Proceedings of GREAT Day

Volume 2009 Article 12

2010 Sir Thomas Roe at the Mughal Court: Seventeenth Century English Cultural Assumptions Katherine Schwartz SUNY Geneseo

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Sir Thomas Roe at the Mughal Court: Seventeenth Century English Cultural Assumptions Submitted by Katherine Schwartz

Throughout his time at Emperor Ja- continuously, if only nominally, from 1526 hangir’s court, Sir Thomas Roe, the first until 1756.3 The Emperor Jahangir ruled official English ambassador to the Mughal from 1605 until 1627, and while he was not Empire in India, complained about the “a great general, a great organizer, or a great Mughal people, saying that “my toil with builder” as his predecessors had been, his barbarous unjust people is beyond pa- reign saw expansion through conquest and tience,” and that “we live in a Barbarous he was a great patron of the arts, particularly unfaithful place.”1 This type of writing is painting and architecture.4 consistent with later characterizations of By the time the first part of what English superiority and of the Indian people would become the Mughal Empire had been under British control in the nineteenth and conquered, European traders, particularly twentieth centuries. However, from 1615 the Portuguese, had been active in the In- to 1619, when Roe was stationed in the dian Ocean for twenty-eight years. How- Mughal court, England had little value in ever, the English did not establish official trade and no political or military power in presence in the Indian Ocean until 1601, the Mughal Empire. That Roe writes of the and it would take seven more years until inferiority of the Mughal people from such a they made contact with the Mughal Empire. strong conviction of English supremacy tells On December thirty-first in the year us something important: that English culture 1600, a royal charter was granted to “The even in pre-imperial times contained those Company of Merchants of London trading elements and assumptions necessary for the into the East Indies.”5 The most important later rise of Imperialism. reasons traditionally given for this were the When Sir Thomas Roe was pre- simultaneous feelings that England deserved sented to the Emperor Jahangir, the Mughal a role in international trade and concern that Empire had been a major power on the In- England would be barred from participation dian subcontinent for almost a century and in this lucrative commerce. Worries that controlled an enormous area of land.2 Ex- Dutch presence in the East Indies would cut cept for a fifteen year period where control off England’s participation in this profitable was taken by Afghan nobles, the Mughal trade spurred the creation of the English dynasty ruled on the Indian subcontinent East India Company and the subsequent 160

Published by KnightScholar, 2010 1 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/12

appointed representative fascinating character,and asthefirst royally overseas. pany andstrengtheningBritain’sposition securing tradeandprivileges fortheCom- I, indicatinghismissi pointed officialambassador byKingJames good fortheCompany,” Roewasalsoap- are greathopesthathemay workmuch comely personage,andoneofwhom there well spoken,learned,industrious,ofa ently aman of“pregnantunderstanding, mas Roe’sname wasproposed. OnOctoberfourthintheyear1614, dor totheGrandMagore’scourt,”Sir Tho- during thedebateon“sendinganambassa- the 1620’s. when itreceived itsoriginal charter, upuntil pany wasactiveinsome fashionfrom1600, searches. mainly duetoarguments overcustoms did notleave theship forafullweek, “an occasion ofdignityandsplendor,” Roe his arrivaltotheMugha the Indian subcontinent. Determined that ern cityofSurat,onthenorthwestcoast eight months atSwalle SirThomas RoeleftEnglandwitha March sixth,1615,andarrivedafteralmost fleet ledbyCaptainWilliam Keelingon large inthehistoryof behind acomprehensivejournal,Roelooms Mughal court,whoalsomanaged toleave communal sourceofcapital.TheCom-

joint-stock ownership,amorelong-term,

several fleets,theCompany turnedto experimental, butafterthesuccessof pany’s voyageswereshort-term and themselves. At first, the Com- 8 7 English voyagestotheEastIndies Althoughhewastoldmultiple Sir Thomas Roeisbyhimself a ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 on’s dualpurposesof the EnglishinIndia. y Holenearthemod- l Empire shouldbe ofEnglandinthe Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.12 6 Appar- Empire andtheEnglishEastIndia a broadrangeofhist Hawkins, andThomas Mun,nottomention Edward Terry,William Keeling,William the CalendarofStatePapers,works court isalsoreflectedinthedocuments of the journal,butRoe’sworkatMughal subconscious culturalat light. Thispaperfocusesmainly onthe himself andhisactionsinthebestpossible ers and,consequently,Roetriestopresent an accountofhisexpensesforemploy- problems. Roe’sjournalwasintendedtobe cal source,Roe’sjournaldoespresentsome Mughal Empire.While itisarichhistori- England, to1619,whenhedepartedthe nal whichhekeptfrom 1615,whenheleft the Mughalcourtaredocumented inajour- tract, forpermanent trade.Roe’seffortsat perately toobtainaroyalfarman, orcon- tation among Mughalofficialsandtrieddes- riod, helaboredtoimprove England’srepu- from placetoplace.Throughout the pe- he followedJahangir’scourtasitmoved ruary seventeenth,1619,duringwhichtime Roe livedintheMughalEmpire untilFeb- Emperor JahangironJanuarytenth,1616. the court,wherehewaspresentedto thecurrentlocationof the journeytoAjmir, approximately fiveweeks,finallymaking September 1615, Roeremained inSuratfor barous usage.” no means submit tothis“Common bar- and above ordinarycustoms” andhewouldby kings andtheirAmbassadors hadbeen thought thattheyhad Roe refusedtosubmit, sayingthathe“had tom house,andtherehadtobesearched,” try thatnothingcouldpassbutbytheCus- times that“itwastheCustom ofthisCoun- 9 Afterdisembarking inlate ories abouttheMughal understood thatfree titudes expressedin 161 2 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

Custom ofthisCountry,”forexample using of ambassadors, eveninthefaceof“the he wasdue,basedupon European treatment sisted onreceivingth ground” intrying. or “laymy lifeandfortunebothinthe opinion ofandrespectgiventotheEnglish “King’s Honor”byimproving thegeneral pire. Heclaimed thathewouldrestorethe erful, ifnotmoreso,thantheMughalEm- convinced thatEnglandwasatleastaspow- However, Roecame totheMughalcourt dards, andinefficientill-equipped. military was small, evenbyEuropean stan- possessed capablenavalpower,theEnglish England intheearlyseventeenth century TheEnglishfactorsintheMughal pendent ontheemperor’s favor.While Empire inRoe’stime completely were de- seas influence. world powerandreallyhadverylittleover- ous inatimewhereEnglandwasnot ward Saidterms Orientalism, areincongru- though, andthebroaderideologythatEd- English Imperialist culture. Theseideas, and twentiethcenturiesintegralpartsof others, thatbecame laterinthenineteenth lish superiorityandtheinferiorityofexotic Roe’s society,namely tion, Roe’sjournale mind. Despitethisl Roe wasnotwritingwithImperialist aims in as Michael BrownandColinMitchell that It hasbeendocumented byhistorianssuch

the culturalassumptions

details itdivulges butalso becauseof tastic resourcenotonlyfor thefactual his time intheMughalcourtisafan- Roe’sjournaldocumenting Company. ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 10 Tothisend,Roein- xposes elements of ack ofconsciousinten- e courtesyhethought feelings aboutEng- feelings Schwartz: SirThomasRoeattheMughalCourt thatitreveals. [Jahangir].” of a“MightyPrinceinleaguewithhim peatedly sayingthathewastheambassador very hardtoassert daily interactions with the court,Roetried munications withtheEmperor aswellhis and Mughalofficials.Inbothformal com- disrespectful oftheemperor, theprinces, Roe comes obstinate,and offasdemanding, ignorance.” “barbarous prideandCustoms” and“dull and thattheyarecharacterizedby “their Prideenduresnoterms ofequality” Archbishop ofCanterbury,Roeclaimed that court inaletter toGeorge Abbott,the cessive pride.When describingtheMughal ceived moral faults,oneofthesebeingex- Atthesame time thatRoeexagger- grated theMughalcourtforvariousper- ated England’spowerandprestige,hedeni- not yetseeforswelling.” sought withCourtesy,whichthisKingcan- Compel thatbyyourpower,whichyouhave your MajestyisLordof “at lastbyourforceteachthem toknow in aletter toJames IthattheEnglishwould two yearsintheMughal court, Roeasserted virtue inaheathenPrince,” andcomplained Roe begrudgedany“admiration of sucha tianity, inRoe’s eyesthe onetrue religion. posed arrogance theyrefusetoaccept Chris- ception ofthem asheathens.Intheirsup- Mughal peopleisconnectedwithhiscon- Roe’s negativeevaluation erned byprivateinterestandappetite.” that attendedonlyadvantageandwere gov- “the prideandfalsehoodofthesepeople, the Mughalcourt,Roelikewisebemoaned with Emperor Jahangir. his ownforms ofreverencewhenmeeting 14 12 Neartheendofhistenurein Evenafterspendingalmost England’s prestige,re- 11 alltheSeasandcan 13 Inhisjournal, of thepride

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do evil.” wanting noartnorwickedsubtletytobeor teach isfrequent, eveninthecourt,whereis as wellthat“allCunningtheDevilcan his son,andtome obsequious,even toflat- some toys,wassoreconciledastobetray official], forasordidhope onlyofbuying how “AsaphKhan[animportant Mughal Two yearslater,Roehadoccasiontolament in thatkind:presentswereforsuitors.” he “must notexpectany[presents]from me as whenhetoldtheGovernorofSuratthat early oninhistime intheMughalEmpire, thoughts aboutpresentswereestablished the form ofjewelsandnovelties.Roe’s contemptible vanityanddesireforwealth in more manifestation oftheMughalpeople’s Roecomplained strenuouslyabout diplomacy. InRoe’smind, thiswasyetone the practice of gift-giving withinMughal vor. order toforcethem fromtheEmperor’s fa- Mughal alliestalkingbadlyoftheEnglishin have todowiththePortugueseortheir Other forms ofdeception thatRoenoted those times whenhehadpresentstooffer. This continued, according toRoe,except for which Roetakesasasignoffalseness. verbal promisesandnotactingonthem, instances ofMughalofficialsofferinghim be learned,ortodespised.” practiced aloneinEurope;hereisenoughto Policy andwickedcraftoftheDevilisnot was courtintrigue. AsRoewrote,“all the

cal lifethatRoeoftencomplainedabout

grapes.” AnotherfacetofMughalpoliti- forth Crabs,andabastardstock having thetruevineshouldbring 19 that “withenvyandsorrow…we Roerecordedtime andagain 17

ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.12 18 Roe stated 20

Mud, whichIwasenforcedtobuildhalf.” allowed nothingbyJahangir“butahouseof the Mughalemperor, forexample, Roewas king. Insteadofbeinglavishlyhostedby an independentman withthepowersofa officials, RoewasasubjectofJahangir,not eyes oftheemperor, Roe’sactualpositionwithin the of self-worthandnationalpride.Inthe Mughal courtisastrikingfoiltohissense and willinplain terms demand it.” except itCome accompanied [bypresents] Roe said“nevertakes any requesttoheart greed, eventheEmperor Jahangir,whom Mughal officialseems unaffectedbysuch his verymanhood, forabauble.No willing togiveuphishonor, inRoe’s mind cluded, consumes him tothepointthatheis to expressanoathofloyalty totheemperor; “staying anylengthoftime wereexpected [Mughal] nobility,”and those whowere incorporated intoth matic practices. more significantinlightofMughaldiplo- speaking withtheprince,butitbecomes as aphrase AsaphKhan“must use”when be atrivial incident,asRoeinterpreted this “were hisSubjects.” Asaph Khanmentioned thattheEnglish Surat. While tryingtoputKhurram atease, about thetreatment ofEnglishmerchants at see Prince Khurram, thefutureemperor, Khan, oneofJahangir’sprimary advisors,to Roe explainedhowhewastakenbyAsaph him asasubject.OnOctobertwelfth,1617, the extenttowhichhisMughalhostsviewed Roe’s journal,whenreadcarefully,reveals prize.” was thathemight buytheGoldtakenin tery; forthegroundofallthisfriendship 21 AsaphKhan’sgreed,Roecon- 25 MensuchasRoewere e “rankandfileof 24 andalsotheMughal This might appearto 22

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with different intentions. loyalty,” whichRoedid,thoughperhaps sents totheruler “to formalize theoath of doing, andalsoofferingsmall, personalpre- to theemperor, whichRoetriedtoavoid cluded followingtherulesofreverencedue Roe’sjournal alsomade itclear that is given.” may [weartheking’sIm eyes oftheMughalcourt, asserting“none this giftbutacknowledg Roe didnotcomprehend at leastoutwardly,loya it signifiedthatJahangir mony andthesocialpositionthatwentwith remain loyaltotheEnglishking,thiscere- Jahangir most likelyknewthatRoewould and utterlyloyaltoth member ofthecirclenoblescompletely This outwardlysimple giftmarked him asa signify hispositionasclientoftheemperor. of goldasbigsixpence”from to Jahangir ducted intothisgroup,receivinga“medal seventeenth, 1616,SirThomas Roewasin- votion totheimperial throne.OnAugust was essentiallyapers Mughal emperors, Jahangirestablishedwhat his journal.Aswascustom among the ThatRoewasconsidered asubject Mughal Empire,canbeseenelsewherein of theEmperor Jahangir,andthusofthe dinate status. worked tounderscoretheforeigner’ssubor- The ambassador’s subsequentdutiesin-

if theyenjoyedtheemperor’s favor.

and wererewardedwithlandstitles granted rankintheMughalgovernment These diplomats wereregularly masters while in aforeign court.” an envoy,ineffect,servedtwo 29

ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 e emperor.Although onal cultbasedonde- l andsubordinate. ed itsvalueinthe expectedRoe tobe, age] buttowhom it 28 the significance of Schwartz: SirThomasRoeattheMughalCourt Inall,these 27 27

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European].” than everany Frank[a and thattheemperor “moreesteemed me appointed me aplaceaboveallothermen” despite Roe’sprotesta English asagrouporRoeanindividual, journal, made notasinglemention ofthe Even Emperor Jahangir,inhispersonal writings bymembers oftheMughalcourt. there isalmostnomention oftheEnglishin trading partnerarevali requisite goodstobe Roe’s fearsthatEnglanddidnothavethe ther toestablish atrade onfreeConditions free heartcanendure,that Idoresolveei- and subjecttosomany suchasno slaveries, that “sobaseareourConditions inthisPort Swalley Hole,Roewasalreadycomplaining 1615, barelytwoweeksafterlandingat toms searches.AsearlyasOctoberninth, not begranted,suchasfreedom fromcus- dling, though,includeddemands thatcould English. Roe’s ideaofreasonablehan- sidered tobereasonabletreatment forthe sign afarman guaranteeingwhatRoecon- immediate insistenceth gences. Initially,thiswasmanifested inan fair treatment, andothersimilar indul- treaties securingpermanent tradingrights, Roe’sbeliefinEnglishsuperiority feeling thatEnglandde seems, inmatters of tr King thatsentpresentsofsosmall value.” “whether theKingof upon receivinggiftsfromRoeaskedaJesuit even recountingastoryabouthowJahangir, trading goodsandpresentswereinferior, eral occasions thatthequality ofEnglish by theMughal elite.Roe admitted onsev- English tradewasuncertainanddevalued 31

seen asavaluable England wereagreat tion that“[Jahangir] ade, toequatea general term fora dated bythe factthat served tobegiven at Mughalofficials 30

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tion.” ing “everywayafflicted- fires,smokes, dured nearlyunbearable circumstances, be- Throughout, Roecomplained thatheen- Roe’sjournalrevealsafundamental Mughal Empireaswell ofitspeople. loathing oftheland,climate, andfoodofthe Hole. in 1615whenRoefirstlandedatSwalley trade wasjustasuncertainin1619it very little,financially work intheMughalEmpireamounted to agreement ontrade.Roe’slongyearsof vented him from obtaininganypermanent herence toatreatyfavoringEnglandpre- poses ofhisembassy ashisdetermined ad- accordingly failedinoneofthemain pur- cant matter, evenlateinhisembassy, andhe Roe refusedtocompromise onanysignifi- privileges didnotenterRoe’sthoughts. English tradeenoughtograntthem special the ideathatMughalcourtdidnotvalue noble person,wouldhaveagreedtothem; been seenbytheemperor, he,asajustand Roe automatically assumed that,had they base andsordidness,heismost open.” Khan wasonlya“bribe,towhich,even seen them, orelse”themessage from Asaph merely abluff,andthat“thekinghadnot ately jumped totheconclusion thatthiswas OnAprilthird,Roereceivednotice found tobeunreasonable,andheimmedi- from AsaphKhanthathisdemands hadbeen of “Articles to his

twenty-sixth, 1616, Roesubmitted aset

rules andprocedures.OnMarch be exempt from customary Mughal 33 strate a sense thattheEnglish should

Roe’s tradenegotiationsdemon- or todomy besttodissolveit.” ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Majesty’s Considera- speaking,andEnglish Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.12 34

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not ahouseforman torestin.” and villagesallbuilt of “a miserable andBarrenCountry,thetowns “Brampore,” thehome ofPrinceParwiz,as Roefrequentlycomplained aboutthe ing. Onhisjourney condition ofMughalterr perceives intheMughal pe of speakingit.” place thatever Isaw,and makes me weary the MughalEmpire “isthedullest,basest gave usnot.” ment orthenaturaldispositionofClime ishment whicheitherthewantofGovern- saying that“therewasnotamisery norpun- but alsoofthewayjourneywashandled, proved notonlyoftheconditionsroad without meat andwater.” and Camels lyinginthewoodyMountains which time “thousandsofCoaches,Carts ished... thekingrestedtwodays”during an impassible way,wheremany per- Camels with bushes, tired withtheincommodities of through woodsandoverMountains,torn Jahangir’s court,Roenotedthat“wepassed cember twenty-sixth,1616,whilefollowing that lastedforseveralmonths in1616. the Mughalpeople,in illness, Roealsorecordedepidemics among tion tomentioning instancesofEuropean [him]” from thebrinkofdeath. vine interventionsavedhim as“Godraised and thatfiveothermen wereill. I waspastsenseandgivenoverfordead,” Roe claimed thathewas“sosickasatnight journey fromSurattotheemperor’s court, ject toillness. perate orquietseason, floods, storms, heat,dust,flies,andnotem- Roe explains thecultural defectshe 41 35 Insum, Roeclaimed that When making hisinitial 42

to Agra,Roedescribed cluding oneinAgra ” andalsobeingsub- Mud, sothatthereis itories whiletravel- 40 Roedisap- ople by 37 36 39 Inaddi- Onlydi- OnDe- 38

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the executiondoneby times seeswithtoomuch delightinblood pled byelephants,and that Jahangir“some were sometimes puttodeathbybeingtram- Early on,Roenotedthat are ofviolenceandphysicalsavagery. Many ofRoe’srecordsMughalbarbarism merited it,would givehimliberty.” him asaservant,andifhisgoodbehavior God fellowtoaBeast”and sohewould“use neither wasitlawfultomake of theImage high favor…inEnglandwehadnoslaves, replied that,thoughthiswas“esteemeda or todisposeofhim atmypleasure.” felony… [and]senthim tome… foraSlave, had “CondemnedaMogullonsuspicionof twenty-third, periority ofEnglishcustoms. OnMarch occasions for Roetoexplicitly state thesu- stances ofcrueltyalsoprovideconvenient Kings)ishere,whereIsee it,almost duereverencetothePersonsof contemptible… thatIadmired inEngland (reserving thateven thisgreatness andwealth King’shousesandsome fewothers): thebuildingsofmud (exceptthe withbarbarism, religions infinite, withoutPolicy,theCustoms mingled souncertain,withoutwrittenlaw, ofthisplace… ButtheGovernment Fame hasdonemuch fortheGlory he wrote: other writings.InalettertoKingJames I,

ity andwithlackof culture isseen inhis

Roe equatesbarbarism withbothbrutal- crude, backwards,andbrutal.That and theirculturewereuncivilized, barism. Tohim, theMughal people retreating into th

1616, RoewrotethatJahangir ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 his Elephants.” 43 convictedcriminals

e languageofbar- Schwartz: SirThomasRoeattheMughalCourt 46 45 Later 44 Roe In- Moore abovemoney.” and thataChristianes not beignorantIhadmore mercy thanhe, would make surethattheJahangir“should their ransom andfreethem” andindoingso “would notbuythem asslaves,onlypay the earliersituation,Roerepliedthathe his family, letalonehiscountry. [Nur Jahan]”andsocouldnotevencontrol “yielded himself intothehandsofawoman consort, totheextentthatemperor had at courtrestedwithNurJahan,Jahangir’s soft” andrepeatedly asse example, thatJahangir was“gentle[and] Jahangir aseffeminate.Roeclaimed, for Many ofthesefocusongender,presenting concern theemperor Jahangirhimself. of Roe’sbroadlydisapprovingcomments lives, but tosellthem for slaves.” thieves, and“therewasnowaytosavetheir of howJahangirhadcondemned agroupof that same Roerecountedanotherstory year Sir Thomas Roelivedlongbeforethe Raj ward Saidhastermed Orientalism. Although Inpart,Roe’sobservationsseem to about Asiaticregimes, anoutlookthat Ed- have beencoloredbyaset ofassumptions expressions ofreligiousprejudices. East Indies”isparticularlypepperedwith Discourse of Trade,fromEnglanduntothe members likeThomas whoseessay“A Mun, scriptive andbusinesswritings ofCompany and Thomas Bonner,aswellinthede- Terry, William Hawkins,William Keeling, pany employees, suchasthoseofEdward found inthejournalsofcontemporary Com- timents aboutEnglish TheviewsthatRoeexpresses,both writings ofotherEnglishmen. Similar sen- directly andindirectly, teemed thelifeofa 48 superiority canbe are alsoseeninthe Interestingly,most rted thatrealpower 49 47

Asin 50

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ality.” ism, Orientalsplendor,cruelty,[and]sensu- serves displayelements of“Orientaldespot- people hemeets andtheactivitiesheob- ces inEngland,Roe’sdescriptionsof the ters hewrotetoemployers andacquaintan- interacted withandacted towardscolonized existing attitudesinformed howEngland became arealinstitution becausethesepre- ideas inthetime before EnglishImperialism century. Itisimportant touncoverthese tural mind evenintheearlyseventeenth powerful, werepresentintheEnglishcul- rialism toflourish,andwhichkeptitso that allowed Orientalism andEnglish Impe- lustrates thefact thatthekeycultural ideas English superiority inhiswritings, Roeil- Mughal Empireanditsso England’s civilization trigue, RoeclearlypositionedEnglandand greed, lasciviousness,despotism, andin- IndiscussingsuchthingsasEng- court, theclimate oftheEmpire, religion, land’s prestige, hisplaceintheMughal “whores” who“didsinganddance.” festivals entertainment wasprovidedby Jahangir hadfourwives sexual appetites,aswhenhementioned that sure tonote,disapprovingly,theemperor’s inces bythatauthority.” own wordrules,andhisGovernorsofProv- run with“nowrittenLaw.TheKingbyhis ample, thefactthatMughalEmpireis out hisjournal,andpa

pean stereotypesaboutAsia.

Said suggestswereintegraltoEuro- nicely intothe“’Oriental’ideas” that 52 people oftheMughalEmpire fits Roefrequentlylamented, forex- pire inIndia,hisevaluationofthe and theheightofBritishEm- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 as superiortothe rticularly inthe let- 53 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.12 and alsothatduring Healsomade ciety. Instressing 51 Through- 54

Society, 1899),460,490. Correspondence 1615-1619: AsNarratedinHisJournaland mas RoetotheCourtofGreatMogul, pany, 1991),9. (New York:Macmillan PublishingCom- History oftheEnglis 5 4 3 2 1 Daniel, 1641). clesiasticall course Concerningthe 208; andalsoJohnDrury, See: Brown,ItinerantAmbassador oning apan-nationalProtestantAlliance. 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 48. 9 University pressofKentucky,1970),38. The LifeofSirThomasRoe(Lexington: 8 376. and Ibid.,“17-18January1615(879)”,363- 7 1616, 324-331. dies, ChinaandJapan,Volume2:1513- 6 twentieth century. populations alloverthe John Keay,TheHonourableCompany:A Ibid., 100. Ibid., 282. Ibid., 106. Sir Thomas Roe, Roe, TheEmbassyofSirThomasRoe Michael Brown, Ibid., “1-20September 1614”,317-324; “1-5 October1614(770)”, Roe wasaveryactiveProtestant,champi- Ibid., 508. Ibid., 310,496. Ibid., 497. Ibid., 53. Ibid., 44. Ibid., 46. (Cambridge: PrintedbyRoger References , Vol.1(London:Hakluyt Itinerant Ambassador: The EmbassyofSirTho- h EastIndiaCompany Work ofPeaceEc- world, evenintothe A Summary Dis- A Summary CSPC: EastIn-

, 198- , 44, 167 8 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

2003). Jahangir (Rampur: RampurRazaLibrary, Jahan Begam:aContemporaryAccountof Siddiqi, ries, forexample: Kami ShiraziandW.H. any Europeanincontemporary courthisto- Similarly, thereisvirtuallynoreferenceof (Oxford: OxfordUniversityPress,1999). annotated byWheeler M.Thackston Jahangir, Emperor ofIndia,trans.,ed.,and Jahangir, and theMughalEmpire ity isdifficult.” Mitchell, SirThomasRoe bassador fromtherestof theMughalnobil- some instances,demarcating avisitingam- 400 zatin1611,and,asMitchellsays,“in Empire, 165. 23 Edward Terry,hischaplain, EdwardTerry, servants specifically toshoe theflies away, references tothefactthat theemperor had 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 22 Ibid., 115,257.Thejournalreferencedis: Ibid., 119. Roe, 244. Ibid. Mitchell, Ibid. Ibid., 435. Ibid., 134. Ibid., 248.While Roeonlymakes afew Ibid., 156. Ibid., 150. Ibid., 68. William Hawkinswasgrantedarank of

Ibid., 201,183. of highvalue,asmentioned onpage426.

21 20 Ibid. Theprize ispresumably apearl Ibid., 63. 19 bid., note1 18 Waqa-i-uz-zaman: fathnama-I Nur 17 The Jahangirnama:memoirsof Ibid., 358. Ibid., 367. Sir ThomasRoeandtheMughal ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 , 163,165. Schwartz: SirThomasRoeattheMughalCourt 44 43 42 41 40 39 flict theMughalpeopl 38 37 36 1864. don: HerMajesty’sStationary Office,1860, Calendar ofStatePapers Colonial 54 53 52 Vintage Books,1979),4. 51 1968). versity ofLondon(Farnborough,Gregg, Library ofEconomic Literature,TheUni- lished fromOriginalsintheGoldsmith’s A CollectionofFiveRareWorksRepub- Indian Trade:SelectedWorks,17 from EnglanduntotheEast Indies,in 50 49 48 47 46 45 Printed forJ.Wilkie, 1777),117. tice of,inourPassageThither…( -India; WhereinSomeThingsaretakenNo- the table.” (EdwardTerry, “cover our meat assoon asitwasplaced on his chaplain, statesthattheflieswould Ibid., 120. Ibid., 113. Ibid., 393. Ibid., 368. Ibid., 89. Foradiscussionofthediseasesthataf- Ibid. Ibid., 100,86. Ibid., 145. Roe, 110. Ibid. Edward Said,Orientalism Thomas Mun,“ADiscourseofTrade, Ibid., 293,362. Ibid., 306. Ibid., 305. Ibid. Ibid., 150. Ibid., 108. Bibliography e, seeTerry,225-231.

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