorus are present. Public rehearsal, a dance, popularly supposed to be Scotch, but rehearsal to which the public are admitted. probably of Scandinavian origin. The Danish Relatio non harmonica {Lat.) [False kreols are very similar to the reel. [Country relation.] dance.] Relative chord. A common chord made

Refrain [Burden.] [Chorus.] [Ballad.] up of notes taken from the scale, e.g. : Regals, Rigals, Rigoles. These terms seem to be synonymous with " Portative Organs," although distinguished by some authors. The word regal is supposed to have come from rigabello, mentioned in the The chords of D minor, E minor, F major, following passage : " InJEde Sancti Raphaelis G major and A minor are therefore relative to Venetiis, instrumenti musici cujusdam forma the chord or scale of C, these being the only extat, ei nomen rigabello ; cujus in ecclessiis common chords which can be made from the usus fuerit ante organa ilia pneumatica quae scale of C. hodie usurpantur. Rigabello successit aliud Relative key. A key whose tonic chord quod turcelio dictum est, cujus Venetias usum is a relative chord ; that is to say, a key induxit homo Germanus." Regals had gene- whose first, third, and fifth degrees form a rally only one row of pipes, and were probably common chord made up of notes of the key used to support the treble voices. In an to which it is related. Thus D minor, E inventory of the musical instruments of minor, F major, G major, and A minor are Henry VIII., taken after his death (Sir Henry relative keys of C. The first, third, and fifth Ellis's original letters. Second series. Vol. I., of each of these scales forming one of the p. 272}, we read of " thirteen pair of single relative chords of C. (376) — :

RELIGIOSAMENTE RETARDATION.

Religiosamente, Religioso (It.) In a Resolution, (i) The moving of a discord- religious or devotional manner. ant note to another which produces a satis- Remplissage {Fr.) A filling up. Inter- factory effect. This is done sometimes by mediate part. taking the discord downwards one degree, as. Renversement {Fr.) Inversion. Renvoi (Fr.) A repeat. Repeat. Wiederholungszeichen (Ger.) A sign that a movement or part of a movement sometimes by taking it upwards, as is to be twice performed. That which is to be repeated is generally included within the sign of two or four dots in the spaces, thus,

Resonance. [Acoustics, § 21.] Resonance-body, Resonance-box, When the performer does not, on repeating, Resonanzboden {Ger.) The hollow part of a go so far as the last dot-sign, but finishes at a stringed instrument which reinforces the previous cadence, it is usual to write over the sound of the vibrating strings. Its shape is repeat. Da Capo, placing a pause and fine of the utmost importance, and, in the case of over ,the chord at which the performer is to the violin has only been definitely fixed after stop. If the signs of the repeat do not coincide great practical and scientific research. The with a well-defined portion of a movement resonance-box has certain openings to admit the sign § is sometimes added thus, of the escape of the reinforcing vibrations. Respiro {It.) A semiquaver rest. Response, (i) The answer to a versicle in the Church Service. The following are A few bars are sometimes marked bis, the signs for these words, f, W- Responsorium. A response-book ; a choir-book containing the music of the ver- sicles and responses. Rests. Signs enjoining the silence of a but this sign is only used over a very performer for a given length of time. Each

phrase. note has its corresponding rest, e.g. : {Fr.) rehearsal. Rep6tition A Notes. \'^\ o p m m m m

' l' Repetizione {It.) Repetition, as senza ' B g i repetizione, without repeating. ""^ ""' senza replica, Corresponding ] - - r 1 ^ a Replica {It.) Repetition, as rests. ^ without repeating; con replica, with repetition. There is, unfortunately, no distinctive sign Replicate {It.) Repeated. for a bar's rest. If the bar contain less than Reply. The answer in a fugue, the subject a semibreve, as in f , § times, &c., a semibreve being called principal. rest denotes a bar's rest ; but, of course, rest {Fr.) The answer in a fugue. R6ponse for part of a bar is denoted by its proper Repos {Fr.) A pause. signs, thus : Reprise {Fr.) (i) Burden of a song. (2) Reprise d'un opera, the reproduction of an opera. m 1T"^"^'^ Requiem {Lat.) A name given to the contain more than a semibreve, a " Missa pro defunctis," because the words If the bar bar's rest is usually denoted by the sign of a " requiem eternam dona eis," occur in it. adhered Research. An extemporaneous perform- breve rest, but this is not universally as some authors use a semibreve rest for ance on the organ or pianoforte in which the to, in time. leading theines or subjects in the piece to a bar's rest ^ Dots may be affixed to rests and have the which it serves as prelude are suggested and upon them as upon notes, e.g-. employed. same effects • *, [- • is equal to a three-quavers' rest; Resin, or Rosin. A gum, the viscid f equal to a seven-semiquavers' rest. For exudation of certain trees, chiefly of the fir an account of earlier forms of rest see tribe, which is obtained in large quantities by Pausa. cutting away part of the bark, a vessel being Resultant Tones. [Acoustics, § 19.] placed below to catch the gum as it exudes. Retardation, (i) A gradual slackening When purified and prepared it is used to rub pace in the performance of a passage. over the hair of a bow, the surface of which it of The holding on of a concordant note into renders rough and so enables it to " grip" the (2) the succeeding chord, in such a manner that string. [Colophony.]

( 377 ) :

RETRO RIGADOON. it becomes a discord, which is resolved up- Rifiorimenti (It.) Extemporaneous em- wards. A discord of retardation is thus bellishments. opposed to a discord of suspension, the Rigabellum {Lat.); Rigahello {It.) [Re- latter being resolved downwards, e.g. gals.] Rigadoon. An old lively dance performed by a man and a woman, as the jig is danced in some places. It is said to have been invented in Provence by one Rigand, and from him to have taken its title, but as there are more ex- amples of melodies by English composers than by French, it is not unlikely that the Retardation oTtwo parts, Suspension raTwo parts, (or a double Retardation.) (or a double Suspension.) word is English, coming ' from the same root as " Rig," which means wanton, lively. The Three or more parts may be retarded or sus- character of the rigadoon would justify this pended, and retardations and suspensions derivation. may occur in the same chord. The two dances without authors' names Retro. [Per recte et retro.] are from a work entitled "The newest Retrograde (It.) [Retrogradus.] Minuets, Rigadoons, and French Dances, Retrogradus (Lat.). Motus retrogradus, perform'd at Court and Publick Entertain- reading music backwards. Imitatio retrograda, ments. London, 1716." imitation per recte et retro, q.v. Contrapunctus retrogradus, counterpoint per recte et retro. Rigadoon. Mr. H. Furcell. Choice Lesson, 1705. Retto {It.) Direct, as mate retto, direct or similar motion. Reveil, Revelly (Old Eng.) Music which wakens from sleep. A signal given by dtum to soldiers at dawn (frorri Lat, revigilare). Reveille {Fr.) [Reveil.] Reverse motion or movement. Move- ment by inversion of intervals. Rf., abb. 0/ Rinforzando. Rhapsodes (pai^/wSoi). Wandering min- strels in ancient Greece, of the Ionian race, who formerly recited epics in public places, holding in their hands a staff (pafiSoe) as a sign of their calling. It is doubtful virhether the rhapsode had always a musical accom- paniment to his recitation, as one of his hands would be occupied by his staff. Rhap- sodical recitation must be regarded as the forerunner of stage-acting, and as forming when conjoined with the Bacchic chorus, the complete Greek drama. Rhapsodie {Fr.) {Ger.) [Rhapsody.] Rhapsody. A composition of irregular form, and in the style of an improvisation. Rhythm. [Metre.] Rhythmopoeia (Gk.) The due arrange- ment of arsis and thesis in metre. [Metre.] Rigadoon, 1716. Ribattuta, Ribattitura {It.) A beat {^) or passing note. Ricercari {It.) (i) Difficult passages or flourishes. (2) Exercises. Ricercata {It.) (i) A sort of fantasia or toccata. (2) Fuga ricercata. A fugue con- taining nothing but various treatments of the subject. A fugue without episodes. [Fugue.] /,b" J J J r Ridotto {It.) Reduced, arranged from a full score. Rifacimento {It.) A reconstruction or restoration of a work. RIGOLS ROHRWERK.

^cri^gj-rrrirrr^ir'^'^

#^ :

r6lE ROSALIA.

R61e (Fr.) The extract from a drama rator, and ground-note, (i) A note which, which an actor has to commit to memory. besides its own sound, gives over-tones or From Lat. rotula. The part assigned to an harmonics. (2) That note from amongst actor. whose over-tones any chord may be selected,

Roll. The regular and rapid beating of a e.g. • , drum by two sticks so as to make the sound as far as possible continuous. It is commonly expressed thus : is produced from the vibration of the lowest tr ^ note C, therefore C is said to be the root of w this chord. An attempt to reduce chords to their roots forms the chief part of many In the case of a tambourine, the roll is pro- treatises on harmony, but almost insuperable rapid succession of duced by a blows from difficulties are met with in consequence of the knuckles, as the hand is swung backwards certain over-tones being omitted in our scale and forwards. and other sounds being introduced which can RoUe (Ger.) A run', a group or series of only be obtained by a minute sub-division of groups of short notes. In vocal music they the monochord. The flat seventh and the are mostly sung to one syllable of a word, eleventh of nature are unused, and various e.g.: notes are arbitrarily inserted in the modern scale in order to obtain more or less of temperament {q.v.) Some authors derive all their chords, or, rather all those called funda- mental constitute RoUo, Rollando {It.) Roll of a drum or (which but a very small tambourine. [Roll.] number of the chords actually in use), from Romance {Eng., Fr., Sp.), Romanza three roots—the tonic,* sub-dominant, and dominant. Others, again, insist only {It.), Romaunt {Old Eng.) The dialect on two spoken in the south of France, in parts of roots, the tonic and dominant. Not a few Spain and of Italy, and elsewhere in the modern musicians use the word root without reference to any mathematical laws, and only south of Europe during the middle ages ; so as describing a note called, because it was founded on the Roman on which, when either or Latin language. In the Romance dialect expressed or implied, a chord is built up. the greater portion of Troubadour poetry was Rosalia {It.) The repetition of a phrase recited, hence the term " Romance " came to or passage, raising the pitch one note at each be applied to any touching love-story, and in repetition. Ex. i is from Beethoven's Sym- music is now frequently given to any simple phonia Eroica, Ex. 2 is from a Litany by rhythmical melody which is suggestive of Mozart. In tjie first the passage mounts by such a story. [Troubadour.] semitones, in the second by tones. Romanesca {It.) An Italian dance, a galliard. Romanesque {Fr.) A galliard. Roman-strings. Fiddle-strings made of the intestines of lambs, although commonly called " cat-gut." Italy still supplies the finest quality of strings, hence called Roman. Romantique (Fr.) In the style of a romance, imaginatively. Romera. A Turkish dance. Romischer Gesang (Ger.) Catholic Plain Song. Not correctly called Roman, because common to the whole church. England had its own old-established uses, before any Roman Plain Song had entered the country. [Plain Song.] Romanzesco {It.) [Romantique.] Ronde {Fr,) The round note, i.e., a semi- breve. [Nomenclature.] Rondeau {Fr.) [Rondo.] Rondiletta, Rondinetta, Rondino, Rondoletta {li.) A short rondo. Rondo. [Form.] Root, called also fundamental note, gene-

( 380) :

ROSIN- -RULE.

Roundel. A dance in which all joined hands in a ring. It was sometimes called a Round and a Roundelay. Minshew explains the latter word to mean " Shepheards' daunce."

" When that Arcite had romed all his fill. And songen all the roundel lustily, Into a studie he fell sodenly." Chaucer, Knight's Tale. " And arm in arm Tread we softly in a Round." Rosin. [Resin.] Beaumont & Fletcher, The faithful Shepherdess. certain lines of Rota (Lai.) A Round, but the word is Roundelay, (i) A poem, sometimes applied to anything with frequent which are repeated at intervals. (2) The repeats, as for instance a Hymn tune. tune to which a Roundelay was sung. Rote (Old Eng.) [Hurdy Gurdy.] Round O. A Rondo. [Minuet.] - [Rovescio.] Rotondo {It.) Round or full, with Rovesciamento. reference to quality of tone. Rovescio, al rovescio, alia riverso (It.), Rotruenges. Roundelays of the minstrels. niotus contrarius [Lat.) By inversion. The contrary motion between two parts, caused Rotulae {Lat.) lit. little rounds. A term applied to Christmas Songs or Carols. when one ascends the exact diatonic intervals Roulade {Fr.) An embellishment, a which the other descends, e.g. flourish, ornamental passage of runs. Round. A composition in which several voices starting at stated distances of time from each other, sing each the same music, the The above, the commencement of the chorus combination of all the parts producing correct "Egypt was glad at their departing," (Israel harmony. It diifers from a Canon therefore in Egypt,) is said to be a subject answered al in that it can only be sung at the unison or rovescio. Imitation al rovescio is when the octave. It differs from a Catch, which is like converse of the intervals is not rigidly adhered it in construction, only in the character of the to. Fugue subjects when treated by inversion words. The catch should be amusing, the are still often amenable to the laws which round may be even sacred. round may A regulate the use of the plagal and authentic be written out in the form of a canon, if it is portions of the scale. A Canon hy inversion of an elaborate construction, or has an inde- is formed when the answer is in contrary pendent accompaniment. When surig at the motion to the subject throughout the move- unison, a Round is said to be for equal voices. ment. Perhaps the most ingenious specimen Travers. of this difficult construction is by Purcell, in 2 the Gloria to his "Deus Misereatur" in B?. Ruana. A Hindoo instrument of the violin class. : 3 Rubato (It.) lit. stolen or robbed. Tempo rubato represents the alteration made in the time, when some notes are held for more, and others for less than their strict duration. Riickung (Ger.) [Syncopation.] Riickfall (Ger.) A back-fall, a kind of

grace note, e.g. :

Riickpositiv (Ger.) A back choir organ, i.e., a choir organ which is behind the player, the connecting mechanism of which passes under his feet. Ruhepunkt, Ruhezeichen (Ger.) A point of rest, i.e., a pause. Ruhig (Ger.) Quiet, tranquil, calm. Rule (Old Eng.) A line of the stave, e.g. : "There standeth the F fa ut cliefe on the fourth rule from below." (Morley's Intro- duction.) "And so distinguish the cleffs and

( 381) RULE OF THE OCTAVE- -RYMOUR. notes as they stand in rule or space; for sound-board, or other causes. A running is knowing the notes' places, their names are not heard until keys are held down. The easily known." (Playford, Introduction to the most common way of testing the workman- skill of milsick.) ship of a sound-board is to put in all, th& Rule of the Octave. A name given to registers, and hold down full chords. If there a system of adding harmonies to the diatonic is any fault in its construction, a running scale, using it as the lowest part. From the will then be immediately heard. nature and relation of the chords added, many Ruollo {It.) Lit. a roll; according to laws as to progression and modulation were some an Italian dance, a waltz, from which deduced ; in fact it was formerly taught as a the expression used by children "rowly formula for the assistance of students, who powly " is derived. {Fr. rouler, to roll, and committed to memory the harmony or har- poulie, anything which rolls round, a pulley.) monies which each degree was capable of Russian horn-band. A band of players bearing. whose instruments are so designed that each produces a single note only. For the perfor- mance of a simple theme at least twenty horns are required, but the complete band numbers thirty-seven, comprising a compass of three octaves, the tones and semitones, in their relative degrees, being gained by the use of instruments of various lengths, the longest being more than twelve feet, and the small- est nine inches. The effect of the music The above shows the simple form of these played is said by those who have heard it to harmonies, to which great importance was be extremely fine and of pure tone. As each once attached. player can give no more than his one note, RuUante (It.) Rolling, as, tamburo his attention is fully engaged during the ruUante, the small military drum, the side performance. The effort of mind needful drum. being purely mechanical, similar to that Run. A rapid succession of notes. In required for hand-bell ringing, the players vocal music usually sung to one syllable, are not necessarily men of a high intellectual hence called in the German " Silbendehnung." order. The invention of this horn music is Except for the purpose of training the voice, assigned to J. A. Maresch, a Bohemian in the runs may be said to be out of fashion in this service of Prince Narischkin in 1751, who half-century. In writing the words under a being permitted for the purposes of his ex- run in vocal music, it is usual now to place periments to employ serfs, did not scruple to under the first note as much of the word as use severity in order to make them perform will show what the whole consists of. This with accuracy, rapidity, and distinctness. was not formerly the custom, and in one of Having drilled his forces for four years, the songs in Blow's "Amphion Anglicus,"the Maresch conducted the first performance in words under a lengthy run are thus divided, the presence of the Imperial Court in 1755, "th us fl y" and the tradition he then established has an absurd division, as the combination of been, or was until recently, strictly main- letters to which the run is supposed to be tained. A Russian horn-band visited England sung closes the mouth effectually. The in the year 1834. word run being English, is avoided in fashion- Rusticano, Rustico {It.) In a simple, able critiques and roulade is generally rustic manner. adopted. Rutscher [Ger.) Lit. the slider, the Running. The improper sounding of an galopade. organ pipe or pipes from a defect in the Rymour {Old Eng.) A bard or minstrel.

( 3S2 ) —; :

-SALTARELLO.

s.

S. Abb. of sinistra, left ; subito, suddenly cionell. A term derived from the Latin salix

segno, sign ; solo, &c. ; as M.S., manu sinistra, (a willow). An organ stop of soft and delicate

with the left hand ; V.S., volti subito, turn quality, supposed to be similar in character

over quickly ; D.S., dal segno, to the sign ; with the salicis fistula, or withy-pipe, ft is

V.S., voce solo, voice alone, &c. ; also Abb. generally placed in the choir organ, but some- for (i) scriptus', written, as MS., manuscript, times in the swell, in either case taking the hand-written; (2) senza, as S. Ped., without place of the dulciana, to which it bears a the pedal or pedals,- S. Sordini, without the strong resemblance. dampers, or without mutes. Salii. Priests of Mars Gradivus, twelve K A sign used to point the extent of a in number, who had the care of the twelve repeat, as al segno (K) go bacls to the Ancilia, and who, during the feast of that God, sign K, dal segno (K), repeat frofn the sign were accustomed to go through the city H. The- word fine (it.) is generally placed carrying the Ancilia, singing and dancing, over the last chord of a movement repeated whence their name. directions. by the above . , An ancient Greek trumpet. Sabeca. One of the musical instruments Saltarello (It.) (i) A dance in which mentioned in Dan. iii. 5, 7, 10, 15. It is leaping steps are introduced, similar to the generally supposed to have been identical Siciliano and Forlana of Italy, and the Jig with sambuka, a large species of harp, perhaps of England. It is triple in time, with a triplet the large Egyptian harp. In the authorised always at the commencement of each phrase. version it is unfortunately rendered , Saltarelli are frequently found as movements an utterly unwarranted translation. or separate pieces in harpsichord and piano- Saccade {Fr.) Strong pressure of a violin forte music. (2) A harpsichord jack, so-called bow against the strings, which by forcing because it jumps when the note is struck. them to a level enables the player to produce (3) Counterpoint is said by old authors to be three or four notes simultaneously. " in Saltarello," when six quavers of the Sackbut. (i) One of the Babylonian accompaniment are given to each minim of musical instruments mentioned by Daniel in the Canto fermo, e.g. chap. iii. v. 5, 7, 10, 15. It is the translation in the English version of the Bible of the s^;jgij^jg word sabeca. Some authors identify it with P the sambuka (o-a/z/jtnnj) of the Greeks and ,/3jj^^7sj:a^^. ^ Romans, a kind of harp. [Sambuka.] (2) The old English sackbut or sagbut was a bass trumpet, with a slide Hke the trombone. "As he that plaies upon a sagbut by pulling it up and down alters his tones and tunes." Burton's "Anatomy of Melancholy," Sackpfeife {Ger.) [Bagpipe.] Sacring bell. [Sanctus bell.] Sailours. A word used in Chaucer which has given some trouble to commentators, " There was many a timbestere, And sailours, that I dare well swere Yeothe ther craft full parfitly." Romaunt of the Rose. It probably signifies dancers, and is derived from the Fr. saillir, Lat. salio. Saite (Ger.) [String.! Saitenhalter (Ger.) [Tail-piece.] Salamanie. An oriental flute. Salicional, Salicet, Salcional, Sol- 383) SALTERIO SARABAND,

Salterio1(/i.) The Psalter, or book of Saquebute {Fr.) [Sackbut.]

Saltero J psalms. Saraband, Sarabanda, Zarabanda (S/>.) Salto (It.) (i) A dance in which there is Sarabande {Fr.) A Spanish dance of Moorish much leaping and skipping. (2) A leap, or origin, for a single performer, who accompanies skip from one note to another beyond the himself with the castanets. The tune is in octave. stately, f- time, but slow and and with a strong accent on the second beat in the bar. This peculiarity would identify it with the Moresca. In olden times it was accompanied (3) Counterpoint is said to be di salto when with singing the coplas or canciones, poetry of the part added moves in skips. a trivial sort. Jenkins, Purcell, Blow, Bach, Handel and Scarlatti, in their suites for the harpsichord or clavichord, frequently employed the saraband as a movement. There is a Spanish proverb with reference " Sambucistria (Lat.) A player on the to weak verses, that they are not worth as sambuka. much as the couplets of the saraband." " No

Satnbuka (Gk.) aafif^vicrj. This word, vale las coplas de la sarabanda." though applied sometimes to several musical Saraband. instruments of different kinds, such as a lyre, a dulcimer, a triangular harp or trigon, and a large Asiatic harp, seems to have been chiefly used as a term for the last-named instrument. By some authors it has been identified with the large Egyptian harp, illustrations of which are so familiar to all of us as to render one unnecessary here. It is generally thought that the saheca mentioned in the book of Daniel, iii. 5, 7, 10, 15, and which is im- properly rendered sackbut in our version, was a sambuka or large harp. It has been suggested that "sambuka" was used as a general term for instruments made of elder- wood {sambucus); but the best authorities will not allow any relationship between the two words. Sampogna, Zampugna. [Bag-pipe.] Sancho. A negro instrument of the guitar species, made of hollowed wood and furnished with a long neck. It is strung with the tough fibres of a creeping plant. It is tuned by means of sliding rings. Sanctus (Lat.) Ter Sanctus, or, Trisagion (Gk.) Holy, Holy, Holy, ^c. A part of the Communion Service in the Church of England, and a part of the Mass in the Church of Rome. In many cathedrals where it is not usual to celebrate the Holy Eucharist chorally, the Sanctus is used as an Introit, a custom which cannot be too strongly condemned. [Cathedral Music] Sanctus bell, Saints' bell. A small bell which is rung in order to mark the progress of the office of the mass. In some churches bells of this kind are placed outside the church, so that those unable to be present inside may be reminded of important parts of the service. Sanft (Ger.) Soft. Mit sanften Stimmen, with soft stops. Sans (Fr.) Without; as, sans /iJia/es, with- out the pedals. Santoral [Sp.) Church choir book. SAROH SCALE.

without difficulty. A sax-horn band com- prises seven instruments, a small high horn, a soprano, an alto, a tenor, a baritone, a bass, and a double-bass. [Metal wind instruments.] . Brass wind instruments, the invention of M. Sax. They are played with a single reed and a clarinet mouth-piece. The quality of tone is soft, yet telling and ex- pressive. They are six in number, the high, soprano, alto, tenor, baritone and bass. Saxtrombas. Brass cylinder wind instru- ments with wide mouth-pieces, of a shrill and piercing tone, a combination of the trumpet and the bugle quality. The complete set is six, divided as the saxophones. Saxtuba. Deep-toned brass bass instru- ments of similar character to the saxtrombas. Saynete^ (Sp.) Interludes or entremeses, introduced between the prologue and the principal comedy in the Spanish drama, in which music and dancing form prominent fea- tures. Saynetes are generally of a burlesque

or humorous character. , Sbalzo {It.) A leap, a skip. Sbarra {It.) A bar. Sbarra doppia. Double bar. Scala {It.) A scale or gamut. Scald. [Skald.] Scale. The graduated series of sounds used in music. To give a history of the scale would be to give a history of music itself; it must suffice, therefore, to say a few words on the growth of the scale to its present shape. Nothing is known with certainty of the nature of the scales of any of the most ancient nations. If it be admitted that the Greeks obtained their notions of music from the Egyptians, it may be hazarded, merely as a supposition, that the Egyptian scale was tetrachordal, that is, consisting of groups of four notes. In the article Greek Music the reader will find a full explanation of the manner in which the octave system became practically a part of the ancient tetrachordal system, which it was destined afterwards to supersede entirely. Although our modern scale was unquestion- ably a development of the diatonic scale of the Greeks, yet, for several centuries, a hexa- Saroh. Indian instruments played with chordal system was in use, a full account of a bow. which will be found under the head " Nota- Sattel (Ger.) [Nut.J tion." The Church modes were probably the Satz (Ger.) A theme, a subject, a com- connecting link between the ancient Greek position, a piece. music and the modern diatonic scale. [Plain Saut (Fr.) [Salto.] Song.] The division of the octave into twelve Sautereau (Fr.) The old name for the parts, called semitones, each of which can be jack of a spinet. used as a key-note, became only feasible Sauterie {Old Eng.) A psaltery. when keyed instruments were tuned on the Sax-horns. Cylinder horns invented by system known as equal temperament. [Tem- Antoine (usually called Adolph) Sax. They perament.] This gives to the chromatic notes have 3, 4 or 5 cylinders, so that each horn of our scale a far greater value than the is capalsle of playing all the notes of its scale chromatic or enharmonic notes of the an' (385) 2 B — — SCAGNELLO SCHALLBECKEN. cients, as it is probable: they were never used The form of Ex. 4 is familiar to all, and but as passing or auxiliary notes. The whole has not yet been entirely supersed!ed by that system of music hangs upon, the relationship of Ex. 5, which always presents both har- its of the sounds used to a . tonic, which, in monic and melodic difiiculty in augmented modern music, is always the first note, of second from Ftj to G$. There seems to be whatever octave system (key) is chosen,, but no reason why one particular form of the in Greek music and early Church-song was a minor scale should be used to the exclusion note at or near the middle of the scale. of artother;, all are at times useful and beau- The old Church mode corresponding to the tiful. Perhaps the great importance of the modern scale was the Ionic or lastian,, but form given in Ex. 5 arises from the fact that when this was finally adopted as the normal it is the veritable source of the chord of the scale, a still older form was retained for use diminished seventh with it, founded on the Dorian and Hypo- F Dorian modes, to which,, now slightly modi- D fied. We give the name minor made, and by B starting from any one note in the semitonal GS scale, we can have twelve minor modes. As The musical scales of extr^ - European a minor mode largely consists of the notes of countries are so varied in character that it is the major scale beginning on its third degree, impossible to draw any reliable conclusions it is said to be relative to that scale. The form from their form.. The Arabs,, Indians,, and of the minor mode has varied from time to many uncultured tribes in all quarters, of the time, and even now cannot he said tQ be globe have more than twelve divisions in the definitely settled. octave, that is,, use enharmonic scales. The

Ex. 1. Chinese have the old five-note scale, called by Engel,. Pentatonic.

This, scale is; assoeiafed also with Scotch and other Celtic melodies. Oldest form of minor mode. In some nations the natural harmonic, Ex.3. known as the sharp eleventh, which we dis- card, is in use, probably because it is produced upon their simple tube instruments. Form of minor mode sometimea used melodically: The degrees of the ascending scale are distinguished in harmony by thft following Ex. 4. names.

First...... Tooici, Transition fbim of minoc mode. Second Supertonic. Third- ...... Mediant, Ex. 5. ^ Fourth SubdonriTtajiit. . »g g » Fifth Dominant. Sixth Superdominant. Modern minor mode. r Subtonic or leading Seventh \ note. The scale shewn in Ex. 2 is by no means obsolete. The revival of old Church-song has Scagnello {It.} The. bridge a£ a stringed caused many composers tO' study its forms, instrument. and their works are,, perhaps insensibly, Scemando (It.) An equivalent to diminu- tinctured with its influence. The somewhat endo, gradually decreasing in power. odd descent of the scale in Ex^ 3 is to be met Scena [It.) (i) A scene. (2) A solo for a with in Handel, Bach, and other writers. single voice, in which various dramatic When this descending scale is harmonized, it emotions are displayed., [It.) is generally founded on the following bass : Scenario The plot or main incidents of an opera or drama. A E B E G#- E A A Scenici (Lat.) Games instituted, accord- 6 5 5 #5 5 5 5 5 ing to Livy, B.C. 364. They were the germ 3. Jt. It 8 5 383. of the Roman play. It will thus be seen that the descending Schaferlied, Schaferspiel (Ger.) A FJf of the scale is made part of a chord of pastoral. B major, a sort of new dominant to E, the; Schallbecken (Ger.} Cymbals. Lit. dominant of A minor. Sotmd-cups. [Cymbals.]

C 386 ), J .

SCHALLHORN SCHLEIFER.

Schallhorn ) (Ger.) Bell of ahorri, cornet,, Schallstiickj trumpet, &c. Schalnxey.. [Chalameau.] Scharf (Ger.) Lit.. Sharp. A mixture stop of an organic formed of a combination, of acute harmonics. Scherz. [Ger.) Drallery,, fiinu Scherzando, Sclierzandissimo, Scher- zante, Scherzevole, Scherzevolmente, Scherzoso (It.) (i) Playful, lively, Jokingly, merry. (2) A movement of a lively and droll chai-acter.

Scherzhaft (Ger.) Droll',, fiinny.. ' * [ rl ' I m fffr I £f r^"'r I Scherzo (It.) A. term, meaning- literally f-0 a jest, applied to, a movement in a Sonata oir Symphony of a. b^' >* sportive, playful character. J' _^ .J* _ f- -r Beethoven introduced it in the place of the '"^~~' ^"^ L. ' lJ— minuet, and sometimes in addition tO' it, and it has been supposed that the credit of iits invention is due to him.. But Haydn had previously done a similar thing in his quar- tetta, and J. S. Bach had also called one: of the pieces in a suite, by the, name. Other writers had directed certain movements to be played " Scherzando,," but only in connection with some other word descriptive of the a general character of the movement- Thus cr-^ Schobert, 1724-1768, marked the, second move- ment of his Sixth Sonata, " Badinage Scher- zando." In 1734, George Philip Telemann published at Hamburg " Scherzi melodichi.,, per divertimento di colore cheprendono I'acque minerali in Pirmonte, con ariette semplici e facili, a violono, viola e fondamento," and nearly 130 years before, Monteverde issued at Venice " Scherzi musicale atre voci.," These: were similar in style, to the " Cantici " or humorous songs ia parts-, the predecessors of the Catch.. Though they cannot fairly be considered as belonging to the class of com.- position; included under the general term^ Scherzo, yet they serve to show that Monte!- verde believed music to have a merry as well, as a serious side;. The Scherzo of Bach,, alluded to above, isi here added l Scherzo. Bach. ^^^ _ J. S. =3

Schiettamente (H.) Pure, simple, neat. Schietto (It.) Pure,, neat. Schisma (Gk.J oxtfffia. An approximate half of a Pythagorean comma, that is, half af the difference between twelve-fifths and seven octaves. Schlag (Ger.) A stroke or beat, (r) of time, (2) of a vibrating reed, (3) of an instru- ment of percussion. Schlagfeder (Ger.) [Plectrum. Schleifbogen, \(Ger.) Lit. Slide-iaw

Schleifezeichen ) A slur. The sign. --. Schleifen (Ger.) To slide, to glide. Schleifer (Ger.) Slurred note.

( 387 ) ; ;

SCHLUSS SCORE.

Schluss (Ger.) The conclusion, finale. (It.) Freely, with agility, easily. Fuga Sciolta, Schlusschor, final chorus. a free fugue. Schliissel (Ger.) A clef. Scolia. Short songs of the Greeks. They Schlussfali {Ger.) Cadence. were distinct from the religious hymns, as Schlussreim (Ger.) The burden or they were frequently sung during feasts or refrain of a song. banquets. Though at first they were like the Schluss-stiick (Ger.) Finale. Pseans sung by the whole company assembled, Schmelzend (Ger.) Lit. Melting away. they were afterwards performed by each guest

Dying away, diminishing. , alone, holding in his hand a myrtle branch, Schmerz (Ger.) Grief. Schmerzhaft, which, at the conclusion, he passed to his sorrowful, dolorous. neighbour, and so on in turn. Sometimes Schnabel (Ger.) The mouth-piece of the they were sung to an accompaniment.

clarinet, flute a bee, and instruments blown Scolia were of three kinds : (i) Moral in like manner. songs, like some of those preserved by Schnarrpfeifen, Schnarrwerk (Ger.) Athenaeus. (2) Mythological hymns and Reed pipes or stops in an organ. historical songs. (3) Miscellaneous songs, Schnell (Ger.) Quick. Nach und nach chiefly on love and wine. schneller, quicker and quicker. Etwas bewegter Scordato (It.) Out of tune. schnell, a little quicker. (It.) The mis-tuning of an Schneller or Schnelzer (Ger.) A trill. instrument. When a violinist alters the Schophar or Shophar. A Hebrew trumpet. accordatura of his instrument for a special Schottische (Ger.), Ecossaise (Fr.) Lit. purpose, he is sometimes said to make a The Scotch dance. slow dance of modern scordatura. [Accordatura.] A . introduction, written in f time. Score. Partitur (Ger.), Partition (Fr.), School, (i) A method or system of teach- Partizione, Partitura, Sparta, a partita (It.)

ing ; as, Rink's organ school, Crivelli's vocal A copy of a musical work in which all the school, Spohr's violin school, &c. (2) Style component parts are shewn, either fully, or as, the madrigal school, ecclesiastical school, in a compressed form, (i) A short or com- operatic school, &c. (3) The manner or pressed score is when all the parts are

characteristics of a composer, or performer ; arranged or transcribed so that they shall as, Handel's school, Rossini's school. (4) A appear in two staves. Such scores are com- group of composers whose works mark an monly used for hymn tunes, and also (espe- epoch in the history of music. Such a school cially in Germany) for part-songs. When is generally named after the place where such counterpoint is introduced into vocal music,

composers resided ; as, the Venetian school, or when the parts frequently cross, short- the Neapolitan school, &c. scores become too complicated for general Schreibart (Ger.) Style. use. But in simple vocal music, more or less Schrittmassig (Ger.) Slowly. Andante. note against note, they effect a great saving Schultergeige (Ger.) The shoulder-fiddle, of space. In transcribing four-part music or common violin, as opposed to the Kniegeige, into short score, the two upper parts are

or viola da gamba, the viol played between arranged in the treble stave ; the two lowest the legs. in the bass, the tails to the notes of the first

Schusterfleck (Ger.) . A facetious name and third parts being invariably turned up, for a Rosalia. those of the second and fourth parts down. Schwach (Ger.) Weak, feeble, soft. (2) A pianoforte or organ score is one in Schwarmer (Ger.) Bombo. An old name which the voice-parts are written out in full given to four or more notes repeated rapidly on separate lines, and the instrumental ac- on the same degree of the scale. companiment is arranged in two lines, treble Schweigezeichen (Ger.) A rest. and bass, for performance on a pianoforte or Schweinskopf (Ger) Lit. Pig's head. A organ. (3) A vocal score is (or was formerly name given to pianofortes because of their out- understood to be) one in which the voice- line, as viewed from the side of the instrument. parts are written out in full, and the accom- Schweizerpfeife, Schweizerflote, Feld- paniment (if any) is indicated by a figured pfeife. The name given in Germany to the old bass. (4) A full score is one in which each flauto traverso or Querpfeife, which, when in- part is written on a separate line one over the troduced into this country, was known as the other, subject, however, to the modification German flute. that the parts to be played by two wind in- Schweller (Ger.) The swell organ. struments of the same name and compass Schwermiithig (Ger.) Sad, pensive. may be included on one line. For example, Schwingungen (Ger.) Vibrations. [Acous- the parts of the two oboes, two flutes, two tics.] clarinets, &c., and, sometimes, of the alto Scioltamente, Scioltezza, con, Sciolto and tenor trombones are written on one line (388) SCORRENDO SCOTCH SNAP. the tails of the notes to be played by the Exs. I, 2, and 3 illustrate a disposition first instrument being uniformly turned up- often followed by Handel ; Ex. 4 the arrange- wards ; those to be played by the second, ment often found in the works of Mozart, downwards. The first and second violin parts Haydn, and others. Ex. 5 shows the ar- are never written on the same line unless rangement sometimes followed by Schumann, they are to play in unison ; but the violoncello which is peculiar as separating the trombones and double-bass parts are usually written on (Posaunen) from the trumpets. The above one line. The parts of similar instruments examples (i to 6) show only a few of the are not necessarily written on the same line, many arrangements sometimes found. The unless it is desirable to economise space. disposition of the parts now most generally The order in which the instrumental parts are followed is shown in Ex. 6. arranged in a score has from time to time Where more than the usual number of varied considerably, the only point of uniformity instruments are employed, this last disposi- being that voice parts are nearly always tion may be indefinitely extended, if only the

placed immediately above the line or lines set instruments . are grouped into classes, as aside for the violoncello and double-bass part. follows : The following are a few examples of the 1. Wood wind instruments. manner of grouping instruments and voices : 2. Soft-toned brass instruments. 3. Loud brass instruments. Ex. I. Flauti Instruments of percussion. Trombe Oboi 4. String instruments (excepting the bass Tympani Fagotti 5. part). Corni Violino imo. 6. Voices. Flauti Violino 2do. Bass string instruments. Oboi Viola 7. 8. Organ or pianoforte. Fagotti jVioloncelli (e) Modern scores owe much of their apparent Violino imo. JBassi intricacy to the individual existence which is Violino 2do. Ex.5. now given to almost every separate instru- Viola Pauken ment in an orchestra, for the purpose of I Trompeten obtaining constant change of " colour," as it Voci Horner has been called. In the scores prior to the 3 Floten commencement of this century, it is no un- l4 Hoboen common thing for the first oboe to be directed (Violoncello Clarinetten to play throughout a whole movement with (e Basso Fagotto the first violins, the second oboe with the Organo Alt und second violins, the bassoons with the violon- Ex. 2. Posaunen Tenor . It is still more remarkable that the Violino imo. Bass viola should often have been made to play Violino 2do. Violine, iste the bass part in unison, or (when below its Violine, 2te Viola compass) at the octave ; for the power and Fagotti Bratsche beauty of the "string-quartet" was thus Oboi Violoncell wantonly destroyed. Contrabass Printers of music use the word score to ^ Ex.6. denote any lines (two or more) united by one \ Voci Flutes brace. \l Oboes Scorrendo (It.) Gliding from one sound Organo. e J Clarinets to another. [Glissando.] [tutti Bassi Bassoons Scorrevole (It.) Running, flowing, gliding. Scotch Scale. [Pentatonic Scale.] Ex.3. Horns Trumpets Scotch Snap. A peculiarity of the com- fViolino imo. Trombones paratively modern Scotch melodies in which I Violino 2do. Drums a short note precedes a long one : , (in unison and on Violins, I one line.) Oboe Violins, 2 Violas Viola BasSb It is the characteristic of Strathspey tunes. Reels and jigs are distinguished from the Voices Ex. 4. 3 Strathspey by the absence of the snap. The Tympani 14 best informed among the Scotch writers on Trombe (or) Clarini Violoncellos and music declare it to be the mark of imitations Corni Basses of Scotch melodies, such as, " Within a Mile Clarinetti Organ of Edinboro' Town " and the Scherzo in (389) ;

SCOZZESE SEGUIDILLA.

" Mendelssohn's Scotch Symphony," as none SEGDIDXLLA. of the ancient tunes contain any examples of its use. It has been conjectured that its intro- duction into Scotland is due to the Hungarian gipsies, as the snap is characteristic of their tunes.

Scozzese (2f .) Scotch, as, alia scozzese, in the Scotch style. 1^ Scriva [It.) Written. Si scriva, as •^ , M » r C-Sf 1 ? % written. ^^

Sdegno, con ; Sdegnosamente, Sde- gnoso {It.) Scornfully, disdainfully, Sdrucciolando {It.) Sliding. Sdrucciolare {li.) (i) Toslide,byprBs.'s- ing down the keys of a pianoforte in rapid succession and lightly, with the finger nails. Scales upon the harpsichord were frequently played thus. Se {It.) As, if; s« iisog^to, if required. Sec {Fr.), Secco (It.) Dry, unadorned, plain, as, recitaiivo secco, plain recitative, that is, without band accompaniments. [A table sec] Seccarara {It.) A NeapDlitan dance. Sechsachteltakt (Ger.) Six-eight time, §. Sechsvierteltakt, ^ time. Sech ssaitig (Gsr.) Six stringed. Sechstheilig (G«r.) In six parts. Sechszehnfiissig {Ger.) Of sixteen feet. The unison pitch of the pedal organ. Sechszehntheiltiote {Ger!) A seniiquaver. The sixteenth part of a semibreTe. Secondj Chord of the. An old ahhresn- ation of the chord S [Figured Biass.] Second, Interval of a. '[Interval.] Second {Fr.) Second; ^^, second dessws, the second treble; seconde fois, the second time. Secondo (7i.) Second; a^,violinosecondo, second violin ; zeconda parte, the second part ; seconda volta, the second time. Secund {Ger.) The interval of a second.

Die Meine Secund, the minor second ', iiber- mdssige Secund, an augmented second. Secundakkord [Ger.) [Second, chord of the.] Sedecima {Lai.") A sixteenth. A name formerly given improperly to thejifteenih stop mrrrrrfir \jj, of an organ.

Seg : Abb. of segue ; also, of segno. Segno {It.) The sign ;g [Al segno.] Segue {It.) Follows, succeeds, comes after ; as, segue il coro, the chorus follows segue il aria, the aria follows. Seguendo, Seguente {It.) Following, as, attacca subito il seguente, begin the following :ff at once. Seguenza {It.) A sequence. Seguidilla {Sp.) A lively Spanish dance, similar to the country dance ; the tune is in ^ or I time.

( 390 ) ; :

SEGUITE—r-SEQUENCE.

Seguite [It.) [Segue.] of the old plays, indicating the sounding of a Sehnsucht {Ger..) Ardour, desire, fervour, note seven times longing. Sehr {Ger.) Very, -nmch, extremely; as.

sehr lebhaft, very lively ; sehr langsam, very slow. (2) A florirish 'Consisting of a pnrase made ol the ropen notes of sl trumpet or other tube- Sei {It.) Six ; as, sei stromenti, six instru- instrument. ments. Sensible {It.) Expressive. Seitenbewegung {Ger.) Oblique motion. [Motion.] Sensibilita (7?.) Sensibility, feeling. Sensibile {Fr.) The leading note of a Seizieme de soupir {Fr.) A semiquaver scale, the major seventh, note sensible. rest. Sentie {Fr.) Expressed ; milodie hien Semeia (G^.) crjifiUa. The mnsical cha- sentie, the melody well expressed or marked. racters. Sentimental. term applied to all songs Semibreve. [Nota.] A havingwoidsthatare not positively humorous, Semichorus. A direction that the passage comic, or bacchanalian, -whether they express so marked is to be sung by half the chorus, a special sentiment or not. or a selected portion of it. Senza {It.) Without ; as, senza accom- Semicroma. A semiquaver jS_ Ipagnamento, without accompaniment ; senza Semidemisemiquaver. A half demi- bassi, without the basses ; senza fiori, without semibreve. semiquaver, the 64th part of a ornaments, plainly, simply ; senza interruzione, Semi-diapason {Lot.) An imperfect withoiatioteiraption, go on without stopping;

octave. Octava deficiens. sensa oboe, without the oboe ; senza organo, Semi-diapente {Lat.) An imperfect or without organ; senza ornamenti, without diminished fifth. Quinta deficiens. embellishments or ornaments ; senza pedals, without the pedal ; senza repetizione, senza Semi-diatessaron {(Laif.) An imperfect replica, without repetition ; senza rigore, or diminished fourth. Quarta deficiens. not in strict time ; senza sordini, without the Semi-ditonus {Lat.) A minor third. dampers in pianoforte playing senza sordino, Semi-ditonus cum diapenie. A minor seventh. ; without the mute of a violin ; senza stromenti, Semifusa {Lat.) A semiquaver. without instruments; senza tempo, without Semiminima {Lat.) A crotchet. time, in no definite or exactly marked time. Semiquaver. The i6th part of ,a semi- Separation. An old name for a grace or breve. passing note "not reckoned in the measure Semiquaver rest. The sign ^ repre- or time, put between two real notes rising a senting silence for the .length of a semi- third, and only designed to give a variety to quaver. the melody." Semisuspiriuni {Lai.) A quaver rest. Se piace {It.) At -will, as it pleases the Semitone. A half a tone, or an approxi- performer. mate half of a tone. [Temperament.] Septet, Septelto (7^.), Septuor {Fr.) (i) Semitonium {Lat.) A semitone. Semi- A composition for seven voices or instruments. tonium modi. The leading note, sensible, (2) A piece in seven parts. master note, or major seventh, called also Septieme (Fr.), Septime {Ger.) The suhsemitonium, modi. interval of a seventh. Semituono {It.) A semitone. Septimenakkord (Gsn) The chord of Semplice {It.) Pure, plain, simple, un- tlie seventh. adorned. Septimole. A group of seven notes to be Semplicemente (7i!.) Purely, plainly, played in the time of four or six. simply, without ornament. Sequence. The recurrence of aliarmonic Semplicita, con (It.) With simplicity, progression or melodic figure at a different unaifectedly. pitch or in a different key to that in which it Sempre {It.) Always, ever, cantimially ; was first given. Ex. i shows the repetition as, sempre forte, loud throughout; sempre (five times) of the progression from a minor legato, smooth throughout ; sempre piano, common thord to the major common chord always soft ; sempre piu affrettando il tempo, of the third below : continually hastening the time ; sempre piU Beexhovbs. forte, continually increasing in loudness sempre ritardando, continually slackening ^if-'j the time ; sempre staccato, staccato throujgh- out. , Sennet, Synnet, Signet, Synet. (i) A word chiefly occurring in the stage directions :

SERAPHINE SERVICE.

In Ex. 2 will be found the recurrence of a takes place (see also Exs. ito4of Suspensions). short phrase at the interval of one note higher A chromatic or real sequence takes place recurrence of a phrase at an exact Bach. when the interval causes a change of key, as Exs. i, 2, 3 above. Seraphine. An instrument introduced in the early part of this century, the sounds of which were produced by free-reeds, but being very coarse and unpleasant in tone, it rapidly disappeared on the introduction of the In modern music a striking effect is often harmonium. obtained by the repetition of a phrase or theme Serenade. Originally a vocal or instru- at the interval of one semitone, (Ex. : 3) mental composition for use in the open air at Wagner. night, generally of a quiet, soothing character. -.Ex.3. The term, in its Italian form, serenata, came to be applied afterwards to a cantata having a pastoral subject, and in our own days has been applied to a work of large proportions in the form, to some extent, of a symphony. were sometimes called Standchen (Ger.)

Serena (It.) An evening song ; an A bendlied. Sereno {It.) Calm, serene, tranquil. Seria [It.) Serious, grave, tragic, as, Opera seria, a tragic opera. Serinette (Fr.) A bird-organ. Serioso (it.) In a serious, thoughtful manner. Serpent. Serpente (7^) A bass instru- ment of a powerful character. It is of wood, twisted into a curved form, and covered with leather, with a mouth-piece like a horn or trom- bone, with keys for the several notes to be produced. It was invented by a French priest at Auxerre in 1590, and is frequently used in

the orchestra to strengthen the bass part ; but it requires to be very skilfully blown, as it is capable of producing a quarter tone above or below the note intended, and there are three Sometimes a striking melodic figure and notes in its compass a harmonic progression are combined in the formation of a sequence : Beethoven.

of greater power than the rest of its scale, which ranges from

' bar to with every intermediate tone and semitone. The serpent is a transposing instrument, being in B flat, and the part it is to take is therefore written a note higher than its real sound. [Ophicleide.] Serpentono (It.) [Serpent.] Serrata (7^) A concluding performance. Service. As a term used in church music, this word signifies a musical setting of those Some authors divide sequences into tonal portions of the offices which are sung by the and real; others make a like division but choir, such as the Canticles, Sanctus, Gloria term them diatonic and chromatic. A tonal in excelsis, &c. A " Burial Service " is a or diatonic sequence is when no modulation setting of those portions of the Office for the

(392 ) : : :

SERVI SYMPHONIACI SEVENTH, CHORDS OF THE.

Burial of the Dead which may be sung by a Ex. 7. Ex.8. choir. Servi Symphoniaci, or Pueri Sympho- niaci. The band of musicians kept by persons of rank among the Romans. Sesquialtera. (i) Numbers in the pro- portion 3 : 2. [Proportio.] (2) An organ stop consisting of several ranks of pipes, (3rd Inv.) (3rd Inv.) sounding high harmonics for the purpose of From the above it will be seen that the strengthening the ground tone. [Organ.] seventh from the tonic sometimes ascends, Sesta, Sesto (It.) A sixth. sometimes descends. In the former case Sestet, Sestetto (It.) A composition for (Exs. I, 3, 5, 7), it is called the suspended six voices or instruments. leading-note or sub-tonic ; in the latter, the chord of the tonic seventh. Settima, Settimo (It.) The interval of a seventh. (2) The next primary seventh Setzkunst (Ger.) The art of musical composition.

Seventh. [Interval.] is called the chord of the dominant seventh, or Seventh, Chords of the. Chords are minor seventh, and, by some, the fundamental named on two principles: (i) by the largest seventh. It has three inversions, namely interval contained in their component notes ; (2) by the largest interval they contain when referred to their supposed fundamental-bass or root. On the former of these principles sevenths have been divided into primary and secondary; It is only possible to give a few of its many primary being those which have the tonic or possible resolutions Ex. g. dominant for their bass note ; secondary, those which have the second, third, fourth, sixth, and seventh of the scale for their bass, e.g.:

6 6 6 5 4 4 Primary chords Secondary chords of the seventh, (ist Inv.) 3 3 of the seventh. (2nd inv.) (3rd Inv.)

Ex. (i) The inversions of No. i are Ex. II. Ex. 12. Ex. 13. Ex. 14. 15.

— rj Pp n ];--i-4| rj rsL ^^m II ^m

Ex. 16. Ex. 17. Ex. 18. Ex. 19. Ex. 20. and its most common resolutions, as follows

Ex. I. Ex.2. Ex.3.

These resolutions have been divided into

diatonic, chromatic, and enharmonic ; also,

into simple and compound ; and into related 6 — 6 e &c., &c. 4 — 4 and extraneous, (ist Inv.) 3 4 3 The secondary sevenths are generally (2nd Inv.) (and Inv.) (3)

( 393 ) : " :

SEVENTH, CHORDS UF THE. named after the degree of scale on which (4) The resolutions of chord No. 4 (Ex. 26) they occur; thus, chord No. 3 (Ex. 25) is are commonly as follow called the "seventli on the supertonic;" No. 4 Ex. 34. Ex.35. (Ex. 26) "seventh on the mediant;" No. 5 (Ex. 27) "seventh on the subdominant ; No. 6 (Ex. 28) "seventh on the submediant;" No. 7 (Ex. 29) " seventh on the leading- note."

Ex. 36. Ei. 37-

(Chord No. 4.) 1st Inv. 2nd Inv. 3rd Inw.

Most authors treat this as part of the chord

Ex. 27. of the ninth on C ; namely, C, E, G, B, D, (Chord Ha. j.) jst Inv. ,3rd lire. with the C omitted. [Ninth, chord of.] (5) The resolutions of chord No. 5 (Ex. 27) are generally as follow:

Ex. 28. Ex.35. . (Chord No. 6.1 Tsftliiv. 3rd Inv.

Ex.ira. (Chord No. 7.) ist Inv. 2nd Inv. 3rd Inv.

The following are the most common reso- lutions of chord No. 3, the seventh on tbe supertonic

Ex. 30. Ex. 31. Many authors call the above tbe third (Ex. 34), fourth (Ex. 35), fifth (Ex. 36), and sixth inversions of the chord of the dominant thirteenth of G, of which fundamental bass they form the intervals of the 7th, gth, nth, and 13th. (6) The following are common resolutions

of chord No. 6 (Ex. 28) :

Ex. 38. « Ex. 39. «

The first inversion of the supertonic seventh (Ex. 31) is also ^known as the chord of the added sixth, q.v. By some authors, the chord No. 3 (Ex. 25) is said to be derived from G, it becomes therefore the thord of the it, g, 7, 5, of that fundamental bass. On this * principle, the chord (Ex. 30) is the second This chord is by some a:athDrs considered inversion of the chord of the eleventh on G ; as a derivative of tbe subdominant F. the chord * (Ex. 31) the third inversion of From this point of view the chords * (Exs. the same chord, and so on. 38, 39, 40, 4j) become the iirst, second, third,

{ 394 ) : :

SEVERAMENTE SHIFT,

and fourth inversions respectively of a funda- shake is tr. (the first two letters of the word mental F. Others look upon this chord as a trillo) placed over the chief note thirteenth from G, and as analogous to that Written Performed. described in No. 5, tr The following are the common resolu- (7) m^MfW^ tions of chord No. 7 (Ex. 29), known as the ^ f " seventh on the leading-note." an indefinite number of times according to

Ex, 42. Ex. 43. Ex. 44. Ex. 45. the fancy of the performer or the duration of the note. A shake, preceded by an appoggia-

tura is generally finished with a turn :

Written.

This chord is attributed by almost universal Performed. consent to the fundamental note G, and is called the chord of the "dominant ninth," or Written, Ferfefrmed. "added ninth," or "fundamental ninth," or tr " major ninth." Chords of the seventTi are also cailled four- fold chords, because in their full form they A succession of shakes is called a chain, are made up 01 four sounds. Catena di trilli. A shake which commences The chord of the diminished seventh will with a turn is called a prepared shake. In be found described under the chord of the harpsichord music a shake was written thus : minor ninth. ff _ (Ji.) strictly, = F5=! Severamente Severely, J and played thus : exactly. Severita [rt.") Severity, strictnesSj exact- a plain note and shake, written thus

ness. \ll _ _^

Sexquialtera {Lat.) [Sesquialtera.] . J played j J ^ y ^ Sext (Ger.) (i) A sixth. (2) The name of an organ stop of two ranks, having the a turned shalie written thus : interval of a sixth between themj namely, a twelfth and tierce. I played Sextette. [Sestetto.] Sextolet, or Sextuplet. A double triplet, Sharp, (i)The sign which raises a noteone six notes to be performed in the time of fciir. semitone above the normal or natural scale. A note so affected is restored to its normal pitch by the use of a natural. In old music sharps were often used to raise notes v<'hich had been previously flattened, for which pur- Sextuor. A composition in six parts. , Sf. or Sfz. Abb. of Sforzando or Sforzato. pose a natural is always now used. (2) An Sforzando {It.) [Sforzato.] augmented interval is said by some to be Sforzato (7f.) Forced. A term signifying sharp. In old writers a major third is called that the note or notes pointed out Try the sign a sharp third. (3) Out of tune, by being 5/. are to be emphasised more strongly than higher in pitch than is just. (4) Shrill or they would otherwise be in the course of the acute, as sharp mixture, an organ stop. rhythm. Shawm. [Chalameau.] Sfz. p. Abb. for 'Sforzato piano, a sudden Shift, A change of the position of the forte followed by a diminuendo or piano. hand in violin playing, by which the , first Also indicated by the sign ;:=-. finger of the player has to temporarily be- Sfuggito (It.) Avoided, shunned, as come the nut. Shifts are complete changes thus, the first shift on the Cadenza sfuggita, an interrupted cadence. of four notes ; Shading of pipes. The placing of any- violin is when the first finger is on A of the shift, it is thing so near the top of an organ pipe as to first string ; the second when on affect the vibrating column of air which it D above. The intermediate points on which contains. the first finger can be placed are called posi- Shake. TriUo {It.), PraUtriller {Ger.) tions ; thus, ih.Q first position (called also the An ornament produced by the rapid alter- a&aZ/' s/fz/i) is when the first finger is on G'; nations of two notes, either a tone or semitone the second position is the first shift ; the third position is the first finger is on apart, as the case may be. The sign of a when B ;

(393 3 —

SHORT OCTAVES SIGNATURE.

the fourth when it is on C ; the fifth position Siebenpfeife des Pan. [Pan's pipes.] becomes the second shift, &c. Siegeslied (Ger.) A song of triumph. Short octaves. In old organs, in order Siegue. [Segue.] to avoid the expense of large pipes which SifHote, Sufflote {Ger.) [Flute.] were not frequently used, only the most im- Signa. (i) An old name for large Church mediaeval portant notes between c c and g g g were bells. (2) Characters and signs in employed. The following was a common music. system of arranging the four lowest sounds Signalist {Ger.) A military trumpet in English organs : player. Signatur {Ger.) [Signature.] Signature. The signs placed at the com- mencement of a piece of music. There are two kinds of signature, the time-signature and the key-signature, the latter requiring a to clef to show the pitch, (i) The key signa- tures, including the clefs, are usually written every stave the time-signature only at w on ; the commencement of the first line and where changes occur. It would be more proper to The keys as above appeared, of course, to call the time-signature the measure-sign, as it be B, C, CJt, D. shows the contents of a bar but not the pace Si. The name of the seventh degree of the at which the music should be performed. scale of Do. It was first suggested as a sol- The signatures of minor keys are the same feggio syllable by Ericius Puteanus, of Dod- as those of their relative majors. This leads recht, in 1580, and again by Lemaire, of Paris, to some inconvenience, as it is often neces- about the year 1 6go. In the scale as divided into sary to look into a piece before determining hexachords by Guido, the seventh note as the whether it is in the major or minor. Various

first was called Ut ; but the use of solmisation remedies have been proposed for this, the rendered a seventh name necessary. Za and most important of which is to mark the raised Sa were both suggested at different times, leading-note and minor sixth in the signa-

the latter because it was a portion of the ture, e.g. : first syllable of the word sancte, one of the concluding words of the verse of the hymn A minor. E minor. B minor. Fjf minor. CJf minor. Gfl minor. which gave the names to the other notes. [Aretinian syllables.] Andreas Lorente, in a part of his book, Djt minor. A$ minor. " El porque de la musica," 1673, suggested the syllable Bi for the leading note of the scale, but the syllable adopted by Puteanus and Lemaire took firmer hold of the musical D minor. G minor. C minor. F minor. BI) minor. Eb minor. Ab minor. mind of the public, from a supposed notion that the sibilant sound indicated to some extent the peculiarity of the tone. Si b6mol {Fr.) The note Bjz. It is remarkable that writers before the Siciliana, Siciliano [It.) A graceful middle of the eighteenth century frequently dance of the Sicilian peasantry, set to a placed one sharp less in the signature than melody in ^ or y time, of a simple pastoral was absolutely necessary, and consequently character. Compositions or movements of were obliged to use an accidental at every like character are so named. recurrence of the leading-note. It seems Side-drum. A small military drum fre- difficult to account for this custom, unless quently used in the orchestra. It is sus- such writers thought it wrong to acknow- pended at the side of the player and beaten ledge that the force of the leading-note over- with two wooden sticks on the upper head or threw the old church modes. Some writers surface, the lower having catgut strings called consider that it was done in order not to snares, stretched across to check the rever- disturb the proper position of the mi and /a beration. Rossini was the first to employ in sol-faing. [Sol-faing.] the side-drum as an orchestra:l instrument. (2) Time-signatures are expressed by frac- See the score pf the overture to La Gazza tional parts of a semibreve. But the signs Ladra. [Drum.] C and are, it is to be regretted, still much Siebenklang {Ger.) (i) A chord of the in vogue in common time. The former is a

seventh. - (2) A heptach(?rd or scale of seven corruption of the semicircle C , which was notes. used to denote duple or imperfect ineasure, (396) SIGN- -SIM.

the whole circle O being used to denote per- But in modern music (t generally indicates fect or triple measure. The stroke through the four minims in a bar, allegro, that is half the sign d; has two distinct meanings, namely, pace. There is iiot the smallest necessity (i) a halving of the contents of the bar ; (2) for the use of either of these signs, as will be a halving of the pace of the music. Thus, C seen by the following excellent tables, drawn formerly denoted fourminims in a bar ; and

6 SIMICION SIX POUR QUATRE.

Simicion or Simicon {Gk.), aifUKiov. A Fig; L harp with thirty-five strings, known to, and occasionally used by tiie Greeks., Similar motion. [Motion.]

Simile (It.) Like ;: in the same manner. A direction that a method of performance previously ordered ia to be adhered to in all similar passages. Simpla {low Lat.) Semiminima. A crotchet.

Simple, (i) Not florid ; as, sitnple counter- poinL (2) Not developed ; as, simple imita- tion. (3) Not exceeding an octave ; as, simple interval. (4) Containing only one group of notes ; as, simple measure, simple time. (5) Without valves or pistons ; as, a simple tube. (6) That which cannot be Others had bars of unequal length without resolved into constituents ; as, a simple tone.. rings, a fact which has led some writers to Sin' al fine {It.) To the end. suppose that they were struck with a piece of Sinfonia {It.) Sinfonie {Fr.) [Sym- metal held in the other hand. (Fig. 2.), phony.] , Singschule {Ger.) An academy or school for singing. Singend {Ger.) [Cantabile.] Singetanze {Ger.) Song-dances. Ballad's. Singhiozzando. {It.) In a sobbing style^ Single action. [Pianoforte.] [Harp.] Single chant., [Chant.]. Single fugue^ A composition in which, only one subject is employed. [Fugue.] Single relish. An old ornament in harpsi- chord music, viohn playing, or singing.. It was also called a cadent.

Written.

Played. Fig. 3 shows Egyptian ladies rattling sis- trums at a. religious ceremony. Singschule {Ger.) A school for teaching Fig- vocal music. A song-school. 3- (per.) [Opera.] Singstimme (Ger.) A vocal part. Sinistra (It.) The left hand. Sinkapace. [Paspy.] Si place (It.) At pleasure, ad libitum. Si replica (It.) To be repeated. Si scriva (It.) As written, without im- promptu embellishment or alteration. Si segue (It.) As follows, go on. Sister (Ger.) An old German guitar having seven gut strings, the three lowest covered. It was tuned to G c f g c' e' g'. Sistro (It.) A triangle. Sistrum (Gk.), aeiarpoy (frorn o-EiVto sfia^e), A rattle used by the ancient. Egyptians-,, the Greeks, and Romans.. It is not improbable were known also to the Hebrews,, if the word menaaneim is correctly traced to a Sitole. [Citote.] root signifying to " rattle,." Its common Si tace (It.) Be silent form was that of a handle surmounted by a Si volta (It.) Turn over. loop of metal having cross-bars on which Sixieme (Fr.) The interval of a sixth. rings were sometimes placed; (Fig. i.) Six pour quatre (Fr.) A sextuplet, q.v. (398) '

SIXTE—^SOL-FAING.

SiXte (Fr.) The intervul of a sixth. Slider. [Organ.] Sixteen feet. The length of the open Sliding relish, ConU {Fr^ A grace in pipe which gives the unison of the: pedal old harpsichord music. organ and the double of the manuals. Sixteenth note. A semiquaver, the six- - Written, ^^— Ei»y=d. - teenth part of a semibreve. m ^ W^'^-^ Sixth, added. [Added sixth.] Sixth, chord of the. The first inversion Slur. A curved line placed over notes the of common chord ; it consists- of a note directing that they are to be played legato. with its minor third and minor sixth. [Bind.] A slur is often used in modern music Sixth, chord of the French, German, to shew the phrasing. In violin music a slur Italian. [Extreme Sixth.] directs that the notes under it are to be played' Sixth, Neapolitan. [NeapoKtaii Sixth.] with one bow. [Bowing.] Skald or Scalld. A Gothic poet, priest, Small Octave. The name given by the or bard. According to Percy the word Germans to the notes, denotes " smoothers and polishers of lan- guage," but others: derive it from gala to sing, whence galld, enchantment, and sgalld, skalld, an enchanter.. The root "gala"' appears in the termination gall in the word; and their intermediate; semitones. It is also nightingale. The name was especially ap^ called the lesser octave, and is described by plied to those who, in addition, to natural the small letters e, d!, e. [Pitch.]' [Tabla- gifts, possessed some degree of education,, ture.] that is to say, a knowledge, of versification,, Smaniante, Smaniare, Smanioso {It!) mythical imagery, and the traditions of their Furious, frantic, with rage„ country. Skaldic poetry had for its object Smanicare {It.) To shift. [Shift.] the celebration of the deeds of living, war- Sminuendo, Sminuito, Smorendo (/f.) riors or their ancestors.. The Skalds were Diminishing, decreasing gradually, lessening attached, to the courts of the Scandinavian the time and tone» princes, it being accounted honourable to be Smorfioso {It.) Affected, coquettish.. possessed of the most skilful of these poets» Smorzando, Smorzato (7^.) Gradually There are few complete poems of the Skalds fading away.. extant, but a large number of fragments are Snap. [Scotch Snap..]: preserved, partly by the younger Edda, partly Snare Drum, [Side Drum.] in the Sagas and the Heimskringla, The Soave, Soavemente {It.) Agreeably, Eddas are songs as old as the 6th century, delicately, gently, softly, sweetly. the Sagas are historical and legendary tales. Sobb. An old vrord for damping in lute The Heimskringla, or Mythic ring of the playing.. ""Cause them (the strings) to sobb, world, records the- history of the kings, of by slacking your stopping hand so soon as

Norway from the earliest times to the year they are struck ; yet not to unstop them, but 1 177, the year in which the historian Snorri only so much as may dead the sound on a Sturleson was born. sudden. This gives great pleasure in such Skip. A movement from any one note to cases." Mace, 1676. another which is at a greater interval than Soggetto {It.) Subject, theme, motive, one degree.. [Disjunct motion.] proportion of a fugue. Skitzen {Ger.) Sketches. Short pieces, Sol- The note G. [Sol-faing.] sometimes suggestive of some particular sub- Sol-bemol {Fr.) The note G flat. Sol- ject, not in any prescribed form. bemol majeur, the key of G flat major. Sol- Slancio, con {It.) With eagerness, im- bemol tnineur, the key of G flat minor. iSoZ- petuosity; from slanciare, to rush upon. diese, the note G sharp. Slargando, Slargandosi {It) Widening, Solennemente {It.) Solemnly. opening, extending. Used as an equivalent Solennit^ {It.) Solemnity, pomp. for rallentando. Sol-fa {It.) A general name for the notes Slentando (7^) Slackening the time, in music. [Sol-faing, Solfeggi, Tonic Sol- becoming slower by degrees.. fa.] Slide, (i) An arrangement in the trumpet Sol-faing. A system of smgmg ; a com- and trombone, by means of which the tube position in which the names of the notes are can be lengthened so as to generate a new employed instead of the words to which it four series of harmonics. (2) To slide is to pass may be set. Formerly only of the seven from one note to another without any cessa- names of the notes—tit. Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, tion of sound, or distinction between the in- Si, were used, namely. Mi, Fa, Sol, La. applied to every note in scale, tervals. (3) A slider of an organ. These were the

( 399 ) :: : : : ; : : :

SOLFEGE SONATA. on the principle that it is naturally divided And if another on C be found, into two halves of similar proportions. Remember there your Mi to sound

Sol La Mi Fa And if one more be set on G, I a 3 4 Then in that place will stand your Mi Thus, from i to 2 is a tone, from 2 to 3 is also a tone, and from 3 to 4 a semitone, whether the upper or lower series be the first reckoned. So, as in the scale of C, from Fa If all be sharp, F, C, G, D, to Sol and from Sol to La are each a tone Then Mi alone will stand in D apart, and from Mi to Fa only a semitone all tones in the scale were distinguished by these names for the purpose of Sol-faing. In the modern method of Sol-faing no distinction is made between tones and Fa Sol La Fa Sol La Mi Fa semitones by the use of a fixed nomencla- ture for the proportions of the scale, but the Mi was always used for the leading, or ftotes in any key are called by the names master note. This series, repeated to any they bear in the key of Do or C. all the extent, was supposed to express Thus, a piece in E or E flat would be Sol- different orders of tones and semitones in the faed by calling the scale notes—Mi, Fa, Sol, . " diatonic scale. Above Mi will stand Fa, La, Si, Do, Re, Mi, whether they were sharp, Sol, La, and below it the same inverted La, flat, or natural. The Tonic Sol-fa method Sol, Fa, and one Mi is always distant from calls all scales starting from any one of another an octave, which cannot be said of the twelve semitones by the same names as after ascending any other of them, because Mi it gives to the notes of the scale of C, namely, come always Fa, Sol, La, Fa, which are Doh, Ray, Me, Fah, Soh, Lah, Te, Doh. repeated invertedly, descending." Solfege (Fr.) A vocal exercise in which The old rules for remembering Mi in all the notes are called by the several names Do. keys were thus set forth, the positions of the Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Si. [Sol-faing.] notes being called by the seven letters of the Solfeggiamenti (It.) Solfeggi. alphabet in use then as now ; Solfeggiare (It.) To practice solfeggi. Solfeggio. [Solfege.} If that no flat is set in B, Solist. [.] Then in that pldce standeth y'' Mi Solito (It.) Usual, used, accustomed. In the ordinary manner.

SoUecito (It.) Careful ; a word directing But if your B alone is flat, a careful and attentive manner of performance. Then E is Mi. be sure of that Solmisare (It.), Solmizare (7^), Solmi- siren{Ger.) To Sol-fa. [Sol-faing. Solfeggio.] Solmisation. [Sol-faing.]

If both be flat, your B and E, Solo (It.) Alone. Soprano solo, the Then A is Mi, here you may see soprano alone ; voci soli, voices alone, &c. Soloist. One who sings or performs alone, with or without the aid of accompaniment. Solo pitch. The tuning of an instrument If these be flat, E, A and B, a little higher than the ordinary pitch in Then Mi alone doth stand in D : order to obtain brilliancy of tone with a certain amount of ease to the player. [Accordatura.] Solospieler [Ger.) A. solo playet. If all be flat, E, A, B, D, Solostimme [Ger.) A solo part. Then surely Mi will stand in G Son {Fr.) Sound, tone. Sonabile (It.) Sounding, resonant. Sonare (It.) To sound, to play upon. Learn this, and learn it well by rote, Sonare alia mente to play extempore. Sonare is aye the last sharped note That Mi il violino (It.) To play upon the violin. For if a sharp on F be set, Sonata. The word Sonata is supposed by To call that Mi, do not forget some to be derived from the Italian word sonare, to sound, but by others from sonetto, a sonnet.

( 400 ) ;

SONATA.

The term Sonata or Suonata, as applied which the illustration to the word Canzona to a musical composition, was first used about is taken, will give an idea of the character the beginning of the 17th century. Those of of these early Sonatas. The first phrase that time so called, had but one movement of ig bars is in fugal style, then follow they were in fact, in duple simply airs arranged in. parts, 12 bars in f , after which are 27 bars for an instrument or instruments. But the title time in which free imitation is employed, of airs was given to some Sonatas as late as then 9^ bars in f again, the music of a different 1770, for in Hoyle's " Dictionarium musicae" of character to that in the former movement, of that date, voce "Suonata," we read " of Corelli's the same pulse measure, then 2 bars by way Musick, the first and third operas are Church of a coda or conclusion, in common time. Sonatas, and the second and fourth, Chamber No portion is marked for repetition, but the

Sonatas ; though the common distinction whole thing goes straight on from the first note among us is made by the name of airs." to the last. Other terms were occasionally used to The earliest compositions to which the describe Sonatas, such as Consorts, Ayres, title of Sonata or Suonata was attached, Lessons, Fantasies or Fancies, " so made were written by Bonifacio Graziani (i6og- as they must be plaid and not sung," and 1672), Marc Antonio Cesti (1624-1675), and "Ayerie Fancies that may be as well sung Paolo Colonna (1630-1690), among others. as plaid." It is presumed that some of the works of Sir John Hawkins, in his " History of these musicians were those brought to Eng- Music," says these titles were disused about land by John Jenkins (1592-1680), who after- the middle of the 17th century, when new forms wards, upon the models so suggested, pub- of concerted pieces of a more elegant character lished in 1660 in London "Twelve Sonatas

came into vogue ; these were called " the for two violins and a bass, with a thorough Sonata di Chiesa and the Sonata di Camera." bass for the organ." These were the first The first of these, as being adapted to Church compositions of the kind by an Englishman. Service, was grave and solemn, consisting of Jenkins was already well known as an' agree- slow movements, intermixed with fugues; the able writer of "fancies for viols," and his other admitted of a variety of airs to regular Sonatas show a certain amount of artistic measures, such as the Allemande, the Courant, progress in the arrangement of contrasted the Sarabande, &c. movements. Most writers on musical history The slow movements "intermixed with declare that Francis Henry Biber (1648- fugues," arose from the introduction of the 1698), was the first who published a work Canzona, and Sir John Hawkins in mentioning with the title of a Sonata, but his compositions this as a characteristic of the Sonata, uncon- did not appear until 1681, more than twenty sciously proves that the influence of the years after those by Jenkins with the same

Canzona style had not weakened or faded at title ; and there were also the still earlier Italian the time he wrote. writers named above, from whom Jenkins The connection of the Canzona with confessedly obtained the idea. Considering the the Sonata is to a certain extent indicated variety of the German tongue, and the un- in the pieces by Frescobaldi, published at willingness of the German people to use a Venice (1634). " Canzone da Sonare a una, foreign term when a native equivalent can be due, tre, et quattro, con il basso continuo," found, it IS scarcely likely that the term Sonata which are exactly similar in style to the com- would be first attached to a German composi-

. positions recorded in early times as Sonatas. tion by a German composer ; therefore it is When in subsequent compositions of this kind reasonable to assume that the word would two or more movements were employed, those have been adopted by the musicians of the most favoured were a Canzona or something country to which it belongs. Graziani, Cesti, in Canzona style, and a dance tune, such as a and Colonna, who died before the time Biber Pavan, an Allemande, or a Coranto. The pubHshed his Sonatas, used the term to describe

Canzona was probably selected by the com- certain of their compositions ; but supposing poser as a vehicle for the display of art and the honour of first using it belonged to a skill, and the dance tune was offered as a German, then Johann Rosenmiiller, who pub- conciliation to the taste of his hearers. Long lished at Venice " XII. senate a camera, a 5 after the form was fixed, compositions bearing stromenti," in 1667, has a prior claim to the name of Sonatas, constructed on the Biber. principles and according to the models of Henry Purcell (1658-1695), who was one older times, were published, someas late as the of the earliest English writers of Sonatas, has end of the last century, as intimated above. almost as strong a claim to an early use of Frescobaldi's Canzone consist of only one the word as Biber. Purcell composed movement, with various changes of time. Sonatas which were published in 1683, with A short analysis of the whole piece from the title of " Twelve sonatas of three parts,

( 401 ) 2 c SONATA. two violins and a base, to the organ or harp- largo of great beauty of melody, the second sychord." These were issued in separate an adagio in § time, with all the notes not parts, and in the sixth Sonata of this set is in the key of F major written as acciden- the melody whose character has given rise to tals, the third called canzona allegro is in F the erroneous statement that Purcell com- major (duple time), the fourth a grave in D posed the air upon which " God save the minor (duple time), and the fifth is an allegro King" is founded. Furthermore, some writers in F major |. No portion of any one move- declare that there is evidence in the con- ment is marked for repetition. The move- struction of this set of Sonatas, that Purcell ments are each short, the last being the was indebted to Corelli for his ideas. If longest, and there is but little indication of there is a sufficient similarity of style to that which is known as Sonata form in any, warrant the assertion, there still remains the though each is written in a form regular doubt whether Purcell could have seen the enough in itself. Every device of imitation, work of his Italian contemporary before his inversion, and augmentation of the subjects own was published, as both sets were issued proposed is employed freely, though not to a in the same year, and communication, espe- great extent. Lully [1634-1687], Pachelbel cially with a foreign country, was not so [1653-1706], Buononcini [16^8-1702], the rapid then as now. great Arcangelo Corelli, and- Kiihnau In the preface to this book of Sonatas, [1667-1722], may be mentioned as Sonata Purcell states that " he has faithfully endea- writers contemporary with Purcell. Kiih- voured a just imitation of the most famed nau being, perhaps, next to Corelli, the Italian masters, principally to bring the most remarkable. His early Sonatas were seriousness and gravity of that sort of musick in three movements, an allegro, andante, and into vogue and reputation among our country- allegro, and for this reason his claim to merit men, whose humour 'tis time now should as the suggestor of the modern form has begin to loath the levity and balladry of our been made out. One of these Sonatas or " neighbours." He further states, He is not suites (No. 3) in E minor, may be taken ashamed to own his unskilfulness in the as an example not only of the rest of his Italian language, but that is the unhappiness works, but of the form the Sonata had as- of his education, which cannot justly be sumed in his day. Commencing with a

counted his fault ; however, he thinks he may Prseludium of 22 bars in which sentences warrantably affirm he is not mistaken in the given out by the right hand are imitated in power of the Italian notes, or elegancy of the left, there follows an AUemande with their compositions." If Purcell benefited by the half close in B minor, a Courante and a the writings of any Italian musician, it could Sarabande with the first sections ending in B hardly have been by those of Corelli. major; in none are the subjects developed, Purcell also composed a second set about but the Gigue with which the suite concludes the same time, but they were not printed contains the nearest approach to modern until after his death. Among this second form, in that the second section commences set was one well-known by the name of the with the subject first proposed, though by in- " Golden Sonata," and as it is a very fair version, and oddly enough the second half of example of Purcell's compositions ofthis kind, the Gigue contains two bars less than the and indeed of most others of the period, a first, a very unusual circumstance—as in short description may not be out of place here. nearly all other instances the latter portion of It is written in three parts, for two violins a Gigue is the longer. There is not any at- and a figured bass. The key is F, and the tempt in either movement to introduce a first movement, only twenty-six bars in subject of sufficiently marked character to length, is a largo in common time of four justify its being called a second or distinctive crotchets. The subject, proposed by the bass theme. and imitated by the trebles, is repeated in the The yearning after a fixed form, and the key of the dominant at the 8th bar, but by suggestion of the treatment which became the bass only, the trebles having a second expanded into the Sonata form may certainly subject. At the 12th bar the subject is in- be traced in Kiihnau's " Frische Clavier- verted in the bass and answered according to frtichte," seven Sonatas, published in 1703 the inversion by the other parts in fugal (not in i6g6, as some say). In melodic form, modulating into the key of the relative treatment and expansion of subject these minor, in which key the subject re-appears, show a decided advance. That which in having for counterpoint an inversion of the Frescobaldi appeared to be a mere capricious first and second subjects ; and with an imita- change oi,tempo, in Kiihnau became de- tion of the first episode as coda the move- veloped into movements of respectable ment ends. length, but still without any remarkable There are altogether five movements, a development of chosen themes. Kiihnau often

( 402 ) SONATA. makes the first subject of some of his move- In five out of eight of the Sonatas of ments heard in the dominant (whether the Domenico Alberti, the Sonata form is nearly suite is in a major or a minor key) in the observed in the first movement, and often in middle of a movement, but does not call, as the second, and there are few compositions it were, special attention to the fact by means of better construction, either for voices or in- of a double bar or a repeat. Johann Matthe- struments, of earlier date than his " Sonata in son (1681-1722) frequently imitates his first stilo nuovo " (1737). Subject in the second movement by inversion, Alberti's Sonatas are in two movements and occasionally shows that he contributed only, like those of many of those of his con- something towards the settlement of form by temporaries and immediate successors, par- the manner in which he treats his "Gigues," ticularly those by Dr. Croft (1679-1727), Nicolo as may be seen in the example quoted sub Porpora (1685-1767), Dr. Boyce (1710-1779), voce "jig." His Sonata, published in Fedeli (1715-1762), Carlo Tessarini (1715- 1713, and dedicated " to the person who 1765), Frederic Theodor Schumann (1729- shall best perform it " is in one movement 1760), Valentin Roeser (1740-1787), &c. only, and is capriccio-like in treatment. It Francesco Durante (1684-1755), who, as a may be here mentioned as an interesting fact teacher, enjoyed a high and honourable that in the majority of the suites a Gigue is reputation, as a writer of Sonatas displays chosen as the concluding movement, and in a refined and correct taste, but very little its lively character as well as in the style of originality of conception, many of his thoughts its construction is more in accordance with being based upon the ideas of Scarlatti his Sonatas and clavecin composi- modern Sonata form than any other portion ; master. The this Was the method often employed by Bach, tions of (1683-1757), were, Handel, and others to a later time. The according to Burney, " the wonder and thirty Sonatas of delight of every hearer who had a spark of (1659-1725), the next writer of importance enthusiasm about him, and could feel new after Mattheson, have each two movements, and bold effects, intrepidly produced by the in which may be discerned a still further at- breach of almost all the old and established tempt to fix the style, and to impart some rules of composition," but they contribute degree of unity. little towards a settlement of form. Contemporary with Scarlatti was Tomaso It is probable that Handel noted the growth Albinoni [1674-1745], whose Sonatas were of the form, and occasionally employed it, at one time so popular in England, that the some of the movements in his "Suites" common fiddlers were able to play movements having the orthodox first and second subject, while others have only a single subject in from them ; but there is little indication of Sonata form in any one of his compositions. each section. Some of the songs in his Domenico Alberti [1705-1739], whose name Italian operas are almost in Sonata form, certain details. is associated with the arpeggio bass, said to wanting only the observance of have been invented by him, was one among the Some of the Sonatas of Christopher in correct'form, first, if not the very first who employed the Wagenseil (1688-1779) are nearest approach to modem Sonata form that though the second subject is timidly in- had as yet been made. In his " VIII. Sonate troduced and employed. The lingering fond- tonality, which is the per Cembalo " (1737), each one has two move- ness for the same ments, and nearly each movement two well- characteristic of the Suites, and the earliest defined subjects, properly introduced. With Sonatas, is to be found in Wagenseil; fair the exception of an occasional opening or one of his Sonatas in the key of F, a style, has closing chord, the whole of these movements specimen of his work in this an an are written in two-part harmony, and they allegro assai as the first movement, and a minuet are pleasingly effective. C, F, G major and andante grazidso as the second, last movements minor, and A are the keys selected in obedience as the third. The first and andante in minor.. to the usual custom of the time of avoiding ex- are in F major, and the F this Sonata is to be treme keys, but Alberti employs accidentals The collection in which between and 1750. freely for his bold and advanced modulations. found was published 1740 the earliest coin- In the works of these earlier writers an The changes of tempo in suggested advance towards the Sonata form may be positions of this kind, probably separate movements. In- traced, for in more than one there is a close a division into would doubtless upon the dominant in the first section, and herent musical feeling to make the several the original subject is announced in the key prompt the composer offer as much contrast as pos- of the dominant at the commencement of the movements sible, and the variety thus introduced would second section ; but there is little indication, if accepted as the first canon of this class any at all, of what might be called a second be or subsidiary theme. of composition.

I 403 ) SONATA.

The arrangement of the earliest " Suites section having the first subject inverted. The " des pifeces may be studied with advantage third Suite, in A minor, opens with a, fantasia, in reference to this point. In the " Pifeces de followed by an allemande, which is succeeded Clavecin" by Franfois Couperin, 1713, there is by a co%rante, more or less free in treat- a set in C minor, consisting of an AUemande, ment. The next piece is a sarabande in good followed by a first and second Courante, then form, then a burlesca, next a scherzo in duple a Sarabande, a Gavotte, and finally a Minuet, time (given as an illustration to the article each movement varying in tempo as well as "Scherzo"), lastly agigue in fantasia style. The in character, though not in key. The number fourth Suite, in D major, begins with an over- of movements in a Suite alternated between ture of some length ; then comes a courante not five and seven for many years, but by degrees in form, then an allemande, then an aria, then they became lessened in number. Although a sarabande, the three last named obeying the the names of dance tunes ceased to be attached rules of form ; then there is a short minuet of to the several movements, it was easy to see two movements, and the last is a gigue. The that much of their character was retained ; for fifth Suite, in G major, opens with what he as composers began to feel that the measure calls a preamble, after which an allemande, of the dance turie had a tendency to cramp a courante, a sarabande, a tempo di minuetto, their musical thoughts, their models were a passepied and a gigue, the saraband only altered or abandoned, and they expanded of all these movements answering to any their movements at pleasure, without reference extent the requirements of form. The sixth to the needs of the dance. Later, when three Suite, in E minor, the most remarkable and movements were adopted, the dance tune was difficult of the whole set, begins with a long restored, a preference being given to the and beautiful toccata, having next an alle- Minuet or something in its kind, and this, mande with the close of the first section on with a slow and a quick movement, for a long the dominant B major, next a courante, treated \ime made up the recognised constitution of a in like fashion, then an air in rondo form,

Sonata. . Beethoven added a fourth movement, then a gavotte in Sonata form, a sarabande, the Scherzo, which he used sometimes instead written in fantasia style, and a gigue in the of, sometimes in addition to, the Minuet ; but somewhat unusual tempo " alia breve," the he was not, as some say, the inventor of that first bar of which is quoted under the head movement, as Haydn in his quartets, and " alia breve." In the third book of the second Bach in his Suites had previously employed a set, " Zweiter Theil der Clavier-ubung," there movement called Scherzo. is a minuet in B minor which, instead of a " The Clavier-Uebung," of J. S. Bach, pub- second minuet in the relative major, according lished singly between 1726 and 1730, marked to custom, has a "trio" in B minor; this is in Hoffmeister's edition as CEuvre I., No. i, noteworthy, as it is probably the earliest containing six Suites in various keys, offers a instance of this use of the word. The con- very remarkable series of studies, inasmuch struction and arrangement of this second set as they show the master mind yielding to the is so similar to the first, that with the ex- custom of his time in the order and style of ception just now pointed out, there is little the arrangements of his suites or Sonatas, but or no point of difference to call for special as free from conventionality as possible, and remark. pointing in the direction so worthily followed The " Sechs leichte Clavier-Sonaten," of by later writers. In the first number there are C. Philipp Emanuel Bach (1711-1788), pub- six movements, all in the key of B fiat, namely, lished at Leipsic, 1766, contain each the a prelude, an allemande, a courante, a sara- orthodox three movements, a moderate, a bande, a minuet and gigue. Each, with the ex- slow and a quick ; and the first, and sometimes ception of the Prelude, is, as near as possible, the last movement of each is written in in Sonata form, though the second subject Sonata form, with the exception of No. 6, is not always treated in the tonic in the second which begins with a movement in rondo section. As usual, there is a second Minuet form. Not one has the name of a dance in the place now occupied by the trio, of tune attached, though there are several which which more presently. The second Suite is would answer all needs, were they so named. in C minor, and commences with a symphony Many of the Sonatas of his brother Wilhelm or overture of two contrasted movements, but Friedemann Bach (1710-1784) though, free in form ; the next movement is an cleverly and ably written, show a less regard allemande, the first section closing on the for the symmetrical form so characteristic dominant (G major) ; the third movement a of the works of Philipp Emanuel. More courante, similarly written ; the fourth a than one of Friedemann's Sonatas, like those sarabande, with the first close in the relative of the older writer, consist of a continuous major; the fifth is a rondeau, in the form proper movement with a frequent change of time, to such pieces ; the last is a caprice, the second rhythm and tonality. Some portions fulfil

( 404 ) —

SONATA.

all the requirements of form, but they are Hummel, Weber, Field, Onslow, Moscheles, not marked for repetition. There are no and Schubert show no further advance in pro- separate and distinct movements, and the gress in development. form chosen might be called, if not a caprice, A modern Sonata is generally constructed at all events an original idea of the rondo, upon the following plan : for after many and varied contrasts of time The first movement is an allegro, some- and subject, the Sonata often concludes with times with an introduction, but more fre- the phrase originally given out. quently without one; the second movement, Schobert's Sonatas, published in 1741, are ordinarily called "the slow movement," is especially remarkable, because the second sub- set in any time, between adagio and andante; jects are introduced in proper keys, after due and the final movement is an allegro, written preparation, although they are not so fully de- either in Sonata or in rondo form. If there

veloped as those by later vi^riters. There is an is a. fourth movement, it is usually placed after evident design in expanding the subjects to the slow movement, and is either a scherzo a greater extent than that which had been the or minuet and trio. This is the broad out-

custom before his time. So many of the line ; the details require a little more particular Sonatas by E. Bach and Schobert are con- description. structed according to Sonata form as now The first movement should have two themes,

accepted, that the honour of having fixed the unlike each other in character ; for example, form may fairly be divided between these two one vigojous and spirited, the other tender

composers. and expressive ; and each should be capable of Schobert's works were at one time the most varied treatment. After the first subject has popular of any performed in England, Dr. been well announced, a modulation into the Burney having introduced them here in 1766. key of the dominant, if the subject starts it. This writer makes a mistake, when he says the major, and into the relative major if the that Schobert published nothing until 1764, subject commences in the minor, should be for he was already well known as a composer made. In either case the second subject when he was invited to become " Musician to must be heard in the changed key before the the Prince de Conti " in 1760, and copies of half close or perfect cadence concludes the his Sonatas were in the hands of every harp- first part of the allegro. In the second portion sichord player before that time. Emanuel of the allegro, a greater amount of license is Bach knew Schobert's value as a musician, permitted, this section often partaking of the for Dr. Burney states that "his (Bach's) nature of a free fantasia. The two principal party allowed Schobert to be a man of genius, themes are subjected to all kinds of treatment, but spoiled by his affectation of a new and and are introduced in various keys at the extraordinary style. They further accused will of the composer. Having exhausted all him of frequently copying himself." His chosen devices, the first subject must now writing is perfectly individual, is fresh and enter in its entirety, then the second subject novel, and more like an anticipation of Haydn should be heard, this time in the tonic or key and Mozart than Bach, from whom all in which the movement is written, if that

the musicians of the time were wont to mode be major ; or it may appear in the

copy. key of the tonic major, if the mode be minor ; It is scarcely necessary to pursue the but the episode and cadence which are to question further, or to enter into any elaborate in the conclusion of this section, must be in argument in support of the claim of any the tonic key. Sometimes a coda, formed of particular musician to the invention of that a portion of the first subject, is added, and to which probably all have contributed more the movement ends in the key first proposed. or less. For at the period of time to which our This method of treatment is called the inquiries have now led, the Sonatas of Haydn " Sonata " or " Binary " form. and Mozart became the recognised form of The second movement may be written in this species of composition, and they are several different ways, that is to say, treated happily so well known that a particular like the first movement with two principal description is unnecessary. But, notwith- themes, or with only one principal theme. standing the existence of such noble models, Whatever be the precise form selected, the not every composer of a Sonata cared to use style of the music should afford a great con-

the recognised or Sonata form ; even Cheru- trast to that of the allegro. bini, with his love for form, sometimes wrote The style of the last movement should afford Sonatas not in true form. a still greater contrast by its character, what-

It is unnecessary, perhaps, to say that ever be the form selected ; if it is a Rondo, it the Sonata was brought to its present per- should be lighter than the first or second fection by Beethoven. The works of Clementi, movements. Many instances could be quoted the father of pianoforte - playing, Dussek, in which the final movement is made the

( 405 ) ;

SONATA DA CHIESA SOUND-BOARD.

vehicle for the expression of quaint musical oboes, the mute being inserted in the bell. humour. (2) When mutes are required during a per- Sonata da chiesa (Jt.) A church sonata, formance, the direction con sordini is placed an organ sonata. above the part so to be played, the contrary Sonate (Fr.) [Sonata.] direction being senza sordini. Sonatina {It.), Sonatine (Fr.) A short Sordino {It.) A small pocket fiddle, a sonata. One in which the subjects are not pochette or kit, formerly used for the purpose developed at length. of giving the pitch, &c., at music parties. Sonatore (It.) An instrumental performer. Sordo, sorda {It.) Damped with a mute Sonevole (It.) Sonorous, sounding, re- as, clarinetto sordo, tromha sorda, &c,

. sonant. [Sordini.] Song, (i) A short poem intended for Sordun, Sordono {It.) (i) An old form music. (2) A musical setting of a short poem of wood wind instrument, having a double or portion of prose. The word is generally- reed, with twelve ventages and two keys. applied to solos, but sometimes also to com- (2) A sort of mute for a trumpet. (3) An positions for two or more voices. (3) The organ reed stop of 16 ft. pitch. second subject of a sonata is sometimes Sortisatio {Lat.) Counterpoint alia mente. called the " Song." [Air.] [Ballad.] [Lied.] [Alia mente.] [Chant sur livre.] Sonometer. An instrument for measur- Sortita {It.) (i) A word applied to the first ing the vibrations of sounds. piece sung by any one character in an opera. Sonoramente (It.) Sonorously. Thus, " Come per me" is the aria sortita, aria Sonore (Fr.), Sonoro (It.) Sonorous, d'entrata, or entrance air for Amina in La resonant, harmonious. Sonnambula. (2) A concluding voluntary, Sonorita [It.) Harmony, resonance, sono- played as the congregation leaves the church. rousness. Sospensivamente {It.) Doubtfully, irreso- Sonorophone. A metal wind instrument lutely, waveringly. of the Bombardon class. Sospirando, Sospirante, Sospireiule, Sons (Fr.) The name given by the Pro- Sospiroso {It.) Sighing, subdued, wretched, vencal poets to their lyrical productions. doleful. Sons etouffes (Fr.) Stifled, veiled, or Sospiro {It.) A crotchet rest. In old muffled tones. Sounds produced by a muted music a minim rest. instrument. Sost. Abb. of Sostenuto. Sons harmoniques (Fr.) Harmonic Sostenendo, Sostenuto {It.) Sustaining. tones or sounds. Maintaining the tone for the full duration of Sons pleins (Fr.) Full tones, applied to the notes written. the production of full round tones by a voice Sotto (/i.) Below, under; ?iS,sottovoce,m

or instrument. an undertone ; sotto il soggetto, below the Sonus (Lat.) Sound. subject. Sopra (It.) Above, before, over, upon, Soubasse {Fr.) Sub-bass. A stop in

upper, as Di sopra, as above ; Come sopra, as the organ, of 32 ft. pitch.

above or before ; Nella parte di sopra, in the {Fr.) A serving maid. A

upper or higher part ; Contrappunto sopra il female singer in a minor part of a comic opera. soggetto, counterpoint over the subject. Souchantre {Fr.) Succentor. Sopran (Ger.), Soprano [It.) The highest Souffarah {Persian.) The general name kind of female or boy's voice. Also the among the Persians and Arabs for wind singer possessing that voice. instruments without reeds. Soprana corda (It.) The highest string Soufflerie {Fr.) The apparatus connected on the fiddle, chanterelle. with the bellows of an organ. [Organ.] Soprano clef. The C clef upon the first SoufHeur {Fr.) (i) A prompter in a line of the stave. [Clef.] theatre. (2) An organ blower. Soum. A Burmese harp. Sound. [Acoustics.] Sound-waves. [Acoustics § 3.] Sorda [It.) Muffled, veiled, muted, damped. Sound-board, (i) A piece of fir or other Sordamente {It.) Softly, gently, silently. resonant wood placed behind the strings of a Sordini {It.) (i) Mutes. Small instru- pianoforte for the purpose of increasing the ments of metal, bone, or wood made to fix power of the sounds. [Pianoforte.] (2) In upon, the bridge of a violin to damp or deaden an organ, the sound-board is that chamber of the sound, by intercepting the vibrations. air into which the feet of the pipes are placed. Mutes of wood covered with leather, of a pear [Organ.] (3) A wood screen placed behind shape, are sometimes used to check the sound a pulpit for the purpose of " reflecting " the

of horns, trumpets, cornets, clarinets and preacher's voice ; or over it, to prevent the (406) SOUND-BODY STACCATO. sound from ascending into a lantern-tower, or with the keys, were sounded by means of a dome. leather or quill plectra (Spinse.) [Clarichord.] Sound-body. Sound-box. [Body.] [Re- [Harpsichord.] [Pianoforte.] [Virginals.] sonance Box.] Spirito, con, (It.) In a spirited, Soupir (Fr.) A crotchet rest T. Spiritosamente lively, animated, brisk Soupir de croche (Fr.) A quaver restT. Spirito so manner. Soupir de double croche (Fr.) A semi- Spirituale (It.) Sacred, spiritual. quaver rest ^. Spirituel (Fr.) Ideal, pure, ethereal. Soupir de triple croche {Fr.) A demi- Spissa (Lat.) Close, (i) Intervals in the semiquaver rest ^. enharmonic and chromatic genus were said to Sourdeline (Fr.) A small kind of bagpipe, be spissa, (TrvKva.) (2) In mediaeval music a or musette. [Bagpipe.] pycnon (ttvkvov) or spissum was a semitone. Sourdine (Fr.) (i) A mute (Sordino.) Spitzfiote, Spindelflote (Ger.) Cuspida, (2) A stop on the harmonium, which by fiauto cuspido (It.) An organ stop of 8 ft. or limiting the supply of wind to the lower half 4 ft. pitch, consisting of open flue-pipes, of a of the instrument, enables the performer to conical shape. Its tone is thin and reedy. play full chords piano. Spitzquint, a quint-stop or twelfth of conical Sous (Fr.) Under; as, Sous-dominante, pipes. the sub-dominant or fourth of the scale. Spondalium, or Spondaulium (Lat.) A Sous-mediante, the sub-mediant, or sixth of Hymn sung during a sacrifice, accompanied the scale. Sous-tonique, the sub-tonic or by a flute. seventh of the scale; the leading or note Spondee (Lat.) A musical foot consisting sensible. of two long syllables. [Metre.] Spaces. The intervals between the lines Sprung (Ger.) A skip. of the stave. The stave consists of five lines Square-piano. [Pianoforte.] and includes four spaces, but notes in spaces Squillante (It.) Ringing, sounding, bell- between leger lines above and below the stave, like in tone, from squilla, a little bell. are employed. [Stave.] Sroutis. The name of the twenty-two Spagnoletta (It.) A dance in the Spanish parts into which the Hindu scale is divided.

style. Sta (It.) As it stands ; to be performed as iSpanisches-Kreuz {Ger.) The Spanish written. cross, the sign of a double sharp, X. Stabat Mater. A well - known Latin Spanish guitar. [Guitar.] Hymn on the crucifixion, sung during Passion Spart. [Sparto.] week in- the Roman Catholic Church. Sparto (li.) Scattered, distributed; hence, Jacopone, a Franciscan who lived in the a Score, as the parts are arranged on several thirteenth century, is supposed to have been lines. [Score.] the author of the words. In addition to the Spartito (It.) Scored. ancient setting, probably contemporary with Spassapensiere (It.) Jew's harp. the words, many composers have written Spatium (Lat.)] (i) A space on the stave, music to the Stabat Mater, but the com- best are those by Spazio (It.) J (2) an interval. positions which are known Spianto (It.) Smooth, level, even. Palestrina, Pergolesi, the last effort of his life, Spiccatamente (It.) Brightly, brilliantly. and Rossini. The first of these three is a Spiccato (It.) Distinct, detached, pointed. noble work, the second is full of pathos and The direction for this is by dots over notes. expression, and the last is a quaint unison of [Bowing.] operatic effects and florid vocal writing. Spielart (Ger.) Manner of playing, Stabile (It.) Firm, steady. method of performance. Stacc. Abb. of Staccato. Spielen (Ger.) To play upon an instru- Staccare (It.) To make staccato. ment. Staccatissimo (It.) As staccato as Spieler (Ger.) A player. possible. Staccato (It.) Detached, taken off, sepa- Spielmanieren (Ger.) Ornaments, graces, rated. In music the word signifies a detached, broderies. abrupt method of singing or playing certain Lit., thorns. Spinse (Lat.) A name notes, by making them of less duration than given to the quills and jacks of a spinet, and they otherwise would be. A small dash over to the instrument itself. sometimes a note signifies that it is to be played staccato. Spinet. Couched harp. Spinett (Ger.) Written. Played. Spinetta (It.) Epinette (Fr.) An ancient keyed instrument similar in construction to, but smaller in size than, the Harpsichord. The strings, which were placed at an angle Sometimes a dot over a note is called a

( 407 ) STADTMUSIKANTEN STEM.

staccato mark, but it is more properly the sign rini," Venice, 1729, shows the form with the of a spiccato. Staccato notes are played clefs then in use in Italy. shorter than those marked spiccato. Stadtmusikanten, StadtpfeifTer, Stadt- zinkenisten, Kunstpfeiffer, Hausleute ^ {Ger.) Town musicians. [Waits.] Staff. [Stave.] Stammakkord {Ger.) A key-chord or fundamental chord. Stampita (It.) A sonata, an air, a song. Standard pitch. [Pitch.] Standchen (Ger.) A serenade. Standhaft (Ger.) Firm, steady, steadfast. Stanghetta (It.) A bar-line. The vertical line placed on the stave to mark the division of bars. Stanza (It.) Lit., A station or resting place, (i) A series of metrical lines forming a verse or subdivision of a poem, (2) A strophe.

Stark (Ger.) Strong, loud ; as, mit starken Stimmen, with loud stops. Stave. Linien-system (Ger.) Port6e (Fr.) (i) A term applied to the five horizontal and parallel lines in music, upon which the notes or rests are supported.

(2) Kircher describes a Greek manuscript which he found in the Jesuits' library of S. Salvator at Messina, the age of which he declared to be more than seven hundred years, in which hymns are set to music, written on staves of eight lines, no use being made of the intermediate spaces. Guido d'Arezzo, to whom the invention of the stave is usually assigned, may only have reduced the number of the lines, by making use of the spaces as steps in representing diatonic degrees. In the thirteenth century the number of lines was further reduced to four, a number still found sufficient for the purposes of the Plain Song. Staves of various numbers, from three to six lines, are found in mediseval music, and in fact it was not until the invention of printing that the number of lines was settled at five. It is by no means an unusual thing to find six lines ruled in manuscript music books of the seventeenth and early part of the eighteenth centuries, and in some of the early printed books a variable number of lines is occasionally found. Frescobaldi in his "Tocate, canzone versi d'Hinni Magnificat, Gagliardi, Correnti, et Altri Partite di Cimbalo et organo," which was printed from copper plates in 1637, employs a stave of eight lines. The stave of eleven lines, called also the " grand stave," has been in use for many generations ; the following from, " L'Armo- nica pratico el Cimbalo di Francesco Gaspa- STENTANDO STRASCINO.

In short score, or a compression of four parts hyporchematicus, the theatrical style ; stilus into two lines, the tails of notes in the madrigalescus, the madrigal style ; stilus treble part are always turned up, those of the melismaticus, the florid style ; stilus motec- alto down, those of the tenor up, those of the ticus, the motet style ; stilus phantasticus bass down ; the treble and alto parts being {stile fantastico. It.) the fantasia style ; stilus confined to the upper stave, the tenor and bass recitativus { or dramma- to the lower, e.g. : tico,It.) thedramatic style ; stilus syllahicus, the syllabic style, in which not more than one

note is given to each syllable ; stilus sym- phoniacus {stile sinfonico. It.) the instru- mental style. Stimme {Ger.) (i) The voice. (2) Sound. (3) The sound-post of a violin or violoncello. (4) A part in vocal or instrumental music. falling between the upper In groups of notes (5) An organ stop, or rank of pipes. and lower stave the stems are sometimes Stimtngabel {Ger.) Tuning-fork. partly up and partly down for convenience, Stimmholzchen {Ger.) Sound-post of a e.g.: fiddle, &c. Stimmhorn {Ger.) Tuning cone. [Organ.] Stimmpfeife {Ger.) A pitch-pipe. Stimmschliissel, Stimmhammer {Ger.) A tuning key. Stimmstock {Ger.) The sound-post of a violin or violoncello. Stinguendo Fading away, dying Up to the middle of the seventeenth century (7^.) each note having a stem and hook was printed away. Widening, separately, instead of being bound together Stiracchiato, Stirato {It.) enlarging, retarding the time. as in the above groups of semiquavers. [Printing of Music] In mediaeval music, for Stockfagott. [Rackett.] Discordant, untuneful. a short period, the position of the stem, up Stonante (7^) pressure by the fingers of or down, aifected the length of the note. Stop, (i) The the strings upon the fingerboard of a stringed Stentando {It.) Delaying, retarding. instrument. fret upon a guitar or Stentato {It.) Forced, emphasised. (2) A similar instrument. A collection, register, Steso (7i.) Extended, spread, diffused. (3) or of pipes in an organ. Steso moto, slow movement. row Stopped diapason. [Organ.] Stesso {It.) The same. L'istesso tempo, The plug inserted in the top of the same time. Stopper. " " Sthenochire. A hand strengthener. A an organ pipe, in order to close it. Stopples. Plugs inserted in some of the machine for imparting strength and flexi- ventages of the flute in order to accommodate bility to the fingers for pianoforte-playing. mode. Sticcado or Sticcato. An instrument its scale to some particular Storta {It.) name formerly composed of pieces of wood of graduated Storto, A given to the horn, serpent, &c., because of lengths, flat at the bottom and rounded at their twisted form. the top, resting on the edges of an open box, Strain. musical subject forming part and tuned to a diatonic scale. The tone is A of, having relation to, a general whole. produced by striking the pieces of wood with and one time every subordinate portion of a small hard balls at the end of a flexible stick. At composition either marking rhythmical pauses A similar instrument made of glass or metal or completed sentences was distinguished by is called a Harmonicon. [Gigelira.] double bar, and therefore the double bar Stiefel (Ger.) 'Boot of a reed-pipe in an a held to mark the strain, a practice which organ. [Organ.] was chants and hymn of spinet or harp- is still observed in writing Stift {Ger.) . The jack a tunes, where the double bar marks a strain, sichord. [Jack.] but not a completed phrase or subject. Stil {Ger.) Style. Strascicando {It.) Dragging or drawling. Stile (7^) Style. [Stilus.] Strascicato {It.) Dragged, drawled. Still-gedact {Ger.) An organ stop of Strascinando {It.) [Strascicando.] soft tone. ., , I'arco {It.) Drawmg or Style, as, stilus choraicus Strascinando Stilus {Lat.) so as to style; ^ttlus dragging the bow over the strings {stilo coraico, It.) the dance ecclesiasttco, It.) the church bind the notes together. ecclesiasticus {stile a term It.) Strascino {It.) A drag or slur ; stilus familiaris {stile familiare, style ; sound against note stilus applied to a slurring movement from the simple style, note ;

( 409 ) STRATHSPEY STROPHE.

down to sound, the pace at the same time are upon a basis of silk instead of catgut, and being sHghtly slackened. the double bass strings are of thick gut un- Strathspey. A Scotch dance in duple covered. A large quantity of catgut strings time, invented about the beginning of the for musical instruments is made in England, i8th century, and first danced in Strathspey, but the best are imported from Italy, which from whence it derives its name. The has, from time immemorial, been famous in " Scotch Snap " is one of the peculiarities of this branch of industry. Rome, Venice, Pis- the tunes for this dance. toja, Lyons, were mentioned by Thomas Stravagante (It.) Extravagant, capri- Mace, 1676, as the most famous places from cious, fantastical. whence strings were brought in his day. Stravaganza {It.) Extravagance, eccen- Silk has been sometimes used as the tricity. material of first violin strings, but with ques- Streichinstrument {Ger.) A stringed in- tionable success. strument played by the stroke of a bow. Among uncivilised people strings are Streichquartett (Ger.) String quartet. made of the hair of animals, the fibres of Streichzither (Ger.) A zither played with creeping plants, of fibrous roots of trees, of a bow. cane, and of thongs of leather. Strene. The name given by Marbecke to Stringendo {It.) Pressing, hastening on a breve. the time. Two explanations have been given of the String-gauge. A small instrument for meaning of the word strene; the first is, that measuring the thickness of strings for violins, it is a note which may be stretched or strained guitars, &c., consisting of a disc or an oblong

for the purpose of recitation ; the second is piece of metal, with a graduated slit and en- that is bounded or constrained by two lines. graved table. Marbecke's use of the note certainly does not String Organ. A new musical instru- justify the first of these meanings. ment, the sounds of which are produced by Strang {Ger.) Strict, severe, rigid. Streng the association of a free reed and wire string

gebunden, strictly, tied or legato, exceed- in the following manner : " Near the ex- ingly smooth. Streng in tempo, strictly in tremity of a free reed is attached a small rod time. Strenge Fuge, a strict fugue. or pin, which is in turn fastened to a point Strepito (It.) Noise. near the middle of a steel pianoforte wire Strepitosamente (It.) Noisily. properly stretched above it in the same linear Strepitoso [It.) Noisy, impetuous. direction, and the reed is then excited by a Stretta (It.) A coda, a final passage taken harmonium bellows." The tone produced is in quicker time than the preceding move- very sweet and pure, and by graduating the ments. The conclusion of the chorus in size of the reed, and thickness and tension of Haydn's Creation, " The heavens are telling," the string, a very extensive compass can be is a stretta, obtained. Mr. John Farmer, of Harrow, Stretto (It.) Contracted, close. A stretto some years ago made experiments on this in a fugue is the bringing closely together the method of obtaining musical sounds, a;id so

subject and its answer. [Fugue.] interested his pupil, Mr. J. Baillie Hamilton, Striking-reed. A percussion reed. [Reed. J that he has since that time devoted himself String. Abb. of stringendo. enthusiastically to the development of its String. Prepared wire or catgut, plain or resources, with every prospect of success. covered, used for musical instruments. Strings String quartet, (i) A composition in

of steel or brass wire are used for all instru- four parts ; for two violins, viola arid violon- ments which are struck with hammers or cello. (2) The group of stringed instruments plectra, as dulcimers, , mandolines, in a band. and pianofortes, and strings of catgut for Strisciando {It.) Creeping, gliding, slur- instruments played with the unprotected ring smoothly from one note to another. fingers, or with a bow, as guitars, harps, Strofa {It.) A strophe. [Stanza.] violins, violas, violoncellos, and double-basses. Strohfiedel {Ger.) [Gigelira.] Violin strings are made of catgut, each string Stroke of the bow. [Bowing.] being of a different thickness according to Strombettare {It.) To sound a trumpet. the tone and tension required, the fourth Strombettiere {It.) A trumpet-player, string being covered with a fine wire either Stromentato {It.) Instrumented, scored of silver or white metal ; hence it is called the for an orchestra. silver string. - Violas and violoncellos have Stromento {If.) An instrument, Stro- each two silver strings, the object in using mento di fiato or di vento, a wind instrument, covered strings being to ensure a sufficient Stromento di corda, a stringed instrument. gravity of tone without having too clumsy a Strophe {Gk.) (iTpo

( 410 ) "; ; '

STUBENORGEI SUITE.

particular part of the orchestra in dancing the antiphonal chant on the side opposite the as antistrophe (avritrTpoffi) was their returning. Prsecentor, as S. Augustine includes under Hence, the term came to be applied to the cantores the prsecentor ' qui vocem prsemittit portions of the poem sung during these in cantu ;' and the succentor ' qui subse- movements. quenter canendo respondet.' The succentor Stubenorgel {Ger.) A chamber organ. . major of canons was first instituted at Wells Stiick (Ger.) A piece, air, tune, com- A.D. 1130-74. At Hereford the succentor or position. pracentor presented absent Vicars. The Study. A term applied to an exercise for sub-chanter at York directed the minor canons, the pianoforte or other instrument. and the succentor, as in other cathedrals, was Stufe (Ger.) A step, a degree. Stufe der the preecentor's vicar, with regard to vicars- Tonleiter, a degree of the scale. choral and songmen, and delated offenders to Sturmisch (Ger.) Boisterously, furiously, the Saturday chapter. At Chichester and impetuously. Exeter he tabled the duties of the vicars in Style. Character, form, or temperament the week. At Salisbury and York he ranked of music with reference to, (i) the result of next to the archdeacons. He supplied the individual influence; as, Handel's style, prsecentor' s place during absence, and ruled

Spohr's style ; (2) the conformity of music the song-school by his officer. At Wells and to the purpose for which it was written, as Lichfield he wrote out all chants not in the the Church style, the Glee style ; (3) the con- table, arranged the method and order of the ventional or national method of performance processions, enjoined the lections on greater as, the Italian style, the Scotch style ; (4) its doubles and in masses, and after Benedicite

construction ; as, the Chromatic style, the on Saturday in chapter arranged the table of Fugue style. services for the ensuing week. At St. Paul's Suabe flute. [Flute.] he acts in the praecentor's absence, as regards Suave (It.) Sweet, agreeable, pleasant. the regulation of the service, and in olden Suavemente, SuavitS, con (It.) Sweetly, times had to be obeyed by major canons, with delicacy. minor canons, and all other ministers. At Sub-bass, Sub-bourdon. A pedal register Chichester his duty was to give stripes, seven in the organ of 32 ft. tone. [Organ.] or fourteen in his discretion, to the boys, if Sub-chanter. Succentor. they behaved badly in the choir, and at Subdiapente, Subdominant. The fifth Hereford his duty was to bear the ' burden below or the fourth above any key note. of the psalmody and chant, to distribute copes Subduple proportion. [Proportio.] on the greater festivals, to order processions, Subitamente, Subito (It.) Suddenly, to punish clerks of the first form who were without pause. Volti subito, turn quickly. not of the family of a canon, and suspend Subject. The theme or principal- phrase others offending. He delated offenders to of any movement, from which all the sub- the chapter, he took care that the singing was ordinate ideas spring or are developed. In reverently conducted, and appointed five boys sonata form there should be two chief subjects, of clerks of the first form, removeable at his

called first and second ; in rondo form, one is will, to sing the antiphons, and to carry sufficient. In a fugue the subject is called tapers and thuribles. An honest robe, shoes, also the exposition, dux, proposition. [Fugue.] and stockings were provided for these boys [Sonata.] out of the allowances of the succentor." Submediant. The sixth of the scale. Succession, (i) The order in which the Suboctave. A coupler in the organ which notes of a melody proceed. There are two pulls down keys one octave below those which sorts of succession, regular or conjoint, and are struck. disjunct. A regular or conjoint succession Subprincipal. An organ stop consist- is that in which the notes succeed each other

• ing of open pipes, of 32 ft. pitch on the pedals, in the order of the scale to which they belong, and of 16 ft. pitch on the manuals. ^ either ascending or descending. In a dis- Subsemifusa (Lat.) Ademisemiquaver^. junct succession the melody is formed of Subsemitone. [Leading note.] intervals greater than a second. Subsemitonium modi (Lat.) The lead- (2) A sequence is sometimes spoken of as ing note. a succession, and passages of similar chords Subtonic. The leading note. Note sensible or progressions are described as a succession (Fr.) Master-note,the semitone below the tonic. of thirds, fourths, fifths, sixths, sevenths or Succentor, Sub-chanter, Sou-chantre octaves, as the case may be. (Fr.) An officer of the choir, the deputy of Sudden modulation. [Modulation.] the Pracentor, appointed by the Dean and Sufflote, SifHote (Ger.) [Flute.] Chapter of a cathedral. In " Cathedralia Suite (Fr.) A set, series, or succession we find that : —" The succentor originally led of movements in music. The term was (411) ; ;

SUIVEZ SUSPENSION.

applied at an early period to collections of Sur (Fr.) Upon, on, over. Sur la qua-

dance tunes of contrasted character but trieme corde, upon the fourth string ; sur une similar tonality. Galliards and Pavins chiefly corde, on one string. formed the Suites composed until the middle Suspended cadence. An interrupted of the seventeenth century. After which, cadence. [Cadence.] almains, or allemands, corantos, grounds Suspension. The holding or prolonga- (passecailles), sarabands, jigs, minuets, passe- tion of a note in any chord into the chord pieds, gavots. Sec, were more favoured; and which follows, thereby often producing a dis- in the middle of the eighteenth century the cord. The first appearance of the note to

titles of all the dances were dropped with the be suspended is called its preparation ; its

exception of the minuet, which was retained. presence as a discord, its percussion ; its Then the Suite became a Sonata, and the removal to a note of rest in key, or some word Sonata, instead of being loosely applied legitimate sound of a sequence, its resolution. to " Suits of Lessons for the Harpsichord," Suspensions are named after the interval of became employed to describe a composition the note forming the discord. Two sus-- of definite form and arrangement. pended notes form a double suspension Suivez (Fr.) Follow. A direction to an three a tiiple suspension, and so on. The accompanist to watch the singer or soloist, intervals most commonly suspended are the and accommodate the accompaniment to his fourth, sixth, seventh, and ninth. singing or playing. The percussion of a discord of suspen- Sujet {Fr.) A subject, melody, phrase or sion is generally on the strong accent of a theme. bar. Sul, Suir, Sulla (It.) On, upon, by.

Sulla soprano corda, upon the first string Ex. I, sul ponticello, by or near the bridge, in violin

playing ; sulla tastiera, upon the key-board. Sultana. A violin with strings of wire in pairs, like the cither or cittern. It was similar to the Streichzither. Summation tones. [Acoustics, § ig.J Suo loco (It.) In its own place, in the register as written. Suonata [It.) A sonata. Suonata di camera, a chamber sonata, a secular piece. Suonata di chiesa, sonata for the organ, piece for church use. Super (Lat.) Above, over. Superdominant, the note next above the dominant. The sixth The above (Ex. i) shows the suspension of the scale. Supertonic,thesecond of thescale. on every note of the scale. It cannot Superfluous intervals. Those intervals 4 3 legitimately appear on the subtonic, owing to greater by a semitone than major or perfect. the imperfection of the fifth. [Interval.] The next (Ex. shows suspended sixths (Lat.) A name given to the 2) on every degree of the scale but the seventh, upper part in a composition by the writers of on which it is the sixteenth century. not considered a genuine sus- pension. Superoctave. (i) An organ stop tuned two octaves above the diapasons. (2) A coupler pulling down keys one octave above those struck. Supersus. A term formerly applied to high treble parts. Supertonique (Fr.) Supertonic. Supplichevole(7i.),Supplichevolmente ^^ (It.) In an imploring, supplicating manner. Supposed bass. A term applied to any bass note forming one of the inversions of a chord, in contradistinction to the real bass or generator. ^^ 65 65

E is the supposed, C the real bass. The next (Ex. 3) shows that suspended

( 412 ) ,

suss SYMPHONY.

sevenths can occur on every degree of the harmony never could have anticipated, and scale. which modern theorists make no attempt to explain. Siiss {Ger.) Sweet. Sussurando, Sussurante {It.) Whisper- ing, murmuring. Sustained note. A name given to pro- longed notes which partake of the character of a pedal-point by their immunity from ordinary harmonic rules, but which cannot with propriety be called pedal-points owing to their occurrence in the middle or upper

part, e.g. :

Beethoven's Mass in C.

1 7676 I In the following (Ex. 4) a ninth is sus- pended on every degree of the scale. The chord marked * is rarely met with, and probably would not be tolerated unless as part of sequence such as that in which it occurs.

Svegliato {It.) Awakened, brisk, lively. Svelto {It.) Swift, light, quick, free, easy. Swell. [Organ.] Symphonion. A combination of the pianoforte and harmonium, invented by Kauffman of Dresden. Symphony, Symphonie {Fr.), Sinfonia 9898 98 {It.) (i) A composition for an orchestra, In Ex. 5, at a will be found the double sus- similar in construction to the sonata, which pension at 6 the double suspension * single II; | ; is usually for a instrument. A sym- triple at c the suspension | | ; at ^ the phony ,has several varied movements, gene 4 3 rally four, never less than three. The first, an triple suspension f %; at e the quadruple allegro ; the second, a largo, or andante ; the

e 3 third, a scherzo, or minuet and trio ; and the fourth, an allegro. 3Fhe form of the first and last movement is ^^ually that of the sonata. The scherzo, or the minuet, in some sym- phonies is placed before instead of after the slow movement. The arrangement of the symphony after this order is due to Haydn. About the same period Gossec composed a symphony, the twenty- first out of twenty-nine of which he was the author, which was a decided advance in musical form, not only upon his own previous compositions, but also upon those of others. Gossec's symphonies are of varied character, and according to the short description given by F6tis, belong chiefly to the class of concerto rather than to that of symphony, as they are for the most part for certain obbligati instru- " An exhaustive list of suspensions has never ments. The Symphonie en r6," written for yet been attempted. The constant use of the " Concert des Amateurs," gave the first chromatic progressions in modern music has impulse towards the perfection of instrumen- led to the formation of a vast number of tation in France. It was written for two chromatic suspensions which early writers on violins, viola, violoncello, contrabass, two (413) : : :

SYMPOSIAC SZOPELKA.

oboes, two clarinets, a flute, two bassoons, Synaulia {Gk.) A concert of flute players two horns, two trumpets, and drums. " L'effet performing alternately. en fut trSs remarquable." It is, however, to Syncopation, Syncopatio (Lat.), Syn- Haydn that the perfecting of the symphony cope (Fr.) Suspension or alteration of is due. For he possessed an extensive ac- rhythm by driving the accent to that part of quaintance with the character and resources a bar not usually accented. Syncopation of every known orchestral instrument. " If may be completed in a bar any doubts arose during composition, his situation at Eisenstadt gave him the power of resolving them into certainties immediately. bell for a rehearsal, the per- He rang the Or it maybe carried by sequence through former's appeared, he caused them to execute several bars the doubtful passages two or three various ways, and making his choice of one of them, dismissed the orchestra, and returned to his labours." [Sonata.] Or it may be so that more than one bar is in- overtures were called sym- (2) Formerly volved in the syncopation phonies; in the DubHn MS. of the " Messiah," the property of Sir Frederick Ouseley, Handel has called the overture " Sinfonica," and it was a common practice in his time to name any long instrumental piece after this manner. Syncopated counterpoint is the fourth species of counterpoint. (3) The introductory, intermediate, and concluding instrumental parts of a song or Syncopiren (Ger.) To syncopate. [Syn- other vocal piece are also called symphonies. copation.] Synnemenon. [Greek Music.J (4) In the seventeenth century the virginal, was sometimes spoken of as a symphony. Syren. [Acoustics.] Syrinx. [Pan's Pipes.] (5) A bagpipe has also been called a sym- phony, perhaps a corruption of the word Szopelka (Russ.) A kind of oboe, about sampogna. fifteen inches in length, made of elder wood, Symposiac. A term applied to cheerful having a brass mouth-piece and eight large and convivial compositions for voices, as glees, and seven small finger holes. It is a popular catches, rounds, &c. instrument in Southern Russia, and is the Synaphe (Gk.) The conjunction of two Western representative of the Eastern tetrachords. [Greek Music] Zourna.

( 414 ; — —

-TABLATURE.

T.

T. Abb. of tasto, t.s., tasto solo, manuals facile Instruction pour apprendre la Tablature, only ; also of tenor, and tutti. a bien accorder, conduire, et disposer la main Ta, te, tee, to. (ra, re, ri/, Tio) (Gk.) sur la Guiterne ;" the popularity of this work Syllables used by the Greeks for purposes of was so great that it was translated into sundry solmization. languages as soon as possible afterpublication. Taballo {It.) Kettle-drum. An English translation, the basis of all sub- Tabarde, or Tabarte {Old Eng.) Tabor. sequent systems published in England, was Tabl. An Egyptian drum formed from a made by one signing himself with the initials hollowed block of wood, or made of earthen- F. K., and published by John Kingston in ware, with a skin stretched over one end. 1574- Tablature {Fr.) Intavolatura {It.) Tab- The tuning of the lute according to Adrien all latur {Ger.) (i) A general name for the le Roy was as follows : signs and characters used in music. Those a b c d e f g h i who were well acquainted with these signs ist String C .. were said to sing by the Tablature . (2) A and String G .. peculiar system of notation employed for 3rd String D .. instruments of the lute class, for viols, and 4th String Bt».. certain wind instruments. The earliest 5th String F .. systems of notation, like the music of Asiatic 6th String C .. nations to this day, were different sorts of Tablature of the character shown in the so that, with the use of the frets, usually eight, following example from F6tis : and lettered from a, the open string, to i, each string was capable of giving a minor o sixth from its open tone. The letters refer to ]f K =- the frets which were on the finger-board, each s Jk, z, J yi ^ fret representing a semitone, the letter a OF A PIPE IN TABLATURE. NOTES always standing for the open string. The horizontal lines stand for the strings, and the =?• -t o >» t, letters, the points at which they are to be stopped, so forming the notes of the com- position. The signs for time were

TABLATURE NOTES TRANSLATED BY PETIS. 1 Semibreve. That which may be called the modern Tabla- Minim. ture was invented not earlier than the sixteenth p century. The general characterof thetablature Crotchet. employed was nearly the same in England, ^ France, Spain, and Italy, though each country made variations in it according to fancy, and Quaver. sometimes the several professors who taught I in those countries had little peculiarities of Semiquaver. their own in which they differed from their % brother professors. These differences doubt- intended to cor- less contributed towards making the general placed over the stave, and were semibreve, minim, crotchet, system as perfect as it could be in the end. respond with the be understood Sir John Hawkins, quoting Mersennus, says &c., respectively.. It was to bar represented the that several skilful men had laboured to that the sign after the unless improve the Tablature, but they affected to value of all the notes in that bar contradicted. make a mystery of it, and this gave rise to a otherwise diversity of notation between them. It is > ft therefore probable that systems of writing in Tablature were in existence long before the publication of treatises on the subject. Adrien le Roy, a bookseller in Paris, published about " 1570 a book with the title of Briefve et TABLATURE,

> — — — — —

TABLATURE. is to be found in "A new Booke of Tabli- tions and variety of new tunes Ayres and ture, containing sundry easie and familiar Jiggs, for the treble violin (fretted)," in Instructions, shewing howe to attaine to which Tablature is employed, with the com- the knowledge to guide and dispose thy pass of the four strings thus set forth hand to play on sundrie Instruments, as the upper line indicating the frets to be the Lute, Orpharion, and Bandora: Together used : with divers new Lessons to each of these The First or Treble. Instruments. Whereunto is added an Intro- A B C D duction to Pricke-Song, and certain familliar rules of Descant, with other necessary Tables plainely shewing the true vse of the Scale or Gamut, and also how to set any Lesson higher or lower at your pleasure. Collected together out of the best Authors professing the The Second or Small Mean. R r- n practise of these Instruments." London, A — —C;^D=E=F^Gz:x— —F.—TT r,- 1596. A like form of Tablature was employed for viols, as in John Dowland's second book of Songs or Ayres, printed in 1600, in which is a lesson in this peculiar notation for the bass The Third or Great Mean. viol, entitled " Dowland's Aden for Master x:=r:A=B"=:Cz=D"z::E:^rF^G=p Oliver Cromwell;" and the " Schoole of Musicke," by Thomas Robinson, lutenist, has a song for the viol in Tablature, The number of lines employed in Tabla- ture was regulated by the number of strings The Fourth String or Base. the instrument possessed. The following A R C. n F. F G^ portion of a "Pavin" is for the cittern, which had four strings :

1 TUNING OF THE LUTE, a '^'Ti fi ^d e-a _:&. aTT a «/. p g I -^ _rL -f -P -ars dJi-M. i «X e a

s OufKemes'PAiiin. By unisons. By oetavions. sometimes in From Philip Rossetor's " Lessons for Consort," Music for viols was written London, i6og. the ordinary notation, or gamut-way; but lute music was always written in Tablature variation in the Tablature To show a little or Lyra-way. books, the opening in use in these and similar Tablature for wind instruments was ex- " " Musick's Re- notes of a Coranto," from pressed by dots on a stave of six, seven, or creation Viol. Being a choice on the Lyra eight lines, according to tliQ number of hol6s collection Excellent Lessons signi- of New and in the instrument, the number of dots easie delightful! for the Lyra Viol, both and fying the number of holes to be stopped by c. are here for yong Practitioners," 1656; the fingers. This method, employed for the : added German flute, hautboy and flageolet, is shown in the following example, taken from "The Pleasant Companion; or New Lessons and Instructions for the Flagelet," by Thomas Greeting, gent. London, 1680.

\l \ I

! : o

_! \- ^9- Ora,nto.

published So late as the year 1682 Playford ^ ar:KomiiJ^cpz instruc- ^%' his "Apollo's Banquet, containing D (4 17) 2 TABLATURE.

To use the author's own words : —" All which shows the sounds, proceeding by semi- tunes or lessons for the Flagelet are prick'd tones, by the side of their letter signs. It upon six lines, answering to the six holes in will be seen that the strings are called by the the instrument, by certain characters called old names fifth-string or quint, small fifth- dots. These dots direct what holes are to be string, great fifth-string, small prummer,* stopt, there being so many, and the same holes middle prummer, great prummer. Capital to be stopt on the Flagelet each breath, as letters are reserved for the deepest string, but there are dots placed perpendicularly on the the alphabetical system is carried out by the six lines." The time was marked in a manner small letters beginning from the a of the similar to that in lute Tablature. mittelprummer working upwards to the letter

Another system of Tablature will be best e of the quint ; then from the mittelprummer explained by the following diagram (altered f up to It, and so on. from that given by Koch in his Lexicon)

5 (\) rj Quintsait I{*^)

— Cldnsancksait 4 igl) _

Grossancksait

w Clainprummer

w Mittelprummer ,

Grossprummer

Organ Tablature was a system of writing the notes without the stave by means of letters. Thus the several octaves were called great, little, one and two-line octaves, according to the style of letter employed to indicate them. : '

TABL EL MUSAHHIR TABOR. raent of Tablature faded away, and as it was The ingenuity of composers was sometimes foun,d that the common notation was equally exercised to produce pieces apparently in one available for all kinds of voices and instru- part but really in two, like the subjoined, ments, the employment of a special notation which may be performed by two players for individual instruments was completely sitting opposite to each other, each begin- dispensed with. ning at the top of the page relatively to him : Tabl el musahhir. Also called the Baz, Allegro Moderato. Duet for two violins, composed by NicoLO a drum used by Egyptian criers during the Mestrino, 1720-1790. Ramadan or annual fast, to accompany the religious and congratulatory sentences, uttered before the houses of the wealthy. The Baz or Tabl is also employed by the Dervishes in their religious dances called zikrs. Tabl Shamee. An Egyptian drum, sus- pended from the neck and beaten with two small sticks. Table d'harmonie {Fr.) (i) A table or diagram of chords, &c. (2) A sounding-board. Table d'instrument {Fr.) The belly of an instrument of the violin or guitar classes. The upper plate. Table music, (i) Compositions intended to be sung by several persons sitting at a table. Many of the early printed music books of madrigals, psalm tunes, &c., had the parts so arranged on one page that two or more persons sitting opposite each other at a table could sing from the same book. The follow- ff L ft^^ i ffy.^ ing duet, by Dr. Rogers, is given that readers J J ' «f may try for thiemselves how far this is a con- i venient system

Treble.

break of day, Forth I walkt the -wood so wide,

all a. - lone Phil - li da and Co ri - don.

- - - - •nop u 03 puE ^P !t - Ijqd snot b h^

•OHiHXSaM *^ -snijoiA o.d; joj ^atiQ

(2) German part-songs (from the word Lieder- ps - Ids 1 3J31I1 'spud jsq u; sem i-ej/i sb usq^ tafel). Tabor. This instrument, under the name tofh [Arabian, aduf), is several times men- tioned in the Bible. It is probable that it only differed from the tambourine by being without jingles in the hoop. It is often associated with a word which some trans- jCq ujom E til 3° qjuoui is -jsui sq^ ui ''^^M lators give as pipe, but which in the autho- rized version of the Bible is rendered dancing or dances.

( 419 ) ; : ' — ;

TABORET TAMBOURINE.

The old English tabor was hung round the (2) A movement in a suite, of which the

neck and beaten with a stick held in the right following is a specimen : hand, while the left hand occupied was in TAMBOURIN D'ALCIMADCJRE. fingering a pipe. The pipe and tabor were the ordinary accompaniment of the morris-dance. Taboret, Tabouret, Tabourin {Fr.) Tabor. Tabret. [Tabor.J [Tambourine.] Tacet (Lat.), Tace (It.), Taciasi {It.) Be silent. C.B. tacet, let the contrabasso be silent, a direction that the violoncelli only are to play the bass part. Tact (Ger.) Takt. Tactus (Lat.) The stroke of the hand or bAton in beating time. In mediaeval music the time stroke was called tactus major when the time consisted of a breve in a bar, and tactus minor when it was a semibreve. Tafelmusik (Ger.) [Table music] Tail. [Stem.] Taille {Fr.) (i) The tenor voice or tenor part. (2) The tenor violin, the viola. From " Premier Recueil de Menuets, AUe- Tail-piece. That part of an instrument mandes, &c., Entremel^s D'airs agreables a of the violin kind to which the strings are Chanter, avec leurs accompagnements, ar- fastened at the lower end. The tail piece is rang6s exprds pour Le Cythre 6u Guitthare usually of ebony. Allem'^=. Par Mr. LAbbe Carpentier." Paris, Takt {Ger.) Time, measure, bar; as c. 1760. Taktart, the sort of time, whether duple or Tambourine, Tambour de Basque,

triple ; taktfest, steady in keeping time Timbrel. An ancient pulsatile instrument

Taktfiihrer, conductor ; tahthalten, to keep of the drum class, popular among all Euro-

time ; taktmassig, according to the time pean people, but particularly those of the

Taktmesser, a metronome ; Taktnote, a semi- South. The Biscayan and Italian peasantry

breve ; Taktpause, a bar-rest ; taktschlagen, employed it on every festal occasion. It is

to beat time ; Taktstock, a baton, or stick for formed of a hoop of wood, sometimes of

beating time ; Taktstrich, a bar-line; Takttheil, metal, over which is stretched a piece of

a division of time ; Taktzeichen, a time-sign. parchment or skin ; the sides of the'hoop are Takigoti, or Takigoto. A species of pierced with holes, in which are inserted pieces dulcimer in use among the Japanese, pro- of metal in pairs, called jingles. Small bells vided with moveable bridges, to alter and are sometimes fastened on to the outer edge regulate the pitch. It is played with the of the hoop. It is sounded by being struck fingers and with plectra. with the knuckles, or by drawing the fingers Talabalacco. A Moorish drum. or thumb over the skin, which produces what Talon {Fr.) The heel of a bow. [Bow.] is called " the roll," a peculiar drone mingled Tambour {Fr.) Drum, the great drum. with the jingle of the bells or pieces of metal. Tamboura. An instrument of the guitar In a book of instruction for the Tambourine species, with strings of wire struck with a the names of the several effects and the plectrum. The neck is long, and the body, manner of writing for them, and of producing

of gourd-shape, is often beautifully orna- them, are thus set forth : mpnted. The Tamboura is found in Persia, " ' Flamps ' are made with the knuckles Turkey, Egypt, and Hindustan, and it was near the centre of the skin of the instrument

known to the Assyrians and Egyptians under they are thus indicated : various names. The Egyptians called it nofre or nefer, a term said to be synonymous with nebfil, the Hebrew word for a stringed instru- ' Semi-fiamps ' are struck nearer the rim; ment. [Guitar.] you make them where you see the music Tambour de Basque {Fr.) tabor with A written thus jingles, a tambourine. [Tambourine.]

. Tambourin {Fr.) (i) A stage dance formerly popular in France. It was of a lively measure, and accompanied with a pedal bass To make the ' Travale in imitation of the drone caused by rubbing the thumb over the skin of a tambourine.

( 420 ) :

TAMBOURINEUR TEMPERAMENT. draw your wetted thumb in a circular direc- ' tion over the skin. The ' double-travale

is twice as quick. Use the 'jingles' where the music is marked thus^: ' and the Roll ' when the tails of the notes are waved -w— =5= w

The ' Roll ' is performed by shaking the instrument. " N.B.—There are no sharps or flats in tambourine playing." Tambourineur (Fr.) Drummer, tam- bourine player. Tambour major (Fr.) Drum major. Tamburino (/f.) A drummer. Tamburo (It.) A drum. Tamburone {It.) The great drum. Tam-tam (7i.) [Gong.] Tandelnd {Ger.) In a playful style. Tangent (Ger.) The striking pin of a clarichord.

Tanto (/f.) So much ; Allegro non tanto,

not so fast ; a tanto possibile, as much as possible. Tanz (Ger.) A dance. Tanzkunst, the art of dancing. Tarantella (It.) A rapid Neapolitan dance in triplets, so called because it was popularly thought to be a remedy against the supposed poisonous bite of the Tarantula spider. Older specimens of the dance are not in triplets.

TARANTELLA, 1654. Primo modus.

^^^^^^^^^^«Antidotum tarantula. — — —— — — ;

TEMPERAMENT.

will not return exactly to c again. Taking Regular systems consist of notes which 01 the fifth to be 7.01955 semitones, each note Definitions, form a continuous series perfect in the series lies further than the last from Regular System, fifths, e.g. the System of the equal temperament note of the same fifths. of notes name ; and this departure increases by .01955 Regular cyclical systems consist series of for each step in the series, the equal tempera- Regular Cycii- which form a continuous ment fifth being seven semitones. Thus the c cai System, fifths, and divide the octave into to which we return after twelve fifths is higher a certain number of equal intervals. than that from which we started by 12 X .01955 OrderofSystems. Primary regular cyclical sys- = .23460 of a semitone. This interval is tems are those in which the departure of called the comma of Pythagoras. twelve of the approximate fifths of the system We employ the following notation to repre- from the starting point is equal to one unit Notationfor sent this de-bartur6. We take the of the system. Secondary systems are those series of . - » p/- fifths. series of fifths, in which the departure of twelve fifths from c units, so /|:—c |I—ab—el? b^—f— g—d—a—e— b, the starting-point is two and on. for a standard series. On passing to the Positiveand Positive systems have fifths next /f we denote that it is higher than the systems^ Sharper than equal temperament first one by prefixing to it a mark of elevation fifths ; negative systems have fifths flatter fifths. ('/4) ; thus b— //$ is a perfect fifth. We than equal temperament proceed to form another series like the first, The division of the octave into 53 equal

to all of which the mark (/) is prefixed ; so intervals furnishes an important primary

that ic is the note to which we return on positive system ; into 1 18, a secondary positive

completing the circle of twelve fifths c. system ; into from 31, a primary negative system ; We may extend this indefinitely. Thus we into 50, a secondary negative system. have a succession of notes, as c— ic—iic— HISTORICAL. i/ic . . . , each additional (/) representing the change of pitch caused by rising twelve fifths The earliest systematic division of the in the series, i.e. the P)'thagorean comma. octave on record is known as the -Pytha-

Similarly we may extend the series in the gorean system ; it consists of a series of other: direction : thus the fifth below /|l is perfect fifths. The third employed was that \b—f^, where {\) is a mark of depression, Pythagorean formed by four fifths up, which system. and we have such notes as \c \\c gtill bears the name of the each (\) representing the depression of a Pythagorean or dissonant third; Thus where Pythagorean comma caused by traversing a c—g—d—a—e are perfect fifths, c—e is the circle of twelve-fifths downwards in the sesies. Pythagorean or dissonant third. The true In these series such distinctions as that be- third is said to have been discovered by tween af and 6i? are not observed. The Archytas. place in the series is entirely determined by The Greeks were acquainted with the prin- the prefix. The use of this notation may be Monochord. (-jpig of the monochord, and with extended to fifths which are not perfect. Vibration of the numerical ratios obtainable short ac- Theorem. If from any note (c) eight per- vibratwn ^0^1 that instrument ; a fect fifths be tuned downwards, a note (\e) numbers. count of these is necessary to our TMrds formed jg determined which forms an ap- ra'tios'!° subject. We shall include vibra- by eight fifths . , r ,. ^i.- 3 ^ /\ down. proximately perfect third to (c). tion numbers and ratios. This theorem is the foundation of Helm- The number of vibrations per second given holtz's system. For if we tune c—-f—b^ by a string of varying length, tension and —\e, string unit of length being the ej> a\i—cb_ —^—\b we depress the weight of per pitch 8 X.01955= 15640 below equal tem- same, varies inversely as the length. Thus perament. But the perfect third is 3.86314 half the string vibrates twice as fast as the semitones, i.e. .13686 below equal tempera- whole string. ment, which differs from the preceding value If two vibrating strings have the same ten- of (\ e ) by about -^ of a semitone. sion and weight per unit of length, but lengths In the practical application of this, it is differing in a given ratio, they will always generally attempted to distribute the error sound notes which include the same interval over the eight fifths ; but for all ordinary ap- and hence : proximate purposes it does not matter where If two sounds have different vibration num- the error lies. We note here that the notes bers, the interval between them is always the b,e,a,d have their major thirds in the same same when the ratio of the vibration numbers series, as <^—/f ; all other notes in the series is the same. Thus if the lengths are as 1:2, below, as c—\e. the vibration numbers are as 2:1, and the in- The foUqwing definitions will now be re- terval is an octave ; if the lengths are as 1:3, ceived without difficulty : the vibration numbers are as 3:1, and the in-

( 422 ) — — — TEMPERAMENT. terval is a twelfth, and so on. The notes the corresponding fraction. The following thus produced by fractions of the length of a table exhibits the vibration, ratios, and inter- Harmonics. string are called harmonics. The vals of the first sixteen harmonics, the intervals order of a harmonic is the denominator of being taken to three places of decimals : Table of Harmonics .-—distance from fundamental = n equal temperament semitones, order of Harmonic = denominator of string fraction ; = number of vibrations relatively to number of fundamental ;

First Octave. — —— — — :: ;

. TEMPERAMENT.

Mersenne gives numerous systems of scales we regard as imperfect. He distinguishes Mersenne's which admit of the construction of between such notes as c:| and d'^. We shall distinction is true and pf?i'ctum perfect concords. We will give see later that this in F. one as an example. It is a scale sufficient in negative systems only. of the key of F, with i8 intervals in the Wooihouse also gives scales based on the apply. octave ; the division is irregular, but can be system of 31. The same remarks represented as follows by means of a broken A paper by De Morgan (Cam. TPhil. Trans. imper- series of fifths : De Morgan. X. 129) "On the beats of fect consonances," contains some details on w \ c|— \g'# ; \g—\ d—\ a—\ e—\ b 6—v/l— ; the calculation of intervals. The treatment eO —b'?—f—c—g; ig^— irfb la!^— le^. of the problem of beats is fundamentally sub- The resources of this system are very limited. erroneous, as are all accounts of this that of Helmholtz. De Morgan We have : ject before employs equal temperament semitones as Major chords of c—/—6b e7 the measures of intervals, and gives rules ;— \e—\a—\d—\g thirds to the calculation nearly identical with those above for used independently by the writer. See Ap- laV — idv— igV to which the pendix. first given three notes are thirds. — A paper by Herschel (Quarterly Journal of Minor chords of c—f b'^^eP ; Herschei. Science, V. 338) contains pro- \e—\a—\d—\^, thirds to the posals for systems of temperament. The above character of these will be sufficiently illus- \\b— — \cjj:, thirds of the \f\ trated by one example. In the table at top of chords of \g—\d—\a. p. 348, we have substantially a Pythagorean

The minor chord of \g gives the perfect system, with twelve notes in the octave ; the \ this fifth is a Pytha- , chord of the sixth on the subdominant in the break is made at d— a ; key of F, i.e., (6b, \d, \g), thus requiring two gorean comma out of tune. Such a fifth different keys {g, \g) to represent the second cannot be used in music; and this system of the key of F. A key-board for the system would exclude from use the keys of G, D, is delineated in Mersenne, in which the and A, both major and minor. The Pytha- double G key appears. This double second gorean system is also defended by name. has always been a characteristic of the more Two important practical attempts are those intelligent attempts at systems of pure inton- Thompson. of Gen. T. P. Thompson and Mr. ation. Several other key-boards for more Poole. H. W. Poole (Silliman's American complex systems are drawn in Mersenne. Journal, Vol. xliv.) The limits of this In a tract, " Cyclus Harmonicus," (1698) article forbid more than a concise reference to Huyghens. Huyghens first described correctly the former. Gen. T. P. Thompson in his the properties of the division of the octave Enharmonic organ, arranged three key-boards, into 31 equal intervals, which was previously each starting from a key of the ordinary board known ' to be of interest. It is the most in perfect tune, and admitting of performance important primary negative system. Smith's in related keys by means of auxiliary notes Smith. Harmonics, 1759. Three systems there were 40 notes in the octave. Looking are principally discussed, one called equal at the material of notes from our point of constituting harmony, which has very flat fifths and flat view, . it may be regarded as a

thirds ; it is negative, and resembles the sys- series of approximately perfect fifths extend-

tem of 50, as Smith points out : the mean ing from \\c|; to ic, with the omission of two tone or old unequal temperament, which re- single notes \\d and 6. These omissions, sembles the system of 31, and has flat fifths and the distribution between different key-

and perfect thirds : and a system in which boards, greatly diminished the resources of the thirds are just as sharp as the fifths are the instrument, which were, however, far flat. greater than those of any instrument pre- An important tract is Woolhouse's Essay viously constructed. We cannotomit to notice Wooihouse. on Musical Intervals (1835). He Gen. Thompson's method of using the mono- performs a part of his reckoning with the chord. He varied the weight by which the notation of equal temperament semitones. string was stretched, as well as the length. In the solution of the problem of tempera- We judge that his form of the instrument is ment, Wooihouse adopts as basis the division probably the most perfect that has been

of the octave into 50 equal intervals ; this is constructed. a secondary negative system. But instead The, subject of temperament owes much to of treating it as a regular system, he selects Helmholtz. Helmholtz. The. principal con- from it notes sufficient to form a certain clusions which we shall require to borrow limited number of scales. This treatment from him, are : —The approximate formation

( 424 ) — :

TEMPERAMENT. of a perfect third by eight fifths turned down- The perfect third is below the equal tem- wards ; and the theories of harmonics, and of Not in positive perament third in pitch. Hence systems, difference tones (subharmonics or Tartini jjj positive systems, which have tones) so far as we require them for the cal- larger fifths than the equal temperament, a culation of beats. We must also note his third formed by downward fifths will approxi- definition of dissonance, now universally mate to the true third. That is to say the received by physicists ; viz., the intermittent thirds of these systems will be forined by excitation of the ear by a eight sound. Thus con- fifths down (see Th. p. 3) ; according sonant and dissonant properties of chords to this, the major third to a would be the depend on the beats they furnish. Such note commonly called d\>. But it must be combinations as fourths and harmonic written c^ ; so in order to be clear, we cease sevenths, which give no beats, may be dis- to recognise any distinction between these tinguished as unsatisfied combinations. two expressions, and denote the position in

The theory of harmonics ; —Musical notes the series of fifths by the notation before Harmonics. consist of combinations of bar- described. Beats, monies with their fundamentals But in negative systems, where the fifths (i.e. every note contains 8ve, 12th, &c., in are less than equal temperament fifths, fifths very considerable strength). The ear analyses But in negative, up depress the pitch ; so that the this complex note by receiving it on a third formed by four fifths up is the represen- resonant instrument, which may be roughly tative of the perfect third, and the distinc- compared to a harp. The tones of different tion between cf rfb becomes true and essen- parts of the scale are thus so far separated tial. that no direct interference can take place EiUs. A paper by Mr. A. Ellis, F.R.S., between tones more than a minor third (Proceedings of Royal Society, 1864,) contains apart. much information and copious references on The beats of imperfect consonances arise the subject of temperament. (i) From the interference of pairs of har- GENERAL THEORY OF REGDLAR CYCLICAL monics nearly coinciding in pitch (e.g. imper- SYSTEMS. fect fifth, by interference of 12th of C with octave of G). The importance of Regular Systems arises From the interference of difference Importance of from the Symmetry subsisting -' -' ° (2) Regular . , , ^, , tones (Tartini tones) with each other or with Systems. between the various scales to harmonics, in pairs nearly coinciding in pitch. which they give rise. No idea in the pre- For Ex. see Appendix. sent day is more connected with progress Difference tones (Tartini tones) are such in music than that of the similarity of all Difference that their vibration number is the keys. The importance of regular cyclical systems ixTrifni difference of the vibration num- Regular Tones.) bers of their primaries. Ex., if arises from the infinite freedom of Systems. modulation which is possible in c" d^^ be a major tone (8 : 9) [nine] its dif- ference tone is (i) [one] i.e. C, the lowest properly arranged systems of this class. In note of the organ key-board. If c/^—d^ be non-cyclical systems, modulation is apt to sounded on a clarabella or harmonic flute, bring us to the end of our material. the difference tone will be distinctly heard, We shall consider the theory of regular in the equal temperament of course not ex- cyclical systems in its simplest form. actly in tune. For the somewhat abstruse Definitions. The interval formed by tuning theory of difference tones we must refer to Seven-fifths seven fifths up (disregarding oc- semitone. Helmholtz. The old theory, in which their taves), is Called a seven-fifths starting point. origin was ascribed to beats, is no longer re- semitone, and it lies above the ceived by physicists. The interval formed by tuning five fifths a five-fifths semi- The number of beats per second made by Five-fifths down is Called Semitone. above the starting Rule for Beats, two notes nearly coinciding in tone, and hes pitch, is the difference of the vibration num- point. bers of the two notes. The seven-fifths semitone is the Apotome the The above principles are required for Pythagorica,- (Table of Intervals) when numerical calculation, see Appendix. fifths are perfect. The five-fifths semitone the fifths The remark already made, that in positive is the Pythagorean semitone when Distinction systems the distinction between are perfect. five d\f fails, while in nega- Theorem. In any regular system, seven- YldbT say (4 ) Theorem on and seven five- when admissible, tivc systems it is true and essen- fifths semitones fifths scmitoncs make up an exact tial, is the generalization of an observation of fn Octavl! Helmoltz's. As this is very important we octave. departures from equal tempera- will shortly explain the reason. For the

( 425 ) — — ; — TEMPERAMENT. ment of five seven-fifths semitones are due to departure of the twelve fifths, which is one thirty-five fifths taken upwards, and the de- unit in primary systems, two in secondary, partures of seven five-fifths semitones are and so on. due to thirty-five fifths taken downwards These two theorems permit us to construct so that the departures destroy one another, positive or negative cyclical systems of any and leave the twelve semitones of the equal order. Those few alone which present some temperament, which give an exact octave. points of interest are entered in the following Theorem. In positive systems of the first scheme : Theorem on dif- order (primary),•''' the seven-fifths ferenceofthe . ^^ . , i /> semitones, semitoue IS greater than the five- Scheme of Regular Cyclical Systems. fifths semitone by one unit ; in positive sys- PRIMARY POSITIVE. tems of the second order (secondary), by two Seven-fifths Five-fifths units ; and so on. In negative systems less. Octave (Th. p. 12), Semitone, Semitone, = 5S + 7f- For, in regular systems, the seven-fifths = 5 units. = / units. semitone has the departure from equal tem- 2 I perament due to seven-fifths up. [Ex. gr., 3 2 29 c — — — e — g d a — b — i/# jc#.) The five- 4 3 41 fifths semitone, taken the downwards, has 5 4 53 departure due five fifths to more taken up. 6 5 65 {Ex. gr., icjjf — ta\> — /e|7 — ib\? — // ic.) Hence, in positive systems, the seven-fifths SECONDARY POSITIVE. semitone exceeds the five-fifths semitone by II 9 118 the departure of twelve fifths from the start- ing point {c— ic). But this is one unit in primary systems, two in secondary, and so on. (Definition.) And in negative systems (in which the fifths are less than equal temperament fifths, and twelve fifths fall short of the octave), the seven-fifths semitone is less than the five-fifths semitone by the —

TEMPERAMENT.

On inspecting the columns of errors, we at PRACTICAL EMPLOYMENT OF THE SYSTEM Selection of once see that the system of ii8 OF 53. systems. affords the greatest comhined per- the arrange- fection of fifths and thirds ; and next to it We will now point out shortly for comes the system of 53, which we prefer in Systemof53. mcut which has been adopted practice as more manageable. The system the practical treatment of the system of 53 ; it applicable to all regular systems. of 31 has fifths 1^ of a semitone flat ; and is this is enough to be disagreeable with sharp A key-board is arranged according to Position reia- qualities of tone, but its thirds are very good. position in a series of fifths. This system forms very nearly a cyclical form )ie°y-boaKU°"^ There are twelve vertical divisions division there are of the mesotonic system, which, in an im- in the octave ; in the c perfect condition, was the old unequal tem- notes such as \\c \c— c — ic — iic ; these perament. The rule of that system was are placed in ascending and receding order. —ic is divided simply that all the fifths of the continuous The vertical displacement c fifths. series were made so flat as to bring down the equally amongst the 12 intermediate form third made by four fifths up to a perfect Thus the whole tones of two-fifths each lead third. diagonal lines, and six whole tones shows We cannot here enter on the subject of from y to ic^^. The following scheme this sevenths, except to remark that the systems the relative positions of a portion of with the characteristic numbers of 53 and 31 both afford good approximations arrangement, to the harmonic seventh. of the system of 53.

[SCHEME.] I'n f/n "U ''bk //ei2. "^^y //,c#i "«, 'bx

'dx, 'gse 'b^4« '^. '=•''18 'cSa 'fjfai

^1! gsa b]?.

ebi, ai?. "b,. C«8 f#3

^dis "C, 'g34 ^bf. »25 ^ebie ^'3 8 ^^b.a "cS, ^Jf. "M„

^^f. ^^bb* ''^11 * ^^abg. ^^^b« ^cSe ^^i». N\V Hi >^M„ g3 2

of According to the formation of the system It is to be noted that, by the symmetry of we see that the seven-fifths semi- the principle of arrangement, the scales on a 53, exhibit differences of 5 units, the keyboard constructed on this principle are tones and five-fifths semitones of \—Ex. gr. c^—icgg '. the same in all keys, as far as form and C4 fingering go- —cjtg.

( 427 ) TEMPERAMENT.

A harmonium has been constructed with ^ of an octave, three major thirds fall -^ Enharmonic » key-board of 84 keys to the short. We may distribute this error in a harmonium, octavc, the positioH relations of a, variety of ways. The example shows the portion of which are shown by the preceding case in which two of the thirds, c—\e—sgHf, scheme. Some notes at the top are identical are made perfect. The remaining third, with adjoining notes at the bottom, on the \g^—e is -^j instead of ^. Noticing that -^ right. Thus infinite freedom of movement is is the ordinary dissonant third, we may secured, and any one of the 53 notes can be call \g$—c, a super-dissonant third. If we used as key-note in exactly the same manner, employ g^ as the passing note, we should and with the same facility. The rule for have two ordinary dissonant thirds. In the identifications is as follows: "A note near equal temperament, the error of nearly half a the top of one division is identical with one semitone is divided equally among the three near the bottom of the adjoining division on intervals. The most favourable distribution the right, to that given in when the lower division is white (1^), is judged by the writer be if the sum of the marks is 4, and when the the example. Another common instance of lower division is black (# or b), if the sum the same combination is the following: of the marks is 5."

E.g. : ucg = \\cjtg.

We have altogether four position marks in the first pair, five in the second. Here \b— ie\> is a super-dissonant third. A few examples are subjoined, to illustrate The application of this arrangement to the the practical employment of the notation. systems of 118 and 31 presents considerable interest, but our limits preclude the discus- Ci) sion. Common major chord of C. If the above scheme be considered without m Non-qrcUcai thg characteristic numbers of the (2) systems. System of 53, we have^the form of application to any non-cyclical regular Common minor chord of C. system. The only difference then is that, there being no identifications, continuous modulation, upwards or downwards, on the Common chord of dominant, scheme would soon bring us to the end of with first form of second. the material of notes provided. This dis- placement takes place, in positive systems, Chord of sixth on sub-domi- most rapidly by modulation between major nant, with second form .of and minor keys ; e.g. : second.

(5)

Example of the successive use of the two The a b at the beginning of the second bar,

forms of the second ; the (o) is used to nullify and id in the last, are derived from inver- the preceding mark of depression (\). sions of chords into which harmonic sevenths (6) enter. defects of the equal temperament may =3= The Approximate harmonic seventh. Defects of jjg estimated physically by means perament! of Helmholtz's definition of dis-

Hence the theorem : if the harmonic seventh sonance. Beats begin to be disagreeable be used on the dominant, it must not be sus- when their number exceeds 3 or 4 in the pended to form a fourth with the tonic. For second, attain the maximum of dissonance if we suspend the \f in the above, we obtain when about 33 in the second, and remain the fourth c— \f, a comma flat, which is un- audible as beats up to considerably beyond bearable. 100 per second, when produced by inter- (7) ference of tones of sufficient strength. The application of this remark to the results calculated in the Appendix serves for the estimation of the dissonances of the equal The passing note illustrates the combina- temperament. An ear accustomed to pure tion formed by the division of the octave into chords recognizes these dissonances imme- three major thirds. The major third being diately, even in the.organ and in the full-toned

( 428 ) — . —

TEMPERAMENT.

modern pianoforte ; but especially in the har- Example.—To find the equivalent of a per- monium. fect fifth, whose ratio is 4. In cases where difference tones are strongly log. 3 = -4771213 log. f = -1760913 formed, as with wide-scaled organ-pipes, or log. 2 = -3010300 -0005850 with two treble voices singing duets, errors in small intervals displace the difference tone log. I = -1760913 •1755063 by many times their own amount ; and to shs = -0005870 1755 educated ears this displacement, though not always involving beats, is very offensive. First^ynprovedl -1755043 17548875 Helmholtz, who has written much on this 40 subject, regards this as the most offensive sU -0005850 characteristic of the equal temperament. 7-01955 |oo E.g. : The difference tone of e'—g' should be C (8 ft.). In the equal temperament it In this case the whole seven places are cor- bears to 'that note the ratio f^ very nearly, rect, but this is accidental. is roughly about of a semitone. which f (2) To find the vibrations ratio of an in- The question of melodic progressions, as terval given in equal temperament semitones. Melodic affecting the excellence of tem- To the given number add -g^ of itself and sequences. peramerits, is too extensive for The result is TiT.-rinr °^ itself; divide by 40. our limits. We believe that it is a matter the logarithm of the ratio required. We must entirely of custom and education, and that not take more than six plades ; then as many the ear can accustom itself to any melodic as we take will be correct in the answer. sequences whatever. Example.—To find the vibrations ratio of The writer has accustomed his ear to such the equal temperament third, consisting of 4 sequences as the following, which are new in semitones. music, whatever may be the opinion as to 4-000000 their effect : sU= 'oiasss nr,TOT= -000400

40 ) 4-013733

(The o nullifies the elevation and depression marks.) •1003433 = log. 1-259921 The ratio of the perfect third is 1-250000, The following example illustrates an instance so that the ratio of the equal temperament in which a direct depression of pitch by a third to the perfect third is very nearly \§%. comma ) has proved to have a good effect. ( \ The calculation of beats is essential to the accurate construction of systems of tuning. The principles to be applied have been already enunciated. Ex. I.—To determine the number of beats per second in the equal temperament fifth c'—g' (c' = 256). The twelfth of c' is §-"=768. This inter- The second chord contains a depression of feres with the octave of ^'; and this is -0195500 the tonic g. It may be regarded as derived flat, since a perfect fifth contains 7-0195500 from a passing dominant harmony on a, con- semitones. taining \g as harmonic seventh. To find the vibration number of the note •0195500 below §" = 768. APPENDIX. Proceeding by Rule 2 we have On the Calculation of Intervals, and of Beats. -0195500 •0000652 = -^ (i) To find the equivalent of a given vibra- 19 = 10,0 0' tion ratio in equal temperament semitones. Rule.—Take the common logarithm of the 40 ) •0196171 ratio subtract °^ itself, and call this the ; shy •0004904= log. ratio of note to g' first improved value. From the original of the first improved logarithm subtract ^ Again—log. 768 = 2-8853613 of the first improved value. value, and Tnr^ log. ratio = -0004904 Multiply the remainder by 40. The result is equivalent. If we take logs, to the required log. tempered g-" = 2^8848709 • seven places, five will generally be correct in = log. 767-I33 the result.

( 429 ) — —

TEMPESTOSAMENTE^—TEMPETE.

The number of beats per second is the differ- ence of the vibration numbers. 768-000 767-133

•867 =^ no. of beats per second. 60

52-02 = no. of beats per minute. Ex. 2.—To determine the number of beats per second in the equal temperament third (/—e', caused by the interference of the tierce c'with the double octave of e'.

From p. 25—log. ratio -^ = -1003433

log. c'''^log. 1024 = 3-0103000

log. tempered e"'= 3-1 106433 =log. 1290-16 and«"'=5X256= 1280-00

10-16 or 10 per second very nearly. These beats are, then, rapid enough to be offensive in the higher parts of the scale, where the notes used contain the harmonics of the 4th and 5th order in sufficient strength.

Beats of difference tones (Tartini TonesJ, Ex.—To find the number of beats per second produced by the difference tones of c'—e', e' g', in the equal temperament triad. From the above examples we have c^ = 256 ^^ =767-133 -= 383*566

e^— 1290-16

4 322-54 256' ; —

TEMPO TENORE. sometimes by the introduction of the galop the darkness over the earth at the time of the step, when the couples cross to each others' Crucifixion. places, or advance to the lines of the next Tenendo il canto (It.) Sustaining the set." La Temp6te is danced to quick music melody. ip f time. Teneramente (It.) Delicately, tenderly. Tempo (It.) Time or measure. Tempo Tenerezza, con (It.) With tenderness, comodo, convenient, easy, moderate time softness, delicacy.

Tempo di Ballo, dance time ; Tempo di Tenero (It.) Tender, soft, delicate, sensi- Cappella, in the time of Church music [A ble, careful.

Cappella] ; Tempo di Gavotta, in the time of Tenete (It.) Keep, hold, sustain. a gavot [Gavot] ; Tempo di Marcia, in Tenor, Tenore(/f.),Taille (Fr.) (i) The marching time ; Tempo di Menuetto, in the third of the four kinds of voices arranged time of a minuet [Minuet] ; Tempo di with regard to their compass. It is the

Polacca, in the time of a polacca [Polacca] ; highest of male chest voices, and its extent Tempo di prima parte, in the tirne of the lies between tenor C and treble A. first part, or original movement ; Tempo di

Valse, in waltz time [Waltz] ; Tempo frette- m s vole or frettoloso, in quick, hastened, hurried tenor voice is sometimes called by time ; Tempo giusto. [A tempo giusto] (2) The " Tempo ordinario, in ordinary or usual way of distinction the human voice," from an idea that it is the quality and compass of time ; an ordinary walking pace, an andante. Tempo perduto, lost, interrupted, broken, voice most common to man. The Plain Song and irregular time. Tempo primo, first or of the Church was formerly given as a tenor part, the harmonies being constructed above original time ; a direction to resume the pace with which thfe movement started after an and below it ; the supposed derivation of the alteration. Tempo reggiato, regulated time. word tenor from teneo, I hold, is supported A direction to accommodate the pace to the by the fact that the cantus firmus was known solo performer. Tempo ruhato, robbed or and sung by the congregation or greater body stolen time. Time occasionally slackened or of singers. Many of the hymn tunes employed hastened for the purposes of expression. up to the first quarter of the eighteenth cen- Tempo wie vorher [Ger.) The time as tury, as well as many of the arrangements of before. the responses used in the Church Service, were written with the melody in the tenor Temps, or Tems {Fr.) (i) Time ; (2) the parts or divisions of a bar. Temps faible, part. unaccented parts of In old music the tenor voice was divided (i) weak time ; (2) the (3) into three classes altus, medius, and bassus a bar. Temps fort, (i) strong time ; (2) the accented parts of a bar. Temps frappi, —high, mean, and low tenor. larger violin of low pitch is called the down beats in a bar [Down beat]. (4) The bratsche, and sometimes Temps leve, the up beats in a bar [Up the tenor, viola, beat]. alto violin. [Viola.] principal bell in a peal, or set, is Tempus {Lat.) Time, one of the three (5) The the of tenor bell. early divisions of mensurable music, which distinguished by name Prolation. Tenor C. (i) The lowest C in the tenor were—(i) Mode ; (2) Time ; (3) Modus was the division of a maxim into longs, voice. or of a long into breves ; Tempus, the division Prolatio, the of a breve into semibreves ; violin. division of a semibreve into minims. Tempus (2) The lowest string of the tenor " " im- was of two kinds, perfectum " and Tenor clef. The C clef placed upon the " ; former, the breve was perfectum in the fourth line of the stave. ' latter, divided into three semibreves ; in the into two semibreves. The sigh of the former that of the latter, an is a complete circle, O ; used for the tenor voice, tenor trombone, incomplete circle, C- It is from this latter It is the higher register of the bassoon and violon- sign, in all probability, we derive our mark cello, &c. The treble clef is sometimes em- for common time now usually written as voice, but the notes are aC. ployed for the tenor then expressed an octave above their true Ten., abb. oitenuto. The late Thomas Oliphant suggested Tendrement (Fr.) Tenderly, delicately. sound. two treble clefs conjoined should be the Tenebree (Lat.) An office celebrated on that sign of the tenor G clef. the afternoons of Maundy Thursday and Tenore (It.) (i) Tenor voice. (2) A tenor Good Friday, and on other special days m singer; Tenore huffo, a tenor singer to whom the Roman Catholic Church, to commemorate

( 431 ) ; : :

TENORIST TETRACHORD.

is assigned a comic part in an opera ; Tenore Ter unca {Lat.) Thrice hooked. A demi- leggiero, a tenor singer with a voice of light, semiquaver ^

small quality ; Tenore robusto, a tenor singer Terz (Ger.) [Tierce.J with a full, strong, sonorous voice. Terza(/^) (i) The third. Operaterza,the Tenorist. One who sings the tenor part, third work; Violino terzo, the third violin. or plays the tenor violin. (2) [Tierce.] Tenoroon. (i) The name of an old tenor Terzdecime. An interval of a thirteenth, oboe with a compass extending downwards the octave of the sixth. to tenor C. (2) A word affixed to an organ Terzdecimole. A group of thirteen notes stop to denote that it does not proceed below to be performed in the time of eight, or ot tenor C, as, tenoroon hautboy. A tenoroon twelve. diapason is a double diapason which does not Terzetto {It.) A little composition for extend below tenor C. three performers. Tenor posaune {Ger.) Tenor trombone. Terzflote {Ger.) (i) A flute sounding a [Trombone.] third above the notes written. (2) An organ Tenor schliissel [Ger.) Tenor clef. stop. [Tierce.] Terzina {It.) triplet. Tenor trombone. A trombone with a A Terzo mano {It.) Lit, a third hand. compass of two octaves and a fifth An octave coupler on Italian organs. Terzquartakkprd {Ger.) The | or | chord.

I for the C trombone and 3 The second inversion of the chord of the «==• dominant seventh. for the B fiat trombone. [Trombone.] Tenor violin. The viola. [Viola.] Tenorzeichen (Ger.) The tenor clef. [Clef.] Tenth, (i) A compound interval com- prising an octave and a third, nine conjoint degrees, or ten sounds. The tenth is the {Ger.) [Terzquart- octave of the third, and may be major or Terzquartsextakkord minor, diminished or augmented. [Inter- akkord.] {Ger.) The chord. vals.] organ stop, tuned a tenth Terzquintsextakkord % (2) An 3 above the diapasons, called also double tierce The first inversion of the chord of the domi- or decima. [Organ.] nant seventh, figured %. Tenuto {It.), Tenu (Fr.) Held on, sus- Testo {It.) (i) The text, theme, subject tained, kept down for the full time. of a composition. (2) The libretto of an Teorbo (It) [Theorbo.] opera, or the words of a song. Teoria (It.) Theory. Teoria del Canto, Testudo {Lat.) A name for the lyre, the theory of singing ; Teoria d'armonia, the because the sounding part or hollow was theory of harmony. made of the shell of the sea tortoise or turtle. Tepidamente {It.) In a lukewarm man- [Lyre.] ner, with indifference. Tetrachord. A scale-series oifour notes. Tepidita {It.) Coldness, indifference. The word in its modern sense signifies a half Ter {Lat.) Thrice. of the octave scale, e.g. Tercet {Fr.) A triplet. [Triplet.] Ternary form. Rondo form. [Form.] Ternary measure. Triple tim.e. Perfect time. [Signature § 2.] First Tetrachord. Second Tetrachord. Terpodion. An instrument invented by David Buschmann of Hamburg, in i8i6, re- It will be seen that the position of the tones sembling in appearance the pianoforte, but and semitones is similar in both tetrachorfls. the tone was produced from blocks of wood A third tetrachord placed above these two struck with hammers. It contained also a would lead into the key oiQi., e.g. contrivance by which the sound might be increased or diminished at pleasure. Tertia {Lat.) [Tierce.] Tertian. An organ stop composed of two and another into the key of D, ranks of pipes, sounding a major third and fifth of the foundation pipes, in the third octave above ; a Tierce and Larigot on one slider. and so on through all the sharp keys. Simi-

( 432 ) : ;

TETRACHORDAL SYSTEM THIRTEENTH, CHORD OF THE.

larly, tetrachords placed below the first lead call'd the old English lute." It differed from into flat keys, e.g. the lute in the possession of its two necks, from whence it is sometimes called cithara bijuga.

Tetrachords which overlap are said to be con- junct; those having a degree between them, disjunct.

The strings were usually single in the Theorbo, and when double, or tuned in octaves or unison with the bass or treble notes, the instrument was called the arch-lute, or chit- tarone. (2) Its invention has been variously as- signed to an Italian, Signor Tiorba, from -g -a it is said to o whom have derived its name O £S o c 2 to one called Bardella about the year 1600 and to Hotteman, a German, living in France in 1650. Similar disjunct tetrachords necessarily pass Sir John Hawkins attributes the invention through the whole key-series, and a com- to a nameless Neapolitan, who called it bination of conjunct and disjunct tetrachords Tiorba from its resemblance to an instru- is required to form a diatonic scale of more ment used for pounding perfumes so called. than one octave in compass. [Greek music] Johannes Kapsberger, a German of noble Tetrachordal system. The early form birth, who died about 1630, was a skilful of the system now known as Tonic Sol-fa. performer on the instrument, and wrote a [Tonic Sol-fa.] large quantity of music in tablature for it.

Tetrachordon. An instrument similar (3) The Theo'rbo was used as an instrument in appearance to a cottage pianoforte, and in the orchestra as late as the year 1708 by like it played by finger-board, but the tone, Francesco Conti. It was also employed in instead of being produced by striking, is the performance of sonatas in the place of obtained by means of a cylinder of india- the cembalo, from its power of rendering a rubber charged with rosin, kept in motion by figured or thorough bass. Corelli's third set a pedal, variety of tone being gained by the of sonatas, published in Bologna in i6go, depth of pressure on the keys by the fingers. contains a part for the Theorbo or violone. It is called the tetrachordon from an idea that Theoretiker {Ger.) A theorist. its sounds are similar to those produced by a Th6oricien {Fr.) A theorist. string quartet. The instriynent is constructed Theorist. One who studies the nature of also with self-acting machinery. [Bogen- sound or the principles of musical art. clavier.] [Xanorphika.] [Hurdy Gurdy.] Theory of music. The science of music. Theil {fier.) (i) A part or division of a The speculations arising from a knowledge bar. (2) A phrase, strain, or part of a piece. of the principles of sound. The rules for (3) A piece, composition, 'work. composition and arrangement of music for Thema {Ger.) [Theme.] voices and instruments in rhythm, melody, Theme (Fr.) [Theme.] harmony, counterpoint, and instrumentation. Theme, (i) One of the divisions of a Thesis {Gk.) The downward wave of the subject, in the development of sonata-form. hand to denote the absence of accent. [Ac- [Form.] (2) The cantus jirmus on which cent, § 5.] [Arsis.] [Metre.] counterpoint is built. (3) The subject of a Thin, (i) Meagre and scanty harmony. fugue. (4) A simple tune on which varia- (2) A poor quality of tone in a voice or on an tions are made. instrument. Th6orbe {Fr.) [Theorbo.] Third. [Interval.] Theorbo, Tiorba {It.]; Th6orbe {Fr.); Third flute. [Terzflote.] Basslaute {Ger.) (i) An old stringed in- Third stave. A name given to the stave strument resembling the lute in form or tone. upon which pedal music is written for the It had two necks, to the longest of which the organ. bass strings were attached. It was employed Thirteenth, chord of the. A chord t^y for accompanying voices, and was in great called by some a suspension ; others, a favour during the seventeenth century. Mace secondary seventh {see Seventh, Exs. 34—41). describes it as " no other than that which we It consists generally of the 3rd, 7th, and 13th 2 E ( 433 ) :

THIRTY-SECOND NOTE—-TIMBALE. of the dominant, and is used both in the Thrum, (i) To play without skill upon a major and minor modes. The following are stringed instrument. (2) The sound so its most common forms. made. Thurner(Gfir.) A town musician. [Waits.] Tibia {Lat.) [Flute.] Tibiae pares {Lat.) [Flute.] Tibiae utricularise. [Bagpipe.] Tibia major. An organ flute-stop of i6ft. pitch. [Flute.] Tibicen {Lat.) (From tibia and cano.) A

flute-player ; tibicina, a female flautist ; tibi-

cinium, a piping ; tibicino, to pipe. Tie. (i) A curved line placed over two or more notes in the same position on the stave

The tie is also called a bind, and the curved line, when used over notes representing dif- ferent sounds, is called a slur. [Bind.] [Slur.] (2) When two or more quavers, semi- quavers, &c., are united, instead of being written with separate tails, they are said to be tied. [Stem.] [Printing of Music]

Tief ( er.) Deep, low. Tierce {Fr.) (i) A third. (2) An organ stop tuned a seventeenth above the diapason. [Organ.] (3) The service which took place at the third hour of the day, the undersang of the Anglo Saxons. [Horse Canonic^.] (4) The natural harmonic produced by ^ of a vibrating string. [Acoustics.] Tierce de Picardie {Fr.) The sharpened Thirty- second note. demisemi- A third in the concluding chord of a composi- quaver. tion in the minor mode. Thorough bass, Basso continuo {It.], Tierce coul6e {Fr.) A slurred third. In Basse contrainte (Fr.) A species of musical old harpsichord music the tierce coulee was shorthand, reduced to a system by Ludovico expressed by a dash through the notes of the Viadani, about the year 1605, which has third, in a diagonal direction, thus : remained substantially unimproved since his day. It consists of a bass part with the ac- companying harmonies indicated by figures. Henri Dumont was the earliest musician in France who made use of thorough bass, about when it was called the rising slurred third, 1640, and the first treatise on thorough bass, tierce coulee en montant, and v(^as played : published in England, was the work of Matthew Lock, issued under the title of "Melothesia; or, Certain General Rules for ^^ Playing upon a Continued Bass, with a A stroke in the opposite direction choice collection of Lessons for the Harpsi- chord and Organ of all sorts," London, 1673. Francis de la Fond in 1725, suggested a new method of figuring a bass by calling was called the falling slurred third, tierce the notes of the chromatic scale by the num- couUe en descendant, and was played : bers one up to thirteen. [Figured Bass.] Threnody. An elegy, or funeral song, from the Greek OprivaSia. Thrice - marked - octave {Dreigestrichen octav). The name given in Germany to all Timb. Abb. for Timballes. [Kettle- the notes of the octave above C in alt. drums.] [Pitch.] Timbale {Fr.) [Kettle-drum.]

( 434 ) —

TIMBALLO TONIC SOL-FA.

Timballo (It.) [Kettle-drum.] A female dancer, who accompanied herself Timbre {Fr.) Quality of tone or sound. upon a tambourine, occasionally throwing her Klang OT Klangjfarbe (Ger.) [Acoustics, § i6.] instrument in the air and catching it. Timbrel. [Tabor.] [Tambourine.] " There was many a tymbestere, Time. (i) The division of musical Couthe her crafte full parfytly." Chmicer. phrases into certain regulated portions mea- Tom-tom. A gong. sured with regard to the value of the notes Ton. (Fr. and Ger.) (i) Tone, sound.. with respect to the semibreve, which, in (2) The interval of a second. modem music, is held to be the standard of Tonabstand (Ger.) An interval. time. There are two sorts of time, duple Tonada (Sp.) A tune, air, or melody. with two, four, or eight beats in a bar, and Tonadilla (Sp.) A short tune, an inter- triple with three beats in a bar. There is also lude, ritornello, symphony to a song. compound time, or time formed of the union Tonal Fugue. [Fugue.] of triple with duple, and triple with triple, Tonarion or Tonarium. A pitch-pipe each having a distinctive . (according to Quintilian) used by the Latin [Signature, § 2.] orators for the purpose of regulating the (z) The pace at which a movement is per- pitch of their speaking voice, called also formed is called its time. fistula eburneola. Dionysius limits the com- Timorosamente (It.) Timidly, hesita- pass of the oratorical voice to five twtes. tingly, with fear. When this compass was exceeded, an atten- Timoroso {It.) Timorous, with hesita- dant blew the tonarion to enable the orator tion. to recover his proper pitch. Timp. Abb. of Timpani. Tonart (Ger.) Mode, tune, key, scale- Timpani (It.) Kettle-drums. system, tonality. Timpanista (It.) A drummer. Tonausvp^eichung (Ger.) Modulation. Tintement (Fr.) The tinkling of a bell. Ton bas (Fr.) A deep, low tone. Tintinno (It.) [Tintement.] Tondichter (Ger.) A composer. A poet Tintinnabulum [Lat.) A rattle {Gk. in sounds, as a painter may be described as a TrXaTayii) formed either of small bells or little poet in colours. This word has been badly plates of metal. rendered " tone-poet." Tiorbo (It.) [Theorbo.] Tondichtung (Ger.) A musical composi- Tipping. [Double tongueing.] tion. A sound-poem.

Tirade. The filling up of an interval . Tone, (i) Sound. (2) Quality of tone. between two notes with a run, in vocal or [Acoustics, § 16.] (3) The interval of a

instrumental music, e^g. : second. [Interval.] (4) A Gregorian chant. [Plain Song.] Tonfall (Ger.) A cadence. Tonfolge (Ger.) A succession of sounds. A melody. Tirante (Sp.) The brace of a drum. Tonfiihrung (Ger.) (i) A melodic sue Tirasse (Fr.) The pedals of an organ cession. (2) [Modulation.] which act on the keys or manuals. Tonfuss (Ger.) A foot. [Metre.] Tirato (It.) (i) A down bow. [Bowing.] Tongang (Ger.) [Tonfuhrung.] (2) A scale passage in notes of equal length. Ton-generateur (Fr.) [Root.] Tira tutto (It.) A pedal commanding Tongeschlecht (Ger.) The character of the full power of the organ. (Fr.) Grand the modes. There are two Tongeschlechter— jeu. major and minor. [Scale.] [Mode.] Tire (Fr.) (i) Drawn, pulled. (2) A Ton haut (Fr.) An acute sound. down bow. [Bowing.] (3) The drawing Tonic, Tonica (It.), Tonique (Fr.) (i) out of an accordion. The key-note of any scale. The ground-tone Titty, tziti, toutari. An Indian bagpipe. or basis of a scale or key. (2) The key- [Bagpipe.] chord in which a piece is written, and with Toccata (It.) (i) A prelude or overture. which it concludes. The overture to Rinuccini's opera " Orfeo," Tonic Sol-fa. A letter-system of notation. i6og, is called a toccata, and is directed to be Many attempts have from time to time been performed three times, " Avanti il lever de la made to produce a simpler notation than the tela," " before the rising of the curtain." (2) stave, clefs, signature, &c., of the so-called Compositions written as exercises. (3) A " Old Notation." fantasia. (4) A suite. As early as the year 1672, Thomas Salmon " Toccatina (7<.) A short toccata. wrote a book entitled, An essay to the Todtenmarsch (Ger.) A funeral march. advancement of music, by casting away the Tombestere or Tymbestere (old Eng.) perplexities of different cliffs, and uniting all

(435 ) : :

TONIC SOL-FA.

sorts of music, lute, viol, violins, organ, culties, besides being false in theory. Changes harpsichord, voice, &c., in one universal of key in the course of a piece are met by character." In this he proposed to write all what are called bridge tones. The note of the music on a stave of four lines, which should key quitted is placed side by side with the give the notes the names of the first seven note of the same pitch in the key approached, letters of the alphabet, octaves above or and the pupil is taught to think and sing the below being marked with the name of the sound of the first note, and to call it by the cctave to which they belong. The proposition name of the second. Thus, d r ni f 'd t^ d was violently opposed by Matthew Lock, but would show a transition, say from key C to pther musicians treated it with contempt, and key G. By this means changes of the most Salmon's book and proposition now exist only complex nature are simply represented by among the literary curiosities of music, Jean Tonic Sol-faists, and they assert that the music Jacques Rousseau suggested a notation where- has yet to be quoted which cannot be expressed by the notes of the scale were indicated by in their notation. The chromatic scale is the numbers i to 7. Thig, or rather an im- named by adding the vowel e to the initial of proved form of it, is still largely used in France. sharpened notes, and a (pronounced aw) to Miss Sarah A. Glover, of Norwich, about notes to be flattened. Thus de, re, fe, se, are thirty years ago projected and taught success- respectively d, r, f, s, sharp, and ma, la, ta, are fully a system which she called the tetra- m, I, t, flat. The sharp sixth of the minor chordal system, which was the Tonic Sol-fa scale is called hah to distinguish it from fe the

notation in its original form ; but it has since sharp fourth of the major. Time and accent received such important modifications and are indicated by measurement across the page additions fromthehands of the Rev. J. Curwen, thus that it is justly associated his' now with : : : name. I I I I the space between one sign and the next, Its chief raison d'etre is that the ordinary no- representing the pulse or beat ; the line tation, just in the degree that it accommodates showing the stronger beat or accent, and itself to the keyboard and the theory founded the colon the weaker. For short divisions more or less thereon, is not fittpd as a a dot • : in the centre of the pulse divides notation for the greatest of all instruments, I it into halves, and commas , . , : are the human voice. Tonic Sol-faists neverthe- | used to divide into quarters, and other divisions less maintain that their notation may be used are similarly shown. A stroke — through a in all branches of the art, and pupils are pulse means that a previous note is to be con- taught to play instruments, to study harmony, tinued. Sol-faists believe that their fixed musical form, and composition, entirely from standard of a pulse or beat gives them con- the syllables. The leading features of the siderable advantage over the ever-shifting notation are as follows : Of the two relation- ' standard of the ordinary notation. " Rule ships of musical sounds, those of pitch and Britannia " is thus written key, the latter is of transcendant importance.

.s,|d :d | d,r.m,f:s .d r :r m,f|m .etc. It is argued, therefore, that it is of the first [ consideration that this supremely important No account of the Tonic Sol-fa Notation would fact should be prominently shown. The key- be complete without reference to its indis- note of a piece is, therefore, always called doh, pensable adjunct the Tonic Sol-fa Method, i.e., the second of the scale ray, and so on, me,fah, the distinctive plan of teaching the musicgj soh, lah, te. The reason for this departure facts indicated by the notation. This method from the ordinary spellin'g is, that the above is the outcome of years of laborious enquiry is considered easier for English people to by Mr. Curwen, and of the collated experience pronounce. In printing music, the initial of all the best teachers of the system. Great letter indicates the scale note. Si and soh stress is given to the doctrine of mental effect, having the same initial, the former is altered by which is meant the various impressions or to te. Higher or lower octaves are shown by colours of the notes of the scale when sung figures placed by the side of the notes, d^, d', slowly. Thus doh, is considered firm ; te, w", and Sj, m^, d^. The first part of the sharp and piercing; lah, sorrowful; fah, National Anthem is written in tune thus, d d gloomy; soh, bright and clear, &c., &c. rt^drmmfmrdrdt^d. The particular Teaching by pattern is also insisted on ; the pitch of the key-sound is shown by the state- scale is taught in the following order, first the ment at the beginning of the piece, key G, notes of the tonic chord d m s and their key Et>, key A, &c. The minor mode is replicates, next the dominant chord sir, regarded as derived from the relative major, then the sub-dominant chord/Z d. In develop^ the tonic being called lah. It is maintained ing the scale, large use is made of what has that to call the tonic of the minor scale doh, been justly called the backbone of the system, would lead to extraordinary practical diffi- the Modulator, without a proper use of (436) TONKUNST TRACTUR. which, it is not too much to say, the method cannot be fairly taught or learned.

r' s d' f t — m' — 1 r' s d' f tml = r' — sd'f t m Irs — DOH'— f TE — m 1 r S d f ta le t, m — LAH = r s d la f se t, m 1, r — SOH — d f ^^ fe t, m 1, r s, d — FAH t, — ME — 1, r s, d f, ma re

t, m, 1, = RAY _ s, d f, de t, m, 1, r, s, —DOH— f, t, — m, 1, r, s, d, f, TRACTUS ^TREBLE CLEF.

, Tractus (Lat.) A melody sung in the those actually written ; a D horn, a minor Roman Catholic Church during Lent instead seventh below; an E horn, a minor sixth of the Alleluia. below, and so on. A B|7 alto horn produces

Tradotto (It.) Transposed, arranged, sounds a whole tone below that written ; a Bl7 translated. [Arrangement.] basso horn, a ninth below. Traine (Fr.) Slurred, bound, dragged. Similarly, a trumpet in Bt7 produces sounds

Trait (Fr.) (i) A run, or division ; trait one note below those actually written, and a de chant, a melodious vocal phrase. (2) A D trumpet sounds one note above. Drum special passage, or phrase for body of instru- parts are usually written as if always in the ments of the same class. Like the trait des key of C, directions being given as to the violons in Cherubini's overture to " Anacreon," tuning, at the commencement of each move- or the passage for strings in Beethoven's ment. No. 3, " Leonora." (3) A sequence in har- The only transposing string-instrument is mony, trait d'harmonie. (4) Trait d'octave, the double bass, which produces sounds an rule of the octave. octave below those written, as far as its com- Traite {Fr.) A treatise on the theory or pass will permit. Flutes, oboes, bassoons, practice of music. and trombones, are not transposing instru-

Tranquillamente {It.) Tranquilly, calmly, ments ; but the piccolo flute produces sounds quietly. one octave higher than those written, and the Tranquillita, con (It.) With tranquillity, double bassoon sounds one octave lower. calmness. Transposing Piano. A pianoforte so Transcription. The arrangement or constructed that its key-board may be moved modification of a composition for some in- to adniit of its giving sounds, other than strument or voice other than that for which those which the scale used would seem to it was originally written. imply. The key-frame is made in duplicate, Transient Modulation. The temporary and on it is screwed, by means of ordinary introduction of chords or progressions from thumb-screws, the action, making it perfectly an unrelated key. [Modulation.] rigid. At each extreme end of the keys the Transitio (Lat) Change of key. block of wood, called the " key-block," is also Transitus {Lat.) Progression by passing attached to the key-frame, and thus rendered notes ; transitus regularis, diatonic progres- moveable. These blocks are pierced with sion, the passing notes on the unaccented holes exactly a semitone apart, in which portions of the bar ; transitus irregularis, pro- small pegs of wood are inserted. When it is gression in which some of the notes of the required to alter the piano to a higher or scale are omitted; passing notes on the ac- lower pitch the pegs are taken out, and the cented part of the bar. key-board can then be moved up or down the Transition, (i) A modulation. [Modu- scale. lation.] (2) A passing note. [Passing Transposition, (i) A change of key. Note.] [Transpose.] (2) An inversion of parts in Transponiren {Ger.) Alteration of the counterpoint. original key. [Transposition.] Trascinando {It.) Dragging, delaying Transponirende Instrumente {Ger.) the time. ^Transposing Instruments.] Trascritto {It.) Transcribed, copied. Transpose. To alter the key in which a Trattato {It.) A treatise. piece is set, by changing it into a higher or Traversiere {Fr.) Across. FlMe traver- lower scale. siere. The flute held crossways, as is now Transposing Instruments. A general usual ; the JlMe a bee being blown with a name for all instruments which do not pro- mouthpiece like the oboe. [Flute.] duce the exact sounds written on paper for Traverso {It.) [Traversiere.] them. Tre {It.) Three. A tre voci, for three clarinet Thus, a B!^ is so called because voices ; or, in three parts. the written note C, when sounded, is Bl? ; its Treble, (i) The highest vocal or instru- part, therefore, is written one note higher than mental part, sung by women or boys, or the actual sounds required. Similarly, the A played by violins, flutes, oboes, clarinets, or clarinet is so called the because written, note other instruments of acute tone. (2) The is C, when sounded, A ; its part, therefore, is treble or soprano voice is the most flexible of written a minor third higher than the sounds all vocal registers, its ordinary compass is from actually required. The C clarinet is so called middle C upwards to the extent of a twelfth, because it plays as written. The Cor Anglais its exceptional range a fifteenth, or even and Corno di bassetto produce sounds a beyond this. [Triplex.] major fifth below those written. Treble Clef. The G clef on the second A C horn produces sounds one octave below line of the stave, used for treble voices and (+38) ; :

TREM TRIPLE COUNTERPOINT. instruments of high and medium pitch, such Trenise {Fr.) The fourth figure in a as flutes, oboes, clarinets, horns, violins, and quadrille. trumpets. [Stave.] [Clef.] Trds (Fr.) Very. Tres animS, very ani of Trem. Abb. tremando and tremolando. mated ; tres vif, very lively. Tremolando {It.) Trembling, wavering, Triad, (i) A chord of three notes. (2) A com- (i) A chord or note played or bowed with mon chord. Triads are said to be major, e.g. great rapidity so as to produce a quavering effect. (2) Vibration of the voice in singing, mmor, arising from nervousness, or a bad production or used for the purpose of producing a special augmented,; diminished, effect. [Vibrato.] j Tremolant, or Tremulant. An organ and Triangle. An instrument of steel bent harmonium stop which causes the air as it into a three-sided form. It is usually held by proceeds to the pipes or reeds to pass through a string in the left hand and struck with a a valve having a moveable top, to which a small bar of iron or steel with the right. It spring and weight are attached. The up and is employed with effect occasionally as an down movement of the top of the valve gives orchestral instrument. a vibratory movement to the air which simi- Trias deficiens (Lat.) Imperfect triad. larly affects the sound produced. On Ameri- [Triad.] can organs, a fan-wheel by rotating in front of Trias harmonica (Lat.) Perfect or major the wind chest causes a tremolando. triad. [Triad.] Tremore {It.) [Tremolando.] Tribrach. A foot consisting of three Tremoroso (it.) [Tremolando.] short syllables. [Metre.] Trenchmore. An old English country Tricinium {Lat.) A composition in three dance, or Hey-de-guy. It was of a lively parts. character. Dr. Barton in his " Anatomy Trill. A shake. " of Melancholy," 1621, says : There is no Trill. Abb. oi trillando. remedy; we must dance Trenchmore over Trillando {It.) Shaking. A lengthened ; tables, chairs, and stools " and Selden in vocal or instrumental shake. his " Table-Talk" speaks of the dance as an Trille {Fr.), Triller {Ger.), Trillo {It.) A " Omnium Gatherum, tolly polly, hoite cum shake. In a tract entitled " A brief discourse toite." It is mentioned by several of the dra- of the Italian manner of singing, wherein is matic writers of the time of Queen Elizabeth. set down the use of those graces in singing, TRENCHMORE. as the trill and gruppo, used in Italy, and now in England ; written some years since by an lonig in LjlUUjDJ-^f^i^^ l J-^- l rgJJl English gentleman who had lived Italy, and, being returned, taught the same I • ^J. II , I _r here," published by Playford about 1683 ; the m trill is described as a shake upon one note only; it would therefore be similar to the effect called now the vibrato, vfhile the gruppo was the shake as now practised. Trillerkette {Ger.) A chain or succession of shakes. Catena di trilli. Trillo caprino {It.) A goat-like' shake. Trinklied {Ger.) A song in praise of drinking. Trio, (i) A composition for three voices or instruments. (2) A part of a minuet, march, &c. [Form.] [Minuet] f"' i rvngRRp=p^ Triole, Triolet {Fr.) A triplet. Three notes played in the time of two of the same name. Triomphale, Triomphant {Fr.) Trion- fale, Trionfante {If.) Triumphant. Tripedisono. A capo tasto. Tripeltakt {Ger.) Triple time. Triphonisch {Ger.) Having three sounfls. Triple croche {Fr.) A demisemiquayer. Triple counterpoint. A counterpoint in three parts, so contrived that each part will serve for bass, middle, or upper part as required. [Counterpoint.]

( 439 ) :

TRIPLET TROMPETTE A PISTONS.

Triplet. A group of three notes performed Trombone, (i) A large, deep and loud- in the time of two. The triplet is always toned instrument of the trumpet species, the

indicated by a slur and the iigure 3 : name being an augmentative of tromba. It consists of two tubes, so constructed that one njay slide in and out of the other, and thus form one tube that can be lengthened at will and made of varying pitch. There are three Triple time. Time of three beats, or three kinds of trombones, called after their compass times three beats in a bar. [Signature § 2.] the alto, tenor, and bass trombones. Soprano Triplex, Triplum {Lat.) The name ori- trombones have also been made, but they are ginally given to a third part when added to rarely used. The general compass of the other parts, of canto two one which was a trombone is a little more than two octaves, fermo, the other a counterpoint. This addi- the pitch of the instrument varying with the tional part was generally the upper part, length of the tube. Thus an alto trombone, hence treble triplex the word or came to be the part for which is written sometimps in applied to the canto primo. (2) A motet or the alto clef, sometimes in the tenor clef, can other in parts. composition three play all notes between Trisagion (GA.) Thrice holy. Ter Sanctus {Lat.) The opening words of the Sanctus. Trite. [Greek music] ^ Tritone, Triton (Fr.), Tritono {It.), a tenor trombone all between Tritonus {Lat.) An augmented fourth, con- taining three whole tones. m and a bass trombone all between

The use of the tritone was anciently for- bidden in harmony or counterpoint, as it was ^ regarded in the light of what is called a false including intermediate semitone. Each relation. It was not permitted to be employed every in the upper note of one chord and the lower instrument can also sound the note an octave first as the note of the following, as in the subjoined below the note shown commence- examples ment of the compass, besides other notes outside the notes indicated above, but as they are difficult and uncertain they are very rarely written. The trombone when judiciously In each case it was called mi contra fa, the used has a very fine effect, but the modern leading or sensitive note being known as nii, custom of forcing its tone, and playing in and according to the old rules, mi contra fa short sharp barks, is much to be regretted. diabolus est.^ The value of the instrument was well under- Tritt (Ger.) Tread, treadle, step. stood by Gluck, (who was probaTily the first Trittschuh {Ger.) A place for the foot on who employed it in the orchestra), as well as the bellows of old organs. by Mozart, Beethoven, Spontini and Weber, Trochee. A foot consisting of one long as a reference to the scores of , Die

and one short syllable — ^ . [Metre.] Zauberflete, Fidelio, La Vestale, and Der Troll. To take part in a catch or round, Freischiitz will prove. (2) A powerful reed the voices succeeding each other at_ regulated stop in the organ of 8 ft. or 16 ft. scale on the intervals with the same melody. manuals and i5 ft. or 32 ft. on the pedals. Tromb. Abb. for troniba, trumpet, and Trommel {Ger.) Military drum. trombone. Trommelklijpfel, or Trommelschlagel Tromba {It.) (i) A trumpet. (2) An {Ger.) Drumstick. organ reed stop of 8 ft. pitch. Trommelschlager {Ger.) A drummer. Tromba bassa (7^) A bass trumpet. Trompe (Fr.) (i) A trumpet. (2) A Tromba cromatica {It.) A keyed trumpet hunting horn. capable of producing intermediate semitones. Trompe de Beam {Fr.) [Jew's-harp.] [Trumpet.] Trompete {Ger.) A trumpet. Tromba marina {It.) [Trumpet marine.] Trompetenzug {Ger.) Trumpet stop or Tromba sorda {It.) A trumpet whose register in an organ. sound is stifled by the insertion of a mute in Trompette {Fr.) (i) A trumpet. (2) A the bell. trumpeter. (3) A reed stop in the organ. Tromba spezzata {It.) An obsolete name Trompette a clefs {Fr.) A keyed trumpet. for the bass trumpet. Trompette k pistons {Fr.) A valve Trombetta {It.) A small trumpet. trumpet.

( 440 ) ,

TROOP TROUVEUR.

Troop, (i) A march in quick time. classes as in individuals. Troubadours fre- " ^i^" ^^^ ''"^"'"S ^""J fi*'es sounding a troop quently atta-hed themselves to the courts of Off they briskly set."—Defoe. kings and iiobles, whom they praised or (2) The second beat of the drum as the censured in their songs; but it was a rule signal for marching. that some lady was selected as the " dame de Troparia {Gk.) rpoTripia. Hymns which du cceur," and to her, under some general or probably had their origin in the ancient fanciful title, love songs, complaints, and other custom of " inserting ejaculations in the Psalms, poems were addressed. The " love service especially when used as introits. " Tanto of the troubadours was often nothing more opere enim christiani primis sasculis medii than a mere artificial gallantry, but there are aevi psalmorum cantui, patrum institutis quasi instances on record where it Isecame some- consecrato, favebant, ut nova cantica Integra thing more earnest. comprobare non auderent, sed in brevibus Contests, competitions, or verse battles strophis psalmorum versibus intexendis vel were sometimes entered into, generally on adfigendis acquiescerent." But in time the questions of gallantry suggested by the ladies Christian poets did dare to write complete who presided as judges over a tribunal called new poems which grew out of the ancient the Court of Love, and awarded prizes to the iroparium just as the later prose or sequence victors. The poems of the troubadours I were grew out of the early attempts to set words not always confined to subjects of gallantry, to pneutKos. [Sequence.] It is an interesting sometimes they treated of the conditions fact that in the early Greek Church a tro- of society, the evils of the times, the degene- parium for a great festival was called an racy of the clergy and other subjects. axoXovOia, which, of course, is actually synony- There is reason for supposing that the art mous with sequentia. of the troubadours, generally called the gay Troparion. An office-book of the Greek science, was derived from the East, coming Church containing the sequences or chants into Europe through the Spaniards, and the sung after the lessons. An ancient troparion troubadours of Provenge learning from their with the musical notes is preserved in the neighbours of Spain. Troubadour poetry was Bodleian library at Oxford. cultivated in Provenge, Toulouse, Dauphine, Troppo {It.) Too much. Troppo caricata, and other parts of France south of the Loire,, too much loaded, overloaded with ornaments as well as in Catalania, Arragon, and Va- or accompa!niment. Non troppo allegro, not lencia in Spain, and in the north of Italy. too quick. Its duration Was about 200 years (logo- Troubadour. A polished poet, who, un- 1290), the period when Eastern customs like the jongleur, did not wander about the were giving a tone to those of Western country singing for hire. In the days when Europe, and while chivalry began to redeem all classes of the community were equally men from barbarism. Warton (History of unrefined, there was no such distinction, English Poetry) rightly estimates the value every verse-maker was called a troubadour, a of the poems of the troubadours, when he» word derived probably from the Provencal says : —" The Provencal writers established a

trobar, to invent or find ; and ultimately the common dialect, and their examples con- term came to be confined to kings, princes, vinced other nations that the modern lan- and nobles, who practised poetry for pleasure, guages were no less adapted to composition or out of chivalrous gallantry. The minstrels than those of antiquity. They introduced a or jongleurs only recited or chanted poems, love of reading, and diffused a general and

but did not write or invent them ; or perhaps popular taste for poetry by writing in a lan- accompanied on some instrument the trouba- guage intelligible to ladies and the people. dour who sang his own compositions. It Their verses, being conveyed in a familiar was not an unusual thing for a troubadour to tongue, became the chief amusement of have several minstrels or jongleurs in his princes and feudal lords, whose courts had

greater brilliancy ; a service ; the word minstrel meant probably a now began to assume a minister or servant. circumstance which necessarily gave great The minstrels in later times formed a encouragement to their profession, and by separate guild, uniting for the purposes of rendering those arts of ingenious entertain- fashionable, imperceptibly mutual protection and support ; but the trou- ments universally badours were always independent, and this laid the foundation of polite literature. From independence gives a character to their in- these beginnings it were easy to trace the dividual productions, unfettered as they are progress of poetry to its perfection through by the trammels of any particular school of John de Meum in France, Dante in Italy, thought. The same free spirit gives a colour and Chaucer in England." to the rude outhne of their history, so that Trouveur, Trouverre, or Rymour. the practice of their art is to be traced, not so According to Ritson, one who composed Contes, Fabliaux, Chansons, much by its expansion and development in Romants, and I ( 44 ) ,

TRUGSCHLUSS TUNING.

Lais, whilst those who devoted themselves that of the trumpet. The fingers of the left to the composition of Contes and Fabliaux hand of the player, being passed lightly over were called Contours, Conteurs, or Fabliers. the strings, the ordinary harmonics of an [Troubadour.] open strirtg are produced. Trugschluss or Trugcadenz {Ger.) An Tuba (J^at) (i) A trumpet. (2) A power- interrupted or deceptive cadence. ful reed stop in the organ. Trumbscheit {Ger.) [Trumpet marine.] Tuba major, or Tuba mirabilis. A stop Trummel {Ger.) [Trommel.] invented by William Hill, consisting of an Trump. A poetical name for the trumpet. 8 ft. reed on a high pressure of wind.

Trumpet, Tromba (7^),Trompette (i^"/-.) Tucket, Touquet {Fr.) A flourish on a Trompete (Ger.) A metal wind instrument trumpet. Mr. Staunton, in his notes on of bright and penetrating tone, formed of a Shakspeare, conjectures it to be derived single tube curved into a convenient shape, from the Italian toccata, or the Spanish tocar; with a mouthpiece at one end, the other tocar trompeta, to sound a trumpet. having a bell. Its part is usually written Tumultuoso {It.) Tumultuous, agitated. in the key of C with the treble clef, though Tune, (i) A melody or air. [Air.] (2) by means of crooks or lengthening pieces Just intonation. the sounds produced may be in various keys. Tuning Fork. An instrument of steel The trumpet required for a piece is indicated with two prongs, which when set in vibration

at the commencement ; as, trumpet in C, D, gives out a musical sound varying in pitch E flat, E, F, or G. according to the thickness of the metal or The scale of the instrument is formed of the length or width apart of the prongs. the harmonics of an ordinary open pipe. It was invented by John Shore, sergeant trumpeter to George I. There is a consider- able variety in the pitch of tuning forks, arising from the absence of any recognised standard of tonality. [Pitch.] The ordinary By means of the slide, the B flat shown fork gives out a single note only, but one has above, which is a little flat, may be sounded been introduced from Germany which has a in tune, and certain intermediate semitones slider on each prong which can be moved obtained. up or down so as to alter the pitch. Tuning. The adjustment of the sounds naturally produced by any instrument to some In addition to the notes shown above, the standard pitch and to their proper relation to trumpet is capable of producing, each other. Wind instruments played by the mouth are tuned by adjusting the length of 1 and the tube to one particular after that ^ m note ; and the just intonation to a great extent depends but the higher tones are very difficult to upon the construction of the instrument, sub- obtain. Handel and other writers of the last ject of course to certain artificial alterations century frequently wrote them, but trumpeters made by vaiying the pressure of wind, or of the present day omit them. altering the length of the vibrating column of In old scores the trumpet was often air by the insertion of the hand, &c. coupled with the drums, the notes of the one String instruments of the violin, guitar, corresponding to the beats on the other. and pianoforte class are tuned by altering the Gluck and Handel were among the earliest tension of the strings at the end where they writers to discover the effect of long-holding are carried round a moveable peg. In the notes, and the power of the softer tones of first of these three instruments, after the the trumpet. strings or open notes have been tuned, true Trumpets with pistons or valves capable of intonation depends on the correct ear and producing eve«ry chromatic within sound their mechanical skill of the former ; in the second compass are sometimes used, but the tone is class the position of the frets determine the by no means to be compared with the true pitch throughout. In the pianoforte and the trumpet tone. organ, the intonation is entirely out of the Trumpet marine. An instrument formed control of the player, and owing to the large of a triangular chest, over one side of which number of octaves in their compass certain is stretched a thick gut string, passing over notes are first tuned to the system of tem- a bridge slightly uneven on its feet, one side perament adopted, and from these the whole being fastened and the other free. When instrument is tuned. These sounds first ad- the string is set in vibration by means of a justed are called hearings. But the whole the bow, rapid impact of the loose foot of subject of tuning these two instruments is so the bridge on the belly sUghtly checks the intimately connected with Temperament that vibration and causes the sound to resemble the reader is referred to that article.

( 442 ) : : —: :

TUNING HAMMER TZETZE.

Bells are tuned by paring off a portion of or in the case of the back-turn, written thus ; the inner side of the sound-bow, thus altering the relation of diameter to thickness. Musical glasses can be altered in pitch by pouring a liquid into them. Drums are tuned it should be performed : by tightening or relaxing their parchments. Reeds in an organ or harmonium can be tuned by altering the length of the part allowed to vibrate, also by varying their If it is desired to alter the note above or thigkness or breadth. below a turn, that is to say, to change the Organ flue-pipes, are tuned by opening or character as it appears in the scale, the fol closing the orifice, a process which has prac- lowing signs are used. The position of a tically the same effect as shortening or sharp or flat underneath the sign of the turn lengthening the column of vibrating air. shows whether the note above or below is to be flattened dash through Tuning hammer. An instrument em- sharpened or ; the ployed for tuning pianofortes or harps. It is the turn always signifying a sharpened note. in shape like a common hammer, but has a head of wood instead of iron and a shank of iron instead of wood. In the bottom end of the shank is a square or oblong hole made to Performed : fit the tops of the pegs round which the

strings of the instrument are twisted ; these pegs being turned to the right or left, tighten or loosen the strings as needed. The old name for the tuning hammer was wrest. Tuono {It.) {t) Body of tone, sound. (2) A tune. Tuono ecclesiastico {It.) [Accentus ec- A turn over a note in the unaccented part of clesiasticus.] the bar is usually performed with the changed Turbse {Lat.) The chorus part or voice note first. the multitude in a Passion-Music. of Written. Played. Turca {It.) Turkish ; alia turca, in the Turkish style. ~rzrr , or Janitscharenmusik. Noisy music produced solely by instruments Turr. A Burmese violin with three strings. of percussion such as cymbals, gongs, &c. Tutta (/i.) All, the whole; tutta forza,

Turn. An ornament in music formed by the full power or force ; tutto arco, the vs^hole taking the adjoining notes above or below length of the bow. the principal note, according to the position Tutte corde {It.) Without the use of the of that note in the diatonic scale. The turn dampers in pianoforte-playing. indicated by the sign ~' must be performed Tutti(/f.) All. Every performerto take part in the time the note it alters would occupy in the execution of the passage or movement. without it. Thus the common turn, which Tuyau d'orgue {Fr.) An organ pipe. takes a higher note first in the change Tuyaux k anche {Fr.) Reed pipes. Tuyaux a bouche {Fr.) Open pipes. f^ Twelfth, (i) Aninterval of twelve diatonic » should be performed ^ y degrees, the replicate of the fifth. (2) An organ tuned twelve notes above the diapasons. The back-turn taking a lower note first in the stop change Tympani. [Timpani.] -^ Tympanon. A dulcimer. _j Tyro. A learner or beginner in music or • ft • should be performed I any other science. Tyrolienne. (i) A song accompanied When the turn appears over a note followed with dancing. Rossini's " Toi que I'oiseau," by a rising or a falling interval in the third act of Guillaume Tell, is the earliest specimen of a Tyrolienne other than the popular Volkslieder. (2) Popular songs or melodies in which the jodl, q.v., is freely used. should consist of four notes besides The turn Tzetze. An Abyssinian instrument of the principal the guitar kind, formed of a long carved neck at- tached to a gourd. It has frets and one string usually made of the tough fibre of a palm-tree.

( 443 ) u.c. -UVULA.

U.

u.c. Ahh. oi una corda. [A una corda.] Unequal Voices. Voices of mixed quali- ties, those of .women combined with those of ('^^''•) discord, cacophony. Uebellaut ^} men. [Equal Voices.] Uebereinstimmung (Ger.) Consonance, Unessentials. Notes not forming a neces- harmony. sary part of the harmony. Passing, auxiliary, Uebergang (Ger.) Passage, transition. or ornamental notes. Uebermassig {Ger.) Augmented. Ungerader Takt {Ger.) Triple time. Uebung (Ger.) An exercise. Unison, (i) Having the same number of Ugab, Huggab, Agub (Heb.) The first vibrations; homophonous. {2)Musicin octaves wind instrument mentioned in the Bible, for mixed voices or instruments. rendered organ in the authorized version, Unisoni {It.) Unisons ; two or more parts " " such as handle the harp and the organ playing in unison with each other, or at the (Gen. iv., 21.) In the Septuagint it is some- octave, according to the character of the in- times translated by cithara, sometimes by strument or voice. psalm, sometimes by organ. It is probable Unisono (7^) In unison, or in that in its earliest form the ugab was nothing Unisonous (Eng.) octaves. more than pans-pipes or a syrinx, but that it Unisonus {Lat^ gradually developed into a more important Unitamente {It.) Together, unitedly. instrument. In Psalm cl. it may be possibly Uno a uno {It.) One by one, severally. used in a poetical sense of all wind instru- Un peu plus lent {Fr.) A little more slow. ments, as minnim is of string instruments. {It.) A little, a very little; " Praise Him upon the strings (minnim) and as, Un pochino piu pipe (ugab)." mosso, a very little more Uguale {It.) Equal, like, similar, Canone a I lively. tre voci uguali, a canon for three equal voices. Un poco {It.) A little; as, Un poco Ugualmente {It.) Equally, alike, similarly, allegro, rather quick ; un poco piU, a little Umana,)(/i.) Human; as, voce umana, more; un poco ritenuto, held back a little, . Umano j the human voice. slightly retarded. Umfang {Ger.) Compass, extent ; as Unterbass {Ger.) A double-bass. Umfang der Stimme, compass of the voice. Unterdominant {Ger.) Subdominant. Umkehrung (Ger.) Inversion. Unterdominant-akkord, the chord of the sub- Unharmonischer Querstand {Ger.) dominant. [False relation.] Unterhalbton {Ger.) The leading note. Unterleitton {It.) One; as, Una corda, (Ger.) The dominant seventh. Ujjg one string volta, Untersatz {Ger.) Sub-bass. Tjuo ; Una once, &c. Unterstimme {Ger.) An under-part. Unca {Lat.) A quaVer. Upbeat. The beat of a bar at which the Uncoupled. A direction that the manual hand is raised. An unaccented beat. [Accent.] or pedal is to be detached from the row to [Arsis.] [Metre.] which it was coupled. [Organ.] Upbow. [Bowing.] Unda maris. Lit. Wave of the sea. A Uppatura {Med. Lat.) A song of a pro- name given to the "Vox AngeHca" Organ- fane character, forbidden to be sung in church stop, because its of wavy undulating tone. by the Constitution of the Carmelite order. [Vox Angelica.] [Motet.] Undecima {Lat.) An eleventh. Urh-heen. The Chinese fiddle. [Violin.] Undecimole. A group of eleven notes to be Ut. [Aretinian syllables.] [Notation.] played in the time of eight of the same name. Ut bfemol {Fr.) The note C flat. Undersong. [Burden.] Ut diese {Fr.) The note C sharp. Ut Undertones. [Acoustics, § 19.J diese mineur. The key of C sharp minor. Undulazione (It.) The tremulous sound Utriculariae. Tibias utricularias. [Bag- produced by violinists by the vibratory pressure pipe.] of the finger upon the strings. Ut supra {Lat.) As above, as before. Unequal Temperament. [Tempera- Gloria Patri ut supr.a. The Gloria as before. ment.] [Wolf.] Uvula. [Larynx.]

( 444 ) V. VELOCITA, CON.

Abb. of verte, y. violino, violini, voce, popular, and were spread all over France voci, volta, volti, &•€. under the name of Lais des Vaux de Vire. Va. Abb. of viola. The peculiarity of their character lived after Va (It.) Go on as ; va crescendo, go on their origin was forgotten, and plays, inter- increasing the power; va rallentando, go on spersed with songs of this description, came dragging the time. to be called Vaudevilles, and occasionally Vacillando (It.) Wavering, uncertain as Virelais. The songs in Vaudevilles should regards the time or tone. form an integral portion of the plot or Vago (It.) With a vague, indefinite ex- subject. pression. The following melody of a Vaudeville is ' Valce (It.), Valse (Fr.) Waltz. from the " Second livre de Pifeces de Viole Valeur (Fr.), Valore (It.) The value, avec la Basse continue. Compose par Mons. worth, or length of a note. De Caix D'Hervelois." Paris, c. 1719. Valse a deux temps {Fr.) A form of VAUDEVILLE GAV6TTE. waltz, now most commonly danced, in which Viola da Gamba, (8ve lower.). two steps are made to each measure of three j^n beats. Vamp. To improvise an accompaniment. Variamente (It.) In a varied manner. Variations, Variationen (Ger.) Varia- zioni (It.) Certain modifications with regard to the time, tune, and harmony of theme a ost J proposed originally in a simple form. At one period it was considered indispensable that the subject chosen should be heard unchanged through all the variations, that no alteration should be made either in the relation, length, or melodic progression of the sounds. This only permitted the employment of the several species of counterpoint as variations. After- wards a ground bass was selected, or written, in which more freedom and variety was attain- able. Subsequently composers altered their melodies by the addition of florid passages, but not to such an extent as to make the subject not easily recognisable. There are many instances in the works of most of the classical writers in which this artifice is successfully employed. The old composers called their variations " Doubles." Modem transcriptions are often nothing more than elaborate variations of a theme. Variato (7^.), Varie (Fr.) Varied, changed, altered, with variations. Vaudeville (Fr.) A term originally applied to a country song of like kind with those written by Oliver Basselin, of the valleys of Vaux de Vire in Normandy, in the fifteenth century. These songs, which were satirical, had for their subjects love, drinking, and passing events. They became very ;

VELOCITY OF SOUND VILLOTTE.

Velocity of sound. [Acoustics § 5.] Viel [Ger.) Much ; as, Mit vielem Tone, wit, Ventil (Ger.), Ventile {It.) (i) A valve, much tone. by means of which brass tubes may be made Vielle [Fr.) The hurdy-gurdy. to sound the semitones and tones between the Vielstimmig {Ger.) For many voices.

natural open harmonics. [Metal wind instru- Vierfach [Ger.) Four-fold ; having fou) ments.] (2) A mechanical contrivance on an ranks of pipes. [Organ.] organ for the purpose of cutting off the wind Viergesang [Ger.) Song for four parts. from a particular sound-board. Vierspiel [Ger.) A composition in four Venusto (7^) Beautiful, graceful, fine. parts. Quartet. Veranderungen [Ger.) (i) Variations. Vierstimmig [Ger.) For four voices 01 (2) The mechanical arrangement by which instruments, or in four parts. " stops " on a harpsichord were moved in Vierstiick {Ger.) A piece for four players, and out. a quartet. Verbindung (Ger.) Combination, union, Viertelnote {Ger.) Quarter note, a connection, binding. crotchet, the fourth part of a semibreve. Vergniigt [Ger.) Pleasantly. Viertheilston (G«r.) A quarter tone, half Verhallend (Ger.) Dying away, decre- a semitone. scendo. Viervierteltakt {Ger.) Duple time of four

Verhaltniss [Ger.) Proportion ; ratio. crotchets in a bar. Verilay (Fr.) [Vaudeville.] Vierzweiteltakt {Ger.) Duple time of Vermindert (Ger.) Diminished; as Ver- four minims in a bar. minderter dreiklang, diminished triad. Vif iFr.) Lively, brisk, quick. Verschiebung {Ger.) The soft pedal of a Vigorosamente {It.) Vigorously.

pianoforte ; mit Verschiebung, Una corda. Vigoroso {It.) Vigorous, bold, forcible. Verse, (i) Those portions of an anthem {Sp.) A simple kind of guitar. or service intended to be sung by a single Villancico {Sp.) A species of song of voice to a part. [Anthem.] (2) A separate two or more stanzas, each containing seven stanza of a song or a ballad. (3) A verse lines, belonging to the poetry of the 15th anthem is one which begins with soli portions century, which, like the madrigal, is of an as opposed to a full anthem, which com- epigrammatic form—formerly very popular in mences with a chorus. Spain. The composers of that country em- Versette [Ger.) Short pieces for the ployed the tunes of many of these songs as organ intended as preludes or voluntaries. themes for counterpoint in church motets. Versetzen [Ger.) To transpose. Those motets which are sung during high Versetzungszeichen [Ger) Accidentals. mass on Christmas-eve are always called Verspatung {Ger.) Retardation, delay. Villancicos. Verstimmt [Ger.) Out of tune. Villanella {It.) A rustic dance accom- Versus Fescennini [Lat.) Nuptial panied with singing. The melody was songs, so-called because they were first used usually lively and the rhythm well marked. by the people of Fescennia in Etruria. From The words, when any were used, were com- this kind of poetry arose the Epithalamium, monplace epigrams, and were also called a needful refinement upon the Fescenninian madrigals and ballets. The villanella or verses. villotte, and villancico were the precursors of Vertatur, Verte [Lat.) Turn over. the madrigal. When the title villanella began Verwandt {Ger.) Related, as Verwandte to be used to describe compositions in rustic tonarten, related keys. style, not intended for voices, those composi- Verw^echselung {Ger.) Changing, alter- tions were embellished with variations upon ing, as to tone, time, key. the original subject. Verweilend {Ger.) Delaying, rallentando. Villotte {It.) The name given to the first Verwerfung [Ger.) Transposing. secular pieces in harmony after the rules of Verzierungen [Ger.) Ornaments, deco- counterpoint were fixed. Every so-called rations, embellishments. " license " in harmony was used in this kind

Verzogerung [Ger.) Retardation. of composition ; whereas church music could Vezzosamente [It.) Tenderly, softly, only be written according to strict rules gracefully. therefore, secular pieces were called vile or Vezzoso [It.) Tender, sweet, graceful. rustic, as being more fitted for clownish than Vibrante [It.) Vibrating, tremulous. for courtiers' ears. Morley, Speaking of the Vibrato [It.) A tremulous quality of villanella says, " many perfect chords of one tone, as opposed to a pure equal production. kind, nay, even disallowances may be taken

Vibration. [Acoustics § 3.] at pleasure, uniting a clownish music to a Vicar choral. [Lay vicar.] clownish matter." [Villanella, Villancico, Vide [Fr.), Vido [It.) Open. [Vuide.] Madrigal.]

(4+6 ) : —

VINA VIOLIN.

Vina. [Bina.J It was particularly adapted to the perform- Viol. A stringed instrument, a little larger ance of broken harmony and extended

in shape than the violin ; it was furnished in chords. England with five or six strings, had a fretted Viol d'amore (It.) An obsolete instrument finger-board and was played with a bow. The of the violin family. In addition to catgut viol was called in mediaeval Latin, vitula,. strings, metal strings were placed under the and is found depicted in MSS. as early as finger-board, which, by the production of the nth century. In France, Germany, and sympathetic sound, gave a peculiar quality of Italy the number of the strings varied between tone to the instrument. three and six. It is supposed that they were The tuning varied according to the piece to tuned in fourths and thirds. A chest of viols be played, the "accordatura" being often consisted of six instruments of various sizes, indicated at the commencement of the copy the smaller ones were called in England, which was played from, but the most usual treble, the next mean, and the larger bass method of tuning was the following: viols. In Germany the names were Bratsche, Schultergeige, and Bassgeige, and in Italy viol di braccio and viol da gamba were the names given to distinguish the several sizes. obbligato part for Viola (/f.) Bratsche {Ger.) The tenor vioUn. Meyerbeer has written an this instrument in the first act of the It has four strings, tuned thus : "Huguenots." Violetta. A little viol. Violetta Marina (7^) A stringed instru- d'amour. It The two lowest are covered strings. Music ment similar in tone to the viol piccola, the French ' called violetta and by for this instrument is written in the alto clef, was Haute-contre. whence it is sometimes called alto viola. Violin. Discantgeige {Ger.) Violon Viola di Bardone {It.) An instrument of {Eng.) most familiar of the violin kind, strung with six or seven catgut {Fr.) Fiddle The played with a bow. strings tuned in the following manner all stringed instruments It is somewhat smaller than the old viol, as its name implies, violin being a diminutive of viol. Like the rest of the family it represents, it consists of a wooden chest of Beneath the gut were metal strings, varying peculiar form, made of two curved surfaces, in number from sixteen to as many as forty- called the back and the belly, united by sides, four, arranged in a diatonic order from and with a hollow half-way in the length. A neck at one end has a finger-board, over w which the four strings pass, being fastened at one end of the chest or body to a tail-piece, as the lowest tone. The sympathetic strings and kept in tune and position by a series of were occasionally plucked with the left hand pegs at the end of the neck. The strings are instrument is now obsolete, in playing. The raised above the belly by the bridge. In the but was in use in the time of Haydn, who at belly are two holes, called the / holes from of Prince Esterhazy composed the request their similarity to the shape of that letter. upwards of sixty pieces for it. It is also The sound is produced by drawing a bow of baryton. called viola di fagotto, and horse-hair charged with rosin across the (it.) species of viol da : A strings, which are tuned in fifths gamba, invented by John Sebastian Bach. It had five strings, the four lower strings were tuned like the violoncello, in fifths, and the fifth string was tuned to E, by means of which greater facility in the execution of extended the changes of pitch being gained by " stop- passages was possible. Improved skill on ping" the strings with the fingers of the left the part of violoncello players made the viola hand against the finger-board, thus shortening pomposa unnecessary. the vibrating portion of the string. The har- Viol da Gamba (It.) One of the larger monics of the violin are very telling in quality, instruments among a chest of viols. It and are produced by touching the stnngs received its name from being held within the lightly instead of pressingthem upon thefinger- knees of the performer. It had a fretted board. The sordino or mute, placed upon the finger-board and six strings, tuned thus : bridge, produces a peculiar modification of tone, and a good eifect is gained by plucking the strings, as in playing a guitar. [Pizzicato.]

(447 ) — ;

VIOLIN.

The compass of the violin ranges be- It is usually furnished with three strings of tween : gut, and there are two sound-holes beside the bridge. The Kermangeh is made in several sizes, like the European violin family. The larger instruments are supported on an iron peg. KERMANGEH. with every intermediate shade of sound. The extreme high notes are rarely used, as they are harsh and shrill. The violin is capable of producing a limited harmony by means of double stops and bowing in "arpeggio," while as to power of expression and execution there is no other instrument which can be compared to it. It has a wide range of sounds, to which The Hindu "Chikarah" is supposed by any degree of loudness or softness, staccato or some to be the modern representative- of legato, can be given. This variety of tone, the ancient Ravanastron, the oldest form of added to the capability of being played a great fiddle. length of time with less fatigue than any other orchestral instrument, renders it invaluable, either for solos or combinations. The violin or string quartet, as it is called, that is to say, 1st and 2nd violins, viola, and violoncello, form an indispensable portion of a score while the same combination, used for quar- tets, is productive of the highest pleasure when well and skilfully managed. " " Stringed instruments played with a bow are The Rebab of Egypt has one string of in use among many Eastern nations, the form horse-hair stretched over a resonance-body of of the instrument so played varying consider- skin. In Egypt it is used to accompany the ably. The number of strings and the form recitations of the storytellers and the motions of the bow also differ. The Urh-heen, or of the dancers.

CHINESE URH-HEEK.

Chinese fiddle, has no finger-board. There are usually only two strings, but some speci- mens have as many as four. The bow is twisted under the strings, and it is said that the Chinese fiddlers have to practise assi- duously in order to produce the tone properly from strings so placed. The resonance body of the Urh-heen is covered with snake-skin. The " Burmese Thro, Theyaou, orTarau," has three strings of silk, and although the It is sometimes made in shape like " tone is nasal, it is not of unpleasant quality. the Kergiangeh," and furnished with three or strings. the form BURMESE THRO OR TARAU. even more Whatever may be, it is a favourite with the country- people who use it. It is also called rdbel .or arrabel. When it was introduced into Europe it retained its Eastern name, with certain

modifications ; rehehe, reberbe, rubebe, rubeek,

rebec ; but it was altered in shape. The old English jig, jegg, or gig, as it is variously The " Kermangeh," another bowed instru- spelt, was also called rebec, the " jocund ment, is in use among Mohammedan nations. rebeck " mentioned by Milton and other (448) VIOLIN VIOLONCELLO.

poets ; it had three strings like its Eastern The compass usually employed extends prototype, the rebab. between - Modern writers find the origin of the violin and in the above-mentioned Indian Ravanastron, an instrument still existing, and used by the poor Buddhist begging monks. From the though soloists play an octave higher, with Ravanastron descends the rebab, kermangeh, all the intermediate semitones. Music for it whence comes the Scandinavian guddok, is written in the bass clef up to the ancestor of the Welch and Anglo-Saxon crwth. From the crwth, the fithele, vitula, or viol descended, and from the viol the violin, ^E^ i the whole progress representing a period of but the C clef, or sometimes the clef, is nearly 5,000 years in history. The violin G employed for the has not altered its form since the i6th century, higher notes of the scale. many instruments of that time being still in actual use. One of the earliest makers of violins was Gaspar di Salo, in Lombardy, 1560-1610. In Cremona, during the 17th century, the Amati family, Andrew, his sons Jerome and The tone of the violoncello is peculiarly Antonio, and Nicolo the son of the latter, sympathetic, almost tearful in the higher were famous makers of violins. Antonio register, and these notes are frequently em- Straduarius, also of Cremona, pupil of Nicolo ployed with great effect as well in solos as in Amati, surpassed, if possible, the productions orchestral music. In the band the violon- of the Amatis, and the reputation of Cremona cello is coupled with the double-bass, and for violins was maintained by Guarnerius and the union of the tones of the two instru- Rugerio. The Tyrolese makers. Jacobus ments is wonderfully telling and solid. Men- Stainer and Matthew Klotz (and his sons) delssohn has used the double-bass without became as famous as the Italians for violin- the violoncello in Elijah, and the effect is Villaume, of Paris, is the making. most stormy and uncertain, while the violoncello celebrated modem maker. without the double-bass is light and expressive Violin clef. The G clef placed upon the of unrest. The violoncello is capable of first line of the stave. giving rapid passages with more clearness than the double-bass, and so it is frequently found that composers give essential notes to the larger, and intermediate notes to the In this position it is known as the French smaller of the two orchestral basses.

violin clef. Beethoven rPastoral Symphony). Violino principale (It.) Solo violin, or Violoncelli. leader. Violino prima, first violin. Violino secondo, second violin. Violino ripieno, a violin part required only to fill in and strengthen the tutti. Violin-steg (Ger.) The bridge of a violin.

Violon (Fr.) The violin ; in Germany the same word is used for the double bass. Violoncello (7^) The little violone. When the violoncello supplanted the bass viol or the viol di gamba in the early part of the eighteenth century, many of the other in- struments were so altered by having the number of strings reduced, as to m&ke them playable like the violoncello. Excepting occasionally, when the exigences of an old score demand the use of a viol di gamba, no other small bass stringed instrument is employed in the orchestra, as the variety of division of the two parts in this fashion tone it is capable of—almost equal in resource The time a matter of necessity, as to the violin—renders the use of others was at one were not sufficiently unnecessary. The violoncello is strung with double-bass players perform such passages, four gut strings, the lower two covered with skilful to be able to fifth but at the present time there is scarcely a silver wire \, all are tuned a apart. 2 F ( 449 ) VIOLONE- -VOICE. double-bass player who is not able' to take Vivace, Vivacemente (It.) Lively, such divisions with ease. quickly, sprightly. In addition to the single notes of its scale Vivacetto {It.) Rather lively. the violoncello can give double notes, seconds, Vivacezza, Vivacita (It.) Liveliness, thirds, fifths, sixths, sevenths, and octaves in vivacity. nearly every key between the two notes Vivacissimo [It.) Very lively. Vivamente (It.) Lively, briskly. m Vive (Fr.) Brisk, quick, lively. Vivente {It.) Animated, lively. Vivezza, con (It.) With life, liveliness. Seconds, thirds, and fourths can be made Vivido (It.) Brisk, lively. when the upper note is an open string, as Vivo (It.) Alive, brisk, lively, animated. music J-J- J J Vocal, (i) For, or by the voice ; intended to be sung. (2) Compositions so written as to be easy and effective for the voice. The " singing " quality of tone ob- Fifths, sixths, and sevenths when the lower (3) tained from an instrument. note is stationary: Vocale (It.) Belonging to the voice. Vocalezzo (It.) An exercise for the voice. Vocalisation, (i) Control of the voice and vocal sounds. (2) Method of producing Violone (It.) The double bass. and phrasing notes with the voice. Virelay (Fr.) [Vaudeville.] Vocalizzi (It.) Vocal exercises, solfeggi. Virginal. A stringed instrument played Vocal Score. [Score.] by means of a keyboard, like the modern Voce [It.) The voice ; as, Voce di camera, pianoforte. It was in form like a box, or literally, a voice for the chamber, applied to a desk of wood without legs or supports, and voice of small quality, better fitted to the was usually placed upon a table or stand. limited area of a private room than for a public The strings were of metal, one for each note, concert room. Voce di gola, a guttural or and the sound was made by means of pieces throaty voice ; Voce di petto, the chest voice, of quill, whalebone, leather, or occasionally the lower register of the voice ; Voce di testa, elastic metal, attached to slips of wood the head voice, the upper range of the voice ; called "jacks," which were provided, with sometimes the falsetto is so termed. Voce metal springs. The compass was about three sola, the voice alone, unaccompanied. octaves. This title has been by some sup- Vogelflote {Ger.) A bird-call, flageolet, posed to have originated as a compliment or whistle. Mozart employs one in the score to Queen Elizabeth, who was an expert of the Zauberflote. performer upon the instrument ; but as the Vogelpfeife {Ger.) [Vogelflote.] word was in use before her birth this sup- Vogelgesang {Ger.) A musical instru- position is not valuable. Others say that ment composed of a series of small pipes the name was applied because of the small- standing in water, through which the wind ness and delicacy of its tone, as it was and had to pass. A merula. is considered proper for a woman " to Voglia {It.) Ardour, desire, longing. speak small." It is more likely to have Voice. Voices may be arranged in six received its name from the word " virgae." orders or classes, according to gravity or The virginal, also called spitiet, from the acuteness, viz. : —The bass, baritone, tenor, quills with which the string was sounded, alto, or contralto, mezzo-soprano and soprano. was the precursor of the harpsichord, now The first three are the natural voices of men superseded by the pianoforte. [Dulcimer, and the second three those of women. The Spinet, Pianoforte.] compass or range of notes is different in each Virgula (Laf.) (i) The stem or tail of a voice, but it is not compass alone which note. (2) A neume. determines the class to which any voice may Virtuoso (It.), Virtuose (Ger.) A skilled belong, as very frequently a baritone quality performer on some particular instrument, of voice is limited to the range of a bass, and specially the violin. The term was formerly a tenor quality to the compass of a baritone. applied to an amateur, " one who feels de- It is almost impossible to describe in words light in, and possesses a taste for, the musical the general character of the several voices, it science." must be sufficient to give the number of notes

Vista (It.) Sight ; as, a prima vista, at they are capable of using. first sight. The part for the bass voice is written in Vistamente, Vitamente (It.) Briskly, the F clef and its most effective notes quickly, rapidly, with life. are those indicated in the following by

( 45° ) VOICING ^VOLUNTARY.

crotchets, though for solo purposes the notes which latter has effective and useful notes shown by the minims are often used. between $ The baritone voice has a compass between and even beyond these limits, in exceptional cases. Voicing. The regulation of the tone and power of an organ-pipe. [Organ.] Voix (Fr.) The voice. its quality and character best fit it for solo Voix celeste [Fr.) [Vox Angelica.] singing. Its part is now written in the bass Volante (It.) Flying, applied to the execu- or F clef, on the fourth line, though there are tion of a rapid series of notes, either in singing instances, as, for example, in Dr. Cooke's or playing. setting of Collins' to "Ode the Passions," Volata (It.) A run, or division ; a light where the baritone clef, that is to say, the F and rapid series of notes. clef on the third line, is used for the voice. Volkslied (Ger.) A popular song. [Lied.]

VoU (Ger.) Full ; as, VoUgesang, with

the full chorus ; mit vollem Werk, with the full power. voiced, full-toned. The compass of the tenor voice is between VoUstimmig [Ger.) Full- Vollstimmigkeit {Ger.) Fulness of tone. Volonte {Fr.) Will, pleasure, a volonte, at will.

Volta {It.) Turn, or time ; as, Una volta,

The most serviceable notes being those ; prima volta, first once due volte, twice ;

between the two crotchets. Its part is written time ; seconda volta, sfecond time. in the C clef upon the fourth line. The alto Volta {It. and Fr.) An old dance. voice is an artificial and not a real voice. It [Lavolta.] is made by cultivating the falsetto notes Volteggiando {It.) Crossing the hands instead of the true chest voice. The C clef in pianoforte-playing. is also used for this voice, but it is placed Volteggiare {It.) To cross the hands. upon the third line, and the compass em- Volti {It.) Turn; as, Volti subito, or

ployed is between the notes : abbreviated, v.s. ; turn quickly. Volume. A term applied to the power and quality of the tone of a voice or instru- ment, or of a combination of sounds. Voluntary. An organ solo played before, All the tones between the two crotchets are during, or after any office of the Church ; produced from the chest, the D generally hence, called respectively introductory, mid- dividing the two qualities of chest and fal- dle, or concluding. Such solos were formerly, setto, the point of junction being known as and are often now unpremeditated, or impro- " the break." visations, as the name Voluntary seems to The contralto voice is of the lowest tone in imply. Towards the end of the last century female voices, and nearly corresponds in range the style of the music performed had greatly to the bass voice in men, only, the sounds degenerated ; the ordinary voluntary con- produced are an octave higher. Music is sisted of running passages played by the right written for it in both the alto and treble clefs, hand on a comet-stop or flute-stop, while the more frequently the latter. Its range is left hand sustained a few soft chords by way between of accompaniment. The protests of clergy and sound musicians against such performances " -I had not such a powerful influence in eradi- cating them as the general introduction into often confounded with The mezzo-soprano, this country of complete sets of pedal-keys, compass of an the contralto voice, has a and the consequent study of John Sebastian octave and a fifth or sixth. Bach's compositions for the organ. Arrange- ments from instrumental and orchestral works are at the present time largely used as volun- taries, and although it must be said in their of It is more flexible than the contralto, though favour that they bring the themes great less brilliant in tone than the soprano voice, masters under the notice of many who would

( 451 VORAUSNAHME-—VUIDE.

not otherwise hear them, yet it is to be feared that they tend to discourage the composition of genuine organ-music, and foster the mis- chievous notion that the organ is intended to be an imitation of a full band. The custom of performing voluntaries and interludes in Church was at one time carried Vorausnahme {Ger.) (i) Anticipation, to an absurd extent. Not only was the e.g. Psalm-tune introduced with a " very pretty flourish," but interludes were played between Simple form. each line of the tune, whether the sense was complete or not. A specimen of the style of these performances may be seen in the follow- ing, from " The Psalmes set full for the Organ or Harpsicord as they are Plaid in Churches and Chappels in the maner given out, as also with their Interludes of great variety," by

D. Purcell, c. 1700. (2) Preparation of a discord. VOLUNTARY. Vorbereitung {Ger.) Preparation of dis- St. David's Tune given out. cords. Vorgeiger {Ger.) Leader. First fiddle. Vorgreifung, Vorgriff {Ger.) Anticipa- tion. Vorhalt {Ger.) (i) Syncopation, (2) Suspension. Vorschlag {Ger,) Appoggiatura, beat. Vorspiel {Ger.) Prelude, introductory movement, overture, Vorspieler {Ger.) A leader or principal performer upon any instrument. Vortanzer {Ger.) Leader of a dance. Vorzeichnung {Ger.) Signature, q.v. Vox {Lat.) (i) A voice as vox hutnana, f

the htjman voice. (2) A part ; as tres voces,

three parts. (3) A sound ; as, inter aliquant vocem et octavam a se, between any sound and its octave. (4) A key, [Acutae claves.] (5)

A theme ; as, vox antecedens, the subject of a fugue. Vox Angelica {Lat.) An organ stop con- sisting of two ranks of pipes of small scale and dehcate quality of tone, one of which is tuned slightly sharp, in order to produce a wavy and tremulous sound. Called also Voix cileste, unda maris, &c. Vox humana {Lat.) A reed stop in the organ intended to imitate the sounds of the human voice, consisting of a large reed and

short tube ; called voce umana in Italian, voix humaine in French, and also anthropoglossa. V.S. Abb. for volti subito, and for violino secondo. Vuide {Fr.) Open, as corde vuide, open string on the violin or violoncello.

( 452 ) :

WAITS WALZE.

W.

Waits, or Wayghtes. Originally certain with the hautboy ; and Mr. H. Coleridge minstrels or musical watchmen attached to adds his testimony founded upon a passage the households of kings and other great in the romance of Kynge Alysander and Sir persons, who paraded an assigned district Bglamore, that the waits were wind instru- sounding the hours at night. Until very ments. recently, the Waits of the City of Westmin- A writer in the " Gentleman's Magazine," ster were regularly sworn before the " Court in 1756, describing the method of constituting " of Burgesses." In the Liber niger domus freemen at Alnwick, says : —" They (the pro- regis " quoted in Rymer's " Fcedera," in an posed freemen) are generally met by women account of the musicians of the household of dressed up with ribbons, bells, and garlands, Edward IV., mention is made of " A Wayte, who welcome them with dancing and singing, that nightely from Mychelmas, to Shreve and are called timber-waits, probably a cor- Thorsdaye, pipe the watche within this courte ruption of timbrel waits, players on timbrels."

fowere tymes ; in the somer nightes iij tymes, At the present day the waits are detached and Tuakyth. Bon Gayte at every chamber, bodies of impromptu musicians who make doare, and offyce, as well for feare of pyckeres night hideous for three weeks before Christ- and pillers." Many cities and towns, both mas, with wretched performances of indif- English and foreign, encouraged and licensed ferent melodies. The waits or town musi- their "waits," Exeter among other places cians in Germany were called Zinkenisten— having a regular company as early as the players of the Zinh, a coarse reed instrument, year 1400. Waldflute,Waldfl6te,Waldpfeife(G«r.) In the " Coxcomb," by Beaumont and Forest flute. An organ stop of 4 ft. pitch Fletcher, we find this allusion to a neglect of consisting of open wood pipes. [Flute.] duty on the part of the watchmen. Waldquinte or Waldflotenquinte is a similar stop one fifth higher in pitch. " Where were the Watch the while ? Good sober gentlemen Waldhorn (Ger.) A hunting horn, They were like carefiil members of the City, Walnika, or Walynka (Russ.) A simple Drawing in diligent ale and singing Catches." kind of bagpipe used among the Russian The word was sometimes used to describe peasantry. those who acted as the town musicians but Waltz, Valse (Fr.), Valce {It.), Walzer who did not do duty as watchmen. It was (Ger.) A dance said to have originated in also given to any company of performers Bohemia, now of almost universal adoption. when employed as serenaders. The time is of triple measure in crotchets or The instruments used were a species of quavers, and consists of eight or sixteen bar hautboys, called also shawms, and from their phrases. Modern waltz writers frequently add use " waits." to the original dance^form an introduction Dr. Busby in his Musical Dictionary [1800] and coda. The " Vienna " waltz is character- says " The noun formerly signified hautboys, ised by a rapid movement and strict unbroken and (which is remarkable) has no singular time. Landler are slower and more digni- number. From the instruments, its signifi- fied than the waltz. cation was, after a time, transferred to the " Classical waltzes " are compositions in performers themselves." waltz-form intended for set pieces, not for In The famous history of Dr. Faustus, the dance tunes. In them, greater scope is given word is in a list of musical instruments. to the composer and performer than is com- " Lastly was heard by Faustus all manner of patible with the rhythm of the dance. instruments of music—as organs, clarigolds, Walze (Ger.) A roll. A symmetrical lutes, viols, , Waits, hornpipes, run or division, e.g. anomes, harps, and all manner of other instruments of music." Butler in his " Prin- ciples of Musick in singing and setting, with the two-fold use thereof [Ecclesiastical and Civil]" published in 1636, identifies waits

(453 ) — F :

WASSERORGEL WURDE.

Wasserorgel {Ger.) Hydraulic organ. W^ind instrument. A musical instru- Waves of sound. [Acoustics § 3.] ment whose sounds are produced by the Wayghtes. [Waits.] breath of the player, or by means of a pair Wechselgesang (Ger.) Responsive or of bellows. antiphonal song. Wirbel [Ger.) (i) A peg of a violin, &c. Wechselnote (Ger.) Notacambiata [It.) (2) The stopper of a closed organ pipe. (3) In counterpoint, proceeding from a discord Wirbelstock, a sound-board into which pegs by a skip, e.g. : are fixed. (4) Wirbeltanz, a whirling or cir

-1- cular dance. Wolf, (i) The bad eifect produced when playing in certain keyis on an organ tuned to Weich [Ger.) Minor. " unequal temperament." It is well known W^eight of wind. [Wind gauge.] that tempered thirds are more distressing to

Weissenote [Ger.) White note ; nota the ear when heard from instruments of con- hianca {It.), a minim. tinuous-tone like the organ and harmonium Weiteharmonie [Ger.) Dispersed har- than from pianofortes, &c. To obviate this mony. difficulty, tuners of organs formerly made Welsh harp. [Harp.] certain of their thirds untempered, that is, Wenig [Ger.) Little, as ein Wenig stark, true to nature, in the ratio 4:5. Thus Cjf was rather loud. made a true third above A ; El^ a true third

Essential ; as wesent- Wesentlich [Ger.) below G ; Fjt a true third to D ; GJf a true seventh. liche Septime: Essential, or dominant third to E ; Bl? a true third below D, e.g. Wheel. The refrain or burden of a ballad.

" You must sing, Down, a-down, an you call him a- downa. ! O, how the wheel becomes it " Shakspeaee. The common chords, therefore, of C, D, Eb, Whiffler. wand-bearer to head a pro- A E, F, G, A, were perfectly in tune. But as cession. fifer. " Whifflers originally headed A will be seen from the above, the following armies or processions as fifers or pipers ; in would be heard for the chord of some remoter process of time the word whifflers, which had keys ; always been used in the sense of a fifer, Chord, of Al> ofDb came to signify any person who went before in a procession." Douce's " Illustrations of Shakspeare." Whistle, (i) To make a musical sound with the lips and breath without using the vocal cords ; the hollow of the mouth forming a resonance-box. The pitch of whistling is an octave higher than is generally supposed. t^—^— &c. Whistle, tin whistle, penny whistle. The common wood or tin flMe d bee having six The divergence of these intervals from just ventages. Its scale is : pitch was painfully apparent. Modern organs are almost without exception- tuned to equal temperament. [Temperament.] (2) Some particular note often found on a when softly blown, which may of course be violin, violoncello, or other stringed instru- considerably extended upwards by increasing ment, the intonation of which is not true. the pressure of wind, as in other flutes. W^ood wind, or Wood wind-band. The Whole note. A semibreve. flutes, oboes, clarinets, bassoons, and instru- Wiederholung [Ger.) Repetition. ments of their nature, in an orchestra. Wind band, (i) A military band. (2) Wood stops. Organ stops, the pipes of The wind instruments of an orchestra. which are of wood. W^ind chest. Windlade (Ger.) [Organ.] W^rist guide. [Chiroplast.] W^ind gauge. [Organ, § 20.] Wiirde (Ger.) Dignity, Mit Einfalt und Wind trunk. [Organ.] Wiirde, with simplicity and dignity.

( 454 ) :

XANORPHICA ZIGAHKA.

Xanorphica. A key-violin. An instru- a stick. The compass of two such instru- ment somewhat like the tetrachordon, in- ments is given in Engel's " Music of the most vented by Rollig (1761-1804), the sounds of ancient nations," pp. 12, 13. which were produced by bows set in motion Zapatadeo (Sp.) A dance in which the by a pedal, and acted upon by keys. heel is struck violently on the ground to mark Xyloharmonica, Xylosistrum. An har- the rhythm. monicon consisting of graduated blocks of Zarabanda. [Saraband.] wood, struck with hammers acted upon by Zarge (Ger.) The sides of instruments keys. Instruments of this class were made like the violin or guitar. by RolHg (1761-1804), and by Uthe (1810). Zart (Ger.) Soft, delicate ; as, mit zarten Xylophone. [Gigelira.] Stimmen, with soft stops. Xylorganum. [Gigelira.] Zartflote {Ger.) A delicate-toned flute. Zartlich (Ger.) Softly, delicately. Yang Kin. A Chinese instrument fur- Zarzuelas (Sp.) A sort of drama, said to nished with brass strings, which are struck have been first produced at Zarzuela in the with two small hammers, like a dulcimer. time of Philip IV. Yo. An Indian flute. Zeichen (Ger.) A musical sign, note, or Yu. An interval of the Chinese scale. character. The ancient Chinese divided the octave into Zeitmass {Ger.) Time, measure. twelve equal parts, like the semitones of our Zele {Fr.), Zelo {It.) Zeal, energy. chromatic scale, which were called lu. Their Zelosamente (It.) Zealously, ardently, scale, as commonly used, consisted, however, earnestly. of only five notes, which were called koung, Zeloso (It.) Zealous, energetic. chang, kio, tch6, and yu, and which corre- Zergliederung {Ger.) Lit. dissection.

sponded to our F, G, A, C, D ; koung or F The reduction of a subject to its component being considered to be the normal key. figures in order to expand it by their repeti- Yue Kin. A guitar called by the Chinese, tion. " Moon Guitar." [Guitar.] Zerstreut {Ger.) Dispersed, spread, open, as Zerstreute Harmonie, dispersed or open Za. Formerly a solfeggio name for Bb. harmony. Zambomba (Sp.) A common toy instru- Ziemlich {Ger.) Moderately, as ziemlich ment in Spain, formed of an earthen pot langsam, moderately slow. tightly covered at its open end with a parch- ZifTern {Ger.) To cypher. ment, into which is inserted the stem of a Ziganka. A dance popular among the reed. When the reed is rubbed up and down Russian peasantry, similar in its figures to with rough or moist fingers, the vibrations the English country-dance. The tune is are transferred to the air enclosed iji the lively, and the accompaniment is usually a vessel, and a hollow rumbling sound is pro- "burden," or "bag-pipe bass," as shown in duced. the following example Zanjpogna (li.) A bagpipe in use among ZIGANKA. Italian peasants. The name is supposed to be a corruption of Symphonia. [Bagpipe.] A rough-toned reed instrument without a bag is also called Zampogna or Zampugna. Zaner. [Zummarah.] Zanze. A negro instrument. Known also by the names of mambira, ambira, marimba, ibeka, vissandschi, in different parts of Africa- It consists of a wooden box, on which a number of sonorous slips of wood or tongues of iron are fixed, in such a position as to admit of their being made to vibrate by pressing them down with the thumb or with

( 455 ) ZIKRS ZYMBEL.

li'Vr; -1