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Birdsong in the Music of Olivier Messiaen a Thesis Submitted To

Birdsong in the Music of Olivier Messiaen a Thesis Submitted To

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Birdsongin the Music of

A thesissubmitted to MiddlesexUniversity in partial fulfilment of the requirementsfor the degreeof Doctor of Philosophy

David Kraft

School of Art, Design and Performing Arts Nfiddlesex University

December2000 Abstract

7be intentionof this investigationis to formulatea chronologicalsurvey of Messiaen'streatment of birdsong,taking into accountthe speciesinvolved and the composer'sevolving methods of motivic manipulation,instrumentation, incorporation of intrinsic characteristicsand structure.The approachtaken in this studyis to surveyselected works in turn, developingappropriate tabular formswith regardto Messiaen'suse of 'style oiseau',identified vocalisationsand eventhe frequentappearances of musicthat includesfamiliar characteristicsof bird style, althoughnot so labelledin the score.Due to the repetitivenature of so manymotivic fragmentsin birdsong,it has becomenecessary to developnew terminology and incorporatederivations from other research findings.7be 'motivic classification'tables, for instance,present the essentialmotivic featuresin somevery complexbirdsong.

The studybegins by establishingthe importanceof the uniquemusical procedures developed by Messiaen:these involve, for example,questions of form, melodyand .7he problemof is 'authenticity' - that is, the degreeof accuracywith which Messiaenchooses to treat birdsong- then examined.A chronologicalsurvey of Messiaen'suse of birdsongin selectedmajor works follows, demonstratingan evolutionfrom the ge-eralterm 'oiseau' to the preciseattribution of particular materialto particular . in later periods,the composerexplores new instrumentationand accompanying (or , chordalcomplexities) to create,as closelyas possible,the uniquetimbres and other idiosyncrasies of birds' vocalisations;at the sametime, Messiaenbegins to introducea much larger variety of speciesinto his music,using birdsong from all overthe world. 7be representationsof birdsongare muchmore 'authentic',or at leastmore colourful, than in previousworks andperhaps, with the accompanyingportrayal of landscapein (for example)Catalogue, greater verisimilitude is created. The inclusionof so manyexotic speciesin the scoresof, for instance,Sept Harkar and Chronochromieis a resultof Messiaen'smeticulous ornithological investigations and painstaking notations.More importantly,the monophonicbird styletends increasingly to be replacedby other texturessuch as two-voicehomophony, hornorhythin, hybrid forms andpolyphony.

The mostpertinent works of this final periodare evaluated,clearly displayingthe manyfeatures of eachbirdsong and call, andtheir part in the structureof the pieces.Conclusions are drawn concerningthe technicalmeans by which the composerrealises the distinguishingfeatures of each birdsong.The thesisis sustainedby a closestudy of threeelements governing Messiaen's treatment of birdsong;(rbythm., and structure),especially considering the closerelationship between them.

Therehas not previouslybeen a systematicattempt to analyseMessiaen's pieces in this way. This researchprovides a coherentstructural overview of Messiaen'semployment of birdsong, displayingrecurring patterns found in the useof rhythm,melody and structure.Further, the recent publicationof Messiaen's'Trait6 de Rythme,de Couleuret d'Ornithologie' enablesthe researchto be genuinelyup-to-date, using the composer'spersonal comments on, and analysesof, birdsongs found frequentlyin his music. ii

Acknowled2ements

I shouldlike to thank AlphonseLeduc in generaland Hilary Thomsonat United Music

PublishersLtd in particularfor permissionto quote extractsand musicalexamples from copyright material.I shouldalso like to thank ProfessorMichael Bridger, my tutor for the four years,and MichaelFrith, my secondsupervisor. Special thanks must go to my parents for their continuedsupport and financialhelp: they havegenerously paid for fees,books and scores.Finally, my thanksto PerryKeenlyside and PeterHill for additionaladvice. iii

Foreword

In a critical study of this kind wherea musicaldevelopment is surveyedover a substantial period (1928-1987),it is inevitablethat certainworks aregiven more attentionthan others:as importantinnovations are cited, the correspondingsection is given a higherlevel of analysis,and theseinnovations are shownboth in the "motivic classification'tables and in the musicalexamples. Nevertheless, in order to follow the thesisin detail, it will be usefWto havescores to hand.Throughout the thesisI haveemployed a numberof symbolsin bold in order to give specificdirections to the reader.For example,[p6, s2, b4l signifiespage six, systemtwo, at bar four, further, IH/7 indicatesa musicalexample in

ChapterIII, numberseven. iv

Contents

ChapterI Background 1-14 ChapterII Issuesin MessiaenResearch 15-44 ChapterIII MusicalLanguage of Messiaen 45-59 ChapterIV The Notation of Birdsong 60-72 ChapterV Characteristicsof 'Le Style Oiseau'in Works 1933-1948 73-127 ChapterVI The ExperimentalPeriod 1949-1951 128-168 ChapterVII R6veil desOiseaux and OiseauxExotiques 169-219 ChapterVIII Catalogued'Oiseaux 220-263 ChapterIX Use of Birdsongin SelectedWorks 1960-1987 264-336

Conclusion 337-356 MusicalExam ples 357-457 Bibliography 458-463 Dissertations 464 Discography 465466 V

Gloi-tarv

Key: - DK- original terms 0: ornithological terms NI: Nfessinen'sterms

agrandissementasymmitrique (1%1):This tcchniqueinvolves the repetitionof a melodiccell: notesare transposed up or down, while othersremain the same. alternator (DK): Two notesinterchange one after the other in a patternof equal durations,often serniquavers.Common intervals are the or augmentedoctave. bird call: A short, declarnatorysequence of pitches. birdsong:A sectionof musicwhich has been identified by the composerwith a specificbird. A birdsongcan be shortwith repetitivefeatures, but morecommonly it is melodicand more elaborate than a call. block for7n: This term is usedby a few musicologists.It refersto an episodic compositionalstyle which is contrary to a more 'developmental'form. Most of the piecesin CataloguedDiseaur juxtaposemany passages, usually representations of bird vocalisationsand depictionsof habitats.The phrase'block form' is extendedto encompassthe devicewhere instrumentalgroups within the ftmework of an orchestralwork - typically strings, and tunedpercussion, woodwind and -trio- play in their respectivegroups. chirp (0): A shortýoften staccato,high-pitched sound which is usuallyat leastan octaveabove surrounding pitches. chromatic rhythm (M): A seriesof durationsin which eachnote progressively diminishesor augmentsby one primaryunit (see'Regard de I'Onction Terrible' from Vhigl Regardssur I'Difwit Jesus). - chordal-complexes:An inventedchord which is often usedto simulatethe timbre of birdsong. circadian time-scale(M): Tenn employedby Messiaendescribing the form of a piece beinga microcosmo& andrelating to, the 24 hour daily cycle. ethologist: Scientistof animalbehaviour, attempting to elucidatedevelopment, function and evolutionof animals. harmonic litany (51): A melodic cell of two or more notes repeated with several different harmonisations. vi

hors (NI): This techniqueis almostaleatoric in effect, althoughthe birdsongs are notatedprecisely. Certain birdsongs, played by specificinstruments, are heralded by a sign from the conductorand, therefore, play in their 'own time' independentof the rest of the .This effect is found in 'The Sermonto the Birds' from Saini Franýois d Assise(1975-83) and in the polyphonictutti sectionsof Un 111railel des Oiseaux.(1986).

inferior resonance/lowerresonance (M): This techniqueis frequentlyused by Messiaenand is producedwhen a chordis playedloudly in the bassof a pianoand set againstother chordsor notes.In CataloguedDiseaux, the fiandamentalphrases of birdsongare often accentuatedby the coloursproduced by superioror inferior resonances.See also "superiorresonance'. interruption call (DK): In earlyworks, thereare manyshort exclamatoryfigures that interrupt anothertexture: I refer to theseappearances as 'interruption calls', although they arevery often not labelled'style oiseau'.Frequently, the complexityof the chord usedin an 'interruption call' may give it an alarmingquz! ity. Theseshort 'interruption calls' appearthroughout birdsong. interversion system(M): A systematisedform of permutation:by additionor subtraction,rhythmic values increase or decreaseby one durationalvalue (e.g. the serniquaver).This systemis usedin retrogradeorder or, in the caseof Chronochronfie (for example),durations may be subdividedinto sets,providing rhythmic patternsfor the structure. melograph mona (0): An apparatusthat providesan objectiveregistration of frequencyand pressure level in musicalsounds. There is a markedimprovement over the sonagram:the analyserhas a fasterresponse, and a 'variable"filter is included, isolatingthe fundamentalmelodic line in the birdsong.

motivic classirication(DK): A tabularmethodology which showsunderlying characteristicsin somevery complexbirdsong. The phrase'motivic classification'is my short handfor this codification.The 'motivic classification'develops from a table usedto investigatethe chorusof larks in Messede la PentecOte.Each rhythrn and pitch characteristicis given a letter: x, y andz... representpitch predominance,while a, b and c... areused to demonstrateother features.Metrical forms and plainsong terminologyare alsoused in conjunctionwith thesecodes. These findings are set out in a table which givesa comprehensivebar-by-bar or phrase-by-phraseaccount of a birdsong.

motivic islands:Indicates a passagethat revolves around certain pitches. This term wasoriginally used by PaulGriffiths (1985).

onomatopoeicrepresentation: Ornithologistshave attempted to describethe quality of bird vocalisationswithmnemonics. In the sameway, Messiaenincludes real or inventedwords that most closelyresemble the sonoritiesof a particularbird vocalisation:in Riveil des Oiseaux,for instance,the songthrush is portrayedin musicalnotation and accompaniedby the onomatopoeia,'6-di-di, i-di-di, tioto, tioto, tioto, tou-hitte'. vii

personnagesrythrniques (INI): Formedby threerhythmic continuums.In the first group the durationsincrease, in the secondthey decrease,while in the third, the durationsremain the same.As Johnsonadvises, this deviceis a rhythmiccounterpart to the 'agrandissementasym6trique' system where the pitchesshift progressivelyup and down while one remainsconstant. (INI):Metrical forms are usedin musicalanalysis in order to describestress or un-stressand rhythmicpatterns in birdsong.A list of theseterms can be found in the MusicalExamples, Table 11/1. plainchant phraseology(M): Due to the repetitivenature of birdsong,terms derived from Gregorianchant are appositewhen describing similar melodicshapes. A list of theseterms can be found in the MusicalExamples, Table 11/2. referencepoints/anchor points: In a musicallanguage that is rarely diatonic, referencepoints provide the listeneror analyrtwith a senseof coherence.They are pitchesthat featureregularly in, a birdsongpassage, and are ofien returnedto at the end of a phrase. renversementstransposis (M): Translatedas '[chords ofl transposedinversions. A seriestransposing chordal-complexes, usually in a cadentialcontext. In 'Le Traquet Stapazin'(Catalogue d'Oiseaur, 1958)the inventedchord on C# is transposed progressivelyup a n-dnorthird: C# -E-G- Bb, while in La Fauvelledes Jardins (1970) sequencesare uninterrupted- the bassnotes remain the sameand the voice leadingof the other parts movesstep-by-step (a tone or a semitoneaway). resonancecontractie (AT): Translatedas '[chords ofl contractedresonance. Just as, accordingto Messiaen,an F# is perceivedin the perfect chord (seeMusical Example 111/1a-d), so too are harmonicimplications perceived in a more complexchord of Messiaen'sown invention.In a 'superior' or inferior" resonanceeffect, chordsare widely-spaced;but here,however, resonance is achievedwithin a restrictedarea. Chordsof 'contractedresonance' are generally two compactchordal-complexes that mergetogether in a quasi-,usually played with 'overlappinghands. rhythmic/pitch : This is a group of pitchesor rhythmswhich can be read the sameforwards as backwards.Generally a non-retrogradablerhythm is a rhythmic palindrome,which often includesan addednote value (that cannotbe divided equally) at its centre.For example,a rhythmis palindromic.

(0): An that indicates,in form, the differencesin sonagramb apparatus graphic relative soundpressure in a bird vocalisationor, indeed,in any musicalsound. style oiseau: This phraseis reservedfor bird style phrasesor cellswhich are not attributedto a particular species.This phrasecan alsobe usedto refer to passagesthat havebird-Eke qualities, even if they havenot beencredited as suchby the composer. superior resonance/upperresonance (M): Formedwhen a loud note or chord on the piano is playedabove other musicalmaterial. See also 'inferior resonance'. viii

Was: Compositerhythinic patterns.There are 120 'degi-tilas' in the Indian Rhythmic Systemrecorded by Sharrigadeva.Their characteristicametricality replaces western notion of 'beat' with the shortestnote value. texture classirication: Adaptedfrom the dissertationof Philipsand Sun, a classificationof textureshas been compiled. I haveextended the codification,originally intendedfor the analysisof the piano cycle CataloguedDiseaux, to encompassthe larger rangeof texturesin orchestralworks. The texturesare as follows: (1) monophony(2) homophonyin coequalemphasis (3) homophonywith one voice or part dominant(4) homorhythmin coequalemphasis (5) homorhythmwith one voice or part dominant(6) hybrid texture and (7) polyphony. vocalisation (0): 'Birdsong' is often distinct from 'bird calls'. This term encompasses both forms. Chapter-1: Back2round

Thepurpose in tracingthe composer'sbackground is to placeMessiaen historically and suggestpossible reasons for his attractionto. birdsong. The importantperiods of his life are discussed,with passingreferences to influentialworks written by other composers;in addition,the extentto which his own musicproved influentialis considered.The composer'sphilosophical outlook, involving an integration of suchdiverse elements as nature,beauty, freedom, love and theology, is alsosurveyed.

Olivier Messiaenis generallyregarded as one of the most importantcomposers of the twentiethcentury. His compositions,philosophy and personalityhave been a focus for manyarticles and monographs,yet his influenceon the musicalworld derivesnot only ftorn hisoeuvre but alsofrom a lifetime'swork asa pedagogue.

Messiaenwas born on 10 December1903 at . His father,Pierre, taught English and is bestknown for his translationand analysisof the works of Shakespeare:indeed, the mysteryand magicof theseplays were in the forefront of Messiaen'simagination at only eight yearsof age.Ifis mother,Cicile Sauvage,was a poetess:she was of paramount importanceto the young boy's artistic and emotionaldevelopment. The prophetic "L'Ame en Bourgeon' [The BurgeoningSoul', the last chapterof her first book 'As the World

Turns'], written by Messiaen'smother before he was born, no doubt had a profound effect on Messiaen'scharacter and philosophy, while the secondbook, Te Vallon', describes 2 particularlybirds and nature.Already Messiaenwas beingintroduced to aspectsof life that wouldlater become obsessions as a grownman. Indeed, his mother said,

'.. all the Orient is singinghere within me - with its bluebirds.,with its butterflies." '

Messiaenlived with his motherand grandmotherin Grenobleduring the First World War.

The mountainsof Dauphinyare closeto this city: they too influencedthe young man's outlook. The samemountain range provided a sourceof inspirationthat led him to write

'Montagnes'(the third movementof the songcycle ) and the later La Fauvelledes

Jardins. Messiaenhas said (see Robert SherlawJohnson, p9) that his mother broughthim up in an atmosphereripe with and fairy tales.It was herein Grenoblethat Messiaen discoveredvarious great classicalmasterpieces, amongst them Mozart's 'Don Giovanni',

Wagner's'WalUre' andBerlioz's 'The Damnationof Faust'. Messiaenalso received as gifts piano piecesby Ravel andDebussy. Between the agesof sevenand nine,Messiaen taught himselfto play the piano.These impressionable years produced an inquisitiveand culturedyoung man- and his first composition,'The Lady of Shalott'.

Messiaenmoved to Nantesafter the First World War. During this brief stayMessiaen so rapidly gainedthe respectof someof the finest musiciansin the town that they offeredhim free lessons.The most notableof thesemusicians, Jehan de Gibon, taught Messiaen .Messiaen had alreadybeen introduced to impressionisticmusic with Debussy's

'EstampeS"2; however, Jehan de Gibon gavethe ten year old a scoreof 'Pell6aset M61isande',and it was this operawhich openedup a completelynew soundworld to the youngcomposer.

The influenceof Debussy'sharmony, sound complexes in orchestrationand rhytý is to someextent prevalent in Messiaen'sPreludes of 1929.The subtitlesof the piecesare quite similarto thoseof Debussy- 'Les SonsImpalpables du R6ve', for example.On the other hand,we rarely find sonataform and ternaryphrases in Debussy,yet thereis much referenceto theseclassical constructions in Messiaen'spreludes. According to Reverdý there is a strongresemblance between Messiaen's 'Chant d'extacedans un PaysageTriste'

(Prehides)and Debussy"s prelude to 'Pell6aset Mdlisande. Messiaen'smodes of limited transpositionwere alreadyquite sophisticatedand were entirely distinct from the tonal/modallanguages of Debussy.At this stage,Messiaen had yet to achievea degreeof rhythmicfreedom comparable to Debussy.Both Debussyand Bartok took inspiration from folksongand Easternmusic, adding elements derived from them to their own compositionalstyles. Messiaen extended Debussy"s harmonic and modallanguage by searchingfor Orientaland Gregorianmodes, while also exploringthe manylEndu and

Greekrhythms. It is this rhythmicfreedom which Messiaenwas, aboveall, to discoverin birdsong:these songs would provide innumerable,innovative sources of motivic material for compositions.

In 1919,Messiaen entered the Conservatoire where he continuedhis studies until

1930,talcing piano lessons with GeorgesFalkenberg. Later, Messiaenstudied harmony with JeanGallon and received(for ten yjears)private lessons on musicaltheory. and -Arith Nodl Gallon. He undertookorgan classeswith Marcel Dupr6, history of musicwith MauriceEmmanuel, percussion with JosephBaggers and composition with

PaulDukas. It wasMarcel Dupr6 who introduced Messiaen to plainchant,organ registrationand ,as well asgiving specialattention to Greekmetres. The discoveryof the 120Indian deg! -Idlas proved to be invaluablefor source material, even in early works (especially after LAscension). These rhythms are described by the thirteenthcentury Hindu theorist, Sharngadeva,in his treatise'Sarrigita-ratnikara'.

The most importantfeature of manyof theserhythms is their inherentametricality:

Messiaenderived the principleof 'addednote values' from both the IEndu rhythmsand the rhythmsof Stravinsky.Messiaen would add a sixteenthnote, lengthena note or add a sixteenthnote as a rest. This becamea notablecharacteristic of Messiaen'slanguage: the timelessnessof the musicis achievedby both the absenceof a pulse(which is due to the addednote value and rhythmic =etricality) andthe slowtempi of someof the pieces[ex

]U11.4 Messiaenalready had a predilectionfor the rhytlunscreated by the use of prime- numbers;after subdividingcertain cells into sixteenthnotes, durations of 5,7,11,13,17are often found.

At the ageof twenty-two, in 1931, Messiaenwas appointedorganist at the churchof La

SainteTrinit6 in Paris,a post which he held for the rest of his life. He was the youngest titular organistin Franceat the time. For manyyears, Messiaen played three massesas well as vespersevery Sunday, and weddingsand funerals during the week, a schedulelater reducedto two masseson Sunday.It may seemodd that Messiaenwrote very little music for liturgical use,but all of the organworks are on religious subjects,even if they are essentiallymeditative in nature,and are relevantfor specificdates in the Christian calendar.Messiaen had great affection for the Cavailk-Collorgan of La Tfinit6.The extensiverange of colours(including some electronic stops) is fully utilisedin the seven large-scaleorgan cycles he composedin his career.The organ cyclesof the 1930'swere

L'4scension(1934), La NalivitJ (1935) andLes Corps Glorieux (1939). Messiaen's highly-tunedtimbral complexities,chromatic harmonies and became a sourceof inspirationfor organistsand composers;however, Catholics and church-goers wereat first shockedby the musicallanguage. Many who objected,anxious to givethe musica label,likened it to dancemusic or e-enjazz. This angeredMessiaen, as he was vehementlyopposed not only to jazz but alsoto 'Les Six' and their disciples.

In 1936, Messiaenbecame the leaderof Ta JeuneFrance' with composersJolivet,

Baudrierand Daniel-Usur. The basic beliefs of this selectgroup involved a reactionboth againstthe composersof the time who sometimesappeared to write musicsolely for the purposeof beingdifficult and somewhatmechanical, and those who seemedto trivialise the form. At this time, the main directionof compositionswas following a courseaway from romanticand impressionisticassociations and seekingrefuge in eighteenthcentury dancemusic, and jazz. Messiaen'sgroup, on the other hand,valued music that not only had a humanelement but would touch peopleon a spirituallevel, while remaining cerebral.The group publisheda manifestowl-dch outlined their aims,and a few concerts werearranged which brought a largefollowing. Ta JeuneFrance' broke up at the outbreakof World War Two, after which the composersfollowed very different directions.However, these years were very importantfor Messiaen:he marriedthe 6 violinist, ClareDelbos, in 1936,and they hada son, Pascal,in 1937.The two songcycles

PoemespourMi(1936),and Cliamsde Terre eldeCiel(1938) wereinspired by these majorevents in Messiaen'spersonal life. As the composer'srhythmic, melodic and harmoniclanguage evolves, bird style,although not alwaysindicated, also appearsmore frequently.The texts of the cyclesare both religiousand surreal:.the words are honestin sentimentand typical of his own intrinsic manner,to the extentthat one might imagine

Messiaenhimself advising anyone who wishedto understandhis musicbetter to beginby readingthem. Messiaen's love of the dramaticsoprano voice is shownclearly in these songs,which were originallyintended for the vocally flexible and musicallysensitive

MarcelleBunlet. The musicof thesetwo cyclesincludes very long extendedphrases, using the extremesof a soprano'svocal range.Messiaen shows that he hasawide knowledgeof the voice: he revealsan understandingof the problemsof diction, registerand breathing.

Fewsingers have tackled Pojmes pour Mi, for instance,but therehave recently been someenlightening versions, notably by lane Manning,Gabrielle Dumaine, Felicity Palmer andPhylfis Bryn-Julson.

Messiaenjoined the anny whenwar broke out. He worked in a hospitaluntil 1940before beingtaken prisoner after Francefell to the Germans.He spenttwo yearsin StalagVIII at

66rlitz in Silesiawhere, in extremelycold and unpleasantconditions, Messiaen composed the Quatuorpour la Fin A Tempsfor ,, and piano. The work was performedin the POW campon IS January194 1. Messiaenhimself played the piano, while fellow prisonersplayed the other three instruments.Messiaen regards La NativiN andthe Quartetas initiating new stages in rhythmicfreedom. In the Quartet,the rhythmic 7 systemis basedon the addednote value,prime numbers,Hindu and nonretrogradable rhythms,while the harmoniesare more dissonant than those of previousworks. It is here that specifiedbirdsongs are introduced for the first time.

After his repatriationin 1942,Messiaen was appointedProfessor of Harmonyat the Paris

Conservatoire.Over the next forty-five years,Messiaen was to includeamong his compositionpupils a numberof distinguishedcomposers. In 1943he taught composition privately at the houseof a friend, Guy Delapierre.11is first pupils includedthe* pianists,

Yvette Grimaudand , and the composer,. Messiaenlater becameProfessor of ,Analysis and Rhythmat the Conservatoire,but it was not until 1966that he was officially appointedProfessor of Composition.Stockhausen,

Xenakis,Jolas, Goehr and Benjamin are amongstthe long list of composerswhom

Messiaentaught. The immensepower and opennessthat he possessedreflected on his pupils: he was interestedin finding an individualvoice for eachcomposer. Messiaen was the antithesisof dogmatic,and refusedto imposehis musicaltechniques on any one composer,preferring to makesuggestions and ask for somethingoriginal.

'Throw awaythe book I havetaught you to readand add a new, wholly unexpected page!'

Messiaenwas very impressedwith the talentsof the pianistYvonne Loriod, later to be his wife. Her sensitivityto Messiaen'scompositions gave him the incentiveto write major works for solo pianoand a substantialduet. In fact, the musicof the next six yearswas almostexclusively written for the piano.The piecesfor pianowere Vingi Regwz&sur I'Difam Jisu.v (1944) and Psiotu de IAmeti (1943). Messiaenalso wrote piecesthat includedthe piano(practically as a soloinstrument) in the orchestra,for example,Trois

PetilesLittirgiesdelaPriseiiceDit,itie (1943)and the TurangalilaSymplimy(1946-

1948)a few yearslater. The pianobecame a very prominentfeature of Messiaen'smusic at this time: the full rangeof the instrumentwas exploredwith experimentalharmonies and remarkablevirtuosity and, althoughthe pianohas been criticised as not beinga suitablesubstitute for birdsongrepresentation, it is usedregularly, and to great effect,to this end.The pianocontinued to play an integralr6le in the composer'smusic throughout his career.Before writing the TurangafflaSymphony, his regardfor Wagner(specifically the ,' und Isoldes'),human love and the love of God were expressedin the song-cycleHarawi (1945), where the relationshipbetween love and deathis also explored.

Theseworks establishedMessiaen as a composerof high repute, althoughthe first performanceof Trois PelitesLiturgies de la PrisenceDivine on I April 1945caused somethingof a musicalscandal. The critics of the time were either outragedat the music for beingtasteless, or delightedwith his creativityand new ideas.The avant-garde detestedthe nineteenthcentury harmonies that were complementedby a twentiethcentury instrumentation,/modality and rhythm,while the traditionalistsdisliked both the instrumentationand the dissonances,and the Catholicsdid not take to the supposedly vulgar treatmentof sacredconcepts. Another problem arose: the critics could not even labelthe piece,as it was neitheran oratorio nor a cantata.The text, written by Messiaen himself,is both surrealisticand Christian.Messiaen uses a variety of instrumentsin the work, includingthe ondesmartenot which he had usedon three previousoccasions. In a

sense,Messiaen transfers the Churchand its liturgyto the concerthall: 'I intendedto

accomplisha liturgical act, that is to say,to bringa kind of office,a kind of organisedact

of praise,into the concerthall. ' [O.Messiaen with ClaudeSamuel, 1986, p22].

On the other hand,the performancewas a successwith the public

Koussevitskycommissioned Messiaen's Turangaffla and made it possiblefor

him to teachcomposition in Europeand America.This major symphony(of ten

movementsrather than the traditionalfour) was first performedin Boston in 1949under

the directionof LeonardBemstein. The Turmigall1aS)mphony is onepart of Messiaen's

Tristan and Isoldetriptych, the other piecesbeing the Cinq Rechantsand the songcycle,

Harawi. The symphonyincludes a wide variety of dynamics,colouration and ,but

it differsfrom laterorchestral works because birdsong is not of paramountimportance in

the compositionalform, althoughit doesappear (for example)in 'Jardin du Sommeil

d'amour', whereit occursmonophonically and is labelledsimply 'oiseau' rather than

attributedto a nmnedbird, as in later works [ex 1/2].

Messiaendecided to explorevery differenttechniques of musicallanguage in the period

1949-1952.He had for sometime taughtthe theoriesof serialismand the dodecaphonic

langua,c,,e of the SecondViennese School, even though his aversionto Schoenberg'stone rows was well-known:Messiaen recognised that Schoenbergdid not apply serial techniquesto the other elementsof composition.Mode de Valeurset d7ntensif& (1949) was the resultof Messiaen'sexperiment with organisingnot only the pitches,but alsothe 10

durations,intensities and the timbres, which stimulated a short-livedmovement towards

'integral'or 'total' .' The pieces that were influenced by Mode de ýaleurs el d'Intemilis wereGoeyvaert's for two (1950_51)7, Michel Fano's Sonata

for two pianos(195 1), Stockhausen's'' (1951), Boulez's ' I a'

(1951-52)and, much later, BarbaraKolb's 'Apello' for piano (1976). In fact, Mode de

Valeursel dItifewiles (1949) is not a serialcomposition, although musicologists such as

David Drew seemto categoriseit as 'durchgeordnetemusik'. Onceagain, the pieceis

basedon modes;however, this time it is built up from thirty-sixnotes divided into three

twelve-notegroups. Though integralserialism owed muehto this revolutionary,if brief

work, Messiaenhimself cared little for it anddid not continuemuch further with this

technique.

After thisperiod, Messiaen's main source of harmonicand melodic material was birdsong.

Messiaenwas a skilled ornithologistand became able to namethe songsof birds as he

heardthem. Messiaen began to transcribethe songsof birds by hand:he slowedthem

down and reducedtheir pitch, makingit possiblefor westerninstruments to play them.He

would go to the woods at daybreakor in the eveningto gain knowledgeof the

differentiationof soundquality betweenthese periods in time. La Messede la Pentec6te

(1950), for organ,indicates the return of Messiaen'sbeloved birds. This work not only

showsthe effect of yearsof improvisationon the organ,but it alsoincludes 11indu and

Greekrhythms and the techniqueof 'interversions'which had previouslybeen introduced

in one of the Quatrebudes de Rythme(1949-1956). The fourth movement,

'Communion',includes a wide variety of birdsong.A year later in Livre d'Orgue (1951), II

Messiaencombines the 'Sharngadeva'rhythms, %kith quasi-serial techniques on pitch. The fourthmovement, 'Chant d'Oiseaux, and the lastmovement, 'Soixante-Quatre Durdes', both makeextensive use of birdsong.NMI des Oiseaux(195 3) and OiseauxExotiques

(1956) deriveexclusively from birdsongand calls. By the time of writing Chronochronfie

(1960), Messiaenhad alreadycollected birdsong from all over Europe,Japan, India,

China,Malaysia, the Middle East, parts of Afficas,North Americaand Mexico. In

Chronochromiea strict interversionsystem is applied(see Johnson p159); however,the use of this sophisticatedstructure seems to give the piecean effect of freedomrather than of deliberateconstruction. These and other -worksof the secondhalf of Messiaen'scareer are surveyedin greaterdetail later in the thesis.

The sixth movement,tp8de', is reminiscentof the total use of birdsongapplied in NMI des Oiseauxand consistsof a counterpointof eighteenstrings, mimicking the songsof eighteenbirds. Messiaen did not wish to createthe exact soundof the birdsongbut, like a painter,he intendedto createa very similartimbre and inflection to that which he had heardin the field.

In 1962,Messiaen and Yvonne Loriod were married.Messiaen began to write works that

Amongst Couleursde la Citj Celeste(piano were on a granderscale. C theseworks are: and orchestra),Et EkspectoRemirrectionem Mortuorum (orchestra),La Trwisfiguralion de notre SeigneurJ&us-Chrisf (choir, soloistsand orchestra),Des Cmiyonsmxboiles

(orchestraand percussion) and the operaSaint FrangoisdAssise. 12

Messiaenat anearly age had a considerablepassion for the theatreand gradually this developedinto a love of opera.In manyof his analysisclasses at the Conservatoire,a good dealof time was devotedto opera.His own operaSaint Franqois dAuise (1975-

85) is a grandwork that celebratesthe Saintand his love of nature(especially that of birds), people,heaven and angels.The sixth scene'Le Priche aux Oiseaux'('The Sennon to the Birds') is saturatedwith birdsongas St. Francisis transformedby the angels'music and consequentlyunderstands the languageof the birds and speaksto them. Messiaen describesthis sixth sceneas 'organisedchaos'. Not only doesthe conductorhave the complextask of beatingbars of unequallength, but he is alsofree to bring in certain instrumentsin his own time ('hors tempo): in the words of St. Francis:'Everything of beautymust leadto freedom,the freedomof glory.'

The next two yearsMessiaen spent writing the Livre du Saint Sacrement(1984), the eighteenmovements of which makeit his largestwork for organ. Smallerworks followed, notably Un Vitrail et des Oiseaux(1986) for pianoand ensemble.Written in 1992,

Messiaen'sfinal work, Eclairs mir Vau-dela.. (for orchestra)has eleven movements.

Thereare variousopinions as to the successof the last work's compositionalstyle. It has beenargued that Messiaen's techniques had reached a stand-stilland that hehad to return to the archaicvocabulary of the earlierworks, whereas others state that he hadlost the emotionalimpact of thosecompositions, although some sections are very moving. 13

Messiaen'smusic has had an immenseeffect on twentiethcentury musicians. Historians haveendeavoured to categorisehim: this is anextremely problematic task as the many constituentsof whichhis musicis a conglomerationseem to createa uniquelanguage.

The considerationof Messiaen'srelationship to his contemporarieshas perhaps been discussedenough. Peter Flill points out:

' Strangeas it may seem,we needfor the momentto abandonthe long view, to stepcloser to the shimmeringcolours of the stainedglass, to exploreits details afresh,and feel againhow extraordinarythey are' [Peter Hill, Messiaen Companion,1995, plO]. 14

Notesto ChapterI 'Taken from ClaudeSamuel, Olivier Messiaert Music and Color: Conversations with the Composer(Portland, Oregon, Amadeus, 1986), p15. 2 Althoughmany musicologists would question the term 'impressionist'in relationto Debussy,for Messiaenhe embodied certain features of the 'impressionist'style. 3Michele Reverdy, L'Oeuvre pour Piano d'Olivier Messiaen. (Paris, Alphonse Leduc, 1978). 4For examples,see Technique de monLangage Musical. (Paris, Leduc, 1944) pl, ex. I- 10. 5The works Harawi, the TuratigalilaSymphojiy and Chiq Rechants form a triptych inspiredby themyth of Tristanand Isolde. ' For moreinformation on the subjectof 'Modede valeurs et d'intensites'and the influenceon Boulez,Stockhausen et al, seeToop, Richard: 'Messiaen/Goeyvaerts, Fano/Stockhausen,Boulez, ' in Perspectivesof New Musict13, No. I (1974)pp 141-169. 7But at thetime of writingthis Sonata,Goeyvaerts had left Messiaen'sclasses a year beforeand had not heardMode de Valeurset d7nivisitesdirectly. ' AlthoughAffican birdsong mostly appears in laterworks, especially in La Transfigurationde Notre Seig7zezir Jimis-Christ and Des Cwzyons auxboiles. 15

Chanter 11: Issues in Nlessiaen Research

In orderto buildupon past analytical discoveries, the mostnotable research findings shouldbe cited,establishing contributions to the subjectof birdsongon a theoreticalrather than empiricalbasis.

Messia.en hasbeen a populartopic for musicologistsover the years:there is much literatureexamining the main techniquesof his style.Most scholarsdiscuss the early, middleand later years,Hindu rhythms,the modesof limited transposition,

Christian/Catholicsymbolism, colour andthe 'experimentalperiod' (includingpieces such asMode de Valeursel d7ntensWsand Ile de Feu II). Yet only a few books give systematicattention to birdsong- amongstthem 'The MessiaenCompanion'l, an interviewwith ClaudeSamuel2,. and the views expressedby Robert SherlawJohnsoný and

Paul Griffithsý.The first task in this researchproject was to extractthe importantviews of

Messiaenhimself on the subjectof birdsong.The next informationneeded was the musicologists'analytical responses to the subject.There hasbeen little researchinto the developmentof birdsongin his music,but the literature found givesa basison which to work. The issuesI proposeto dealwith may be categorisedas fbHows:

1 The Composer'sPersonal Insights 2 Trevor Hold and Authenticity 3 Previous Research.

Eachcategory is, in addition,subdivided. 16

I The Comnoser'sPersonal Tnsiehts

a) 'Techniquede Mon LangageMusical' (1944) by 0. Messing

Messiaenin this book outlinesthe techniquesthat he had developedand invented.In the chapteron birdsong,his views on the subjectseem to be at an early,undeveloped stage.

He hasalready realized at this point that birds makeextremely interesting rhythmic pedals.

He also saysthat their melodiccontours, especially that of the blackbird, 'surpassthe humanimagination in fantasy'.Messiaen deems it 'ridiculous' to copy the soundsof natureexactly, as the birds useuntempered intervals smaller than the semitone.The composerhas begun to speakof individual species- the blackbird,lark and sparrows.The compositionaldevices used to notatebirdsong are labelledas 'transcription', 'transformation'and 'interpretation'. He cites four omamenW variationsof a themethat he saysare suggestedby the improvisationsof the blackbird.

The free natureof birdsongappealed to Messiaenas he also incorporatedinto his piecesthe rhythmicfreedom and changesof pulsein the 11induand Greek rhythmsand the use of addednote values,e. g. the sen-ýquaver.Ms use of birdsongup to the time of writing this book had beenlimited to LAscension, La NativitJ du Seigneur,

Quatuorpour la Fin du Temps,Visions de IAmen and any work doneon the Vfngt

Regardssur I'Enfant-Jisus so far, but it must be rememberedthat eventhe other works up to this period containedelements of 'style oiseau'.For example,in the first movement 17 of Trois PelilesLiturgies de la PresenceDivine thereis muchheterophonic counterpoint in the accompanimentthat suggeststhe interaction of birdsong.

b),&Jmut R6BIer-- Interviews with the Composers

Almut RoBlerhas collected a great dealof interestingmaterial in her book: like the conversationsvAth ClaudeSamuel, these discussions provide an invaluablesource of knowledgeabout the compositionalprocesses and the generalphilosophy of the working musician.Two examplesof thesediscussionL are as follows:

i) PublicDiscussion with Olivier Messiaenduring the first DiisseldorfMessiaen

Festival in Honour of his 60'hBirthday (L)ecember7.196D

Messiaenadmitted having to go back hometo listento the tape-recordingthat his wife had madein order to transcribethe rest of the birdsongthat he had beenworking on that day. Thereare, accordingto Messiaen,many difficulties to overcomewhen transcribing birdsongin silu:

'To beginwith: onehas to knowwhat it is oneis hearing,and one can only knowthat when the first expeditionof this kind is undertakenaccompanied by a professionalomithologist6. ' 18

He lists the two initial difficulties that one would comeacross:

I therecognition of the individualsinger and the speciesto whichit belongs 2 musicaldictation and the speedof thebird's voice

Other informationgiven hereincludes Messiaen's use of the Wagnerian'leitmotif' in

Rgveil des Oiseaux,and the reductionof long silencesto a few seconds(when depicting a whole day of birdsong).He clearly showsa comparisonbetween the recognitionof the characteristicsof differentpeople with ornithology.That is to say, everyonehas a particularcharacteristic that is individual- the colour of one's hair, eyes,a particularway of spealdngor wallýing.One would recognisea personby any numberof theseintrinsic qualities.Messiaen says that it is this sameperception which enablesone to deterrninethe speciesof bird from its vocalisation.

'For an omithologist it's muchthe same. It's like it is with leitmotives:he recognises eachbird by its style,its themes,its melodic turns of phrase,its specificrhythms7. '

Messiaenstates that the real work beginswhen the songsare to be incorporatedinto the piece.For example,a songthrush's songwRI be written from a conglomerationof differcnt manuscriptsaccumulated by Messiacn,over the years.These manuscripts are put togetherand somephrases are chosento form the song of the songthrushthat typifies its main characteristics.

The reproductionof timbre is a further difficulty. No musicalinstrument can hopeto reproducethe extraordinarynumber of tone-coloursin birdsong: 19

' Oneneeds combinations of instruments,and still morecombinations or complexesof pitches...Each noteof the melodyis furnishedwith a chordwhich is intendedto reproducethe timbreof that noteg.'

Messiaenexplains that he alsouses the leitmotif principle to makesure that the listener recogniseseach bird song or call. For example,he typically usesthe sameinstruments to portray a certainbird sound,and the compositionaldevices may alsobe the sameon each occasion.The goldenoriole may alwaysbe written in octaves,or surroundedby certain soundcomplexes; or the samemusical phrase may simply be repeated.

Messiaenalso addresses with regardto the use of birdsong.There are two basicsystems, according to the composer:

I Deceitful 2 Truthful

The first usesthe bird soundsas raw material- the birdsongis alteredso muchthat the original is unidentifiable.Messiaen relates tlýs to 'musiqueconcrete'. He classesOiseaur

Exotiquesas a piecethat fulfils this criterion, as he hastaken birds from India, China,

North Americaand Malaysiaand put themtogether, although they could not possiblyhave sungwith eachother in the real world. The secondmethod, according to Messiaen,is better, more original and perhaps'more indicativeof the future'. He callsit the 'truthful method' and describesit as one that conformsto reality. As we havenoted earlier,the idea of freedomis an integralpart of Messiaen'sphilosophy: perhaps a sayingof St. John'sin his Gospelsums up this belief - 'the truth will makeyou free' - and perhaps,too, this 20

freedomis apparentin this 'truthful method'. This approachmay be found in Riveil de.5

Oiseazix.

To accompanythe birdsong,Messiaen integrates the soundsof the naturalenvironment.

IEs synaestheticapproach enables him to suggestthe landscapes,fragrances, colours and the passageof time.

' To do any pieceof work is alwaysa manifestation of one's self, but to experiencethe truth is to grow aboveand beyondoneself and to rediscoverone's real self which is abovethe ordinary self. '

ii)AddressDelivered at the Conferringof the PraemiumErasnýanum in

Amsterdam(June 25-1971).

Messiaensays that apart from the criesand caUsof the birds, there are three typesof song:

I The songindicating possession (territorial) 2 The enticingsong (mating song) 3 The breakof day song(dawn chorus) 21

Messiaencites three basic types of caflsalso:

I The matingcall 2 The feedingcall 3 The cry of alarm

Similarly,in the Conferenceof Notre Dame(1977), Messiaensays that eachof his sacred piecesbelongs to one of threetypes:

I Liturgical music 2 Religiousmusic 3 Sound-colour and Dazzlement

Almut R6BIeralso gives useful information about how to perform Messiaen.Like many who havetalked aboutthis topic, sheadvises a playerwhen confrontedwith the complex rhythmsto subdividethe durationsuntil they are learnt; oncethey are learntthey shouldbe fluent and perhapsless strict andmathematical:

' birds in Messiaen's ..the - which words populate the mathematicallyrigid rhythmicstructures which progressin a crab-likeway - demandtheir rights for the feelingof their creator.Often enoughin typical bird-calls- suchas the tappingof the woodpecker- he demandsa broadeningof the countingunit for the benefitof the bird's characterisationlo.' 22 c) Conversationswith Claud Samuel,"

ClaudeSamuel's conversations with the composergive us invaluableprimary sources revealingthe composer'scomments on his compositionaltechniques. Messiaen points out that eachnote of the birdsong(in later works) is accompaniedby an inventedchord:

' Eachnote is providedwith a chord, not a traditionalchord but a complexof sounds destinedto 12 give the timbre of that note .I

Messiaentalks abouthis problemswhen transcribing birdsong into his compositions.

When he wantedto re-createthe intrinsic quality of a certainbird sound,he neededthe exactchordal-complexes to accompanyit.

The composergives some insightful remarksinto his experiencesof eachbird andits song, from a musician'spoint of view. For instance,when listeningto the willow warblerhe noticesthat it,

4...sings an accelerando[Eke the finch] on a roUednote, but insteadof havingthe finch's victorious codetta,it hasone that diesaway, slow and sad...it doesn'tlearn just one codetta, but ceaselesslyinvents new codettas..131 23

This descriptionof the willow warbler is far more revealingto a musicianthan the

descriptionsof eachbird's voice given in anybird dictionary.Messiaen even goes so far as

to claimthat,

'Only a composer could manageto understand it and capture it on paper; in fact, most ornithologi -.ts refrain from describing it and merely say'Txtraordinary song, impossible to describe14%v

Messiaenlater talks aboutthe birds in somedetail. He mentionsthe trips that he hasmade

in order to collect certaintypes of birdsongand he talks aboutthe intrinsic characteristics

of certainfamous birds. When he mentionsthe finch it is almostlike a musicalguide to the

songsof birds as opposedto an ornithologist'sview. In this samesection he mentionsthe

blackbird,the songthrushand the nightingalein as much detail.

Many peoplehave often wonderedwhy Messiaendid not use gramophonerecordings to

help him capturebirdsong. He points out that suchrecordings are incompletesince they

give only a portion of the song,

Just individual's.' as a photograph0 conveys the snapshotof a single 24

However,is not a pieceof musicthat is written down with its exactpitches and notations like a photograph?Messiaen's transcriptions are intended as an interpretation of whatthe bird sings,just as a paintingcaptures the essencerather than the surfaceof its subject:it is more than a merelymechanical reproduction. It is possiblethat Messiaen'sinherent dislike of machineryand lies behindthe statementquoted above.

Messiaenalso gives the readeran aestheticrationale of the CataloguedDiseaux by explainingthat he tried to depict a particularbird, its habitat,and the other birds that are most likely to be singingbefore, with or after it. The modificationsneeded to form this work are touchedupon herein the 'Conversations'.These modifications are essentialto createthe exacttimbral quality of eachbirdsong: this is doneby accompanyingeach note of the bird's songwith a different soundcomplex, thus enhancingits individualtimbre.

Othermodifications include the slowingdown (sometimes by four or five times)of the

songsand the use of gracenotes on the pianoto createa portamentoeffect.

This sourcehelps us to understandthe compositionalprocesses involved in producingthe

kind of exactitudethat Messiaenrequired.

d) 'Trait6 de Rghme. de Couleuret d'Ornithologie' (1999) by 0. Messiaen16

This secondtreatise, a vast project, took Messiaenfrom 1949to the endof his life to

write: the sevenvolumes are in the courseof publication.According to YvonneLoriod, 25

Messiaen'sfaithful assistantand interpreter,each one is over three hundredpages in lengthand some are very substantialindeed". Volume 5, part 1, is of paramount importanceto the researchas it is devotedto the composer'suse of Europeanbirdsong.

However,the other volumesare also significant,especially (for example)the analysesthey containof (volume 3), Livre d'Orgue (volume3) andMeise de la

Petdýcdte(volume 4).

Volume 5, part 1, dividesa selectionof the most commonbirds of Europeinto fourteen

For there is devotedto birdsongsin the contrastina0 environments. example, a section woods, one to 'the oceans'and 'marinecoasts', and anotherto 'the town'. Eachbird is dealt with separately,its habitat,appearance and the songitself being described.

The birds' songsthemselves are presentedin two distinct ways. First, Messiaen'soriginal transcriptionof a son,,g in the wild is quoted,without indicationsof instrumentationor evenbar lines,though these original notationsare not alwaysincluded. Secondly, various extractsof birdsongare takenfrom Messiaen"scompositions. A great deal of varietyis illustratedin the treatmentof birdsong,where birds suchas the nightingaleor blackbird are concerned,as so manycombinations of instrumentsand contrastingmethods of representationare employed.The earliertreatise, 'Technique de mon LangageMusical"

(1944), only toucheson early 'style oiseau',whereas here Messiaen surveys his own

his focusing his techniquesas they evolvedthroughout career, a upon use of particular species.Analyses of the birdsongsin Messiaen'sown compositionsallow him to identify the mainmelodic and rhythmicfeatures of individual songs. 26

Occasionally,the composerincludes onomatopoeic representations in order to indicate particularnuances of timbre and phrasingin a bird's vocalisation.Although Messiaen rarely markshis compositionsin this way, it is neverthelessa usefultool for the performer when attemptingto portray certainphrases of the songthrush and nightingalein RJveil de.v Oiseaux.For example,a featureof the nightingale'ssong, comprising repeated low pitcheseach preceded by a gracenote, andthen concludingwith a flourish, is describedin the treatiseas 'tio, tio, tio, tiotiolaborix'.

Becausebirdsong is by naturerepetitive, Messiaen is compelledto introducenew terminologyto discriminatebetween motivic characteristics.Just as verseis distinguished from proseby its use of rhythmicpatterning, so, in the sameway, there are manypatterns in birdsongcreated by stressor . cites the well-known saying'au commencementdtait le Rythme' in the 'Avant-Propos'to the treatise:certainly, the composer,with his-advancedknowledge of Greekand Hindu rhythmsand of addednote values,is obsessedby .Messiaen here applies prosody to Ids analysesof rhythmic cells,adapted from Dupr6's,investigations".

'Iarnbic feet'19represent twO-note cefls, the first note beingunaccented and the second

known in accented(U -), while,a 'cretic' rhythm is a palindromiccell (- U -), Englishas an

'amphimacer'.Both featuresare found regularlythroughout Messiaen's treatment of birdsong,and are of usewhen analysingparticularly repetitive songsand calls.In the blue rock thrush's song,Messiaen cites the 'dochmiac'rhythm which is an iambiccell followed 27 by a cretic cell (U -/-U -), while the skylark,amongst many other features,employs a ccretic'rhythrn in two descendingleaps (a ninthand a seventh),and many compound intervalsusing repeated iambic cells. Messiaen employs many of theseterms throughout this secondtreatise: Table WI is a compilationof thosecited in TraW.

Plainchantphraseology is also adapted,describing short melodicshapes of birdsong. For example,'climacus resupinus', 'porrectus flexus' and 'torculus resupinus'all derivefrom tenns originallyapplied to plainsong,just as adaptationsof chantingappear in Les Corps

Glorieur. In addition,Messiaen combines these terms when referringto more complex shapesusing combinations of the above,and other melodicshapes with Latin names.This canbe seenat Table 11/2.

It is interesting his being development 0 that ratherthan treatise anargument, tracing the of 'bird style', it is in fact an encyclopaediccoflection of illustrativeportraits on the common birds of Europe,presenting their uniquesongs and cas. This important information providesan essentialguide for the understandingof the individual musicalcharacteristics of eachspecies' songs, both in the wild and in Messiaen'sworks.

2 Trevor Hold and Authenticitv.

In lis article, 'Messiaen'sBirds' (1971)", Trevor Hold enlightenedmany musicologists with his views. The footnotes, too, introduced papers and articles from ornithological and biologicaljournals unknown to manymusicologists. He challengedthe musicologistswho 28 over-estimatedOlivier Messiaen'sskill at notatingthe actualsound of eachbird, and he pointedout the inauthenticityof someof Messiaen'simitations, Trevor Hold, a musicologist,had not only written articlesin musicaljournals but had alsopublished in an ornithologicaljournal 'Ibis'. He relatedMessiaen's transcriptions to thoseof ornithologists.In addition,he criticisedthe rather naivecomments made by musiccritics on the subjectof authenticityand criticisedsome of Messiaen'sclaims. At this point it shouldbe pointedout that althoughat one stageMessiaen claimed that the soundswere extremelytrue to life, he often changedhis mind through the courseof his oeuvreand thereforeit is difficult to classwhat he hassaid at any one momentas the definitivetruth.

Early in his birdsongwriting career,Messiaen said that his songswere authentic,yet later be saysthe opposite.

The Trevor Hold article drew attentionto the manyarticles on bird vocalisationsin omithologicaljoumals suchas 'Ibis', 'Auk', 'Biophon' and 'Wildlife Sound'.The musicians'papers on birdsongseemed to be naYveto the ornithologists,just as the ornithologists'papers on bird vocalisationsappeared naive to the musicians. claims:

'He [Messiaen]is far more conscientiousan ornithologistthan any earliermusician, and far moremusical an observerthan any other ornithologiSt21.I 29

Trevor Hold talks aboutgeneral transcription principles in his article 'The Notation of

Birdsong:A Review Recommendation22 He from and . conflatesviews the two sidesof the academicliterature on the subject,producing a comprehensiveoverview of the many typesof notationalprocesses discovered up to 1970.

In ornithologicalliterature there is muchon the transcriptionof birdsong.First, it is interestingthat Trevor Hold wrote the article 'The Notation of Birdsong' Pis, 112,1970] a year beforethe previouspaper, 'Messiaen's Birds'. The later article, concernedwith the generalnotation of birdsong,was submittedto the ornithologicaljournal 'Ibis'. Thereare three sectionson transcriptiontechniques:

I Syllabicnotation 2 Staff notation 3 Otherforms of subjectivenotation

Hold follows descriptions 'Sound the stringent0 of thesewith somespeculations on the

Spectrograph'.The descriptionsof the staff notations,however, begin with extractsby

Oswald von Wolkenstein (1377-1445), Kircher (1650), through to Matthews (1904) and the highly sophisticatednotations of Sz6ke(1969). Hold then discussesthe attemptsmade to evolvea new notationfor birdsong,citing Stadlerand Schmitt(1914) as the pioneersof theseprocesses, or at leastthe first to attemptto makea convincingcase for their discoveries. 30

M. E.W. North's article, 'TranscribingBirdsong"3 (Ibis, 1950) is important in that it lists theproblems of notatingbirdsong in the field andbacks up Messiaen'spoints of view about representingthe uniquetimbres of birdsong.The technicalsuggestions made are in somecases simple even for the averagemusician, but there is someadvice given that is relevantand useful for the more proficient.North employsa vowel systemthat is similar to that of the 'Handbook' (1938 1,17ý 4.The vowel-scaleshows a gradationfrom the highest-soundingto the lowest-soundingvowels, and displaysan indicationof the comparativetimbres of the soundstranscribed. North suggestsevoking the quality of each

soundby usingrather rudimentary descriptive techniques. These would include,for

example,blowing into cuppedhands to createthe timbre of the tawny owl. This is a

techniquethat Messiaenoften usedin describingmuch of his music.North givesa

summaryof thefield methodsneeded to form anaccurate transcription, and he lists twelve

points to bearin mind. Examplesinclude: imitating the birdsongby whistling or singing,

estimatingthe octaveand describingthe soundquality. He givesuseful adviceon

problemsthat might be encounteredin the field, includingthe distanceof the bird from the

hearer.Distance, he says,affects the quality of the timbre, and someof the notesmay

becomeinaudible to the humanear.

Thesearticles are very important,not only to the ornithologistwishing to write down the

sonasof birds,but alsofor the musicianwishing to researchthe authenticityof Messiaen's

transcriptionsand the final resultsin his music. 31

3 Previous Research

a) Robert SherlawJohnson.

Johnsonhas done a great dealof groundwork on bird style,techniques and group-forms.

He'4asalso compiled an appendixwhich lists eachspecies of bird andthe works in which they appear.In his book, 'Messiaen23(1975/89), he writes abouttwo early pieces,Rived des Oiseaux(1953) and OiseaurExoliques(1956), while anotherchapter is devotedto

Catalogued'Oiseaux (1956-58). A smallsection of approximatelytwo pagesdeals with the developmentof birdsongin his music.The ideassuggested here became the basisin the presentresearch for a more comprehensivetaxonomy of the way Messiaen'streatment of birdsongtranscriptions developed. Johnson also listed (as an appendix) all thebirds that had beenused in thepieces,and indicatedwhich pieceseach one appearedin. This informationhas been an extremelyhelpful tool for researchand groundwork. However, he omits (quite naturally)the birdsongthat hasnot beenspecified by Messiaenin the

score.For example,the birds usedin the first movementof the Quatuorpour la Fin du

Tempsare, quite obviously,the nightingaleand the blackbird,but as they are not written into the scoreand might theoreticallybe anotherbird entirely,they are not includedin this table for reference.

Johnsongives the readeroutlines of theformal structuresemployed by the composerin

Rdveil des Oiseauxand OiseaurExotiques. In NMI des Oiseauxhe seesthe form as binary:typically, he seesa relativelysimple form in what is otherwisea complexwork. 32

The orchestralpassages that precedethese sections also havean identicalstructure, accordingto Johnson.These findings are represented in graphicalform, vAth diagrams which give a strict overview of the layout of the piece.He usesgraphical means to show how Hindu and Greekrhythms and their assignedinstruments are deployedin Oi.veaux

Exotiques.These graphs demonstrate instantly the processesof the composer.

In the chapterentitled Catalogue d'Oiseaux Johnson creates a classificationscheme of four groupsof bird vocalisations,as summarisedbelow.

I Brief andlonger varied callsby birds which otherwisedo not sing;homophonic and dissonant 2 Short repetitivesong-patterns with slight variations 3 Varied songpatterns, declamatory and often tonal 4 Rapid 'chattering' songs,continuous or broken up by rests

He then goeson to list eachbird that appearsin the CataloguedDiseaux and assigns

them to their group.

He alsoclassifies the non-birdsongmaterial used in Caialogued'oiseaUX26. The

summationof this may be drawn into five groupsas Mows:

I Mode:twelve-tone. Rhythm: a) Greekor Sharngadeva b) permutationseries c) free 2 Modeof pitches,durations and intensities 3 Modesof limitedtransposition 4 Turangalilamotives 5 Colour-chords(other than the onesin groupsI andIII) 33

Johnsonalso displays a seriesof diagramsapplying his 'group' structuretheories to the

CataloguedDiseaux. He includesinformation on texture, tonality, timbre, frequency, rhythms,intensity and the relationshipof eachbird to its group, and a seconddiagram that showsthe formal structureof eachpiece in correspondencewith eachbird, animaland its naturalhabitat.

Messiaen'slove of naturein generalis exhaustivelydiscussed by Johnson.Aspects of nature,such as waves,cliffs and sea,feature in someof the bird pieces.Like Debussy,he had a specialregard for the sea:Debussy wrote Ta Mer', while Messiaen(for example) representedthe blue sea,its wavesand the generallapping of water in Te Merle Bleu'

(Catalogued'Oiseaux). In CataloguedDiseaux, for instance,Messiaen creates a portrait of a singlebird. in eachpiece: he attemptsto find musicalmeans to depict the soundsand coloursof nature(sunrise, sunset and the soundof the sea),in order to suggestthe particularenvirorunent surrounding each bird. Johnsonalso proposes,like others,that

Messiaen'sdisillusioned or evenmisanthropic temperament may accountfor his preferencefor natureto the soundsof carsand the city.

' it is in a spirit of no confidencein myself,or I meanin the humanrace, that I havetaken bird-songsas modeF.'

Messiaensays it is in the hoursof gloom that he seeksrefuge in the birds: perhapshe is like the psaMst who declares, 34

'in the shadowof your wings will I take refuge/ until thesetroubles are past.' [Psalm57, v.2].

Johnson'smonograph is an authoritativeand comprehensive source of informationfor the study of all of Messiaen'smusic. His studiesin birdsongare particularlypertinent: the editor of the 'MessiaenCompanion', Peter Ifill, askedfor the chapteron this subjectto be written by lim.

b) NormanDemuth.

Demuth,in his article 'Messiaen'sEarly Birdsv 28(1960) discussesthe earlytranscriptions of birdsongup to Rgveil des Oiseaux(1953). He talks aboutthe episodicnature of

Messiaen'sform as opposedto the symphonicstyle of manypast composers.Demuth points out, quite naturally,that evenbirds haveto take a breath,and that Messiaenwrites in 'block-form' almostexclusively. The use of separatebirdsongs consecutively, as opposedto the superimpositionof one upon another,creates an effect of separationrather than continuity.In works that do not includebirdsong, Messiaen was writing materialthat was very episodicin nature,especially in the Turwigaffla Sjmphony.Pierre Boulez has mentionedthat it is a Frenchtrait to write in 'block form' and that Messiaen'smusic was only in keepingwith this29.It seemslucky that Messiaendiscovered the songsof birds, as they createda nucleusof musicalresources akin to his inherenttechnical style, for usein works after the period of 1941. 35

Musical notationhad developeddramatically since the beginningof the twentiethcentury: the needto signify complexrhythms, and constantchanges of metrebecame commonplace.Messiaen was thus ableto hearand representbirdsong with twentieth century'ears', usingthe newly availabletechniques to createbirdsong vocalisations with greaterprecision and subtlety.It was inevitablethat the composer'sown musical preferencesproduced 'subjective' notationsof birdsong:compositional procedures necessarilyplayed a part in the transcribingprocess. For example,throughout Messiaen's careerthere are manyinstances where phrases expand or contract,giving the musican improvisatoryquality. The 'motivic island' cfFect,as Paul Griffiths calls it, is producedby the expansionor contractionof phrasesand interweaving of motivic cells.It was the evolvingmusical climate that gaveMessiaen the tools to simulateinnovative birdsong.

Trevor Hold hasdrawn attentionto the prominentpart playedby the pianoin Messiaen's music,and to the fact that this imposeslimitations on the use of glissandi,which are sucha strongfeature of birdsong.Certainly, Demuth has likened the TurangafflaSymphony to a

GrandPiano , derived from the concertanteprinciple. Perhaps Messiaen was greatly influencedby Skriabin,not only by his sensitivityto synaesthesiaand the importancethey both attachedto tone and colour relationships,but alsoby his use of the pianoin 'Prom6th6e(Le Po6medu Feu). Demuthalso suggeststhat bird music

(incorporatedmerely as fragmentsby Wagner,Beethoven, Roussel and others)was effectivelyoriginated by Messiaen,who eventuallyused birdsong exclusively in many pieces. 36

It is not correctfor NormanDemuth to saythat, 'Messiaenhas now completedwhat is virtually a collectionof everykind of bird music3o." Of course,at the time that this article was written he had collectedmany different kinds of birdsong,but he found manymore from all over the world after this date.He also concludesthe paperwith the comment,

'I do not envisage,however, anything novel in the way of harmonyarising from it, sinceits texture too 31 natureand are mobile .i

Messiaenhimself complained that one of his pupils, GeorgeBenjamin, wrote the piece'At

First Light' with little use of harmony.Benjamin had to explainthat the piecewas saturatedwith harmony,but that the harmonywas 'lost insidethe form, insidethe argumentand texture of the music'. It must be clarified that perhapsDemuth views harmonyin a more traditionalway thanthe older Messiaenand the young George

Benjamin32. Certainly the birdsong was later accompaniedby quite exploratory harmonies.

c)Paul Griffiths

Paul Griffiths.,in 'Olivier Messiaen the Music Time933 difficulty in and of , spokeof the finkincyvarious birdsongs together in a work. The most significantpoint is that there must be a consistencyin the treatmentof variation;however, there is an ever increasingsubtlety of transcriptionsand colourationthat accentuatethe intrinsic timbral quality of eachbird. 37

He mentionsthat the different interpretationsof the chaffinch'ssong, for instance,may

eitherbe anattempt to showtwo differentchaffinches - the samebird at a differenttime of

day - or it may simplymark the stagesin Messiaen'stranscriptions of the ideal way to

notatesuch a birdsong.Messiaen seems to havedeveloped his techniqueafter eachpiece.

In the earlyworks, 'style oiseau"was infusedpredominantly with the use of the ubiquitous . secondmode of limited transposition.The tritone, the fourth, and trills are fairly frequent:

manyornithologists comment on the trills beinga significantmotive in manybirdsongs,

and alsoin territorial/matingcalls. Trills, fourths and also appearlater in a quite

sophisticateduse of birdsong.Paul Griffiths, however,shows musical examples of someof *

the birds in Rdveildes Oiseauxbeing portrayed musically using the intervalsof the fourth

andthe fifth, plus a tritone particularly.The little owl, robin, whitethroat and the song

thrushare examples.These motivic cells are a dominantfeature of early material.Griffiths

postulatesthat a substantialproportion of early transcriptionsis influencedby the

composer'spreoccupation with theseintervallic relationships. Moreover, Paul Griffiths

saysthat NMI des Oiseaur, OiseauxExotiques and Catalogued'Oiseaux aUsuited the

presentstate of the composer'smusical style. Like Johnson,Paul Griffiths also

demonstratesa formal structurein Riveil desOise= and OiseauxF-roliques, but he does

it, without diagrammaticalmeans.

displays Jannequin, Paul Griffiths musicalexamples of the nightingale'ssong, starting0 with

Couperinand Beethoven, and concludingwith Stravinskyand Messiaen.He finds that,

evenallowing for variationin the song of the nightingaleamongst individuals, Messiaen 38 hasfar more sophisticationthan his precedingrivals lex 11/3].Notice, however,that both

Beethovenand Messiaen include falling secondsas a prominentfeature; six serniquavers with Beethovenand the samewith Messiaen,but up a sernitoneand with the additionof gracenotes. Griffiths tracesa developmentin the complexityand sophisticationof the chaffinch'ssong, showing examples from Vingi Regardssur IDifant Jýsus,Nved des oiseaux, Catalogued'Oiseaux and finally Miditatiom swr le MystJre de la Sainte TrinjtJ.

Theseexamples are usefulstarting points for the understandingof the developmentof

Messiaen'stechniques in portrayingbirdsong.

d) David Morris

David Morris's 'A ComparativeBibliography' lists almostall of the books on Messiaen, articles,the composer'sown publications,dissertations, recordings and other information in a systematicformat. In addition,Morris's article analysing'AbIme desOiseaux', from the Quatuorpour la Fin du Temps,uses a serrýoticapproach. The segmentationsreveal manysymmetries in the music,enabling the readerto find recurring patternsof intervallic and rhythmiccefls. Further, poietic evidenceis takenfrom the 'Techniquede mon

LangageMusical', in order to form - as far as possible- hierarchiesin a 'neutral' analysis.

For example,he dividesthe movementinto separateparts. Part I is given a pitch count where only eight pitch classesare used. Morris arrangesthis eight-notemode into four pairs, eachforrning a tritone: E/Bb, Ab/D, G/Db andF/B. Using poietic evidenceto supporthis researchfindings, he citesMessiaen's first treatise,'Technique', and lists three 39 intervallicpreoccupations of the composer.The first is the tritone, found throughout

Messiaen'smusic. The second is a descendingmajor sixth, and the third is a 'chromatic formula' which involvesthe rearrangementof three semitones.Morris alsopoints out two predominantmelodic shapes: versions of the Boris Godunovtheme and 'distortions' of a segmentof 'Solveig's Song' from Grieg's ''.

Morris statesthat althoughthe mainbirdsong works datefrom the 1950'sand the more sophisticatedportrayals appear in theselater compositions,many rhythmic and melodic featuresof 'style oiseau"appear in earlierpieces, including the 'Ablimedes Oiseaux'.

Later, the specificnames of the speciesare includedin the score;however, Morris cites certainmotivic characteristics in a chart,linking bars from Titurgie de Crystal'and

'AbIme,des Oiseaux" (movements I and IH fromthe Q-Uarlel)to the specifiedbirdsong in the Catalogued'Oiseaux (1956-58).Monis deducesthat,

'severalbirds are presentin "AbIme", but... at this point in Messiaen'soutput [ 1940-1] they are unspecifiedor the transcriptionsinsufficiently accuratefor identificationpurposes. '-14

Similarpoietic evidenceis given to Messiaen'sfrequent employment of 11indurhythms, varioustransmutations of rhythmicceUs - diminution,augmentation (especiay progressiveaugmentation) - andthe use of addednote values. 40

This researchis particularlyimportant: as the title suggests,it is an investigationof various

serniotichierarchies. Segmentations are employedin order to produce,with referenceto

the 'Technique',a 'neutral' analysis,while revealingmany motivic patterns.

e)Tenneguyde Qu6netain

Tenneguyde Qudnetainin his article 'Poet of Nature'" advisesus that Messiaenis

continuingthe work startedby Debussy.When talking aboutMessiaen's compositional languagehe saysthat,

'.. [it is] essentiallya languageof modality; in other words, it. makes free use not only of the classic but modes - ma or and minor - also of the ecclesiasticalmodes of the middle ages, of exotic modes and indeed, of modes of the composer's own invention. In all this, Messiaen is continuing the work of DebuSSY'-36.

Tenneguyde Qu6netainalso notices that in Messiaen'smusic each bird hasits own mode.

It becameessential in pursuingthe currentresearch to find basicsimilarities in the songof eachbird ratherthan to analyseeach song with pitch-settheory. De Qudnetainalso points out that with Debussyand Stravinskythe revolt from the classicalidiom had begun:

'with Debussy,the revolt is gentle:he frees the beatcompletely from time to time... continuallyvaries the tempi and multiplies the pauses.Stravinsky's revolt is aggressive: he shiftsthe stressesas he wishesinstead of leavingthem at the sameplace in eachba? " 41

Messiaen,according to Tenneguyde Quenetain, began a revolutionthat wasmore methodical:as followersmight say,he beganto capturethe rhythmic consciousnessby the systematicreconnoitring of the rhythmicpossibilities 'not only of the musicalworld, but in the.universe itsele'. ' Moreover,Messiaen sees a rhythmicsymmetry of 'rhythmic canons' and 'non-reversiblerhythms' reflected in nature.

'An butterflies,in leaves,in branches fir 39 thevAngs of theveins of the of a tree .9

f)David Dre

David Drew's 'ProvisionalStudies 40 are essentialreading for all musicologistswho have an interestin any aspectsof the musicof Messiaen.

This is a good basisfor an immediateunderstanding of the basicprinciples of Messiaen's music;however, the group of articleswas written in 1954/5and can only talk aboutworks up to that period, and as a resultthe opinionsinevitably seem dated. He points out that there are certainprinciples of structurethat appealto Messiaen,governing the rise and fall of pitch, andthe line of a complexbirdsong, both of which admit a highly chromatic stylisationand rhythmicfreedom.

'The style oisema, like the stylehindoue, satisfies Messiaen'sdesire for the orn=ental, and at the same time allows him to avoid any harmonicimplications, if he so wishee'.' 42

He also statesthat Messiaen'slanguage is suchthat counterpointcannot function in the traditional way, althoughMessiaen in the Trois PefilesLiturgies de la Priseme Diviiie combinedbirdsong with counterpoint,as he did in Meive de la Pentecdle.This important group of articlesby David Drew is usefulmore for the generalunderstanding of

Messiaen"scompositional techniques than, specifically,his useof birdsong.

It is importantfirst to surveythe issuesrelated to birdsongand incorporatethese findings into a critical taxonomy.It was found that little researchhad beenpublished on the subject of how Messiaendeveloped his use of birdsong.Phrases in early compositionsare normallylabelled simply 'oiseau', and so the analysisof eachcommon bird andits developmentin transcriptionwill be presentedafter the earlyresearch. A further task will be to look at Messiaen'smethodology in his use of birdsong,and the early pieces incorporatingthe transpositionand transmutationtechniques. 43

Notes to Chapter11 PeterHill (editor), Messigen-Companion,(London, Faber,1995). 2 ClaudeSamuel, Olivier Messiaen:Music and-Color:Conversations with ClaudeSamuell, By E. ThomasGlasow (Portland,Oregon, Amadeus Press, 1986). trans. , 3 Robert SherlawJohnson, Y-ýnajije-n, (Lond6n, Dent, 1976,revised 1989) pp 116-15 8. " Paul Griffiths, Olivier Messiaenand the Music of Time.. (London/Boston,Faber and Faber,1985) pp 166-189. 5 Almut Mler, Contributionsto the SpiritualWorld of Olivier Messiaen,(Duisburg, Gilles und Francke,1986). ' Almut R68ler, op. cit., p3 1. 7 Ibid., p31. 8 Ibid., p32. 9 Ibid., p35. 10Ibid., p 149. ClaudeSamuel, op. cit., pp85-97. 12Claude Samuel, op. cit., p94-95. " ClaudeSamuel, op. cit., p87. 14Claude Samuel, op. cit., p89. " ClaudeSamuel, op. cit., p89. 16Olivier Messiaen,Trait6 de Rýjhme.de Couleur.et d'Ornýithologie.vol-5-pt. 1- Chantsd'Oiseaux d'Europe, (1999). 17See Peter Hill's Conversation YvonneLoriod in MessiaenCompanjo with the , op. cit., p285. " Marcel Dupr&,'Traitd d'Improvisation', takenfrom vol.2 of Cours Complet d'Improvisationd'Orizue (Paris,Leduc, 1926). "' Note that a '' rhytlun is the opposite(- U). 2' Trevor Hold, 'Messiaen'sBirds' from Music andLetters, Vol. 52, no. ii, (April 1971), pp 113-122. " Paul Griffiths, op. cit., p 168. 22TrevorHold, 'The Notation of Bird Sona:a Reviewand Recommendation'-Tb)Lis 112, (1970) pp151-172. ' M. E. W. North, 'TranscribingBird Song' from Ibis, 92, (1950) pp99-114. 24c Handbook. ' Witherby et aL The Handbookof British Birds. (London, 1938). 25Johnson,op. cit. pp116-127 and pp128-15 8 (Catalogued'Oiseaux). 26Johnson, op. cit., p136-137. 27Messiaen in Antoine Gol6a'sbook, Recontresavec Olivier Messiaen,(Paris, Julliard, 1960). 28Norman Demuth, 'Messiaen'sEarly Birds' from Musical Times,ci, (1960), pp627-9. 290ther clear examplesof thýisform canbe seenin Stravinsky's' of Wind Instruments'and in Debussy's'Jeux'. 30Demuth, op. cit., p627. " Demuth,op. cit., p629. 32Messiaen Companio op. cit. p271. 44

Paul Griffiths, op. cit., pp 166-189. David Morris, 'A SemioticInvestigation of Messiaen's"Abime desOiseaux"', ,vol 8, (1989), p 142. " Tanneguyde Qu6netain,'Messiaen: Poet of Nature' from Music and Musicians,xi/9, (May 1963)pp 8-12. " Quinetain,op. cit., p 11. However, it is importantto n,ote that ecclesiasticalmodes are not useduntil the organwork, Midilations mir le Myslýre de la Sainte TrinW (1969). Qu6netain,op. cit., p 11. Qu6netain,op. cit., pl 1. Qu6netain,op. cit. p 11. David Drew, 'Messiaen- A ProvisionalStudy', The Scor 10,13and 14 (1954-5). 4' David Drew, 'ProvisionalStudy I', The Scor 10, (1954), 44. , no. p. 45

Chapter TIT: Nf usical Lan2uas!e or Messinen

The characterof Messiaen'smusic was clearlyinfluenced by his personalinclinations.

Messiaen,being deeply religious, chose many subjects which had their roots in Christian- specifically,Roman Catholic - theology.FEs love of natureis reflectedin his sophisticated useof birdsong,and the depictionin musicof the landscapesthat surroundedthese songsters.The religiousside of the composerwas susceptibleto plainsong,sacred texts, intensecolours (especially those found in stained-glasswindows) and the soundof the organ.However, these aspects cannot be consideredin isolation:they mergeto form his characteristicstyle. Messiaen was highly receptiveto manystyles of classicalmusic. His rhythmswere takenfrom Greekand I-finduclassical music, Stravinsky and Debussy,the harmoniesfrom Debussy,Mussorgsky, Dupr6, Stravinsky,Wagner and Ravel.Just as his compositionalstyle evolvedfrom cosmopolitansources of inspiration,so his useof birdsong,too, camefrom visits to manycountries around the world.

With the traditionaltraining that Messiaenreceived at the Conservatoire,he discovered specialformulae of composition,the conglomerationof which formed his uniquestyle.

Messiaenpreferred a compositionalform that was a reactionto the nineteenthcentury symphonictradition andmore in keepingwith the musicallanguage of Debussy'-a trend of musicalform that had evolvedfrom a strongFrench ancestry. The harmonicsystem is rather staticin nature,and thereis no 'dynamic' formal structure.Flis referenceto a 46

'pedal-group',for instance,is a modemform of ostinato,and his 'omamental-group'

refersto a cadenza.

In 1944Messiaen published the treatisein two parts entitled 'Techniquede mon Langage

Musical22 This technicalbooks illustrates from . pair of the musicalsources which Messiaenhad taken his influences,and explainsthe techniquesthat he had usedin someof

his earliercompositions. The entirechapter focuses on this source.The follovAngheadings

showa briefoutline of the fundamentaltheories of Messiaenat this time,while referring to

their inherentconnection with a later, more maturecompositional style, especially with

regardto birdsong.

Harmonv

Messiaenbegins to addressthis enormoustopic with a chapterin the 'Techniquede mon

LangageMusical', entitled 'Harmony,Debussy, Added Notes'. The title obviously

indicatesthe importancewhich is givento Debussy.It is important to rememberthat

Messiaengenerally used harmony for decorationrather than for functionalreasons: a

dominantchord, for example,would be incorporatedinto a piece,but a chromaticnote

might be addedto this chord for variety. Modal harmonies,too, might often be combined

with chromaticism.One of the principlesthat Messiaenadvises is the notion of the 'added

note', andMessiaen introduces chords that includethese 'added notes'. In the examples

he quotes,he is candidabout the sourcesof his musicallanguage. He seemscompelled to , justify his musicby clearlyshowing a 'natural' progressionfrom pastcomposers - just as 47

Schoenberg'satonality and serialismwere shownto be a developmentfrom the harmonic fluctuationof Wagner'sstyle. Debussy'suse of non-resolvingappoggiaturas and passing notes- whichdo not resolve- is sufficientjustification for Messiaento includethese notes in a chordin theirown right.Not only do the addednotes fforeign') havethe same sonorityas the aforementionedappoggiaturas, but they are also notesthat are presentin the 'perfect chord' lex IH/1]. The chord of the addedsixth is the first of which he speaks: this chordis a commonfeature of the composer'searly works,' yet morejustification is neededfor othertechniques. The overtone series is usedto validatea modaland harmonic language.Messiaen states,

'In the resonanceof a low C, a very acuteear hearsan F sharp[the eleventhharinonic]... Thereforewe arejustified in treatingthis F sharp as an addednote in the perfectchord, already providedwith an addedsixO. "

The added60', 9" and I I" are alsoincluded in this formula.Messiaen shows that the gnormalresolution' from the F# (the augmentedfourth) shouldbe a C. This chord andits ubiquitousmelodic resolution is an unmistakablycharacteristic feature of the early compositions.In traditional musicthe resolutionof chromaticnotes would be found in a downwardsmotion - to its neighbournote. Messiaen feels that he needsto justify this too, showingan examplefrom the '' themeby Mussorgsky.I-Es argument that

for the F# is C is dissonant is the appropriateresolution the rather strange,0 as the note not only an augmentedfourth, but it hasno senseof movement.However, the chord does resolve,vAth the C beingthe root of the dorainant9hchord. The dissonantor addednotes 48 appearwithout preparationor a traditionalresolution, and without a particularexpressive accent:the notesare used specifically for colourationand harmonic interest.

Messiaen'suse of invented,contrived and special chords is notable.The chord on the don-ýinantcan be displayedin severalways: a chord which containsall the notesof the major scale(with the dominantas a bassnote and an invertedposition of the other six notes),a supposedresolution, the addednotes as appoggiaturas,an array of inversionwith chordalcomplexes in closeposition in the left hand(the stained-glass window effect), a chordwith the appoggiaturasas addednotes, and the chord which canbe ornamented with addednotes. The chord of the dominantcan be resolvedin thenonnal way, or appoggiaturasare addedto form a complexdissonance [ex IWIJ.

The'chord of resonance'is citedwithall thepossible notes that canbe heardby what

Messiaendescribes as 'an extremelyfine ear'[ex III/11. Messiaenalso displaysan interest in a chordthat is built up from perfectand augmentedfourths ratherthan superposed thirds. Messiaen'schord in fourthsuses all the notesfrom the fifth modeof limited transposition,alternating perfect and augmentedfourths abovea givenbass note: often, the chordsand the modehave a melodicformula which involvesthe interval of the tritone

[ei IR/2].

Resonanceis subdividedinto two categories.The first, 'superior', involvesgenerally a quiet chord/notewhich is playedabove a more fundamentalchord/note. The second,

'inferior', is predominantlybuilt up from loud chordswhich includesofter colours above. 49

More regularly,this resonanceis achievedby a chord or note playedloudly in the bass amongstother musical material. In earlycompositions, Messiaen included actual transcriptionsof birdsonginto his compositions,and manytimbral complexitiesthat are commonlyfound in birdsongare used. In laterworks, Messiacn saturated his music with both high and low registerresonances, and accompaniedthese sonorities with colourful birds.ong. The 'resonancechords, as one would expectfrom Wsgeneral harmonic approach,are usedas a timbral devicerather than for purely structuralpurposes. The

Catalogued'Oiseaux incorporates many 'inferior' and 'superior' resonanceeffects; in addition,chords are often left heldwhile new birdsongtextures begin. These effects define the later 'hybrid' texture wherean 'inferior' or 'superior' resonanceprecedes or follows a phraseof birdsong.

Often, chordsare arrangedin closeposition, and someinclude dissonant added notes. The

'stained-glasswindow' effect is perhapscreated by the colour that the chord has produced.The absenceof certainpitches (out of the total of twelve sernitonesin an octave)often producesthese intense colours. Messiaen quotes an extract from the

Quatuorpour la Fin du Tempslex IH/3] describingthe progressionas a cascadeof blue- orangechords. He would also,quite regularlyin earlyworks, combinedissonant colour- chordswith diatonicones. An exampleof this is found in Te Baiserde I'Enfant-Jdsus' from Vingi Regardssur I'Enfwit-Jemis.

Messiaencontinues to developnew approachesto harmonythroughout his career.A continuumof inventedcolour-chords is found in the pianopart as early as the first so movementof the quartet(1944) - later, as the composerbecomes increasingly preoccupiedwith recreatingthe timbre of birdsong,invented chords are attached to many pitches,simulating their unique timbral qualities in the %ild.Invented chords, harmonic inflectionsand colour becomesynonymous:

'Messiaentranslates colours into harmonies, for thosewho haveears to see'$.

The Modes of Limited Transposition

Messiaen'smodes divide the octaveinto betweentwo and six points of symmetry.The modesform a nucleusfor Messiaen'searly melodicand harmoniccompositional constructions.The points of symmetrylimit the numberof transpositionsthat can be made and arebased on the equal-temperedchromatic scale. The points of symmetryare subdividedinto the samerelationship of tonesand sernitones,the only exceptionbeing mode I (the whole-tonescale) which dividesthe octaveinto six equaldivisions. Messiaen rarely usesthis mode:as with Debussy,it is incorporatedonly when concealedamongst other textures.He also combinesthis modewith others [ex IH/4]. Consequentlythe identity of mode I is changedquite dramatically.The pedalpart in 'Les Eaux de la Grice' from Messiaen'sLes Corps Glorieur involvesthe continualuse of the .

The harmonythat mode I implieslacks a certaintension that the composerrequires: the tritone is the only featurethat hasany inherentimportance, 51

Mode 2 is usedmore regularlyin Messiaen'scompositions. Certain harmonies, melodies

andcadential formulas are often associated vvith this mode. The unit is of threenotes which involvesthe intervallic successionsernitone/tone. The cadentialfonnula (associated vviththe first sceneof 'Boris Godunov') clearlyhas a markedsignificance for the composeras he often, in early works, usedthis modeincorporating the samemelodic intervallicrelationships [ex HI/51. Messiaen'sinterest in mode2 is due to its harmonic implications.The modeitself doesnot refer to a particulartonality; however,it caneasily be usedin relationto one tonal centre,and moveinto anotherwithout an alarming modulation.The modesin general,as Messiaenpoints out, 'exist in an atmosphereof severaltonalities at once,without - the composerbeing at liberty eitherto give predominanceto one tonality, or to leavethe tonal feelingfluid. ' The modescreate

(andallow) a varietyof chromaticchords that are related to a tonalcentre. Thus,

Messiaenis ableto juxtaposechords that haveno diatonicrelationship with eachother, with the resultthat a formal structureis producedwhich is coherentwithout the useof traditionalharmonic implications.

Modes4,5 pd 6 areused less frequently than the othersas they do not haveso many chromaticpossibilities. Messiaen cites eachof thesemodes, pointing out their

distinguishablecharacteristics in someof his earlyworks. They are truncatedin form as all

of their notesare presentin sometransposition of mode7. Mode 3 is a modeof strictly

limited transposition,like modesI and 2. 52

Messiaenjuxtaposes complex dissonances with consonanttonal harmonies:in the composer'smind, this combinationconjures up thecolour associations which were very importantto him. For Messiaen,Mode 2 suggestsshades of purple,blue and violet, whilst mode3 displaysreddish orange, green with spotsof gold, and milky-white with iris reflectionslike opal. Colour remainsan importantaspect of Messiaen'smusic: in Couleurs de la CW Oldie the colours are namedin the score,in relationto specificchordal complexes.'

Occasionally,in the later 'birdsong' works, modesof firrited transpositionare employedin chordsin order to depictthe bird's plumage.In Te Merle de Roche' (Catalogue dDiseaza), the principalbird's songis 'bright orangelike its plumage'7.The term 'mode' is laterextended generically to encompassmany other features of Messiaen's compositions:

'[Messiaen"s is language work] ... essentiallya of modality; in other words, it makesfree usenot only of the classic modes- major and minor - but also of the ecclesiastical modesof the middleages, of exotic modesand indeed,of modesof the composer'sown invention!'.

It maybe saidthat eachbird's songhas its own 'mode'.

Melody

Messiaen'smelodic style is closelyrelated to his use of harmony.The melodicshapes of manyof the phrases,in early works, seemto be derivedfrom past composers,folksong, 53

Indianjatis and- later - birdsong.As we haveseen in the Boris Godunovtheme, the resolutionof theF# is C, vviththe descendingaugmented fourth (tritone) becoming a prominentfeature. The composer'suse of the major 6" in his 'perfect chord', and the use of this intervalin manymelodic lines by Mozart promptsthe composerto employthis interval regularly.Once again, the openingof Mussorgsky's'Boris Godunov' is cited, transposed,but nonethelesscopied, apart from the first intervalwhich is augmentedby a semitonelei 111/61.Messiaen also mentions three-note chromatic cells (which he associatedwith Bartok) that spana major 2'J, two consecutivepitches, or a descending whole tone followed by an ascendingsernitc-ne as well as the inversionof this second figure. This systemis really a form of imitation: the three-notecells are subjectedto variousmanipulations but are essentiallyswapped around. It is interestingto note that by changingthe pulse or metre,this effectis producedin manyworks without strictly adheringto thesetechniques, but only usingan ostinatopassage with a changeof pulse.

Stravinskyprovides several examples of this technique,two of which are given here: [ex

111/7a, b). AlthoughMessiaen employs the melodicprinciples of previouscomposers, not only doeshe completelytransform the natureof the melodiesby usinghis own style,but in the sameway he is also ableto changedramatically the natureof the melodicpatterns of birdsongsafter transcribingthem.

The Indianjatis are usedas a basisfor melodicmaterial by Messiaen.Many of the rules andtraditions of the Ragastyle clearlyinfluenced some of the composer'smelodic structures:the repeatednotes at the endof a phraseare a conunonfeature, and Messiaen usesthis ideain pieceslike VAnge aux Parfurns'(exI 13 in 'Technique'),'Amen des 54

Anges, des Saints, du Chant des Oiseaux' (ex 146, ex 142 in 'Technique'), Troi.v Petites

LiturgiesdelaPr6semeDiviize(movl and ex 168 in 'Technique').Of course,the added

note value,too, is a primaryfeature taken from this source.

The principlesof manyplainchant phrases are taken and usedby, Messiaen in diverseways.

The contoursof plainsongphrases often foreshadowthe oneswritten by Messiaen.Most plainsongphrases end on the 'final' (the I' note of the fnode): ex170 in the 'Techniquede mon LangageMusical' is an exarnpleof this idea taken from SalveRegina [ex HI/8].

Someof the phrasesthat Messiaenuses follow contourssimilar to thoseof plainchant,but he transformsthem by his melodicstyle. Even if the melodieswere difficult to understand, at the time of composition,the chromaticand addednotes were often resolvedto a note that wasdiatonic, maldng it morecoherent to the listeners'ear. Plainchant is usedboth in original andmodified forms throughoutthe Miditationssur IeMywre de la Saime

TrilliM (1969).Interestingly, plainchant tenninology serves as a fonn of analysis,used by the composerand during this thesis:the basicshape of manymelodic cells in birdsongcan be categorisedby plainchanttem-dnology.

Rhvthm

Messiaensaid to ClaudeSamuel that he is an omithologist and a rhythmician.The aforementioneddisciplines work in conjunctionwith eachother, however,these seem to be the most importanttraits of the composer 55

'I feelthat rhythm is the primordialand perhaps essential, part of music;I think it mostlikely existedbefore melody and harmony, and in fact I havea secretpreference for thiselement. I cherishthis preference all the morebecause I feelit distinguishedmy entryinto contemporarymusic?. '

David Drew points out that the more attenuatedthe hold on tonality becomes,the more needthere is for a force to propel the musicforward: this needis indeedsatisfied by the useof rhythm.

Messiaen'sinterest in rhythm datesback to his daysat the Conservatoire.It was herethat the'youngcomposer discovered the Greekrhythms and the 120 deei-tilas (Hindu), describedby thethirteenth century theorist, Sharngadeva. Messiaen mentions these influencesalong with thoseof Stravinsky.The commonfactor betweenthe rhythmsof

Stravinskyand Indianrhythm is that they are ametrical.Ametricality is a particularfocal point for Messiaen'srhythms. Messiaen cites the rhythmsof prime numbers(five, seven, eleven,thirteen etc. ) in which the notionsof measureand beatare thereforereplaced by the short values(the semiquaverpredominantly). The Simhavikriditarhythm showsthe techniqueof rhythmicdiminution and augmentation.The barsshown as an examplein

'Techniquede mon LangageMusical' includetwo values-A and B. A augmentstwice and diminishestwice, while the B value staysthe same,the result being a nonretrogradable rhytý - this will be explainedin due courselex In/9]. 56

Theadded note is a shortvalue (normally the semiquaver)that canbe addedto any rhythm,whether it bea note,rest, or the additionof a dot. Theuse of theadded note is veryprevalent in Tanse dela Fureur'from the Quatuorpour la Fin du Temps,where the cellsin durationadd up to prime numberswhen subdivided into semiquavers.In

Messiaen'sfirst treatise(1944), a table of possibleexamples of augmentationand diminutionis shownlex III/101.

The nonretrogradablerhythm is one of the most important rhythmic devicesused by

Messiaen:the term is inexactas the retrogradeis identicalto the originalfonn and thereforeconstitutes a palindrome.The nonretrogradablerhythms contain internal retrogradations,just as his modescontain internal transpositions that preventmultiple transpositionsof the whole. Messiaencites an examplefrom the secondpart of Tanse de la Fureur' - eachbar is a nonretrogradablerhythm, and a fairly commonfeature of each bar is the centralvalue whose duration is that of five semiquavers(whether it be a quaver tied to a senuquaveror a group of durations,quaver, semiquaver, quaver, respectively).

Messiaenpoints out the paraUelbetween his modesand theserhythms: the modesare realizedin the vertical direction(transposition) and the nonretrogradablerhytbxns, are realizedin the horizontaldirection (retrogradation).

The superpositionof rhythmsof unequallength forms the basisof early polyrhythrnin the musicof Messiaen.The barlinetherefore loses its r6le in outlining the meter.Instead, the barlinehelps the performerand the analystunderstand where the phrases/rhythmiccells 57 begin and end.If two irregulargroups of rhythmare superimposedthe end result is that most barlineshave tied durationsacross them.

In the first songof the cyclePoýmespozirMl, Messiaenmakes use of a rhythmiccanon.

The samerhythmic values are usedin the sameorder in eachhand (in block chords),but a crotchetapart. Added note valuesare also includedas a variation. Moreover,Messiaen usedthe canontechnique in conjunctionwith nonretrogradablerhythms, rhythraic pedals, and with the additionof the dot. The rhythmicpedal is a rhythmwhich repeatsitself consistentlyand without compromiseor regardfor the time-signatureit may be in, or the other materialthat may surroundit. This seemsto be one of the earliestrhythmic ideas that is comparableto that of birdsong:many birds are representedwith contrasting rhythmicpatterns to the otherbirds that surroundthem. In Titurgie de Cristal',both the clarinetand the violin are requiredto play 'commeun oiseau'.The rhythmicpedal in the piano givesthe illusion of motion by the useof both a rhythmic and harmonicpedal

(twenty-ninechord complexesin order, and seventeenseparate durational values in order), wlile remainingessentially static. The effectis one of explicit .

Not only do the rhythmicvalues and the smallmotives of rhythmic cellslend themselvesto the musicof birdsong;but so do the melodies.

'Certain principlesof structure- govemingrise andfall, accentand repetition- appealparticularly to Messiaen,and the "line' of a complexbird-song is suchthat it admitsof a highly chromaticstylization. Bird-songis often microtonal,and Messiaen transforms it freely, sometimeseven involving it in an implied harmonylo' 58

The 'styleoiseau', as David Drew has said, satisfies Messiaen's desire for the omamental, and at the sametime it allows him to avoid any harmonicimplications if he deemsit inessential.Messiaen had a certaininfatuation for a numberof influenceswhich he either

choseto includein his style or disregard6dalmost completely. It was a combinationof these influences,,together with his love of the ornamental and, of course, his individual musi.cal character,which led to his increasinginterest in birdsong. 59

Notesfor ChapterIII For moreinformation on this subjectsee Hsu, Madeleine,Olivier Messiaen-the Musical- Mediator: A Study of the Influenceof Liszt. Debussy.and Bartok. (London, Fairleigh DickinsonUniversity Press, Associated University Presses, 1996). 2 Olivier MessiaenTechnique de mon Lan-RageMusical, (Paris,Leduc, -1944). 3 It is interestingto be awareof the fact that althoughMessiaen was severelyopposed to the membersof 'Les Six', their supportersand jazz music,the addedsixth chord is a commonfeature in both theseopposing styles of composition Techniquede mon LangageMusical', op. cit., p47 (text version). Paul Griffiths, Toemes andHaYkaY: A Note on Messiaen'sDevelopment', Musical Times (September197 1), pp851-852. ' For a usefulsource and a wider understandingof Messiaen'suse of colour, seeBernard, JonathanW, 'Messiaen'sSynaesthesia: Correspondence between Color and Sound Structurein His Music,' Music Perceptionvol. 4, (1986), pp41-68. Seepreface to the score. Tanneguyde Quenetain,'Messiaen: Poet of Nature', Music andMusicians (xi/9, May 1963),p 11. " ClaudeSamuel, Olivier Messiaen:Music and Color Conversationswith ClaudeSamueL (Portland,Oregon, Amadeus Press, 1986), p67. " David Drew, Wessiaen-A ProvisionalStudy I', The Score. 10, (1954), p44. 60

Chanter TV: The Notation of Birdsong.

Today,tape-recorders are usedas a matterof course.Messiaen never relied upon tape- recordersto transcribethe soundsof birds: it was only his wife, Yvonne Loriod, who occasionallyused a tape-recorderso that Messiaencould finish his transcribingat home.

The notationof birdsongis very importantto the analysisof the birdsongand eachbird's intrinsic soundquality. Messiaenhas said that in somepieces he hasaimed at depictingthe actualsound as authenticallyas possible.Later he correctshimself and saysthat of course therehas to be an elementof personalmusical preference in forming the end product.

Trevor Hold realisesthis, as he recooses that manyof the early transcriptionsuse mode

of Messiaen'slimited transpositions!Authenticity became subordinate to timbral representationand rhythmic fteedom.

Thereare severalfactors that makeit impossibleto recreatethe exact soundof birdsong.

The first point is that man's hearing is inadequatefor this task. Even Mqssiaen, who had a

birds particularly good ear, was able to write only one bird"s song at a time. Of course sing extremely fast; once one phrase has been notated, the bird is already on to a second or

high for subsequentphrase. Birds sing at a very pitch: the songs of most Passerinespecies,

highest example,average around 4000 Hz (vibrationsper second),which is aroundthe 2. black-poll note of the piano In fact, in A.R. Brand's researches,the highestpitch of the warbler hasbeen estimated at 10,225 Hz (E8 plus a quartertone). Frequenciesof other birds havebeen cited up to 17,000Hz in the laboratory.That being so, the humanear is

In ofien unableto distinguishintervals when very high-pitchedsounds are sung. addition, 61 individualnotes in birdsongfrequently incorporate shifis (or bends)in pitch. Messiaen would notateone songat a time and constructthe next part of the polyphonyat a later date.He would haveto rely on memoryto createa complexityof soundwhich resembled that which he had heardin the field. Dart (1954) hassurnmarised the evolutionof musical notation,from earlyalphabetic notation through neumicand proportionaltranscription to the OTesent-dayform of grapWcnotation. Referenceto a bird dictionarygives a basic

(non-musical)outline of the soundsthat birds produce,their calls and songs.To a musicianthese would seemrather facile; however,they are important to the basic understandingof the vocal effect of eachbird. By using staff notation aloneit is impossible havea clearunderstanding of the sound/timbralquality. I suggestthat Trevor Hold in 'The

Notation of Birdsong3 hasa relevantidea in notatingbirdsong: he would combinequite pointillistic notationwith suggestiveand onomatopoeicrepresentation. He lists three main typesof birdsongnotation:

(1) musicalstaff notation. (2) onomatopoeic/syllabicnotation (3) a contrivedform of grapMcnotation

Nowadays,we havequite complicatedmethods that creategraphic representations with the use of the SoundSpectrograph and the MelographMona. I proposeto concentrate throughoutthe thesison musicalnotation, asMessiaen very rarely complementedstaff notationwith words.More usually, he would talk abouttimbral. complexities, and about the rhythmicand compositionaltechniques which he usedto slow the speedand to lower the pitch, thus bringingthe noteswithin the rangeof eachinstrument.

Ad 62

OlMusical StaffNotation.

Pastcomposers occasionally used birdsong transcriptions in their compositions.Jannequin usedbirdsong often as a cadentialsection in the pieceof music. In manypieces Messiaen incorporatedbirdsong into piano cadenzas,as in The Turatigalila Symphoity,Oiseaux

F-rotiquesand even in SeptHalkar Messiaenwas fortunatein adoptingbirdsong, as it often becamea sourcefor motivic elaborationand the basisof a formal structurefor his pieces.Many of the techniquesdiscussed in 'Techniquede mon LangageMusical4' are presentin the musicof birds. The timbre becamethe most difficult and sensitiveissue.

Birdsongwas not only usedas an ornamentaldevice, as it had so often beenbefore, but the shapeof the phrasing,the soundsand the structurewere all incorporatedin his music.

CharlesHartshornes has talked aboutthe 'monotonythreshold', which in birdsongis passedover when one discoversand analysesits use of pitched and unpitchedsounds,

repetitionof melodicphrases and rhythmicunits, the use of diminuendoand crescendo,

ritardandoand accelerando and a balancebetween sound and .Birds sing in many

differenttempi. By using a discreteformal structureMessiaen was unableto createthese

effects.He realizedthat birds sing extremelyfast and he would alwaysslow them down

considerably.Quite often by doing this the soundof the songwould become

unrecognisable.The birdsongwas normallytoo ligh for westerninstruments, and yet by

putting the songsdown three or sometimesfour octavesthe song became

indistinguishable.Slowing the birdsongdown enabledMessiaen to measurethe

high relationshipof pitch and speedbetween the various songshe was using.The and the

low noteswould all becomepossible to play. Messiaenat an early stagewas looldng at 63 rhythmicametricality, and the birds were a very good sourcefor motivesusing this rhythmicfreedom. Of course,the addednote valuesand Hindu rhythmswere never consciouslyused by the birds, but Messiaenwanted to follow their naturalrhythmic complexity.Birds neversing as part of an ensemble:the dawn chorusis not heardas an homogenousensemble, but as a continuouscacophony of individual songsters.A classic exampleof this is the sixth movementof Chronochromie,where eighteenindividual birds singsimultaneously. Even in the first movementof the Quatuorpour la Fitt du Temps

Messiaenwas alreadywriting musicwhich useda continuousheterophonic effect. The end result of a dawn chorusin a piecelike Riveil des Oiseauxmight be what NormanDemuth

-1 'impressionisticverism'.

The problemof the notation of birdsongis that howeverrhythmically free it may be, its tempo markingsand the rhythmicvalues need to be very strict. A. Mler advises musicianswho start to play Messiaento subdividethe values;she then goeson to saythat is it would soundurimusical to continueto subdivide.Once the performerhas learnt this, it importantthat s/hethen playsthe musicas if s/hewere improvising.In just the sameway, the birds are naturallyresponding to the other birds or their own instincts.

The problemof choosingthe right instrumentsfor the task is a difficult one.Messiaen has

saidthat timbre is the major difficulty. Whenusing the piano, for instance,the glissandi

that are so commonin muchbirdsong become impossible. The only way aroundthis is to

usegrace notes and appoggiaturas.Of course,as Trevor Hold haspointed out, a piano 64 will neverbe ableto crescendoon one note, producea true glissandoor play intervals smallerthan the semitoncý.

In a bird dictionary,for example,onomatopoeic descriptions of birdsongare not comprehensiveenough for completeunderstanding of the musicalcontent. They are intendedas a simplereference guide and not for detailedanalytical scrutiny. These descriptionscannot be reliable:like poetry, one can interpret them in manyways - they are subjectiveclassifications. Timbre is particularlydifficult to notate,but one way of doing this is to usea syHabicrepresentation of the bird's voice.

It is necessaryto slow birdsongdown if the westernmusician is to understandsome of its forms andmusical syntax This processreveals several things. First, somewestern instrumentscan play the notesto a fair degreeof accuracy,albeit with inaccuratetimbre, andthe notesof someof the high-pitchedsounds fall i&rithinthe range.Second, the unique form of the songcan be comprehendedby a musicianin this slowed-downversion. One canrecogmse the individuality of someof the phrasesand motivesproduced by that bird.

The blackbird,for instance,sings in a virtually strophicforin. There is a seriesof phrases that are practicallythe samelength, but eachphrase is slightly different eachtime. After the slowingdown processit is possiblenot only to transcribethe song,but also to analyse it just as onewould any musicthat is built up from phrasesand motivic repetition.

The skylarkoften singsa phrasethat soundsto the humanear like a high-pitchedtrill.

Onceslowed down sixteentimes (as David I-Iindleyhas done), the songof originally fifty 65

is in lastsfor The longer like seconds written musicthat thirteenminuteS7 . trill no sounds a trill, but other notesare perceivable.The songresembles a through-composedwork that is both complexand very different from the strophicform of the blackbird: it seemsto includea seriesof motivic manipulationsand varied repetitions.

(2) SyllabicNotation. ý or The Notation of BirdsongUsing, Syllables.

There are two basicforms of syllabicnotation. The first usesonomatopoeic mnemonics to describethe 'jizz's of birdsong,and the secondemploys staff notation. Onomatopoeiais often found in earlyEnglish literature. There is muchreference to the nightingale:for instance,in Elizabethanwork, the 'jug-jug-tereu' phrasewas often employedwhen representingthis bird in Lyle, Barnfield and others. In a non-literarycontext, Garstangin

'Songsof The Birds'9 (1922) mainlyuses onomatopoeic renderings of birdsongsand phonetics.Stanley Morris's book 'Birdsonglo' (1925) is still a useful resource:his glossary offers the following delineationswhen decipheringthe variousaccents found in birdsong:

(a) Unmarkedvowels retain their short sound(bad, bed, bid, bot, but) (b) Long vowelsare markedwith a `-' (mate,mete, mine, mote, mute) (c) An acuteaccent over a syllabledenotes accentuationc6ck-coo) (d) i) A dippingslur denotesan upward inflection H) A denotes downwardinflection rising0 slur a

disadvantage is that bird in The major 0 of onomatopoeicand syllabicnotation each varies timbre and in pitch from onecountry to another,and alsovaries from one time of the year 66 to another.Another problem with Morris's and Garstang'snotations is that rhythmsand speedsare neverdiscussed. We cannotentirely rely on verbaldescription - it is far from accurate.Messiaen indicated the timbresof eachbird by his orchestration,choice of instrument(s),harmonic colouration and Italian termsof articulation,rather thanby adding onomatopoeicor syllabicannotations to eachnote. GladysPage-Wood was quite radical

(seeT. Hold 'The Notation of Birdsong"') in her cfforts to notatebirdsong: she tried to imaginea humanscale that was in fact broken into rnicr6tones.-line stavewas extendedinto severalother divisionsand speedswere illustratedby commasat the distanceof everysecond. She showed timbre by meansof colour, a methodused particularlyby Messiaenfor the samepurpose. The coloursadded to someof the scores are inevitablysubjective and lend a mystiqueto the interpretationof the music- as we can

in by Lyle & Wilson (1982) JonathanW. Bernard(1986) 12 However, see the articles and . althoughthis methodis one of the first attemptsto categorisetimbre in birdsong(many ornithologistsand ethologStS13have avoided this topic), the theory would needto be more systematicto work, and a great deal of care would be required in choosing the correct coloursfor eachsonority. For instance,there is no clear reasonfor usinggrey and brownsto signiý soundssimilar to that of a soprano,or, indeed,a shadeof greento representthe ciffichaff It might be said,therefore, that the use of colour canbe interestina,but it be 0 cannever reliable.

14 The ornithomusicologistPeter Sz6ke in 1969 madesome very sophisticated transcriptionsof birdsong,adapting the variousnotational symbols used by Kodaly and

in Huncyarianfolk-songs. To the he has Bartok their 0 obtain notation mechanicallyslowed 67 down the songs,sometimes by a ratio of 1:10 or evenby 1:25. This processis called

&soundmicroscopy'. However, Sz6kestill madeno attemptto representtimbre. It is interestingto note that Messiaen,using only a pencil and manuscriptpaper, could slow down the songsonly after he had notatedthqm in the field. He was ableto slow thern down by doublingor tripling the rhythmicvalues, but his changesof tempo for different birds seemoften to havebeen based on guesswork.Perhaps at sourcehe attemptedto write exactlywhat the bird had vocalised,but inevitablyhe both addedideas of his own andmade errors based on the intrinsic limitationsof humanhearing and memory.As

Trevor Hold advises,

'Behind the whole questionfies this important factor: the inadequacyof man'shearing. 15'

It is alsoimportant to rememberthat eachbirdsong often falls into a numberof rhythmic patternsthat are entirely differentfrom the other songswhich are simultaneouslyaudible: as a result, not only is it hard to differentiateone songfrom another,but it is also difficult to choosea singleform of notationwhich canrepresent the full rangeof rhythmic comp exity.

(3) ContrivedFonns of GraphicNotation.

The problemof birds singingwith indeterminatepitch is that westernnotational methods havedifficulty in relayingthe information.Stadler and Schmittin 1914realized this, and discoveredthat perhapsthe answerlay in the additionof certainsymbols (see T. Hold's

'The Notation of Birdsong') to representthe following indeterminatesounds: 68

(a) Theroller, the shake (b) For toneswith a strongchattering of non- musicalsounds (c) Soundsthat are non-musical [ex IVAJ

None of thesemethods fully solvesthe problemof timbre yet, as PierreBoulez says,

&on its own timbre is nothing,like a soundon its own is nothing"'.

In orderto suggestthe timbreof a particularbirdsong, phonetic impressions were often in field, used- this was especiallyuseful the eventhough precisepitch was not normally representedby this method.

Aý k Saunders17 used horizontal axes to representa period of time andvertical axesto

fine representrelative pitch: eachline was equivalentto a serriitone.The thicknessof the indicatedthe dynamics,and timbre was shownby descriptive,subjective terms such as

'buzzing,warbling, -Eke sonorities' etc. It is interestingthat Trevor Hold values highly Saunders'theories of notation: he recommendsthese subjective, introspective suggestions,similar to thoseused by Messiaenhimself

Ultimately,the notationthat most clearlydescribes the unique quality of eachbird soundis to be preferred.As mentionedearlier, each bird's phraseschange regularly. The basic bird be by phrasesthat are so characteristicof that alsoneed to customised meansof

49motivicclassification' tables in order to understandthat bird's particularphraseology. 69

The methodsalready described ('syllabic", 'staff' and 'speciallyinvented graph notations') maybe classifiedas 'subjective'.This beingso, the soundspectograph may be classedas

'objective".

SonagEams,

Sonagramsprovide information, in graphicfrom, about the relativedifferences in sound pressurebetween the pitchesin a strophe.Unfortunately, the informationon stress,accent and rhythmis lost oncethe resultshave been 'pruned' - that is to say,when the excess informationhas been excluded.

This visualrepresentation has its restrictions.The Sonagramdisplays the song cobjectively',displaying its frequencies.Later (cl 970), the 'MelographMona' was used. originally namedbecause of its ability to analysemonophonic birdsong, it gives an

'objective' and easilyinterpreted graphic display of the main propertiesof the vocalisations,showing both the frequenciesand the pressurelevels [seeIV/218]. This fle)dbledevice also coversa largerange of pitches.Frequency alterations, attack and silencesare continuallywritten as two lines.The most importantdevelopment from the sonagramis the use of the 'octave' or 'variable' filter which isolatesthe fundamental melodic line'9. Indeed, Messiaen in the Catalogue d'Oiseaux writes many phraseswhere onevoice or part is dominant. 70

Nowadays,a computeris ableto do the samething. With the help of a soundtechnician, I havebeen able to recordthe songof a blackbirdfrom a CD, eradicatingthe unwanted, blurred patternsof backgroundnoise. In order to makesense of thesegraphs, it is importantto interpretthe songand makesuitable changes from a musicaland objective point of view. To do this, the transcribershould be familiar with frequencycharts of birdsongmade on a computerprogramme; one can then makethe necessarydecisions to be ableto interpretthe original notationthat the Sonagramhas produced. For instance,if one recordsan electronicpiano into a midi-interfaceon a computerand asksfor an exact musicalnotation, each crotchet that is slightly out of time maybe written as a crotchettied onto a serniquaver.Quantization would not be a helpful tool, as the exactdurations need to be written down: however,the time-signaturesshould be ornittedand the lengthof each bar shouldbe chosenaccording to the specificphrasing and accentsof the song.Likewise, glissandiand microtones would not be pickedup by this system:these effects would have to be added.Overtones and harmonicsmight be includedif they serveda significantpart of the birds' timbral expression,while notation might haveto be done on a secondstave if a particularphrase was overlappedby motivesor exclamations.The use of the computer/midiinterface represents a further advancein transcribingthe songsof birds.

However,it is importantto note that 'objective' analysisof this kind revealsthe sound that is actuallyproduced and not the soundthat one hears.As Br6mondpoints out,

'it has been that frequenciesthemselves ... shown are often not the most essentialproperties of a vocalisationbut the form and length of, or lapses between,its phraseor notei2o'.

4 71

Perhapsit is more revealingto cite the principal featuresof birdsongsrather than use complexgraphs. It would go againstMessiaen's principles to involve suchmechanical devicesin order to producemore 'authentic' transcriptions,but it is interestingthat ornithologistsof high reputeuse similar subjective'aide memoires'in order to understand the 'jizz' of particularbirdsongs. Trevor Hold hasdecided to use a combinationof techniquesin the field; in the sameway, Messiaenuses staff notation, onomatopoeia, specificarticulation, subjective responses and dynamicsto capturethe characterof birdsongs. 72

Notesto ChapterIV SeeTrevor Hold's article, 'Messiaen'sBirds', Music and Letters, Vol. 52, no. ii, (April 1971),ppl]3-122. 2 For more informationon the songsof Passerinebirds seeA. R. Brand's article, 'Vibration Frequenciesin PasserineBird Song,' Auk, 55 (1938) pp263-268. ' Trevor Hold, 'The Notation of Birdsong:A Review and Recommendation',lhjý, 112, (1970), pp151-172. Olivier Messiaen,Technique de mon LangageMusical, (Paris,Leduc, 1944). CharlesHartshorne,, Born to Sing, (London/Bloomington,Indiana University Press, 1973). 6 Trevor Hold, 'Messiaen'sBirds', op. cit., p 116. 7 SeeDavid Hindley's article 'The Music of Birdsong',. Wildlife Soundvol. 6, np.4 (1990), pp25-33. ' This odd term, 'jizz', is usedby Trevor Hold throughouthis article 'The Notation of Birdsong', op. cit., when describingthe 'essentialshape' of a particularbird vocalisation. " Walter Garstang,The Songsof the Birds (London,John Lane - the Bodley HeadLtd., 1922). StanleyMorris, Birdsong:A Manual for Field Naturalists.(London, Witherby, 1925). 'The Notation of Birdsong', op. cit., p 160. 12For more informationon the relationshipbetween music and colour, seeWilson Lyle, 'Colour andMusic: An Introduction,' MusicalReview. 43 (1982); and JonathanW. Bernard,'Messiaen's Synaesthesia: Correspondence Between Colour and SoundStructure in his Music', Music Perception4, (1986). 13An ethologiststudies animal behaviour, especially in the wad. 14p. Sz6ke,W. Gunn&A Filip's article, 'The Musical Microcosm of the Hermit Thrush', StudiaMusicologia Academiae Scientarurn Hungaricae 11 (1969), cited in Trevor Hold, 'The Notation of Birdsong:A Reviewand Recommendation', IhiiL vol. 112 (1970), pp151-172. 15Trevor Hold, 'The Notation of Birdsong:A Review and Recommendation',Ibis (1970) P151. 16Taken from PierreBoulez, 'Timbre and Composition- Timbre and Language', ContemporgyMusic Revi vol. 2 (Harwood Acaden-&Publishers, 1987), p166. 11k A. SaundersBird Song,(New York StateMus. Handbook7,1929); and Guideto Bird Songs(New York, Doubleday& Co., new Ed. 1951). " This diagramis takenfrom 1. ITjorth's article, 'A Commenton the GraphicDisplays of Bird Soundsand Analyses with a New Device,the MelographMona", Journalo TheoreticalBiology vol. 26 (1970), pp6-7. 19For more informationon the 'MelographMona', seeIngemar Hjorth's article, op. cit., PPI-10. 20J. C. Brimond's chapterin the book, AcousticBehaviour of Animals,(New York, PublishingCompany, 19633), Elsevier 0 pp709-750. 73

Chapter V: Characteristics of 'Le Style Oiseaul in Works 1932 - 1948.

For the purposesof this research,use of the term 4le style oiseau' is limited to instancesof birdsongstyle in earlyworks, where eachappearance of this techniqueis not affixedwith the nameof a particularbird. Messiaenfrequently did not label passages'style oiseau', althoughmy contentionis that manyepisodes display birdsong characteristics. The majority of the birdsongmaterial incorporated in early works is written in a single-line texture (monophonic)or in octaves.Many of the techniquesdescribed and annotatedin

Messiaen'streatise, 'Technique de mon LangageMusical', are frequentlyused in early works, but are alsofound in sectionsutilising 'style oiseau'.The addednote values,for example,almost immediately give the bird stylea senseof rhythmicfreedom. Free multiplicationsare incorporatedon manyoccasions: the birdsongis expandedby the additionof smallfragments (of various sizes)to a motivic cell. The use of prime numbers is also prominentin rhythmic groupingsof 'style oiseau'phrases, as well as in non- birdsongmaterial.

The first appearanceof 'le style oiseau'must be creditedto L Ascetision (1932-3), where

Messiaendoes not categorisethe passagesas such; the melodic lines include trills and repetitionsof small fragments,both of which are co.mmon featuresof birdsong fez VA -

L'Ascension p6, s2, b3l. In MovementII, the ,, flute and - in the orchestralversion of this piece- play phrasesthat are interwovenwith eachother, and the

freedom the sug estsbirdsong. The trill playedby the cor anglais rhythmic of movement .19 developsas a result of the sametwo notes being repeatedwith a dotted rhythm. This 74 effect hasbeen used in romantic/classicalpieces %ith quaversthat graduallyaccelerate into semýiquaversand finally a trill; however,use of dotted rhythmscreates an energeticeffect, more akin to birdsong.Many more examplesof bird trills can also be found in later works, for exampleRived des Oiseauxlei V/2 - Reveil des Oiseaux p7, s2, b I].

PojmesPourMj (1936), a work that musicologistshave not previouslydiscussed in terms of birdsong,displays the composer'saffection for it in his love of rhythmic freedom. A brief episode in the fourth song of the cycle, Vtpouvante', features a Lisztian,

&chattering'sound in the piano part lex V/3 - PoýmesPour Mi, Book 1, p,13, s5, bl], and the postludeto 'Ta Voix' includesa motive that is very similar to the Boris Godunov tbeme,lex V/4 - Book 2, p6] which (like the trill) begins with a slower rhythm and increasesto sextuplets.A high-pitchedgroup of pitches in 'Les Deux Guerriers' sounds similar to the high chirp of a bird like the sparrow [ex V/S - PoamesPour Mt, Book 2, p9, s2,,b3]. Even in the work, , Messiaenincludes high-pitched grace notes, which are yet again a common feature of many birdsong phrases.[exV/6 - Les

Corps Glorieux - Book 3- p8, A, b1l. Thereis also the point that sloweddown birdsong may often be similarin natureto speededup plainsong,especially when there are repeated

'anchor' notes.

In the organwork, Nativitj du Seigneur(193 5), brief appearancesof 'style oiseau' can be found. In the secondmovement, 'Les Bergers' lexV/7 - Book 1- p5, s5, b1l, the organ specificationsof the Salicionalon the Positiveand an 8' Bourdon on the Great help depict both the sonority and the melodic effect of birdsong, even though Messiaenmay have 75 done this unintentionally. cites this movement,as it employs birdsongsonorities; but the main themeof the movementis meantto representa shepherd playing his pipe'. The third main theme of the last movement,'Dieu Parmi Nous', is describedby Messiaenin 'Techniquede Mon LangageMusical' as being 'a Magnificat, alleluiaticpraise in bird style' lex V/S - 'Dieu Parmi Nous' (Book 4) p2, A, bl-21. This curious adjective 'alleluiatic' is used by (1870-1939): indeed, his spiritual natureand experimentalapproach to organ registration- especiallyin relation to his monumentalVOrgue Mystique' (1932) - show a clear influence on Messiaen's philosopHcaland musical world.

ouatuor Pour La Fin du Temps (1941)

Perhapsit was the composer'ssituation of confinement,and the fact he had no idea for how long he was to be imprisoned,that led to the title of this Quartet. Certainly, the choice of instrumentswas due to the musiciansavailable at that time. The title can be interpretedas 'Quartet for the End of Metre'; as Roger Nichols says of this work, 'bar 2 lines are often no more than aidsto ensembleand a meansof reducingaccidentals. The title is in fact derived ftom a passagein the apocalyptic'The Revelationof St. John the

Divine', chapter ten, versesfive and six: the Angel lifts his right hand heavenwards,

be The four instruments it for vowing that there shall no more time.3 use of makes easier the composerto incorporatean extensiveuse of polyrhythmic structures.Messiaen also includesquite sophisticateduse of rhythmic pedals,11indu rhythms, added note values, augmentationand diminution,non-retrogradable rhythms and birdsong. 76

The phrase'comme un oiseau' is used for the first time in the Quartet. Both the clarinet andthe violin in the first movement,'Liturgie de Cristal', play bird-like phrases:the names are not given in the scorebut, in the preface,they are attributed to the improvisationsof the blackbird and the nightingalebetween -three and four in the morning. The repetitive high-pitched semiquavers(all on the same note) are similar in nature to the more sophisticatedrendition of the nightingalein Nveil des Oiseaux [Quatuor pl, s2, bi

Riveil des Oiseaux pl, s2 b1l. The motives of the violin part (nightingale)are limited, and canbe put into four categories,as fbHows:

I three serniquavers,followed by eight/tendemiserniquavers. 2 'scandicus' 3 repetitivehigh-pitched tritones (derniserniquavers) 4 extendedversion of 2 lex V/9]

The beautyof the nightingale'ssong is not found in its rhythmic or melodic invention,but rather as a result of its immensepower, tone and, as can be seenin later portrayals,its ability rapidly and easilyto changetempo, articulationand dynamic.In fact, in 'Trait6 de

Rhyme,de Couleur,et d'Ornithologie 4,Messiaen divides the nightingale'ssong into eight principal motives. The repetitive high-pitched tritones (3) are described as two disconnectednotes, creating a 'drumming" effect: as mentioned earlier, this ubiquitous featuremay be better referredto as an 'alternator'. The repeateddemiserniquavers (1) are bere labelledas 'rapid trillings on one note', often describedas a 'macline-gun' effect by

in later ornithologists. Similarly, the frequent three-note rhythmic cell (2) analysesof works may be classifiedas the 'quartet' rhythm or scandicus. 77

The clarinetpart (blackbird)is slightly more complex.The first phrasecan be regardedas a microcosmof the full gamut of rhythmic and melodicphrases given to the clarinetin this movement.The first three notes are syncopated- this is developedinto a longer phrase.

The trill, too, can be prolongedinto four crotchet beats in length [see p4, sI, b1l. The final two staccatosemiquavers are also extendedto three jp3, s2, bl], while the triplet serniquavers,are often followed by the characteristicuse of two staccatosemiquavers [pl, s2, bl]. However,there are four other characteristicsthat are includedin the clarinetpart:

I four quavers [pl, sl, b3l 2 grace notes jp5, sl, b2l 3 paired grace notes (deux en deux') IpS, s I, b2l 4 two 'climacus' cells, chromatic ascending flourish [p6, sI, b2l

Not only doesthe characteristicsound of eachinstrument help the listenerto identify the two birdsongs,but there is also sufficient differentiationbetween the phrasesto make a clear distinction.

The third movementof the Quartet is entitled 'AbIme des Oiseaux. Messiaengives the perfomer no clue as to which bird s/he shouldattempt to min-de: the clarinet part seems to be an amalgamationof several features of 'style oiseau', and the movement incorporatesmany birdsong characteristicswhich expressMessiaen's rhythmic, melodic

begins and ornamentalpreferences. The first section with a version of the Boris Godunov

C back R. The bar G A 'neighbour theme- Fg, Bb, A, and to next addsthe notes and as notes' and againresolves to the first F9. The rhythm is a typical exampleof Messiaen's use of added note values. The R is taken up an octave and resolved in the regular

Messiaenicway (as in the perfect chord) to the C Natural. Te style oiseau' beginsat the 78

'PresqueVif section.Features of birdsong similar to those in the first movementalso appearhere:

I two high-pitchedstaccato sernýiquavers (with three preceding derniserniquavers)IpI5, s5, b1l 2 trills (usuallypreceded by a gracenote) lp IS, s8, b4l 3 serniquavers,(the first four slurredand rising, othersstaccato) jp15, s4, b3l 4 ascending/descendingflourish IpI5, s7, b2] 5 trill (slowing down) jp16, s5, b2l [ex V/101

Primarily,the third movementdescribes the 'abyssof Time, its sadnessand its weariness'.

In completecontrast to this, the birdsong displaystimelessness, the desire for light, the starsand heaven's riches. The dramaticchanges in tempo mark this differenceand give the birdsong evenmore senseof rhythmic freedom.It is important to note that the trills and the motive of the three semiquavers(Mowed by two high pitched staccatosemiquavers) are often found in Messiaen'sscores, even when they are not credited as 'style oiseau'.

Containedwithin the birdsongare durationswhich are adjustedby addingand subtracting a semiquaver,and a few occurrencesof non-retrogradablerhythms. Sim9arly,in the next movement,'Interm6de', there are manyreferences to:

I trills (precededby a grace note) [p19, s5, b2l 2 three serniquavers, followed by two high-pitched staccato semiquavers[pI8, s4, b3] 3 ascendingflourish [pI8, s3, b5]

Movement seven,'Fouillis dArc-en-ciel, pour IAnge qui Annonce la Fin du Temps', includesa brief suggestionof five 'chirping' sounds,created by five high-pitchednotes be described with precedinggrace notes: althoughwritten as grace notes, they may as 79 iambic cells lex V/11 - p49, s2, b2-31. In conclusion,the blackbird's theme of the first movement- whether these appearancesare labelled 'style oiseau' or not - is prevalent

the in fashion. throughout0 work an episodic

Visions de I'Amen (1943)

The duet for two pianos, Visionsde IAmen, marks the beginningof a new period in the composer'soutput, in which the piano is to take a role of paramountimportance. One of

Messiaen'sfirst pupils at the Conservatoirewas the pianist Yvonne Loriod (who became his secondwife), whose exceptionaltechnique and virtuosic capabilitiesinfluenced the composerto write such a demanding,original and exploratorywork for two pianos.The duet is on a grand scale,exploiting entirely separateroles for eachpart. The first, written for and played by Yvonne Loriod, is both rhythmically and harmonically complex, displayinga decorativenature and featuringthe distinctive timbres of and birdsongs

(labelledor otherwise).The second,originally playedby Messiaen,is predon-dnantlylower in registerand holds the principalthemes, rich harmoniesand a sympatheticseductiveness.

The two parts complementeach other- as Messiaensays, 'I have entrustedto the first piano the rhythmic difficulties, the chord-clusters,everything that involves speed,charm and sonority.I haveentrusted to the secondpiano the main melody,the thematicelements, everythingthat demandsemotion and power.' The themesare cyclic in nature: they recur on manyoccasions, giving overallunity. 80

Rhythmicpedals appear on numerousoccasions throughout the work. Many appearances of tila or tila-like rhythms are introduced: the first is attributed to Sharrigadeva,the secondis a non-retrogradablerhythm by Messiaen,and the third is a double rhythmic pedalbased on Greek rhythms.The use of asymmetricrhythms and bird style mayjustify

Roger Nichols' commentthat the work is a 'celebrationof personalfreedom', althoughit may only be a rhythmicfteedom.

Visionsde I Amen is anotherexample of a piece where Messiaenuses techniques that in

later works would be more specificallyassociated with namedbirdsong or 'style oiseau'.

As an analyst,one must first excludepassages that simply use added note values, and intrinsic second,the passagesthat are high-pitched:although these qualities are both to

birdsong,they are alsoregularly used in all of Messiaen'smusic.

There are many occasionsin Visionsde IAmen where the composerinterrupts the main

texture with bird-like calls, phrasesso short that they cannot be classifiedas birdsong.

Suchexamples can be found in the secondmovement, as follows:

ei V/12 a- p8, sl, b2 ex V/12 b- p8, s2, b3

itself The same'call' motive appearsat severalintervals in this movement,and manifests

in two separateforms: notably, (1) in close successionusing identical chords, and (2) in

different [ex V/13 & V/14 straightserniquavers, employing very chordalcomplexities ex -

p9, s3, bi-2 & pl9, s2, b2]. 81

The rhythm andgrouping of the sen-ýquaverscan be likenedto the song of the woodlark in

Riveil des Oiseaux- if we ignore the fact that harmony is used in exampleV/14. The ostinato dectapletderniserniquavers in the 'Moins Vif' section of this secondmovement includegrace notes, repetitive B naturalsand cretic cells in a sectionthat lasts for thirty- four bars,concluding with the 'Au Movement' which beginswith three call motives Ip 15, sl, bl; p159 slq b2 & p159 s3, b2l.

Even the high-pitchedden-ýisemlquaver passage in the 'Tres Lent, avec Amour' sectionof movementfour may feasiblybe a consciousor unconsciousreference to birdsong jp371.

The decorative nature of this top line is sinýlar to that of the whitethroat in

Chronochromie- althoughit would be impossiblefor even a bird to sing, as there are no restsfor breathing,only phrasemarkings. The whitethroatsings many other passages,with the use of varied rhythms and melodic lines; however, the melodic line in W16 shows twelve continuous demisemiquaversthat are Hgh-pitched and may seem to resemble birdsong[ei V/15 & ex V/16].

The fifth movementis specificallyintended by the composerto be derivedfrom birdsong-

des Anges, des Saints, du Chant des Oiseaux'. Most in this its title is 'Amen 0 notable movementis the use of gracenotes: there are severalpassages that employthis effect, and one exampleis shownin ex V/17. 82

The high-pitched,climacus grace notes (in both the piano parts) that occur immediately after the first exampleabove, glisten one after the other: the effect may be said to sound like a conversationbetween several birds [p5l, s3, bl-3]. It can be arguedthat the earlier motive employingchromatic falling clusters(like a call) is used later in this movement,but in this casewith the rhythm: denýiisenýiiquaver,double dotted quaver.The first time (in the entire work) Messiaenuses the expression'comme un oiseau, he includes the words

4clair,libre et gaiMight, free and cheerful'. The sevenmotivic featuresof this birdsong sectionin movement5 are:

I four demiserniquavers(with gracenotes) [p56, s3, b4] 2 syncopation(with gracenotes) jp56,. s2, bl-21 3 extendedtrills [p57, s3, bl] 4 repeatednotes (semiquavers) JpS7, s3, b2] 5 alternatorwith four precedingdemisemiquavers fp56, s3, b3l 6 staccatotriplets with four precedingclimacus cells Jp57,sl, b4] 7 the previous'call' themeIpS8, s3l

The previousiambic call theme takes on a life of its own, as it marks the climax of this section [p64, s2, b3l and the final 'resonance'to concludethe movement.These virtuosic representationsof birdsongare no more advancedthan those in the Quatuorpour la Fin du Temps:their use is for symbolicreasons rather than for an effect of preciseimitation.

Vin2t Regards sur I'Enfant-Jisus (1944)

This epic work consistsof twenty piecesfor solo piano and lasts for approximatelytwo hours. The complete work is coherent to the listener for many reasons.Messiaen's 83 distinctive use of harmony,modality, chromaticism,non-retrogradable rhythms and the sagrandissementasymdtrique' technique (for example)which may seemdislocating to the listener at the time, is counterbalancedby intermittent diatonic passages:in fact sevenof the movementshave the tonal centre F# major. The cyclic principles are manifestedin themes and 'Icitmotifs'. Some of the slow movementsdisplay a beautiful, reflective tenderness,contrasted with faster sectionsthat exhibit the exuberantvirtuosity of the pianist, and the full gamut of timbre, colouration and range.Inspiration primarily springs from the composer'sadmiration for YvonneLoriod and religioustexts. The word 'regard' literally canbe translatedas 'look' or 'gaze': the latter is more appositein this case,as it involveswonderment as well as inward contemplation,and becausesome of the piecesare inspired by visual art, including a tapestry representingChrist on a horse (Regard de

I'Onction Terrible'), the Virgin kneelingin prayer (Premi6re Communionde la Vierge')

andthe child of God embracingSt. Thdr6seof Lisieux ('Le Baiserde I'Enfant-ksus'). The work is also influencedby theologians:St. John of the Cross, Dom ColumbaMarmion

(author of 'Christ and his Mysteries"),Maurice Toesca (Tes Douze Regards), and the

four Gospelwriters.

In comparison with - Messiaen's immediately preceding compositions, a striking

transformationis found in the use of birdsong, which instead of a merely decorative

functiontakes on muchmore of a soloisticr6le. There are a great numberof passagesthat

but bird; are not only specifiedas 'commeun oiseau' also namedwith the exact therefore,

it would be unreasonableto considerall the bird-like sonoritiesand influencesthat are not in Messiaendoes limit his categorisedby the composer such a substantialwork. not 84 symbolisationto that of birds - severalother phrasesare written into the score,amongst which are: 'commedes cloches', 'comme la foudre', le Jardin'.

The first use of birdsongappears in the third movement,'Regard de la Vierge". The high- pitched exclamation[p14, s2, b4l or 'chirp" seemsto introduce later 'interruption calls'

[seep14, S3,bl-21. There are, however,many other occurrencesof a very similar sound quality throughoutthe piecewhich are not labelledas birdsong.Such examples include:

p15, s3, W p74, s2, b2 p160, sl, b2

The secondappearance of labelledbirdsong is found in the fifth movement,'Regard du

Fils sur le Fils' [pl9, s4l. Messiaenon this occasionspecifies that the soundof the right

handshould be Tke the songof a bird. For that reason,one may be permittedto interpret

the line as soloistic, and not simply decorative - especially as the left hand only lasts is accompanieswith block chords.The 'song' for twelve bars at a swift tempo and

much more realistic than previous representations,as it includes meticulously marked

breaths(rests). The notion of freedomseems to be explorednot only by the ametricuse of

demiserniquaver/quaver rests,but alsoby the gracenotes and the triplet cells: with the use is For of both systems,some interpretation necessary. analytical purposes,the specific by 'grace The is built from rhythmsabove will be comprehended the term note'. song up features birdsong follows: severalexact motivic repetitions.The of the are as 85

I gracenotes 2 triplets, sextupletsand quintuplets 3 gracenotes using the intervals major second,major seventhand minor ninth 4 contrastfrom loco to up an octave 5 singlehigh-pitched note 6 derniserniquaver-semýiquaverrhythmic cell (iambic) 7 scandicus 8 'climacus resupinus' lex V/181

The next occurrenceof birdsongis againfound in this movement,and it includesthe same motivic ideas.However, on this occasion,the use of sextupletsevolves into a frenzy of the samerhythmic pattern [seep23, s3, bl) with the repetition of both the samevalues and notes to mark the end of the birdsong section.This principle is used again, at a higher pitch, closingthe movement[see p24, s3-end].

Movement eight, 'Regard des Hauteurs', begins with the inscription - 'Gloire dans les hauteurs...les hauteursdescendent sur la cr6checomme un chant d'alouette...', which can

'Praisein heights heightsdescend like be translatedas, the ...the on the crib a song of the lark...'. After a short introductionwhere a repetition of sextupletdemiserniquaver chordal complexesis vigorously sounded,a short excerpt depicts a single nightingale.Played in

octaves,it is so brief and so dissimilarto any nightingalethat it is hard to recogniseit as

such [see p49, s4, b2-3]. However, the repeatedG sharps can be interpreted as a

common feature of this birdsong: rapid 'trillings' on one note in the medium treble

listens in hear register. If one to a nightingale's00 sonc, the wild, one may often repeated 86 notes.The effect is usuallymuch fasterthan the examplecited (sometimeslike a machine-

gun); however,if one works on the assumptionthat the nightingalesings many phrases

that are extraordinarily fast, and that Messiaenslows the phrasesdown for his own

purposes,then perhaps the second two bars are a credible symbolic rendition [see

p49,s4, b4l. An exampleof this from a version of the nightingale'ssong, transcribedby

David Flindleyat a quarterof the speed,can be seenin cz V/19.

Messiaen'slarks (the symbol for the heights)are depictedby a two-part invention. The

right hand'stessitura is particularlyhigh and hasa flute- (evenpiccolo. ) like sonorit3r,the

left handis lower and in comparisonsounds Eke a clarinet.Messiaen contrasts a staccato

(right hand)with a legato texture (left hand) - the overall effect is of two larks singingto

each other. The techniqueis a much closer appro)dmationto reality than a symbolic

stylization: the songsof the larks display the bird's virtuosity as much as they do the

pianist's [ex V/201.

The most importantfeatures of the right hand'srepresentation of the lark are as follows:

a) 'paeon IV' (ULTU-) [p49, s5,b3l b) E natural/Bb - dirninishing the interval (in serniquavers)IpSO, sl, bl] c) repetitive chirp with grace notes [p5O,s2, bl] d) repetitive B flats lp5O,s4, bl and extended p5l, s3qb1l e) varied u§e of semitones [p52, s3,bl & p5O, s3, b3] 0 trills [p50, s4qbl-21

The paeonic cell a) in the first instanceuses two notes, namely Bb and A natural.

Messiaen,in the next bar, substitutesan A natural for the third Bb and includesas the

from cell's fourth note an Eb. There are severalmelodic variants that emerge this cell 87 alone.The sernitonerelationship between the Bb and the A natural pavesthe way for the e) phrase.There are many instancesthat incorporaterepetitive Bb: we find them in the first a) cell, andthe Bb is repeatedalternately in phraseb); in addition, d) consistsentirely of repeatedB flats. Therefore, it is reasonableto conclude that the Bb is a 'reference point', or key note, in the right hand. In the right hand, in fact, if grace notes are not includedin this statistic,there are thirty-one B flats out of eighty notesin total on page52.

The repetitive 'chirp' subject c) developsin its second appearance,including not nine chirps (as on the first occasion)but thirteen- notice that, in both passages,the rninor third repetition changesfor the final two sen-ýiquavers(which use ascendingsemitones with gracenotes also a senfitoneaway).

The left hand's treatment of the lark incorporatesentirely different motives. The main featuresof the left handmay be categorisedas follows:

a) three grace notes followed by a quaver D natural [p50,sl, b2 & p5O,s4, b3] b) repeatedsemiquaver E naturals,followed by a fifth leap lp5O,s2, b3 and with grace notes p52,s1, b3j c) trills [p50,s5, b3l d) Ab -D-G passage,opening with ionic minor (UU-) jp52,s3, bI-6j e) seýnitonemovement with gracenotes jp51,s2, bI] 0 syncopatedAb and descendingmovement fp52, s2, b3 & p5O,s3, b2j

The cell a) is a minor feature,occurring twice and not developing.The early appearanceof the passaged) is rhythmicallysimpler, but neverthelesscan be expanded:as soon as some rhythmic coherenceis detected,the pulseis disturbed.The motive b) first appearsas five notes and eventuallyis also expandedinto the elaborateversion with addeduse of grace 88 notes, as shown above. Just as in the dawn chorus, the birds may start to sing in an episodicfashion and quite quickly developmany of the original motivic and rhythmiccells.

After the 'Vif' sectionwhich consistsof twelve sextupletdenýsemiquaver colour-chords

(the groups being an exact replica of each other), there are two bars with the tempo marking 'Moddrd'. Although Messiaendoes not credit the two bars to birdsong, they include severalfeatures, already cited, that are intrinsic to 'le style oiseau. The next

'Trds Vif Messiaen Te les sectionhas the tempomarking . writes, merle et tous oiseaux'/

'The blackbirdand all the birds'. The title is somewhatvague; however, it may be possible to interpret this as birdsong style, with a certain affiliation to the sounds specifically associatedwith the blackbird. There are severalfactors that make this section a rather approximaterendition in relation to the earlier depiction of the soundsof the lark. There are no breathmarks - perhapsif 'all the birds' are singingthen they would overlap,but if this were the casethere shouldbe manycontrasting dynamics, use of a full rangeof pitch, and many occasionswhere notes are soundedat the sametime. None of thesefactors is it is in is presentin this section; moreover, entirely written octaves.The overall effect

'moretriumphal than natural.

During the 'blackbirdsection', Messiaen gives many phrases 'reference' points: there are a

in few substantialnumber of repeatednotes a group of six or seven semiquavers.A V/21. examplesof this deviceare shownat ex 89

On manyoccasions the two repeatednotes are at the beginningof eachsemiquaver group.

Theserecurrent semiquaver groups dominatethe 'blackbird section', and the ordy variety is provided by the 'exclamations' in between them. These 'exclamations' take the following forms:

I two slurredserniquavers () 2 one high-pitchedserniquaver 3 two high-pitchedsemiquavers and precedinggrace notes 4 one serniquayer(lower range)

The final 'Un Peu Vif section can be likened to a faster version (with semiquavers underneath)of the 'blackbird section',but with no interruptionsas listed above(1-4).

Styleoiseau sonorities provide almost all the musicalideas for the wholemovement. The non-birdsongmaterial is confinedto the 'Vif' section and perhapsthe final exclamatory

'inferior resonance' at p54, s5, b2-3.

Movement ten, 'Regard de I'Esprit de, Joie', introduces (in its second bar) a violent

, interruptioncall' [ex V/22a - p58, sl, b2l. Messiaendoes not indicate 'Style oiseau'here; but exact repetitionsof this motive recur throughout the movement.The third emergence of this motive is repeatedjp58, s3, b2], and the last appearancebefore the 'Bien ModdW section uses different notes which neverthelesscreate an equivalent timbral effect; this in climacuscell is repeatedeight times exact repetition [ex V/22b - p63, A, b1l. The

'PresqueVif' sectionmakes full use of the interruPtioncall, in this casewith an altered colouration;in addition,the music in this sectionas a whole (although harmonicand yet againnot labelled'style oiseau) employsrepeated semiquavers, very similar to a motive 91

movementthirteen, may at first glance seem to have no birdsong element, unintentionalor otherwise.However, the 'Moddrd,un PeuVif, whichoccurs after a short

introduction depictingthe sounds of bells, introducesa phrasein the right hand that is

intended to emulatethe xylophone. The phrase is shown in ex V125. This phrase is

repeatedexactly at various points in the movement,and a manipulatedversion is also

employedtowards the end,involving a reorganisationof the original pitches,as in the later

representationof the yellowharnmer[p96, s3, b2l. The eight repeatedserniquavers are

alsoused in the left hand- on this occasionin maj or seconds,[p9l, s49bIj and transposed

down a tone includingthree semiquaversbefore them. [p92, sl, b1l Repeatednotes are a

commonfeature of Messiaen'suse of the xylophone:in Chronochromie,for instance,the

'Strophe IF is saturatedby sextupletdemisemiquavers that repeatthe samenote. In thiis

depictin( fragment example, Messiaen is S.,a of the nightingale's song. Perhaps Messiaen

in 'Nodl'lex V/26 Chronochromie, b2l. had thesetimbres mind when writing0 - p90,

The fourteenthmovement, 'Regard desAnges', featuresspecified bird style in its 'MEme

Mouvement' section.The 'style oiseau'passages are juxtaposed with a rhythmic canon.

This sectionperfectly displays an intrinsicfeature of Messiaen'smusical style, often bird-like (which referredto as 'block form: the texturesalternate with the rhythmic canon durationalfreedom. is usedin a reducedform), creatingan effect of The chordsof the for birdsong[pl03, & rhythmic canonbegin to form an the s3 p103, s5,

bl-31. The flourishesthemselves also follow a regularpattern: eachbar consistsof two

descendinc,flourishes, the first beginningon aB natural,the secondon an A natural.The 0 92

first andthe last notes have accents. The left handcontinues to usethese motives until the

demisemiquaverinterlude that precedestwo bars of stridentchords of resonanceand the

final 'Bien mod6rd' section.

The right handpart makesfull, use of manytypical featuresof 'style oiseau'.Being much

more complexrhythmically, it complementsthe left hand;as so often where Messiaenuses

a ,it is thereto assistthe performer.Numerous motivic aspectsare four employedin the right hand:(1) the staccatoserniquavers; (with the additionalquaver) form appearon two occasionsin their original [ p103, s2, b3l, and manytimes employing

a closederivation Jp1049 s2, b2; p104, s5, b2; p105, s4, bl-2; p106, s2, b2-3]; (2) the followed secondfeature of note is the double- by a 'spondee'(-) jp][03, s3, b1l.

Whenthis cell appearsthe next time, (sevenbars later) the quaversare diminishedto . serniquavers;yet on both occasions,the two E naturals,are followed by an accentedC higher be sharp.(3) A gracenote often precedesa pitch. If one may permittedto term this

the 'chirp' cell, then its use maybe dividedinto severalcategories, as follows:

a) endinga phrase(often includingaG naturalgrace note); iambic jp103, s3, b3l b) in the middleof a phrasei) repeated;iambic [p104, s4, b3l ii) three gracenotes [p103, s3, b2l iii) two gracenotes [as before] iv) higher gracenote; iambic JpI04, s3, bIj [ex V/27]

Predon-ýinantly,the gracenote is lower than its attachedquaver, and producesthe effect of

Messiaenbalances bird divergent a chirp' ratherthan a 'twitoo' sonority. the style and On (disregarding rhythmiccanon by varyingthe rhythms. two occasions the gracenotes) a

bar is built up from four quavers;yet, the next bar is frantic in comparison[p104, s4, b3- 93

41,(4) Thesefaster (frantic) phrasestake the form of sextuplets,quintuplets, triplets and septuplets:the effect of usingdivided rhythms is one of urgencyand rushing- birds that are smallerand have quicker reactions may seemto sing very rapidly to the humanear.

JpI05, s3, b3l The left handadds to this stateof urgency(see the aboveextract): its

continuousflourishes create an ostinatoeffect and, therefore,it becomesdifficult for the

performernot to emphasiseany given note more than another.(5) The final motive

consistsof four derniserniquavers.Three examples are shownbelow:

I p103, s5, bl 2 p104, s2, bl 3 p104, s2, W

ExamplesI and3 includea whole tone descentftom Bb to Ab, and example2 is a

between in commonfeature: it usestwo notesthat alternate one anotherseveral times one

ceH.

Both the fifteenthmovement, Te Baiserde I'Enfant-j6susl,and the sixteenth,'Regard des

Proh6tes,des Bergers et desMages', containelements of 'style oiseau',although there is

The first longest no mentionof this in the score. of the two (the of the slow movements)

includesmany high-pitched trills [pI10, A, b1l, repetitionsof anapaesticcells jp114, sI,

high-pitched 'stabs', bl-21, gracenotes with accompanying0 clustersand short scmiquavcr "style [V/28a, b]. The all of which may suggesta preoccupationwith oiseau' movementas

a whole involvesharmonic tension and resolution,screaming chordal complexes and even

Chopinesquefigurations that leadinto long flourishesin the right hand.The middle,

'Mod6r6', sectionis entitled Te Jardin'; however,the birds in this gardenare depictedby 94 repeatedserniquavers IpI 131.The secondof the two movementsincludes grace notes to be playedlike an oboe,perhaps reminiscent of the We of the unaccompaniedcor anglais at the beginningof Act III of "Tristanund Isolde' [p 123, s2, bII%while the penultimate bar is rhythmicallycomplex and againsuggests bird style IpI27, s5, b2l. The triplet senýquavercell is a distinctivefeature of Messiaen'slater use of birdsong:just one examplecan be seenin SeptHaYkar [seeHalika-i p99, b2] The gracenotes in parallelonly add to the 'style oiseau'effect. [exV/29 i. ringt Regardsur LEnfant Jim pl; 7, s5q b2l.

The seventeenthmovement, 'Regard du Silence,' hasa numberof bird style events, althoughthey are not creditedas suchby the composer.The first appearancecan be found in the form of an interruptioncall [p][29, A, b4l: it involvesa chordal complexand grace notes.This featuresaturates the movement.Not only doesit manifestitself in the 'Bien

Mod6r6' sectionas a serniquaver/quaverrhythmic cell (iambic) [pI29, s5, b3l, but it also

in the hand before Jp133,A, bl 21 in occursreo--ularl 0y right part, major seconds and the Vif, beforehigh-pitched INIoddrd,Presque and 0 repetitionsof the samenote [pl35, s2, b2l. The 'Mod&6, PresqueVif sectionuses many serniquaver flourishes that, first, graduallydescend fp130, A, b1l, and, second,use an ostinatothat involves crossed hands,both of which 'vibrate delicatelylike spiders'webs". The main bird style featureis the repetitiveC sharps[p132, s2, b2l; however,the codauses the polymodalityof the introduction,in altissimi,chords alternating between the two hands.One can interpretthe passagein termsof light; yet the overall effect soundsrather Ekethe chatteringof a 93 chaffinch,especially as it slowsdown towardsthe end of the movement,breaking into colourful gracenotes.

Two aspectsof the eighteenthmovement, 'Regard de IOnction Terrible,' are of notable importancein relationto birdsong.The first is found in the-gTacenotes which produce interestingharmonics in a quasi-glissandofp141, s4t b1l: rapid, ascendingnotes clash

in with one anotherin parallelmotion. Onecan evenfind the sameeffect, but in descent,

'Le Loriot'from the CataloguedDiseaux I'Le Loriot, (Catalogue) p2, s2, b1l, when

Messiaenis depictinga certaincharacteristic feature of the robin. The secondfeature is found in the composer'srepetitive use of white pianokeys in chords,which havea

describing machine-gun-likevelocity -a phraseoften usedby ornithologistswhen the song of the nightingalefex V/30 - p144, A, MI.

The final epicmovement, 'Regard de PEglised'Amour', beginswith a 'sheaf figure in interrupt contrary motion. The cretic rhythmswhich the three openingflourishes are first de graduallyextended until the appearanceof the 'Theme Dieu' ('Theme of God') in

B major. This announcementconcludes with an interruptioncall, followed by a low, drumbling'percussive effect in the lower regionsof the piano's registerwhich amplifiesthe

The Wif follows aforementionedhigh-pitches, creating a colourful resonance. sectionthat in hand is a lengthytranspositional passage: the melodicpermutations the right are juxtaposedwith an asymmetricexpansion in the bass.Although the passageis somewhat

the is involving cloudedby the extensiveuse of pedal,a menacing0 effect produced,also a bird-like quality, especiallyas the melodicpermutations are raisedan octaveand the leaps 96 are at a rapid tempo [seep159, A, b2l. The secondappearance of the 'Theme of God' in

Db major is interruptedby a very brief 'Bien ModiW sectionwhich includesa flourish, followed by gracenotes and alternatingmajor seconds,and finally an interruptioncall.

Later (pl6l), the 'Tr6s Mod6r6' sectionbegins with strident chords(like bells), the

'Th6med'Accords' ('Theme of Chords) and chordsin 'transposedinversions'. Call-like exclamationsappear in eachbar, emphasisingthe power of eachchordal complex. When the 'Themeof God' occursin its completeform, in F# major, it is written in a style that

Messiaendescribes as 'brass fanfare'. Messiaen also tells us that cymbals,tam-tams, bells andbirdsong are included here. Before Messiaen credits the birdsongin the score,the exclamationsbreak up eachappearance of the 'Theme of God'. When the composer it is eventuallycredits a cell that maybe categorisedas an 'interruption can', non-diatonic and precededby threebars of complex'style oiseau'sJpI73, s2, b3l, in which the left handbegins with a repetitionof the triplet cell [ex V131a].The triplet is then alteredto a sextuplet,where the three notesare transposedup a sernitoneon two occasions,and the hand phraseconcludes with an ascendingchromatic scale. The right for the first of these threebars also repeats itself. the phrasebecomes more frantic as it plays(in octaves) is interruption repeatedE flats and acceleratestowards the exclamation,which the call.

Later, the diatonicexclamations are repeatedone after the other.9 The high C sharpsare

deepen prominentand soundlike. a 'chirp', andthe other notes the quality of their timbre. break In addition,diatonic interruption calls up the repeated'Theme of God' chords [ex

bl-21. V/31b - p173, s4, 97

The grand codaon the 'Themeof God' displaysthe triumph of love and tearsofjoy: as

Messiaenmight say,all our passionembraces the invisible.The pcnuitimatebar, afler a striking F# chord with an addedsixth, includes(as its resonance)an interruption call, until a flourishof bassnotes that rumblein the distancebrings the work to a close.

should,therefore, be clearthat in a comparativelyearly work many of the general characteristicsof later bird style are present.Trills and interruption calls are frequent,but the repetitivenature of manyphrases (especially the reorganisationof short motivic cells), the high pitches, and the rhythm of many passagesmay be seen as building blocks for

Messiaen'slater birdsong representations.

Harawi (1945)

This demandingwork- for sopranoand piano is subtitled,'Chant d"Amour et de Nfort, and is the first part of Messiaen's'Tristan' triptych - the other two being the Turangaftla- Cinq Rechants(1949). The is derivedfrom s)anphonie(1946-48) and the subtitle the title, from Peruviandialect for love which is a 'Quechua"word the a song which endswith the lovers' death.The poemsare of a surrealnature, written by Messiaenhimself and possibly, influencedby similar writers, notably B6clard d'Harcourt who was in the forefront of the composer'smind at the time.

Messiaenstructures the piece cyclically,but arrangesthe movementssymmetrically, vAth

Ta Ville Dormait, Toi', the exceptionof the openingmovement, qui which acts as an 98 introduction. The piano takes on an immenser6le, and together with the soprano it undertakesan adventureof the surreal.As in the 'Trois Petites Liturgies de la Pr6sence

Divine', many devout Catholics may feel uneasy %ith Messiaen's exploration or the passionof humanlove: the music's intensespirituality dramaticallydisplays moments of hypnotic sensuality.

The secondmovement, 'Bonjour Toi, ColombeVcrte', revealsthe imageof the mythical green dove which representsthe 'limpid pearl', 'parted clouds', 'interlocking stars', and birdsong.The piano accompanimentin the openingmoves in chords in the left hand,and the rapid arpeggiotriplet dernisenýiquaversin the right handlead onto ten 'tweeting' high- pitchedF sharps[p4, sI, b 1-21.The 'commeun oiseau' sign is first shown in the 'Un Peu

Vif' section.Above a sustainedEb major broken chord, the song beginswith two

4chattering"groups of grace notes, followed by the first main feature [p5q s2, b1l. (1) This feature,in wl-&h serniquaverspredominate, begins with aD natural and ends with an F: the other four semiquaversare B naturals.The repetitive B's are reminiscentof the high F sharpsat the beginningof the movement.This cell is manipulatedin various guises,as f0flows:

a) usingmore Bs andFs lei V/321 b) in transpositionlei V/331

(2) The secondmotive consistsof two serniquavers(A natural and B natural) and two

D4) ionic quavers(an accentedG4 and a constitutingan minor rhythm,Ips, s2, b2 & p5,

A, bl]. At the close of the first birdsongsection, the first quaver duration is diminished, leaving an iamb. The Gff/D9 cell is altered to G9/D natural, and after a flourish, this 99

10 rhythm appearsagain, sounding two C naturals 1p6, sIqbI]. (3) The third motive begins with two demisemiquavers,E and C. Each of these two notes moves up or down two sernitonesand finishes with a loud high-pitchedA natural.With the exceptionof the first motive, eachgroup of semiquaversor demisemiquaversin this first sectionbegins with a descendingmajor/minor third, three examplesof which are shown at pS, s3, U.

(4) The fourth featureis an accentedhigh-pitched quaver, which breaksup the semiquavcr or derniserniquaverflourishes: the quavermay have a precedinggrace note [p5, s4, b1l.

(5) The next featurebegins each group of serniquaverswith the notes E natural, C sharp,

C natural:two examplesof this are shownin the examplesbelow at pS, s3, b2.

The middle group of the sen-ýiquaversis very similar in structure to motive 3: the highest note(a D) is repeatedtwice, and the groupbegins with a third (in this casea majorthird); the first C# movesup a sernitoneto the D natural, and the lower note (the A natural) moves down a tone to a G9. Each of the groups usually moves by step, an exampleof begins which is shownbelow [p5, A, bl - I" group], and and endswith a third. The D natural movesto an E and down to an Eb, the Bb movesto an Ab but up an octave.Each in can be condensedinto a group of pitches close proximity: the techniqueis very similar to the lagrandissenlentasymdtrique' process.

The secondbirdsong section begins with motive 1. The secondphrase begins with a more interval complex flourish which neverthelessuses no greater than a major third. Jp7, s2, bl] The D#/E#/G#/Bb/D and B standout in the texture, and the top D natural acts as a 100 prolongedneighbour note to the return of motive I which beginsthis time on a high Eb.

The characteristicthird that beginseach group is altered to an ascendingminor third - on severaloccasions a group beginswith the notesC natural and Eb.

lp7, s3, bl - third group (with three repeated C naturals)l lp7, s4, bl - third group] [p8, s2, bl) [ex V/33]

(6) The trill is introducedfor the first time on a Hgh-pitchedE natural Jp7, s4, b1l: it acts as a high resonanceover the Eb major broken chord that underpinsall of the bird sections.

The final flourish of the secondbird sectionstarts on a middle C and rapidly ascendsvvith a crescendo,finishing with a Ngh-pitched'call'.

The 'Tr6s ModdW sectionemploys three textures, as follows:

I birdsongin the right hand,block chordsin the left 2 the openingostinato flourishes [eg. p4, s2, bl] 3 colourful two-part descendingtriplet serniquavers

Thesetextures appears one after the other. Birdsongappears first: the phraseis exactlythe

flourish four hen-ddemisemiquavers,followed by both sameeach time. It beginswith a of five C The 'Un staccatoand legato serniquavers,and endswith repeated naturals. next peu Vir sectionis brief (only two barslong): the birdsongconsists of four Smcenotes and two repeatedC naturals,and an exact repetition of the substantialflourish that completes the secondbirdsong section. 101

The birdsong in this movementis made comprehensibleby Messiaen'scompositional technique.The repetition of notes,similar patterns,imitation, hybrid forms and the varied use of articulation (staccatoand legato) are essentialto its comprehension.The whole movementends vAth colourful two-part.descending triplet semiquaversand two diatonic versionsin Eb major chords.

The onomatope,Tounclou Tchil', the title of the fourth movement,represents the sounds of the PeruvianIndian dancers'ankle-bells. After the title is pronouncedby the soprano twenty times, with a left hand piano accompanimentdepicting primitive drums, a 'Vif' section acts as a bridge betweenthe introduction and the 'Niod6r6'. The 'Vijr section representsglass and the 'NfoddWacts as a refrain- the staccatochords like homsand the voice -like.After these sectionsare repeated,the introduction returns in the left hand, as a recapitulation,this time with a right hand part intentionally representing birdsong.

Nfessiaencreates a balancein texture: the prin-dtivedrums, in the left band, are staccato

legato. in introduction, and the birdsong,in the right, is As the the beginningis pianissimo increased and the intensityand dynamicsare gradually until a sforzando'cry' in the right hand. Messiaenuses the phrase, 'comme un oiseau: the phrasing is realistic, as the composergives the single bird time to breathewith the meticulouslymarked tests. The describin, word 'phrase'will be usedwhen (,,,,a period of birdsongthat soundsbefore a rest; 102 however,there are call-like instancesthat are too short to be labelledas such, cspcciallyif the birdsongis slowed down in order to be comprehensibleto the humanear and within the rangeof the pianoforte[ex V/341.

Many phrasesend with a high 'chirping' sonority: thesechirps arc all staccato,and in the duration only eventwhen the phraseis very long, the short makesit plausiblefor a bird to snatcha breathbefore the next phrase[p28, A, bl-21. In the first phraseof the birdsong section, the high chirp has three precedinggrace notes lp26, A, bl-2], and on other occasionsthey include four gracenotes, [p27, s2, b2l one, [p27, A, bIj or none at all.

Fromthe fourth bar of this section,some phrases have a preoccupationwith a rhythmic cell: one bar includesthree groups of quintuplets [p27, sl, bl], anotherthree groups of denusemiquavers[pVt s2, b1l. The latter examplebegins with two repeatednotes in the first two sets of derniserniquavers.-In an earHerbar there is an i=bic rhythm,

C toward the F's serniquaver/quaverusing 0 repeated sharps,and end of the movement,two become a focal point between two rapid demiserniquaverpassages [p28, s4, bl-21.

Messiaengives referencepoints to the listener they might be a specific note, intervaUic

but birdsong form relationshipor rhythm; they provide the with a of coherenceto the musician.On page 28, there are three occasionswhere a rapid phraseconcludes with a from C B (onein inversion) from majorseventh interval: two are to natural, andthe other

Eb to E natural.Another feature included here is the use of similarrepetition. The two interspersionsbelow, use the samenotes in the sameorder-, only the rhythmis slightly is in [p28, bi-21. This 'motivic adJ.usted as the A natural absent the secondversion sI, 103 island"' effect is often used by Messiaen,and also by Stravinskyin the 'Pite of Spring'

VRite', p1j. The end of this birdsong section concludesvAth a sextupletflourish and a high-pitchedsforzando 'chirp'. The glass-like'Vif' follows, and the song closeswith the

Toundou TcH' ostinatoin the voice, down a tone and accompaniedby three growling bassnote clashes[V/351.

The eighth movement,'Syllabes', makesno specific use of birdsong. There are several interruptionsin the texturewithin the tempomarking 'Moddre, un PeuVif. Theyare not interruption calls, but colourful chord clusters in semiquavers,beginning with pairs of semiquaversand then scattering occasionalgroups of three and four amongst them, sou.nding very similarto Messiaen'sfrequent use of stained-glasswindow sonorities[p56, s4, b2l. The repetitiveB naturalssound Eke bird style, especiallywith the words Tia' and

'Tchil' that are soundedon many occasions:Uke the movement 'Doundou TchU', the The final effectbecomes more and more excited. 'Modire, un PeuVif is fasterand more 'Pia', in fact, energetic.The manic repetitionsof suggestthe alarm cries of the legendary

Peruvianapes; however, the words are sung so fast that each "Pia" blends into the next,

hear with the result that the Ustenermay very weU the "pee-pee'sonority that is so often if intendedby associatedwith birdsong,even thiseffect was not the composer.

Once again, bird style is presentin the ninth movement,VEscalier Redit, Gestesdu

Soleil'. intentional or otherwise. The first bar features three sets of tribachic triplet 104 serniquavers,each three-note cell being the same. They are an important tool for the composer:the voice is on a Bb minim, and the piano strikes a chordal complex,using the sameduration, therefore the only rhythmic motion is provided by this motive lei V/36 - p70, slo b1l. The next bar is exactly the same,apart from the final chord which seemsto flunction as a resolution. The accompanimentin bar four includes three sets of the semiquaver/quaverrhythm (iambic); each set is exactly the same,and the voice singsthe notes E and A4 using the samerhythm jp70, s3, b2l. The effect is not very similar in natureto a bird-call; yet, motivically, it producesthree interruption calls. This addednote value cell is utilised throughout the movement.An ascendingflourish concludesthe first subjectof five bars in length. The samefive bars are repeatedexactly, the only differcnce being the words. After the flourish is soundedfor the secondtime, an 'exclamationcall' precedesa high Ab in the voice part Jp72, sl,, b2]. The major secondgrace note clash adds to the timbre of the chordal complex, in altissimo.When the tribachic serniquavers return, they are in ostinato and occur fifteen times: this pattern presentsitself regularly using exactly the samepitches, until the 'A Tempo' which uses the notes A natural, Ab and C# Jp75,s3, W& p78, s4, MI. This featurealso completesthe movement,adding to the exuberanceof the singer'sfinal sustainedEb.

'Amour Oiseaud'Etoile' (movementten) is possiblythe most gentle and pensivesong of the cycle.Messiaen chooses the key F# major, the key of mysticallove. The birdsong,the first to be markedas suchfor sometime, actsas an interludeafter eachbrief phraseby the singer, and throughout the movement, without exception, the birdsong excerpts are 105 soundedover a long sustainedF# major chord with an added sixth lex V/371.12The first two birdsongphrases are exactlythe sameJp84, sI. b2]: the phraseends with a gracenote

C natural and a minor third descentto an A natural. The 'style oiseau' phrasesin the movementas a whole are eitherthis one exactly(occurring seventimes), or a longer, more elaborate song. The most common phrase will be labelled phrase 1. The third 'style oiseau' passagebegins with phrase I's two derniserniquaverson a B# and C#, only the next E natural is displacedby an octave, and sounded twice. Two repeated F's are followed by two anapaesticcells, and the phraseconcludes with the inversionof the final two notes in phrase1. Straight away one feJs an immensespace: not only as a result of longer durations such a slow tempo,but also wi th the which appearafter faster rhythmic cells. After three more appearancesof phrase 1, a more elaboratebirdsong extendsthe durationsbetween the fastergroups Jp85,s4, bl]. The gracenotes at the beginningof this bar add to the senseof freedom,but it is the full crotchet and dotted crotchet that give the high is phrasespace. Even at such a register the range Of the piano explored to its full E2 G The in is potential, ranging from to sharp4. triplet semiquaverpattern phrase I displayedhere on two occasions.The words, 'Tous les Oiseauxdes P-toiles,prompt the

intervals, short phrasewhich includesthe ubiquitoustriplet semiquaversand minor third but with the additionof septuplethemidemisemiquavers jp86, s2, b2l. The next bird style 'chirps, high B phraseincludes sextuplets, three simplequavers and two on naturalswith begins first precedinggrace notes. The penultimatephrase with the three notes of phrase It includes four 1, using the samedurations. also triplet serniquaver/quaverrhythm and the derriiserniquavers,and in addition, two straight crotchets. This phrase is the only one

interval, A C (inverted [p87, which does not concludewith a minor third to or not) s2, 106 b1l. The song draws to a close with an F9 major chord with an added sixth, in a low register,followed by phrase1.

ttoiles', The eleventhmovement, 'Katchikatchi les is a striking contrastto 'Amour Oiseau d'ttoile'. This untamed dance-like movement features many excerpts similar to an interruption call, and repeatedchordal complex grace notes which may be construedas soundingEke continuous chirping - again,used as an interludebefore the next motivic idea & or line of the poem [p88, s2, b2 p89, s3, bl]. The unpitched scream,'Ahi' occurs on three occasions,each accompaniedby an interruption-Ekecall. The final cry ends the movement

The last movement,'Dans le Noir, representsdeath in its eternalfinality. The lovers are at is beginning rest, but far from humanlove. The end of the movement tragic, recallingthe 'Toi', lovers dead. of the work without mentioningthe word as the are now Messiaen instruction 'i bouche ferm6e'. displays writes the final note for the singerwith the which one of the loversmotionless and at peace.

Nlessiaencombines rhythmic canons,Sharngadeva rhythms and many other characteristic birdsong. in techniqueswith a sophisticateduse of The piano takeson a soloistic r8le even 107 the depictionof bird style: althoughthe piececredits numerouspassages to 'style oiseau', the composerhas elsewhere also includedmany characteristics of birdsongor calls.

The Turangalila Symphony (194648)

Commissionedby theKoussevitsky Foundation, the TurangalflaS)-mpliony was to occupy

Messiaenfor two years, from 17" July 1946 to 29h November 1948. This large-scale work consists of ten movementsand lasts approximately seventy-five minutes. The movementsof the work-are divided as follows:

I Introduction Mod&6, un Pcu Vif II Chant d'Amour I Mod&6, Lourd IH Pr sque Lent, REveur IV Chant d'Amour 2 Bien Niodere v Joie du Sangdes Etoiles Vif Passionn6,avec Joie VI Jardindu Sommefld'Amour Tr&sNfod6r&, Tr6s Tendre VI[I Turangalila 2 Un Peu Vif, Xloder6 _Bien VIH D6veloppementde I'Amour Bien Mod6r6 IX Turanszah^la3 Bien Nlod6r6 X Final Mod&6, PresqueVif, avecune GrandeJoie

Cyclic themesare incorporatedthroughout the symphony,and in addition eachmovement has a unique characterof its own, using separatethemes and motives. There are four in cyclic themes which reappear on numerous occasions the symphony and play a The by have significant symbolicr6le. cyclic themesare given titles the composer,and by The first, 'th6me-statue'('statue sincebeen adopted numerousmusicologists. theme'), is in thirds and mainly played on the ,fortissimo. For Messiaen,this dense 108 motive indicatesthe brutality of ancientMexican monuments.The secondcyclic theme,

Ith6me-fleur'(Tower theme') - is given to the clarinets in two parts, with a pianissimo dynamic.The two parts are opposites:they are widely separatedand then move together 13 in contrarymotion, 'like two eyesreflecting each other... ' Messiaenthinks of a 'delicate " orchid, a florid fuchsia,a red gladiolus,an excessivelypliant convolvulus'. This theme not only usesopposing notes, but also is the antithesisof the previoustheme in character.

The third cyclic theme ('th6me d'amour/the 'love theme') is the most important, accordingto the composer.This themesurges with passion,symbolising the spiritual and Isolde. fourth emotionalunion of Tristan and The cyclic theme,'th6me d'accords' ('chord theme'), consists of four cluster chords that occur at various points in the work in original, truncated,fragmented or elaboratedversions.

Although the cyclic principle is used to its full potential, few elementsof traditional

found in symphonicform can be the work. The introduction has two parts and statesthe is in cyclic themesI and 2. The secondmovement two sections(introduction and coda): the first is a hybrid of a rondo/variationdesign, in which the episodesare variants of the is development refrain; and the second a of the openingmotive and the secondphrase of the refrain.The ninth movementcould also be interpretedas one of variation,while the fourth and fifth movementsmay alsobe seenas scherzos,and the 'Final' like a . According to the composer,the eighth movementis the 'developmentsection' for the whole symphony. 109

The symphony,in addition,has several 'love themes. There are four 'love themes'in their basic forms found in the movements:'Chant d'Amour 1' (movementtwo), 'Jardin du

Sommeild'Amour' (movementsix), 'Diveloppement de I'Amour' (movementeight), and 15 the 'Final' (movementten). Given that eachmovement is predominantlYconstructed in discrete sections (with the exception of the eighth), it is the love and cyclic themes, technicalprocedures and free multiplicationsthat give the music coherenceand propel the music in time. The two contrasting tempi of the main 'love theme' of the second feminine, derived from 'statue movementare describedas masculineand and are the theme'. In fact, all the movementshave elementsof lovewithin them: the love is doomed it, 'irresistible, to self-destruction and, as Messiaen puts transcending everything, itselý love is by Tristan suppressingeverything outside a such as symbolised the philtre of 16 and Yseult'.

-Turangalla' is a compoundword taken from Sanskrit.'Turanga' denotesmovement and

'Lila' literally 'play, is describedin divine rhythm, depictingtime. means and terms of the The has in its Messiaen action upon the universe. word also severalpolarities meaning: lifeldeath. The love. As in Harawi, cites creation/ destruction,and word may also mean love is confined within life and death, and all are inextricably interconnected.Other list, follows: oppositescan be addedto the as

rhythrii/ametricality time/timelessness tonality/modality tonality/atonality joy/despair human/superhuman In fact, Messiaendescribes the whole symphonyas a love song and a hymn to joy. it is also a vast pool of rhythmiccounterpoints and groups that are manipulatedby a full range of compositionaltechniques.

The immenseorchestra needed to perform this symphonyconsists of triple woodwind, four homs, four , one comet, three trombones,one , sixteen first , sixteenseconds, fourteen , twelve , ten double basses,piano, ondesmartcnot and a very large percussionsection. The percussionýection consistsof a glockenspiel, celestaand vibraphonewhich, together with the piano and the metal percussion,form a smallGamelan orchestra.

The solo piano almost acts as a solo instrument,possibly influencedby the r6le that the piano takes in Skriabin's 'Prom6th6e(Le Poirne du Fcu). There arc long cadenzasthat often precedea climax in a movement,but above all the piano is the most essentialtool when depictingbirdsong. Rarely, the sonoritiesof the woodwind and the violins producea sonority akin to that of 'le style oiseau; certainly, on no occasionare theseinstruments creditedas such.

The full gamut of technicalprocedures described and illustrated in 'Technique de mon

Lwga.(Ye Musical' is found in this symphony.Messiaen uses non-retrogradablerhythms, augmentationand diminution, superimposedrhythmic structures and a sophisticated deploymentof the chromaticrhythmic seriesby superimposingWas rhythms. The most authenticbird style yet to appearin Messiaen'soutput is incorporatcd in this symphony,

More namesof specific birds are included in the score: many of the named birds are sharplydifferentiated in musicalcharacter. The birdsong has becomenot only decorative but alsorcalistic.

The first movement,'Introduction', consistingof two parts linked by a piano cadenza, introduces the first two cyclic themes. Messiaenmakes full use of special orchestral

in effects.The first is createdby the strings sextupletascending demiserniquavers followed by trills, the ondesmartenot at the sametimc playing a glissandofrom a G# to aD natural, in altissimo:on eachoccasion the 'statue theme' is to follow jp4j. The secondis found in the immediatelysucceeding section where the piano introduces indeterminateflourishes, playing semiquavers in contrary motion, while the flute and clarinets have 17 in figure do demisemiquavers the of a pyramid , as the solo violin and who also play G C glissandihannonics on the string and string respectively.The overall cffect is s*UM*Iar in Des CmiyoYls tjoijey to the sonorities of the aux lp6]. The 'flower theme' is introduced moments before the piano cadenza.The second part uses four

Hindu The harmonic interrupts rhythmic pedalssuperimposed on rhythmic cells. ostinato the texture on several occasionsand inight be heard as a fast ostinato cell of the

b3l. The is based 'statue nightingale'ssong Ip 19, conclusion on the theme'.

d'Amour The second movement, 'Chant I' begins with tWa rhythms that are The form is 'coupict-rcfrain'. superimposedby meansof augmentation. of the movement a first is by The refrain is dividedinto two contrastingsections: the played the trumpetsand 112 is strong, passionateand quick; the secondis played by the ondesmartenot and is slow, gentle and quiet. In the first verse,Messiaen contrasts the sombretimbre of the low oboe, cor anglaisand clarinetswith light percussiveeffects ftom the violins (in pizzicato) and attacks from the piano and the bells. Messiaenalso links rapid sectionswith a warm and denselyorchestrated F# major chord lp88-891.

'Turangalila F (the third movement)begins with a coriversationbetween the first clarinct is, it, and ondesmartenot, which as Messiaenputs 'punctuatedby the , vibraphoneand pizzicatos'. Thi's sectionis very reminiscentof the opening of Stravinsky's

'Rite of Spring' [see'Rite of Spring', p1j, not only as it is the openingof the movement, but also becauseof its continuous dialogue between two parts, its use of two grace notes,

fragmented The a first long note and the repetition of small cells. second theme on the low trombones is combined with a unison passageon the celesta, glockenspiel and the right

is by hand of the piano part. The third theme played the oboe and flute in a rhythmic canon

first in retrograde. Messiaen then combines the and second themes on the brass, and first immediately after, he refers to the and second movements of the symphony with

A fourth theme, three various 'allusions'. made up of rhythmic characters played on the

bass drum, is introduced fully developed from maracas, wood-block and and the middle to

The bass drum t.he end of the movement. gradually crescendos, the maracas decrescendo,

The while the wood-block remains constant. movement ends with a sparse texture very

its the martenot, bells, doubI bass (Pizzica sirlUlar to opening: clarinet, ondes e to) and

present, using identical sonorities, but on this occasion the are again .P maracas, Although the does include piano and wood-block are added. music not a style oiseau 113

element, the combined sonorities of the piano, celeste, bells and vibraphone (p92)

foreshadowthe xylophone-tnoand Gamelantimbres of later works, while the use of

percussion,especially the Chinesecymbals and maracas,is an early indication of Balinese

inspiration.

According to Messiaen,the fourth movement(Thant d'Amour 2') can be divided into nine sections,as follows:

I scherzofor piccolo andbassoon in unison, with a rhythmictheme on the wood block 2 bridge 3a reffain and the first trio on the woodwind 4a secondtrio on solo strings 5a superimpositionof the two trios (woodwind and strings)with birdson-g 6 bridge 7 the two reprise and superpositionof scherzos, trios and the 'statue therne$- everyelement of the movementis heardsimultaneously 8 pianocadenza is 9 coda. The 'flower theme' played on the clarinets,the 'statue theme' on the trombones,while the refrainis playedon the ondesmartenot and three solo violins

The fifth section of this movementis of notable importance.The piano anticipatesthe birdsong passagewith occasionalcharacteristic excerpts, specifically an interruption call

[p1301 fluttering JP1201. [pi2i], an extendedtrill and rapid 0 phrases The composer Eke bird [p1321: indicatesthat the piano shouldsound the song0 of a this solo remainsforte final throughout the section, with the exceptionof the phrasewhich begins piano and fortissimo [ex V/38]. On the is crescendosto a whole, the piano triumphant: important love themes such as the openingscherzo and the passionate theme of the 'Tr6s Njodird,

instruments.If it avec Amour' sectionappear simultaneously and strongly on other were 114 not for the fact that the birdsongis generallywritten in octaves,the piano would not be heard at all; at other times, one-part writing is reservedfor tender moments when the texture is both sparseand quiet fp136, b3], while the groups of rapid, %videly-spacednotes do not in any caseallow for playingin octaves[p136, W& p134, b2l.

The first four bars consistof three groups of demisemiquavers,each separatedfrom the

first is dotted other by a singlelonger note: the a quaver D natural and the secondis aG G# is sharp,a crochetin length.The a referencepoint: not only doesit feature twice in the first group, three times in the secondand alternatelywith aD natural in the third, but it In fact, G# features also separatesthe secondtwo groups. the regularly throughout this is in first bars section,and the D natural alsoubiquitous these [p132, b3-6]. Each group of is broken by notes in the entire section up a rest, [p133, b6l a singlenote [p133, b3l or an interruption call [p134, b4l. When the solo strings announcethe passionatetheme, the

freer: introduced, piano is rhythmically quintupletsand septupletsare together with a Jp1331.At figure 9, line syncopatedcell and gracenotes the piano playsa single consisting G# is heard of sextupletdemiserniquavers: the eleventimes, and a top G natural breaksup (G the texture and forms part of a three note cell sharp/Csharp/G natural) on the final first bar. Two double in bar quaver beat of týe note cells alternate the second of figure 9

(E/D# and G sharp/D)leading onto a single G and, finally, three grace note interruption

The first idea (using demisemiquaversfollowed by longer calls jp134, b241. eight a single in the bar, followed by two interruption note) is repeated next calls and a short [pM, W] palindromic rhythmic cell - serniquaver/quaver/semiquaver,which was introduced earlierby the syncopation[p133, bl-2]. The third group of eight semiquavers 115 in the first four barsis a tritone alternator,a regular featureof Messiaen'suse of birdsong.

The composerincorporates this samedevice in the secondbar of figure 10 jp136, b341, on this occasionusing the notes F# and C natural. This device may now clearly be describedas the alternator.Many examplesof this can be found in the violin part in the first movementof the much earlierQualuorpour la Fin A Temp.v ['Technique' plo, s3, b2l. The final phraseof the birdsongsection is built up with a triplet, three sextuplets,a final septuplet,a gracenote interruptioncall and a single sforzandoE natural: the G# and

D natural are againreference points, and the composeralso makesfull use of the sernitone relationship[p1391. The pianopart of this sectionis shownin ex V/39.

The piano cadenzaat figure 16, although not labelled "style oiseau', incorporatesmany interruption calls.These occur at the 'Mod&6, ad Libitum' sectionsJp160, SS, bl-21, after the ascendingdectaplet flourishes (like a glissando),and in the second group of 'Tris

Moderd' bars,alternating with dark-texturedchords.

ttoiles', Movement five, 'Joie du Sangdes is a long danceof jubilation, perhapsthe first

from LAscension (1933). Apart from since the 'Alleluia' episodic referencesto the

'flower theme', the entiremovement is basedon a variant of the 'statue therne,,especially in its use of the interval of a third. After a triple exposition-vAth-variation,there is an extendeddevelopment section, consisting of a rhythmic canon made up of six rhythmic rcharacters'.The first of the three rhythmiccharacters increases, the seconddecreases and

durations forming the third remains constant: the of these are reversed, six rhythmic

the thirds 'statue characters.A solo piano cadenzaensues, presenting of the theme' at a 116 rapid tempo. The movementconcludes %ith the 'statue theme' played%ýith extremely long is durations on the brass.Althouogh there no intended'Style oiseau' in this movement,the have conversationalexclamations an affinity vAth some of the interruption calls cited on many earlieroccasions.

examplesinclude: fp1881 fp201, fig 24] [p214, b5-8] [p231, bl-31

The 'love theme' is employed throughout the sixth movement, 'Jardin du Sommeil d'Amour', and is playedby the string sectionand the ondesmartenot. This cyclic phraseis for expandedupon continuously; example,after the first phraseis completed,a repetition overlapsand concludeson a major sixth ratherthan the expectedperfect fourth This cell, followed by long consisting of a crotchet a tied note, is dinuiruishedto a quaver/crotchet fourth bar figure 1. The blocks rhythm in the of two temple display a double progression (figure 4), of contrary motion chromatic rhythms while the flute, clarinet and instrumentsadd to the block harmonyof the strings,punctuating the long sustainedchords has invention with a light texture. The celeste a two-part with the use of augmentationof t,wo rhythmic cells.

I The birdsong material is played on the piano. Based on the nightingale,black-bird and

it is from The garden warbler, entirely separate the main themes. piano is heard very high free long-sustained clearly with its notesand rhythmswhich off-set the chordsof the The first birdsong begins string section. phrase, and many others, with successive 117

bl]. These serniquavers[ex V/40 - p239, slow repeatednotes give the movementa calm and flowing serenityand contentment,and a timelessnessas the loverssleep, while the intended other instrumentsadd to the depictionof shadow,light, the new plantsand the flowers in this specialgarden. Not only are there repeatednotes in serniquavcrs,but certain 'referencenotes' are struck,especially at the endsof. phrases,giving a senseof rnodal/melodiccoherence. One example can be foundin Messiaen'suse of modesix: the C repeatednotes are the B naturals, sharpsand F naturals,and the 'reference,points are the two staccatoquaver D naturals.These 'reference' points are often precededby triplet denýserni quavers. After sevenbars of reper.ed notes (on the samepitch), scatteredgrace (always interval notes, an 'alternator' phrase with the tritone C natural to F sharp)" and b2l, distinctive birdsong an interruption call [p239, a phraseof appears.This phraseis repeated exactly on severaloccasions throughout the movement:it may be labelled the dividedinto four rserenesong'. This songcan be parts. (i) The first four notesmake up an immediatelyfollowed by (H) , alternator' cell, a group of sextuplets,four rising staccato 'chirps' (iv) [p240, b2l. serniquavers(iii), and two gracenote s2, This &serenesong' does in bar [ex V/411. not alwaysoccur at the samepoint the

Other segmentsof birdsong are also derived from the &serenesong. The secondbar of figure I featuresthe'second cell (ii) of the 'serene song, but as a quintuplet: on this

begins the the C occasionthe cell on secondnote and concludeswith natural and Eb (the first two notes of (iii)) in augmentationand two tritone grace note 'chirps, using the last

b1l. Frequently,there two notesof (iii) [p241, sl, are repetitiousserniquavers on the same

the 'serenesong'; however, is introduced in fourth note, 'alternators' and a new cell the 118 bar of figure 1. This featureuses the notes,G, D, G#, F# and C#. In a later instance,the rhythm of this motive lex V/42a - rig 3, b3l is identically repeated,with the pitchesdown it an octave, and two bars earlier appearswith different pitchesusing a retrogradeversion of the first three durations,with an additionaltwo serniquavers,and finally the first three durations (of fig. 3 bar 3): this in aggregateforms a non-retrogradablerhythm lex V/42 b,

fragmentsis c- p243, s2, bl-21. In betweenthese two anotherubiquitous motive. A very is introduced in bar 'of similar shape the. second the movement. Written in derniserniquavers,the first notesare smalldescending intervals and the others are set very

high-pitched"chirp'. The wide apart, concludingwith a overafl effect is a group of rapid first [ex V/42c b2l, scatterednotes. On the occasion - p239, the A, Ab and Eb begin the fragment, and concludewith a high-pitchedquaver D natural; on the secondoccasion the

but followed by four den-ýisemiquavcrs same three notes are employed, they are which high-pitchedD high-pitchedF9 instead contain two naturalsand end with a quaver (p243, is frequently throughout the but it is s2, b2l. This shape used movement, altered, dramatically.On in transposedand expanded eachoccasion this motive, a few important in the left hand Two be notes are given emphasis,and put part. examplescan seenon page in hand 244, where the majority of the notesare the right part and the phraseconcludes high-pitched'chirp' [see Immediately with a comparatively p2441. precedingthe second (described is fragment that the in appearance above) a of music uses samenotes as the cell is incorporated bar two, but this time aB natural (the repeatednote in bar 1) at the high-pitched beginning,and gracenotes are addedafter the D natural. 119

featuresftom At figure 4, Messiaenuses the 'serene song': entirely different notes are written in a similar shapebut not in exact transposition.The first phrase jp2451 begins with an 'alternator'; the secondpart of the 'serenesong' ensuesin a manipulatedform, followed by two high-pitched'chirps'. Thenext bar repeatsthe last five notes: there is a short rest followed by the two notesof the 'alternator' and then a continuation.This same pattern is utilised again on page 248, where new pitches are introduced in almost exact 245 The final transposition of the previousexample on pageC., two notes are the same:in fact, the repetitionof two notesis found in manyinstances in the movement. '

The birdsong becomesfrantic and excitedfor two bars at the successive'Mentir Peu i peu' and 'A Tempo' bars lp252, bl-21. Although the speedis rather slow, there are no its rests, and gracenotes add to stateof urgency:these grace notes are followed by groups finally (also demiserniquavers). of demiserniquavers,and sextuplets Apart from the major bars built from second/minorsecond grace notes, the two are up the notesB, A, D, G and between final high Ab Bb. These an alternation the or groups of notes begin at several bars. A frantic places within the two second section occurs on page 261: once again bars finish B, A, written in octaves,the two open and with the D, G, Ab cell as cited to in between above, with grace notes attached recurrent serniquavers, them. At the immediatelyensuing 'A Tempo', the secondpart of the 'serene song" is played, starting

(D C (the first with the secondnote natural) and endingon the natural note of the third is twice, the first 'serene part of the song), and repeated with phrase of the song' immediatelypreceding the secondrepetition. The next bar, with its use of rising staccato

is in to the third fourth the 'serene (see serniquavers, very sin-dlar nature and parts of song' 120 below). The movementconcludes with five repeatedB naturals and the derniserniquaver motive that was originallyintroduced in the secondbar.

The characteristicsof the birdsongin the piano part of this movementmay be simplifiedas follows:

I repeatedpitches (in serniquavers) 2 'alternator' (tritonesused in isolation) 3 'serenesong' (and fragmentsfrom it transposedor not) i) alternatorconsisting of four notes ii) sextuplets ifi) four rising staccatoserniquavers iv) two gracenote 'chirps' 4 G, D, G sharp,F sharp,C (with rhythmsin original,retrograde and non-retrogradableorders) 5 scatteredderniserniquavers (transposed and considerablyextended) i) short extracts,a triplet and a finishinghigh-pitched note" ii) extendedand elaboratedphrase 6 frantic two bars

Messiaenin this movementmakes full use of the techniqueof "free multiplications', where is in isolation a fragmentfrom a phrase repeated,put or addedto anothersegment, giving An be found the birdsong an improvisatoryquality. exampleof this can in the blackbird's fourth Livre d'Orgue. cadenzain the movementof

'Turangalila2', begins The episodic seventhmovement, with a piano cadenza.The first

descendingin four section ensueswith the chromatically groups of trombones a tuba (in in crotchets, and three and close Position) chromaticallyascending Messiaendescribes the full goups of three. ondesmartenot phrase as gentle, of pity and 121 going down towards the depths; the muddy bass of the trombones and the tuba is like 'monstrous surnmarisedas a slow advance dinosaurs'. The rhythms that use the

4chordstheme' are terrifying, and symbolisea pendulumknife relentlesslyapproaching a prisoner, as in EdgarAllan Poe's story 'The Pit and the Pendulum'.

In the piano cadenza,Messiaen includes several birdsong characteristics.As in previous

&styleois. eau' episodes,the music is mainly in octaves [ex V/431. This section contains high-pitched grace notes, repetitive machine-gun-likesemiquavers (on the same pitch), b2l interruption ostinato staccatogroups [p264, s2, and calls [specifically when closing the first cadenza- see p264]. Similarly, the 'Bien NfoddW sections at figure I and 6 interruption in in contain severalhigh-pitched calls the piano and even the celesta and [see At -,Mod6r6 Peu woodwind instruments p265]. the un Vif (figure 3), both the clarinet and the piano play repetitive serniquaverson the samepitch, the. flute has very 'chirps' occasionalhigh-pitched with precedinggrace notes, and the piano, on its own, has frequent 'alternator' passages,flourishes and interruption calls [seep2701. The movement interruption closes with an exclamatory call on the piano and a single sforzandoquaver frorn the maracas.At no point in the movement does the composer classify these fragmentsas 'style oiseau'.

has been in a symphonyof ten movementswhich, up until now, without substantial Messiaen the for development for evolution and expansion, sees need a section the entire 'D6veloppementde I"Amourl, is dedicated work. Movementeight, to this task: the title of According the movementhas both a musicaland symbolic significance. to the composer, 122 couples like Tristan and Isolde havedrunk a love potion that unites them for ever. All the in but it cyclic themesare used the movement, is the 'love theme' which is the main is subject of development.The 'love theme' employedon three occasionsin full glory, like explosions.The ecstatic'Lent" explosionsrepresent the climactic momentsof the whole symphony: Tristan and Isolde.are transcendedby Tristan-Isolde.The ABABAB pattem and intermittent 'love theme' episodesand three-chord ostinato toccatas are contained within an introductionand coda.

The only conceivablebird style in this movementcan be found in the colourful use of intemption calls jp298; p311, W& p316, b2l and the fast 'chattering', perhaps,in the

'Presque Vif (figure short piano cadenzaat the 49). Messiaen does not label these lp339-3401. passagesas such

Turangahla3 (movementnine) sets out a numberof choruseson a theme announcedby the clarinet and ondesmartenot, and a chromaticrhythmic mode of seventeendurations irregular These arranged in an order. rhythms appear on the wood block-, tam-tam, Provengaltabor. Thirteen suspendedcymbal, maracas and solo stringsunderpin each Was, is by the result being that the harmony governed the rhythin. On the first statementof the

has in instance tMa, each duration a preceding serniquaver,and the second - two On durationhas trill five in serniquavers. the third occasion,each a of serniquavers length: the tilas finish, and continuoustrills occur, closing the movement.The movementends

havebeen completed. suddenlywhen the variations 123

At figure6, the pianobegins with four barsof continuousmusic. The first andthird bars use an extremelysimilar pattern to the fifth birdsongcharacteristic of the 'Jardin du

Sornmeild'Amour' movement,as categorisedabove. The secondand fourth barsdisplay four groupsof triplet serniquavers,thus formingtwo tritone 'alternator'series jp3481.

The fifth bar of figure6 continuesthe scatteredserniquavers with manycommon notes. 2'

The next four barsare two ostinatosof two barsin length,while the remainingfifty-two bars are slightly altered,with occasionalalternators and two winding descendingand ascendingchromatic scales in betweenthem The otherbirdsong sonorities can be foundin the gracenotes of the celestajp362] and the staccatoserniquaver exclamations (with flute (at figure rests)in the piccoloand 12) lp362].

The epic andtriumphant 'Final' focuseson two main subjects.The first subjectis a fanfare

horns, the instruments played by the trumpetsand while other of the orchestraemphasize is 'love these sonorities.The secondsubject the theme' and is, as Robert SherlawJohnson into the " points out, 'transformed scherzo rhythm of the movement'. The various 3116bars the groupings of the of semiquaversgive movementa considerableimpelling force. The first subject returns as a recapitulation: the three groups of instruments

(woodwind, brass,strings) intensify each other, giving the brassa ceremoniousand intense

the 'love theme' in the dramatic power. The version of sixth movement makes a in The being in its key F# appearance the coda. movement well-established original of major, the symphonyconcludes. 124

it is Looking at the symphonyas a whole, the piano that has the 4style oiseau' music, as birdsong well as passagesthat may suggest characteristics,even though Messiaenhas not labelledthem as such.The gamelanand strings,on occasions,add to the various birdsong sonorities that are so difficult to producewith western instruments.Many musicologists are interestedin the reasonswhy Messiaenchose the piano as the main, and almost only tool, to depict 'le style oiseau'. The piano, for example,cannot glissandolike 4 violin or it in some other instruments;nor can play quarter tones: both familiar attributes of birdsong or calls.The foremostreason for using the piano is its range:the piano also has a brilliance its percussiveeffect and a crisp at the top of range*.Nevertheless, the composer in on every occasion this work statesthat phrasesshould sound 'like the song of a bird': the bird style is not only decorativebut representative,at this stage of the composer's development.The only attemptat renderingparticular species,however, may be found in du Sommeild'Amour', the sixth movement,'Jardin where the nightingale,blackbird and imitated, less garden warbler are albeit accuratelythan Messiaenwas later to achieve. in PerhapsMessiaen's lack of confidence this task madehim hesitateto namethe species just blackbird of the birds in the score, as the nightingaleand the were left out of the score in the Quatuorpour la Fin du Temps,and only mentionedin the preface.The credited

is in octaves:when it is not, it is to achieve tentative if birdsono,0 usually a sound, the it, because intervals it impossible orchestraallows or the widely-spaced make for octave incorporates playing. Messiaen this monophonicand explicitly linear techniqueto comprehensiveeffect as small motives/cellsare put through many compositional to The birds do processes,all of whichare also applied non-birdsongmaterial. obviously 125 not use these techniquesthemselves, but many forms of imitation, manipulation and be detected extensionsof motivic cells may in birdsong. The Tra11 11gal 11,aSnpho XI it i e paves the way for the exploratory and naturalisticwork (written some five years later),

Riveil des Oiseaux,where thirty-eight namedbirds are used,and where the piano is again the instrumentof paramountimportance. In this work the entire orchestradevotes itself to the depiction of birdsong,as opposedto the Turmigall1aS)-mphonie where the piano plays bird all the credited 'style oiseau"and most of the uncredited style, while the rest of the harmonic orchestraplays voluptuous textures,cyclic and principal themes. 126

Notes to ChapterV MessiaenCompanion, ed. PeterHill, (Faber, 1995),p250. 2 Roger Nichols, Messiaen,(London, ,1975, revised 19S6). 3 Both the JerusalemBible and the King JamesAuthorised version use the word time,, Greek (written but the original version towardsthe end of the first centuryA. D. ) might be better translated'delay'. " Olivier Messiaen,'Trait6 de Rhyme,de Couleur,et d'Ornithologie', (Paris,Leduc, 1999), pp423427. ' Messiaen 'comme In this instance, writes the phrase un oiseau': no particularbirdsong or call is intended. " is in This technique used a passagewith manyrepetitions, involving the transpositionof down some groups of notesup or a sernitone,while others staythe same. in Malcolm 7 Taken from the record sleevenotes Troup's Tealisationof Vi?zgt Regards Sur 1,Enfalli Jisus, Altarus RecordsLtd, 1986.The noteswere written by Messiaenhimself and translatedby the pianist. ' Perhapsone cancategorise the diatonicarpeggio grace notes as the cymbals,and the crashesat the bottom of the piano- the Tam-Tarn-See page 173,system four, bar two in the score. 9 This is a regularoccurrence in Messiaen'soeuvre: an interruption call is definedand then later repeatedagain and againin onebar. 10The samenotes of the syncopatedrhythm are repeatedstraight after, in simple serniquavers. 11This term is employedby Paul Griffiths in his book, Olivier Messiaen ndthejýfusjcof Ti-n-me,(London, Faber, 1985),p147. 12it is interestingthat all the birdsongin this songis in altissimo. 13See CD notes from Myung-Whun Chungs recording with the Orchestre de I'Opera Messiaen's Bastille, Stereo 431781-2. own words, translated by Paul Griffiths, pI0. 14Ibid, p10- 11See Paul Griffiths, OP.Cit-, p 134. 16CD notes,op. cit, P10. 17The descriptionof the figure of a 'Sheaf that is found in HaraW is referredto by Messiaenon one occasion.However, the contoursof this flourish of rapid notesfeature Messiaen.It is like regularly in the music of seemsto me that this shape a circumflex.An be described han-nonic ascendinggroup of notesthat cannot as a melodic, or chromatic is like descending scaleor mode an acuteaccent, wl-ffle a one resemblesa grave accent. for The use of the word &accent' this purposewould be confusing,and thereforethe best flourish, flourish, descending terms might be: pyramid ascending flourish. is All the -alternator'phrases in this movementuse the tritone interval, a very frequent interval in much of Messiaen'smelodic writing. 19This is a 'reference'note on most occasions. 20As in the fifth birdsongcharacteristic in the sixth movement,'Jardin du Sommeil d'AmOur", thereare severalnotes that standout in the texture, and thereare manynotes that are usedregularly and other notesthat aretransposed up or down a semitone.The 127

sixty barswhich follow usethis sametexture with a very similartechnique to that of the dagrandissementasym6trique' system. 21Robert SherlawJohnson, Me-LssiLaen, (London, Dent, 1976,revised 1989)ppl 16-158. 128

Chavter VI: The Experimental Period 1949 - 19ýsj

The years 1949-1951mark an experimentalperiod in which Mcssiaenexplores new compositionalprocedures which, with the exceptionof the 'Interversion' system',he does not return to in later works. The compositionsof this time are a direct result of the following circumstances.Some of his more illustrious pupils had gone to seeRend

Leibowitz, himselfa follower of the Schoenbergianprinciples of composition,in an dodecaphony. attempt to discoverextensions to Messiaenhad alreadyintroduced his SecondViennese pupils to variousworks by the School:it was at theseclasses that, his accordingto GoI62, the composerstressed disappointmentthat the aforementioned composershad not embodiednew ways of representingtimbre, intensity,articulation and duration in their highly organisedserial compositions. According to Boulez, in an article a few yearslater, it was the more cerebralthird memberof the SecondViennese School,

Anton Webern,who was the 'thresholdv3 and the path for the future, as he organisedthe in highly other four elementsof music a methodicalmanner. Richard Toop statesthat the

-risevof electro-acousticalmusic and integral serialism occurs between 1948-1953,4

Wghfightingthe significantadvances taldng place at this time.

Tanglewood ,he began WhHeMessiaen was teaching0 at and to write three short CwWyodjavd,Neumes Rythmiques Mode de Valeurs piecesfor piano: and el dInteilsilis. influencedhis It was the final piecethat pupilsto write suchcomplex and sophisticated by integral pieces,such as 'Kreuzspiel' Stockhausen(195 1), 'Structure I a' and both -polyphonieX'by Boulez (1951-2)and Fano"s(1951) and Goeyvaerts'(1951-2) 129

Sonatasfor two pianos.Mode de Valcurset dInlensikv is the first westerncomposition to introduce numericalprocedures to pitch, dynamic,duration and timbre. The piecesIle de Feu I and II, NeumesRythmiques and Mode de Valeursel d7ntemit& collectively budes forrn the de Rythme(1949-50). The final three piecesof this period,Afesse de la d'Orgue Pentec6le(1950), Livre (1951) and especiallyLeMerle)VOir(1951), are of most importanceto this study:the former two makesignificant use of identified birdsong,while the latter is an entirepiece dedicated to the songsand calls of the blackbird.5 Le Merle

Arbirand perhaps the 'Chantdes Oiseaux' and 'Soixante-Quatre Durees' (fourth and Livre d'Orgut) seventhmovements from the anticipatethe predominantsignificance of birdsong materialin the works to come.

de In Pentecke (1950) MesseZ.ý -

The Messede la Pentecile is written in five movementsas fbUows:

I la"frApI (Les Lanauesde Feu) 2 Offertoire (Les ChosesVisibles et Invisibles) 3 (Le Don de Sagesse) 4 Co nunion es Oiseauxet les Sources) (Le Vent de LEsprit) 5-C! "? +;,.

into TWs work is intendedto be integrated the service,specifically the low Massof

Pentecost.Messiaen has described the compositionas a r6sum6of all his collected improvisations6.He improvisedat all the servicesin the churchof La SainteTrinitd on 130

Sunday,with the exceptionof the eleveno'clock, where a pieceof classicalor romantic repertoire would be played.A conglomerationof all the stylesof improvisationthat

Messiaenhad an especialregard for was deployedin this work. Suchdevices would include: inventedand medieval plainsong, serial techniques, irrational values,original registrations,Greek and Hindu rhythms,religious , Turangalila motives and birdsong.

The first movementhas no birdsongelement: it would be wise to start by looking at the begins Shamgadeva next movement.'Offertoire' with three rhythmsin 'personnages first (trifiya) rythrniques'.The remainsconstant, the second(caturthaka) augments by three demisemiquaversat eachrepetition, and the third (nihpnkarila) diminishesby one den-dserrýiquaver.The legato 'Mod6rd' that ensuesis a unisonsection, perhaps reminiscent Glorieux, first of 'Subtilite desCorps, the movementof the organ cycle Les Corps

Glorieux written over a decadepreviously. It featuresshort semiquaverphrases that are in The 'PresqueVir incorporates 'dur6es extremelydiscrete nature. the chromatiques, hand technique.The right/left andthe pedalare treated as separateentities, and serialised by duration. The right hand(top stave)augments by a sixteenthfor eachduration until the duration hasreached the unit 5, wherethe patternrepeats itself. The left handbegins with

follows 5,4,1,2,3, t he unit 5 durationand the pattern: and other permutations

is in The textures broken by supervene.The pedalpart organised an ostinato. are up two C in the bass.The 'Mod6rd" follows simplecrotchet naturals using the exact pitchesand the sametitle, that left hand is rhythms from the previoussection with except a part added 131 which, with its frequentuse of gracenotes, prepares the listenerfor the bird style at the

'Un Peu Lent'.

Lent' The pedalpart in the 'Un Peu section(p I I) is an augmentedversion of the unison

'Mod6r6' melody,only in transpositionand slightly modified. The right handpart is divided into two separategroups. The first group, with its detachedand spiky texture, representsdroplets of water, and the second,bird style [ex VU11.Both groups have droplets entirely independentsonorities: the of water are all staccatoforte and the bird is style is alwayspiano, and only nearthe end of the section there one sofitarystaccato (given phrase.Moreover, the registration specificallyto eachgroup) accentuatesthis differentiation,as shownbelow:

K. gambeet voix c6leste Pos: Mae 4, piccolo 1,3ce (water drops),forte G: bourdon8 (bird), piano Ped: flCite4 seule

It is significantthat Messiaenrelinquishes the phrase,'comme un oiseau'used in previous

labels 'oiseau': in this focus interestis pieces,and plainly eachphrase section,the real of droplet is to be found in the birdsongand water representation- this a changefrom the birdsongin Messiaen's Nevertheless, Messiaendoes r6le of bird style or earlierworks. as bird, these be to bird The not specifyany particular excerptsmust referred as style. in birdsong canbe dividedinto sevensections order as follows: 132

I two 'alternators' legato,+E natural 2 exact repetition of I legato +E natural 3 first half of I leszato+E natural 4 repeated notes a) staccato and mostly in threes and twos b) divided into three parts, the first two are identical 5 irrational value flourish with the characteristic high note IchiTto finish 6 13flat ý AAt naturalna 1ral I tlus!usinu0usIn LEtthehene ýtwoImo, n(notesotes tes of01 ý ýtthe lh'altcrnator 'alternator' 1 entati! - ::::::::::::::::::: tioLn Ofof 6 lus an E naturýýaturatu ralI

[see pll-12 - VI/11

The 'Un PeuLent' returnsat the endof the movement.In this instance,the sectionis in

final bars following format: one handand one part. The nine take the

I Moder6 - first bar of the original section(page 4 in the score) 2 two bars of repeatedlow Cs (as originally found on page5 of the score) 3 two 'alternators'as I above 4 one repeatedlow C natural 5 first and third partsof the repeatednote motive as 4 above 6 two clarinetand nazard chordal complexes 7 final semibrevechordal complex [seep131

The fourth movement,'Communion (Les Oiseauxet Les Sources)'involves a specificuse

it begins in of birdsong.As in all the other movements, with an epigraphor quotation, this case:

'Sourcesd'eau, b6nissez le Seigneur;oiseau du ciel, binissez le Seigneur'. 133

The epigraphabove is Messiaen'sversion of part of the 'Song of Creation' so often read in church after the communionhas taken place. The bird style in this movementis either 'oiseau', given the indication or on two separateoccasions - 'rossignol' (nightingale)and

6chantde merle"(blackbird).

The openingthree bars of this fourth movementare labelled'oiseau. The listenermay immediatelyfind a new senseof rhythmicfreedom [ex VI12aj. The bars are all at a long durations, moderatetempo: the first two consistof while shorter notesare usedin the last bar with the specificindeterminate marking 7: 8 on the final henýidemisemiquaver flourish. Unfortunately,the gracenotes and the disregardof any senseof beat are the only featuresof thesebars that soundlike bird style.It certainlydoes not soundlike birdsong,

the does include which may be the reasonwhy composer not the word 'chant' at the begmng of the section.The soundsare bird-calls rather than birdsongs.The two slow distantlyin bars representthe bird singing the woods, and the faster flourish displaysthe fluttering its [see The agitation and of wings, startledon a tree p171. calls of two other Groups birds occupythe next two tempomarkings. of chordalcomplexes appear rather

first 'Lent' bars in statically: the two are exactrepetitions and very similar natureto the labelled cans of the cuckoowhich, althoughnot as such,mark the end of this sectiomA for five bars the is contrast emerges the next as nightingale'ssong written with three [ex V1/2a]: separateregistrations 134

Pos: Me 4, piccolo 1,3)ce G: bourdon 8 R: tlQte 4, cymbale

The characteristicsof the nightingale'ssong are as follows lex VI/2b):

I repeatedquavers (B naturalor F natural) 2 interruptioncall (gracenote(s) and high 'chirp') 3 repeatedserniquavers (C#) 4 staccato'alternator' (tritone) 5 torculusresupinus Theorder for these tenns is: 1,2,3,1,2,5,2,122,4.

The use of birdsongstyle hereis no more innovativethan in Messiaen'sprevious works: the only notablechange is in his explorationof differenttimbral effects, which is achieved by modifying the registrations.The nightingalein this sectionis very reminiscentof the birdsong in the pianopart of 'Jardin du Sommeild'Amour' (Turangaffla Stpnphonýy).The

in Turwigaffla S)7nphony, repeatedquavers/semiquavers are used the and the 'alternator' its seriesis an exactreplica of most commonuse of the tritone interval C-F sharp.In fact, first the found in N4essiaen's representationof nightingale'ssono, 01) the violin part of the la first movementof the QuatuorPour Fin du Temps,also includestritone 'alternators' dcn-ýisemiquavers. and regular use of repeated

'Mod&6, Librement' (moderately,freely) full irrational The ensuingW makes use of rhythms je]LVI/31. The aboveindication of tempois contradictory:on one hand,the performeris hand,(s)he is askedto be free, and on the other requiredto observethe specific durations! However,Messiaen be comple)dtiesof the rhythmic may suggestingthat the 135 shouldrefer to the customaryFrench saying, 'libre commePair' (Tree as a bird').

The song,on this occasion,is accompaniedin the left handby staccatopitches (mostly drops serniquavers)that represent of water, whereasin the secondmovement the drops of water and the birdsongwere separated.The most importantbird style featuresin the right hand may be characterisedas follows:

I four ascendinghernidernisemiquaver thirds and a high chirp, 2 two low pitch sustainednotes (I" occasion:C#) 3 threeinten-nittent dotted quavers(occasionally with gracenotes) (3: 2) 4 two irrational flourishes 5 two intermittentdotted quavers(3: 2) 6 long D natural(with gracenotes) (21b 7 three syncopatedquavers -G natural -E natural) 8 exact repetition of I - 9 prolonged/augmentedversion of 2 (2nd occasion C natural) - [seep181

Messiaenspecifies the songof the blackbirdin the ensuingbars. He marksthe changeby its the use of a 4' flute stop on own, andthe use of a staccatotexture. Thesephrases and from the Turangalila calls also incorporatea principle aforementioned movement:many 'reference These'reference groups of notesend with a point. points' are the notesG in the first B C#. is sharp,which is soundedsix times phrase, naturaland it important at 'phrase'in its function this point to definethe word relationto as an integral part of birdsong:.the blackbird'scadenza is brokenup into separatephrases. A 'Phrase'is defined

is 'call' is as a group of notesthat appearcontinuously until a rest marked,and a a short However,Messiaen's birdsong rhythmic cell that appearseither side of rests. use of be in terms in cannot always analysed of callsand phrases: somecases other timbre insight into characteristicssuch as melody,rhythm and may provide more the 136

structure and motivesof the song.The meticulouslynotated rests createa realisticeffect,

as they signifythe spasmodictexture andbreaths of birdsong.Using the above

tern-ýnology,the Mowing form canbe found:

Blackbird Sectionof 'CommunionL(righthand part).

pBRASE/CALL MOTIVES INFORMATION FINAL 'REFERENCE POINT" three G#s,two G9 sernitone 'alternators' syncopatedphrase ends Aith a G# scandicuscell 3 four serniquavers B natural 99 G-C# interval C# 4* call pitch palindrome', using (porrectusshape) staccato includesG-C# C# semiquavers,and interval gracenotes 6 long phrase using an B natural indetem-Linate flourish 7* call two sen-ýquavers gracenote on 2nd G# 8 extendedflourish indeterminate B natural 9 syncopatedrhythm + gracenotes 10 syncopatedrhythm the last three notes of 9 wC two semiquavers gracenote on I' 12 four serrýiquaver the third group is G# group, sounded altered,begins and three times endson the ref point G sharp - -- 13 ----- C-A-C + G-C# C# repetition long C iambic call Eb + natural 1 derivedfrom 1 iambic 1 - 15* call G-C#, C.# 7& 11 16ý * Denotes a cell that is a call rather than a birdsong phrase.- 137

be follows- The structureof the whole movementcan simplifiedas

Bird SongStructure: 'Communion' Movement 4 of Messede la-PentecOte.

"rIcvr-riONEEcq5 LENGTH TEXTURE bars E[ 66r6rE 3 oiseau Lent 5 bars chord clustersand cuckoo Un Peu Vif 5 bars single-line:nightinstale Kjo--d&6,Librement a) 6 IY2bars oiseauand drops of water, b) 7 1/2bars blackbird and drops of water ------Lent 5 bars chordal complexesand cuckoo (as the previousLent) I bar I' bar n Peu Vif of earliernightingale texture Mif 12 bars chordal/modalchords and addednote values+ solo linelo( not labelled) Un Peu VIf 2 bars earlier nightingaletexture Tr&s Lent 3 bars modal chordalcomplexes, dim 7ths, + ascending dropletsusing the highest piccolo I stop, 32' on the pedal

in to the As mentionedearlier, the cuckoo-typecalls are similar nature chordalcomplexes beforethem [see s3, bl-21. The final 'Call' of the blackbirdin the two and threebars p17,

G naturaland C sharp,which correspondexactly to the top note right handuses the notes the cuckoo callsemploy the other two &reference'notes B of eachcluster chord, and G natural and sharp. 138

The bird style in this movementis innovativewith its frequentuse or irrational values.The sectionwhere the blackbirdis accompaniedby the droplets of water (although the second part is not birdsong)suggests the possibilityof a counterpointbetween two separatebirds,

In fact, this sectionis the first movetowards a two-part.birdsong like that of a 'Tris Vir sectionin the secondmovement (Le Loriot') of CataloguedDiscaux.

The fifth movement,'Sortie (Le Vent de I'Esprit), containsa long passageof birdsong which representsa chorusof larks.This Wif sectioncan be divided into three simultaneousparts. The first is the birdsong,while the secondand third parts use the

'interversionsSur dur6es chromatiques' technique. The secondpart, written in chordsin the bassclef, beginswith a durationthat addsup to twenty-threesemiquavers in total; the by next chord is diminished one serniquaver,and this processcontinues until it reachesa single serniquaver,where the use of continuoussemiquavers (in chords)concludes the in first section.Thý third part acts the oppositemanner- the duration lasts four in length (a gradually duration serniquavers crotchet),and augmentsto a worth twenty- five serniquavers.

vocalisations of larks are includedin this movement.In Messiaen'sentire output, a

lark the has numberof differenttypeý of arerepresented, and composer madea clear differentiationbetween them. Types used include the calandralark, short-toedlark,

lark, Japanese lark (African), hoopoelark (African), skylark, wood skylark,shore horned lark (North USA) andtwo typesof meadowlark from the North USA. Messiaenis less

instance:the indicationin the Thoeur des specificin this scoresimply states 139 alouettes'/'Chorusof larks'. However,the larks are chosenbecause they fly much higher than most other birds, and so they symbolisean immensefreedom. The senseof frcedomis enhancedby the precisecomplexity of the chromaticrhythms that negateany senseof bird has rnetre or regularity,although the no conceptionof thesehuman ideas.

The 'chorus of larks' maybe analysedin the following manner.The characteristicswill first be.defined, and then the form of the sectionoutlined [ex VIU41.

Main Characteristics.

a) four repetitiveD# serniquavers,three quavers b) four semiquavers,two 'cretic' sets(added note values) c) cell: Bb gracenote, Ab serniquaver(in twos or fours) d) anapaesticcell: two demisemiquaversand a semiquaver e) two crotchets(C4 or C natural) 0 'alternator' E/F#, Ab/E natural,Bb/Ab (derivedftom c) g) 'alternator' dramaticallychanged by 'agrandissementasymitrique' h) four repeateddotted quavers i) repeatedEb serniquavers

bar-by-bar, The structurewill be examined as opposedto phrase-by-phrase.Each birdsong is bar, phrase(and on occasiona merecell) written within a while the chromaticdurations ties The 'interruption is seemto be entirelyseparate, as many areused. call' not included in the [see as a characteristicsince only two appear whole section p23-26). 140

Bar Labelled Characteristic Variation/Qualities 'Rererence' Points/Notts I a DOtepctition 2 as extra two slurred quavers DN reNtition 3 b usingmajor 7"' and minor 901in outer parts:E-Eb-D & a 'cretic' rh%ihm nh-Mb 4 c (& d) plus Mo groupsof three notes, I' usesthe major 71 5 e CN M*o D# 6 all extra slurred quavers repetition long 'alternators' E 7 cs f (Ab and E) &d passageof and Ab with grace notes, d C 8 e natural two 9 a extra slurred quavers long 10 b passage- extended version of b 'reference for A I a new note' a. natural repetition opposite direction for final two quavers a +291) two quaver and three quavers A natural repetition ý. 'alternator', two GN quavers, F# in 'alternator' 13 f F#) and repeated repeated Rs, two G# quavers, cells 'interruption call' -agrandissanent.. "' D-Bb 14 9 'alternators. broken up by I" a quaver & 2d two quavers version of 14, broken up by I' a 15 9 quaver &2 d dotted quavers 'interruption call' (iamb) E natuz-al 16 - four preceding grace notm E natural 17 many "reference notes' and subsidiary notes continuation of 17 (paeon IV) E natural is f (Bb & extended phrase E natural 19 reference notes and Ab)12 i) using reference point (E) & subsidiary notes ii) two grace note 'diirps' iii) Bb-Ab 'alternator' iv) two quavers (E) f (Bb )&h i) Bb-Ab 'altemator' E natural - 20 ii) four repeated E's as dotted cruavers --- d three groups of d and a spondee E natural - 21 on E naturals i) 'reference note' (Bb) Bb ------22 ii) 2 Climactis CCUS iii) two seniiquavers E and Eb twenty Eb semiquavers Eb L--ý73 [p23-261

Messiaen incorporatesbirdsong, irrational TIiis work is the first in which simultaneously

'interversion' system.Divergent and startlingvariations are found in his use values and the 141 of registrations,even when depictingbirdsong. More regularly,the composeruses the actualname of thebird in anattempt to createits uniquetimbre.

Livre d'Orgue - Sept Pikes pour Ongue(1951)

Messiaen'sstrict organisationalprocedures reach their apogeein Livre d'Orgue, the secondorgan work of this period which actsas a conclusionto the immediatelypreceding la Pentecdte.Sharngadeva interversions piece,Messe de rhythms, and variousaudacious display betweei, serial techniques a synthesis them,and timbre, note-lengthsand intensities The has below are as important as pitch. work sevenmovements, as shown

Livre dDr Zte Movements

I- Reprisespar Interversion H Pike en Trio Hi Les Mains de I'Ablme IV Chants des Oiseaux v Pi6ce en Trio vi Les Yeux dans les Roues vH Soixante-QuatreDur6es

The first andlast movementsare the only sectionsin Messiaen'soutput for organwhich

The forgo any elementof the spiritualor theological. secondand sixth movementsare also finked together,as they incorporatethe samepitch-series, in the sameway that the third

fourth movementis the nucleusof the entire fantasy and fifth do, while the work -a of Hindu in first birdsongy.The composeruses three rhythms the movement,which become 142

4rhythmicpersonages'. This monodicwriting is repeatedbut in the form of a 'closcd followed fan'Nventail ferm6': the first note is by the,last, the secondwith the penultimate, until the centrenote hasbeen reached. Similarly, the overall structureof the movementsis IV (centre a palindrome: I-VII, II-VI, III-V, movement). The utilisation of retrograde and palindromic forms is essentialto the work as a whole.

The day is dividedinto two in the fourth movement,'Chants des Oiseauxl.Nlessiaen includesa characteristicepigraph at the beginningof the piece:

'Apr6s-rrAdides oiseaux:merle noir, rouge-gorge,grive musicienne- et rossignolquand vient la nuit...' birds: blackbird, (, Afternoon of the robin, songthrush - and the nightingalewhen darknessfalls... ')

The birdsongin this movementhas become indisputably the centreof attentiorLNo longer are thesesonorities embedded amongst other textures.In fact, all the passagesin this displaybirdsong in isolation, movementmonophonically uncontaminatedby western far compositionaltechniques as as possible.

Two passagesof birdsongseem to act as conversationsbetween the black-bird,nightingale

The first is blackbird, and songthrush. principallya vocalisationof the with two short by " The episodicintedections the nightingaleand songthrush. seconduses the songof it the song thrushas the mainvoice, as singsalternate passages with the flamboyant blackbird from the The rnelodiesof the and a short call nightingale. other three sections blackbird, in are birdsongcadenzas: the robin andnightingale each turn exhibit severalof 143 the intrinsic virtuosic elementsof their vocal repertoire.Five separatepans maybe distinguishedin the birdsong:

I Conversations:blackbird, nightingale, song thrush, blackbird 2 Blackbird'scadenza 3 Conversations:song thrush, nightingale, song thrush, blackbird, songthrush, blackbird, song thrush, nightingale, blackbird 4 Robin'scadenza 5 Nightingale'scadenza

Each bird in the first passageis separatedby a very brief "Un PeuLent' bar on the pedal

(violoncelle 8) which containsthe ubiquitousgrace note so often associatedwith short interjections,often categorisedas an 'interruption call'. As Messiaendoes not labelthis as birdsong of any kind andthe registeris very low in comparisonto the conversational

be describe vocalisations,it may unwiseto them as such.However, in later works, birdsongsin N4essiaennotates numerous a low registerbecause he hastransposed all the birdsong down severaloctaves so that the very high-pitchedsounds are both audibleand desiredinstrument. The playableon the overall effect of this methodis to representthe birdsongsexactly in relationto eachother. In this case,it is more probablethat these interjectionsserve the purposeof giving the listenera chanceto differentiatebetween each

fact, hasits tempo is further species'song. In eachsong own marking:this a elementthat divides the birdsongsfrom one another,besides the articulation,comparative dynamics

Moreover, birdsong,in hasits and motivic styles. each the whole movement own specific in the first registration,three of which appear section: 144

blackbird Presque Vif (et Pos: Me 4-, 2 213. 14 nazard Fantaisiste) tierce 13/5 nightingale Tr6s Mod6rd, Tendre R.- Me 4, octavin 2, bourdon 16 song thrush Bien Mod6r6, Auto G: plein jeu, clairon 4 robin Vif G: Me 4 seule

[see p13 and top of p141

The first of theblackbird's songs is writtenin onelengthY bar. It canbe dividedinto rive five derniserniquavers parts. The first is built up of that end on a high accentedA natural, it and the third is written in the samevein, exceptthat concludeswith a high B natural.

The secondand fourth parts concludewith a high accentedpitch, but they are not marked

The fifth is with an accent,only a staccatosign. cell an F# andtwo 'interruption calls, forrrýinga dactyliccell. Ornithologistshave frequently mentioned that the blackbird

high-pitched'chuckled' declamatory regularlYconcludes with a very sonority.Ilese two

E naturals(with precedinggrace notes) typify this uniquequality, as they are higher d2 comparatively than the precedingpitches: the naza 2/3and the tierce 13/5 The bar be described 'call'. exaggeratethis. nightingale's can only as a Only the two notes forming demiserniquaver 74 andB areused, a thirteen major staccato'alternator' - "o, is far tiotio, tiotio, tiotio'. Theoverall sound morecalm and reserved than that of the blackbird: the dynamicis a dramaticcontrast in itself (f-pp). The nightingaleseems to be in

its fortissimo the distance.The songthrush makes an excitingentrance with marking.It be described 'call' than it is both should also as a rather song,as madeup of two motives, 'interruption the bar few The first of which are calls', and entire only makesuse of a notes. G-A flat-F# with an accompanyinggrace the Inotive usesthe notes note, and second 145 involves an 'alternator' (B flat-A natural)where eachSeiniquaver in the group of two notes acts as a gracenote, thus forming threeiambic cells. The secondof the blackbird's appearancesis written in four barsof unequallength. Each bar displaysan entirely The different characteristicand style. rangeof the blackbird's songis conveyedby using a top Eb and aC naturalin the bassclef The first two bars are exact repetitions.More importantly though,the most commonfeature of the four bars is the useof 'double' notes.

The firstbar beginswith an anapaesticcell - two B naturalsand an F natural.The third bar has two A flats beforeanother 'chuckled ending'. The endingsof the third and fourth bars include in are similar: they both threenotes common(although the fourth bar usesoctave displacement),end on a high-pitchand use the rapidderniserniquaver pattern with widely. blackbird's spacedintervals. The fourth phrase of the secondsong in the 'conversations' (G A alsouses double notes and natural)which act as 'referencepoints'. The first four interval: first notesalso use the sameaugmented the two notesare transposed down a fifth. Thesong ends with a hugeleap from a bottomC naturalin the bassclef to a high- pitchedB flat.

The blackbird'scadenza [exVI/5] maybe describedas a sectionof birdsongwhich uses

islands'.Paul Griffiths the principle of 'continuousmotivic originaUycoined the expression 15 dmotivicislands' when summarisingshort phrasesof musicthat frequentlyuse manyof the samepitches. This sectionepitornises this theory, with the additionaluse of incorporate the intervalfic transpositionswhich manyof same relationships.The cadenza into the be into may be divided severalparts; since musiccannot segmented phrasesas isolated 'chirps'. However, it is importance there are so many single-note of paramount to 146 define how a 'part' is separated.In this case,a 'part' is a sectionOf musicbefore a rest.

Whethera rest representsa period of time when the bird takesa breath, pauses,or not, it is the simplestway to visualiseand analysethe birdsong.If this sectionwere to be sung, the performerwould lengthenthe time after a staccatonote at the end of a slur; however, durations as this is to be playedon the organ,the shouldbe observedas accuratelyas possible.Taking thi s into consideration,a staccatonote at the end of a slur doesnot (pause), constitutethe end of a part, althougha comma which appearsin severalinstances, is the only other featureapart from the reststhat dividesone part ftorn the ntxt. The be broken into section can therefore up thirty-two parts of varying length: music between it is built restsor pauses,whether up of onenote or manymore. The birdsongcannot be brokenup into barsas there are only two in the wholesection; however, it maybe by bar reasonableto delineatetwo separations the two lines.The 'motivicislands" effiect 'alternator'if few canbe very similarto the onlya notesare used in a sectionof music:the differenceis thata pitchmay be repeatedand three or four notesincluded. Examples of in this techniquecan be seen mostof theparts. Part I usesthe notesA flat, D naturaland

G: both the beginningand the endhave the tritone interval A flat-D natural.Out of the C#,the Ab is G eightnotes before the unexpected soundedtwice, the naturalonce, and These in the D naturalfive times. samepitches are the only notesused part 3; onceagain Part7 the groupof pitchesconcludes with a staccatoserniquaver. usesthe two notesG is to 'alternator', the C4 is before andC#: the effect similar an only repeatedonce the for the time. For the immediate othernote is sounded second purposeof this study,the D, G Ab is thatthey be labelled Y. There useof the notes and soregular will motive are the of Y areused the third is be occasionswhere two of notes and missing:examples can 147 found in parts 5 and 28. Many of the parts concludewith a high-pitchedstaccato 'chirp': thesenotes stand out of the texture not only becausethey are higherin pitch, but also becausethey are all staccato.These higher-pitched sounds VAth their precedingnourishes may resemblethe characteristic'chuckled ending' so often referredto by ornithologists.

The last two notesof a group of notes,in severalinstances, form a tritone. In addition, if a final 'referencepoint' is introduced,nearby parts or groups of pitchesoften concludewith the samepitch. For example,the singleD naturalis presentedat part 14; parts 15-16,18.

20 and manyothers also conclude with this pitch. In fact, the D natural is the most frequentlyused 'reference' point: the discretenature of the birdsonggives the final pitch in more impetus.The gracenotes are scatteredat various points the section;however, they are usedsparingly, enriching the birdsongrather than drawingattention to length, themselves.The partsvary in which givesthe birdsonga senseof coherenceand freedom:if it were not for this, the musicwould stop and start without developingthe true

blackbird's flexibil.ity. nature of the creative

Rhythmic featuresinclude repetitions of durations.Part 15 displaystwo groups of three demisemiquavers,while part 24 canbe dividedinto two identicalgroups (two demisemiquaversand a semiquaverrepeated in a scandicusmelodic shape). These groups

by three-note "reference finish are broken up a gracenote, while a patternand note' the part. 148

The following table simplifiesthe useof rhythmic and melodic structuresin the blackbird's

cadenza.The digits signifythe numberof notesthat are groupedtogether, the singlenotes

not being includedunless they are a part in their own right. The symbol Y is usedwhen

describingthe notesG, Ab andD natural.For exaxnple,in part no. 1, the Y in the

'Pitches' columnindicates that only the notesG, Ab or D naturalare uscd; '2x, 4x' in the

'Groupings..' columnshows that there are two groups which both use notesdrawn from

G, Ab and D; while 'low C#' in the 'Final ReferenceNote' column is self-explanatory

[pl4-151.

part Pitches Groupings/ Characteristics in Order Final 'Reference Note' x 2-ý 4x low C# 2 x+ C#, C 3,4 (paeon IV), 2 low D (ends urith scandicus) 3-ý x+ C#. B, A 3x (paeon IV). 4-- 3-- 4.6x D x+ CW,B 3 (torculus resupinus). S. 4 Ab 4- -- x(n-dssingG)+Eb. E 3 (climacus,resupinus). 2+ cretic cell D x+ C# 3x (paeon M, 4 G 7 G and C# 6 (like an altemator) co 8 x+ C#, Eb (and B) 9.5. x. 5 Ab 9 x+ Eb, C# 3x (paeon.IV), 5x, 4, Sx (altemator at C# end) 10 x 7x Ab -- II A natural_ single note A 12 11 notesof Chromaticscale extendedphrase 6,7,3 (climacus Eb resupinus),6 referencenote: D natural I.3 C# single note co 14 D natural sinde note D 155 Eb. E, D 2 tribachic cells + crctic cell D 16 Eb. E. D 2+ cretic cell D 17 UF single note C# is Lpnatural (Eb gracenote) single note D 5 19 x+B natural D 5x Climacus 20 x (total of 9 notesof extendedphrase (incl. D resupinus),7, iamb, 3x (climacus i II resupim) F21 I single note Eb 149

22 x+B natural 3 (torculus resupinusy D 23 x+ Eb. C. F# and C# 5.4+1 (climacusresupinus). 5+1 C# 24 x (total of sevennotes of 2x (scandicus), 2 (porrcctus). D chromaticscale) 2x (Scandicus), 2 (porrcctus). 3x (climacus resupinus) 25 x+B and C# 4 Ab 26 x+B and C# 4 G 27 C nawral single note C 28 x (missing G) iambic interruption call Ab 29 D and C# iambic interruption call C# 30 ' x+ Eb, D, Ab extended phrase: 3 (climacus rcsupinus). D 3 (climacus rcsupinus), 5x, 3 (climacus resupinus). 4 - 31 C natural sinrje note+ gracenote 32 x+E, Bb, F#, C 2,3x (climacusresupinus), 4 (incl. torculus resu2inus).6 C#

The secondconversational passage (p16) involvessounds of the song thrush, nightingale is follows: andblackbird. The order as

thrush blackbird black-bird song,thrush - nightingale- song - - songthrush - - songthrush - nightingale- blackbird.

thrush'svocalisations, are intrinsicallyrepetitive. The first is four bars in The sono,0 excerpt

length. eachbar is exactlythe same,both melodicallyand rhythmically,and the tritone is

the final interval. The secondexcerpt uses two motives.The first bar beginswith the

tritone F sharp/Cin a three-noteanapaestic cell, while the remainingbars use the rhythm different The of the first vocalisation,only with pitches. third appearanceuses a short

dramaticanapaestic call which is repeatedtwice, while the final involves two motives,the

is 'iambic' 'alternator' G/A 'touhitte'. The has brief secondof which an - nightingale two first is 'alternator' the is extracts.The a short andrapid pianissimo call, second a group of demiseýniquavers F# that fade into the distance.The blackbird's successive on an gradually ISO

vocalisationscan be describedas songsor phrasesas they are slightly more varied. Its first

appearanceuses three motives. The first two usea small cell and are repeatedexactly (two

paeon IV cellsand two anapaesticcells), but the third soundslike the characteristic

4chuckledending'. The secondphrase is reminiscentof its own cadenza:the useof followed groups of demisemiquaverswhich are by higher-pitchedstaccato 'rcrcrence notes' and the Eb/D gracenote makethis clear.The blackbird's third song in the lively conversationsis muchmore vibrant and than the immediatelyantecedent phrases.

The Eb/D gracenote cell is takenup andrepeated, more flourishesare usedwith higher

includes far before. pitches, andMessiaen a wider rangethan Huge leapsare found: the if bird hadbeen The is Inusic is scatteredas the startled. phrase continuous- there is only one rest [seep16-17j.

is built The robin's cadenzais also continuousand up of dernisemiquavers,very occasional interruptions[ex VU6]. These grace notesand singlenote semiquaver three high-pitched break the texture serniquaversonce again up andact as pauses:the notesused are F E flat, in that Variety is found in Messiaen's natural, E naturaland order. also use of There that havetwo If repeatednotes. are manygroupings successivepitches. the section durations is divided into sets(a numberof groupedtogether), then the following can be found:

set 3: A natural 6 times

set 5: F# twice

set 8: Ab twice 151

set 9: E naturaltwice

set 10: E naturaltwice, D naturaltwice

set 11: Eb four times

set 15: A naturalthree times

set 18: Bb twice

set 21: A natural twice

Moreover, the A naturalgrace note andthe G appearlater in set 12, but as two regular dernisemiquavers, immediately followed by a short tritone 'alternator' in set 13. The same

12 is incorporatedin 6 principle seenin set sets and 19: two notesremain constant, while the other pitcheschange [see p171.

begins The nightingale'scadenza with exactlythe samemajor 7"' 'alternator' as its first in [ex VI/71. This is followed vocalisation this movement straightaway by the minor 9Ih interval and rapid repeatedF sharps,as displayedpreviously in the nightingale'ssecond

this Other call of the secondconversation of movement. successiverepeated derniserniquaversare incorporatedinto this sectionon different pitches(sets 17 and14),

F but tempo(sets 5 10). The and againon the sharp, at a muchslower and slurred minor is developedinto 9' leap at the beginningof set 3 a compoundmajor Vh at set 15: this is

in 'alternators', here displaced. the interval used most of the only octavely The following ftom The divided; table may be deduced the nightingale'scadenza. setsare the general and setsare adheredto; however, degree principles of separatingphrases a of subjectivity is inevitable. 152

The Nightingale's -Cadenza Set Features Dynamics I 'alternator'major 7" _ pp - 2 F# single mp 9h) Rs 3 (minor repeated mf >PE _ 7h) E 4 three iambs(major Mr 3 (fewer slow versionof notes) Mf>P22 CA (as 3) Tencated mf _6 'interruption 7 callt DO 'alternator' 8 tritone pp - 9 five Wgh-pitched'chirps' 10 sloweddown version of 3 (on C natural) f>ppp Th 'alternator' (as 1) II major pp 12 spondee" - Mf 13 f 14 -anapaestrepeatedC naturals+ major Th B-C P 15 two spondaiccells f (as 1) 16 6alternator' pp _ 17 repeatedA flats (as3) C# Bbs 19 + three inn 19 E natural 'chirp' (pp) 20 three repeatedRs (P2) + 21 2 anapaesticcells porrectus mf/pp 22 repeatedA naturals f> 23 torculus resupinus pp 24_ spondee,+ repeatedF# (as_3)

fsee p181 'Soixante-QuatreDur6es', the final movement, Messiaentakes sixty-four chromatic into four, durationsand arrangesthem groups of forming the effect of a 'closed fan'. This by is simultaneouslycounterbalanced a retrogradeorder which is like the openingof a fan.

The following displaysthe openingbars:

ClosedFan (top line, Manuals)61,62,63,64,4,3,2, L.

Is Open fan (Pedal)29,3 0,3 1,3 2,3 6,3 5,34,3.3... 153

Even the birdsongis superimposedor combinedwith the rhythmic series:the vocalisations of three new birds,the greattit, great spottedwoodpecker and blackcapare included,

the samefor the therefore, The -tempomarking remains whole movement; the most is practical methodof referringto certainaspects of the section to provide pagenumbers. pages 33-37 consistof the aforementionedinterversion systems in the top line and the

it becomesimmediately line has pedal; however, apparentthat the middle a distinct freedom, and includeswitbinit 'style oiseau'characteristics. Although much of the writing it includes is at a lower pitch than onewould expect, nevertheless repetitiveserniquavers flourishes, 'alternator', between on the samepitch, an gracenotes and contrasts staccato the time it is discretein and lcgato, andyet at same natureand rhythmicallyclearly interversions. distinguishedfrom the concurrent On page34, the middle line takesover the fine: becomes sclosedfan' seriesfrom the top this part 'freer' for a few bars. In fact, throughout the movementthere arepredominantly two parts adheringto the 'fan' is interversion series,wIdle the remainingpart wholly distinct. messiaen'sintroduction of is helpful brackets for eachbird vocalisation extremely in discriminatingbetween the var-ioussongs and calls.

its first in Messiaen's 38 lei VI/8a]. The great t1t makes appearance musicon page This

be characterisedas three anapaestic calls: eachidentical succinct excerptmay cell usesthe D flat, andthe rhythm consistsof two demiserniquaversfollowed tritone interval natural-A The woodpeckeralso makes brief its by a semiquaver. great spotted a appearancewith 154

U lex VI/8b]. The slow repetitive semýiquavers three tritone calls of the great tit are soon

heard again,which prefacea short-livedtritone 'alternator' comprisingstaccato triplets, lex VU8c] and labelledthe nightingale

The single-linetexture of bird style changesat page41. Shortly after four high-pitchcd

&chirps'with precedinggrace notes, the songthrush continueswith two 'interruption calls' bird line has label 'oiseaux with a subsequent style that the divers"Narious birds. The first call is a porrectusand the seconda torculusresupinus. Although Messiaendoes not

birds he is in this line, it is specify which representing middle neverthelessan important developmentin his use of birdsong.Two birdsongs,or possiblymore, are heardat once:

is individual [ex VI/9]. The 'various birds' each part entirely continueuntil the namedbird The blackbirdhas style has concluded. one concisecall which somewhatovershadows the is cvariousbirds' for a split moment:it a major 7h 'alternator' with a final F sharp, The blackcapis brief containedvvithin a sextuplet. also swift and the excerptconsists of E D. The first four four notes: G sharp,A, and group of notesis practicallyorganised into

for the four. The begins long retrograde order second nightingale with the characteristic falls 9" to a pitch is like seamlessnote, which a minor which repeated a machine-gun,only it is thanin interpretations.The on this occasion muchslower previous repeatednotes are thanthe usualdemisemiquavers found in fourth written assemiquavers rather the 'Chantd'Oiseaux'. The nightingale's vocalisations rnovernent, concludewith a sextuplet durations(interversion derniserrýiquaverflourish, as the chromatic series)draw the pieceto its close[see p40431. 133

As can be clearlyseen, this work incorporatescounterpoints between two birds' is vocalisations,and a bird stylethat occasionallyjuxtaposed with an intervcrsionsystem. in foreground The birdsongsand callsare mainlyplaced -the rather than usedsimply for decorativepurposes. Messiaen introduces new birds' namesinto his stylistic repertoire, and only on one occasionuses an ambiguousterm, 'oiseauxdivers. Messiaen's blackbird preoccupationwith the soundsof the may be reflectedin his concentrationon this speciesin the next work, , which is dedicatedto the unique bird. vocalisationsof this

Le

Messiaenwas commissionedto write a piecefor the final flute 'concours' at the Paris

Conservatoireof 1952.This is the first of Messiaen'sworks that most musicologists

based birdsong.It be regard as beingexclusively on may plausibleto suggestthat

Messiaenwas heresubstituting-, the uniquesounds of the naturalworld - specifically, into birdsong - for the explorations musiqueconcr6te and electronicmusic with which he This heralds had previouslybeen experimenting. work a substantialepoch where birds becomeof chief concernand, in manycases, the singlemost important nucleusfor musical inspiration.Perhaps Messiaen felt that a world dominatedby mechanicaldevices, science

too to regardmusic as a clinical intellectualdiscipline, and war, was only eager and rather It havebeen decision Messiaen's than one of emotion. may a conscious on part to move

and relatedcompositional theories, away from musiqueconcr&te and write a pieceof 156

music solelybased on phrasesand other characteristicvocalisations of the ubiquitous

blackbird, a bird that Messiaenhad usedto an increasingdegree in recentworks. Le Merle

Noir hasbeen kept in the 'ExperimentalPeriod' first becauseit was written in the same

year as Livre d'Orgue, and second,as it still includeselements of a quasi-tone-row,on

occasionsemploying eleven of the possibletwelve sernitonesin the octave. Moreover,

there is a dramaticshift from this solo pieceto the chorusof thirty-eight birds in the

following work, Riveil des Oiseaux(1953), which is to be discussedin the follo%%ing

chapter. Nevertheless,Le Merle Noir is the apogeeand synthesisof his early approachto

the soundsof the loquaciousblackbird, even if the soundshe createdwere more inspired

by memorythan actualtranscriptions.

The movementcan be dividedinto subsections:the table below hasbeen adapted from

Roger Nichols' original analysis.The basicform of the pieceaccording to Roger Nichols

however,it is 'bar form' (A - A' - B); may alsobe describedas A- A' - Coda Form. The

forrn of the pieceis shownbelow:

SUBDPASION TEXTURE BAR NOS. I I rumbling' piano (sustained) 1-2 2 blackbird's cadenza 3-8 3 pianolflute conversation 9-26 A 4 octaves 27-28 5 chromaticchords & silent bar 29-35 1 'rumbling'piano, 36 trills (staccatoon flute) 37-43 1 Irumbling'piano 4445 2 blackbird's cadenza 46-53 3 piano/fluteconcurrent canonic conversation 54-71 4 octaves(each part 1 quaverapart) 72-74 A' 5 colour chords& silent bar 75-82 1 eight semiquavcrs(higher than I and not sustained) 93 A trills (staccatoon flute) 94-90 F-7 'Vif" section 91-125 CODA 157

N. B. Sectionsmarked in bold are idiomatic renditionsorthe blackbird's song.

Generally the A" sectionis an extendedversion of A. Roger Nichols describedthe 'combined piano/flute conversationas a song";however, the regularity of the rhythms,

using only one addednote value per bar, makesthe overall soundvery unlike birdsongor kind. Roger Nichols does any not specifythat it is birdsong,but the mere fact that he uses the word 'song' impliesthis. The only idiomatic representationof birdsongseems to 'Un appearin the two cadenzasmarked Peu Vif, avecFantaisie' (2), the two sectionsof music where staccatoserniquavers are playedby the flute as the piano plays continuous trills (6), and in the final Wif section(7). In thesesections, birdsong is only found in the flute part, althoughthe piano atmosphereenriches the sonority of the flute's tone, especiallywith the wide diversityof registerthat INIessiaenhas used.

The first cadenza,from bars3-8. may be analysedin a slightly different way lei VVIO]. In previous structuralrepresentations of birdsongs,the entire sectionhas been divided into

bars;however, if birdsong phrases,calls and the hasbeen transposed down severaloctaves and is thereforesignificantly slower, the frequentuse of quaverrests may symbolise pausesrather than breathsor the end of a pfirase.Moreover, if a phraseof the blackbird on mostoccasions concludes with a high-pitched"chuckle', then the musicalnotation that createsthis effectmay signifythe end of a phrase.For the sakeof clarity, eachof the blackbird'scadenzas must be dividedinto bars,but this first songin addition%ill be describedin relationto the 'chuckledending', as shown below. 138

(1) 'Chuckled' endingstructure

(2) 1' phrase:3-6 flatterzunge

(3) 2'd phrase: 6 flatterzunge-8 flatterzunge

Taking this principleinto consideration,the final five chromaticsen-dquavcrs cannot bc

blackbird in distance part of this blackbird'ssong: perhaps these notes resemble a the Nvith is inaudiblein its ppp,dynarnic, and possibly that 'chuckledending' real life. On the other hand, the blackbird'sphrase may not necessarilyhave come to a conclusion.

The 'chuckled' endingsare signifiedby the two flutter-tongueeffects, first on aC sharp2

flat2. This by flute harshness, and secondlyon an E specialeffect produced the createsa As RogerNichols in especiallyin a high register. mentions the aforementionedarticle, the Gg The 'motivic islands' be notes A, E flat, D and are the main pitchesused. effect can in form, dividing seenonce again a table eachgroup of notestied together, and relating all The the pitchesto thesefour notes. notesA, E flat, D and G9 will be labelledY.

BAR GROUPS OTHER FEATURES 3 3x (scandicus), 7x + C# & B, D and includes final B neighbour note alternator 4 sinizienote D, Sx, iamb, 5x +C 5 includes final B ý6 _ 4x, x, flutter-tongue, 7x + 'chirp' 7 5x, iamb (minor 9' 'call'), 5 (staccato), repeated F natural 2 longer durations 8 5x, 4, iamb, 8x + C# & C, iamb, 3, flutter-tongue, five chromatic repeated F natural derniserniquavers [see 159

The iambic cell occurson four occasions:it becomesa featurebecause on the penultimate

in appearanceit usesa tied F natural,and immediatelypreceding this the version rhythmic 2' become augmentationuses the samenote. Featuresgenerally coherentwith the useof be found small cells that appearin the sameorder while expanding.An exampleof this can in the first bar: the A, Eb and D usedin the first set are utilised againin the sameorder, in is but with additionalpitches. The very high fortissimoG natural and F natural bar four diminishedto a singleG naturalin the sixth bar. As canbe clearly seen,the methodsof

frequent in expansionand diminutionare very traits the movement.

The twenty-eightcontinuous serniquavers that occur in bars 37 to 41 also circle arounda

four bars bar few pitches [ex VI/I 1]. The first are practicallyan ostinato: each usesthe from interchangesbetween Bb samerhythm and pitches,apart the third note which a and a 2nd The first bar B natural, andthe final two notesare transposed up a major alternately. first begins on the third serniquaverbeat, missing out the two notesof the series.The bar the secondand third notesof each are alwaysmarked with a slur, while other notesare four bars displayedbelow: staccato.The pitchesof the are

F# Gg bar 37 Bb A GN A# bar 38 D A B A

A Fhl Gil (i) bar 39 D A Bb A1 Gig 1 Aß 1 (ii) bar 40 D A1 B1 160

The fifth bar (41) employsthe four notesof Ix' (D, A, Eb and GO),followed by an F sharp, Eb anda long sustainedD natural.The bird style qualitiesare enhancedby the trills in the piano accompaniment,but it can only be realizedif one imaginesthe phrases recreatedat leastthree octaveshigher and thereforeseveral times faster.

[see P31

The blackbird cadenza(b46-53) in the A' sectionis conceivedin a similar fashionto its earlier counterpartlex VI/121. Apart from the continuoususe of the 'motivic islands' follows: effect, the specialfeatures are as

a) iamb(also in retrograde:trochee)

b) flutter-tongue

c) scandicus

d) 'altemator'

e) 'rhythmic palindrome'(cretic)

f) high-pitched'chirps" (usiWly repeatediambs)

Bars 46-53 (the blackbird's A' cadenza)can be structured in the same way as before, as

in following table. However,in this instance, letters initially shown the 0 six other are included,signifying the featuresof the birdsongwhich are not relatedto the 'motivic islands' effect.The first letters in the alphabetare designatedto theseother motivic features,while the later letters are reservedfor Messiaen'spreoccupation with certain

from in pitches.Generally, the two groupsof symbolsare separated eachother the table:

the use of the samepitches is, however,also found in the subsequentmusic. The music 161

in list (a-f) is large that is not the above alwaysa group of slurreddernisemiquavers - sometimesup to nine notesin a set. In the next table, the figure Y againcan be uscd to describethe notesD, A, G# andE flat, and the groups of pitcheswhich containthree. note-cell repetitionsare labelled'y. Thesethree-note repetitions only occur on two is occasions:in the first instancethe third note altered.An additionalcell may be labelled

it includesthree pitches the The describcd .4z' when repeated within group. approach abovewill bereferred to asthe 'motivicclassification. The black-bird's cadenza in A' will onceagain be dividedinto bars;however, the bar numbersin the left handcolumn refer to their position in the pieceas a whole.The pitch characteristicsare as follows:

x: D, A, G9, E flat

y: includesrepeated three-note cells

z: threerepeated pitches

[see pp341

The overall structureof the blackbird'sA" cadenzais shownin the table below.

Bar No. Groupings/Features

46 2x, a, b (torculus,trochee + fluttertongue)

------47 9x, d, c (flourish, alternator,scandicus)

------48 8+I quaver(z), Sy, 6, e+I quaver(3 flourishes+ syncopatedcell)

------49 a, 9y, z+I quaver,c, e

(iamb,flourish, paeonIV, 2 scandicuscells (2*din a cretic rhythm) 162

50 f, f, f, a (grace notes,iamb)

51 9. c, f, f, f, f (flourish, scandicus,grace notes)

52 a, f, a, f (4 iambic cells)

53 8,8$ b, descendingchromatic scale, 2 (2 flourishes,fluttertongue, extended climacus, and spondee) [see VI/121

The use of dynamicsin bar 52 demonstratesan echoof similar motives.The dynamicsof this bar are mf-ff-mf-ff, which can be seenas an intensityversion of an 'alternator'. This

ABAB subsetform canbe also seenin the previoussection (bars 3741), where each altemate bar usesthe samepitches.

The secondsection, which usestrills in the piano and staccatosen-ýquavers in the flute, occurs betweenbars 84 and 90. It is exactlyidentical to the Previousversion except that the whole sectionis transposedup a perfect4ý the articulation,dynamics and durations remainingthe same.

The final 'Vif sectionis the last componentwhich can realisticallybe regardedas birdsong.The pianoaccompaniment is continuousuntil the last five bars where the

interlocking andoverlapping give way to a discretetexture. The piano takes on a strict twelve-noterow over the thirty barsfrom 91 to 121.The flute part consistsentirely of

staccatosen-ýquavers, syncopated quavers and sextupletserniquavers. The entiresong G high G oscillatesaround the notesA natural, naturaland a sharp.Bars 91-96 only use

three notes,while 97 includesthe next most commonlyemployed pitch, D sharp.The first

bar of the 'Vif section(bar 9 1) displaysthe motive in its original form. As in previous 163 instances,the most frequentlyused pitches that appearin closeproximity are collectively labelled Y. The motive Y, in its original state,comprises nine serniquavers:the first four notes are repeatedin the sameorder, with a final ninth note at the end. The first and last notes havean attachedgrace note. Although bars 91-94 only use Y in its original form, the overall soundis not monotonousas the middleversion begins on the secondcrotchet beat of the bar, thus makingit possibleto fit three versionsof Y into four barswithout overlapping.The third versionis extended.Bar 95 usesthe first four notesof 'x' in retrograde order2',as it startswith the fourth note, and is followed by the third, second and first: this smallphrase concludes with the last two notesof the original 'x, while bar

96 is an exactrepetition of 95 [seep6j. Messiaenemploys the 'open fan' efrect in the birdsong as well as in his 'interversion"SYstems. The rearrangementof intervalscan be shown in bar 97, wherethe A naturaland G naturalare swappedaround and a D# is included.Bar 98 introducesa new motive, 'y, which beginswith scmiquavers,syncopated

C sharpsand endswith a descendingsextuplet flourislL Motive 'z' consistsof the notesA intermittent natural and G natural,with 'double' gracenotes: predominantly they usean

'altemator' form, but in a few instancesthey use 'double notes'. Thesealternators are heavily disguisedby the frequentgrace notes that are appliedrather arbitrarily. in T, the notesGg andD# areadded; however, the phraseis separatedfrom Y by the numerous

'double'grace notes. These grace notes are the main aural constituents that differentiate

'z' from 'x'. The 'motivic classification'of the flute part in the 'Vif sectionis as follows: 164

x: A natural,G natural,G# (seebar 91)

y: serniquavers- syncopatedUs - descendingsextuplet flourish

z: 'double' gracenotes with manyA naturalsand G naturals

it is important to note that althoughthe sectioncan be subdividedwith the help of the above classification,each motive usesthe notesA and G, and bars 91-121 evolvearound these notes,with the addition of the 'reference'notes D#, G# and C#. The C# occursin cy' as repeatedsyncopated pitches, while the D#s and Ggs regularlyspring out of the texture. These'reference' notes help to give the blackbird's song its unique character,and it is preciselyfor tWsreason that one cannotanalyse birdsong in termsof set theory. As

Johnsonexplains22, the use of pitch classescannot account for the featuresof birdsong.

These 'referencenotes' or 'points' are describedby Johnsonas 'anchor points', which have a pivotal functionfor the variouscompositional processes that promotetheir development.Moreover, the inversionsand compoundsets of certainintervals cannot be related to eachother. The table below givesa senseof the audiblecoherence and

structural frameworkof the flute part [seepp6-81.

Bars Features 91-94 X. X. x 95-96 retrograde version of four note cell in Y (t%-,ice) 97 x+D# 98-100 v 101 z 102 double-iamb.fragment of z 103 four unidentifiedsen-tiquavus 104 doublenote z+ gracenotes and trochee 165

105 z 106 z. doublenote z+ G# 107 z. + D# and G# 108 porrectus. z fragment 109-113 use of notes G, D#, C#. G# iýith and z fragments 114 'high-chirp'. x 115-116 . X. X. 117-121 extendedversionof v +! ý%mcopation 122-123 rests 124-125 sextupletflourish (as in y. but ascending)+ -I t wo high-pitched 'chirps'

The wide rangegiven to the flute part also enablesit to displaya significantcontrast in its timbral effects.The final phrasemay be describedas a 'chuckledending', especiallyvdth the ff dynamicwhich producesa harshand even'un-pitched' quality. The birdsongin the

'Vif sectionis mademore idiomaticwith its repetitive language;however, with the piano it is hard overlappingthe rhythmsand the pitches, to decipherthis style in comparisonto its counterpartsin the two earliercadenzas.

However surprisingit may seem,Messiaen's abandonment of electronicmuýic and many forms of serialismwas inevitable.11is aesthetic and deeplyreligious philosophieswere integral to his life and music:both inextricablyinterconnected. Where Messiaen might haveused microtones and indeterminate rhythms, instead he favoursglissandi and the processof proportionateaugmentation: with the sernitoneas its fundamentalunit, the durationsand pitches of the bird's original vocalisationsare transposed,making the music

, to scale',aurally perceptible and in the rangeof the desiredinstrument. As Messiaenhas proudly pointedout: 166

'I chosethe birds - others,the synthesiser'23

In the following work, NMI des Oiseaux(1953), Messiaenrediscovers the ability of the orchestra andthe pianoalso to producea highly sophisticated,contemporary, forward looking and exploratorymusic. Birdsong is to be usedfor its own sake,rather than for decorative purposes;but it wasLe Merle Noir that was the first piece to be entirely dedicatedto bird style. 167

Notes to ChapterVI is form The 'interversion' system a of permutation:by addition or subtraction,rhythmic valuesgradually increase or decrease.Examples of this methodcan be found in 'Regard des Proh&tes,des Bergers, et desMages' and in 'Regard de I'Onction Terrible' from the Ving Regardsmir I'Dfiant-J67is (1944). This systemcan be used in retrogradeorder or by dividing the total group of durationsinto subsets.The 'intervcrsion' system,using Re chromatic rhythms,is presentthroughout the experimentalwork, de Fett I and 11 where the systematicpermutations of the twelve note seriesin Mode de Maleurset d'Intensilis are extendedto the durationsin what Johnsoncalls a 'wedge' shape.This &wedge'shape is also employedin Livre d'Orgue, but on this occasionit is describedas a permutationof an 'open fan'. 2 Antoine Gol6a,Renc6ntres avec Olivier Messiaen,(Paris, Julliard, 1960). 3 SeePierre Boulez's article, 'The Threshold'.taken from Die Reihe. Vol. 11(1955), p40. " Richard Toop, 'Messiaen/Goeyvaerts,Fano/Stockhausen, Boulez, " Perspectivesof Ne 13, No. I (1974) pp 141-169. _Music, 5 There is anotherrninor piece,Timbres-Duries (1952). 1 For more informationabout the improvisatoryquality ofMesse de la Penfecdlesee Claude Samuel,Olivier Messiaen:Music and Color: !Conversations ClaudeSamuel, Oregon, Press, _%vith trans. E. ThomasGlasow, (Portland, Amadeus 1986),p2s. 7 2, derniserniquaversbeing instead Derivative of 0 used of the gracenotes. 8 Moreover, Messiaenincludes the markings"poco rubato', 'rall. ', and 'A Tempo'. 9 The pitchesused signify the sameforwards and backwards,just as a 'rhythmic palindrome' is a group of durationsused in the samemanner. 10The sixth chordsand resolutions are very reminiscentof the love themesin the Turangaffla Symphony. " bar incorporates 'agrandissement This of music the asymdtrique'system to the pitches, thereby causingthe 'alternator' to be unrecognisable. 12The 'alternator' Bb-Ab is derivedfrom c, the Ab-Bb gracenotes. is beautiful 13The nightingale'ssong particularly and drawn-outin the early evening,but it during still vocalises the afternoon. 14On two occasionsthe '.. et fantaisiste'is omitted from the tempo marking. 1:5 Paul Griffiths, Olivier Messiaenand the Music of Time, (London/Boston,Faber, 1985), p147. in 16The Y that appears the characteristicscolurnn denotes a phraseor group of notes that only use the threenotes of this motive. 17This simplescandicus motive producesa 'swooping' effect. 11The informationhere is only relevantfor the first pageof musicin 'Soixante Quatre from Dur6es': the interversionsystem moves one staveto anotherlater in this movement. from Y is by I" Each interval the ceU augmented a semitone,while the whole group of notes is transposed. 20When the iambicrhythm doesnot usethe samepitch, major 7h and minor 9h intervals are employed. 168

11 Motive Y is built up of two four-note cells, followed by a final note: this bar can be classified as being 'inside-out', or the retrograde of the first four-note cell. See Messiaen Cg=anion, ed. Peter Hill, (London, Faber, 1995), p260. This quotation is taken from Almut R6131er'scompilation of various discussions on topical issues in Messiaenresearch, Contributions to the-Spiritual World of Olivier Messiaen, (Duisburg, Gilles und Francke, 1986). 169

Chavter VH: Riveil des oiseaux and Oiseamy Exotiques

In this chapter,the comparisonof thesetwo works is strongly emphasisedfor many reasons.First, the two works reveala notabletransition in Messiaen'soutput, specifically with regardto the importancegiven to birdsong:the sheervariety of species,and their rnelodic and rhythmicinterpretations, disclose a more consistentand complextreatment of bird vocalisation.Secondly, both piecesare of manageablelength, comparedto, for example,the epic CataloguedDiseaux, which comprisesseven substantial books.

Thirdly, thesetwo works are comparablefor manycompositional reasons, and for the fact that they were written aboutthe sametime. The informationin this chaptershould be read with a full scoreto hand.As before,bar and figure numbersare includedas guidelines.

At this point, however,it is necessaryto definea numberof different categoriesof texture that may haveappeared throughout the composer'soeuvre, but are more frequentfrom this point onward.In his dissertation,Phi1ips (1977) hasidentified six kinds of texture with which birdsongis depictedin the Catalogued'Oiseaux. Shu-NVenSun addsa further type to this lise. Thesedivisions may be usedwhen discussing most of Messiaen'smusic with birdsong. Similarly,Johnson (1975) haslisted more detailedclassifications in four separate

theseideas may be applied birdsong; groUPS3.A compositeof when analysing is nevertheless,the following categorisation chiefly an adaptationof Philips' codification.

Examplesof texturesfrom both Reveil des Oise= and OiseauxF-roliques are specified here, extendinga modifiedform of Philips' systemto theseorchestral works. ' 170

The first type is the 'single-linetexture' (monophonic).This is found in eventhe very early works. Apart from the ubiquitousoctave writing in R&M des Oiseauxthat falls within this category,a true examplemay be found in its 'un peu vif' and preceding'un peu lent' bars beforethe final pianocadenza lex VII/I - R6, eil des Oiseaux p58, s4, bl-31,

This texture is most appropriatefor piano solosand cadenzas,since it is very rare that its it is likely be another solo instrumentplays one line, on own: more to superimposed instrument. upon, or juxtaposedwith, at leastone other

Type two is 'two-voiced homophony'in which two voicesare emphasiscdequally. There

devicein OiseauxF-roliques. The depiction the are frequent examplesof this of olive. backed thrush, for example,demonstrates a two-voiced homophoniceffect, in which both

[ex VJIU2 Oiscalix r-ight and left handsplay triplet staccatoserniquavers synchronously - is F_xotiquesp25, W& p26, bl]. Of course,when the orchestra employed,more parts

homophony. rnay be usedin

Dynamic differentiationcreates the third type, which is also two-voiced homophony,but

is dominant.There true this in Nveil des where only onevoice or part are no examplesof

Oiseauxor OiseauxExotiques though many examples may be found in the following

In VAlouette Calandrelle'(eighth work, CatalogvedDiseaux. piece),the representation 'short-toedlark' instances of the title bird - the - containsnumerous of this type of texture Calandrelle' b3l. [ex VIEW- IL"Alouette p7.,sl, 171

The fourth type ariseswhen chords are usedand all the voices are givcn cqual wcight,

This type is named'chordal' or 'homorhythmic'. An illustration of this can be seenin

Oiseaux Exotiques,where the composerdepicts the sonoritiesof the Indian shama.The piano part, takenin isolation,is written in block chords clearly exemplifyingthis type of texture. Messiaenalso represents the Himalyanwhite-crested laughing thrush and the sharpawith this texture,but usingorchestral ensembles lex VII/4a, b, c- Oiscawc

Exotiques p40, p3l, p161.'Harmonic ostinato' and 'harmonic litany' are usedto grcat effect (seeglossary).

The fifth group is exactlythe sameas the previoustype, exceptthat one voice or part is given importancethrough dynamicdifferentiation. Once again,there are no suchexamples to be found in the two works dealtwithin this chapter it is not until the ensuing

Catalogue d'Oiseaux (1958) that the use of dynamic differentiation in birdsong is employed.An exampleof tlýs canbe seenin Te Courlis Cendrd' (tMrteenthpiece),, where left hand's the redshank's.chords give prominenceto the singlenote [ex V11/5- ILe

Courlis CendrP P9, sl, b1l. TMs techniquecan also be found in Ca'llgYOdjajYl(1949). depictbirdsong. althoughhere it is not intendedto

Type six is a hybrid texturein which any of the aboveforms may manifestthemselves in juxtaposition with a chord of resonance,commonly used to depict non-birdsongmaterial.

This is frequentlyused in the CataloguedDiscalor, however,the Americanwood thrush is depictedby resonanceeffects in the first piano cadenzaOf OiscauxEx0liques. Hcre, a 172 resonanceis set up andfollowed by six insistentchords (chordaYhomorhythmic:all voices equal) in this example[ex VW6 - OiseauxEvotiques p5, s4l.

The final type is 'two-voice polyphony', in which two birdsongsappear simultaneously. A fantastically complexand variedsample of this type is found in the counterpointof, or conversationbetween, catbird and bobolink in the fourth piano cadenzaof Meaux

Exotiques (p62). Of course,orchestral works allow for a greater numberof parts to be included in a complextutti of polyphonicbirdsong.

These textures,along with manymore exotic melodic/rhythmiccharacteristics, occur frequently throughoutthe musicof Messiaenfrom this work onwards.However, at the time of Reveddes Oiseaux,only a single-linetexture (albeit mostly in octaves), homorhythmicand many-voiced Polyphonic textures are employed.The additional categoriesfisted here are includedin order to establishanalytical terminology to be used with respectto later pieces.Although thesetypes were originally intendedto be appliedto CataloguedDiseaux, analytical researchin relationto a modified form is otherwise useful when analysingorchestral works' where- by definition - there must be so many more opportunitiesfor multi-voicedtextures.

Here is the Estof textures/notationsoriginally categorisedby Philips and addedto by Sun: 173

Single-voice (monophony) 0 texture (2) Homophonictexture: coequalemphasis

(3) Homophonictexture: one voice dominant

(4) Homorhythmic/chordaltexture: coequalin parts or voices

(5) Homorhythmic/chordaltexture: one voice or part dominant

(6) Hybrid texture:juxtaposition of 1-5 or 7 with a chord of resonance

(7) Polyphoniceffect: counterpoint/conversation7

Rived des Oiseaux

After a brief explorationof numerousexperimental forms involNingnew rh)rthmicand modal procedures,Messiaen wrote NMI des Oiseaux,a work for piano solo and orchestra.The piece,which lastsapproNimately twenty minutes,is dedicatedto the ornithologist, JacquesDelarnain, whose knowledge of identificationwas of invaluableuse to the composer;to YvonneLoriod, who assistedhim in the reworking of the pianoparts; and to the blackbirds,thrushes, nightingales, orioles, robins, warblers and all the birds of the Frenchforests. This pieceis perhapsa reactionagainst the many complexmusical forms that he had usedin the past few years.Roger Nichols suggeststhat in this work

'birdsong speak[s]for itself with a minimumof compositionalinterference'. ' Certainly, this is the only pieceby Messiaento makeexclusive use of birdsong.Messiacn describes it

both as a 'truthful work', since the melodiesand the rhythmsare left untouched(apart from the transpositionprocesses); however, the choicesof instrumentation,ordcr and 174 proportional transpositiontogether reveal the compositionalintervention. Revell des

Oiseaux (7he Awakeningof the Birds) describes,in twenty minutes,a cycle from midnight till noon. Similarly,the first movementof Debussy'sTa Mer' also representsthe passing of time. Messiaendivides the pieceas follows:

Midnight Four o'clock in the Morning Dawn Chorus Morning Songs Noon

Thereis anoverriding arch form. Alternating piano cadenzas and orchestral ensemble lead is from Robcrt up to the granddawn chorus in tutti. Thefollowing table an adaptation

SherlawJohnson's interpretation of thebasic structure of Rived desOiscaux, using rehearsal points rather than timings9:

i1

16-17 28-29 Cadenza:Robin Cadenza:Black-cap

7-16 29-34 Earlv Morning I-Ite Morning 6-7 34-35 Cadenza:Whitethroat Cadenza:Blick-bird

3-6 3542 Early Morning Late Morning

Oý2 42-End Cadenza:Nightingales Cadenza Fading 175

There are two profoundsilences in the work: the first occursafter the dawn chorus, while the secondappears immediately before noon. The importancethat the composerattributes to birdsong is nowheremore apparentthan in the list printed at the headof the score, which givesall the thirty-eightbirds usedin the music.The birds are cataloguedin ordcr of appearance,and their nameslisted in five different languages.

At this point, Messiaenhas become much more methodicalin the score.Most phrascsare

Messiaenlabels labelledwith the species'name, although oc .-asionally a phrasesimply,

'thrush', without statingwhether it is a 'song thrush' or a 'rnistle thrush'. Certain phrases are also providedwith onomatopoeicexamples of the suggestedsound: for example,on the first pageof the score,the secondnightingale (played in the right handpiano part) has a fortissimo,major 70'alternatorwhich is also subtitled 'tikotikotiko'. TheseexamPles give the instrumentalists- in this casethe pianist- an idea of the way the bird vocalises.

At the time of writing, Messiaensaid that he was very proud of the accuracyof eachbird's vocalisation.He claimedthat everysong was transposedProportionally, the end result being,that eachinstrument chosen should represent a closeapproximation of a certain birdsong,while remainingsafely within its range.Furthermore, the characteristic microtonalinterval structureof birdsongin the vrild is expandedin order to conform with the temperedsystem, while the frequentuse of gracenotes often givesthe impressionof glissandiand intervals less than a sernitone.Since this work is so closelyfocused on the depictionof a Frenchforest andits birdsong,it achievesgreater realism, in certain 176 respects, than the later OiseauxExotiques; but with all the compronýsesmade to suit a

twenty minuteduration, the pieceis inevitablymore interpretativethan purely realistic.

Respighi's 'The Pinesof Rome' usesan actualrecording of a nightingale'ssong: this was

in not the sort of realismthat Messiaenhad mind.

The piano representsmany birds. The majority of the piano's cadenzasare written in instances birdsongi. being octaves, with the exceptionof certain where more than one s is but is played. In this latter case,the song still monophonic, one song superimposedupon is another: eachsong has distinct melodic and rhythrniccharacteristics, and often one Robert SherlawJohnson played more softly thanthe other. Thereare two exampleswhich inflection ( 1995) cites as beingthe only usesof birdsongwith addedharmonic in this harmonised piece: the first is the harshhomorhythmic crackling chords and climacuscells is its delicatehigh. of the carrion crow [p58, s3, b141 andthe second the serin,with (alsohomorhythmic) bl]. It be pitched chordalcomplexes - p57, sl, could arguedthat In there are ffirther examplesto be addedto this pair. the samepart of the work, before (A, D, Ab, the final piano cadenza,the starlingrepeats the samechord Db) in groups of

threes and twos, andthe similarlyhomorhythmic cries of the nuthatchrepeat another

chord (C, F, A, Bb), usingvaried rhythmsand with the addition of separatechordal blue in complexesjp57, s5l. In addition,the greenfinchand the tit are also represented having fourths in left hand chord clusters,the former open the piano part, giving the

impressionof a glissando[pS6, s2, b3-4]. Furthermore,the 'pi-pe-rr6-re' exclamationsof

in the songthrush fpl2, s2, bl-21 an ionic minor metre (UU-), precedingthe dawn 177 chorus, are playedin octavesby the cor anglais,clarinet and and lightly accompaniedby elaboratechords on the strings lex VII/7a, b, c, d, el.

Rgved des Oiseauxopens with a piano cadeaza,in altissimo,representing the songof the nightingale. The basicform of this cadenzais as follows: -

I I' nightingale'ssong (octaves)

2 Counterpoint:2 nd & Yd nightingales(short phrases)

(two-voicedhomorhythmic)

3 1' nightingale'ssong (octaves)

In the first part, severalfeatures occur frequently.The G# gracenote and the R appearin

a group of four this iambicformula recurson the third fine, but on this occasionthe tritone is used.The notesD, A and Ab are the anchorpoints: the A naturalis usefulto the

composer,as it splitsup the tritone interval and producesan atonal effectwith the

following Ab. The referencepoint F# appearsfrequently in the first passagein the

gmachine-gun'repetitive demiserniquavers that, by this stageof Messiaen'scareer, are

definitely associatedwith his depictionof the nightingale.Amongst intermittent'machine-

(Ab-G), D-Ab-A (often gun' effectsare major 7thalternators the motive as a short flourish

to end a phrase)and numerous grace notes. The length of eachphrase is slightly varied.

The counterpointsection (figwe 1) beginswith the secondnightingale. The secondand

third nightingalesoverlap with eachother in themanner of a conversation:they both have 178 long and short breaks(rests), giving the counterpointa varied fluidity. The third nightingale is separatedfrom the secondby its use of dotted semiquavcrbeats that slo%v the music down and accentuatethe F natural and the Bb. Both parts frequently havegrace notes and alternatorson an Ab and G naturalwith the 'tikotikotiko' sonority. The sccond unison passagecontinues in the samevein as the first, when suddenlythere is a dramatic pause. At figure 3, thereare short passagesfrom separatebirds: the little owl (solo violin) sings three scandicuscells based on the major 70'and tritone, the wryneck (piano) hasa harmonic ostinatopattern finishing with two staccatochords in the bass,and the little owl's motive reappears,followed by a short phrasefrom the Cetti's warbler (Eb clarinct).

Next, the woodlark (piccolo) playsextremely high pitchesthat are groupedin twos. The found later in woodlark's sonorityis very sinilar to that of the chiffchaff the piece and in

Te Loriot' from Catalogued'Oiseaux. I'Le Loriot' p8l. The ensuingfew bars introduce the first blackbird(played on the celeste),until 4, where three blackbirdssing, accompaniedby stringsand tam-tams playing continuous trills. Birdsong is gradually introduced to the polyphonictexture: eachsong has entirely uniquequalities. Often the short callsthat representthe woodlark and chiffchaff useexactly the samerhythms and pitches.The chiffchaffis playedon the xylophone,as shownin ex VII/8 - p4, sI, bl-3.

The woodlarkis verysirnilar, and gives the effectof ananswering call to the chiffchaff

Meanwhile,the little owl continuesits scandicuscells (derniserniquaver-derniscrniquaver. scmiquaver):each slurred motive hasthe middlenote as its highestpoint. The robin's sons

(playedon the piano)consists of an Eb and three A naturals,two B's, a flourish, a C#-G alternator,A natural 'anchor' point, gracenotes and a concludingflourish. Ilie chordal 179 rhythmic motive of the songthrush is striking and well-defined: the three anapaesticcells

(6-di-di) are followed by the 'tioto, tioto, tioto tou-hitte' figUration f previous ex V1117c].

At figure 5, the threeblackbirds seem to be competingwith one another,while the second violins, violas and cellos,cymbals and tam-tams accompany with atmosphericpianissimo trills, representingthe nightjar.This polyphonictrio is reminiscentof the heterophonic counterpoint in the secondsection of 'Antiennede la ConversationIntirieure' from Trois

Petites Liturgies de La Prisence Divine. It is not madequite clear why thesesongs are accompanied by trills on the strings.Perhaps the clustersrepresent bustling leavesor even birds in the distance,although the most plausiblereason for this scoringis to counter. balance the high-pitchedsonorities with a warmer,lower texture. It is, however, rather difficult to believethat Messiaenis attemptingto depict a singlenightjar with these chordal trills.

The whitethroat's song,at figure 6, is playedin octavesby the piano. Each phrasebegins with the extremelystrong 'anchor' point Bb. This high Bb standsout of the texture

throughout the song:certain phrases begin vAth repeatedBb's. Every phrase(a numberof

notes betweenrests) begins with at leastone suchnote; indeed,the first few phrases

include three Bb's, while the later barsincorporate groups of two. Within phrases,most

subsetsalso begin writha Bb. The minor 9h (or augmentedoctave) is a very common

feature: the interval betweenthe A naturaland Bb is frequent;but, on manyoccasions, tlis

interval is interruptedby an E naturalwhich forms the motive Bb-E-A [seep6, s2, b4j.

The song may be brokenup into nine phrasesas foflows lei VII/91: ISO

Phrase No. of opening Bb's Pitches and Characteristics 1 3 Bb, E, G, C, F4 2 3 Bb, E, _A,A, G, C, F#, A, Bb 3 4 Bb, E, A, Eb (double-iamb) II 4- Bb, B, A(.x2), Eb, F#, F 51 1 Bb, B, A(x2),E, C#, B, A+ interruption call 6 2 Bb, A, F# GA Bb E Eb (2 semiquavers+- 3 dactyls) 7 2 Bb, A, Bb, A, interruption caUusing an addedvalue (2 anapaests,grace notes + cretic) 9 2 Bb, A, Bb (A, G, Eb) - I 9 2 Bb, long phrase- including the samenotes + Db + interruption call

As is immediatelynoticeable, the first two phrasesare almostidentical, the second finishing with a final A andBb. Many of the phrasesare closelyrelated: this gives the music an improvisatoryquality, while retaininga coherencederived from certain reference notes, most notablythe Bb. The pivotal note or anchorpoint (Bb) is taken over by the secondchaffinch at figure 7, and raisedby the first chaffinchto aB natural. The

'syncopated' durationsof the first chaffinchare alsoplayed at II by the first clarinct, representingthe nightingale:repeated pitches are playedin longer rhythmswhich give stability to an otherwisebusy tocture; however, if at any point the faster durationsof a passageare monotonous,the longerdurations help to vary the pulse.From figures 7-9, the two chaffinchesintroduce a sparsetexture. Messiaen creates this effect by representing one bird call in short snippetsbefore another song succeeds. The effect is of a short conversationbetween two chaffinches,a cuckoo (in the distance),great spotted

These be familiar Messiaenlistcncr woodpeckerand a nightingale.0 short calls will to the the ubiquitoustritone alternator,for example,is but one of Messiacn'snightingale motifs in an extensivevocabulary. The lead-up to the beginningof theDawn Chorus rnay be simplifiedas follows: 181

Figure Information 9 whitethroatand blackbird counterpoint 10 nightingale,robin (extensivesong). II robin - extensivecontinuous song with celesteeffects 12 nightingale- fl and cl (and timbral effects) 13 imýitativemelodious warbler sings 14 five-part homorhythraiccall of hoopoe,counterpoint robin (3/4-voiccd polyphonic),two dunnocks,and severalsparrows 15 songthrush 'pi-pe-rre-re' authoritativechordal ID

The introduction to the Dawn Chorusis strikingly confident,using the high anchorpoints

E natural and the lower F natural.The robin redbreastis representedin octavesby the piano. There are no bar lines:the music is mostly continuous,with intermittent serniquaver rests. The immenseauthority of this song is partly createdby the repeatedpitchcs. The fast tempo givesone the impressionthat thereis no hesitationand, therefore,the robin is proud of what he is singing,presenting, as he is, this new period in the Circadiantime- scale.The robin's cadenzamay be categorisedas fbHows,dividing eachphrase from one rest to another[ex VIIU10-p14].

Phrase Groups Characteristics 1 4,116 E anchor,maj - _7' 2 3 porrectus 4,1113,6 E and F anchors+ alternator 4 2ý31,1,5,Ifi, 1,1 E anchor,aug octave+ interruptioncall 5 374v6t4vlt5,,3jlt5,1,3,1,1,8 anapaest,cfimacus E anchor,alternator, dotted senýquavers,machine-gun effect 6 2,2,3 double-i=b,, tribach 7_ 6,1,2,2,4,4,3,1 double-iamb _ 5,,3? 1j3j. 1,4, Ws G#'s, E D's 9ý )1,4,1,5,1,5,1,2 and repeated and 9 51.4,5,2?4,2 Ionizergroups 182

One can quite easilysee that manyof the longer groups are divided by a solitary staccato semiquaver:these take the placeof, or add variety to, the manyinterruption calls and grace noteswhich previouslyhad beenthe predominantmusical material servingto break up continuousnote values.

The blackbird,represented by the first violin, joins the texture at figure 17. The violin gives contrastto the soundworld. This is particularlyexpressive and creativecompared to the three blackbirds"songs at figure 4: the first was displayedon the celeste,and the secondand third on thetwo pianostaves. Although the third blackbirdhas slurred and staccato motives,its counterpart,at figure 17, is in a quite different style. Perhaps

Messiaenis introducinga greaterfluidity as opposedto the more tentative,uneasy songs and calls of midnight.At first, the phrasessound as tentativeas before; however,cach phraseis meticulouslymarked, alternating between the loudly excl=atory and the softly exploratory. The staccatosound (phrase 2) of the violin is very different from that of the piano. Phrasethree, incidentally, can be found almostexactly in the violin part of the first movementof the QuatuorPour la Fbi du Tempswith its scandicusmotive. Phrase 4 displaysa glissandoeffect, which possiblymimics the chatteringat the end of many blackbirds'songs in thewild.

At 18, anotherblackbird and robin now appearcreating a quartet,with the pianistplaying continuousderniserniquavers. Occasionally, added note valuesor gracenotes emerge in the robin's song,but the anchorpoints E, R and G# and the tritone relationsMpshold it 183 together. The piano is extremelyimportant: it imposesa unity on the music at this point, both rhythmically- dueto the simplecontinuous semiquavers - and in terms of pitch, with its many reference/anchorpoints. In addition,the song of the golden oriole (after fig 20) acts like a cyclic themeas it recursseveral times on the horns and cellos: the strings (four second violins & four violas) add to its distinctivelydense harmonic sound. The calls of . (seconds the song thrush, playedon the wood%ind,strings 0 and violas) and trumpet, also occur regularlythroughout the Dawn Chorussection and the whole piece.This canapaestic'rhythm is normallysemiquaver-semiquaver-quaver or demisemiquaver- derniserniquaver-semiquaver,as in the cry of the hoopoe,but without the additional grace notes [seefigure 14 and 201.The songof the oriole usesexactly the samerhythm: it is quiet but harmonic and rather dense,while the second trumpet accents this rhythm with the tritone interval E down to Bb [p191-Intermittently, the listenermight hearthe

sextuplet semiquaversof the great spottedwoodpecker, the effect is of a bird in the

distance amongstlouder, higher and more obtrusivebirds singingat peaktime. In fact, many birds' soundshere are lost in the overall polyphonictexture: yet, if one or two were

missing the soundwould be changedquite considerably.Moreover, everybird is hcard

severaltimes throughoutthe pieceas certainphrases or higherpitches are brought out of

the texture at regularintervals. Messiaen has not yet reachedthe stagewhere he marksall

the phrasesthat shouldstand out, (equivalentto the Hauptstinune/'chiefvoice' and

Nebenstimme/'undervoice' markingsin a serialcomposition), but manyimportant

momentsare markedforte. 184

The fourth bar of figure 20 displaysthe song of the chiffchafr. The first bar consistsor Bb-

A-Bb and Ab, if the gracenotes are excluded.The use of grace notesand high-pitched semitonesis almostidentical to the composer'sdepiction of the chiffchaff in Catalogue dlOiseazix. In this version,however, rests are included.Messiaen accuratelY portrays the

densely-scored chiffichafrs decidedlyrestricted song. More chords,producing cascadesof found in den (hom 2) colour, are the string0 section,while the gol oriole plays numerous is held porrectus flexus melodicshapes. The polyphony togetherby the occasional horns dense anapaesticrhythms on the stringsand and the chords.

The busiestbars are the fourth and fifth of figure 21: all of the alreadylabelled birds are

higher forte It is interesting singing at this time, and there is a proportion of markings. that

Messiaenchooses to incorporatecomplex invented chords in the strings (divisi) but with a

is At pianissimodynamic. The effect strikingly subtleand rich rather than obtrusive. the figure (14) (1 end of the third bar of 22, the secondviolins and violas -4) play complex From bottom, the is follows: G#, A#, B#, chordal complexes[ex VH/111. the chord as "gfissandos'to form D#;, F#, - Bb, D, E, G. This chord then a chordal complex almost built from mode2. The complexchords that Mow consistof separatedivisi parts that

down) forming that the rnove step-by-step(up or exciting chordal sonorities complement linear horizontalmovement of all the other instruments.The harmonyhere featuresmany

first (fourth bar 22), for instance,includes the intervals A-D perfect fourths. The chord of (5-8), the (5-8) B-E Bb-Eb. and Ab-Db playedon the secondviolins while violas play and

This is followed by a sequenceof shnilarly'quartal' chords,although the distinctivesound

is by intervalsbetween fourths quality of suchchords partly reduced two of the pairs of 185 being tritones [see4" bar of rig 221.Hannonies built on fourths are also found in the calls (p is based of the golden oriole 19), where eachchord on four setsof perfect fourths I ex

NrIl/12a, b]. The characteristicsonority of the violin and viola parts is createdby blocks of

arrangedin two groups,thus: .sound

nd 2'd violins 1-4 2 violins 5-8

violas 1-4 violas 5-8

The first vioas, however,are set out in four stavesas shownbelow.

II violins 1& 2 robin demisemiquavers,occasional added note values

11 violins 3&4 blackbird complexand varied song

11 violins 5&6 chaffinch syncopatedB's, long B trills, flourish

I' vioHns7&8 chiffchaff semiquaver+ semiquaverrest, serritones

[4'h bar of rig 221

Chineseblocks The high-pitchedceleste, xylophone, snares and give the overall sounda

tingling quality. The celestehas such a high metallicresonance that the listeneroften feels

that the pitchesare far beyondreach. The piccolo and flute contributeto this combined

dawn effect, addinga silveryquality to the overall collageof the chorus.Each instrument in birdsongsbecome fhantic, continues the samevein: someof the 0 more while otherstake in fourth bar a lessprominent role. For example, the of 23, the secondviolins (5-8) and into violas (5-8) predominate,each split two groupsplaying grace notes with semiquams 186

JP291.

The secondclimax of the dawn chorusis foundjust before its completion(p4 1). At this point, the doublebasses play semiquaversrevolving around aD natural,the 2"d based fourths, 2d violins/violas (5-8) play chords on perfect the violins/violas play modal first chordal complexesin syncopation,while the violins are all playing their specific has rnotivesurithout a break [seep4l]. At the sametime, the woodblock relentless instruments sextuplet semiquaversand the triplet chords,while all the other are

playing ff.

Suddenly at figure 28, Messiaencreates a pausein the texture, introducingthe morning

and its songs.The pianoplays a cadenza- much shorterthan the previoustwo - in which

the blackcapis portrayed.The songis lessregimented than previouscadenzas: there are is increasedby flourish rnany rallentandomarkings and moments where the tempo a first dove ending jp42, s3]. Whenthe whitethroat,song thrush and turtle appear,the three

creativelyimitate the harshsounds of the latter's songwith a three-partflutter. be found in barsbefore figure tongue effect. A gentlerversion of this can the two 30 dove is by Messiaen has where the secondturtle represented three-parttrills. obviously

found that the guttural sonority of this particularbird's song/callhas to be createdby more

than one note at a time, and with effectsthat blur the actualpitches. The polyphonic

texture at this point is sparse.The aforementionedeffects are muchmore noticeable

becauseof Messiaen'schoice of orchestration.The livelinessof the whitethroat's songat

this time is producedby the particularsound of the celeste,the interval leaps,the phrases 187 ending on high pitches,and the manydance-like grace notes that are includedat certain moments. At 32, the thrush,Cetti's warbler, wood lark and little owl join in as beforc, using the samemotivic featuresas at the beginningof the work (midnight to 2 am). Two blackbirds andtwo robins addto the texture, until yet anotherbreak at 34 for the blackbird's cadenza.The blackbird'scadenza may be broken up into twenty-two phrases as shown in the attachedmusical example jp51j. Each phrasemay be categorisedas follows [ex VW131: -

Phrase Characteristics10 No. 1 quasi-altemator,high-pitched G, 2 repeatedC#'s - 2 4-notegroup, singleC# and hiSh-pitchedanchor G 3 5-notegroup (Ab, D, high E, Ab, A), single U, porrectus'I 4 scandicus(as triplet), porrectus 5 4-note group (same pitches as3), single G, porrectus flexus 6 7-note group: double Ab's, grace note, triplet, 6-note group, single C# 7 3-note group, triplet, single G, repeated Ab's, triplet, porrectus flexus 8 2 dotted quavers (Spondee) 9 alternator D-C#,, high G and staccato Ab, ending with 2G anchors 10 2-gro p, cretic, short flourish ending with_2 re2eated G anchors 11 porrectus flexus, 3repeated G anchors with grace note 12 7-note set (note of 3), 5, single C9, alternator, 2 tribachic cells, climar-us resu . s, flourish 13 Bb-Ab set, grace notes E anchor 14 2 repeated G's 15 3-note flourish, single Ab 16 5 single quavers 17 2 flourishes ending with anchor G 18 19 3-note ascending set, preceding grace notes,high G -To 4-note ascendingflourish, porrectus, grace notes + trochee 21 5-noteset, singleAb, 3 G's (+l Ab) flourish, Bb flourish, singleC# 22 , single and 188

The whole of this cadenzais basedaround the notesAb, D, E, Ab and A naturalwith the anchor points G naturaland C#. The manygroups of demisen-ýiquaversrevolve aroundthe five aforementionednotes- the improvisatoryquality is producedby thesepitches C# G break occurring so regularly.The anchorpoints and natural the rapid groups using a including quaver or two repeatedpitches, usually a rest or a staccatomarking signifýinga break in the song.In addition,these reference points are includedin the demiserniquaver

blackbird in groups. The flourishesmay signifythe ubiquitouschattering ending of the the is is found in vAld. Although a limited numberof pitches chosen,variety articulation, It is rhythm and lengthof phrase. alsonoticeable that climacusresupinus and porrectus flexus melodicshapes are predominantlyused to concludebirdsong phrases.

At figure 35, the blackbird,wren, chaffinchand magpiejoin together,shortly followed by

blackbirds later, a robin, two further and, two gardenwarblers and a willow warbler. As listener one bird dropsout, anotherenters: this exchangereacquaints the with manyof the in dawn The birdsongs sonorities found the chorus. superimpositionof various suddenly between birds changesinto a convetsation manyspecies: several sing a smallsection of hasits before This lasts music, in which each say giving way to anotherspecies. pattern figure 42. In this discrete until the final piano cadenzaat section,several occurrences of birdsong are representedin harmony.They are as follows: 189

( I) green woodpeckerjp56, s1, b21

(2) green finch jp56, s2, b3l

(3) blue tit [p56, s2, b4l

(4) $erin jp57, sl, b1l

(5) nuthatch [p57, s5, bl]

(6) starling [p58, sI, b2l

(7) carrion crow12 [p58, s3, b141

(8) great spottedwoodpecker [p58, s3, b5l

All of the harmonyin the abovemusic is written in block chords(homorhythmic). For

instance, the greenwoodpecker's harsh laugh is createdby four simple demisemiquavers

The finch displays using the augmentedoctave. green the closestequivalent to a gUssando The effect possibleon a piano. slurredmarking creates this specialcolourful soundcffect hand using perfect fourths in the left and tone and sernitoneclusters in the right. The latter by blue effect is also employed the tit, only the continuousstaccato serniquavcrs produce Rhythmically, an aimostwhimsical quality. the serinuses many of the samefeatures as are Groups demisen-ýiquavers found in the pianocadenzas. of are played,broken up by single

note lengths.Chordal complexes alternate with chordsbuilt on wider intervals:these

intervals are centredon the tritone, specificallybetween the Bb andE natural.The

starling, however,sings only one chord (A, D, Ab, Bb) in short burstsof twos and threes. 190

-Noon is representedby the final piano cadenza.First, the redstart appearsVvith an F

inatural in everygroup of notes,this note and the F# often breakingup the line. At figure

43, there is an extensiveduet betweenblackbird and roýin using motives from the

introduction of the dawnchorus, but herein counterpoint.A first and secondchaffinch

vvith a blackbirdbring the pieceto a close.A great spottedwoodpecker's sextupletis

]heard,,followed by a solitarycuckoo in the distance.

It is interestingthat the pianocadenzas all work accordingto the sameprinciples.

Continuous semiquaveror denfisen-ýiquaversare often broken up by flourishes,conunon

reference points (usuallywith a staccatoattack), gracenotes or rests.If the piano is not

playing in octavesthen, typically,a simplecounterpoint between two birds begins.In this

work, the limitationsof the pianoare evident,although the glissandoeffects can be

simulatedby chord clustersand slurs.In its cadenzas,the piano acts in part as a structural

agent, providing referencepoints for the listenerin a piecewhich doesnot rely on

traditional tonality or form. Thesepiano cadenzas also changethe mood and create

interludesbefore new periodsin the Circadiantime-scale. The overriding arch form may

also help an audienceto comprehendthis piece,especially as one hasbecome so

accustomedto the pianobeing used to representMessiaen's birds. Harmoniesare

employedto createspecific timbres, while counterpointhas, by this stagein Nfessiaens

development,become the norm in bird ensembles. 191

-,A, nother feature of the piecewhich enablesthe listener to grasp somekind of structure is ltlie fact that birdsongappears in variousparts of the work using very similar rhythmic Moreover, jpatterns and evolvingaround the samepitches. particular birdsongsare often

specific instrumentation.A listeneris ableto identify the sonoritiesof a birdsong by _given its designatedinstrument(s) as muchas by its motivic characteristics.Sections are also

birdsongs For jjnified: certaingroups of or calls are sometimesassociated. example,the

little owl, ten barsbefore figure 4, is immediatelyfollowed by a wood lark and blackbird.

-fhese samebirds are put togetherin the 'un peu vif' sectionof 32, with the addition in

1p,461. Messiaen does duplicate but -this instanceof the nightingale not exactly, short birds' intervals.Yet it is 'r6le de rnotivic cells are usedin the songsat regular the

diamentation'/'diamond-studdedrole' of the piano cadenzathat makessense of the whole

is longer for decoration. focuses -work's arch form". Birdsong no used this piece only on imaginedby the songsof this particularFrench forest as Messiaen.

OiseauxF.rotiques -*

oiseaur Exotiqueswas commissionedby PierreBoulez for the Tornaine Musical' series

Marigny. The betweenOctober of concertsat the Petit Th6itre piecewas composed 5'h

,,, d March 1955 and January2) 1956,and first performedon IOh 19S6.Yvonne Loriod

played the piano.

OiseauxE-koliques is also a piecefor piano and orchestra,but it demonstratesa numberof

instrumentationis less changesfrom its predecessor.The choiceof variedthan in the 192 earlier work: there areno stringsin the orchestra,but manyunpitched percussion ixistrurnents are included.It is theselatter instrumentsthat evoke more innovative

!; onorities of birdsong.Perhaps the composerwas trying to avoid any suggestionof the

tradition in this interpretationof birdsong,where the only .syrnphonic non-birdsong rnaterial found in the scoreis the use of Greekand Ilindu rhythms.On the other hand,the absence of stringsmay be solelydue to the fact that the timbresof these'exotic' birds, for r, lessiaen, do not lend themselvesto stringedinstruments. The instrumentschosen are as

follows:

flute, ,woodwind: I piccolo, I I oboe, I clarinet(in Eb), 2 clarinets(in Bb), I bassclarinet

(in Bb), I

brass: 2 horns(in F), I trumpet (in

pitched percussion:glockenspiel, xylophone

piano solo

Unpitched percussion:3 templeblocks, wood block, sidedrum, 3 ,tam-tam

in the prefaceto the score,Messiaen provides a plan showingthe position of the

instrumentsfor a concertperformance [ex VII/141. This plan is divided into separate

orchestralblocks. The compositionalprocesses are often equallyblock. Uke,dividing the far njusic into thesegroups. To the left of the conductorare the unpitchedpercussion,

straight aheadare the woodwind; the piano andxylophone are either side of the

conductor, with the clarinetsalso at the front. The Bb clarinet,piano and xylophoneare 193 also positionedat the front as they are intendedto play the most important r6les in the piece. The pianohas three short cadenzasand two longer ones:Messiaen describes the piece as like a piano concerto.The use of the piano in Rived des Oi.vealix was predorninantlý monophonicand in octaves,whereas here the piano hasmany harmonies built from complexinvented chords; there are also resonanceeffects, many supcrimposcd solo lines and .The Bb clarinetsplay a chief part in the central tutti, representingthe Americarobin. The xylophoneis also usedas a solo instrument.

However, in the preface,Messiaen states that eachand every instrumentshould be audible: the orchestrationitself displaysthe soloisticrole of eachpart, as there is only one instrument to a part, with the exceptionof the two Bb clarinets.This select instrumentationlooks like a smallchamber orchestra on the podium. The positioningof the instrumentsis essentialfor the conductor'sbalancing of all the complexsonorities. In order to createan approximationof aUthe timbresand colourations;that Messiaen intends, the composerhelps the interpreterwith numerousmarkings in the score.The difference pedal parts (for the piano)make a tremendous to the sound quality, but, more importantly, the characterof eachbirdsong and the meticulousdynamic marldngs help the balance.Furthermore, conductor to createthe correct acoustic the many footnotes

describethe elementsthat needto be emphasised.Each new phrase has an attached is dynamic,while the articulationof the notes alwaysspecified. In addition, the tempo free changesare so frequentthat the birdsongseems especially and unregimcntcd.

Messiaendescribes Oisemix Erotiques as a work that containsonly birdsong.In fact,

Rived desOiseaux is the onlywork of Messiaenwhich can be describedin thisway. in the 194 later work, the composerlinks non-pitchedpercussion with woodvAnd,xylophone, brass, glockenspiel andpiano, the percussionconstituting a strophic support basedon Hindu rhythms, versesand Greekmetric feet. The unpitchedpercussion (strophic form) is fact, is realised independentlyfrom the birdsong.In the music generallycreated by juxtaposing blocksof materialsand occasionallysuperimposing them on one another.The fonn is effectivedue to the balanceof similaritiesand contrasts.

Messiaen's own ornithologicalresearch from around the world has here come to fruition.

The work maybe immediatelylabelled 'unrealistic' as so many compositionalprocesses have beenused in order to give prominenceto birdsong;nevertheless, the homogenisation diverse of so manyexotic birdsongsfrom such countriescreates an evocativeand varied collage.

There are forty-eightbirdsongs incorporated here, the majority of which are taken from

North America,while othersare from SouthAmerica, India, Malaysia,China and the

CanaryIslands. Messiaen fists them all in the prefaceto the score,putting eachone in its

havehad Nlessiaen listener country of origin. The birds that the most effect on as a are importantly, listed with informationabout their colouration,size and, most a short

characterisationof their songsor calls.

five The form of the piececomprises six tuttis with piano solos - the Circadiantime-scale

is redundanthere as Messiaenis not attemptingto representa time period. However,the

piecemay be dividedinto three definedsections as follows: 195

Introduction

Sequence (PianoCadenzas and InstrumentalInterludes -2 long Tuttis)

Coda

A more detailedbreakdown of the form is given below:

SECTION FIGURES PAGES (I) Introduction 1-2 pl-p3 (2) 1' Piano Cadenza 3 p4-p5 (3) P Tutti 4 p6-pS (4) 2d Piano Cadenza 5 ps-P9 (5) 2"Tutfi 6 p9-p12 (6) 3dPiano Cadenza 7 p13 (7) Central Tutd 8-23 p14-p6l (8) 4uPiano Cadenza 24 p62-p65 (9) Final Tutli 25-30 p66-pS3 (10) Final PianoCadenza 31 p84 (11) Coda 32-end p85-pS6

Although the maintutti is very complexand incorporatesmany different birdsongs,the other sections,as in Rived des Oiseaux,use fewer songs:they help the listenerto locate a

in senseof fonnal structure the pieceas a whole - seebelow: 196

i[ntroduction: commonmynah, Mmalayan white crestedlaughing thrush (ppl-3) I" Cadenza: commonmynah, red-billed mesia, American wood thrush, veery (pp4-5) I' Tutti: leafbird,Baltimore oriole, red-billedmesia, Califomian thrasher(Pp6-8) nd Piano Cadenza:cardinal (pp8-9) -IF Tutti: leafbird,Baltimore oriole, red-billedmesia, Californian thrasher(pp9-12) 3'dPiano Cadenza:cardinal (p13) Central Tutti: (ppl4-61) (i) opening- prairie chicken (ii) main section- manybirdsongs & rhythmic strophes (iii) a) introduction- commonmynah timbres b) as beginningof centraltutti 4'hPiano Cadenza:bobolinký catbird (pp62-65) Final Tutti: rhythmicstrophes, many birdsongs (pp66-83) Final Cadenza:wood thrush, cardinal(p84) Coda: commonmynah, Ifirnalayan white crestedlaughing thrush (pp85-86)

It is important to note that severalof the sectionsare very closely related.Not only do the

smaller sections(such as the first and secondtuttis) use the samebirdsongs as one

another, but they also employsimilar instrumentation, rhythmic and melodicmotives, to

representeach of the bird's songs.

There is a strikingly consistentuse of Greekand I-findurhythms, played on the following

unpitchedpercussion instruments, in both the centraland the final tuttis:

SideDrum WoodBlock Gongs Tam-Tam TempleBlocks 197

Messiaenalso takes rhythms from the Karnaticsystem of Indianmusic. In fact, all of the

rhythmsare in their original fornis,with the exceptionthat the Hinduones are subjectedto

dirninution.The exotic rhythms(Greek and Hindu) in this pieceare listed below:

OnLu2by-thim-g

(1)Ded-Tilas from the Shamgadevasystem:

prlhgankalna,Gajalila, Lakskrrýqa, Caccad, Candrakala, Dherýd, Gajahampa

(2)Kamatic Theory.

Matsya-Sankima,Triputa-NEshra, Matsya-Tishra, Atatila-Cundh

CgeA3jWLbms-

(1) ComposedFeet or Metre: Dactylo-tpitrite

(2) Linesof ComposedMetre: Iamb6l6giac

(3) LogoaedicLines: Ascl6piad,Saphique, Glyconique, Aristophanien, Phal6cien,

Ph6r6cratien

TheMain Tutti's framework(figures 10-22) is providedby four rhythmicstrophes. Each stropheis identicalin format:the thirteenGreek and I-Endu rhythms appear in the same orderfour times.'Strophe Rythmique' I, II, III andIV are in the following order 198

I Ascl6piade(Logoaedic)

2 Saphique(Logoaedic)

Nihgankallia(Tfilas)

4 Glyconique(Logoaedic)

3 Adorýque

6 Gajarila

7 Lakskmica(Talas)

Iamb6legiaque(Line of ComposedMetre)

AristoPhanien(Logoaedic)

10Matsya-Sankima (Kamatic)

II Caccan^(TWas)

I Is Groupsof serrýquavers14

12Candrakali (Tilas)

13Dactylo-tptitrite (ComposedFeet or Metre)

(Notethat the Indian rhyflunsare subjected to gradual/chromaticdiminution)

Theserhythms are all playedon the unpitchedpercussion instruments listed above. The appearanceof four successiverhythmic series provides the centraltutti with its form,

birdsongs wMe occur randoHy throughout.0

A few of the Greekand Hindu rhythmsfound in the centraltutti recurin the final tutti; however,other rhythmsare mostly employed in this later ensemble.The most common instrumenthere is thewoodblock, whereas each instrument in thecentral tutti wasgiven

A 199 equal weight. In the first section,the woodblock plays the rhythms Dhen)Ci,Gajahampa,

Dhenkiin fashion. while returning to a continuous The rhythms chosenappear as follows:

(I) temple blocks: quavernote motive side drum trills, gongs

Vhenld, Gajahampa,Dhenk!

C31yconiqueand sidedrum trills

(2) Temple blocks: 3 quavermotive

side drum trills, gongs

1Dhenld,Phal6cien, Triputa-Mshra

J)henki, Ph6r6cratien,Matsya-Tishra, Atatila-Cundh

Dhenld (wood block andgongs) + trills

-trills +3 quavermotive

block's 'three-quaver Both groups begin-, vith the temple motive' and are succeededor

precededby trills on the sidedrum. Thesepatterns add to Messiaen'smore insistent

employmentof motivic repetition.Birdsong, however, is alwaysat the forefront of the

generalensemble. 200

-rhe introduction of the work may be divided simply, thus:

molto cresc.In woodwind- glissandoin homs

derniserniquavers(2cl, b (2) short interruption call - two cl, cls, bsn)

(3) piano & glockenspiel grace notes (homorhythmic)

(4) repetition of I

(5) syncopatedpitches (descending by seinitone)in clannets& bassoon(homorhYthrnic)

(6) piccolos, flute and

(7) chordal repeated pitches + interruption call (woodwind and brass)

(8) powerful semiquaversof 11imalayanwhite crested laughing thrush, ending with repeated pitches (homorhythmic) [see pl &p3l

The first piano cadenzaappears at figure 3. The commonmynah is represented.

immediately, the listeneris awarethat thereis a great abundanceof rpetition., more than

in earlier works. The first phrase,for instance,comprises an alternator,however, this is

not two notesrepeated, but two chordalcomplexes repeated several times. The seven

chordsmake way for thegravelling cluster chord ending. Other exact repetitions in this

cadenzaare the precedinggrace notes and chords (bar 6), the triplet andcluster chords (7 four flourishes(bar 12) The thirty-one bars - 8), the sequential andmany others. of this follows VIEUIS cadenzacan, therefore, be simplifiedas [ex - pp4 & 51: 201

bar characteristics

i mynah: 'chordal alternator', 'low-gravelling' ending

2 2 interruption calls + ascending,homophonic flourish

3 ascendingflourish to high B+ major 7' alte-mator

4 two-part homorhythmic climacus (quasi-glissando15 ), 4 chords and 'low-

gravelling' ending

5 flourish, ascendingflourish, major 7h alternator (homophonic)

6 Cresc. (pp-ff), 8 C-E-B chords with accompanying grace notes"'

7&8 triplet + chord

17 2 flourish spread chords "

10 2 harmonised 'quartet calls"" (scandicus)

I quasi-glissando,grace notes

12 4 sequential anapaesticcalls (two-voiced homophonic) ri _3 two-part homophonic flourish: all in major 2'

14 low bass chords

15 two-part homophonic flourish (white/black pitches), 3 widely-spread chords

16 low bass notes

17 widely-spread chords

18 & 19 triplet + chord (as 7& 8)

20 red-billed mesia: iamb, 2 scandicuscells, 3 iarnbs

21 descendingflourish

22 &23 mynah: triplet + chord (see 7& 8) 202

24* American wood thrush: 2-part chords & resonance effects (hybrid)

(the final flourish is a harmonised porrectus flexus)

25* as 24 but with final repeated chords (B, E, G#, D#, G, A) (hybrid)

26* as 25 but 6 repeated chords (hybrid)

27* like 25 (hybrid)

28* as 24 but 8 final chords (hybrid)

29* samerhythms as previous bars

30 veery: 5 groups of triplet chordal clusters (5 tribachic cells)

31 4 descending chords (left handa scmitoneabove or below2n6 note of right hand)

[ex VII/151

It seemsthat eachbar of the commonmynah's song has an entirelydistinct quality. Only bars 7-8, andthe use of the alternator,appear several times during the cadenza.The

Americanwood thrush,however, uses the samechordal complexes and rhythmsin eachof its exclamatorybars: this is clearlyshown in the abovetable by the asterisk.The second bar,in the Americanwood thrush's song, introduces three repeated chords that endthe phrase,while bars 26 and18 extend this with moreof the samechord. The veery's song

(fromNorth America)is madeup of repeatedtriplet demisemiquaversand chords, ordy changingin the last of the five groupsof its first bar. It is notablethat, not only is the left hand'spitch a sernitoneaway from the lowerpart in the right hand,but also,in eachof the in precedinggroups, the one or two notes the left handare a senýtonebelow two of the notesin the right. To employthe principalmelodic shapes, such as porrcctusflexusý in harmoniesrepresents an importantinnovation.

.Ad 203

The heterophonicfirst tutti (figure 4) usesthe following instruments:

piccolo flute oboe

2 clarinets(in Bb) glockenspiel xylophone

The piccolo representsthe high-pitchedtwittering calls of the lessergreen leafbird from 19 imalaysia;the 'Chinesewood-block sonorities' of the red-billedmesia (China) are played lower on the glockenspielin altissimoand at pitch; the Californianthrasher is playedon the xylophone;while the Baltimoreoriole's joyful songsare representedby a hornorhythmicwoodwind quartetcomprising one flute, one oboe and two clarinetsin Bb.

in The scandicusmelodic shape appears again the woodwind block of this section;only, in this instance,harmony is usedthroughout.

is The main featureof the lessergreen leafbird the repeatedpitches. The listenerhas two points of reference:the manyrepeated pitches and severalscandicus melodic cells of the In fact, Baltimore has woodwind block (Baltimore oriole). the oriole (p6) only the following characteristics:iambs [bl], quavernotes with semiquavers[b2l, slurred

scandicusýocells and a quintupletsemiquaver flourish at the end of this section.Both the 204 red-billed mesia(glockenspiel) and the Californianthrasher (xylophone) alternate between phrasesat loco and at l6ve pitch. The xylophonealso employsthe scandicusshape with and without the slurs [seep7j, while the glockenspieluses grace notesin every one of its phrases.At the sixth bar of this section,the bassclarinet and bassoonare addedto the quartet. Thesetwo rich instrumentsonly appearwhen the clarinetsare playing,SiNing a depth to the sonority.

The secondpiano cadenzais rather short and extremelyrepetitive. Here, the cardinal(of

Virginia) is represented.According to Messiaen'sprefaze, its call is very shrill, rapid and

'liquid'. In the musicalscore, the composerasks for a 'tres vif tempo marking (one crotchet = 100):the speedof the songis certainlyclear to the pianist.However, 1%lessiam includesthe expression'conune un cr6pitementde gouttesd'eau'/'Iike a splutteringof water drops': this subjectiveimagery is somewhatvague for the pianist. Water droplet sonoritiescan be heardas early asLe Banquet Celeste(1928). Perhapsthe referenceto

&Hquid[ity]'and 'water' is especiallyrelevant to the ascendingslurred demiserniquavcr runs in the fourth bar of figure 5. With so quick a tempo marking,these slurred durations

(in two-part chords)merge into eachother. Messiaenalso statesthat eachstrophe (or musicalidea) containsa different melodicor harmonicfragment that occurstwice, five,

21The sevenor nine times. cadenzaopens with two repeatedquavers with accompanying gracenotes, while clearlysetting up an E major chord for the first group's 'two-part chordal*alternator' [VEU161.The strophes,in this cadenza,are categorisedin two parts, thus: 203

No. in Features

Strophe

Part I E major chords(+ A# and C gracenotes)

2+ triplet

5 alternator:E major + major 2nd (using cell from bi)

2 two-part rising flourish (major iiýirds and augmentingto a fourth)

7 two-part rising chordalflourishes - tritones in lower part

2 two-part (atonal)

7 two-part, fourths and fifths in lower part, secondsand thirds in upper

PgZI 2 asbar 1

2+ triplet

9 as bar 2 (extendedversion of b I)

2 cquartal'chords

5 descendingflourishes, first two notesrepeated (inverted minor thirds)

groupsof five (extendedclimacus)

5 descendingflourishes (as last bar)

groupsof five (extendedclimacus)

5 descendingflourishes

groupsof five (extendedclimacus) 206

The secondtutti (at figure 6) takesthe sameform as the heterophonicfirst tutti of figure

4. However, this is extendedeven further, althoughall the samefeatures appear here. The

Baltimore oriole (playedby the flute, oboe and clarinetsin Bb) gives the effect of greater timidity thanbefore, as more restsare introduced:it is only later that the more insistent scandicusrhythms recur with regularity.The very shrill'call of the cardinalfollows, using the samemotives as before. This section(3d Piano Cadenza)also openswith two repetitions- loudaccented chords with precedinggrace notes - anda suddencrescendo and dinýnuendoin the ensuingchordal alternator. The groups of strophesare as follows:

527272925235

Apart from the one exception(at the end of the abovelist), eachstrophe, in prime numbers,is followed by two identicalcalls [pl3]. *

The CentralTutti beginsat figure 8 (page 14 of the score).As alreadymentioned, the

instruments rhythmsplayed on the unpitchedpercussion are divided into strophesand put

i nto four sections,where the rhythmsare playedin the sameorder. This centralmovement

maybe dividedand analysed in four sections,thus: 207

Central Tutti

Figure Section

8-10 introduction of maintutti - prairie chicken

StropheRythmique 1 . 10-13

13-16 StropheRythmique II

16-3 before 19 StropheRythmique III

3 before 19-22 StropheRythmique IV

22-24 Codaof maintutti - prairie chicken

The introductionto the mamtutti openswith a crescendotrill from the tam-tam.The

prairie chickenis representedin the woodwind. In the preface,Messiaen mentions three

main featuresof this bird's calls.The first is its 'gurgling sounds',which apparentlyhave.

qualitiesof 'distant huntinghorns'. This sonority is representedat figure 8 with the

descendingtriplets and solemnpitches in the low register. Secondly,the composer

mentionsthat it hasa 'shrill call' which is succeededby a rapid descentto the lowest part

of its register.This characteristicis found atfigure 9. After a gracenote and rclatively

long accentedhigh-pitched quaver, a rapid descendingflourish from the woodwind leads

to staccatochords on the piano and,finally, a singleflourish from one clarinet (in Bb),

bassclarinet and bassoon [ex VIEU171. 208

At 10, the 'stropherythmique F begins.Throughout this main tutti section,Greek and

Indian rhythmsrun almostcontinuously from end to end, creatinga rhythmic cantus firmus. Ascl6piadebegins on the sidedrum. The only other instrument,at this time, which is not depictingthe white crestedlaughing thrush, is the xylophone,representing the orchard oriole: it usesscandicus figurations22 with high B natural referencenotes. The

Himalayanwhite crestedlaughing thrush has a very commandinganapaestic chordal refrain [seeprevious ex VII/4 - pl6l. Each note in its first four bars is accented:in the its having preface to the score,Messiaen describes songas 'implacablebursts of

like giant.' The songconcludes with a drarnaticharmonic alternator sound... a mountain employingthe oboe,Eb clarinet,bassoon, two hornsand trumpet, producinga harmonic alternator.The overallharmonic effect is extremelydense and rhythmicallystatic. The texture of the white crestedlaughing thrush is also rather grand: it is perhapsfor this reasonthat Messiaenchooses to endthe work with this idea, and with every instrument playing synchronously.

Figure II is still rather sparseand sporadic.The dulcet repeatedB naturals,and A#'s of the cowbird, playedon the piccolo, are first complementedby tritone intervalsand (from syncopatedEb's from the red-whiskeredbulbul India), and, subsequently,by barred periodic scandicustriplets depictingthe owl and the porrectuscontinuous triples homophony, of the two barsdevoted to the olive-backedthrush. In two-voiccd the olivc. backedthrush's songrises in pitch: the piano playseach note with the indicatedstaccato articulation,yet resonanceeffects are created by the pedallingcalled for in the first triplet in eachset. Gradually,more and more speciesare introducedinto the music.Designated 209 instruments remaindevoted to particularbirdsongs until a new bird appearsin the score, where they maybe re-allocated.An indigo bunting, rose-breastedgrosbeak, hermit thrush and white-crownedsparrow are presentedbefore the Indian shamareappears at figure 12.

The new figure markingstresses the importanceof the shama:its significanceis emphasisedby giving it to the two hornsand the trumpet which, loud enoughin themselves,are alsoboth situatedjust behindthe solo xylophoneand clarinetsin Bb - in other words, well to the fore. The homswere last heardrepresenting the dense,'giant' laughing sonorities of the 11imalayanwhite crested thrush. The composerdescribes the

Indian shamathus:

rhythrnicaUy percussivefiguration

twitch of the tail

varied warblings

4 descentto low register

5 repetition of disjunctpitches

sparkfingfanfare

7 brassytone

8 clear and gay

Someof the qualitiesoutlined above are speculativeand personalto Messiaen;howcvcr, it is possibleto locateprobable examples in the musicalscore. The sharna'sfirst phrases centreon the Bb andB naturalin the first bom [seeprevious ex VII/4b - rigure 141.The secondhom playsthe samepitch classesbut transposeddown a tritone, while the 210 trumpet's C naturalis raiseda tritone to an F# in a four-voiced short call. On page21 or the score,the bassclarinet and bassoon join the horns and trumpet in the shama'sfirst phrases.Vivacious ascending staccato triplet cells follow in a crescendo,displaying the shama's'rhythrnicaHy percussive figuration' [see I above- p25, b 1-3). This phrasemay be regardedas the 'sparkling.fanfare' (6 above),whereas the bird's 'brassytone' is creatcd simply by the choiceof instrumentation.The generallystrong, confidentquality of the shamafrequently justifies the composer'sdescription of the musicas 'clear and Say'. The intermittently motivesof thisbird's songare incorporated throughoutthis maintutti section.However, it is not clearas to whatthe 'twitch of thetail' is, or wherethe 'descent to its low register' maybe found23.The 'disjunct pitches' may be found on page 38, where the xylophonealso repeats continuous C naturaldemisenýquavers [see p38, bl-31. The hermit thrushis reintroducedin this section,with its two-voiced homophoniccall comprisinga three-notecell in a repeatedrhythmic pattern [p24, b2l. In addition, the cardinal'srapid, shrill callsmake an appearancewith the short but swift rising flourishes on the piano.

At this timein Messiaen'scareer, the chatteringand almost unpitched sonorities of the sparrow are representedby trills. In this case,shown at figure 14, the Americansons sparrowis depictedin the sameway. The repeatedB and C naturalsof the summer tanagerfollow amongstextremely shrill, short and rising flourishesfrom the cardinal,this time playedon the xylophone. 211

At figure 15, the northernmockingbird forcefully takes over the texture, playedby the obtrusive homs andtrumpet, instruments normally associated with the whit e crested laughing thrushor shama.Its song,too, is joyful, staccato,but more delicate.For some time now, the cardinal,in the piano part, hasbecome more and more insistent,virtuosic and,playful: the immediatelypreceding figuration (four before 15) involvesseven repetitions of the melodic/rhythmicpattern. Continuous triplet staccatosemiquavcrs are also found in the representationof the commonturkey (wild turkey) on page42 of the bass score. Eachtriplet is the same,and the clarinetgenerally plays abovethe bassoom

The musicbecomes more busy (fig 19): mor.- alternatorsand repeatedgroupings are heard in two parts,while the hornsplay loudly and synchronouslywith the trumpet.

The sharnais representedin a completelydifferent way on the piano. At figure 20 (bar4), the rapid line showsa relativelynew techniquein Messiaen'sinterpretation of birdsong.

Both handsare used,yet certainnotes jump out of the texture. In 'Le Loriod' (Cataloglie dDiseaux), Messiaenexpands on this principle,dividing certainpitches, whether they be higher or lower, to a designatedhand, thereby requiring the pianistto play with

however,four by four overlappinghands. In this instance, phrasesare signified slurs IpS3, lower G, C, G b2; p54, W]. The left handis assignedthe notes(C#, and A), %vhilethe in right playsthe other, higherpitches, the sameorder on eachoccasion: this repetition, in fluidity. first conjunctionwith the broadlyarching slurs, creates an effect of The phrase beginson the fifth note of the system,continuing to the final B natural,yet the second phrasebegins with the C#, the pitch that startsthe other two phrases. 212

At figure 21, the powerful chordalrefrain of the I-fimalayanwhite crestedlaughing thrush returns, succeededby a white-crownedsparrow (on the xylophone),olive-backed thrush

(on the clarinet)and, finally, a more deterniinedsecond reftain from the laughingthrush.

After a prolongedpolyphonic tutti, a breakin the music occursat figure 22. The second part of the introductionto this maintutti is quoted: shrill calls are followed by a rapid descentin the woodwind, in an exactreplica. The far off 'hunting hom' effect of the prairie chickenis shortly succeededby two short calls and descents.The 'gurgling sounds' of the earlier figure 8 section now emerge at figure 23, drawing this main tutti to a tentative, sparsely-scoredclose. These two recapitulationsclearly define the section(from figures 22-24) as the codato the main tutti.

The fourth piano cadenza.opens with a 'miaow' from the catbird and a WghlYcomplex conversationin counterpointbetween catbird and bobolink. The bobolink employs

'brilliant' melodicfeatures, revealing a masterlypolyphonic virtuosity in its interplay vvith the catbird.The form of this cadenzais in two sections,thus IVII/181: 213

Section I Section 2 catbird's 'miaow' catbird's 'miaow' counterpoint counterpoint catbird's 'miaow' counterpoint(continues) catbird (short solo) catbird (short solo) bobolink (short solo) bobolink (short solo)

At the beginningof the counterpointrepresenting catbird and bobolink, eachbirdsong is very differentfrom the other; however,the fifth bar alreadydemonstrates the overlapping of the two songs,exemplified by the gracenotes and slurswhich map onto anothervoice and the interlockingrhythmic groups. There is alsofrequent use of 'crossedhands' and overlappingof pitches.The bobolink playsthe minor 7" alternator(D natural-Cnatural) inverted and an ensuingalternator with an major 7h interval (B natural-Cnatural). The latter alternatoris not only incorporatedthroughout this passage,but its B natural also intermittent occursas a referencepoint at the end of groups lp62, s5, b1l, as two pitches

[p62, A, b4l, in white-keychords [p62, s5, b2l and as the top note of the catbird's

'miaow' Ifigure 241.When the bobolink is very busy,the catbird is often given slower, lessfTantic rhythms [see p63, s3, b1l. The catbird'sshort solo jp63, s5, b2) consistsof two identicalbars, each having two fortissimochordal complexes and one basschordal flourish. The bobolink, on the other hand,uses demiserniquavers in parallel,the pitches

nd fd clashingwith one anotherbecause of the manyclose major 2 and minor 3 intervals 214 betweenthe two. The two-part alternatorin the middle is particularly colourrul. The bobolink's solo at the end of the cadenzaemploys the sameprinciple as in its earlier versions.Nevertheless, the musicis higher,more drawn out, and concludeswith a scalein the left handwhich, with the black notesin the right hand,reminiscent of a stained-glass 24 window's colouration. The precedingcries of the catbird also use higher pitchesin the chords,the secondbar beingan exactrepetition of the first. The cadenzahas been working up to a climaxfor sometime: the perpetualgrace notes, high fortissimo stabsand drawn out alternatorsprecede these exciting solos.

The final tutti begins at figure 25 on page 66. Simple quaver rhythms are written in harmony, using the full resources of this orchestra. The piccolo has an ascending run, using mostly black notes, to a top B natural trill, while the xylophone, in two parts, plays a dectapletglissando in the shapeof a 'closing fan' Jp66]. At this time, the rhythmic percussivefigures of the shamaare represented,first by the samethree quaversas in the other parts, andsecondly by three fortissimoaccented sen-dquavers. After a short and s%%ift bar bars first bar monophonicmartellato interlude in 3, the ensuingtwo repeatthe almost identically.With the exceptionof the piccolo andthe xylophoneruns, the tonal centrc is E major. The first chord of eachof the units employsonly the notesE natural,G# and 13 natural.The secondchord consistsof the notesE, G9, B andD9 (a major chord with an C, A# in bass added7h), andthe third usesthe pitches B, F, E, F# with an the clarinets 'E [see and bassoon.This characteristicbar will be referredto as the major' motive p671.

From figure 26, the Indian shamais representedin the piccolo, flute, all clarinet parts and solo piano.The featuresin the upper woodwind includemany repeatedpitches, grace 215 notes and repetitionsof melodiccells (seefirst clarinet in Bb). The piano solo, however, beginswith two '6clatant' chords:the, first is relatedto E major, while the secondincludes many of the pitchesemployed in the third chord of the aforementionedE major motive.

This striking chord is followed by a two-part flourish, heavilybased on the tritone interval.

Another flourish and a two-part alternatorfollow: here, eachtwo-part chord is no more than a n-dnorthird interval.The shamais representedby two homs: the texture of the bassoon ensemble.becomes more andmore frantic, especiallywhen, subsequently,the followed in by drawn-out plays continuouswinding triplets, turn alternatorsof the wren from Carolina,FEndu and Greekrhythms. At page72, there are two 'E major bars' before

a homed lark, red-eyed.vireo - newcomersto the ensemble- and a shamaappear at figure

28 [p73]. Messiaenis stiff introducingmore new birds, includingthe staccatoscmiquavcrs

finch of the warblingvireo, the high trills and rapid endingsof the purple and short, latter colourful phrasesfrom the yellow-throatedvireo - the competingwith the two horns in block The iambic and trumpet playingthe 'quartet rhythm' chords. cells of the Luzuli

bunting andthe intervalleaps of the blue-headedvireo are the only other new birdsong

featuresto be introducedbefore the final T major' barswhich concludethis section.At

the fourth bar beforefigure 30, the texture comprisesmany alternators and quick runs

from the bassoonand . Figure 30 providesa textural divide, as E major

final flourishesfrom motivesare followed by two block chords, the shamaand two distantinterval leaps,falls subsequentE major bars.A virtuosic piano solo, using to the

depthsof its range,as a last E major bar givesway to the final piano cadenza. 216

The final pianocadenza, at figure 3 1, depictsthe wood thrush and cardinal.In fact, this short sectionis a microcosmor compositeof the first and secondpiano cadenzas.The first three barsare an exactreplica of the first three bars of the Americanwood thrush's

'hybrid' callsin the first pianocadenzaý5 using a harmonicversion of a porrectusflexus shapeand centringaround E major JpS,s4, bl-31. Sifffflarly,the 'liquid' strophesof the cardinalare identicalto thosefound in the secondpiano cadenza,only this version is transposed.The prime number'5' determinesthe numberof repetitionsof strophesand the restsat the end.

The codaat figure 32 (page85) beginswith the strangecall of the Indian mynah,already found at the openingof this work, thoughhere it is followed straight away by the powerful but static andunrelenting staccato serniquaver chords of the white crested laughingthrush. In this last instance,the samechord - using all 12 pitch classes- is soundedthirty-one times until the close [ex VEU19- p84]. The overall effcct is a dcnse climacticsound emphasising the immensepower of this bird's song and, moreover,the infinite timbral possibilitiesthat canbe found in birdsongaround the world. This static densityof soundpre-figures the gigantismof later works suchas Et Ekspecto

ResurrectionemMortuorum. 217

OiseauxExotiques represents,

' the first systematicattempt on the part of Messiaento capturethe timbre of birdsong insteadof, as in Rdveildes Oiseaux,contenting himself with outline alone.' [Malcolm Troup in the 'MessiaenCompanion', 1995, p409].

The composer'sdeveloping operandi (in relation to birdsong) hasrcachcd its apogeenow theseunique timbres and exotic birds havebeen included in bird style.

Certainly,many birdsongs have an almostthree-dimensional quality, whHethe piece, especiallyin the maintutti, is saturatedwith numerouslavishly written superimpositions.

With the wide variety of timbral complexity,it is inevitablethat the marriagebetween

'timbres' and 'couleurs' was formed. In-thesetwo works, explorationsof this higWy synaestheticand subjectiveapproach are first developed.The Tolour of

Time'/Chronochromie(1960) marksthe next stageof the composer'sorchestra] output.

The conceptof harmony,too, is broadened:the birdsongin the upper pitchesof chordsis heightenedand enhanced,often forming complexcolourations which contain 'all the

including colours,of the rainbow, red, that colour especiallyassociated with hot countries- the colour of the Americanbird known as the "cardinal"'. [Prefaceto the score,page x].

Additionally,combinations of instrumentationhelp to produceluminous sound qualities, especiallywhen the wind, brass and percussion combine in anensemble, notably in the maintutti. Messiaenbalances grandeur with a greatmany subtleties in this exotic masterpiece. 218

Notes to ChapterV11 JohnPhilips, 'The Modal Languageof Olivier Messiaen;Practices of"Technique de mon LangageMusical" asreflected in CataloguedDiseaur'. D. M. A. dissertation,Peabody Conservatoryof Music, 1977. 2 Shu-WenSun, 'Birdsong and Pitch-ClassSets in Messiaen'sVAlouette Calandrelle", dissertation,Oregon, (1995). ' Robert SherlawJohnson, Messiaen, (London, Dent, 1976 & revisedin 1989),pp 134- 135. 4 As texturesdepend very muchupon their notation, Philips refersto theseas 'notationsi. ' Someof theseeffects are so frequentin R&eil des Oiseauxand OiseauxEvotiques that the terminologyis not alwaysapplied. For example,the two-voice polyphoniceffect is increasedto eight, nine,ten etc. different parts and,therefore, should refer to the whole dawn chorusin Rgveil des Oise=.. 6 The 'chord of resonance'represents non-birdsong material. " In R&eil desOiseaux, the dawn chorusis, in effect, continuouslypolyphonic, involving manysimultaneous birdsongs; the polyphonyhere frequently uses more than two voices. " from Riveil des Oiseaux, Taken the programmenotes to conductedby Pierre Boulez - DG 453 478-2,1997. Op. cit. (Johnson),p122. " As melodicand rhythmicmotives in Messiaen'sbirdsong become more varied and frequent,it is increasinglyimportant to employ 'motivic classification'tables instead of onesthat show all the characteristicsof birdsong. 11Semiquaver-semiquaver-quaver motive, not a scandicusshape. 12 This bird is representedharmonically to someextent, although the bass-registerclusters createa somewhatgravelly guttural soundrather than a timbral complexity. 13Claude Samuel, Olivier Messiaen:Music and Color-Conversati n trans. ThomasGlasow, (Portland, Oregon, Amadeus Press, 1986). " Thesegroups of five serniquaversare includedin this list as they appearin the four rhythmic strophesin exactlythe sameposition. In the decli-tilassystem, the five quaver unit is known as 'gauri'. 15As alreadymentioned, the piano can createa 'quasi-glissando'effect with a two-part descendingflourish of rapid durations:the pitchesoften employblack notesin one hand and white in the other. The colourationand the simultaneousrun of pitchesproduce this specialsonority. 1'6Like `macfiýine-gun' but in harmonic the nightingale's0 effect, ostinato. 17Chords in an extremelyopen position: eachpart is at leasta away from the next. 18The serniquaver-serniquaver-quaver(or diminishedversion) motive found in the violin part of the first movementof the Quatuor Pour La Fin du Tempsis, by now, a regular featurein its classicscandicus shape. '9 SeePreface to the score. 20Demisemiquaver-den-ýsenýquaver-serniquaver motive (anapaesticrhythm) appem throughoutthis sectionin the woodwind block. 21Notice that 5,7 and 9 are prime numbers. 219

22 Its melodic shapeis oppositeto the original found in the first movementof the Oualuor pour La Fin du Temps. 23Perhaps the very differentinterpretation of the shama.(at figure 17 and on the piano) could representthis 'twitch' with its A and B naturals(see p40, b I). " Another exampleof this effect can be found in the last two barsof the first song in the PojmespourMi, entitled 'Action de Qrices'. 25cycle Bars 24-26 of the cadenza.

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