The Proceedings of GREAT Day 2009

Proceedings of GREAT Day

Volume 2009 Article 47

2010

Proceedings of GREAT Day SUNY Geneseo

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Recommended Citation Proceedings of GREAT Day (2010) "The Proceedings of GREAT Day 2009," Proceedings of GREAT Day: Vol. 2009 , Article 47. Available at: https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

This Full Issue is brought to you for free and open access by the GREAT Day at KnightScholar. It has been accepted for inclusion in Proceedings of GREAT Day by an authorized editor of KnightScholar. For more information, please contact [email protected]. : The Proceedings of GREAT Day 2009 The Proceedings of GREAT Day 2009 A day‐long, college‐wide celebration of student creativity, research , and scholarship. 2009 april 21,

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build connectionswithinthecommunity. excellence, encourage professional development, and ofGREAT academic the purpose Day istohelpfoster dition torecognizing theachievements ofourstudents, creative andscholarly endeavors ourstudents. of ad- In ent Day isacollege-wide symposiumcelebrating the

Geneseo RecognizingExcellence,Geneseo Achievement & Tal-

Associate Professor ofForeign Languages andLiteratures Special totheSUNYGeneseoForeignThanks Languages and Literatures thisproject undertaking for Department Great Day logos and cover have format beenusedwith permission from designer, theiroriginal Stephen West The GREAT Day Web Site•http://great.geneseo.edu Co-Publishers William LabateandAlex Kovalovsky The ProceedingsThe ofthe Third Annual Great Day Great Day isfundedby oftheProvost theoffice The StateUniversityThe ofNew York atGeneseo Dept. of Foreign Languages andLiteratures Dept. ofForeign Languages andLiteratures Dr. Stephen West, Great Day Coordinator ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 Publishing Dr. Supervisor VanVliet, Dr. McEwen, Rosemary Chair, Additional Thanks to: Additional Thanks Paula Bill, Secretary,

I 2 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

Faculty Sponsor: Ganie DeHart, Psychology Psychology DeHart, Ganie Sponsor: Faculty Alice Brunet Chelsea Rives alized cultureonalized theirbodies? women alonebegunto bearthe bruntofahypersexu- regardless ofrace orcla a precedentfor allwomento be sexualtemptresses, sets Eve story,intheofficial reading, creation Biblical have nootherfunctionthan to pleased bywomenbe men whoarewilling who asoverlysexual,fla scribed women, includingrap music, In currentmedia depictionsof African-American Pages 19-24 Whatdoes change procedure? ate ourselves? What exactlyhappens during a sex “dysphoria” [for lackofabetter name]? Can we recre- born intothe“wrong”body? What causesgender ences helduntilthatmoment: Why aresome people differ- ofgender the authorquestioneveryperception There Not Boylan’sShe’s A closereadingofJenniferFinney Pages 14-18 Faculty Sponsor: Maria Helena Lima, English Session Chair: EmilyPlessas suggested. willbe thatpromote resiliency intervention programs and made futurewill be of eachinterventionprogram for children.Attheendoft designed thatarespecifically intervention programs children usewillbethe ofbasis lookingatdifferent cult times.Then, themost the skills and ient children anoverviewofthe will be Thebeginningofthe skills inchildren. presentation resilient thatpromote programs developing will be Theprimary intervention. basis oftheliteraturereview and dependent on resiliency psychological review The presentationwillbeageneral summaryofanin- Lindsey Wiltse Lindsey Pages 1-13

"Sexualizing BlackWomen inAmerica" Resilency and Intervention forChildren Disorders and Sciences

Session Chair: Robert Owens, Communicative , atransitionfrommaleto femalememoir,makes Prison-HouseofGender Disorders andSciences and Session 2-B •Communicative Session 3-E•English "Creating Womanhood" Sexualities andthe ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Psychology ss. Whenandwhyhave black common skillsthat resilient extensive literature onresil- extensive literature he presentation, an analysis an he presentation, they acquire during diffi- they acquireduring pleasing them. Sincethe unting shapelybodies to they aremostlikelyde- itmean to BE awoman? : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 Table ofContents

Languages & Literatures Foreign E.R.VanVliet, Sponsor: Faculty Erinn Kehoe presents a view of life in France asawhole. aviewpresents oflifeinFrance culture and of industry, raphy, the centralprovinces the modern day. Anexaminationofthediversegeog- theRomansthe influenceof and continuingthrough portant placein thehistoryof France, beginningwith on therestof the country.This area alsoholdsanim- and industryof these provinceshaveastrong impact gion islowerthaninotherpartsofFrance,theculture ern cities.Althoughthe population densityofthisre- customs, rural and ancient countryside life and mod- agriculture fertile valleys, is uniqueinits amixdiversity: ofscenicmountains and acteristics ofthe centralprovincesofFrance.Thisarea This paperexaminesthedistinctive qualityand char- Pages 25-30 Session Chair: EmilyBorghard tains, wheretheylivedinisolation anddeveloped few remainingsurvivorshad to retreat to the moun- fought againsttheSpanishconquest,butin endthe Theyresisted and val oftheSpanishconquistadors. northern thearri- what istoday wellbefore Colombia customsandThe traditions. Taironainhabited liefs, nature whichwasanintegralcomponent oftheir be- culture alsohada strong connection totheearth and with othernativepeoplesover great distances.Their andcommerce impressive architecturalknowledge, included development ofadvancedirrigationsystems, ofTaironacivilization Someaspects civilization. oped andthewho liketheInca Aztec,hadahighly devel- The Arhuacopeoplearedescendants ofthe Tairona, Pages 31-46 notable sitesontheway. progresses west to Normandy then north throughBurgundyandAlsace-Lorraine, Provence andtheFrenchRiviera.Itthencontinues explores and fromMontpellier France. Itleaves The touristhe second halfofahypothetical voyageto France, historicalfactsabout and intheform of atour. cultural (inFrench)willdescribe This presentation Pages 31-37 guages & Literatures &guages Literatures Rowley,Foreign Lan- Cristina Sponsor: Faculty Alice Brunet Languages & Literatures Foreign E.R.VanVliet, Sponsor: Faculty Amy Lafleur The ProvincesofCentral France:AStudyin Geography, History, Industry, andCulture Session 4-E •Foreign Languages The Arhuacos:Struggle Un Voyage en France & Literatures

and industry, contemporary , while stopping inmany , whilestopping

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guages & Literatures &guages Literatures Lan- Foreign VanVliet, Richard Sponsor: Faculty Stephanie Murdock Pages 47-52 tion techniquesamounting to torture, andthe deporta- theuse unfairtrials, of interroga- detentions, definite Janu ary 2009,and including in- September 11,2001, The mistreatmentofprisoner Pages 58-109 Relations & Science International Farmer, Political Session Chair and Faculty Sponsor: Victoria the truthisthat he isill-in and ing himasa just, piousleader, well-intentioned, Angelotriestodupeothersintoargue thatwhile see- Iwill at others. the expenseand agenda ofIsabella allal being ill-intentioned in hispreachingofstrict morality, andviewhimas Angelo asa power -hungrytyrant who is hypocritical temptation ofIsabella. Ot Angelotrulyrep end, play’s ment ofClaudio’s case.Theybelievethat,bythe but happens to take thingstoo far inhisstricttreat- moral manwhoisearnestlytryingtocleanup Vienna, readers seeAngelo asdeserving thereputation ofa MeasureforMeasure,some power. InShakespeare’s tions areimportant, especiallyforthoseinpositionsof inMeasureforReputa- Angelo’s Intentions Pages 53-57 Faculty Sponsor: Eugene Stelzig, English Session Chair: Daniel Carroll and geographyofcontinentalFrance. A 15minute presentation, Michael Langen Andrew Petracca ceptible to the influence

Intentions inMEASURE FOR MEASURE their cultureamong theiryouth,whoaremoresus- also detailtheirstruggleto protect andfoment Session 4-I •PoliticalScience&

Arhuaco people are fighting to preserve. Itwill topreserve. Arhuaco peoplearefighting State Responses toTerrorism scribe theculture,beliefs scribe willde- Thispresentation culture andbeliefs. Looks Can Be Deceiving: Angelo's Looks CanBeDeceiving: ern Colombiansocietyat the costoftheirown demands they integrate themselvesintomod- International Relations continued toresist an POWs intheWaron Terror ture. Ever since then,theArhuacohave whatisknown today astheArhuaco cul- Session 2-G•English Relief duSoletClimat Shakespeare ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 tentioned, selfish, and unjust. selfish,and tentioned, her readers,however,see ong, pursuinghisselfish of theoutsideworld. in French, ontheclimate in French, ents forsuccumbingto the s inU.S.custody between , andtraditionsthatthe

outside world that outside world

States. the dangerof terrorist attacks against theUnited strengthened anti-American extremismandincreased throughout the world, especi standing ofthe country andalienatingindividuals the Infact,by methods. moral reducing than legal not beenmore effective atpr have and areillegal thesepolicies ers haveargued, trary towhat the Bush administration anditssupport- Con- law. torture, constituteviolationsofinternational tion ofprisonerstoother countries forthepurpose of James Maxfield Duhe Sarah McDonald from theseareas. and develop a strategy for ties community, withtheinternational stan, rebuild Afghani- ofIraqand itself fromthepoliticalprocesses Obama Americamustremove Administration;namely, forthe prescriptions withpolicy terrorism. Iconclude andcounterproductivebeen ineffectual atcombating inthesecountries democracy efforts toimpose have other countries.Overall,theBushadministration’s damaged relationsbetweenthe UnitedStates and and States intosituations isdifficult, wherewithdrawal localinha tries haveangered Afghanistan. USattempts the Bush throughcasestudiesofIraqand Doctrine This paperanalyzes democratization asanelementof But, aftereight years, theUn that theUS shouldsupport the spreadofdemocracy. emptively attack countrie tions typicallyinclude theidea that the US may pre- remainsnition oftheBushDoctrine contested,defini- known asthe“Bush Thougha Doctrine.” precise defi- ment, theBush administration craftedwhatcame to be policy.Inthisenviron- USforeign tally reprioritized The terroristattacksofSeptember11, 2001 fundamen- Pages 110-132 the separatist movements withinthecountries. haveshaped governments the orientation of Filipino policies oftheThaiand Thediffering social pluralism. of theMorobutcreated the institutions necessaryfor ofeconomic and policies politicaloppression colonial Conversely, conciliation. periods offorcedassimilati mixed ethnicand religious backgrounds has created desire tocreateasingularnationalidentityfrom thegovernment’shave variedgreatly. InThailand, and Malay inThailand the Moro inthePhilippines, minority ethno-religiousseparatistmovements,the two countriesand the governments’ reactionsto the thedevelopmentalpathsof provinces. However, sues; including separatist violenceintheirSouthern similarsecurityis- the face and Philippines Thailand Pages 133-159 Imposing Democracy:StateBuildingand Terrorist GroupsinThailandandthe State Capacity,Social Mobility, and

the Waron Terror Philippines to thesecoun- democratize s harboringterroristsand the Philippines continued continued the Philippines complete USwithdrawal on temperedby ited Statesisstill ited not safe. ally Muslims,theyally have otecting theUnitedStates bitants, lockedtheUnited

attempts at

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Faculty Mentor: Rose-Marie Chierici, Anthropology Anthropology Mentor: Rose-Marie Chierici, Faculty Seth Palmer Faculty Mentor: Joseph Cope, History Schwartz Katherine American culture,withasp is anexaminationofdrag cultural context.Continuingin ina and historical,specific tions embedded spatial and sexualized asculturalconstruc- categorizations highlight theimportanceof gender dichotomies acrossthe globe.Such institutions on“institutionsof cifically ties usesthistheoretical andfocusesspe- framework anthropologyofgendersandsexuali- plines. Thenew for feministandqueeranalysesinavarietyof disci- and hassubsequently become a criticalperspective the lutionized way thatacademics conceive of gender, Judith Butler’sconceptof Pages 171-204 that the basic attitudes of the laterimperialist aims,Roe'sjournaldoesdemonstrate with imperialist willshowthat,while paper tions toclaim English superiority.Furthermore,the cultural standard by English show thatRoejudges the people oftheMughal court will Jahangir. Thispaper TerryandtheEmperor ward tions, andtheworks ofcontemporariessuchas Ed- English andMughal history, tothe of Court,inlight ambassador Mughal English Roe,the thejournalofSirThomas firstofficial analyze this,Iwill Todo ofthemselvesassuperior. thought intrade,the EnglishinIndia the inferiorpartner This paperseeks toexplorehow, althoughinreality Pages 160-170 Faculty Sponsor: Olympia Nicodemi, Mathematics Session Chair: Olympia Nicodemi aspirations. reflect pluralism and institutions that support andinstitutions thatsupport social reflect pluralism

ing theseproblems willrequirestate ing that policies rent separatist and terro Front andCenter: As Anthropological Sir Thomas Roe attheMughalCourt:

Thailand andtheThailand Philippineshavefosteredcur- that theactions taken by the governments of the Thaigovernment.Thispaperdemonstrates Seventeenth CenturyandEnglish BRN Cremains hinders thereclusive ever, inThailand nature ofthe Analysis of Drag Queens in to attempt peace talkswiththe group. How- the Philippineshasforced government Currently,the and size power of MILFin Honors CapstoneII: Session 1-J•Honors From PlacesApart Cultural Assumptions American Culture ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 queens incontemporary gender performativityrevo- ambiguity” that challenge that ambiguity” understandinggendered not intentionally written not intentionally ecific focuson the politics rist movements. Address- s, and usesthese assump- English culturalconstruc- that tradition, this paper thispaper that tradition, communications with : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009

it. meaning ofdrag andthelives of thosewhoperform in to examinethe utilized willbe sharing websites video and socialnetworking film,and ences, interviews, experi- ture. Datafromliterature,fieldwork collected femininityinAmericancul- tions ofmasculinityand over time,yetitcontinues drag performance intheUn traced back to theater,thepractice of Shakespearian of drag performance. Withhistoricalrootsthatcan be Lucy Coates Pages 205-247 & Relations Science International Political Session Chair and Faculty Sponsor: Jeremy Grace, petro-states. made byother sions theforeignpolicydeci- an examplewhenanalyzing tion tothe decrease intheva andhisreac- policy foreign ica. AnalysisofChávez’s inLatin policy foreign Amer- of thefailureChávez’s thisanalysiscan boom, usedbe to the predict effects throughout the region. Inthecontext oftheendingoil goals, andtheimplications thathispolicyhas had foreign policy,itseffectiv regional Chávez’s byanalyzing willbegin This paper projects. him unableto sustain hiscapital-intensive revenues,rendering oil overextending Venezuela’s islikelytofallintoapetro-state by Chávez trap ends, theregion.However astheoilboom in lan influence foreign mizing dependence, andincreasing Venezue- further hisgoalsofpromot projectsand large, long-term agreementsintendedto makers beforehim,hasusedpetrodollarstofund policy revealsthathe,likethepetro-statedecision- ofChávez’s Latin Americanforeign Analysis world. numerous countries throughoutLatinAmerica and the thanhis policy relationswith predecessors, cultivating has Chávez pursued a much moreextensiveforeign boom ofthe PresidentHugo 2000s,Venezuelan Strengthened byincreased

Session 1-M •PoliticalScience & (Continued onNext Page) International Security Policy Hugo Chavez'sForeign Policy in International Relations in the21stCentury Latin America eness inaccomplishinghis eness to no- challenge traditional ing a leftist agenda, mini- ing a leftistagenda, ited Stateshasevolved revenues fromthe oil lue ofoilshouldserveas

IV 5 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

sion ofcivilandnaturalrights. King asserts that, of calls for anend the Jail,”King Birmingham suppres- ther KingJr.is a modern prophet. Inhis“Letter from argue that Martin Lu- injustices. Itwillalso tunes and in theirtimeperiod. Theyargueforanendto misfor- Century BC andhowtheysp the Prophets Hosea, Amos,andJonahfromthe 8th tice andcallforsocialch Prophets arethose peoplew Pages 251-256 Shear School of Education Cline Ella Fowler-Morse, Jane Sponsor: Faculty Chair: Tecleab Lwam Session witha process, gamesmanship. focus onpolitical public message, anda general jor focusofthe last twoseasons,theartof crafting a process, which becomesthema- Presidential election I willtouchonthe inreality.Specifically, unfolding show portraysthedevelopmentscompared to their reach tothe howaccuratelythe public, andassess beenout of The WestWing,whichhavetraditionally certain Iwilladdress issuesdealtpresentation withon accurate picture ofhowpo ofevents,andprovidedan comprehension therefore full a aside curtainthathindered pulling observer, with issuesina toacasual manner unfamiliar political foretold eventsthatlateroccurred. Theshowdealt storylinesstraig show used generally grimmerandlesseventful.Regardless,the that it presented anidealisti snappy dialogue. Themaincritiqueoftheshowwas afetishfor Georgepossessing Will,and appreciate ure iteducated people bore govern, istackledbyTheWestWing.its ten- During cal process,howweelectourleaders andhow they of illuminating The challenge International Relations Relations International & Science Klotz, Political Marilyn Sponsor: Faculty David Lombardo Student Commentator: Lwam Tecleab, Geoff Griffiths Rights: AnExplorationofExamples

Session 1-P •SchoolofEducation Pages 248-250 The DenialofUniversalHuman

& International Relations & International Session Chair: Marilyn Klotz, Political Science Science Political Chair: Klotz, Marilyn Session Political Process asEnvisioned Relations PoliticsandPolicy in American Government Tomorrow Will Shine Tomorrow Will and Justification Science &International Session 2-M •Political by theWest Wing ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 ange. Thispaperexamines Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 litics isFormy played. ht from real life and even ht from reallifeand c version of a world thatis c versionofaworld d with C-Span,unableto eak outagainst corruption ho speakupagainst injus- peopleaboutthepoliti- lookatthelegislative

Education, Development & Training Learning Center, and Tom Matthews, Leadership & Teaching Parfitt, David Sponsors: Faculty ClarkDriscoll and Schmidt, nah Han- Ben DeGeorge, Rejoyce Owusu, Jesse Parent, one. their help,tomorrowholdsabrighterfuturefor every- that maynot be ableto speak up forthemselves. With for ofprophets up This isthecalling those to speak “Injustice anywhereisathreat to Justice Everywhere.” 5:30pm.) Performance at continuing intonextyear.(SeeDance ofthe mentionofthefutureplans there willbe Project, aschool.Finally, ment inGhana by means ofbuilding relate ject, and them to the goal develop- ofassisting effortsofthePro- thefundraising will alsotalkabout – aswell discuss the nature itself.It of theproject mester, andthe culturalevents &speakersofthisyear the Project–suchas educational modeloflastse- African country.Theposterwillreviewtheeventsof used to Ghana, introducin of TheGhanaProjecthasbeenonegetting people money tohelp build a year school inGhana.Thefirst another country;thesecond,long termgoal, is toraise with share Ghana,and experiences others onlifein the firstbeing to shareGhanaianculture,helpeducate wascreatedwithtwomain The GhanaProject goals: ject). Bornout of GOLD’s year, startinglastsemester (itis to be a longtermpro- about the happeningsoftheproj be project. Thisposter learning presentation will isaThe GhanaProject civicengagement and service Pages 257-260 Teaching Center &Learning and LeadershipEducation

Development & Development Training The Ghana Project civic engagementefforts, g them to the blossoming ect, whichisinitsfirst

V 6 : The Proceedings of GREAT Day 2009 Great Day 2009 SUNY Geneseo

A Literature Review of Resiliency and Intervention for Children Submitted by Alice Brunet

This paper was completed as part of an in- through potentially adverse situations. The dependent directed study mentored by focus of this paper will be to provide an Dr. Ganie DeHart. overview of the resilience research and its results, discuss a potential theory, review Abstract and analyze current intervention programs, There have been many psychological stud- and then suggest future research studies and ies that sought to explore the specific skills intervention prevention programs. that resilient children develop in adverse It is important to note that the term situations. This literature review is an at- resiliency was not always used to define tempt to provide an overview of the results children who thrived through adverse situa- of previous resilience research that focuses tions. Initially, researchers classified these on children. From these results a general children as “invulnerable” (Anthony, 1974) theory of resiliency will be discussed. Next, or as “stress-resistant” (Garmezy, Masten, different types of implemented intervention & Tellegen, 1984). It was thought that these programs that aim to promote resilient skills children had a unique quality that other chil- in children will be reviewed and analyzed. dren did not possess to help them endure Lastly, suggestions for future resilience re- their adverse situation. Further research on search studies and intervention prevention these children indicated that this unique programs will be made. quality turned out to be something more developmentally mundane. For example, Gar- General observations of children in mezy, Masten, and Tellegen (1984) initially potentially at-risk situations have suggested researched children who were potentially to researchers that there are a group of vulnerable to develop schizophrenia. This highly at-risk children who seem to be less research provided data on the development negatively affected by their adverse situa- of children born to schizophrenic mothers tion and sometimes may even demonstrate over a 12-year period of time. The primary positive effects. From these observations, purpose of the research was to observe if researchers have sought to understand why children who had schizophrenic mothers certain children in adverse situations are were at-risk to have developmental deficits, more capable of overcoming and prospering which also could potentially contribute to than their peers in similar situations. Even the development of schizophrenia. Despite though there has been no definite answer, the initial focus of the research, results of resilience research has indicated a general the study indicated that there was a group of trend of skills that these thriving children at-risk children who were grouped into a develop in order to overcome their situation. “stress-resistant” category. These stress- Furthermore, research has also attempted to resistant children were defined as children promote these certain skills in intervention who were exposed to stressful situations, programs in an attempt to assist children but were still able to maintain a normal if 1

Published by KnightScholar, 2010 7 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

sults indicated thatIQ to theirpeersnotinan lescent academic attainment and jobsuccess. childhood academic successpredicted ado- mantic competence.Results indicated that was alsoafocusonjobcompetence and ro- competence. Foronlythe adolescents, there conduct competence,andpeersocial there wasafocusonacademic competence, servable behaviors.Throughoutthestudy developmental processthathasdirectob- amined becauseitisalong term, complex hood andadolescence.Competence wasex- that focusedoncompetence across child- served 191childreninalongitudinalstudy Gest, Tellegen,andGarmezy (1995)ob- For example, Masten,Coatsworth,Neeman, how competence canpredict futuresuccess. competence inchildrentobetterunderstand ance. Furtherresearchwas conductedon their stresslevelinfluence their perform- Theseresultssuggestthatchildren cused onobtainingagoalandnotletting who havehighachievement aremore fo- ment. to hindertheirperformance anddevelop- stressful environment may havethepotential though childrenmay haveachievement, a IQ score.Thisinterac stress correlatedwithasignificant dropin cantly influencetheirIQscores,buthigh low achievement, lowstressdidnotsignifi- on theirIQscore;howeverifchildrenhad had highachievement, st tion wasfoundthatindicatedwhenchildren economic status.Also,asignificantinterac- scores, evenwhencontrollingforsocio- most significantpredictorofachievement risk childwas developmentally comparable

development leveltodetermine ifanat-

ables wereused tomeasure thechild’s developmental problems. Manyvari- stress-resistant tendedtohavemore risk peerswho werenotclassifiedas competence. Conversely,theirat- not higherdevelopmental levelof ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 tion suggeststhateven wasthehighestand at-risksituation. Re- ress hadlittleeffect dren facingadversities Overall,results indicated thatthede- availability ofpsychosocial resources,chil- velopment ofcompetence isrelatedtothe twenty-three yearsold. to nineteenyearsol dren wereeighttotwel schools. Measuresweretakenwhenthechil- ducted using189childrenfrom twourban competence. Alongitudinalstudywascon- conduct competence,andpeersocial sity byexamining academic competence, focused oncompetence inrelationtoadver- to disruptregulardevelopment. Thisstudy long-term adversitiesth tally soundeventhoughtheywerefacing defined aschildrenwhoweredevelopmen- ties. Resilientchildren but hadnotexperienced tent peerswho haddevelopedsuccessfully children werealsocompared totheircompe- veloped inthefaceofadversities.Resilient adaptive peerswhohadnotsuccessfully de- tween resilient adolescents andtheir mal- competence. Differenceswereexamined be- adversities may threatenthedevelopment of Garmezy, andRamirez(1999)observedhow Therefore, Masten,Hu Asimilar studywasthenconducted the development ofcompetenceinchildren. to examine ifseriousadversities canaffect have thepotential topredict future success. to developpropercompetence levelsthat vironment throughoutadolescenceinorder is important forchildrentohaveastableen- to adolescence. Theseresultssuggest thatit duct andsocialcompetence acrosschildhood by theconsistent stability ofacademiccon- from childhood toadolescencewasmediated academic conduct andsocial competence tence. Ingeneral,therelationshipbetween predicted bothsocialandromantic compe- Furthermore, childhood socialcompetence and alsopredictedjobacademic success. strongly predictedlaterconductcompetence Also, childhoodconductcompetence d, andseventeento inthisstudywere bbard, Gest,Tellegen, ve yearsold,fourteen are notaslikelyto at hadgreatpotential anyseriousadversi- 2 8 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

silience literaturehave Other situation. use toassistthem throughtheiradverse longitudinal specific resources orskillsresilient children ous studiesmentioned areunclearastowhat against theiradversity.However,theprevi- such ascognitive skills,as awaytobuffer succeed isby havingsufficientresources, that oneway thatresilient childrenadapt and tent peers.Therefore, thisresearchsuggests developmentally comparable totheircompe- adverse situations,are dren, unliketheirpeer search has alsoindicatedthatresilient chil- Researchhasindicatedthatdevelop- many differentdomains. Furthermore, re- ing competence canpredict futuresuccess in and non-adversesituations. sist children insucce tages fordevelopment thatcanpossiblyas- such ascognitive skills,are general advan- level. Thesefindingssuggestthatresources, and resilientindividual differences werefoundbetweencompetent psychological well-being.Ingeneral,few similar levels of availability toresources and cents regardlessofadversitylevelreported competent peers.Also,allcompetent adoles- cant differences whencompared totheir cents’ intellectualfunctioninghadnosignifi- over time. Interestingly,resilientadoles- that wereevidentinchildhoodandworsened sity wasalsorelate the combination oflowIQandhighadver- broad rangeofcompet encies. Furthermore, and problems withthedevelopment ofa have ahistoryofadversity,lowresources, adolescents tendtobe

the faceofadversity,and maladaptive

have generallygoodoutcomes evenin sources then theyaremore likelyto have accesstoreasonably goodre- children inadversesituationsdo The resultsalsoindicated thatif have asmany availableresources. ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 d toconductproblems eding inbothadverse s whoarealso facing beenconductedthat able toadaptandbe stress-reactive and s otherthanadversity : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 studies inthere- cians andpsychologists who examined fewer negativehabits.Furthermore, pediatri- attention, were veryactive,andexpressed as infants, these childrenelicited positive fully overcome theirsituation.Forexample, these resilient childrentobeablesuccess- evidence ofageneticpredispositionfor setting. using unobtrusivemeasures inanaturalistic because theyprovidesupport ofresiliency tions are important tothe resilienceliterature fully recoveredfrom trauma. Theseobserva- competence levelsunderstressandsuccess- their adversesituation,sustainednormal cause they had successful outcomes despite study, theywerecategorizedasresilientbe- lems inchildhoodoradolescence.Inthis oped anyseriouslearningorbehaviorprob- more, nooneintheresilientgroupdevel- tent andsuccessfulyoungadults.Further- However,one-thirdofthesehigh- risk children(n=72)di teenage pregnancy. cord, and/orbeingdi health problems, havingadelinquencyre- cantly higherratesofdevelopingmental eighteen. Thesechildrenalsohadsignifi- ten thatcontinuedtoworsenbytheageof ous learningorbeha (n=129) ofthesechildrendiddevelopseri- high-risk cohort,approximately two-thirds tal alcoholism, ormental illness. From this ronment troubledbychronicdiscord,paren- prenatal stress,and/orlivedinafamilyenvi- experienced moderatetoseveredegreesof cause they wereeither (n=201) weredesignatedashigh-riskbe- one-third ofthechildreninthiscohort 1955 ontheislandofKauai.Approximately entire birthcohortof ducted a30-yearlong trends. Forexample, Werner (1994)con- may use,as wellasnotingoverallgeneral skills andresourcesthatresilientchildren focus more specifically on thepotential Interestingly, inthisstudy therewas vior problems byage rectly involvedina 698 childrenintheyear itudinal studyonthe bornintopoverty,had d developintocompe- 3 9 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

to helpthemthroughtheiradversesituation. and theabilitytofi tive self-concept, internal locusof control, that resilientchildren may alsosuggestthattherearecertainskills ence them tobecome resilient, these findings may havesome biologicalfactorsthatinflu- ient nature.Eventhoughresilientchildren positive outcomes andreinforced their resil- sire toseekenvironments thatpromoted have stabilityoverdevelopment andthede- had aspecific disposition thatledthem to situation. Inaway,theseresilientchildren from goingthroughtheircurrentadverse work thatwas focusedonpreventingothers were alsonotedtopa uge whenthingswerebadathome. They able tothemandalsoactedasaplaceofref- in extracurricularactiv tion suchasajob.Theytendedtoparticipate when theyparticipatedinaresponsibleposi- their self-esteem andself-efficacyincreased support outsideoftheirownfamily; also, locus ofcontrolandhadfoundemotional oped apositiveself-conceptandaninternal high school,resilientadolescentshaddevel- fostered their resilient coming involvedwithcertainactivitiesthat noted ofdevelopingspec oriented, assertiveandindependent. be nurturing,responsible,achievement- peers. Inhighschooltheywereobservedto dren weresociallyacceptedamong their their teachers reported that the resilient chil- adverse situations.Inelementary schools, velopmental pathastheirpeersnotfacing resilient childrenandwereonthesame de-

were more advanced thanothernon-

vious research,these velopmentally, inconcurrencewithpre- their positivesocial These resultswerefurther supported These resilient childrenwerealso seek outnovelexperiences,and ness, autonomy,theirtendencyto them astoddlersnotedtheiralert- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 nd socialsupportgroups, Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 rticipate involunteer develop, suchasposi- nature. Bytheendof ities thatwereenjoy- ific skillsand be- resilient toddlers orientation.De- classified groupsignificantly exceeded the ceeded the non-classified groupandthenon- the stress-resistant gr ing rulesandreading math achievement, from eachother.Also,formeasures ofobey- on testscores,butthey nificantly exceed thestress-affectedgroup Resultsofthestudyindicatedthat group andthenon-classified grouptosig- there wasatendencyfor thestress-resilient years. using datathatwerecollectedovertwo non-classified groupsonavarietyoflevels stress-affected, thestress-resilient andthe The purposeofthestudywastocompare lower scoresthanthestress-resilientgroup. measures thanthestress-affectedgroup,but consistently higherscoresonalladjustment their parents.Thenon-classifiedgrouphad or more stress relate the othertwo groups,butdidnothavefour study thatwasdemographically matched to classified groupwasalsoincludedinthis dren onallmeasures ofadjustment. Anon- children exceededthe current teacher. Overall, thestress-resilient indicated bytheirparent,former teacher,and were basedonthreedi measure. Thesethreeadjustment measures worse thanthemiddle onethirdonthe two ofthethreeadjustment measures andno the childhadtoplaceintoponethirdon third measure. Toclassify asstress-resilient no betterthanthemiddle onethirdonthe ment measures usedin the studyandscore one-third onatleasttwo ofthethreeadjust- affected, the childhad to score inthebottom list”. Furthermore,toclassifyasstress- their parents using the“LifeEventsCheck- stress-related eventsthatwerereportedby groups, thechildneededto resilient. Toqualify for either of these two classified aseitherstress-affected orstress- 10- to12-year-oldurbanchildrenwhowere and Gribble(1992)in by Cowen,Work,Wyman, Parker, Wannon, d eventsreportedby oup significantlyex- astudyconductedon stress-affected chil- fferent evaluations tendednottodiffer haveatleastfour 4 10 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

even thoughthereissome indication inthe verse situation.According toMasten(2001), order tocopeandsucceed throughtheirad- eral trendthat resilient children follow in tion ofresearchindicates thatthereis agen- upon eachindividual situation, theculmina- though itishardtodefineresiliencybased who arealsoinadversesituations.Even Theresilience literature indicates that silient children andtheir non-resilient peers there isasignificant difference between re- ent stagesofdevelopment. peers insimilar adverse situations at differ- competence levelthattheirnon-resilient are consistentlyatasignificantlyhigher previous researchthatresilientindividuals important becausethey sults werelessrobust.These findingsare ported previousresearch;however,there- children. Overall,resu resilient childrenthanfor stress-affected scores weresignifican pants’ youngerage.ResultsindicatedthatIQ were adjusted tocompensate for the partici- ofthestudy dren; however,some factors on stress-affectedandstress-resilient chil- this studywasidenticaltotheprevious on 7-to8-year-olds.Themethodology of Theresultsofthestudywererepli- Wyman (1995)inasimilar studyconducted cated byHoyt-Meyers,Cowen,Work, and rently dealingwith comparable to theirpeerswhoarenot cur- verse situation,developmentally theyare resilient childrenaregoingthroughanad- vious research,suggestingthateventhough tions. Theseresultsareconsistentwithpre- both internalandrea problem-solving strategymeasures, and

adjustment scores,allempathy scores,

letic competence, fiveofsixself-rated tence andesteem measures except ath- stress-affected grouponallcompe- significantly higher stress-resilient childrenreported stress-affected group.Overall, ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 an adversesituation. listic control expecta- tly higherforstress- lts ofthestudysup- supportfindingsof : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 levels thanthe structors hadsignificantly greater of trust,mutuality andempathyintheir inthat participants whoperceivedhigherlevels tors are carefully selected. Resultsindicated also important that theintervention instruc- Bellamy, Springer,andWant(2008)itis adverse situations.Also,accordingtoSale, of adaptation skillsthat workindifferent also bebroadenoughtocoverawiderange enough tofocusonindividualproblems but interventions needtobeable specific for differentadversesituations.Therefore, dren usearepotentiallyuniversally helpful eral, theadaptationskillsthatresilient chil- and resourcefulness(Luthar2005).Ingen- nal locusofcontrol, regulation, self-esteem of theseresilience skills include:self- of theskillsthatresilient children use. Some Inordertosuccessfullypromote re- grams needtofirstconsiderpromoting some silience skills inchildren, intervention pro- help them throughfutureadversesituations. access toresources, then potentiallyitwould also equippedwithresilientskillsandhad not currentlyinanadversesituationwere adverse situation.Furthermore, ifchildren have theability tobecome resilientin their the necessary resilient skills, theywould also to resourcesandtheopportunitydevelop non-resilient children hadcomparable access situation. Itissuggested longed becauseoftheirstressfuladverse mental impairments areexposedandpro- cient adaptationalresources.Theirdevelop- not fullydevelopedanddohavesuffi- dren whoarealsoinadverse situations are fore, itissuggestedthatnon-resilientchil- opment and adaptationalresources.There- cantly adversesituation thatteststheirdevel- silient, children needtofirst face asignifi- test inextreme situations.Inordertobere- from normal development being put tothe marily acommon phenomenon thatresults specific geneticdisposition,resilienceispri- research thatresilientchildrenmay havea emotional intelligence , self-efficacy, inter- , self-efficacy, thenthatifthese 5 11 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

6 ing). Resultsofthestudyindicatedthatfrom into juniorhigh,goingthroughpuberty,dat- changes and schooltransitions (e.g.,moving difficult forchildrenbecauseofpersonallife deal withandovercome futuremajor set- stressors inlife,aswell preparingthem to and enhance theirability tocopewithdaily sets toimprove theirproblem solvingskills program tohelpstudentsusespecificskill ing theprogram. Thereisanemphasis inthe program andaresupervisedwhileconduct- who havebeentrainedintheintervention sessions byschoolcounselorsandteachers The programisconductedin1290-minute tion isprimarily designedforadolescence. This ships. to seekout positive, supportive relation- cognitive-beh tive styles,problem-solving skills,andhow the childrenhowtousemoreaccuratecogni- quences. Thisisaccomplished byteaching to avoidfuturepot nalization of problems inhigh-riskchildren purpose ofthisprogram istoreduceinter- ternalization of theiremotions. Themain oping depressionand/or focuses onchildrenwhoareatriskofdevel- For example, thePennResiliencyProgram cope andintroducethem Some interventions thatcurrently population of childrento teachthem howto exist arefocusedonhelpingthehigh-risk changes. order toprepare them for their potential life dren withresilient skills before 7 Therefore, itmay beimportant toequip chil- in GPAandextracurricularparticipation. the transition between6 th

to7 Burgeson, Carlton-FordandBlyth(1987),

tation skills.AccordingtoSimmons, time foranintervention teachingadap- stage ofdevelopment istheprime th gradetherewasasignificantdrop for futureresearchtoexplore what Furthermore, itisimportant improvements intheir social skills. ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 ential negative conse- Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 anxietythroughin- th to resilient skills. and7 avioral interven- th th grades is gradein struction wasusedtoteach atleastone coaching bystaffdevelopers. Regularin- Teachers werealsogiven regularclassroom how toteach usinganinteractive approach. skills insocialandemotional learningand course tointroducethem toconcepts and tors fortheinterventionreceiveda25-hour teachers who weregoing tobetheinstruc- school systems. Priortotheintervention, the highlevelsofvi in NewYorkCitywithafocusofreducing Program. Theprogram wasfoundedin1985 Anotherinterventionprogram that youth istheResolvingConflict Creatively was developedwithafocusonhigh-risk situation. help them succeedthrough theiradverse dren withresilient skills may potentially results indicate that providing at-risk chil- Gillham, Chaplin,&Seligman, 2005).These compared withthecontrolgroup(Reivich, severe levelsofdepressivesymptoms when and werelesslikelytoreportmoderate to ported lowerlevelsof follow-up theinterventiongroupalsore- follow-up. Furthermore, afterthreeyearsof was stillsignificant even after athree year improved theirexplanatorystyles,which in theintervention condition significantly vention. Resultsindicatedthatparticipants adolescents whodidnotreceivetheinter- control groupofra Alongitudinalstudywasconducted The interventiongroupwas compared witha to analyze the effectiveness ofthisprogram. acting. the time toanalyze thei thing more positive andoptimistic bytaking and howtochangetheirreactionsome- thoughts andreactionsin learn howtorecognizetheirpersonal to reachoutothersforhelp.Participants mism, self-efficacy,empathy, andtheability pulse control, causal an this program are:emo tional regulation,im- backs. Theprimary skills thataretaught in ndomly assignedyoung olence foundwithinthe depressive symptoms r situationbefore re- alysis, realistic opti- certainsituations 6 12 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

standing andrespecting ing, conflictresolution skills, andunder- 12-week, school-basedintervention thatis Penn Optimism Program. Theprogramisa silient childrenhavebeen notedtouseisthe program thatpromotes similar skillsthatre- them developthenecessaryskills. to influence resiliency gives furthersupportthatitmay bepossible Roderick, Lantieri, &Aber,2004).This ing childrenresilientskills(Brown, lence inthetargetedschool system byteach- cessful initsprimary goalofreducingvio- ing ConflictCreativelyProgram wassuc- Therefore, itcanbeinferredthattheResolv- schools byusingtheinterventionmodel. decrease ofviolencewithinthetargeted also indicated that opmental trajectories.Furthermore, results achievement andsocialemotional devel- positive changes inchildren’s academic across twoyearsweresi high ratesofinstructi appropriateness. Resultsdidindicatethat ments made duringthe ing typesofprograms usedbasedonadjust- pletely assessthisprogramduetothevary- fectiveness. However,itisdifficult tocom- experimental designwas evaluation wasfinallyconducted,aquasi- to tenyearsafterimplementation. Whenan tively Program wasnotevaluated until close school system,theResolvingConflictCrea- high levelsofviolenceintheNewYorkCity menting this intervention wastoreduce the ences. tion, empathy development,activelisten-

emotional regulation,negotiation,media-

cation, activelistening,assertiveness, the intervention wereemotion identifi- The primary techniquestaughtwithin Another schoolbasedintervention Because theprimary focusofimple- pending ontheageofchildren. duration andcontentvaryingde- lesson from thecurriculum with ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 there wasasignificant on inthisintervention in childrenbyhelping intervention for age inter-cultural differ- gnificantly relatedto used totesttheef- : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 which buffered againstdevelopingan which buffered the interventionpromoted asenseof hope, evaluation period.These resultssuggestthat the controlgroupacross the two-year depression andweremoreoptimistic than perienced significantlyfewersymptoms of participants intheintervention condition ex- from theintervention.Resultsindicatedthat naire thatassessed wh years all participants completed aquestion- was completed, everysixmonths fortwo or acontrolcondition. Inoneempirical studytotesttheef- randomly assignedtoeitheranintervention fectiveness oftheprogram, childrenwere intervention. that theparticipantshavelearnedduring in week12thereisareviewofeverything different aspectsofproblem solving.Finally, weeks 10-11 thereis hancing socialskills strategies, dealingwith assertiveness, negotiation,relaxation,coping more behaviorally-orientedskillssuchas During weeks6-9thechildrenaretaught by howtheydevelopandareexpressed. problem solve,andunderstandingemotions ing amore optimistic outlook,beingableto about cognitivebasestrategiessuchashav- phases. Duringweeks1-5childrenlearn intervention isdivided into three separate of family conflictandcohesionathome. The be atriskfordepressionandtheirperception were selectedbecauseof theirself-reportsto are childreninfifthandsixthgradewho everyday life. Participants inthe intervention more likelytocontinueusingthem intheir using these newskills,thentheywillbe dren havepracticein new skills.Itishypothesized that ifthechil- engage inhypothetical about newskills, but also toparticipate and that allow participants not toonlylearn based uponcognitive-behavioraltherapies - to12-year-oldchildren.Theinterventionis facilitated byatrainedleaderforgroupsof8 and decisionmaking. In hypotheticalsettings a focusprimarily on at theyhadlearned After theintervention procrastination,en- situations usingthese 7 13 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

kindergarten through5 taught byelementary schoolteachersfrom development. Theprogram isdesignedtobe to improve children’semotional andsocial teachers needtobebettereducatedashow opment intheircurricula;furthermore, should includeemotional andsocialdevel- this program itisbelievedthatschools which hasexistedforover20years.Under (Promoting Alternative THinkingStrategies) tigated theeffec Greenberg, Kusche,and are alsouseful forallchildren.Forexample, cated thatthese intervention-based programs tification, andproper regulation, behaviorcontrol,emotional iden- practicing self-control, cluded intheprogram emotional development. Some skills in- mote bothcognitive-academic andsocial- curriculum thatincludeslessonspro- versity. However,res ences betweenthegroups onoutcomemeas- conditions. Therewere gram; schoolswererandomly assignedto school notimplementing thePATHS pro- the PATHSprogram andalsoacontrol on secondandthirdgradersparticipatingin The regulareducationstudywasconducted Effectiveness ofthePATHSprogram curriculum andforthefasttrackprogram. was evaluatedforboththeregulareducation sons. the abilityto teachspecific skillsand/orles- flexible indifferent situationsbutstillhave environment. Lessonsaredesignedtobe promote asupportiveandnurturingschool The schoolsimplementing thisprogramalso overcome and/orsucceedthroughtheirad-

cessful inhelpingat-riskpopulationsto

to thoseofresilientchildrenweresuc- terventions thatpromoted skillssimilar

2000). (Shatte, Gillham, &Reivich, increased riskfordepression The threeaforementioned in- tiveness of PATHS tiveness ofPATHS ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 earch hasalsoindi- emotional expression. are self-regulation, self-talk,emotional th no significantdiffer- gradethrougha Riggs (2004)inves- tional andsocial competence. scholastic competence, butalsoabout emo- which children learn about more thanjust need toimplement similar programs in that currentschoolsystems mayeventually adversities. Furthermore, thismay suggest necessary age-appropriat skills, children willbeable todevelop the viding anenvironment thatpromotes these children. Thispossibly ventions thatpromote re Boththenormal PATHSintervention positive results whenimplementing inter- and thefast-trackprogramhadsignificant server. classroom atmosphereasassessedbyanob- ratings ofdisruptive sion anddisruptivebehaviors,lowerteacher aptation withlowerpeerratingsofaggres- had asignificantimprovement insocialad- that schoolsinthe cohorts offirstgraders.Resultsindicated three successive yearswiththree different risk behavior.Thestudywasconductedin geted childrenenteringfirstgradewithhigh- school aswellselectiveprograms thattar- vention programs thatservedtheentire of theprogram wasto tion orcontrolconditions.Themain purpose were randomized equallytoeitherinterven- location approximately fourteenschools in fourdifferentAmerican location;ineach lems inschools.Theprogram wasconducted ThePATHSfasttrackprogram was duce seriousaggressionandconductprob- a large, randomized in problems, anxietyanddepression. prosocial, andhadlo gressive solutions,weremore likelytobe also significantly lesslikely toprovide ag- Furthermore, intervention participants were solving skillsandemotional understanding. nificant improvements insocialproblem that theinterventiongroupdemonstrated sig- the endof intervention, resultsindicated ures atthebeginningofintervention.At tervention condition behavior, andimproved wer ratesofconduct tervention usedtore- integrate asetofpre- suggests thatbypro- silient skills inall e skillstoovercome 8 14 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

who hadwithchildren in thefull andlate identification, conflict resolution). Parents haviors (e.g.,problem solving,emotional room activitiesandpromotingprosocial be- to learningwithminimal disruptiontoclass- a classroom environment thatisconducive purpose oftheteacher trainingwastocreate promoting cooperativelearning.Themain effective directinstruction strategies, and course onproactiveclassroom management, classrooms completed afive-daytraining intervention. to sixthgrade, andacontrolthat receivedno of theinterventionwasconductedfromfifth tervention, fifth tosixthgrade; received thefull intervention butonly from through sixthgrade; received thefull intervention from first terventions were: the most long-termThedifferentin- effects. serve whichtypeofinterventionwouldhave of interventionswereimplemented toob- through theageof21.Fourdifferenttypes Participants werein schools inSeattle participatedinthestudy. and behaviorproblems. family inordertopreventadolescenthealth ing thechild’sbondstobothschooland through aprosocialpathwaybystrengthen- to promote positive social development ing students.Thepurposetotheprogram is -based workshopsforparentsofparticipat- methods andprovidingschool of instruction, cial competencies usi tional program teaching structional practices,introducinganinstruc-

teachers’ classroom management andin-

mary components ofimproving the ject. Theprogram combines threepri- the SeattleSocial Development Pro- Teachers intheassigned intervention Beginning in1985,18elementary skills that resilient children useis program thatpromotes similar Another school-bas inwhichonlytheparentportion ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 full intervention, terviewed ninetimes parent-training onlyin- late intervention, ng cognitivebehavioral self-control andso- : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 ed intervention which which sent jobs.Self-reportsof emotional health they werealso more committedtotheirpre- to havebeenemployed inthepastmonth; completed twoormore yearsofcollege,and have graduatedfrom highschool,tohave significantlymore likely thanthecontrols to up participants inthe full intervention were the controls.Furthermore, atage21follow- or consistentlysignificantwhencomparedto program; howeverresultswerenotasrobust comes after completion of theintervention tion participantsalso compared tothecontrols. Thelateinterven- ity, andhaving multiple sexpartners when behavior, heavyuseofalcohol,sexualactiv- intervention conditionre significantly fewer participants inthe full compared tothecontrolgroup.Furthermore, achievement, andhadlessmisbehavior when to school,hadsignificantl significantly more attached andcommitted the participants inthe full intervention were follow-up atageeighteenindicatedthatonly pared tothecontrolgr significant positive life changeswhencom- only thefull interventi when theparticipantswereages18and21, pleted; however,afte behavior aftertheintervention wascom- a significant positive improvement insocial through sixthgrade. course whentheirchildrenwereinfifth the controlgroup,onlyparticipatedin parents inallother children wereinfirstthroughsixthgrades; tion participated in th the parents withchildren inthefull interven- of druguse(fifththroughsixthgrade).Only skills onhowtoreducetheirchildren’srisk academics (second through thirdgrade), and grade), skillsonhowtosupporttheirchild’s agement skills(offeredfirstthroughsecond courses tolearnabout the parent-onlyinterventionwereoffered intervention conditionor Results of allinterventions indicated r conductingfollow-ups terventions, exceptfor reported positiveout- e courseswhen their childbehaviorman- oup. Forexample,the on participantshad ported usingviolent who participatedin y bettergradesand 9 15 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

vious experienceofhealthy datingrelation- dating, andbecausethese teenshave nopre- Early adolescenceisthe beginning stagesof tionships istheYout motes thedevelopment ofhealthypeerrela- Anothernotedskillthatresilientchil- tive relationships.Oneinterventionthatpro- dren developistose strate significant,long-term effects. tools thatarepromoted inthestudydemon- understand whichspecific resilient skills and necessary toolsandskills.Itwillalsohelpto ience bysimplyequipp understand ifitispossibletopromote resil- studies tothese interventions willhelpus dren develop.Addinglong-term follow-up very similar totheskil children, the skillstheyare promoting are sarily focusedonpromoting resiliencein aforementioned interventions arenotneces- more thanafewyears.Eventhoughthe viding resilientlifeskillsforthechild termine if theintervention isuseful inpro- Without theseresults, it adolescence toindicatelong-term effects. low-ups areincludedunt important tothisbodyofresearchthatfol- who participatedinth fects inpredicting the these interventionshaveanylong-termef- plete. Itwouldbein follow-up after theintervention wascom- tioned didnothavemore thanatwo-year resilience effects.Thepreviousstudies menin ordertohaveanysuccessfullong-term ple firstgrade,andcontinueforafewyears may needto startatanearlierage, forexam- tant becauseitsuggest Theresultsofthisstudyareimpor-

Catalano, 2007).

(Hawkins, Smith, Hill,Kosterman, & symptoms, fewersuicidalthoughts and tion regulation,fewersocialphobia ticipants, whoreportedbetteremo- better for the full intervention par- at age21werealsosignificantly ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 teresting tostudyif Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 ek outhealthy,suppor- h RelationsProject. e intervention.Itis success ofindividuals s thatinterventions ls thatresilient chil- ing children withthe will behardtode- il at least the endof strated asignificant decrease inallforms domly assignedtotheintervention demon- Resultsindicated thatwhen com- the intervention,adolescents whowereran- pared tocontrolswhodid notparticipatein listen, haveempathy, andproblem solve. emotional expression,andhowtoactively ples ofgoodandbaddatingpatterns,proper how togetaccessuseful resources, exam- tween ahealthyandabusiverelationship, within theprogram arethedifferencesbe- of thethingsthatadolescentsaretaught violence.Someexplanations ofrelationship social learningtheoryandincludesfeminist based onaspectsofattachment theoryand relationship competence. Theprogramis tools tomake informed andenhance choices by equipping adolescentswithnecessary moting healthyandnon-violentrelationships on preventingabusivebehaviorandpro- conducted in18sessionsthatfocusedboth history ofmaltreatme oping abusiverelationshipsduetotheirown who wereconsideredto and females agesfourteenthroughsixteen based program wastargetedatbothmales intimate relationships. This prevention- ing adolescents seekout positive andhealthy learning willhavelong-term effectsofhelp- ThepurposeoftheYouthRelations perimental time withthepotentialthat this Project wastogivedirectionduringthisex- lent andabusivedatingrelationships. which couldalsopotentiallyresultinavio- though theymay notnecessarilyfeelready, get involvedindatingrelationshipseven peer pressuremay encourageadolescents to abusive datingrelations risk forbecoming involvedinviolentand cause ofchildhoodmaltreatment areathigh of apositive andintimate relationship be- adverse situationandhavenounderstanding pothesized thatadolescentswhoareinan romantic identity. During thistime, itishy- exploration andexperi ships, this maybecome atime of self- nt. Theprogramwas mentation withtheir hips. Furthermore, beat-riskofdevel- 10 16 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

able tolearn howtobetteradapt totheirad- rect interventionprog the studies.Thissuggests thatwiththecor- pants intheinterventi were significant positive changesfor partici- at-risk childrensupportthisideainthatthere mote resilient skills skills andresources.In equipped withtheproperdevelopmental ble of becoming resilient if theyare in anadverse situation or not,arealso capa- resilient children,whether theyarecurrently tions. Therefore,itissuggestedthatnon- their developmental skillsinextreme situa- developed for theirageandaresimply using children areresilient be ceed. Furthermore, itistheorizedthatthese skills andresourcestoovercome andsuc- tions, resilientchildrengenerallyusesimilar Overall,theresearch onresilient may differentadversesitua- beexperiencing children hasindicatedthat eventhough they situations. healthy andsupportivethroughdifficult kind thatresilientindividualsfindare velopment ofrelationshipssimilar tothe stand if this interven with amentor. Thiswouldhelptounder- used toseekoutan controls and whetherthese skillswerealso tionships wassignificant the qualityof theparticipants' intimate rela- teresting ifthestudyalsoexamined whether & Masten,2005).However,itwouldbein- unhealthy andabusiverelationships(Riley, adolescents toavoidbecoming involvedin cessful inprovidingth sults suggest thattheintervention wassuc- forms ofabusebytheirpartners.Thesere-

less, physical,emotional, andthreatening

toward theirdatingpartnersandreported pants weresignificantlylessabusive dicated that theintervention partici- thermore, atwo-yearfollow-upin- emotional abuseperpetration.Fur- of victimization andphysical ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 intimate relationship for bothat-riskandnot tion promoted thede- ram, childrenmay be on conditionofall e necessarytools for terventions thatpro- cause theyarefully ly betterthan the : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 may assistallchildrentobecome resilient resilient skillsinasupportive atmosphere dren withconstante school’s curriculum. Providingthese chil- porating emotionalandsociallearningintoa promote resilientskillsmay justmean incor- topic may indicatethataninterventionto previous research,furtherresearchonthis necessary toolsandguidance.Basedupon instruction by equippingteacherswiththe ble toincorporate theseskills intoclassroom research hassuggestedthatitmay bepossi- resources asapartof children learnaboutthes be possibletodevelopaprogram inwhich way topromoteresiliencyinchildren.Itmay continues tosearchforthe most effective results tothecontrolworkshops. tion workshopscanbemade bycomparing are completed, evaluationsoftheinterven- within thecurriculum. intervention methods wo teaching specificresilient skillsanddifferent the interventionworkshops,thingssuchas and comparable environments. However,in workshops thathaveidenticalcurriculum cludes twoormore separatecontrolled plished wouldbetodesignastudythatin- tion program.Onewaythiscouldbeaccom- cally willcontribute toasuccessful interven- to bettercontrolforandtestwhatspecifi- be usefultofirstuse ment theprogram most It may effectively. specific skillstopromote, andhowtoimple- intervention, howlongitshouldlast,what mine whatageisthe best time tostart the long-term effects.Thiswillhelptodeter- understand iftheinterventionprogramhas clude long-term follow- children. Currentinterventionsneedtoin- However,beforetheproperinterven- conducted onhowtopromoteresiliencyin tion isdeveloped,more researchneedstobe adverse situations. verse situationsortobepreparedforfuture Finally, itisimportant that research xposure andpracticeto an experimental design everyday life.Previous Aftertheworkshops up studiestobetter e resilientskills and uld alsobeincluded 11 11 17 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

(Eds.), Buildingacademicsuccess onsocial Weissberg, M.C.Wang, &H.J.Walberg and schoolsuccess.InJ. E.Zins,R.P. and research onneurocognitive development N. (2004).ThePATHScurriculum:Theory Greenberg, M.T.,Kusche,C.A.,&Riggs, 55, 97-111. tal psychopathology. children: Abuildingblockfordevelopmen- (1984). Thestudyofstresscompetence in Garmezy, N.,Masten,A. S.,&Tellegen,A. 214. Journal ofCommunity Psychology, fourth- throughsixth-gradeurbanchildren. andnonclassified affected, stress-relevant, (1992). Testcomparisons among stress- Parker, G.R.,Wannon, M.,&Gribble,P. Cowen, E.L.,Work, W. C.,Wyman, P.A., York: ColumbiaTeacher’s College. does theresearchsay? on socialandemoti Walberg (Eds.), Zins, R.P.Weissberg,M.C.Wang, &H.J. and emotional learningprogram. InJ.E. creatively program: social Aschool-based Aber, J.L.(2004).Theresolvingconflict Brown, J.L.,Roderick,T.,Lantieri,& New York,NY:JohnWiley&Sons. child inhisfamily E. J.Anthony&C.Koupernik(Eds.),

the psychologicallyi

Anthony, E.J.(1974).The syndromeof in thefaceof anyadversity. Building academicsuccess References ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 (Vol. 3)(pp.529-544). onal learning:What Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 Child Development, (pp.151-169).New nvulnerable child.In

, 200- The (1999). Competenceinthe contextof Tellegen, A.,Garmezy, N.,&Ramirez, M. Masten, A.S.,Hubbard, J.J.,Gest,S.D., cence. petence fromchildhoodthroughadoles- (1995). Thestructurean J., Gest,S.D.,Tellegen,A.,&Garmezy, N. Masten, A.S.,Coatsworth,J.D.,Neeman, Psychologist Association, silience process indevelopment. Masten, A.S.(2001.) Sons. ed., pp.1-67).Hoboken,NY:JohnWiley& Vol. 3Risk,disorder,andadaptation (Eds.), DevelopmentalPsychopathology: decades. InCicchetti,D., &Cohen,D.J. ment: Asynthesisofresearchacrossfive Luthar, S.(2005).Resilienceindevelop- 338. Journal ofCommunity Psychology, second- andthird-gradeurbanchildren. of resilientoutcomes highlystressed among C., &Wyman, P.A.(1995).Testcorrelates Hoyt-Meyers, L,Cowen,E.L.,Work, W. fender, 2,161-181. social development project. elementary grades: Results from theSeattle ing healthandbehaviorproblems duringthe Promoting socialdevelopment andprevent- Kosterman, R.,&Catalano,R.F.(2007). Hawkins, J.D.Smith, B.H.,Hill,K.G., lumbia Teacher’sCollege. search say?(pp.170-188).NewYork:Co- and emotionallearning:Whatdoesthere- Child Development,66 Ordinary magic: Re- d coherenceofcom- 56,227-238. Victims andOf- , 1635-1659. American 23, 326- (2 nd

12 18 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

pediatrics, Journal ofdevelopmental andbehavioral Werner, E.(1994).Overcoming the Odds. cence. of CumulativeChangeinEarlyAdoles- Ford, S.,&Blyth,D.A.(1987).TheImpact Simmons, R.G.,Burgeson,R.,Carlton- Press. 234). NewYork:Templeton Foundation honor ofMartinE.P.Seligman of optimismandhope:Researchessaysin lescents. InJ.E.Gillham (Ed.), (2000). Promotinghopeinchildrenandado- Shatte, A.J., Gillham, J.E.,&Reivich, K. Prevention, adolescent socialskills. participant relationshipsandenhancement of Want, M.Q.(2008).Qualityofprovider- Sale, E.,Bellamy, E.,Springer,J.& York: PlenumPublishers. families, andcommunities J. McMahon(Eds.), in context.InR.D.Peters,B.Leadbeater, Riley, J.R.,Masten,A. Children Brooks (Eds.),HandbookofResiliencein sion inyouth.InS.Goldstein&R.B. resilience intreatingandpreventingdepres- M., &Seligman, Theroleof M.E.(2005).

Reivich, K.,Gillham, J.E.,Chaplin,T.

Psychopathology, to lateadolescence. Child Development, and maladaptation from childhood (pp.223-237).NewYork:Kluwer. adversity: Pathways toresilience 15

29, 263-278. , 131-136. ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Resilience inchildren, 11, 143-169. S.(2005).Resilience Journal ofPrimary (pp.13-25).New : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 Development and 58,1220-1234. (pp.215- The science 13 19 Proceedings of GREAT Day, Vol. 2009 [2010], Art. 47 Great Day 2009 SUNY Geneseo

Creating Womanhood Submitted by Chelsea Rives

What does it mean to be a woman? of visibility. By 1996 trans issues started to Why are some people born into the right be covered by the gay media (Wilchins 26). body, while others aren’t? What is the Recognition is spreading as each year cause for this? Do we create ourselves? passes, with the help of people like Jennifer Endless questions run through my mind as I Boylan willing to step into the spotlight. reread She’s Not There. For every question Jenny volunteers her private life to the pub- answered, another is formed. Jennifer Boy- lic in order to further understanding and ac- lan’s transition from male to female has, ceptance. As she tells Christopher Muther, without a doubt, forever changed my per- “I think most people are surprised that we spective on womanhood. don’t sit around talking about sex changes all day. We talk about homework and prac- I. Out of the Closet and Into the Spotlight ticing trumpet, radical and revolutionary Jennifer Finney Boylan, author of things like that. We’re changing the world She’s Not There, is one of the most inspira- by living a quiet, normal life” (Muther). tional women I have ever come across. I Just today, while flipping through the chan- can honestly say that while researching her nels, I saw an ad for a new television series for this paper, I fell in love with her. Jenni- on WE entitled “Sex Change Hospital.” It’s fer’s raw honesty and bravery is a goal all these seemingly small steps that will change women should strive to reach. Jenny was the world. fortunate enough to have the resources, namely the love and support of her family II. Let’s Talk About Sex(ual Reassignment and friends, as well as the money necessary Surgery) to undergo the transition from male to fe- In 2000 Jennifer began her transi- male. She was also blessed to be born in the tion. Although it would have been possible era that she was. The end of the century to transition prior to the new millennium, it was a wonderful time for the trans- would have been significantly more diffi- community. As Riki Wilchins reminds us, cult. According to Alison Oram, the first the 1990s saw gender advocacy reaching documented sex change was performed in new heights (Wilchins 21). We can thank Germany of 1930. The patient was Lili Virginia Prince for this. In 1960 Virginia Elbe. The most publicized sexual reassign- held the first convention for cross-dressers ment surgery is the former US soldier Chris- in a discreet hotel room. This convention tine Jorgenson in 1952 (Oram 278). As hos- was an anonymous way for people to ex- pitals began shying away from sex change press themselves in a shame-free environ- procedures, private doctors took over, this ment (Wilchins 22). Since then a vast social shift made sex-reassignment surgeries much network has been forming, making it possi- easier to access, as well as more affordable ble for cross-dressers, transgendered and (Wilchins 23). transsexual people alike to enter the realm 14 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47 20 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

for therestofpatient’s lifeunderaset approximately sixinches. Thiswillbe done gain andmaintain maximum depth,whichis vaginal stentsofvaryi deemed readytoproceedonherown.Using pervision ofanurseuntilthepatientis vaginal dilation.Thisisdoneunderthesu- most important thingforapatienttodois cally more expensive.After surgerythe be used.Ifthisisusedtheproceduretypi- wall, althoughtissuefromtheanuscanalso the most favorablematerial forthevaginal Dr.Tulayaphanichreplicatestheva- vestibule ofthevulva.The scrotalskinis gina initsentirety, from theclitoris tothe ergy andvitality(Wassersug 103). ing) ofskin,andoccasionally theloss ofen- sensitivity, softening(andtypicallythedry- of bodyhair,breastdevelopment, nipple redistribution, thediminishing andsoftening (Wassersug 102).Theresultsincludefat tions ofestrogenandanti-androgen sex. Thisisdonethroughvariouscombina- secondary sexcharacteristicsofthedesired much aspossible.Theother,toinducethe nate thesecondaryse physiological aims. Thefirstbeingtoelimi- ersug, hormone treatment hastwomain layaphanich). AccordingtoRichardWass- for thesixmonths priortosurgery(Dr.Tu- opposite sexrole,aswelltakehormones, patient must havelivedexclusivelyinthe chiatrist, orsomeone equallyqualified.The diagnose withgenderdysphoriabyapsy- Dr. Tulayaphanichrequireshispatientstobe dure costsninethousandAmerican dollars. assignment surgeries.The standardproce- doctor inThailandwhoperforms re- sexual gitimate. Dr. ChettawutTulayaphanichisa

minutes Ifoundawebsitethatlookedle-

over tomy computer. After aboutten down She’sNotThere change procedure? ReluctantlyIput change procedure? What exactlyhappensduringasex tion my curiosity waspeaked. While readingofJennifer’stransi- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 x characteristicsas ng sizes,thegoalisto : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 andventured That’s friends –andyouknewwerefemale? up thismorning –I’dsaytomy female truly female. whenyouwoke “Remember into agirl,Jenniferalwaysknewshewas planet whoseatmosphere transformed her the woodspretendingshewasstrandedona would play“girlplanet.”Walking through maybe longafter.)AsayoungchildJenny until theday wedie.(Andwhoknows, that arecontinuouslypaintedandrepainted works ofart.We arebornblankcanvases more thaneverchanging, everevolving self. Afterall,human beingsarenothing fer, likesomany others,isstillfindingher- body isnothingmore thanavessel.Jenni- man, butitisimportant toremember thata There isn’t likethat.Ijustam” (Boylan, choose tobeJames. BeingJenny,though, cause sheneverwasaman.“Ialwayshadto this isnotbecausesheusedtobeaman, be- means tobea woman. I’dliketoargue that fifty, Jenniferisstilllearningaboutwhatit learn andfeel”(Boylan – “Andpartofitis–readyforthis? and feelingcontent,evenexcitedbywhatI still learningwhatitmeans tobeawoman, layaphanich). reach orgasm within ayear (Dr.Tu- Dr. Tulayaphanich’s patients areable to tient can have intercourse; themajority of schedule. Two months after surgerythepa- is it that makes us who we are? Whyis itthatmakes wasI uswhoweare? need toactandfeellike a woman. So what following thesecond,she wouldsimply possess thefemale reproductiveorgans. But definition, tobeawoman shewouldhaveto ture” (Merrian-Webster). Followingthefirst being “ofadistinctivelyfemininena- TheMerriam-Webster dictionaryhas being “anadultfemale person”andanother numerous definitions for woman. Thefirst knew” (Boylan,She’sNot There22). 162).Yes,sheoncehadthebodyofa howitfeels. III. BitingYour OwnTeeth That’s , home page). Now howI She’s Not 15 21 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

that it was something seriouslyamiss, knowing den, afrightenedchildknowing thatthere on, shewasfacedwiththisincalculable bur- something I’dbetterkeepprivate.”Early enough aboutmy conditiontoknowitwas over time,achildIsurelyunderstood as much troubleIwasingrewmore specific “Although myunderstandingofexactlyhow from averyyoungagethatshewasnothe. Nowletuslookattheinitialjourney me. AsImentionedearlier,Jennyknew – maybe youcanfindtheanswersthatevade bite yourownteeth”(Moncur). “trying todefineyourself isliketryingto the thought.AsAlanWatt’shasdeclared boggling question,butit’scertainlywroth we’ll neverhaveananswertothismind- what many wouldliketobelieve.Maybe We areyoung,andweknowlittle,nomatter factor thatwehaven’tevendreamt ofyet. was certainthatthething Iknewto be true struction, partbiologica for oneanswer.Maybeitispartsocialcon- will play? Ibelieve gender istoocomplex some forceouttheredecidedwhatgame we far toomany people,haveignored?Isthere still othersareanothersexthatlanguage,and are some peoplefemale andsome male,and What makes Why us,allofwhoweare? society. So,my dearreader,whatisleft? have ruledoutbiologyandpsychology/ thing astranssexuals,or was thecase,thentherewouldbenosuch cially gearedtowardsbeingfemales. Ifthis Theyarequoteobviouslynotso- sexuals? argument, howwouldyouexplaintrans-

whole-heartedly agreed.Butunderthat

ment, asItype theseverywords,Ihave a socialconstruct.Uptothisverymo- IV. “Thisisnothingwecanfix.” must cal? Somecal? havearguedthatgenderis biological, sothenisitpsychologi- Jenny was not? It’sclearlynot Jenny wasnot? born intothe“right”body,while bekeptasecret ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 l; maybe it’sanother onlyahandful.We . “Byintuition I to beagirl.”“Yeah.Can Iseeyour that?” repliedBrandon. “A boywhowants transgender?” askedhis friend. “What’s parents, hadwithafellow child.“Areyou ing himself asBridget,unbeknownsttohis versation Brandon,whowasthenintroduc- This realization wasemphasized bthe con- his brain,in were real.“Thisisnothingwecanfix.In became convincedthat Brandon’sissues Here Tinafoundthesupportsheneeded,and Trans-Health ConferenceinPhiladelphia. father Bill,andhertwootherchildrentothe after thisshebroughtBrandon,hisstep- parents oftransgenderedchildren.Shortly connected with aninternet community of dealt withthese issues. Buteventually she believed Brandonwastheonlyboywho until Brandon waseight,Tinalost. She Never havingheardthewordtransgender his firstfullsentencewa dressing upinhismother’s heels.Infact, activities, such asplaying withBarbiesand toddlerhood hegravitatedtowards“girly” “God made amistake,” hereplied.From reason,” hismotherTinatoldhim onenight. “Brandon, Godmade youaboyforspecial Itisn’tuncommon article aboutBrandonforexample. to nowatayoungage.TakeHannaRosin’s Would itbeshruggedoffasachild’sgame? thoughts, howwouldthenewsbetaken? Andifthatchildexpressedher know? Imagine theturmoil. Howcouldaparent Imagine theconfusionJennymust havefelt. language, thatshewasno child wasthinking,inatoddler’slimited you eventhinkofthepossibilitythatthis as athunderstorm orastrangeface.Would tions arecausedbysomething trivial,such Mostwouldassumesadness? theseemo- Doyousee child’s eyes.Doyouseefear? clutching asafetyblanket.Lookintothat There possible andhilarious”(Boylan, was something otherswould findbothim- 21).Imagine, if youwill, a toddler mind, Brandon’sagirl.” s “Ilikeyourheels.’ t in the right body? t intherightbody? for atranswoman She’s Not 16 22 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

heavy, philosophicalquesti yearoldsdelveintosuch How many ten solitary walk,andcontemplateshislife. She’s NotThere 22).Jamesalong, goesfor alive problem up withsomesortofsolutiontothebeing Yearspass,thetoddlermaturesintoa “The firsttime tryingtocome Iremember preteen. Jennifer,thenJames, isnowten. rather notwait. this issue.Ingoodtime? Maybe,butI’d were more awarenesscampaignscentered on there to helpthosewhosuffer.Now,ifonly can bereversed,andthatstepstaken truth thattranssexualismisnotachoice well. Theseoutlets helppeopleacceptthe themselves, as buttheirfriendsandfamilies And thisdoesn’tonlygoforthetranssexuals even more isolatedthantheyalreadydo. their owntroubles.Thousandswouldfeel Itisvital that these communitiesand numbers wouldbefloundering,drowning in conventions exist.Without them, countless der” (Rosin1). she couldhavefathomed. Later,while liv- community, ifacceptance wassomething ened ifshehadthesupport ofatrans- Her struggleswouldhave beengreatlyless- anymore” (Boylan, high that itwasimpossible tosee the earth sitting ontopofam male, feelingafraidandsecluded.“Iwas school, andislivinghis 23). Fastforward,James isingraduate cured bylove “And thenIthought, bodies, childrencanknowtheirgen-

ual orientation,evenindefianceoftheir

experience, beforetheyknowtheirsex- they havemuch time tobe shapedby a girl.Rosinexplainsthat“before Bridget, thereisnoquestion.She this dialoguesaysitall.To balloon?” Thestarksimplicity of V. MaddyWasn’tCured ” (Boylan, wasabout1968”(Boylan, ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 She’s NotThere ountain ofsecretsso Maybe youcouldbe private lifeasafe- She’s NotThere : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 ons such as this? ons suchasthis? 70). major role,ofcourse,buthowbig arole what makes uswhoweare.Society playsa haven’t theslightest that anon-choice.What I wasthatfactor? Some factorotherthanherowndesiremade was achoice,butbeingwoman wasn’t. ever hadachoice.Yes,gettingthesurgery ease suchajourney.Idon’tbelieveJenny body, butIdon’tthinkth it waseasier toimagine herself inthe correct imagine herlifeinadifferentbody?Maybe Wassor ofliterature? itanyeasierforherto any easierbecause she isawriterand profes- humor. which shehandlesverywell,andwithmuch there arequestionsa of loveandsupportfromall.Ofcourse transition. Sheisshownanamazing amount son, some throughaletter,andbeginsher 159). Jennifer tellsherfriends,some inper- mom (Boylan, anddaddy fer isdubbed“Maddy,”acombination of parents telltheirtwoyoungboys,andJenni- with hertothisveryday(Harkavy).The leaves Jenny.ShestickswithJenny,andis Grace, afteralongjourney ofherown,never Jennifer isanextraordinarilyluckywoman. crushed” (Boylan, walked throughherdaysbrokenand Grace’s, and intheweeks thatfollowedshe been mine aloneforalltheseyearswasnow to Gracehas come. “Theburdenthat had self acceptance hascome. Thetime tospeak age fortytwo sherealizesthatthetime for body” (Boylan, living thewronglife,in dark…I’m the wrongperson,Ithought,I’m Nor ishecuredbymarriage andafamily. love withher.Butheisnotcuredbylove. He hasbeenseeingGrace,andisfallingin them away(Boylan,She’sNotThere83). cluding makeup andaccessories,throws ers, gathers allthegirl ing inBaltimore,James, likesomany oth- Has Jennifer’sjourneybeenmade “I oftenwokeupandlaythereinthe She’s NotThere She’s NotThere nd confusion,allof idea. Ihavenoidea s clothinghehas,in- ere isanywayto She’s NotThere 102).At 127).

17 23 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

- --.She's NotThere www.jenniferboylan.net/blog>. 2008. 10Nov.2008. gery clinic.1Nov.2008.. . er_boylan_quiet_trans books/articles/2004/09/23/jenni Nov. 2008..

tions foryoutoanswer. 2006-2007.Dr.Chettawut Plasticsur- . London:Palgrove,2006.256-85. Not There . 23Sept.2004.The BostonGlobe.8 presented isapallet,quitelikeShe’s

give youasetanswer.WhatIhave Dear reader,Iregretthatcannot when itcomestowhatsexyouare? Works Cited , abaseworktoidentifyques- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 . NewYork,NY: Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 gendered_revolution/ volution." TheBoston

. 10Oct. ory: AnInstantPrimer webster.com/dictionary/woman>. December

Sexualizing Black Women in America Submitted by Lindsey Wiltse

Girl, what makes you wanna fuck with me now? on their bodies, and why are they picked out I’ve been wantin’ to fuck wit’ you for quite a while over others? Is the money makin’ you wanna fuck with me? Born in the eighties and early nine- Whoa…if money’s gonna make me slam these ties, this generation has grown up in some- hoes…then alright. “Fuck Dat Bitch” by 50 Cent thing referred to as “hip hop culture.” Hip “God damn lil’ buddy take off your hop culture, as I have learned, was started clothes and let me see that apple bottom and by black and Latino youths in the Bronx and that brown booty,” croons Crime Mob in consist of four distinct elements: rapping, their song “Rock Her Hips.” Being an obvi- deejaying, break-dancing, and graffiti. The ous jab at black female sexuality, “apple culture evolved in response to white su- bottom” is modern slang for a large, shapely premacy in American society. Following the rear end, calling out the “brown” aspect of Vietnam War and the Civil Rights Move- her behind. In current media depictions of ment, minorities were looking to success- African American women, and specifically fully migrate into mainstream white society. rap music, they are most likely described as Moving away from a perceived lack of indi- overly sexual, flaunting shapely bodies to viduality in New York City at that historical men who are all too willing to be pleased by moment, hip hop allowed men to make a women eager to please them. I have noticed significant name for themselves in their advertisements for clothing where white communities. In the time since it hit the women are being suggestive, showing a bit mainstream airwaves in 1979, hip hop cul- of skin or biting their lips for a come-hither- ture has grown to dominate the media. Rap- and-you-will-see look, while black women pers and the lifestyles they promote bring in are more likely to be half-clothed, legs an enormous amount of money to produc- open, and laying on a bed, inviting the ers, fashion designers, artists, and the execu- viewer to her body. I have noticed that Af- tives in charge of television, radio and ad- rican American women are indeed more vertising. As a significant creative force in likely to be sexualized in American society. modern society, hip hop continues to posi- In the Biblical creation stories, revered in tively reinvent itself. According to rapper our culture, Eve, when eating the fruit of the KRS-ONE, “creativity is seen as feminine. Tree of Knowledge, sets a precedent for all In these single families that many of us women to be sexual temptresses, regardless grew up in, we didn’t have any fathers, so of race or class. When did black women we were missing the analytical sides of our- bear the brunt of a hyper sexualized culture selves. Instead, we are creative and 19

Published by KnightScholar, 2010 25 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

states: and statusofwomen inhiphopculture.She gins toofferanexplanationastherole lent withintheculture ers, thentheexploitationofwomen preva- acteristic, one attributed totheirownmoth- viduality andexpressionisafeminine char- lives. If theverything that causes their indi- enced bythesemen withoutfathersintheir hop isbasedonafemininecreativityexperi- according to KRS-ONE.Headmits that hip

are mother-led, singleparenthouseholds,

the onesdirectlyimpacted byhiphop, blum). Manylower-income families, graffiti, inb-boying” (qtd. inGold- mote violence against women for pimp wouldtoaprostitute,andpro- refer toall women astheythinka songs men glorifythelife ofpimps, of apimp. many In popularrap who describetheirlifeasbeingthat good forsexualrelationsbyrappers Women aredescribedasbeingonly thing more thanmoney, ifthat. gest thatwomen arenotworthany- monly containname callingtosug- lot of theexplicit lyrics thatcom- ages areshown togoalong witha ing ontheirbodyparts.Theseim- than bikinis, withthecameras focus- two men) wearingnotmuchmore women (usuallysurroundingoneor run todayshowsmany dancing every hip-hopvideo hop cultureassexobjects.Almost in particularareseenpopularhip- All women, butmostly blackwomen MySistah’s contri our mothers. Thereiscreativity in intelligent, and thiscomes from ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 is difficulttoexplain. butor Ayannabe- that isregularly This same image appealstotheaudiences companies toproduceaparticularimage. capital tothe raparti chal nation,thepeoplein powerprovide white CEOs.Inthiscapitalistandpatriar- rate funding,hiphopislargelyfueledby through productendorsements andcorpo- getting intotoomuch hop music wouldnotexist.In2008,without and ruralaudiences,th fact, withoutthelarg influenced thecorporatewhiteinterests.In enough thattheappealtowhiteaudiences War IIenjoyedthisform ofartandmusic tions thatmoved outof city itemerged in.Themostlywhitepopula- found markets inthesuburbsofsame South Bronxinspiredmusic andlifestyle American women. tivity, butinstead,ob rear onaman’s groindoesnotconveycrea- luptuous, gyratingwomen, circlingtheir satiable sexual creatures. Theimages ofvo- leads tostereotypingofblackwomen asin- which, seenjustinitsmediaportrayals, lifestyle ofmoneyhungrymen andwomen rap,” mainstream hiphopculturepromotesa Since theemergence ofso-called“gangsta sex, women, masculinity, andcapitalism. stead, whatIseearerappers obsessed with shifted slightly from itsoriginal goals. In- culture inthe twentyfirst century has within awhitesupremacist society,hiphop relieve frustrationsandstake anidentity chauvinism. Whileitstartedoutasawayto passed throughthemother become lostin are of creativitylaudedbyKRS-ONEthat Within thisinterpretation, theideals 'disobeying.' (1) Significantly, theoriginsof sts andtheirrecord e numbersofsuburban jectifies African detail, Iwillsay that e lastingpowerofhip thecityafterWorld 20 26 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

“otherness.” Thissuggests thereasoning thing outsideofart,some senseof not “art.”Whattheirmusic is,then,is some- peal, then whattheyproduce intheir viewis ideology, connectwith Americans cannot,underwhitesupremacist breeding groundforart”(67).IfAfrican engage thefiner sensibilities that were the the capacitytofeelandthereforecould not ple, beingmore animal thanhuman, lacked premacist ideologyinsistedthatblackpeo- style thatexiststoday. manifested inapopularmusicform andlife- oversexualization ofblackwomen currently focus ontherolewhiteAmerica playsinthe dered andsexual identities” (141).Iwill where men women and reflectontheirgen- that “music isakeysiteineverydaylife and abuseinsocietyatlarge”(133),stating are responsibleforcausingactualviolence cer believesthat“certa (a largelywhite population).KobenaMer- (white men) butalsothosewhoconsume it nipulated bynotonlythosewhoendorseit can American women inthisculture arema- this influence,theimages projectedofAfri- manner needtobeidentified.Sincethereis portray AfricanAmerican women insucha ducers ofmusictoencourage, consume, and Key historicalaspects for thehypersexualizationofblackwomen. hip hopculturewouldnotexistifitwere sic. Thehypermasculinity associatedwith

ence thatgoesintothemaking mu- ofrap

to notethestronghandofwhiteinflu- any roleintheproduction, Iam willing African Americanmen donothave Bellhooksstatesthat“whitesu- sion. While Iam notsayingthat who seemainstream rapontelevi- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 that cause whitepro- in typesofimagery a whiteaestheticap- : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 struction ofAfricanwomen’s contributed substantially their exploitationoffemale slaves…that tures ofthedominant ideologythat justified Simms suggeststhat the“preeminent fea- ated inAntebellum Americansociety.Rupe sexuality comes theJezebelstereotype cre- black women withanimalistic, unbridled than others. allowing hertobedepictedasmore sexual ently differentthanwhitewomen, therefore women, beingseenasanOther,areinher- more deviantthanwhit white women; blacki women inhiphopculturearecontrastedto by colonialism. Underawhitesystem,black more seenwiththedarkerpeopleovertaken sociated withthewhiter,Western world,but ral, andunbridledsexua in “civilization.”Theywouldbemore natu- ranked onparwithwhitewomen, wholived stead ofacivilizedworld,theywerenot jungle. Bylivingina“natural”settingin- where theywereseemingly takenfromthe broughtoverfromwomen were Africa, particular areevenmore so.Blackslave ceived asclosertonature,blackwomen in systems. Since women asawholeareper- the onesmaking buildingsandgovernment closer tocivilization since theyareseen as ability tobirth childrenand men areseen as are perceivedasclosertonaturedueour spectrum of“other.”Women, asagender, in hiphopculture,areplaced onadifferent but AfricanAmerican women, specifically social otherinregard Not onlyareAfricanAmericans made intoa ket andtheportrayalof behind awhitepushhiphopmar- In thestrandofthoughtthatlinked s toartisticcreation, ndividuals areranked e individuals.Black thewomen withinit. lity isnotatraitas- tothesocialcon- 21 27 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

Other because itplaces herasdifferingfrom pares totheblackwomen as asocialized ally supremacist society. Again,this com- this image of limitless libidobyacontinu- stereotype; blackwomen arerenderedin their rearendalludetothisantediluvian their thongunderwearforagoodlookat ing men toplacedollar bills underneath tions, thedozenshalf hip hopvideos.While usingdifferentinten- pleasure. This relatestotheimages seenin women whosebodieswerenotusedfor then indeedtheydifferedfrom thewhite parts. Ifslave women lovedbeingravaged, manner thantheywouldtheirwhitecounter- relate toblack women inamore primitive The Jezebelimage allowedforwhitemen to stereotype: white masters. Simms definestheJezebel

treated solely assexualobjectsbytheir

American women beingrapedand thereby leadingtonumerous African were abletobesexuallyexploited, the domination ofwhitemen. (882) sires…the Jezebel image sustained simply satisfyinghernaturalde- master…so thatabusingherwas truly enjoyedbeingravagedbyher this portrayal,theAfricanwoman women bywhitemen. Accordingto tion, justifyingthe subordina- concretized Blackfemale ered limitless. TheJezebel image nous self-expressionwereconsid- ual aggression,fertility,andlibidi- sumed bylustful passions.Hersex- childishly promiscuous andcon- The sex-starvedwoman, whowas ology maintained thatslavewomen gender” (880).Thesupremacist ide- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 nakedwomen allow- rape ofAfrican vites avoyeurism oftheirsexualityby trayed inasexualizedmanner, thenitin- cation ofblackbodies.If theyarebeing por- black bodiesanymore, th though thereisnolegalizedownershipof used ashowtheirwhiteownersawfit.Al- black women toastatusofproperty,be out consequenceattitudedoesisrelegate owner” (Sitomer 10).Whatthis rape with- erty crime againsttheslave her master wasconsideredtrespass,aprop- an enslavedwoman otherthan bysomeone female slavesbytheirmasters.Therapeof south, “nolawexistedtoforbidtherapeof cially, blackwomen. Intheantebellum over thebodiesofwomen, andmost espe- maintained; whitemen remain incontrol creatures, then indeed women areaccusedofbeinginsatiable sex Shorter’s definitionofrape.When black scribed bySimms directlyrelatesto black women. TheJezebel imagery de- sustained thedomination ofwhitemenover image, beginninginthenineteenthcentury, all time. SimmssuggeststhattheJezebel and remain protectiveovertheirgenitalsat women areseenasadispensable sex object triumph overthem. Inthismanner, the keep allwomen inastateoffearorderto ual dominion overwomenbutforallmen to is notonlyawayformen toprovetheirsex- ual thanwhitewomen. American women areinherentlymore sex- the whiteconsumer base thatAfrican women asa Jezebeltypefigureidentifyto as notwantingsex.Hiphopportrayalsof such aframework, whitewomen aredefined according to theJezebelstereotype, andin white women. Blackwomen onlywantsex, Rape,asnotedbyEdwardShorter, the powerstructure is ere istheobjectifi- 22 28 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

and polyandry,withbl oftenforcedintopolygamywomen were and influential.BeforetheCivilWar, black mainstream hiphopartiststobepervasive imagery seeninthelyricsandvideosof racist andpatriarchalculturecanleadtothe a bodyinsteadofperson.Acapitalistic, fluence, cancauseanindividualtobecome power, duesocioeconomic andpoliticalin- Slavery isonesuchinstitutionwheresexual nomic, socialandpoliticalstructures”(137). roles, throughavarietyofmaterial, eco- lege, andtheprevailingsystem ofgender adjusts thebalanceofmale powerandprivi- “patriarchal culture constantly redefinesand In polygamous situations, thewoman will that theyallhavegot to getphysicalwithone girl, orhavingpride speak ofthemandtheirfriends eithertrying documentaries wheremany ofthemen we havespokenofafewclipsshown Contemporary American Literature”class, Kristen Gentry’s“HipHopCultureand the man rappingintothemicrophone. In and shaketheirhipsattheoneman, usually multiple women danceupon,licktheirlips matewoman would withafewmales. Now, mate withavarietyofwomen orone mous systems, oneman wouldbemadeto traits theslaveholder desired.Inpolyga- master inordertoproducechildrenwith other black women asdecreedbyaslave consequential stereotypes.

will coincide witheventual negative and

fluence theirmedia portrayal,which controlled bythesesame men thatin- males, then theirbodiesarebeing Mercer issuretopronouncethat mostly young,suburban,white consumers. If their consumers are ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 ten physicalwithher. ack men mating with : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 should remain unaffected.Itisnot the ing so,harm aplet what willappear inwhat form, whileindo- in powermake thedecisions ofwhoand do. Itbecomes anissuewhencertainpeople characteristics andbehaviorofthefewwho manner inmassmedia areassignedthe make aconsciousdecisiontoappearinthis when themillions ofwomen whodonot be afairargument, but scantily cladoroverlysexual.Thatwould getting intowhentheysignontoappear videos andthemedia knowwhattheyare that thewomen whoareportrayedinthese ions” (230).Anobjectionwouldbetosay parties ortheadvocat ual characteristicstogr cuse forassigningwhataremerely individ- of thepopulationthattherecanbenoex- among thenationsandamongeverystratum peculiarities…are soequally distributed rican American women. Hesays,“sexual may havetostereotype,asisdonewith Af- obvious manner, anypredilectionanyone MagnusHirschfeld,inhis1932arti- group ofpeopleinawaythatsums up,inan cle entitled “Racism” explainssexualizing a dred yearslater. something that shouldcontinueoverahun- reaching backtoAntebellum America isnot of polygamous situations.Thisstereotype stream media bringupanideareminiscent viewing oftheirbodies,theimages inmain- the willingnessofgirlstosubmit tothis ence betweenforcedsexual intercourse and have. Althoughthereis putting herselfouttheremorethanthey with othersexualwomen foroneman by these men tohave her,or willing tocompete be seenaswanting sex,anddesiringallof hora ofwomen who es ofspecifiedopin- oups orraces,andto what isnotfair is asignificantdiffer- 23 29 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

understanding onthemeaning placedonthe popular media. Ithinkth then bytheslaveholders, andnowbythe placed upontheirbodies, firstby colonizers, women, butinstead,thereisasexuality nothing inherentlysexualaboutblack ences whofueltheconsumer base.Thereis black rappers,butmany ofthewhiteaudi- century thatisbeing tion ofslaverymindset inthetwenty-first liar socialphenomenon. lic throughthemedia. Tome, thisisapecu- mered intotheminds oftheAmerican pub- more sexualthanwhitewoman isham- mainstream attitudeofblackwomen being and reggae,bothblackartforms. Itisthe white influence, andcalls toitsroots injazz This iswherehiphopcreatedwithout sexualization ofwomen doesnotoccur. ground rapandhiphopscenewherehyper- seen ontelevision,thereisahugeunder- communities” (67).Inopposition towhatis stroy artisticproductioninunderclassblack talism hasnotbeenabletocompletely de- bell hookslaterwritesthat“consumer capi- white gazeon blackfemalesexual bodies. women throughhiphopcultureallowsfora slave times, thehypersexualizationof women’s bodies throughforcedrapeduring Instead ofthe useofAfricanAmerican bodies ofwomen, espe cally whitemen, haveafascinationwiththe to appearso.

who profitfrom making themselves out

American women, notsolely theones ualization isattributedtoallAfrican fundamental flawiswhenhypersex- White Americans, andmost specifi- that become the problem, butthe women who aregrindinginbikinis ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 perpetuated notonlyby cially blackwomen. This isacontinua- ere needstobean sumption intoday’ssociety. would notbeunnecessarily targetedforcon- overturned andAfricanAmerican women these perceptionsandstereotypescanbe space ofother people.With thismeaning, 24 30 : The Proceedings of GREAT Day 2009 Great Day 2009 SUNY Geneseo

France: Chapitre V- Provinces du Centre Submitted by Erinn Kehoe

Les provinces centrales de la France (comme la Loire et le Rhône) et par des ri- sont une région intéressante et variée qui vières (comme le Cher, l’Indre, la Vienne, s’étende à couvrir une bonne partie de la la Saône, et l’Allier) (Evans 105, 134). On y superficie de ce pays. Ces provinces, qui trouve beaucoup de terres qui sont bonnes incluent la Touraine, l’Orléanais, le Berry, pour l’agriculture, mais aussi avec beaucoup le Nivernais, Le Bourbonnais, l’Auvergne, de brandes et de forêts de châtaigniers en la Marche, et le Limousin, offrent un peu de abondance (Evans 135). A cause de la diffi- tout. Quant aux éléments géographiques, on culté de traverser ce pays et de communi- y trouve des montagnes, des plateaux, des quer aux époques d’autrefois il n’y a pas de fleuves, et des vallées – même des volcans grand centre de commerce et d’industrie éteints. Il y a des industries variées et de dans ce local ; au lieu d’un seul, plusieurs l’agriculture de beaucoup de genres, du centres ont développé (Evans 135). Ces cen- monde contemporain mélangé avec la vie tres se trouvent souvent à un lieu qui leur du passé, de la plus rurale campagne et de la permet de relier les gens des montagnes et ville moderne. On rencontre dans cette ré- les gens de la basse terre. gion des gens de tous les parcours de la vie, Aujourd’hui, les provinces du Centre et une étude des provinces diverses du Cen- font partie des régions modernes du Centre, tre donne une petite vue de la vie en France. du Limousin, et de l’Auvergne. La plupart Aujourd’hui, les provinces du Centre de cette région est sur le grand Plateau Cen- font partie des régions modernes du Centre, tral, mais un peu (partie de la Touraine, le du Limousin, et de l’Auvergne. La plupart Berry, et l’Orléanais) fait partie du Bassin de cette région est sur le grand Plateau Cen- Parisien et l’Auvergne et le Limousin appar- tral, mais un peu (partie de la Touraine, le tient au Massif Central (Evans 134). L’élé- Berry, et l’Orléanais) fait partie du Bassin vation augmente du nord-ouest au sud-est ; Parisien1 et l’Auvergne et le Limousin ap- l’Orléanais et la Touraine sont les plus bas- partient au Massif Central (Evans 134). L’é- ses, tandis que l’Auvergne est la plus mon- lévation augmente du nord-ouest au sud- tagneuse (la plus haute élévation de cette est;2 l’Orléanais et la Touraine sont les plus région se trouve en Auvergne à Mont Dore basses, tandis que l’Auvergne est la plus qui arrive à 6188 pieds [Evans 133]). Ce montagneuse (la plus haute élévation de cet- territoire est arrosé par plusieurs fleuves te région se trouve en Auvergne à Mont Do- (comme la Loire et le Rhône) et par des ri- re qui arrive à 6188 pieds [Evans 133]). Ce vières (comme le Cher, l’Indre, la Vienne, territoire est arrosé par plusieurs fleuves la Saône, et l’Allier) (Evans 105, 134). On 25

Published by KnightScholar, 2010 31 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

moins navigabledelaFrance travers laprovince,estlepluslonget Loire, lefleuvequicouledel’estàl’ouest LaTouraineestuneassezpetitepro- « lejardindelaFrance»(Evans104-5).La vince àl’estdecetterégion,connuecomme de labasseterre. de relierlesgensdes trouvent souventàunlieuquileurpermet ont développé(Evans135).Cescentresse local ;aulieud’unse centre decommerceetd’industriedansce et estconnucommelelieu delamort de perché sur une falaiseau-dessus delaLoire XII (Denoeu270-1),etAmboise, quiest féré deCatherineMédicis etdeLouis Chambord (Denoeu269)etquiétaitlepré- bord, commeBlois,quin’estpasloinde tres châteauxquisontpluspetitsCham- teaux delaLoire(Den ré deLouisXIV,estleplusvastedeschâ- (Denoeu 268).Cechâteau,quiétaitlepréfé- François 1 mètres ausud-estd’Orléansétaitbâtipour teau deChambordquisetrouveà40kilo- ristiques (Denoeu268).Parexemple, lechâ- sont maintenant degr la RenaissancedansvalléedeLoire qui y abeaucoupdechâteauxconstruitspendant médecine etdepharmacie. PrèsdeTours, il Loire. Onytrouveune école préparatoirede tale delaTouraineet ville industrielleetcommerciale, estlacapi- époques d’autrefoisiln’yapasdegrand

traverser cepayset

(Evans 135).Acausede forêts dechâtaigniersenabondance si avecbeaucoupdebrandeset bonnes pourl’agriculture,mais aus- trouve beaucoupdeterresquisont er parl’architecte PierreNeveu ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 montagnes etlesgens ul, plusieurscentres andes attractionstou- se trouveauborddela decommuniquer aux oeu 269).Ilyad’au- ladifficultéde 3 Tours, une tres comme Clouet,Fouquet,deBoucicaut, connue comme lapatriedenombreux pein- tries ettoutscesprodui (Denoeu 46).Enplus pour construirelesch feau, unepierreblanchequiétaitutilisé ploite lesressourcesminières comme letuf- produits chimiques etdemeubles. Onyex- primerie, lafonderie, Cette régionadesindustriescomme l’im- me dessoieries,lingeries,ettapis. trouve aussilaproduc Tours, unproduitalimentaire spécial.Ony La Touraineproduitaussidesrillettesde pétillante produiteàVouvray(Denoeu32). région estlevouvray,uneboissonlégèreet fruits secs.Unvincélèbrequivientdecette les, comme lesvins,eaux-de-vie,et droit estrenommé pour inondations fréquentes sol quelefleuveydéposequandilades cause delaproximité delaLoireetdubon productivité delarégion. Unautresurnom commun pourla ce »(Denoeu272),àcausedelagrande Touraine est«lejardindelaFran- châteaux »(Denoeu272). Touraine estsouventappelée«lepaysdes (Denoeu 272).Cen’estpaspourrienquela tient àMenier, lechocolatier célèbre (Denoeu 272).Maintenantcechâteauappar- de 2000blessésfrançais Pendant laPremière GuerreMondialeplus à temps distincts,biensûr)(Denoeu272). et desafemme, CatherinedeMédicis(mais de lamaitresse d’HenriII,DianedePoitiers, des dames »parce que de larégion,estconnucomme «lechâteau Chenonceau, undespluscélèbreschâteaux Léonardo daVincien1519(Denoeu272). âteaux delaLoire et laproductionde de toutescesindus- tion destissuescom- c’était larésidence ts laTouraineest (Evans 104).Ceten- ses produitsagrico- yétaientsoignés Cettefertilitéestà 26 32 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

Grandet Loiret, leLoir-et-Cher, l’Eure-et-Loir, et sé enplusieursdépartements modernes : le caniques. Aujourd’hui, l’Orléanaisest divi- trie dansledomaine (« Provinces»).Cepaysaaussidel’indus- fruits, desgrappesderaisin,etlégumes chocolat, despépinières(Denoeu38), de l’Orléanaisincluentdesvinaigreries,du construite àl’époquego connue poursacathédraleanciennequiaété une autrevilleimportante dansl’Orléanais, de laFrance,Paris(Evans100).Chartresest du plusgrandcentred’affaires etdeculture de laLoire;ellenesetrouvepastroploin à causedeson déplacement dansletournant connue comme marché unimportant central sur unegranderouteimportante etest mination anglaise.Aujourd’hui,Orléansest leuse quidevaitsauverlaFrancededo- Jeanne d’Arcainaugurésamission merveil- restent célèbres, etc’ cette villeparlesAnglaisen1423et1429 bum Aureliani les Romains surlaLoire etappelée Cena- nais est Orléans.Cetteville aétéfondée par L’Orléanaisestlaprovinceplus est delaTouraine.Le au nordduCentre;ellesetrouvenord- Cher, etl’Indre. aujourd’hui :l’Indre-et-Loire,leLoir-et- Touraine estdiviséeentroisdépartements France, aécritlesromans comme Eugénie

auteur, quiestundespluscélèbresdela

res, etdes articles journalistiques. Cet mans, desessaies, de Honoré deBalzac,écrivaindesro- , LePèreGoriot tant decetteré et Destouches.Unautrefilsimpor- (Evans100).Lessiègesde 4

ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 des constructionsmé- était àOrléansque capitale del’Orléa- gion est l’écrivain thique. Lesproduits , etd’autres.La s critiques littérai- : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 Les MaîtresSonneurs Bourgogne etlesud-est route entreLyonetLimoges etentrela est assez rurale ettrèsboisée, aservi comme vahissants (Denoeu22). Cette région,qui a priscettevilleducontrôledesAnglaisen- ronnerie (Evans139).En1429Jeanned’Arc connue poursonpalaisducaletsafer- Sioncontinueversl’estduBerry, tale, Nevers,setrouve on trouvelaprovincedu dre etleCher partements ;lesdeuxprincipauxsontl’In- tenant, leBerryestdiviséeenquelquesdé- La MareauDiable de sonpaysnataldanslesromans comme Elle aracontédeshistoiresdelavierustique breux romans, contes,etpiècesde théâtre. la patriedeGeorge derie decanons(Denoeu47).Cetendroitest l’houille etdufer,qui et delaconfectionilproduitaussi l’industrie danslesdomaines delalingerie mie berrichonne(Evans104).LeBerryade les vins,etlefromag duits agricoles,commeblé,lesmoutons, le 104). Cepaysestrenommé pourcespro- changé sonemploi s’estréduitaussi(Evans taine, mais quandlesmodes detransportont grand corridorentrelaBourgogne etl’Aqui- (Denoeu 263).Autrefois,leBerryétaitun tes defaçade etdesvitraux complexes détails exaltants,comme cinqgrandespor- XIIIe siècle. Cettecathédrale célèbre ades pour unemagnifique cathédralegothiquedu Laprovince duBerryestausudde pitale decetterégi l’Orléanais etàl’est delaTouraine.Laca- (« Provinces»). une partiedel’EssonneetlaSarthe (« Provinces»). on estBourges,connue , François leChampi Sand, l’auteurdenom- e, etpourlagastrono- (Denoeu 218).Main- est utilisédanslafon- sur laLoireetest de laFrance,mais Nivernais. La capi- , et

27 33 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

se trouvesurl’Allier Uneautreprovince duCentreestle et duNivernais.Lacapitaledecetterégion Bourbonnais, quisetrouveausudduBerry res (Evans138).Lagéographie decelieu (Denoeu 43)etdelaconstruction devoitu- (les usinesdeMichelins’y trouvent) pitale est uncentre de ce payss’ytrouve(Denoeu336).Cetteca- si, unedesplusimportantes universitésde est àClermont-Ferrand (Denoeu256);aus- thédrales delaFrance,Notre-Dame-du-Port, ville (Evans138).Unedespluscélèbresca- les decette région sesituent autour de la tout leplateaucentral L’Auvergnesetrouveleplusausud mont-Ferrand, estun des provincesduCentre (« Provinces»). département moderne del’Allier jourd’hui, larégionduBourbonnais estle dustries delaconfec Bourbonnais faitdespro sez pastoraleetrustique(Evans139).Le province estunpaysde été abolie en France(«Provinces »). Cette siècle auXIXesiècle,quand lamonarchie a bon étaientdesroisdelaFranceduXVIe Plusieurs membres deladynastiedesBour- lins, leChâteauBourbon(«Provinces»). nom duchâteauquisetrouveprèsdeMou- de lamaison desBourbon,quiaprisson Le Bourbonnaisestconnucommelesiège tement moderne duNièvre («Provinces»).

est aujourd’huiconnuecomme ledépar-

des vinsetfaïences.Cetteprovince Les célèbresproduitsduNivernaissont importantes qu’autrefois(Evans139). nication etdevoyagenesontpassi aujourd’hui sesroutesdecommu- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 tion etducuir.Au- et s’appelleMoulins. centre important pour ; lesactivitésagrico- fabrication depneus . Lacapitale,Cler- bocage ;elleestas- duits danslesin- L’Auvergne estunecélèbrerégion touristique. Unegrande gie, etdelahouilleblanche (Denoeu47). dans lessecteursdespneus, delamétallur- (« Fabrication»).Ily dans cetteindustrieimportante Beaucoup degenscetterégiontravaillent Roquefort-sous-Soulzon («Fabrication»). est séché etvieillidans lescavescélèbresde le chauffé, mis enmoules, etensemencé avec lait decesbrebis. qui s’appelle«ler gnes rocheusesdela levage debrebisestidéaldanslesmonta- confits etlesfromages («Provinces»).L’é- Royat, lespâtes-alimentaires, lesfruits duits alimentaires, comme lechocolatde que l’Auvergnesoitconnuepoursespro- toute cettefertilité,cen’estpasétonnant bétail estyrépandu(«Provinces»).Avec des vignobles(Evans138)etl’élevagedu ves àsucre,etdesfruits;onytrouveaussi lieu pourcultiverdes fertile plaine,arrosée lée del’Allier(Evans ancien lacet fait maintenant partie de laval- Cet élément géographiqueestlefondd’un du MassifCentral,faitpartiedel’Auvergne. (Evans 138).LaLimagne, unegrandeplaine 4800 pieds)s’appellelePuy-de-Dôme appelés «puys»,duquelleplushaut(à terre (Denoeu6).Les plateau centralàcausedesconvulsionsdela laves noiresontcoulédesfissuresdansle étaient faitesquand,àl’ volcans éteints(Evans134).Cesmontagnes « leMassifCentral»,quiestunechaînede prend larégiondeFrancequis’appelle est intéressanteetvariée.L’Auvergnecom- penicillium roqueforti 5 Le lait estramassé, oquefort »yestfaitdu région, etlefromage par l’Allier,estunbon céréales, des bettera- volcans éteintssont a aussidel’industrie 138). Lagrandeet attractionest ses époque tertiaire,des . Puis,lefromage 28 34 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

de SainteÉtienne, édificegothique construit bâtiment célèbreàLimoges estlacathédrale attiré beaucoupdepèlerins (Evans137).Un ges estdevenuungrand centre chrétieneta latin) (Evans137).Aufildesannées,Limo- Vienne («ritum Romains, d’aprèsleguéàLimoges surla été fondécomme« envahi. Limoges, lacapitaleduLimousin, a qui yhabitaitavantquelesRomains aient près les«Limovaces»,unetribugallique Par exemple, laprovince étaitnomméed’a- avec l’impact deseshabitants d’autrefois. partie duMassifCentral,résonneencore sud delaMarcheetconsidérécomme une duit desbijouxetdugranit.LeLimousin, au sin, asacapitaleàGuéret.Cetterégionpro- considérée comme faisantpartieduLimou- LeLimousin etlaMarchesontles de laFrance.LaMarche,quiestquelquefois provinces ausud-ouest (« Provinces»). tal, delaHaute-Loire,etduPuy-de-Dôme entre lesdépartements del’Allier,duCan- ’hui, laprovincedel’ mais c’estunroseaupensant».Aujourd- qu’un roseau,leplusfaibledelanature, à proposdel’homme :«L’hommen’est rappelle souvent unedesesphrases célèbres posthumes sousletitrede«Pensées».On tienne dontlesfragments ontétépubliés voir achevésonapologie philosophe, etécrivainestmort avantd’a- la patriedeBlaise

L’Auvergne estaussi

volcanisme delarégion(Evans138). des stationsthermales viennentdu le, etàMont-Dore.Lessources chau- comme cellesàRoyat,laBoubou- nombreuses stationsthermales, »quiveutdire«guéen ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Pascal.Cephysicien, Augustoritum Auvergne estdivisée de larégioncentrale distinguée pourêtre de lareligion chré- : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 »parles ques, chaussures,meubles, cuirs,pneus, et gerie, imprimerie, produitschimi- fonderie, tries danscesprovinces : vins,soieries,lin- du Berry.Ontrouvetoutes sortesd’indus- Clermont-Ferrand etlavieruralecalme entre lavieagitéeetm et lesrivièresauxvalléesdelaTouraine LesprovincesduCentresontvrai- contraste entreleshautspuysdel’Auvergne ment intéressantesetvariées.Ilyaungrand (« Provinces»). Corrèze, delaCreuse,et est diviséeentrelesdépartements actuelsdu (« Provinces»).Aujourd’hui,cetterégion duit destissusettapisseries industrie dulainage(E fines etdeschaussures.LeLimousin aune distilleries etdesfabr communes duLimousin. Onytrouvedes et despommesdeterresontrécoltes fruits (Evans136-7).Duseigle,dusarrasin, des châtaigneraiespourleboisetles des chevauxetvolaillesilscultivent (« Provinces»).Lesfermiers élèventaussi boucheries deLimousin sontcélèbres cette région(Denoeu38);lesbœufsdes LeLimousin engénéralestconnu L’élevage debétailestrépandudanstoute pour l’agricultureetlaproductiondecuir. (« Provinces»). ces d’auto,dupapier,etdeschausseurs d’émail, del’équipement électrique,despiè- sieurs industries,yco (Evans 137).Limoges estactifdansplu- en plusdesesbâtiments romains diverses connue pourlalittératuredestroubadours Limoges («Provinces»).Lacapitaleest musée descéramiques etl’Universitéde autres établissements importants sont un entre 1273et1520(«Provinces»).Deux icants deporcelaines mpris lafabrication oderne delaville vans 137)etilpro- delaHaute-Vienne 29 35 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

nos jours. France, etellescontinuentdel’êtrejusqu’à importantes dansl’histoire d’autrefois. LesprovincesduCentresont ments etd’impressionnantes constructions www.roquefort.fr/images/navigation.html>. dération deRoquefort.20Nov2008. alea_france_version2000/ erosion.orleans.inra.fr/ 20 Oct2000.INRA.01Nov2008

fluence desRomains estfortedansces

ses nombreux fleuvesetrivières.L’in- duits agricoles, avecses solsricheset bon lieupourlaproductiondespro-

trale delaFrance.C’est aussiun d’avantage, tousdelarégioncen- , reviseded.(NewYork:Freder- References , reviseded.(Boston:D.C. ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 >. Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47

t/France/Provinces/ . 2002.LaConfé-

etlaculturede roir delaCivili-

. 2008. 27Oct2008. dération deRoquefort.20Nov2008. alea_france_version2000 erosion.orleans.inra.fr 20 Oct2000.INRA.01Nov2008

Bibliographie , reviseded.(NewYork:Freder- , reviseded.(Boston:D.C. >. t/France/Provinces/ . 2002.LaConfé- roir delaCivili-

. 30 36 : The Proceedings of GREAT Day 2009 Great Day 2009 SUNY Geneseo

Un Voyage en France: Deuxième Moitié

Submitted by Amy Lafleur

Nous recommençons notre tour de la l’histoire européenne et l’histoire française, France à Montpellier et nous partons de cet- toutes les deux. Au quatorzième siècle, de te ville. Nous continuons vers l’est et vers 1309 à 1377, les papes habitaient à Avi- la Côte d’Azur. Notre premier arrêt est à gnon. C’était « l’exil babylonien ».2 De Arles. Nous restons dans cette ancienne nos jours, nous pouvons voir le Palais des ville avec son histoire romaine et sa culture Papes à Avignon. À Avignon, il y a un au- artistique. C’était la résidence de Vincent tre pont célèbre. C’est le Pont St.-Bénezet Van Gogh. Bien que Van Gogh ait été née- qui est plus connu comme le Pont d’Avi- derlandais, il a passé beaucoup d’années de gnon de la chanson pour les enfants.3 Ce sa vie en France. Il a ajouté beaucoup au pont est très vieux, mais la moitié du pont mouvement artistique en France, parce qu’il existe seulement de nos jours. L’autre moi- a peint les paysages de la France. À Arles, tié du pont a été détruite en 1668.4 on peut voir quelques scènes des tableaux Nous finissons notre séjour à Avi- de Van Gogh. Par exemple, on peut voir le gnon et nous continuons le long de la Côte café dans lequel Van Gogh a peint « Café d’Azur. Notre point d’intérêt prochain est du Soir ». En réalité, ce café a été remodelé Marseille. Pour aller à Marseille, nous tra- pour avoir l’air d’être comme celui dans la versons le Rhône. Ce fleuve vient de la peinture.1 Une autre caractéristique impor- Suisse et du nord et elle se jette dans la mer tante d’Arles est sa riche histoire. À Arles, Méditerranée. Sur la rive orientale du Rhô- il faut jeter un coup d’œil aux vestiges de ne est la province de Provence. La Proven- l’Empire Romain. ce a une histoire très longue. Les Romains D’Arles, nous faisons des excursions ont conquis cette partie de la France. Plus à d’autres sites importants. Nous allons tard, beaucoup d’artistes et écrivains habi- vers l’ouest au Pont du Gard. Cet ancien taient en Provence, par exemple, ce sont les pont était un aqueduc qui a été bâti par les peintres : Paul Cézanne, Vincent Van Gogh, Romains. Cette région australe de la France Pablo Picasso et Henri Matisse qui ont tous a été conquise par les Romains au deuxième choisi d’habiter en Provence. siècle av. J.-C. et elle faisait ensuite partie La Provence est une belle province à de l’Empire Romain. Après avoir vu cet côté de la mer Méditerranée. Cette région aqueduc célèbre, nous retournons à Arles. est connue pour ses plages et son histoire, et Le jour suivant, nous allons faire une autre aussi pour son architecture. Plusieurs mai- excursion, cette fois-ci à Avignon. sons en Provence, particulièrement à la Avignon était très important dans campagne, sont faites en pierre. Les toits 31

Published by KnightScholar, 2010 37 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

pauté deMonacoestaussi connuepourle ainsi elleestdevenue riée avecleprinceRainier deMonaco;et actrice célèbredesannées 50quis’estma- à causedel’actriceaméricaine GraceKelly, Monaco estpeut-être France. C’estuneprincipautéfrancophone. NousvoyageonsdeNiceàMonaco. est situéeàl’intérieurdes frontières dela Monaco estuneprincipautéautonome qui tants :HenriMatisse et MarcChagall. tait larésidencededeuxpeintresimpor- être une villefrançaise encemoment. C’é- contrôle deNiceen186 nait àl’Italie. qu’en 1814.De1814à1860,Niceapparte- Nice estrestée unepartie qu’en 1792quandlesFrançaisl’ontsaisi. Unautrepointd’arrêtestNice.Cette ses plages.Niceétaitsituée enItaliejus- ville surlaCôted’Azur te aétéemprisonné auChâteau d’If. Alexandre Dumas, danslequelleprotagonis- du livreLeComte deMonteCristo Marseille. Cetteprisonestcélèbreàcause dans uneîlequin’estpa les romans d’AlexandreDumas père,située Cristo d’If, lesitedelaprisonduComte deMonte Marseille, nouspouvonsvoirleChâteau « Massalia».C’estune fondée parlesGrecsquil’appelaient aussi unportimportant. est ladeuxième villedelaFranceet c’est

se passesouvent enhiver. Ce ventfroidetsec etl’Homme deFer duMasque Nous arrivonsàMarseille.Marseille pour lesprotégercontrelemistral. rondes. en général ont destuiles romaines 10 PuislaFrancearegagnéle 5 Lesmaisons sontbâties ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 connue auxÉtats-Unis princesse. LaPrinci- esttrèsconnuepour 8 0 etNicecontinue à vieilleville. À s loindelacôte de Cettevillea été delaFrancejus- est trèsviolent et il 7

par dans 11

9 6

vin lyonnaiscommeleduBeaujolais. ne lyonnaise.Nouspouvonsaussigoûterdu de veau.Cesontdesspécialitéslacuisi- tête de cochon ouaussiunautreplat :latête le sabodet,unesaucissequiestfaitedela Les personnesaventureusespeuventgoûter te Carloquiestmondialement connu. de MonteCarlo etleGrandCasinodeMon- la BelleEpoque.Parexemple, ilyal’Opéra co ilyadebonsexemples d’architecturede goûtons des plats du porc etdelatripe. goûtons desplatsduporc lyonnaise, mondialement connue.Nous ré lavilledeLyon,nousgoûtonscuisine dant l’occupationallemande. été utiliséesparlaRésistance françaisepen- plusieurs annéesplustardcestraboulesont plus vitedelamarc l’histoire, originairement pourlalivraison Ces tunnelsontétéutiliséestoutaulongde nous pouvonsvoirlestraboulessouslacité. la RenaissanceàLyon. d’histoire. Ilyadesbâtiments quidatentde ne-Alpes. À Lyon,nousvoyonsbeaucoup Lyon estaussisituéedanslarégionduRhô- il couleverslesudlamer Méditerranée. ne. ÀLyon,leRhônechangededirectionet Lejoursuivant,nousvoyageonsde tuée àlaconvergenceduRhôneetdeSaô- Nice àLyon.Lyonestunevillequisi- nous yresteronslanuit. avoir vuMonaco,nousretournonsàNiceet te Carlo,seulevilledeMonaco. Grand PrixdeMonaco LaBourgogne estunerégiontrès importante. Ilyadebonsvinset Dijon enBourgogne. Après deuxjoursàLyons, nouscontinuonsà l’Opéra Paris, lePalaisGagnier. architecte français,célèbrepouravoirfait les deuxontétéconçusparCharlesGagnier, handise ensoie,puis, 15 et LeRallyedeMon- Surtoutimportant, 16 Ayantexplo- 12 14 ÀMona- Après 13 17 Tous

32 38 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

gné sontravail, son architecture,parceque Gislebertusasi- s’appellait Gislebertus. 1120 à1146,étaitfaiteparunartistequi Lapremière excursionest faiteàAu- Lazaire. Cettecathédrale, quiaétébâtie de tun, connuepoursacathédraledeSaint- Cluny, toussitesreligie guignonne pouralleràAutun, àVézelay,et faisons desexcursionsàlacampagne bour- nous retournonsàDijon pour passerlanuit. le romanesque austylegothique. c’est unbonexemple duchangement dusty- remarquable deVézelayestaussi ànoter et de St.MarieMagdalen. pèlerins yontvoyagépourvisiterlesreliques tante dansl’histoireparcequebeaucoupde Lelendemain, nousvoyageonsàVé- Madeleine. Cettebasilique était trèsimpor- zelay oùnous visitonslaBasilique Ste.- nuit. te, nousretournonsàDi religieux commeSt.PierreàRome. me modèlearchitectur glise auX ces vestigesdémontrent Âge. abbaye quidatedudixième siècleauMoyen Cluny. ÀCluny,nousvoyonsl’ancienne la cathédrale,mais sculpté toutelacathédrale. connue pourlamoutarde. offre lejambonavecpersil. gne.

me lesescargots, spécialitédelaBourgo-

25 goûter lacuisinebourguignonne,com- en Bourgogne.ÀDijon,nouspouvons 19 L’abbayeesttombéeenruinemais portants delacivilisationmondiale LaBourgogne,enparticulierDijon, Bourgogne, etilyadessitesim- e des fromages quiviennentdela siècle. 23 etenplusGislebertusa 26 ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 puis nousvoyageonsà Cluny aaussiservi com- al pourd’autreslieux 22 ux trèsanciens. lagrandeurdel’É- jon pouryresterla Elleestnotéepour 21 28 24 DeDijon,nous : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 20 L’architecture Nousadmirons Dijonestaussi 29 Puis, 27 Ensui- est uneville trèsimportante àlaFrance età près delafrontièreallemande. Strasbourg bourg, villefrançaisesitu pays. Notrepointd’arrêt suivantestStras- fleuve quis’appelleleRhin séparelesdeux Nousentronspremièrement enAlsa- partage unefrontièreavecl’Allemagne. Un ce, larégionplusprès régions. goûter cesnourrituresparticulièresde jambon. Ilfaut bablement laquichelorrainequiajoutedu des variétésdequiche. peut yajouterd’autresingrédientspourcréer avec desœufs,dulait,etdelacrème. régions préparentestlaquiche,unetarte terrines. foie grasquiestdansdespâtéset et laLorrainesont poivre noiretavecdugenièvre. Lorraine, onmange de ge delachoucrouteavecdujambon, mais en ce, quiestplusprèsdel’Allemagne, onman- nourriture estaussiune gne, mais enAlsaceetLorraine cette pense àlachoucroute,onAllema- et celledunorddelaLorraine.Quandon l’Allemagne influencelaculture del’Alsace mande dans cesprovinces.Laproximité de franco-allemands et connues pourceschangements decontrôle deux provinces.L’Alsace dant longtempspourobtenirlecontrôledes Français etlesAllemands portante dansl’histoire Encontinuantverslenord-est,nous raine. Cette régiondelaFranceétait trèsim- nous trouvonsenAlsaceetplustardLor- geons àStrasbourg. Au matin, nous quittons Dijonetnous voya- 31 Uneautrenourriturequelesdeux aussi connuespourleur pour l’influencealle- de l’Allemagne. Elle Vousconnaissezpro- de laFrance. Les la choucrouteavecdu spécialité. En Alsa- ée prèsduRhinet sesontbattuspen- et laLorrainesont 30 L’Alsace 32 On 33 39 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

Meuse. kilomètres ausuddeMetz,surlarivièreLa Pucelle estsituéàpeuprèsquatre-vingts cette héroïne française. Domrémy-la- Domrémy-la-Pucelle, lieudenaissance nous faisonsuneexcursionlejoursuivantà Pucelle). NousrestonslanuitàMetzet (connue maintenant comme Domrémy-la- Lorraine. Jeanned’ArcestnéeàDomrémy celle d’Orléans»,elle Église deDomrémy-la-Pucelle. maison nataledeJeanned’Arcetlavieille Jeanne d’Arcetbienqu’ devait sauver laFrance. Cettefille était dait lesvoix dessaints qui lui ont ditqu’elle connue pourunefillepaysannequienten- ÀReims ily alacathédrale dans un pointd’intérêt:Reims. Champagne. EnChampagne, nous trouvons pas laseulecaractéristique ànoterdela portante delaChampagne, mais c’estn’est et pétillant. Cette boisson estunvinmousseux,gazeux nom delaprovince.C’estlechampagne ! plus connupoursaboissonquiprendson Champagne. Cetteprovinceestpeut-êtrele Lematin suivant,nousretournonsà que noustrouvonsdanslaprovincede Metz etnousprenonsletrainpourReims est àcôté del’église. restons lanuitdansunepetiteaubergequi Domrémy-la-Pucelle estsitué.Puisnous plorons lacampagnelorrainedanslaquelle Metz, ville en Lorraine. LaLorraine est

l’ouest enLorraine. Nousvisitonsà

Nousfinissonsnotreséjourà Strasbourg etnousvoyageonsvers européen se situe. 33 l’Europe danslaquelleleparlement Dans levillage,onpeutvoirla l’Europe. C’est lacapitale de 36 C’estunecaractéristiqueim- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 35

est originaire dela elle aitété«laPu- 34 Nous ex- vache, vientdelaNormandie. membert, unfromage doux,àpâtemolle de LaNormandie estaussiconnuepour die estconnuepoursonfromage. Leca- ses nourritures.Enparticulier,laNorman- alliés le6juin1944. ment deladeuxième guerremondiale des laume leConquérantet sa proximité delamer, LaManche;Guil- Normandie. LaNormandie estconnuepour Rouen. Rouenestunevillequisituéeen autre région,laPicardie,enchemin pour tre tourdelaFrance. Arts deReims. importante, estdansleMuséedesBeaux- dans sabaignoire.Cett Louis Davidquidémontre lamort deMarat vons aussivoirlechef-d’œuvredeJacques- duction duchampagne. ÀReims, nouspou- le etnousapprenonstoutausujetdelapro- voir sacouronne.Nousvisitonslacathédra- le dauphinàReims qu’ilpuisserece- pour venons queJeanned’Arcavaitdûemmener qu’en 1825. puis Clovis.Latradition acontinué jus- que touslesroisfrançaisontétésacrésde- cette cathédrale quiest l’avaient vendueauxAnglais. L’Église, Les Bourguignonsquil’avaient capturée, Jeanne d’Arcaétébrûlée viveen1431. Jeanne d’Arc.C’étaitdans cettevilleque prenons davantagedusujetdelavie est àRouen.Danscetteville-ci,nousap- son cidre. mandie estaussiconnuepoursespommeset la Cathédrale deNotre-Dame. nés. Cettecathédrale importante s’appelle laquelle lesroisdelaFranceontétécouron- Le joursuivantnouscontinuonsno- Notre premier arrêtenNormandie 40 Nousgoûtonstouslesdeux. 38 Notamment, noussou- Notamment, Noustraversonsune pourledébarque- e peinture,célèbreet pleine degrandeur 37 39 LaNor- C’était dans 34 40 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

chef delarégion. l’Angleterre, Guillaume rant venaitdeCaen.Avantconquérir Nousquittons Rouenetenconti- nuant versl’ouest,le ment unmusée dédiéàJeanned’Arc. a étéemprisonnée. Cettetourest encemo- tons aussilatourdans Jeanne d’Arcaétébrûléevive.Nousvisi- Jeanne d’Arcaétébâtie aumême endroitoù faite. que lareineetsesdames d’honneursl’ont me deGuillaume leConquérant,etoncroit la Tapisseriede Bayeuxétaitlapremière villeàêtre le. libérée pendantladeuxième guerremondia- rial, cettevisite,nousvoyageonsàBayeux. aussi demusée. dansunmonumentcommémorés quisert de ladeuxième guerremondialeont été jours. détruite àcaused’unfeuquiaduréonze 1944 danslaquellelaplup le. Ilyaeuunegra tout ausujetdela vant, àCaennouspouvonsaussiapprendre Conquérant auonzième siècle.Lejoursui- aux Hommes, bâtieparGuillaume le la capitale est Caen. nous entronsdanslaBasseNormandie, dont Normandie danslaquelleRouenestsituéeet voyageons àCaen.Nousquittons laHaute que en1920.Auxannées70,l’Églisede

46 elle estdevenue sainte de l’église catholi-

Néanmoins,elleesttrèsconnuepour ne d’Arc,onl’atrouvéeinnocenteet Plusieurs annéesaprèslamort deJean- 47 44 l’hérésie etl’acondamnée àlamort. Cettegrandetapisserie célèbre dé- LabatailledeCaenetleshorreurs trouvée Jeanned’Arccoupablede sous del’influencedesAnglais,a 45 ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Aprèsavoirvulemémo- 43 deuxième guerremondia- Reine Mathilde,lafem- Nousvisitonsl’Abbaye nde batailleàCaenen 42 long delacôte,nous Guillaume leConqué- laquelleJeanned’Arc le Conquérantétait art delavilleaété : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 41

situés lelong delacôte prèsdesplages. Nous visitonslescimetières quisontaussi plage Utahetla Omaha. de laPointeduHoc,qui soldats alliés ontessayé desaisir labatterie C’est prèsdeBayeux.Le6juin1944,les ges dudébarquement alliéenNormandie. qui estprobablement la mandie. NousvoyageonsàlaplageOmaha au sujetdudébarquement desalliésenNor- deuxième guerremondiale, etenparticulier, quelle nousapprenonstoutausujetdela contraire c’estuneexcursionpendantla- une excursiondelois sion auxplagesdeNormandie.Cen’estpas Conquérant, nousfaisonsunepetiteexcur- avoir appris toutausujet deGuillaume le quable. Aprèsavoirvulatapisserieetaprès sée etnousvoyonscette laume leConquérant.Nous visitonslemu- montre laconquêted’ la côte,nouspouvonstraverser lesable Aumatin, nousvoyageonsde large delacôteBasse Normandie. De Bayeux àMontSt.Michel, uneîlesituéeau la nuit. Puis nousretournonsàBayeux pouryrester au sujetdesévénements du6juin1944. situés lelongdela Lejoursuivantnousvoyageonsà mandie. Nousvisitonslesmusées quisont d’autres plagesdudébarquement delaNor- Bayeux pouryresterlanuit. débarquement normand, nousretournonsà des soldats.Aprèsavoirvulesplagesdu te ansetnouspensonssurtoutaucourage de cequis’étaitpassé. derecueillementge, nousavonsunmoment morts avantlaprise dela batterie. Àlapla- bataille très violente. côte pourapprendretout ir àlaplage ;au Plusieurssoldatssont Angleterre parGuil- plusconnuedespla- Il yaplusdesoixan- étaitsituéeentrela tapisserieremar- 48 C’était une C’était 50 49

35 41 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

11 4 8 7 6 York: DKPublishingInc.,1995),145. 17 16 (New York:Fodor’sLLC, 2004),368. 15 14 13 12 10 9 EBchecked/topic/385839/mistral>. 2008

tin, nouspartonsdel’îleetprenons

chel. baye del’îlehistori versons lesableetnousvisitonsl’ab- sont trèsdangereuses. 52 suivre leoulaguidecarlesmarées aller àMontSt.Michel.Ilfaut Nousyrestonslanuit.

References

ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 , 28. Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 Fodor’sFrance2004 , trans.AlecCourt, que duMontSt.Mi- 51 Noustra-

, (New 53

Auma- , 2008, , 18 23 22 24 Harper &Row, Publishers,1969),33. Company, Inc.,1950),408. 30 29 28 27 26 21 20 19 inces www.dday-overlord.com/ février 2005,le25novembre 2008. France »GoogleMaps,2008,le25no- 33 32 31 25 Clark, 46. Fisher, 343. Clark, 27. Clark, 36. Fisher, 359. Clark, 46-7. Kenneth Clark,Civilisation Fisher, 356. Fisher, 345. Ogrizek, 280. Ogrizek, 280. Doré Ogrizek,France:ParisandtheProv- Marc Laurenceau,«La Pointedu Hoc» Fisher, 223. Fisher, 233. Fisher, 231. Fisher, 231. Fisher, 229. Fisher, 229. Fisher, 219. Charles W.Lowy,Silhouettedela Fisher, 211. Fisher, 280. Fisher, 281. Ogrizek, 263. Fisher, 303. Fisher, 303. « DeMetz,FranceàDomrémy-la-Pucelle, Ogrizek, 455. Ogrizek, 455. Ogrizek, 454. , (Waltham, :BlaisdellPublishing MA , (New York:McGraw-HillBook

, (NewYork:

36 42 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

Fisher, RobertI.C.Fodor’sFrance2004 « DeMetz,FranceàDomrémy-la-Pucelle, Clark, Kenneth.Civilisation montsaintmichel.com/> 2008.

« LeMontSt.Michel»le25novembre 50

Ibid. normandie_aujourdhui.htm> www.ddayoverlord.com/ 25 novembre2008. novembre 2008. www.ddayoverlord.com/ vembre 2008.

. Ogrizek, Doré.ed.France:Parisandthe « LeMontSt.Michel»le25novembre Stuttgart, Baedecker.Baedecker’s Williams, Roger.EyewitnessTravel “mistral.” Encyclopædia Britannica montsaintmichel.com/> 2008. . www.britannica.com/EBchecked/ Nov. 2008

The Arhuacos

Submitted by Alice Brunet

Today, the indigenous societies of Arhuacos (“Tairona”). Fortunately, the Latin America are not very well known in Spanish never colonized this land and these the modern world. However, there are many four indigenous societies still exist today lessons that these indigenous societies can (Ereira 142). However, these societies, in- offer to help improve all societies. One including the Arhuacos, continue to fight in digenous society that is very interesting and order to protect their cultural identity from still exists today is the Arhuacos. This the influence of outside cultures and to group has a great deal of knowledge of na- maintain the balance of the world. ture and they believed that they know how The Arhuacos continue to live like to maintain the equilibrium of the world. In their ancestors in the Sierra Nevada located general, the lessons that can be learned from in Santa Marta, Colombia. Because of their the Arhuacos have the potential to improve isolated location high up in the coastal many different areas of daily life. mountains, the area is very biologically di- The Arhuacos were decedents of the verse (“Arhuacos”). It is not surprising with nomadic tribe called the Chibchas, which, this great biological diversity that the Ar- because of their size, later divided into two huacos are very interconnected with nature. groups, the “Musicas” and the “Taironas”. According to the Arhuacos, Santa Marta is The Taironas are the direct ancestors of the the center of the world and contains all the Arhuacos. In fact, the survival of the Tai- knowledge of the world. They believe that rona society was threatened when the con- it is still important to continue maintaining quistadores arrived in South America. In the balance of the world in order to preserve order to preserve their knowledge and be- the knowledge of the mountains (“We liefs, survivors from the Tairona society fled Live”). up the Sierra Nevada of Santa Marta, Co- Like the Taironas, the Arhuacos lombia, the highest coastal mountains in the have leaders within their society called world (“Arhuacos”). It was important to the “mamos”. The mamos have the responsibil- Taironas that their society continued to exist ity to keep order and balance within the so- in order to maintain the balance of the ciety and with nature; the mamos are the world. Even though it was impossible for priests, the unbiased judges, the elected the surviving Taironas to reconstruct their politicians, and the chiefs of their society. original society, they developed four new Furthermore, the mamos preserve the societies based on their belief system: the knowledge of their history, culture and wis- Kogis, the Kankuamos, the Wiwas, and the dom that gets passed on to each new 38 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47 44 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

The Arhuacoswerevery respectfultothe language andtheteachings ofCatholicism. and beganto teachtheArhuacos Spanish Christians constructedchurches ontheirland anized. Inordertoachievethisgoal,the were savagesandtheyneededtobeChristi- Christians believed that theindigenous tribes indigenous tribesofth Christians whowantedtodomesticate the 1908. Thiswasamission establishedby Anexample oftheArhuacos' strug- the Capuchinmission wasestablishedin gle toprotecttheircultureandlandiswhen ture (Lizarralde 45). moted some positive changes for theircul- sistent andrespectfulpersistencehaspro- cos togaingovernmental support,theircon- Although ithasnotbeeneasyfortheArhua- savvy andinvolvedinmodern daypolitics. Arhuacos continueto the Colombian government.Tothisday,the the economic, political,andsocialaspectsof Arhuacos hadtheopportunitytolearnabout national government. Becauseofthis,the allowed the Arhuacostoparticipate inthe in 1890alawwaspassedColombia that that theArhuacos stillfacetoday.Luckily, a continuousbattletopreservetheirculture (“The Thought”).Thiswasthebeginningof and purposelytriedtochangetheirculture ers andpriestsstarted mountains, between1870and1880coloniz- isolated areabecauseoftheirlocation inthe Eventhough theArhuacosliveinan

throughout thecenturies(Lizarralde43).

an extensivetraining knowledge thathasbeenlearned and ifheischosen,goesthrough birth ifaboyistobecome amamo generation. Itisdetermined at ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 be verypolitically to invadetheirland e SierraNevada.The to learnall of the : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 TheArhuacos hadtoonceagain the balanceoflife. ing sacredritualsthatpreserved nature and cos tocontinue theiran land. Thismade itimpossible fortheArhua- tary bases werelocated on Arhuacosacred very mad aboutthisbecause thesenew mili- land (Lizarralde46-47).TheArhuacoswere order tofacilitate military observation of the the government constructedapublicroadin because, against the request oftheArhuacos, Arhuacos hadtofightfortheirlandagain land, butthisdidnotlastlong.In1962the give theArhuacos complete rights totheir convinced theColombiangovernmentto much persistence, theArhuacoseventually with theColombian government. After 1930 decidedtohavethehighestmamos talk these outside influences, theArhuacos in Inordertoavoidtheinvasionofout- repair thedamages causedtotheirsocietyby side groupsliketheCapuchinmission and (Lizarralde 46). dressed theminmodern dayclothing their nativelanguage,cuthair,and huaco childrenintheorphanage tospeak walls. TheChristiansprohibitedtheAr- access totheworldoutsideoforphanage rived attheorphanage Thought”). WhentheArhuacochildrenar- would teachthem theirways(“The and placethem inanorphanagewherethey siders wouldkidnaptheArhuacochildren huaco children.Inordertodothis,theout- decided toconcentrateonconvertingtheAr- population. Becauseofthis,theChristians made itimpossible toconverttheindigenous about changingtheirbeliefsystem. This want them ontheirland,butwerestubborn Christians eventhoughtheArhuacosdidnot , theydidnothave cient traditionofhav- 39 45 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

and fightingfortheirrigh against themissionaries andthegovernment, many decadesthebattlecontinued,fighting indigenous tribesofth this, the Arhuacos decided torally with other of theirrightstotheland.Tofightagainst their recordsasappropriatedocumentation Colombian government didnotrecognize had keptdocumentation ofthisdecree,the indigenous group.Eventhoughthemamos are willingtoputbehind them these negative Furthermore, theArhuacosstatethat they desire thatthesegroupsleave theirland. such asthemissionaries. TheArhuacos only cause oftheinfluencesoutsidegroups the negativeeventsthathave occurredbe- day donotdesireanyre Thought”). Interestingly,theArhuacosto- others, includingoverthemissionaries (“The for theArhuacostoassertanyauthorityover power. Becauseofthis,itisvery difficult world isequalandtherenohierarchyof Arhuacos alsobelievethat everything inthe world isfreeandcannotbecontrolled.The lieve thateverything still occurring isbecause theArhuacos be- fluence theirculture.Onereasonwhythisis Despitetheirsuccess, the Arhuacos aries whoaretryingtoconvertthem andin- continue tohaveproblemswiththemission- Thought”). ritory wasproclaimed areservation (“The nally onMarch14 sive possessionoftheSierraNevadato

var approvedthedecisiontogiveexclu-

people. ItisbelievedthatSimon Boli- tion forthelandrightsofindigenous they didnothaveproperdocumenta- lombian government claimed that fight fortheirlandbecausetheCo- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 th , 1984theArhuacoster- Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 and everyoneinthe e SierraNevada.For parations foranyof ts tothe land. Fi- more, todaythemajority oftheArhuacos tions alsohavebeenwritten down.Further- that havebeenpasseddown from genera- guage hasbeenwritten serve theirculture,adictionaryoflan- ture (Lizarralde 45).Now,inordertopre- their societynativelanguageandcul- tion inorder tocontinueteaching within develop amore organizedsystem ofeduca- ThesenewschoolshinderedtheAr- wisdom. Therefore,th huacos’ ability topreserve theircultureand punished. not learntheirlessons,theArhuacoswere if theArhuacosdidnotobeyandthey ion intheirstructuredsystem. Furthermore, Arhuacos tolearntheirlanguageandrelig- structed theirownschoolsandforcedthe When themissionariesarrived,theycon- more harmony withnature(“We Suffer”). ganization, morerespectforeverything,and Arhuacos believethattherewasmore or- of education.However,duringthistime the read andtheydidnothaveamodern system ers, noneoftheArhuacos hadtheability to Family Tree”).Beforethearrivalof outsid- teach themost important lifelessons (“Our thing innaturehassignificanceandcan Thought”). Instead,theybelievethatevery- be taughtthroughastructuredsystem (“The school subjects,likescience,cannotsimply tion system. TheArhuacosbelievethatall ple ofthisis evidentintheArhuacos' educa- due totheseoutsideinfluences.Oneexam- BecauseoftheArhuacos respectful many changes totheir traditional lifestyle mentality tooutside groups, therehave been Can”). simply respect theArhuaco culture (“We experiences iftheseoutsidegroupswould e Arhuacosneededto and theiroralstories 40 46 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

51). memory andincreasetheirenergy (Elsass minimize fatigueandhunger,improve their narcotic; they chewtheplant inorder to the Arhuacos donotusethecocaplant asa time (“We Can”).Itisimportanttonotethat him tohavecocainhispossessionatany turns twenty yearsolditisthenallowed for sis”). Typically,whenanArhuacoman order tobeableusecoca(“AyuandCri- and permission from themamos isneededin mos knowhowtoproperlycultivatecoca, coca formoney isnotallowed,onlythema- the useonthisplant. ciety, therearemany rest coca plant is verysacredtotheArhuacoso- changing coca witheach other.Becausethe the Arhuacosmaintain friendshipsbyex- life ingeneral(“We Can”).Forexample, of theirsacredrituals ture. Furthermore, cocaisanessentialpart because itfacilitates called “ayu”anditistheirmost sacredplant relates tococa. FortheArhuacoscoca is Anotherproblem thattheArhuacos world iswithillegaldrugs, specifically asit have duetotheinfluenceofwestern new structure inteaching of outsideinfluencesmust bemet withthis tional way,buttheyrealizethat the threats desire tocontinue teaching inamore tradi- paying attentionandlearning.Themamos mamos questionif thechildren arereally like usingastructured

new-age changes,themamos stilldonot

schools (“Arhuacos”).Despite these are learningtheirnativelanguagein huaco towns,theArhuacochildren cause inallof thetwenty-eight Ar- can speaktheirna ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 a connection withna- Forinstances,selling and alsooftheirdaily school setting.The rictions related to (“We Suffer”). : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 tive languagebe- life oftheArhuacos(“‘Pagmentos’ and life andisnegativelyinfluencing the daily the SierraNevada isdestroyingthe natural Ingeneral,theArhuacoscontinueto influence from othercultures.Tourism to have many problems thatarecausedbythe with nature(“AyuandCrisis”). for itsgreat qualityto sacred plantnolongerreceivedtherespect fered because theirmost important and most increasingly sick.TheArhuacosalsosuf- as aresult the Arhuacosstartedtobecome cos' cropsandcontaminated their water, and These chemicals alsodestroyed theArhua- and pesticidesontheselands(“We Can”). United States,hadplanessprayherbicides Colombian government, withthehelpof vent theproductionofth huacos (“AyuandCrisis”).Inordertopre- tions alsocreatedmany problems fortheAr- of thissacred plant,but theseillegal planta- cocaine. Notonlywasthisagraveviolation plantations wereusedtoproduceandsell The Arhuacosknewthattheseillegalcoca started togrow illegal plants(“We Live”). missionaries andcolonizerswhostayed land. With thehelpofsome mestizos, the aries andcolonizerscontinuedtoliveonthe lombian law. However some ofthemission- land wasdecreedareservationunderCo- posed toleavetheSierraNevadabecause year allnon-indigenousgroupsweresup- juana, havepersistedsince1982.Thatsame drug trade, especiallywithcocaineand mari- Nonetheless problems withthe Colombian coca isconsideredtobeillegal(“We Can”). Colombian population,thecultivationof AccordingtoColombian laws,only coca forpersonaluse.For therestof the indigenous groupsarepermitted tocultivate connect the Arhuacos ese illegal plantsthe 41 47 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

political groups,butithas notbeenenough success inachieving thiswith thehelp of (“Arhuacos”). TheArhuacos havehadsome society andtheirnatural environment and wheretheywillbeabletopreserve their tion whereonlyindigenousgroupscanlive able todeclare theSierra Nevadaareserva- the Arhuacoswantmore thananythingtobe them ingainingtheirrights.Atthispoint, that fightforhuman ri eign ambassadors andphilanthropicgroups Arhuacos havealsocontacted ministers, for- gotá inordertofightfortheirrights.The government system andfrequentlygotoBo- to educate themselves ontheColombian huacos andespeciallythe mamos, continue bian government. ofthis,theAr- Because However,theonlywayinwhich their cultureiswiththe help of theColom- Arhuacos willbeable tocompletely protect in 1987(“Arhuacos”). mamos organizedthe“GonavinduaTairona” side pressuretomodernize theirsociety,the wards”). Inorderto crafted bagsandclothes(“We HeadTo- women areencouragedtoselltheirhand- tract more tourism. Forexample, Archuaco cialized system intheSierraNevada toat- dustry hasbeenpromoting amore commer- world (“Arhuacos”).Also,thetourism in- Arhuaco andwanttobeapartofthemodern they nolongerdesire younger generation ofthe Arhuacosbecause side worldhasnegativelyeffectedthe

important isthat thiscontact withthe out-

tening tomodern music. What ismost excessive amountsofalcohol,andlis- sive watches,drivingJeeps,drinking are wearingbaseballcaps,expen- Balance”). Now,some Arhuacos ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 fight against this out- to liveastraditional ghts tohelpassist these unjustpersecutions. nous groupsoftheSierra Nevadatoavoid come aconstantbattleforallofthe indige- headed (“IndiansBeheaded”). Ithasbe- 2003 whentwoArhuacoswerefoundbe- (“Three”). Anotherexampleoccurredin dications thatthemen hadbeentortured three bodieswerefounddeadwithmanyin- the bus.Later,onDecember13,same forced threemamos travelingtoBogotáoff heavily armedmen innationaluniforms witness testimonies,onNovember 29,1990 UnfortunatelytheArhuacoshave in Colombia. Forexample, according toeye- also become innocentvictims oftheviolence Thought”). tinuously dividingtheirland(“The ing smaller becausethegovernment iscon- selves andeachyeartheirterritoryisbecom- impossible fortheArhuacostodefendthem- huacos (“RegainingtheLand”).Itisalmost ment onlyfocusesonmodernizing theAr- ing theArhuacos,sometimes thegovern- teachings. Disappointingly,instead ofhelp- cation programs andpromotingChristian instead focusedoncreatinghealthandedu- their landasareservation, thegovernment ample, whentheArhuacostriedtoreclaim the Arhuacosaretryingtoaddress.For ex- not alwaystrytoresolvetheproblemsthat ance”). Furthermore, thegovernment does huaco territory (“‘Pagmentos’ andBal- army establishedmilitary basesontheAr- more problems. Oneexampleiswhenthe sometimes the governmentonlycreates had tobestubbornandpersistentbecause And,eventhoughtheArhuacoshave proved theirsituation,theArhuacoshave received some politicalhelpandhave im- to completely gainbacktheirland. 42 48 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

realize thatastronge want alloftheirdemands met. TheArhuacos longer negotiatewiththe government. They Arhuacos havedecidedthat theywillno as itwasinthepast.Despite thisfact, the modern government isnolongeraspowerful TheArhuacoshavetriedtoimprove thority ofeventhehighestmamo inthe their situation duringthis crisis, buttheau- consequences ofthisinternalwar. to protecttheArhuacosfrom thenegative their effortshavenotbroughtenoughchange indigenous tribesofth Heritage Trust, that ar national, Survival Inte There aremanygroups,likeAmnesty Inter- living theirsacred wa desire tofight.Theyonlywantcontinue changes aremade.Arhuacosdonot Butthe soon endinamass genocideifnodrastic huacos arevery fearfulthattheirsociety will into the jungle inorder tosurvive.The Ar- that livedneartheArhuacos neededtoflee kills them. Manyoftheindigenousgroups soldiers. Iftheyrefuse,theguerrillagroup bia, forcetheindigenouspeopletobecome bers ofFARC,aguerrillagroupColom- become more andmore commonthatmem- to completely destroy huacos realizethatthiswarhasthepotential the world(“WeLive”).Inreality,Ar- ronment andmaintaining theequilibrium of solely focusonpreservingthenaturalenvi- defend themselves,theyhavedecidedto

huacos knowitisadangeroustime notto

guerrilla groups.EventhoughtheAr- nal warorbeassociatedwithanyofthe them wouldfightinColombia’sinter- amongst theArhuacosthatnoneof Interestingly, itwasagreed ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 r centralizedgovern- y oflife(Forero). e tryingtopreservethe rnational, andTairona their society.Ithas e SierraNevada,but : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 huacos are not familiar withthephrase they connecttothesea.Even thoughtheAr- changing, andtherivers are dryingbefore decrease inhumidity, therainfallpatternis on themountain peaksaremelting, thereisa changing theirmigration patterns,thesnow linating plants,bird bees aredisappearingandnolongerpol- served that plants areflowering prematurely, within nature.Forexample,theyhaveob- TheconnectionthattheArhuacos negative changesthatarecurrentlyoccurring have withnaturehasal (“Ayu andCrisis”). respect nature inorder the Arhuacos believethattheyalsoneed to needs topay forelectricityintheir house, Tree”). Justlikethemodern population bility inprotecting nature (“OurFamily well astheyshouldortakeenoughresponsi- people inthemodern worldrespect natureas of this,theArhuacosbelievethatveryfew cal diversityoftheSierraNevada.Because longer enoughforesttomaintain thebiologi- increase ofillegalplantations.Thereisno the cultivation of trad tion, overpopulation,pollu from herbicidesandpesticides,deforesta- multitude of causes such as:contamination Sadly,only 25 percentoftheAr- Live”). Theforesthasbeendestroyedbya huaco sacredforesthasbeenpreserved(“We loyal tonature,justliketheirancestors. even todaytheArhuacoscontinuetobevery (“We Suffer”).Itis preserve thebalanceoflifeintheirregion vive, protectthenaturalenvironment and have becomeverystubborninordertosur- situation and becauseof this,the Arhuacos ment isneeded tobeableimprove their s andbutterflies are very interestingthat itional crops,andthe lowed them toseethe to protecttheirplanet tion, adecreaseof 43 49 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

instance, theArhuacosdo notgrowmore cos’ dailylifeandgeneral philosophy.For tant lessonscanbelearned from theArhua- can learnfromtheArhuacos. Otherimpor- cluding how topreservenature,whichweall of knowledge.Therearemany lessons,in- TheArhuacoshavesurvivedfor consequently acquiredasubstantialamount more thattwenty-five centuries andhave preserve theirsociety(“WeLive”). vide theArhuacoswithopportunityto balance oftheterritoryandwouldalsopro- best solution toimprove theenvironmental the Arhuacos.Intheiropinion,thisis non-indigenous peopleandgiveitbackto the SierraNevada thatiscurrentlyownedby government shouldbuyalltheterritoryin their land.TheybelievethattheColombian according to theArhuacos,shouldstartwith ronment (“WeSuffer”).Animportant start, desire andwilltoprotect thenatural envi- have manyof centuries key assetinassistingthiscausesincethey situation. However theArhuacoscouldbea programs inordertoimprove thecurrent been anincreaseindevelopingpreservation struction (“WeLive”). plagues of insectsthatwillcause muchde- Iftheseproblems arenotresolved be anincreaseinsicknessesworldwideand soon, theArhuacosbelievethattherecould societies (Cycon). negative resultofprac of theworldhasincreasedandthatitisa

day sciences, that theaveragetemperature

cos know,withoutthehelpofmodern preserving theenvironment. TheArhua- being effectedbythelackoffocuson aware thatthefloraandfaunaare “global warming”, theyarewell ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 tices within modern experience and the In general,therehas thing thatisnotpart the mamos receivepermission and forany- Arhuacos alwaysneedto obtainadvicefrom TheArhuacosalsoknowhowto society thanks tothemamo leaders.The maintain the balanceof powerwithintheir preventing asimple, butverypurposefullife. the most important things inlife and thus day objectsaredistractingtheworldfrom purposeful life.Itispossiblethatmodern tality toliveasimple power andgold,theArhuacoshadmen- were settlingintheAmericassearchof knowledge. Evenwhentheconquistadores does promote happinessisobtainingmore does notpromotehappiness.Onethingthat agree withtheArhuacos thatthislifestyle but recentpsychologi something veryimportant inmodern society, not promote happiness.Materialism is ucts orbeingmateria alized thatanobsessionwithacquiringprod- tion (Elsass 49-50).TheArhuacoshavere- it doespromotetheacquisitionofinforma- person. Itisaveryfriendlycompetition and determine whoisthemost knowledgeable However,theArhuacosarecompeti- They willconstantly challenge each other to tive withregardtoacquiringknowledge. knowledge. freely sharealloftheirpossessions and materialistic. Itis lifestyle thatisverycommunal andnon- they need(Elsass47).TheArhuacoshavea to anotherArhuacocropandtaketheplants have intheirowncrop,theysimply canwalk an Arhuaconeedsaplant thattheydo not huacos. Eachfamily hasmany crops,butif in theArhuacoterritoryareforallofAr- food thantheyneed;in a societywhereneighbors of thetraditional listic ingeneraldoes , non-materialistic and cal studiestendto stead, allofthecrops 44 50 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

Arhuacos' persistentandrespectful nature The modern worldcanlearnalot from the Inaway,the Arhuacosarethe oldest mate relationship withnature (“We Live”). ecologists in theworldbecause oftheir inti- for whitecivilization.(Elsass63) stressed thatIndiancultureisaprerequisite developed. Onthecontrarytheyhave because theydonotbelieveneedtobe velopment expertswhocome intothearea, things. TheIndianshaveoftenrejectedde- ple whoneedtodeve ogy, whichregardstheIndiansaspoorpeo- of thedominant society's development ideol- tradition hasledthem tobecome opponents ership ofthemamos. spect foroneanother,andtheunbiasedlead- their desiretoacquireknowledge,re- from theArhuacos’model ofsociety,from centuries. wisdom thathavebeencompiled formany and passingonthehistory,knowledge the responsibilityoflearning,remembering, very important rolebecausetheyalsohave centuries. Ingeneral,themamos havea effective leadersandhave survivedfor many had asuccessfulsocietywithimpartial and is veryinteresting th are veryrespected withinthecommunity.It sacred lawsandbecauseofthis,themamos They needtobeamodel ofhowtoobeythe any specialprivileges

society. Howeverthemamos have donot

essentially all of thepower within the biased (Elsass 48).Themamos have cos, themamos arerequired tobeun- The attitudeoftheArhuacos toward The modern worldhasmuchtolearn when themamos helpotherArhua- lifestyle (Elsass47).Furthermore, ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 at theArhuacos have lop andtakeinnew for havingthisrole. : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 World “Arhuaco IndiansinColumbia.” Dismal index.htm pub.php/en/Corporacion/Universo_Arhuaco/ www.festivaldepoesiademedellin.org/ " news/195 < Dec. 2003.Survival "Indians BeheadedinSierraNevada."23 14 May2001. Tribes AreNowImperiled byaCivilWar." Forero, Juan."AfterCenturies,Colombian York: Knopf,1992. Ereira, Alan. York: UniversityPress, 1992. norities chology ofCultural Resilience inEthnicMi- Elsass, P.StrategiesForSurvival:The Psy- environment/74602/?page=1 < Green Publishing.Web.10 March2009. Climate Change?"25Jan.2008.Chelsea Cycon, Dean."Will CoffeeBeaCasualtyof arhuaco_indians_in_columbia.php www.dismalworld.com/minorities/ Mar. 2009.< Casa IndigenaGunnavindua.2005.Web. 8 harmony withbothnatureandeachother. ries. Especiallyimporta that has lasted more thantwenty-five centu-

Ayu andCrisis."UniversoArahuaco.La http://www.survival-international.org/ http://www.alternet.org/ . 2006.Web. 15Jan.2009.< . Trans.FranHopenwasser.New > . >. Works Cited http:// The ElderBrothers . Web. 9Mar.2009. nt ishowtolivein >. . New

>. http:// 45 51 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

2009. < "Tairona HeritageTrust."2008.Web. 9Mar. < na Gunnavindua.2005.Web. 8Mar.2009. Line." "Regaining theLandWithinBlack 2005. Web. 8Mar.2009.< huaco "'Pagamentos' andBalance." ity Sandwich the HeartofWorld." 24July2008. "Our Family Tree:LearningBalanceFrom index.htm pub.php/en/Corporacion/Universo_Arhuaco/ www.festivaldepoesiademedellin.org/ vindua. 2005.Web. 8Mar.2009.< verso Arahuaco.LaCasaIndigenaGunna- "The ThoughtofOurRebornMamos." index.php index.htm pub.php/en/Corporacion/Universo_Arhuaco/ www.festivaldepoesiademedellin.org/ index.htm pub.php/en/Corporacion/Universo_Arhuaco/ www.festivaldepoesiademedellin.org/ rld our_family_tree_learning_balance_heart_wo www.realitysandwich.com/

http://

> nous Affairs,1987.

. International Work GroupforIndige- Stratagies andPerspectives . LaCasaIndigenaGunnavindua. Among theBariandArhuaco: Universo Arahuaco http://tairona.myzen.co.uk/ Elsass, P.IndigenousSurvival Lizarralde, R.,Beckermann,St.,& >. >. >. >. . Web. 10Mar.2009.< ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 . LaCasaIndige- http:// Universo Ara- Universo . Denmark: http:// http:// Real- Uni- 2009. < 2005. Web. 8Mar.2009.< huaco bata andCrispínIzquierdo versation withtheMamos FranciscoZala- "We LiveaTransitiona index.htm pub.php/en/Corporacion/Universo_Arhuaco/ www.festivaldepoesiademedellin.org/ vindua. 2005.Web. 8Mar.2009.< verso Arahuaco.LaCasaIndigenaGunna- "We HeadTowards Self-destruction." blogs3751 April 2006. "We CanForgive IfTheyCanRespect."30 saiic.nativeweb.org/ayn/dec1990.pdf index.htm pub.php/en/Corporacion/Universo_Arhuaco/ www.festivaldepoesiademedellin.org/ 2005. Web. 8Mar.2009.< Arahuaco Wrongly 'Civilization'.” Called Universo "We SuffertheConsequencesof index.htm pub.php/en/Corporacion/Universo_Arhuaco/ www.festivaldepoesiademedellin.org/ ( 3&4).Web. 22Dec.1990.. >. >. >.

Yahoo News SAIIC Newletter l Situation:Acon- Leaders Murdered." . Web. 10Mar. ”. UniversoAra- http:// http:// , Vol 5 http:// >. Uni- 46 52 : The Proceedings of GREAT Day 2009 Great Day 2009 SUNY Geneseo

Relief de Sol et Climat de la France

Submitted by Stephanie Murdock

Résumé d’Hudson. Au sud, elle est sur la même li- Après avoir lu, on devrait être ca- gne que Détroit. Mais, à cause du Gulf pable de localise la France précisément sur Stream, qui réchauffe les littoraux de Fran- la carte du monde, remarquer quelque chose ce, le climat est bien diffèrent des villes aux à propos de ses frontières et leurs effets sur mêmes latitudes aux Etas Unis. l’histoire de la France, de généraliser le re- Malgré les obstacles à ses frontiè- lief de la France et identifier ses traits im- res, la situation de la France sur la carte du portants suivants. monde a fait que la France est un endroit Où se trouve la France? important pour l’échange des idées et aussi France est un pays en forme d’un pour le commerce (Michaud 9). Elle est hexagone qui se trouve dans la partie ouest comme un carrefour pour l’Europe, avec un du continent européen. Elle est au sud de la lien a l’est avec le contient d’Europe et aus- Grande Bretagne (avec qui elle ne partage si un front avec l’océan Atlantique et la Mé- aucune frontière) et nord de l’Italie et l’Es- diterranée. pagne. Elle couvre la superficie entre le mer Avec une superficie de 551,670 Méditerranée et la Manche de sud à nord, et kilométrés carrées2, la France est le plus entre le Rhin jusqu’à la mer atlantique de grand pays d’Europe, sauf la Russie. Pour l’ouest à l’est. Elle n’est pas vraiment isolée un sens de ces chiffre, la France est quatre- comme une île, mais aussi n’est pas vrai- cinquièmes la taille de Texas.3 Si on multi- ment continental. Comme M. Michaud dé- plie l’état de New York quatre fois, le résul- crit, “Elle apparaît plutôt comme un isthme tat est à peu près la taille de la France fortement rattaché au continent.”1 (Denoeu 4). La France est située entre le 40e et Les Froniters le 50e parallèle nord, et entre le 5e méridien La France partage une frontière ouest et le 8e méridien est (Michaud 8). avec les huit pays suivants; la Belgique, Pour orienter un sens de ces faits, on peut l’Allemagne, la Suisse, l’Italie, l’Espagne, imaginer une ligne de latitude que traver- le Luxembourg, l’Andorre et Monaco. La se l’océan Atlantique entre l’Europe et les plupart de ses frontières sont naturelles, sauf Amériques. La France se trouve presque la frontière du nord-est avec la Belgique et exactement à l’est de la frontière entre les le Luxembourg. (On y trouve le fôret des Etats Unis et Canada, vers 3,000 miles loin Ardennes dont quelques-uns rappellent une de NY. La frontière septentrionale de la frontière naturelle, mais, historiquement, France partage la même latitude que la Baie elle n’est pas bien pour protéger la France). 47

Published by KnightScholar, 2010 53 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

ouest. Unpeuplusloinà l’estsetrouvela l’Angleterre. Ellelimite laFranceau nord- un canalquisetrouve Manche etlaMerduNord. LaMancheest l’océan Atlantique,la trois (certaines affirment quatre) étendues ; le relatifdechaquepays.LaFrancetouche vraiment impressionnan Unis (Denoeu16).Donc,c’estunchiffre cinquièmes delatailledulittoraldesEtats comparaison, 3.100kilomètres sontdeux- LaFrancea5.200kilométrésde sont descôteslittérales(Denoeu16).En bordures, decechiffre3.100kilomètres “ plus dedétailsurlesAlpes,voirlasection les montagnes plushautesdel’Europe.Pour connues autourdumonde, parcequecesont relle avecl’Italie.LesAlpessontbien l’est, ontrouvelesAlpes,lafrontièrenatu- plus desplagesmagnifiques).Plusvers ranée créeune frontièrenaturelle(eten Provence etauLanguedoc,lamer Méditer- française, ilyalesPyrénées.Ausud-est,en Atlantique. Alafrontièreespagnol- gne, ontrouvelafrontièreavecl’océan me littoralplus ausud,autourdelaBreta- Manche protègelaFrance.Trouvantlemê- près deBelgique-leMerNordet)la LesfrontièresnaturellesdelaFran- nord-ouest, (etunpetitepeu,versl’est- ce sontsesmontagnes (l’Allemagne, laTchécoslovaquie,etc.). nationalité, pascomme autrespays Montagnes”.

une compréhension commune deleur

difficulté deunifier veloppement, laFranceaeumoins de naturels, aucoursdessièclesdudé- mes. Acause deseslittorauxplutôt Trois dusixfrontières sont mariti- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 Mer Méditerranée, la entre laFranceet et seslittoraux.Au t étantdonnélatail- sespeuplessous deux lepays,noustrouvons deuxparties -ouest delaFrance, de laFrance,prèsBelgique, jusqu'au sud Si nousfaisonsuneligne entrelenord-est ment dunordàl’ouestetausudl’est”(11). dont lesgradinss’élèveraientprogressive- que, dontlascèneserait la Franceainsi,“l’aspectd’unthéâtreanti- LereliefdelaFranceestcomposé gorges. Enbref,Michauddécritlereliefde des montagnes, decollines,fleuveset frontière géographique. les voyageurs.Maiscen’estpasunevraie pour letransportdesproduitsetaussi Letunnelsous laMancheaétéfini connectée àAngleterre.Ilestimportant en 1994,doncdepuislaFranceestaussi sion. de laFranced’inva- une tentedeprotection ligne defortifications,y aétécrééecomme entre-deux-guerres laligneMaginot,une sont entrésdanslaFrance.Pendantl’époque c’était ici ou laplupa gne pendantladeuxième guerremondiale) jusqu'au 19ème siècle(l’invasiond’Allema- nérable d’attaque.DepuislesGauloiset magne. Elleesttoujourslepointlaplusvul- Laseulefrontière artificielle fran- avec laBelgique,leLuxemburg etl’Alle- çaise setrouveaunord-estdelaFrance, céan Atlantique. de laMerMéditerranée,Mancheetl’o- magnifiques etcélèbressurtouteslescôtes, de laMéditerranée.Ontrouvedesplages France etl’Afrique,onalelittoralcélèbre dans l’océanAtlantique.Etausud,entrela tière del’ouest,laFrancebaigne partie delaFranceaunord-ouest.Afron- Mer duNord,quiaussitoucheunepetite 4

Relief duSol etnouscouponsen rt desenvahisseurs le bassindePariset

48 54 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

nomment tellesqu’elleslesont. feuillage. En conséquence, lesAlpessontse les plushautesdesAlpes, ontrouvedu tude haute”(Denoeu11).Danslespentes ‘alpe’ signifie àl’origine, “pâturage dealti- Alpes, c’estl’histor travers lessiècles.Unfaitintéressantsur citation illustre lamagnificence des Alpesà près deDieuquepart bout dudix-septième siècle,s’ydisaitplus François deSales,évêqueGenèveaude- “Citions…les AlpesdeSavoie oùSaint pour leurbeauté.M.Denoeuraconte, navigable. LesAlpessontaussiconnues moins raidequel’autre,doncelleestplus 11). LeversantdesAlpesfrancophonesest avec 4.087mètres, ou15.781pieds(Denoeu Mont Blanc,lepoint France etl’Italie.DanslesAlpes,ontrouve le sud-estdelaFrance, France (Denoeu11).Ellessontsituéesdans sont aussilesmontagnes plusjeunesdela montages lesplushaut montages d’Europe,comme cesontles vers lemilieu delaFrance. Centrale qui(comme ilsenomme)trouve part, auxfrontièresàl’exceptionduMassif et lesAlpes.Ellesse nées, leMassifCentral,lesVosges,Jura se trouvedevraiesmontagnes :lesPyré- partie, àdroite,les

tres enhauteur(Deneou5).Dansl’outre

elles n’ontpasplusdequatrecentsmè- Bretagne ontrouvecescollines, mais plutôt plat,saufque de laFrance,ontrouveunrelief Le MassifCentralestungrand Les Alpesestlespluscélèbresde distinctes. Agauche,aunord-est ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Montages ie dusonnom. Lemot ud-est delaFrance,on trouvent,pourlaplu- out ailleurs”(11).Cette es enEurope.Elles plushautd’Europe à lafrontière entrela : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 lques collines.En teint 1.723mètres (5,600pieds),une figure EntrelesAlpesetVosges,àla Suisse) setrouve frontière del’est (avec l’Allemagne etla ge (Denoeu10). jourd’hui cettegrotteestunlieudepèlerina- paru àBernadetteSoubirous,etencoreau- C’est là,oncroitqueleViergeMaireaap- cle, auLourdes(aubordnorddesPyrénées). dans lesPyrénéespendantlemi-19eme siè- Une autrehistoire intéressante s’est passé re françaisequisurviejusqu'à nosjours. sujet) etestlaplusvi “Chanson deRoland”(quiaétéécritsurle événement estdevenucélèbreàcause dela l’armée deCharlemagne” (Denoeu10).Cet après J.-C. “avectoute l’arrière-garde de de Roncevaux,ouRolandaététuéen778 Pyrénées est richeetfameuse.C’étaitaucol cours dufleuvelaGaronne.L’histoiredes fait estintéressant pour de quelacôteespagnole(Denoeu10).Ce le versant françaisdes Pyrénéesestplusrai- pieds (Denoeu avec 3.400mètres enhauteur,ou11.000 nées setrouveenEspagne,lepicd’Aneto vées”(10). Le pointleplushautdesPyré- sont aigües,endents “Leur arêtes sontvives tière franco-espagnol.Denoeu ditque, Unpeumoins connues,mais quand sont même unechaînedemontagnes célèbres sobriquet duPlateauCentral. me delasuperficie de la France”(6).Ilale fait queleMassif Central,“occupe leseptiè- français” (6).Ilillu vaste etplusvariedesmassifsmontagneux M. Deneouaremarqué qu’il“estleplus plateau quisetrouveau les Pyrénées

10). EncontrastedesAlpes, le Jura quisontsituéesàlafron- stre sonpointavecle eille œuvredelittératu- de scieetfortéle- et nues;leurscrêtes centredelaFrance. son influencesurle . Sonsommet at- 49 55 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

sions etducommerce. pour l’histoiredeParisàproposdesinva- Elle esttrèsnavigable,untraitimportant nous connaissions,n’existeraitaujourd’hui. (Denoeu 20).SanslaSeine,Parisque fleuves etaussi c’estleplus régulier nord). C’estlepluslentdescinqgrands et sud) (partie Seine Paris endeuxparties,larivegauchede la villepluscélèbredeFrance.Ellecoupe bre deFrance,parcequ fleuves. ’hui ontrouvebeaucoupdevillessurces installés prèsdel’eau,doncmême aujourd- rieur de laFrance. Lespeuples anciens s’ont sont dessourcesd’eauximportantesàl’inté- Ilyacinqfleuvesimportants en et laGaronne. Ilstraversent laFrance et France :laSeine, leRhône,laLoire,Rhin avec plusde1400mètres (Denoeu8). Son sommet estleballon deGuebwiller, le nordetauHavresejettedanslaManche. (Hendrix etWalter,13-14). Ellecoulevers Seine, est une autregrande villesurlaSeine (Denoeu 20).LeHavre,l’embouchure dela d’une divinitéd’eauceltique, Paris. Lenom‘laSeine’estdérivédu ne videl’eaudelacuvetterégion à laManche,auHavre(Denoeu20).LaSei- sur leplateau delaCoted’Or,etelle sejette ce-Lorraine, àlafrontièreavecAllemagne.

sont

EncoreaunorddesAlpesetduJu- ra, ettoujourssurla Central (Denoeu10). les du puydeSancydansleMassif La Rhône à 160mètres moins quelahauteur La Seine Vosges,quisetrouventenAlsa- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Fleuves estlefleuvepluscélè- estsituéeausud-est de Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 la rivedroit(partie Sa sourcesetrouve ’elle traverse Paris, frontièredel’est,

Sequana la somme delavitesse laSeine etla (Deneou 24).Savitesse mètres deprofondeur,maiselleest trèsvite cinq fleuves,avec12km delargeuret 30 grand etprofond(HendrixWa (Hendrix et Walter, portance dansledomaine ducommerce ser quelesmontagnes.LeRhinauneim- dre carlesfleuvessontplusfacilesàtraver- le, mais cellequiestplusdifficileàdéfen- gne. Onpeutl’appeler frontière quiséparelaFrancedel’Allema- du fleuve. portante développéeàcausedesaproximité et Orléansse situe Tour Saint-Nazaire, prèsdeNantes. EntreNantes l’ouest. Ellesejette dans l’Atlantique à tourne (avantleBassinparisien)vers coule verslenordjusqu’àOrléans,oùelle Massif Central,danslesCévennes,etelle tant pourlecommerce.Sasourceestdansla (Denoeu, 23).Sonestuaireesttrèsimpor- on peutlatraversersansperdrepied d’eau diminue etdansbeaucoupd’endroits d’Orléans” (Denoeu22).Enété,leniveau tes digues qui lalange temps, et“souvent débordemalgré leshau- fleuve trèsirrégulier.Ellegranditenprin- c’est Lepluslongdesfleuvesfrançaisà un quartdelalongueur 1.000 kilomètres(620milles)delongueur, 20). terranée (HendrixetWalter, tion jusqu'à ellesejettedanslamer Médi- tourne verslesudet entre laFrance.Puis,prèsdeLyon,elle Alpes Suisses,traverselaLacdeGenève,et la France.Ellecouledesasourcedansles la Loire La Garonne Le Rhin

(Denoeu 22).LaLoireestun constitue unepartie dela 10). C’estunfleuve coule danscettedirec- estlapluscourtedes nt, surtoutàpartir une frontière naturel- delaMississipi, s, uneautre villeim- de débitestégaleà lter, 10). 50 56 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

qui portd’airchauddes trophiques auxpar- maritime sud-ouest) leGulfStream règlele Danslesrégionsprèsdel’océan sien, laNormandie, laBretagne,l’ouest etle Atlantique, (compris lenord,Bassinpari- 12). gnard etleclimat time, leclimat continental,leclimat monta- de Franceen quatreparties ;leclimat mari- climat distinctes.Onpeutdiviserleclimat Onnepeutpasgénéraliserlecli- toutes lesrégionsont mat enFrance.Bienquetempère engénéral, vent ausuddelaFrance,prèsNice. le plushautcanyond’ tres profondeur,c’estreconnucomme étant LesGorges Verdon sontladeuxiè- kilomètres enlongueuretjusqu’à700mè- me plusgrandegorgedumonde. Avec50 (Deneou,12). l’ouest les collines deNormandie composée delafalaise Champagne età LeBassinParisienestaunorddela Paris. LapartieextérieureduBassinest France. Aufonddecettecuvettesetrouve (Hendrix etWalter,20). nord etsejettedans son estuaire,laGironde deaux. PrèsdeBordeaux,laGaronnerejoint célèbres comme Toulouse,AgenetBor- rent” (Deneou23).Ellepassedesvilles

est trèsraide,“elledescendentor-

Car leversantfrançaisedesPyrénées ouest dansladirectiondeFrance. espagnoles etellecouleverslenord- source setrouvedanslesPyrénées la Loireensemble (Deneou23).Sa . LeGulfStreamestuncourant Les RégionsBas ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 méditerranéen (Michaud Climat l’océan Atlantique desdifférencesde Europe. Ellessetrou- , quicouleversle : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 climat

toutes saisons”(Michaud12). court etpluvieux,[et]pluiesneigesen par troispoints,“hivers longs etrudes,étés le PlateauCentral. Ceclimat estcaractérisé trouve danslesAlpes,leJura,Vosgeset blable àcelui duclimat continental. Ilse qui aiment faisantduski. ver, cetterégionestpop Mais, malgré lestempératures bassesenhi- “avec despluiesd’orages”(Deneou14). plus froidsetrude Central, leJura etle Troploinàl’estpourêtreeffectué trouve par leseffetsmodérant duGulfStream,on té. trop longtempsniversentengrandequanti- bituées auxpluies,mais ellesnedurentpas ni tropchaud.Lesmêmes régionssontha- mat. Leclimat maritime n’estni tropfroid, réchauffer cesrégions etàmodérer lecli- ties àl’ouestduhémisphère. Donc,ilsertà portants, quiontété région estaussiconnuep est trèsclaire.(Ilfaut mistral, l’airetla du tifs etd’autresnégatifs.Oncroitqu’àcause le mistral, unventsecquiadeseffetsposi- vents forts,lepluscélèbred’entreeuxc’est rents. Ceclimat estaussiconnupourses En automne, onadespluies,souventàtor- et secs,deshiverstempérés (Deneou14). terranée estcaractériséepardesétéschauds populaire aveclestouristes.Larégionmédi- ble, etenconséquent,c’estunerégiontrès monde. Là,leclimat estsouventtrèsfavora- la France)estcélèbreetconnusurtoutau sûr, danslazoneméditerranéenne ausudde

le climatcontinental Le climatmontagnard Le climatméditerranéen s Alpes,onaleshivers attirés àcetterégion lumière decetterégion sesouvenirquecette s, etlesétés chauds, ulaire aveclesgens our sesartistesim- . AuMassif estsem- (bien 51 57 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

1993. celsius, ou36fahrenheit,selonuneétudede moyenne enjanvieràParisest2dégrées froids etdesétéschauds.Latempérature physiques. emplacements surleglobe etleurstraits leurs climats sontbien Nouveau Calédonie.Leursreliefsdusolet sie Française,laMayotte,Réunionet Martinique, laGuyaneFrançaise,Polyné- tin, SaintBarthélémy, laGuadeloupe, Corse, SaintPierreetMiquelon,Mar- de lagéographieFrance.Cesont Ilfautmention unpeulesDOM- d’outre-mer) quiaussiconstituent une partie TOMS (lesdépartements heit (Noin). est 18dégréescelsius,ou36fahren- En juillet,latempérature moyenne deParis étangs… quequelquesjoursparan”(14). Parisiens nepeuventpa illustre leclimat del’hiver duParis, “Les du climat continental, doncavecdeshivers

mat deParis. Ilsetrouvedanslarégion

Comme capitaleetvillecélèbre, on va parlerunpeuplusendétailducli- 5 M.Deneouprésentunexemple qui des incendiesdetemps entemps. de l’autrecôte,lemistral produit la beauté delalumière). Mais DOM-TOM ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47

variésselonleurs tiner surleslacs et etlesterritoires 4 5 3 www.state.gov/r/pa ei/bgn/3842.htm www.state.gov/r/pa/eibgn/3842.htm>.http:// gust 2008,11November 2008. Novemeber 2008. www.discoverfrance.net/France/ November 2008

(Paris: Hachette,

, 1May2008,18

, 1993,18

, Au- 52 58 : The Proceedings of GREAT Day 2009 Great Day 2009 SUNY Geneseo

Looks Can Be Deceiving: Angelo’s Intentions in Measure for Measure Submitted by Michael Langen

In Shakespeare’s Measure for Meas- in sticking to extremes demonstrates his ure, there are two common interpretations love of power, and his refusal to give any of for Angelo’s character. The first interpreta- it up. Angelo even refuses the advice of the tion sees Angelo as a moral man, who is more experienced Escalus, who advises An- earnestly trying to clean up Vienna, but hap- gelo that he might regret being so strict pens to take things too far in his strict treat- (2.2.10-13). Angelo ignores him, asserting ment of Claudio’s case. He succumbs to the that he is the only one who will have any temptation of Isabella—a temptation he had say in the matter. never known before—but he repents for it One could argue that Angelo is not by the play’s end. The second interpretation power-hungry, and must be well- sees Angelo as power-hungry, and hypo- intentioned, since the Duke trusts him with critical in his preaching of strict morality. his position upon his leave. There is evi- He is ill-intentioned and pursues his selfish dence, however, that the Duke does not ac- agenda at the expense of others. Angelo tually trust Angelo to do a good job, and tries to dupe the other characters into inter- that he knows that Angelo is going to be preting him the first way, but in truth, the corrupt. After the Duke gives up his power, second interpretation is more accurate. he does, after all, stick around in disguise to Angelo appears modest when he, at keep an eye on things. The fact that he does first, refuses the Duke’s offering of the rul- not let Angelo rule on his own, without being position. He says: “Let there be some ing secretly monitored, suggests that he more test made of my mettle / Before so no- does not trust Angelo with power. When ble and so great a figure / Be stamped upon speaking to Friar Thomas, the Duke ex- it” (Measure 1.2.49-51). Despite his humble plains that “Lord Angelo is precise, / Stands appearance, Angelo is actually quite excited at a guard with envy, scarce confesses / That about receiving such a position of power. his blood flows or that his appetite / Is more The way he uses the power given to him to bread than stone. Hence shall we see, / If proves this. He immediately begins using power change purpose, what our seemers his power to enforce the law to an unprece- be” (Measure 1.3.50-54). The Duke sus- dented extreme; he sentences Claudio to pects that Angelo is more corrupt than he death for sleeping with Juliet out of wed- seems to be, and he is interested in seeing if lock, even though Claudio was engaged to giving him power will expose his corrupt marry her. Angelo is told to clean up the nature. At the end of the play, the Duke tells city, but he takes it too far. His steadfastness Isabella to plead her case to Angelo, telling 53

Published by KnightScholar, 2010 59 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

threatens that, unlessIsabella sleeps with motivations arefurtherexposed whenhe honorable pursuitofjustice does.Hisselfish clearly influences hisdecision more thanan claims Viennaneeds.Personalmotivation He prioritizesselfishdesiresoverwhathe that Claudiomust beusedasanexample. dons Claudio,thenhediscreditshisstance if Isabellasleeps with cause heclaims thathewillpardon Claudio pursued. This,however,cannotbetrue,be- law willberespected and justicewillbe that hewants tosetanexample sothatthe his motivation forpunishingClaudioisstill by sexuallust onthatone occasion,andthat One couldarguethathewasmerely tempted ing thelawwhenhepropositions Isabella. but heprovestobeuninterestedinrespect- up thecityandbolsterrespectforlaw, Claudio asanexample inanefforttoclean ishing ofClaudio.Heclaims thatheisusing have ethicalreasons vation isselfish,notmoral. Angelodoesnot Angelolivesupto,orperhapsdown leader. Heabuseshispower,andmoti- to, theDuke’sexpectationsandfailsasa viously expectsAngelotofall”(415). David Bevingtonagreesthat“theDukeob- give Isabella justiceat any more thanhethinks thatAngelowill consider Angelotobeatrustworthyleader for most ofthe play. taken atfacevalue,ashe bearsanother face him power.TheDuke’swordscannotbe

the beginningofplaywhenhegives

yet heseems totesthim, likehedoesat that Angelowillnotgive herjustice, to him” (5.1.28-29). TheDukeknows give youjustice./Revealyourself her: “HereisLordAngeloshall ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 behind hisstrictpun- His trueselfdoesnot him. If Angelo par- him.IfAngelo theendofplay. good-intentioned leader. wishes overjusticearenot theactions of prioritizing thefulfillment of personal so?” (2.4.110-111).Rulingwithcrueltyand tence /Thatyouhaveslandered her: “Were notyouthenascruelthesen- with him tosaveherbrother,Angeloasks being cruel. WhenIsabellarefusestosleep rein” (Measure mits toIsabella:“Igive mysensualracethe promote hisownpersonalpleasure.He ad- uses hispower, nottoupholdjustice,but sion” (283).Angeloexpl ized that headjust that thereissome personalgaintobereal- notices thatitis“onlywhen[Angelo]infers that heclaims tostandfor.JohnSimmons and hispoweroveranyoftheloftyideals concern forjustice.Angelovalueshimself upholds Claudio’sdeath 30). ItisoutoffearrevengethatAngelo come haveta’enrevenge”( dangerous sense,/Mightinthetimes to lived, /Savethathisriotousyouth,with out ofhim. Hestates ethical behavior,nor Angelo’streatment can- ofClaudio tentions arenottopunishClaudioforun- not bedefendedasjustinanyway.Hisin- desires, evenatth using hispowertofulfillownselfish not chieflyconcernedwithjustice,butin he’ll haveClaudio tortured.Heisclearly him, hewon’tonlyhaveClaudiokilled, Angelo isabadanddangerous leader sions basedonwhatisbest forthepeople. retaining power,instead of making deci- will beclouded bythegoal of attaining and will notmake agoodruler.Hisdecisions If someone ispower-hungrythenhe 2.4.161). Healsoadmits to e expenseofothers. s anyjudicialdeci- that“Heshouldhave to make an example icitly statesthathe sentence, notoutof Measure 4.4.28- 54 60 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

gelo claims thathewouldwantthesame ample ofhypocritical judges inothers.Heserves asaclassicex- the verylibidinousdesires hesoseverely Angelo as“apowerseeker,unabletocurb to hisownbehavior.Simmons recognizes Angelocanonlysuppressothers’ cal, andcorrupttoapplythesame standards instincts becausehe be thantosuppressba And whatgreatershowofpowercouldthere his powertothemaximum extentpossible. interested indoingthingshisway,andusing gelo, though.Instead,heseems onlytobe less child.This doesnotseem tobotherAn- in thefirstplace—the creationofafather- very thingthatheclaimed tobetryingstop ing Claudio,hewouldberesponsibleforthe stead ofpower,hemight were more interested inpublicservice in- wishes toappearbe”(283).IfAngelo self asthehardnosedstand-inrulerhe most severeform inordertoestablishhim- nizes thatAngelo “administers justice inits sentences Claudiotodeath.Simmons recog- he enforces thatlawtoitsfull extent and so wouldreduceAngelo’spower.Instead, Claudio forsleepingwi nonsensical lawsliketh Angelo doesnot,however,doawaywith can beenforcedwithdignityandrespect. are unfairand unreasonablesothat thelaw but itwouldbewisetoremovethelawsthat goal, anditmakes sensetoenforcethelaw,

law” (

make ascarecrow ofthe justice, claiming thathe“must not value, heseems tobestandingupfor for power”(Simmons284).Atface Measaure because ofhis “excessive appetite ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 2.1.1). Thisisanoble is tooweak,hypocriti- behavior” (284).An- sic human instincts? th hisfiancée.Doing e onethatpunishes realizethatbykill- : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 Onewhoargues thatAngeloisan essentially good-intentioned personwho spared” (qtd. inGeckle72). indignation whenhefinds [Angelo] who believesthat“everyreaderfeelssome ished forit.IagreewithSamuel Johnson, as much aseemer, anddeservestobepun- guise formost oftheplay,butAngeloisjust punished. The Dukemay betheoneindis- his lesson,andthereforedoesnotneedtobe that hehopestoappearasifhaslearned killed inthe name of justice.Instead, Ithink punishment. Hedoesnotactuallyhopetobe plea asafinal,desperateattempt toavoid to sentencehimself” (394).IseeAngelo’s gelo isnot aseemer; brook, whoconteststhat“inthisaloneAn- 5.1.374-382). IdisagreewithM.C.Brad- begs forthedeathsentence( knows thatheiscaught,kneelsand the Dukerevealshimself, andAngelo he woulddeserveandaccep Atfirst, inthefinal act, Angelotries punishment that,earlierintheplay,hesaid to protecthis image insteadofaccepting the Duke” (207). in theeyesofworld,and (and hypocritically)shores Miles observesthat“Angelodesperately most bitterlyandstrange”(5.1.38).Rosalind credit Isabella, saying that “shewillspeak stead triestogetout him, hedoesnotadmit tohis crime, butin- when Isabellabringsforthhercaseagainst sounding declaration.Attheendofplay, to thetest,hedoesnotstandbythisnoble- tial” (2.1.30-31).However,whenitcomes out my death/ Andnothingcome inpar- as hesays:“Letmine ownjudgment pattern treatment if heweretocommit thecrime, of itbytryingtodis- he hastheconsistency uphisself-image t. It isonly after Measure 55 61 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

the Dukewhenshekneels andbegshim not one tempted byIsabella,asshealsocharms could pointoutthatAngelo isnottheonly suade him intogivingintoher.Further, one “touch him” (2.2.75)inanattempt toper- 1.4.81-83). Inaddition,Luciotellsherto they themselves wouldowethem” ( [men’s] petitionsare asfreely theirs/As when women “weepand kneel,/All gelo intochanginghismind. Hesaysthat that Lucio instructs Isabella tocharm An- IfoneweretostillarguethatAngelo tim totemptation, onec is ultimately good-intentioned,butfallsvic- stroke ofcharacterization”(211). hardly toberegardedasasympathetic this blindand destructive self-interest is himself fromexposure…theestablishingof he isstillusinghiseverymeans tosave ing ashewrestleswithhisconscience,but Miles pointsout,“H he onlyaddstohismoral corruptness.As other corruptions,andbyactingonthatlust, over hissexuallustdoesnotexcuse if onehasneverfeltthatbefore.Hissurprise and stillfeelsurprised intentioned ruler. On Isabella doesnotmean thatheisagood- because Angelo issurprised byhislustfor gelo uponseeinghisself-examination. Just variants whodonotfeelsympathy forAn- from theaudience” (199).Iam oneofthe an unconditionallysympathetic response stating thatthey“almost invariablyelicit

pressed inthesoliloquiesof2.2and2.4,”

“amazement, disgust, andgriefex- bella. MilespointstoAngelo’s Angelo struggleswithhislustforIsa- tion could point totheevidence that happens tofall victim totempta- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 e isundoubtedlysuffer- e canabuseauthority at feelingsexuallust ould pointtothefact Measure since he,too,actedonlust. Butinsteadof more sympathyforClaudio’s situation, sire” (431).Iwouldexp a personfromtheinstinctual powerofde- ity orbirth,nomatter howlofty,canprotect Angelo issaying that “no position of author- blood” (2.4.15).Bevingtonexplainsthat 2.4.122). Angelosays:“Blood,thouart Itissurprising thatAngelo isnot ognizes that“weareallfrail”(Measure more merciful towardClaudio,sinceherec- made toIsabella”(114). dio, longbefore thedishonorableproposalis temper justicewithmercy, andspareClau- gelo’s nativebaseness: piece ofevidenceseems topointAn- refer toLawrence’s statement: “Onefurther due tohistemptationforIsabella,Iwould intentioned, andonlyfallstoevilmeasures claim thatAngeloisoriginallygood- to nativevirtue”(113). with herandtokillbrother,donotpoint to satisfyhislust,butalsobreakfaith Isabella inherdreadfulpredicament inorder that “[Angelo’s]readinessnotonlytoput high status. William Lawrencepoints out would belief herwordoverhis,duetohis it. Ifsheweretotryexposehim, nobody because hethinksthatcangetawaywith exploits hispowerandpropositionsIsabella Isabella, nothe,thatisthevictim. Angelo flirting—but Angeloquicklyshowsthatitis Angelo seemlikeavictim ofmanipulative Isabella seem,insome way,seductive,and riage. This evidencealone certainly makes presses hisloveforherbyproposingmar- dons Angelofrom death,andthenheex- power because hegrants herwishesandpar- Duke suggeststhatIsabellahasseductive to giveAngelothedeathsentence.The his flat refusal to to refusal flat his If onestilltriedto ect Angelotohave 56 62 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

vantage ofotherpeople. From thebeginning just. Heabuseshisauthority andtakesad- Angelo isgreedy,power-hungry, andun- are more importanttohimthananyone else. demonstrates thathisownselfishinterests Claudio, Isabella,andMariana,Angelo der thisquality.Throughhistreatment of WhileAngeloappearspiousbypun- merciful. Angelocertainlydoesnotengen- ishing lechery,heforgetsthathisGodis quired from hisselfish,menacing dealings. not relieve him of theguiltthathe has ac- thy forMarianaandforgivesAngelodoes shipwreck. Thefactthat quickly leftwhenshe request ofpoorMariana,whom Angelo willing toforgive Angelo,especially atthe the devoutChristian thatsheis,isofcourse be leftwithoutahusband.Isabella,being Mariana begshertodoso,sothatshewon’t only asksforhim tobepardonedafter for onetoremember, though,thatIsabella me” (Measure erned hisdeeds,/Tillhedidlookon partly thoughtthat“Aduesinceritygov- Duke topardonhim. Isabellaclaims thatshe OnecouldstillarguethatAngelo or elseIsabellawoul must havebeengood-intentioned,though, perceptions ofthem” (283). unequally dependingonhisarbitrary,biased his applicationofthelaws,peoplesuffer apply thelawinanyconsistentmanner. In Simmons pointsoutth

Claudio forpersonal,notethical,reasons.

justice, though, becausehepunishes 2.4.16). Angelodoesno angel’ onthedevil’shorn”(Measure asserts thatone showing Claudiomercy, Angelo 5.1.454-455). Itisimportant ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 d nothavebeggedthe lost herdowryina at Angelo“doesnot Isabellahas sympa- cannot write“‘good : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 t actuallyserve Lawrence, William.Shakespeare's Problem justice!” (Measure Duke, beggingfor“justice,justice, corrupt rulingpushesIs consider thathisselfish,hypocritical,and pret Angeloasgood-intentioned,oneshould ers ifnecessary.Ifone for hisowninterests,attheexpenseofoth- gain anddemonstratepower,tolookout of theplayon,hisintentionsaresolelyto Geckle, GeorgeL."ColeridgeonMeasure Bradbrook, M.C."Authority,Truth, and Simmons, John S."MeasureforMeasure: Simmons, John Shakespeare, William. TheComplete Miles, Rosalind.TheProblem ofMeasure 18 (1967). for Measure." ShakespeareQuarterly (1941): 385-99. The ReviewofEnglishStudies Justice inMeasure forMeasure." 1993. 281-87. Congress Cataloging-in-Publication, and RonaldE.Salomone. Libraryof speare Today links toOurTime." TeachingShake- Pearson Longman, 2004. Bevington. 5thed.NewYork,NY: Works ofShakespeare & Row,1976. for Measure Macmillan Company, 1931. Comedies Bibliography . NewYork,NY:The 5.1.26). . NewYork,NY:Harper . Ed.James E.Davis is tempted tointer- abella torunthe . Ed. David

57 63 Proceedings of GREAT Day, Vol. 2009 [2010], Art. 47 Great Day 2009 SUNY Geneseo

Mistreatment of Detainees in the War on Terror: How the Bush Administration’s Policies Have Violated International Law and Hurt America

Submitted by Andrew Petracca

iv. Secret prisons Table of Contents C. Extraordinary renditions IV. U.S. legal arguments and justifications I. Introduction 1. Inapplicability of international law 1. Background information 2. Redefining torture 2. Thesis 3. Shifting responsibility down the II. Overview of International Law chain of command Regarding Prisoners V. Refutations 1. Introduction 1. Why international law is applicable 2. Categories of protected persons A. Reasons why Geneva should 3. General rights and treatment be applied to Afghanistan 4. Fair trial rights B. Need for competent tribunals 5. Prohibition against torture and other C. AP I minimum standards degrading treatment D. Human rights treaties 6. Execution and enforcement 2. Evidence that some techniques used A. The Red Cross by the U.S. are torture B. Prescriptions for domestic A. Legal arguments enforcement B. U.S. government practices C. Treaty mechanisms C. Severity of techniques D. UN organizations 3. Evidence for systemic abuse and E. NGOs top-down authorization F. Legal prosecutions and VI. Why enforcing and respecting punishments international law is in the interest of the 7. Conclusion United States III. Violations Committed by the Bush 1. Comparative Analysis Administration A. The United Kingdom and 1. Introduction Northern Ireland, 1971 2. Arrest without just cause B. Israel during the Landau Com- A. Afghanistan mission era, 1987-1999 B. Iraq 2. Importance of Geneva Convention 3. Indefinite detention and protections for American soldiers unfair trials 3. The ineffectiveness of coercive in- 4. Torture terrogation A. Overview 4. Effect torture and indefinite deten- B. Torture by American tions have had had on interna- personnel tional perceptions of the United i. Afghanistan States ii. Guantanamo Bay VII. Conclusions iii. Iraq 58 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47 64 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

ofLegalCounsel OLC -Office for Human Rights -OfficeoftheHighCommissionerOHCHR be CIA) slang foranonymous personnelthoughtto OGA -OtherGovernment Agency(military Army MP -MilitaryPolice CorpsoftheU.S. Army MI -Military Intelligence Corpsof theU.S. and PoliticalRights ICCPR -InternationalConventiononCivil ICC -International Criminal Court tection ofCivilianPersonsinTime ofWar GC IV-Convention(IV) relative tothePro- Treatment ofPrisonersWar GC III-Convention(III)relative tothe DOS -U.S.Department ofState Department DOD -U.S. ofDefense CIA -U.S.CentralIntelligence Agency

CAT -ConventionagainstTorture

Abbreviations ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Table of : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 terrorist attacksofSeptember 11 during theimmediate aftermathofthe due processintheUnited States.Beginning most recentassaultagainst theprinciple of Theseviolations, however shameful, do notapproachthescopeorscaleof Vietnam War (Greer 372). can soldiers occurred as well,during the captured enemies duringwartime byAmeri- several decades(Conroy country hasnotbeenuncommoninthelast ties andbypoliceoffi ple, the use of torture incorrectional facili- new, either.IntheUnitedStates,forexam- For democratic societies theyarenot entirely countries controlledby ther aretheythesoleprovinceofoppressed are not remnantsofth unfair trials, torture a make aneverydayreality.Arbitraryarrests, other freenationshave ideal, onethatAmericans andcitizensof miration oftheworld.Itis,however,an ideal thatshould earnus therespectandad- ples ourcountrywasfoundeduponandan of fairandequaljusti us withtherestofworld.Thepromise international lawsthatbindusandconnect not onlyintheConstitutionbutalso during times ofpeaceandwar,isenshrined equal justice for allpeople before thelaw, structive ofdignity.IntheUnitedStates punishment thatwouldbeinhumane orde- duly andlegallyprescribed,norsufferany just cause,norreceiveanypunishment not be deprivedofhisor in liberty civil of foundation The ess oflaw,theguarant modern democraticsoci I. Introduction her freedom without a herfreedom without nd degradingtreatment ce isoneoftheprinci- e distantpast,andnei- ee thatnopersonshall eties is the due proc- strongman dictators. cers throughoutthe donetoolittleto 33). Thetortureof th , 2001, 59 65 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

for thesakeofmeasures whichmay seem to abandontheseprinciples, especiallynot but thatdoesn’tmean thatAmericans have defeated withconventional military doctrine, international terroristnetworkscannotbe not usedtofightingagains danger, andinawaythat serious threat, becauseitdoesposeagrave low. LetitnotbesaidthatAlQaedaisa the principlesofjust Itistempting, intimes ofgreatna- tional crisis, toactwith lessrestraint than (Gourevitch 103). Prison inIraq byAmerican military police mous abuseofprisonersatAbuGhraib intent oftheadministration, suchastheinfa- abusive behaviorwentbeyondtheoriginal can personnel, leading tosituations where manity ofprisonersin ing international lawand respecting thehu- tions wastoreducetheimportance ofobey- prevent (Greer384). One effectoftheseac- thority andbeyondtheabilityofanylawto gally justified bypresidential military au- ministration assertedthat these actsarele- “extraordinary renditions”). TheBushad- likelihood ofoccurring(theso-called of interrogationswheretorturehadahigh suspected terroristsoverseasforthepurpose ous ordegradingtohum (also called“waterboardi stress positionsandsimulated drowning the use interrogation t denied thoseprisonersfa

in amanner contrarytothelawsof war,

der arrestforindefiniteperiodsoftime W. Bushplacedsuspectedterrorists un- administration ofPresidentGeorge from powerinJanuary2009,the and endingonlywithitsdeparture ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 ice wouldotherwiseal- theminds ofAmeri- echniques, suchas an dignity,andsent theUnitedStatesis ng”) thataretortur- ir trials, authorized t. It istruethat degrading treatment areallviolations of gation techniquesamounting totorture and are incustody,andthe persons access toimpartial courtswhenthey Theindefinitedetentionofso-called “unlawful enemy combatants,” denying such United States. can andhasharmed interestsofthe the ferent waysthatigno systemic abuse.Bothcasesilluminate dif- limited manner ledtoa spiralingpattern of institute legal coercive interrogations ina tory. TheIsraeligovernment’s attemptsto Army andleft ablackmark onBritishhis- erbated thethreatof Kingdom againstIrishCa experimental tactics used bythe United Othercountriesthathavetriedtocir- or nationalcrisishavesufferedforit.The cumvent theruleoflawduringtimes ofwar ful partsofAmerican history. will also godownasone of the most shame- alize andlegally justify theuse of torture is littledoubt thattheattempts toinstitution- actually strengthenedourenemies, andthere has notonlybeenunnecessarybutmay have international lawoverthepastseveralyears mistreatment ofdetaineesanddisregardfor shames UnitedStates’history.The ofthe internment is consideredoneofthegreat danger ofsabotagewasverysmall andthe preme Court. It iswe President RooseveltandbackedbytheSu- sabotage, adecisionwhichwasorderedby Second World War, supposedlytoprevent of Japanese-American citizensduringthe stration towards prisoners istheinternment analog tothebehaviorofBushadmini- counterproductive. The closesthistorical very effectiveand“tough”butareactually ll-known todaythatthe theIrishRepublican ring international law use ofcertaininterro- tholics onlyexac- 60 66 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

law (Shaw89). bly themost important typeofinternational states, andinmodern times theyareproba- written agreements amongtwoormore from theconsensusofstates.Treatiesare and forthatreasoninternationallawarises law-making bodiesin there isnotanorderlyhierarchyofofficial International lawcomes inmany forms; unlikemunicipal (i.e.,domestic) law, ors. serve international lawinallfuture endeav- way statestreatpeoplein theirpoweringen- International human rightslawregulates the tories, among otherthings(Shaw 1055). oners ofwarandcivilia war; itprescribeshowstates must treatpris- bello ian law,moreformally knownas human rightslaw.Internationalhumanitar- those intheir power: humanitarian lawand Therearetwo major typesofinterna- tional lawthataffecthow statesmust treat must treat detainees inthewaronterror. national laws regulatehowtheUnitedStates focus ontreaties inananalysis of whatinter- als. Forthat reason,itwillbesufficientto of whichreflectbroaderprinciplesandide- ers arebindingontheUnitedStates,many that regulatestatebeha us. Itwillbenefit the UnitedStates toob-

of foreignnationstotakeuparms against

II. Overview ofInternationalLaw abroad andencouragingordinarypeople aging itsreputationandmoralauthority , regulatesstate practice intimes of interests of the UnitedStatesbydam-interests ofthe tional law.Theyhavealsohurtthe multiple instruments of interna- Regarding Prisoners 1.Introduction 1 Alargenumber oftreaties ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 vior towardsprison- ns inoccupiedterri- ternational politics, : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009

jus in prisoners ofwaruntila“competent doubt must betreatedasiftheyqualify as ent captiveswhosestatus for POW treatment. Furthermore, belliger- all thesame conditionsasmilitias toqualify Power, whichdon’tnecessarilyneedtomeet ernment notrecognizedbyaDetaining warfare. Alsoincludedaresoldiersofagov- openly; andobeyingthe guished from adistance;carrying arms wearing adistinctive mark that canbe distin- tain rules:havingaclearcommandstructure; tias orresistancemove marine. Alsoincluded are members of mili- military units,andmembers of themerchant respondents, andmechanics thataccompany duly authorized civilian crews,laborers,cor- regular soldiersofa GC IIIdefines “prisonersofwar”to include a stateofwarbyanypartytothefighting. official declarationofwarorrecognition conflict, regardless of theexistence of an ply duringanyperiodofinternationalarmed protects prisonersofwar. Itsprovisionsap- 1949 GenevaConvention (hereafterGCIII) the course of anarmed conflict. The Third under thecontrolofa imaginable classofpersonwhomaycome They prescribelegal protectionsforany are universallyrecognizedaslaw(ICRC). of Conventions core ofinternationalhumanitarian law,and Geneva Four The 1949 andtheirAdditionalProtocolsarethe its conductinthewa on theUnitedStatesand representing bothtype during warsoremerge bids thederogationof eral; inmany cases suchlawexplicitly for- 2. Categoriesofprotectedpersons r againstterrorism. ments thatfollowcer- party totheconflict, ncies (256).Treaties s oflawarebinding belligerent powerin laws andcustoms of under GC III are in underGCIII certain rights even thus arerelevantto

61 67 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

which werevital tothelaterdevelopment of tions twolegalinstruments werecreated IntheearlydaysofUnitedNa- (Dormann 73). tection underinternationalhumanitarian law state withouthavingso possible foranyonetobe case of the UnitedStates) thus makes itim- precisely the customary lawitreflects, inthe Article 75’sprotection.75(ormore Conventions andwouldthereforefallunder ify forprotectedpersonstatusunderthe given conflict,forexample,wouldnotqual- nationals ofastatethatisnotpartyto the four1949GenevaC tected byanotherprovisionofAPIorany party toaconflictwhoisnototherwisepro- accorded to anyoneinthepowerofstate “Fundamental Guarantees less (Sands150).Ar ternational lawandare monly regardedasreflectingcustomary in- provisions, notablyArticle75,arecom- ratified bytheUnitedStates,butsome ofits of international conflicts. Ithas not been I) providesadditionalrulesfortheconduct col totheGeneva Conve (Dormann 50).TheFirst Additional Proto- be entitledtotheprotectionsofGCIV are nationalsofastate for protectionunderGCIIIwould, ifthey participate inaconfli state belligerent totheconflict. Persons that or occupation,ifthey

the powerofaforeignstateduringwar

other threeconventio ians nototherwiseprotectedbythe tion (hereafter GCIV)protects civil- The Fourth Geneva Conven- Geneva Fourth The tribunal” candetermine otherwise. ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 ct withoutqualifying me guaranteeofpro- party tothe conflict, onventions. Civilian thus bindingregard- arenationalsofa ntions (hereafterAP ticle 75describes inthepowerofa ,” thebasicrights ns andwhoarein quarters must beasgoodthose of social securitynumber orequivalent. Their their identities,incl quired toprovideaccura greater detail.Prisonersofwarareonlyre- ticles 17-107,describesPOWrightsin discrimination. PartIII,whichincludesAr- ate medical care,andtreatedwithoutundue are tobetreatedhumanely, givenappropri- gen- in describes III GC of II Part eral terms they therightsofPOWs,inthat tories underthei all state parties tooutlaw tortureinanyterri- 5 oftheTortureConventionlikewiseenjoins they areoutside saidstate’s territory. Article their jurisdictionoreffectivecontrol, evenif gation toensure therights of allpeople in tee, statespartiestotheICCPRhaveanobli- Comment 31oftheHuman RightsCommit- ratified (OHCR).A Torture, bothofwhichtheUnitedStateshas and theUnitedNationsConventionAgainst Civil andPolitical Rights (hereafter ICCPR) treaties rights tainees are theInternational Covenant on human major which regulatestate The ments lateron(Shaw261). paved towardmore concretelegalinstru- Their chief importance liesintheroad they may havebecome bindingtoanextentsince. able inanymeaningful way,althoughthey tected. Atthetime thesewerenotenforce- of rightsthatshould 1948, whichproclaimed auniversalstandard Universal Declaration ofHuman Rightsof man rights inArticle55.Thesecondisthe should supportuniversalobservanceofhu- UN Charteritself,whichstatesthatthe major human rights treaties. Thefirst is the 3. Generalrightsandtreatment r jurisdiction. uding, name, rank,and be observedandpro- behavior towardsde- ccording toGeneral te information about 62 68 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

the righttocommuni the security oftheo wise guaranteedifthey would beharmfulto without beingentitledto pected of hostile activities may bedetained tected personengagedinordefinitelysus- states in Article5that, unlikeGCIII,apro- that prisoners ofwarhaveunderGC III.It tees interneeslargelythesame setofrights necessary tomilitary security,and guaran- persons protectedbyit GCIVallowsfortheinternment of translators andcensors. month, barringdifficultiesinprocuring and sendatleasttwole and theymust beallowed toreceive letters transferred toanothe their situations whenever theyarecaptured, letters totheir families informing them of prohibited. Prisonersmu race, religion,nationality,or language is taining Power. Disc oners thenonemust beprovidedbytheDe- provide appropriateservicesamong thepris- religion, andifthereisno prisoners mustbeallo and monthly inspectionofprisoners.All necessary facilitiesforthemedical treatment Camps must beclean an ers andrepairedorreplaced asisnecessary. the localclimate must begiventotheprison- prevent weightloss,andclothingsuitablefor sufficiently tokeeptheprisoners healthyand zones. Foodandwatermust beprovided

place thatisespecially closetocombat

oners, andarenotto not bedeleterioustothehealthofpris- space andbeddingallowed, andmust the same area, particularlyregarding soldiers of the Detaining Powerin ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 ccupying power,suchas r camp,orhospitalized, rimination basedon wed topracticetheir cation, althoughfull tters oftheirownper s provisionsonlyif certainrightsother- d sanitary,andhave st beabletowrite : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 clericalofficialto belocated ina cle 75ofAPIprohibits anysentenceor be keptseparatefrom detainees.Arti- other as prisonersofwar,and ifconvictedshould by GCIVhavelargely thesame trialrights lent situations. Pers soldiers of theDetaining Powerinequiva- the same facilities andin thesame manneras crimes must havetheirsentencesservedin and appealdecisions. in private, callwitnesses intheirdefense, to aqualifiedadvocate,meet saidadvocate three months. POWs ontrialhavetheright such confinement must lastnolonger than confine aprisonerbeforesaidproceedings quickly aspossible, and if itisnecessary to would betried.Proceedings must beheldas under whichsoldiersofthedetainingpower and impartial courts,bythesame procedures trials inregularlyconstituted,independent, who areaccused ofcrimes musthavefair religion. crimination, ortheright tofree exercise of the rightstofreedom from tortureanddis- such derogationscannotbeappliedtoward gency situation;Article4alsostatesthat the Conventiononlyifrequiredbyanemer- cle 4certainderogations party totheConvention. to everyoneunderthejurisdictionofastate man treatment and respect fortheirdignity as apersonunderthelaw,andrighthu- practice ofreligion, th tion, andslavery,theri tion againstdegradingtreatment, discrimina- Arti- covering ICCPR, the of III Part cles 6-27,guaranteestherighttolife, protec- ble. protection mustberestoredassoonpossi- GCIIIprovidesthatprisoners ofwar 4. Fairtrialrights ons whoareprotected e righttorecognition POWs convictedof AccordingtoArti- ght tofreedom and may bemade from

63 69 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

Te ovnin gis True as Torture, against Convention The might beexpected,goesintomuch greater emergency. derogated inatime ofnational crisisor cle 4lists thisasaright thatmay its torture and degrading treatment, andArti- whatsoever. Article7oftheICCPRprohib- grading treatment underanycircumstances Article 75ofAPIprohibitstortureandde- torture asa“gravebr sons, including torture,andlikeGCIIIlists causing physicalsufferi committing it.Article 32 of GCIVprohibits find andbringtotrialanyoneaccusedof of theConventionsrequ Article 130liststorture asa“gravebreach” a method ofpunishment inArticle87,and an interrogationmethod inArticle17andas GCIIIprohibitsthe use oftortureas ine witnesses against him. mon witnessesinhisdefense,andtoexam- innocent before beingfound guilty,tosum- dependent, impartialcourt,tobepresumed criminal charges toalegally established, in- guarantees therightsofallpersonsfacing order him freedifitisillegal.Article14 court review thelawfulnessofarrestand anyone underarresthastherighttohavea within areasonabletime…,” andstatesthat charged withacrime be arbitrary detention,mandates thatanyone Article9oftheICCPRprohibits

5. Prohibitionsagainsttortureandother lar judicialprocedure…”

generally recognizedprinciplesofregu- larly constitutedcourt respecting the pronounced byanimpartial andregu- “except pursuanttoaconviction punishment from being carriedout degrading treatment ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 each” inArticle147. “entitledtoatrial ng ofprotectedper- iring statepartiesto not be article 1”from beingcommitted bypublic which donotamount totortureasdefined in man ordegradingtreatment orpunishment parties toprevent“oth torture. Article16additionallyrequiresstate interrogation withaneye towardpreventing review rulesandpracti ture, andArticle 11requires state parties to should beeducatedonth one involvedinthetr the stateparties.Article10statesthat any- or onboardshipsandaircraftregisteredto ries underthejurisdictio illegality of torture must extendtoallterrito- being tortured. Article 5declares thatthe where thereisarealdanger ofthatperson bans sendingaperson emergency, canjustify torture. Article 3 to parties state states that nothing whatsoever,even apublic requires 2 Article take effectivemeasures toban torture and ties. Itdefines torture inArticle 1as: depth onthisissuethanotherrelevanttrea- official capacity. official orotherpe consent oracquiescenceofapublic or attheinstigation of orwith the such painor suffering is inflicted by on discrimination ofanykind,when third person,orforanyreasonbased intimidating orcoercing him ora is suspected of having committed, or he orathird personhascommitted or confession, punishinghim foranact or athirdpersoninformation ora such purposesasobtainingfrom him intentionally inflicted on aperson for fering, whetherphysicalormental, is any actbywhichseverepainorsuf- er actsofcruel,inhu- eatment ofdetainees ces ofdetentionand toanothercountry n ofthestateparties e prohibitionoftor- rson acting in an 64 70 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

shipments toandfrom placeswherepersons garding inspections,relief, andinsuranceof vides similar powerstotheRedCross re- detaining powerinquestion. GCIVpro- ing recognizedasaprotectingpowerbythe liberties arenotcontingentontheICRC be- interviews withprisoners inprivate. These or transportedwithoutre where prisonersofwarareheld,employed, gates must havetheabilitytovisitanyplace POWs. Article126statesthatICRCdele- zations, especiallytheI mits state parties toassist charitable organi- among Article125ofGCIIIcom- others. of aCentralPOW Information Agency, tions ofprisoners,andproposethecreation ment, receive reports about the labor condi- mail andrelieftofrom placesof intern- tails the authority toensure the shipments of protecting power during aconflict; thisen- the abilityofICRCtoactasaneutral the national armed conflict.GCIIIguarantees provides law humanitarian functionsduringtimes ofinter- International ICRC aspeciallegalmandate toperform tions andtheirpredecessors(Shaw1163). ian law,includingthe1949GenevaConven- most instruments of internationalhumanitar- plementation, execution, andenforcement of been closelyinvolved for sincethemid-ninete prisoners andthewoundedintimes ofwar assistanceto organization thathasprovided Cross) isaninternationalnon-governmental

the RedCross(hereafterICRCor

TheInternational Committee of jurisdiction. officials interri 6. Execution andenforcement a. TheRedCross ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009

with thecreation,im- CRC, deliverreliefto enth century. It has striction andtohold : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 tories undertheir person allegedtohaveviolated the 7 mandate thatstatespartiesmust arrestany any territoryunderiscontrol. Articles6and sary toestablish jurisdiction overtorturein der domestic lawanddowhateverisneces- require statepartiesmake tortureillegalun- 4 and5oftheConventionagainstTorture TheICCPRrequiresstatepartiesto sions bytheforceofdomestic law.Articles protect eachrightguaranteed byitsprovi- breaches. trary totheConventions ity, grave breach totrial re breaches, legal sanctions against committing grave parties arealsorequiredtoprovideeffective cial instructionasto the conventions atalltimes andreceivespe- tected personsmust haveaccesstocopiesof Personnel thathavere courses ofmilitarya well astheinclusionoftheirstudyin of theconventionsinbothpeaceandwar,as and IVrequirethedissemination ofthetext respect totheir enforcem TheGenevaConventionsalsoplace certain responsibilities onstateparties with tarian law(Shaw 1079). transgressions against international humani- has veryrarelymade publicitsknowledgeof sons thatmayrequireitshelp,sotheICRC access to prisoners, refugees, and otherper- neutrality in or tional stance onconfidentiality. Itmaintains tions thatitobservesbecauseofitstradi- limited is ICRC the Unfortunately, in itsabilitytopublicly protest against viola- under itsprotectionaredetained. b. Prescriptionsfordomesticenforcement 3 andtootherwisesuppressallactscon- 2 bring anypersonaccusedofa der tomore fullyguaranteeits nd civilinstruction. their provisions.State sponsibility forpro- gardless ofnational- thatarenotgrave ent. BothGCIII 65 71 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

hausted orunreasonablydelayed. that alldomestic remedieshavebeenex- between the parties invo any suchdisputebymediatingnegotiations tions under theCCPRandattempt tosolve other’s alleged failure tofulfill its obliga- complaints from partyaboutan- onestate wards. The Committee may also receive request furtherreports force, andtheCommittee hasthepowerto in theCCPRoneyear after itentersinto on theirefforts toguarantee therights listed reports State Partiesarerequiredtosubmit from thestatespartiestoCovenant. mittee, whosemembers areelected byand dates thecreation of aHuman RightsCom- the ICCPR,comprising Articles28-45,man- mittees with enforcement duties.Part IVof Torture Conventionbothsetupspecialcom- sues ofhumanrights Article 17 of the Convention against Convention the of 17 Article Torture prescribes thecreationofCom- such acomment. ment 31,mentioned above,isanexample of the Covenant’sprovisions;GeneralCom- General Commentsthatexplainandinterpret United Nations.TheCommittee canissue activities to theGeneralAssembly of the sponsibility tosubmit anannualreportofits solution. TheCommittee alsohas the re- sion tofurther attempt to and issueitmay appointanadhocCommis- where theCommittee isunableto resolve organization liketheICRCtomanage is-

Sincethere wasnopre-existing

tion. thorities for thepu person orputthecas 4 convention andeitherextraditethat

c. Treatymechanisms ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 law, theICCPRand atanytime after- createanamicable lved if itdecides rpose ofprosecu- e toitsownau- 5 In cases UN groupswithsome responsibility for ordinates andorganizes Nations responsiblefor human rights. Itco- the primary executivebodyofthe United Human Rights(hereafte the OfficeofHighCommissioner for organization is United Nations.Onesuch world, includingofficialbodiesofthe ers anddetaineesaretreatedthroughoutthe monitoring andinvestigatingthewayprison- organizations other the relevanttreaties,whichareimportant to also are There that areoutside ofthespecific framework of to doso. recognizes thecompetence oftheCommittee party withjurisdictionoversaidindividuals of violationstheConvention ifastate tions from individualsclaiming tobevictims hausted, anditmay alsoreceivecommunica- ties ifdomesticremedies havebeen ex- power tomediate disputes betweenstate par- the Human RightsCommittee regardingthe party inquestion.It may involvevisitingtheterritoryofstate confidential inquiryintothematter, which warranted, theCommittee may alsomake a making observationsbaseduponit.Ifitis cooperate inexamining theevidenceand mittee caninvite the state partyconcerned to possibility oftorturebeingcarriedtheCom- where well-foundedevidenceindicatesthe ports theCommittee requests.Incases ter aswell,inadditiontowhateverotherre- force forthem butevery fouryears thereaf- one yearaftertheConventionentersinto submit reports tothisCommittee notjust the ICCPR(Nowak586).Statepartiesmust modeled ontheHuman RightsCommittee of mittee againstTorture,abodyconsciously d. UNorganizations has similar powersto r OHCHR),whichis the efforts of allthe 66 72 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

appeals and othercommunications regarding Rapporteur has theresponsibilitytotransmit page ontheOHCHR’s web site,theSpecial punishment.” Accordingtotheofficialweb other cruel,inhuman ordegradingtreatment or date is“Special Rapporteurontortureand tor- regarding mandate a such is There man- ofthepersonholdingthat ture; thetitle 283). matic issuesrelatingtohuman rights (Shaw signed eithertospecificcountriesorthe- their expertise.Suchbeas- mandatesmay and make publicreports onspecific areasof expertindividuals)ally to investigate, advise, dates thatempowertheir holders (who areusu- man- whichare procedures,” establish “special the power,inherited from theCommission, to hausted. The Human RightsCouncil also has stances,” if domestic remedies havebeenex- part oftheworldandunderanycircum- and allfundamental freedoms occurringinany rights ofallhuman attestedviolations reliably regarding “consistent patternsofgrossand receive and discuss credible communications the UnitedNations.TheCouncilmay also human rightssituationsinallmemberstates of ess thatentailsthecooperativeexaminationof forming “Universal PeriodicReview,”aproc- with per- General Assembly (76).Itistasked problem having itsmembers by the electedby that similar powers,intendedtoameliorate withlargely institution oftheCouncil,abody rights recordmembers. ofsome The its of for thepoorhuman under intensecriticism the HumanRights Commission, whichcame

It tookoverthetaskfrom itspredecessor, man violationsthroughouttheworld. rights

in orderto addressmore effectively hu- was General Assembly, created in2006 a subsidiary ofthe body a subsidiary United Nations h Hmn ihs Council, Rights Human The human 4). rights(Forsythe ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 many activities membership. Amnesty Internationalperforms ties drawsits influence from largegrassroots Amnesty International performs many activi- influence from membership. largegrassroots is contrast, by International, Amnesty a mass-movementdraws its that organization government (344). theUnitedout theworld,especially States ments andinternationalorganizations through- and lobbying italsoseekstoinfluencegovern- forms (Korey 309). Throughitsfact-finding attention, andencouraging them tomake re- shame andembarrass abusers through media Cross)inorderto (unliketheRed publicly throughout theworld,publishing theirfindings abusesof investigations intoalleged allsorts works topromote human rightsbyconducting perienced andinfluentialprofessionals. It relatively a has Watch Rights Human smallmembership, made upofabout 230ex- International. tainees areHuman Rights Watchand Amnesty selves with thetreatment ofprisoners andde- ganizations (orNGOs)thatconcernthem- of themost importantnon-governmental or- governmentUnited Nationsorany all. Two at with the affiliated arenot tional lawthat rights andinvestigatingbreachesofinterna- important many course, of are, There organizations dedicatedtoprotectinghuman domestic remedies 693). rule(Weissbrodt by theconstraints ofthe usualexhaustion of Council itself,because he orshe is rights entities,includingtheHuman Rights establishedthan most otherlegally human He orshecan actwithfarmore independence the CouncilandUNGeneralAssembly. finding missions, and make annualreportsto torture tostategovernments, perform fact- e. NGOs not bound 6

67 73 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

tions theresponsibility forcapturingand mestic law(Shaw 4). Therefore,insuchsitua- ishment lawasexists indo- ininternational applicable systemofsanction sally and pun- taking place.Thereisnouniver- tion actually prosecu- chanceofsucha course, thereislittle the highestlevelsofgovernment then,of crime. Ifthe abuse isordered orcondoned at and dutytoputthatindividualontrialforthe which heisanationalhastheright to the state thegovernmentoner ofwar, then obviously of be committedanactof abuse againstapris- orordersto commits If anindividual ernments. has fallen,forbetterorworse,tostate gov- thatsions againstthelaw. task Historically, and punishingmake individualsthat transgres- of indomestic law:arresting,charging, trying, “enforcement”the way iscommonly thought orthepowertoenforceinternationallaw ity None ofthem, however,havetheresponsibil- and preventing illegalabuses of detainees. their operationsarenecessary touncovering do isunimportant;not besaidthatwhatthey abusive actorstochangetheirpolicies.Letit fact-finding, publishing, and engagingwith tees, andNGOsperformsuchas vitaltasks the aforementionedexecutivebodies,commit- f. Legalprosecutionsand punishments human rightsissuesas well (12). althoughitdealswithother while incustody, detainedorabused that havebeenillegally prisoners tional focusesspecialattentionon human rights(Clark9).Amnesty Interna- and protests against policiesthatinfringeon

tions, petitions,letter-writingcampaigns, other tasks,suchaslarge-scaledemonstra-

it alsomobilizes itslargenumbers for andwidely;porting itsfindingspublicly tion, appealingtogovernments andre- Watch, such asfact-finding,observa- similarto thoseof Human Rights ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 Al of All allowed them toignore“technical rules of lished theNuremberg andTokyoTribunals neva Conventions. Thecharters which estab- the ICCPR andtheGe- ent courtrequiredby pass therequirements forafairandindepend- character, andthereforewouldprobablynot tribunals, evenwere ifthey ofaninternational fairness. The trialswere conducted asmilitary however, left much tobedesiredregarding The manner inwhichthoserightswere used, were exercisedinthepost-WorldWarIItrials. jurisdictions intoasinglecourt.These rights cluding POWabusers, State governments have clearly alegal right toprosecute allegedwarcriminals, in- missed outofhandbythe court(178). trials,wasunanimously dis- of theTokyo presented by thedefendants atthebeginning jurisdiction andform asinglecourt,which was their unabletocombine the Allieswerelegally successwith any (Boister 32).The claim that tional courtsthroughout but never history, Nuremberg,and Tokyo,other defeated, was thedefendantsat presented by thecreated by winners of awarto judge the that acourtisillegitimate becauseithasbeen justice”challenge,theassertion The “victors’ the the trials. Allies tojustify appealed toby is alongstandingprincipleofinternationallaw als, solong as fairtrialstandardsare applied, mitted warcrimes againstthem ortheirnation- prosecute thosewhoare alleged tohavecom- War. leaders and soldiers after theSecondWorld and Nuremberg trialsofGerman andJapanese examples important most the of Two of theformer principleatworkarethe Tokyo principle ofuniversaljurisdiction. fenses committed againstthemselves orthe ing eithertotheprincipleofprosecuting of- to some stateorgroupofstates, other accord- prosecuting allegedabusershasusually fallen 7 That astatehaslegitimate rightto 8 and maycombine their ad hoc interna- 68 74 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

ing withintheterritorial jurisdiction of a this principlereliesonalleged offendersbe- account treatylaw(599). Theapplicationof to nationalcourtseven custom affordedextraterritorialjurisdiction claimed thattheprohibitionoftortureby hearings, BritishjudgeLordMilleteven During thefamous Pinochetextradition curred outside theterritory state inquestion. the allegedcrimes areclaimed tohaveoc- turers evenwhentheyarenotnationals and parties theauthoritytoprosecuteallegedtor- tion againstTorturearguablygivesstates 1945 (Shaw595).Article7oftheConven- fallen underuniversaljurisdictionsince breaches oftheGeneva Conventions, have its jurisdiction.War crimes, includinggrave offender regardless of the territorial limits of any courtmay charge,tryandconvictan holds thatcertaincrimes aresoheinousthat doctrine ofuniversal tury hasseentheincreasingadoptionof Thelatter half of thetwentieth cen- that lawtoday theyare sorely lacking. international law,asamodelforcarryingout these trials tothedevelopment of modern 89-114). Regardlessoftheimportance of even atthetime whenittookplace(Boister come closeto meeting fair trial standards, sources availabletothedefense.Itdidnot trial, andthe relative lack of time andre- fense’s evidence, theabnormal lengthofthe portionately highrejectionrateof thede- bias onthepartofth

including

tively. lar sufferedfrom ahostofproblems, case inArticles19and13,respec- deemed tohaverelevancethe evidence” andadmit anythingthey 9 TheTokyoTribunalinparticu- inter alia politicalandethnic ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 e judges,thedispro- withouttakinginto jurisdiction, which : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 the 1949GenevaConventions. “war crimes” toinclude gravebreaches of international law,while Article 7 defines der, rape,andimprisonment inviolationof against humanity” toinclude torture, mur- war crimes. Article6defines“crimes risdiction overcrimes againsthumanity and instrument whichcreated theICC,ithas ju- 5 of theRome Statute,theinternational legal Court (hereafterICC).AccordingtoArticle bunal, namely theInternationalCriminal services ofapermanent andindependenttri- enforcing internationallawbyprovidingthe created was ameliorate some of theproblems involved in institution an 2002 In that seeks, if nottosolve,thenatleast to the doctrinewillbe,byitself, inadequate. ishing transgressors against international law and soasasolutiontotheproblem ofpun- versal jurisdiction because ofsuchconcerns, ments willprobablyrefuse toendorse uni- state sovereignty(6).Manygovern- nents thatwouldotherwisebeprotectedby threaten orpunishforeignpoliticaloppo- be abusedbystategovernments inorderto some merit, that universal jurisdiction could political andlegalexpe hostile towardthe concept. Some influential ment, onthe otherhand,hasbeengenerally cide (Macedo3).TheUnitedStatesgovern- ingeno- several Rwandansofparticipating Kagame, andBelgiancourtshaveconvicted cluding YasirArafat,Ar manity have beenchargedbyitscourts,in- world leadersaccusedof crimes againsthu- an explicitpartofit for example, has made portive of the doctrineth them, andsome governments aremoresup- state government thatis s nationallaw.Several rts argue,notwithout universal jurisdiction willingtoprosecute an others.Belgium, iel SharonandPaul 69 75 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

terrorism.” Inthecourse ofthiswar mem- tions knowncollectively as“thewaragainst a seriesof military and intelligence opera- Sincetheterro ber 11,2001,President Bush hasauthorized U.S. territory. whether they areheldwithinoroutside of terrorists or criminals, andno matter are concerned,regardless as thetreaty obligationsoftheUnitedStates detainees or prisoners outside the law asfar gree byinternational la or peace,who isnot situation, anywherein person, ofanycategory,attime, inany Conventions, mentioned human rightstr Geneva the Between their AdditionalProtocols,andtheafore- tainees inthe waragainst terrorism. involved intheresolutio the ICC(11).Therefore,itisunlikelybe American personnelwillbeprosecutedby missions wherethere isanydanger that prevents U.S.participation in peacekeeping agencies fromcooperatingwiththeICCand gress has passedan actthatprevents federal posed theICCinanumberofways.Con- 2002 theU.S.governmenthasactivelyop- zens ofothercountries(Eleas7).Since world affairs,aremore

III. Violations CommittedbytheBush United Statesissoheavily involved in

against Americans who,sincethe tor may bring politicizedcharges arguing thattheindependentprosecu- has notratifiedtheRome Statute, Unfortunately, theUnitedStates

Administration 1. Introduction 7. Conclusion ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 theworld,duringwar protected tosome de- rist attacksofSeptem- w. Therecanbeno n oftheissuede- exposedthanciti- eaties, thereisno of theirstatusas

law. geous andstrictlyprohibited byinternational All oftheseactionsare bothmorally outra- or allowedthem tobekilledbyalliedforces. forces haveextra-judiciallykilledprisoners by non-Americans. Insome casesAmerican purpose ofbeinginterr been transported toother countries for the “extraordinary renditions,” wherethey have ers have alsobeen subject to so-called tions anddisciplinaryactions.Someprison- Americans inthecourseofbothinterroga- torture andinhuman, de terrogation. Detaineesha weaken themoraleof prisoners priortoin- sometimes aspartofadeliberateplanto dangerous, sometime throughneglectand world havebeeninhumanelyunhygienicand prisons runbyAmericansthroughoutthe ing releasedwithoutch ple havebeendetainedforyearsbeforebe- gal reasoning,andhundr and Guantanamo Baybasedonspeciousle- courts havebeendenied corpus and accesstoregularlyestablished or terrorist activity. The rights of habeas by mistake orfalsely implicated in military nals, orinnocentcivili mine whetherdetainees arePOWs, crimi- consis- have ground checksneeded toaccurately deter- personnel American tently failedtoperform adequateback- the President. ing generals,members oftheCabinet,and orders andcondoningof tarian lawandhuman rightslaw,underthe thousands ofprisone and systematicallyviolated the rightsof gence services havecontinuously, willfully, bers of theUnitedStates military and intelli- rs underbothhumani- ans whowere arrested arges. Conditionsin grading treatment by ogated andtortured toprisoners inIraq eds ofinnocentpeo- top officialsinclud- ve beensubjectto 70 76 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

these prisoners,onlya diverse mix offoot ple ofany realintelligence valueamong the Northern Alliance, therewere few peo- grounds. Aswiththeprisonerscapturedby over totheAmericans on extremely spurious them, mainly foreigners, andturned them and Pakistanisoldiersarrestedhundredsof Pakistan borderduringth of refugeesfledacrosstheAfghanistan- as theNorthern Allianceforces.Thousands oners tobeturnedover totheUnited States haphazard andcarelessinroundinguppris- ernment officialsproved themselves justas and AlQaeda.Pakistanisoldiersgov- United States inthewar against theTaliban the of ally nominal another was Pakistan and religious teachers (30-38). workers, low-rankingfootsoldiers,refugees, or AlQaeda,includingtravelers,relief little or noconnection at Americans forinterrog Alliance soldiersandthen turned over to the number ofpeoplewere 5). Inthechaosandconfusionofwar,a a groupofanti-Taliban the U.S.’s reliance on the Northern Alliance, the Taliban(Worthington GuantanamoFiles history of brutality that rivaled their foes in committed, eventhough theirforceshada American soldierswouldnothavetobe during thisperiodsothatlargenumbersof ance providedthebulkofgroundtroops A major element ofthesedifficultieswas

identification andprocessingofprisoners.

there were significant problems withthe erations inAfghanistanduring2001 Even during the initial combat op- combat initial the during Even 2. Arrestwithoutjustcause ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 a. Afghanistan captured byNorthern ation whohadvery militias. The Alli- allwith the Taliban e courseofthewar, : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009

unlawful andunwarrant Afghanistan, andthe obvious risksthat eral, theespecially disorganized nature of Given thechaotic nature ofwaringen- 114). Prison (Worthington Guantanamo Files and sent them totheGuantanamoBay American agentslatertookthem prisoner being suspectedanti-f they hadbeenimprisoned bytheTalibanfor posedly fortheirownsafety.Eventhough after theTalibanhadbeen drivenoff,sup- liance forced themtoremain inprisoneven these men wereforeigners, theNorthern Al- viously beenheldbytheTaliban.Because arrest offivepolitical stan, the mostincomprehensible being the capturing suspectedterroristsinAfghani- blunders whenitcame toidentifying and own their made also personnel American tody (Raman). ranking TalibanfightersintoAmerican cus- for transferringsuspectedterrorists andlow- the Northern Alliancehaveearned money is alsoevidencethatAfghaniwarlordsfrom exchange formoney (Sebaii45-46).There they handed him overto the United States in Saudi embassy byPakistani soldiers until into Pakistan and was deniedaccess to the one SaudiArabianexplai “sold” tothe Americans (46). Forexample, working withorforterroristgroupsandthen testified that theywere falsely accused of and AlQaeda.Numerousprisonershave bounties forallegedmembers oftheTaliban by theUnitedStates’own policyofoffering to adequately screen prisoners was exacerbated allies American of unreliability The gees (49). soldiers, religiousscholars,andcivilianrefu- prisonersthathadpre- undamentalist spies, ed arrestswould ned thathecrossed

71 77 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

matter of course thatmo the sonof aseniorSaudi Arabian military There was,forexample, Khalidal Morghi, years beforebeingreleasedwithout charge. held prisonerinAfghanistan andCubafor tigation immediately after theircapture were could havebeendeterminedbyabriefinves- (Raman). Manyotherswhoseinnocence before the UnitedStates released him as hewas,spentseveralmonths underarrest the Taliban.Evenhe,asobviouslyharmless ily members wassuspectedofworkingfor soldiers, apparentlybecauseoneofhisfam- years oldwhen hewasarrested byAmerican over80 Sadiq. Hewasacivilianwho during this time isthecaseof Mohammed sider thataprisonermi of United Statesgovernmentofficialstocon- refusal stubborn the of example An sequently releasingthem withoutcharge. or decidingthatthey bly longperiodsoftime beforediscovering any legallyjustifiablereasonforunaccepta- held hundredsofpeopleprisonerwithout belonged inprison,theUnitedStateshas prescribed mechanisms fordetermining who point intime (90).Without anylegally- of personswerecompletely absent atthis belligerent belongedto mandated by GCIIItodetermine whethera commit actsofterrorism. Thetribunals were guiltyof committing orconspiringto tainees inU.S.-runprisonsAfghanistan incredibly lax in this regard, assuming asa

cence. In fact,American officials were

the storiesofthosewhoclaimed inno- backgrounds ofprisonersandchecking extremely careful inexamining the the UnitedStatesshouldhavebeen arise from offeringthesebounties, ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 are notthreatsandsub- aprotectedcategory ght notbeaterrorist st orallof thede- rect contraventionofinternational or yearswithoutaninvestigation was indi- and subsequentlyheldin custodyformonths prisoners wereinitially assumed tobeguilty The shockingthoughtlessnesswithwhich early partofthefightinginAfghanistan. leged terroristsandcriminals duringthe international lawin the wayitprocessed al- extreme negligence andwillful disregard for exhibited States United the up, sum To whatsoever tofindthem (267). for them, thecourtapparentlymade noeffort numbers forpeoplethatmight havetestified prisoners didprovideaddressesortelephone testify ontheirbehalf witnesses whomight haveknownthem to ing itverydifficultforthedefendantstocall persons inquestionhadbeencaptured,mak- from thebattlefieldandalongtime afterthe cess. Third,thetribunalswereheldfaraway evidence towhichtheprisonershadnoac- Second, thecourtwasallowedtohearsecret nied accesstolawyers eral reasons. First, fered from tremendousdifficultiesforasev- nals thatwereannouncedinJuly2004suf- late. TheCombatant StatusReviewTribu- gan, andeventhenthey did notappearuntilyearsafterthewarbe- ers forprotectionunderhumanitarian law by GC IIItodetermine theeligibility ofprison- required tribunals” “competent The Guantanamo Files54). years beforebeingreleased(Worthington and laterinGuantanamo Bay,foroverfour at all.Hewasstillheld, first inAfghanistan a hardcore terrorist, orany sortofcombatant work inAfghanistan –hardlythe portrait of his white-collar job toperform charitable aid officer, whotookaleaveofabsencefrom the prisonerswerede- . Finally,evenwhen during thetribunals. weretoolittle, 72 78 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

civilian prisonerswere supposed tobehan- ers (Greenberg403).M ilitary prisonersand offer protectionfrom shellingtothe prison- sonnel hadnottakensufficient measures to Red Crossdetermined thatAmerican per- cated inespecially dangerous places, andthe or otherinternment areasshouldnotbelo- quently. GC IIIprovides that POW camps meant itcame undermortar attackfre- though theprison’slocati ally nowhereelseforthem togo,even put into AbuGhraibbecause there wasliter- rested byAmerican soldiersonpatrolwere thorities tochangethat policy.Iraqis ar- insurgent attacks inBaghdadcausedAmerican au- of frequency increasing The by theAmerican military (Gourevitch 19). at first, toother optionsavailable. be used fordetentionoperations salvation bylooters,andtherewerefew in thecountryhadbeenransackedbeyond nal justicesystem; most oftheotherprisons as partofthe creationof anewIraqicrimi- over bytheUnitedStatesin2003,initially taken was facility prison Ghraib Abu The ghanistan. and treatment of pris of thelong-term detention,trialprocedures, tude whichitwouldcarryintoitshandling have donesomething todeserveit,anatti- confidence thatanyoneunderarrestmust stead displayedanattitudeofunwarranted a confusing and complicated war,butin- a confusingandcomplicated

the possibilityofwrongfularrestsduring

ment officials shoul stration and U.S.militaryandgovern- moral sensibilities. TheBushadmini- law humanitarian andhuman rights 10 andalsooffensivetocommon ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 b. Iraq oners outsideofAf- Itwasnotintended, d haveanticipated on inahostilearea : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 little stockin(24). that thetopon-sitecivilian administrator put supposed “intelligence value,” assessments released werekeptinthe prisonbecauseof prisoners thatwouldotherwisehavebeen gents also started to c mand for useful intelligence about insur- bureaucratic errors, but theincreasing de- of thedelays wereprobably justthe result of sometimes preventitfrom happening.Some a prisonertobereleased, themilitary would Even whenjudgesandlawyersarrangedfor fairly apparentthattheydidnotbelong. released from even afteritwas AbuGhraib that itwasdifficultforthesepeopletoget (Gourevitch 23).Thebiggestproblem was team, peoplewerearrestedfordoingit of theJusticeDepartment’sIraq rebuilding practice in Iraq,and accordingtoamember weapons incelebration during theaftermath of around rest anyoneandeveryonewhowas mon forAmerican soldiersonpatroltoar- takenly (Greenberg388).Itwasnotuncom- prison populationofIraq officers thattheybelieved wellover half the Cross inspectors weretoldbyintelligence should havebeenreleased.In2003Red little evidence andwereheldlongafterthey on arrested were prisoners Many (Gourevitch 23). they had beenpreparedto handle prisoners continuedto guards andadministrators asthenumberof became less and less meaningful tothe tinction between thetw cally for the civilians. However,thedis- temporary tent encampment meant specifi- cially there wasanattempt todothat,witha dled separatelyfrom other,andoffi- each ontribute aswell;often increasebeyondwhat was afairlycommon o typesofprisoners waskepttheremis- an attack. Firing 73 79 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

POWs becausetheywerenot members ofa held bytheUnitedStates officiallyasnon- banded afterthecapture ofBaghdad,were Iraqi military, whichhadbeenofficially dis- some members ofSaddam Hussein’s former innocent civilians, including insurgents and obviously not were who prisoners Many 145). behavior asbesttheycould(Gourevitch oners Benadrylandtrie them guardsjustgavethementally illpris- the facility,withoutdoctorstoprescribe potentially helpful drugs wereavailable at none atAbuGhraib,andeventhoughmany mental healthprofessionals. Therewere prison, oratleastunder in amental hospitalinstead of amilitary themselves. Thesepeopleshouldhavebeen unsafe forotherprisoners,theguards,and in violentandunhygienicbehaviorthatwas were delusionalorschizophrenic,engaging there may havebeenasmany asten.Many there werethementally illones,of which the ones that arguably leastdeserved tobe Among theprisonersatAbuGhraib, all ing inunnecessarydelays(Greenberg389). work from theUnitedStatesmilitary, result- received noorimproperly completed paper- notify families asquickly aspossible, often ICRC, whichotherwisewouldhavehelped that they hadbeenarrestedatall.The pects detained whileaway from their homes usually failed tonotify thefamilies of sus- where they weretaken, andthe military

lies ofwhytheywere

properly inform suspectsortheirfami- was rareforthosemaking arrests to extremely flawedin2003 aswell. It formation dissemination inIraqwas The system ofnotificationandin- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 thecareofqualified d to dealwiththeir beingarrestedor since itopenedinJanuary 2002(CBC). Base, Cuba,hasheld over 750prisoners The prisonattheGuantanamo BayNaval should havebeen. were putinprisonforfarlongerthanthey situation wheremany innocentcivilians the American command structuretocreatea of thecountry,itsne wrong, wascombined withthechaoticstate an American must havedonesomething the ideathatanyonewhowasputinjailby overly confidentattitudefrom Afghanistan, ple thanabsolutely necessary. Thesame seems littlerationalefor detaining morepeo- with ashortageofspaceforprisoners,there is unacceptable. Especiallyinawar zone kept imprisoned insteadofreleasedquickly connection toinsurgents rests; however,thatpeoplewithnoapparent excused forbeingaggressive withinitialar- TheAmerican so was most certainly inviol have been withintheletter of the law,butit prisoners atthesame may,arguably, time plying ittothedetent cases andon anindivi sions shouldonlybeap but theICRChasalwaysheldthatitsprovi- ticle 5 of GCIVdoesallow such detentions, of spying,sabotage,orotherhostilities.Ar- necessary imprisonment ofthosesuspected Rather, their detentionswerejustified asthe niques wereusable,includingdogs(211). neva Conventionsandallinterrogationtech- that insurgents werenot protected by theGe- Defense SecretaryRumsfeld hadtoldhim a seniorintelligence officialreportedthat Conventions. Accordingtooneinterrogator, military force of aStatePartytothe Geneva 3. IndefiniteDetentionand UnfairTrials

ldiers inBaghdadcanbe w justicesystem, and dual basis(33).Ap- ion ofthousands plied toexceptional orterrorists were ation ofitsspirit.

74 80 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

to the detention camp? preventing federalcourtsfrom havingaccess Why theadministration was sointenton tion filedbysuchaperson(37). habeas corpushearing in responsetoapeti- small thatajudgewoulddecidetogrant in GuantanamoBay,andthatchances were exercise jurisdictionover analien detained and probablywouldnotfindthattheycould memo arguedthatfederalcourtsshouldnot time, demonstrates thatquite clearly. The Deputy AssistantAttorneyGeneralsatthe Yoo andPatrickPhilbin,whowereboth fense on28December 2001,writtenbyJohn General CounseloftheDepartment ofDe- fair trial. A memorandum submitted tothe complain abouttheirtreatment, orhavea which theycouldchalle having accesstoanindependent courtin cifically topreventthedetainees from ever Guan- tanamo Bayasthelocationofprisonspe- chose administration Bush The detained (Greenberg26). interests of the United States that theybe were involvedinterrorism orifitwasinthe fied time limit, if thePresident believed they States couldbedetain stated thatanynon-citizensoftheUnited Secretary of DefenseDonaldRumsfeld, for and potentially challenge theirdecisions. want anyindependentcourt togetinvolved oners wereguilty,and they didn’tneedor cials hadalreadydecided tary Order of November 13,2001,which tary OrderofNovember

imprisonment wasPresidentBush’s Mili-

hole” (Steyn).Thelegalbasisfortheir has famously beencalleda“legalblack while theywerethere,asituationthat easy access toanimpartial court None ofthemhadafairtrialor ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 ed, withoutanyspeci- Apparently,topoffi- nge theirdetentions, that allof thepris- : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 Guantanamo Files tions from applyingtothem (Worthington an attempt topreventtheGenevaConven- to classifythem as“unlawfulcombatants” in explained below,theadministration decided 123). However,forreasonswhichwillbe gued shouldhavebeendone(Greenberg which Secretary ofStatePowellindeed ar- been toclassifythem asprisonersofwar, otherwise justifyingthei detainees from filingforhabeascorpusor the preventing to solution simplest The law, much lessbeenconvicted inafair trial. people whohadneverappearedinacourtof These statements werebeingmade about der, appointments tosaidcommissions could notbeapplied.According totheor- rules of law andevidence innormal cases posed bysuchpersons necessitated thatthe and thatthe dangerto theUnited States pected terrorists were guilty of warcrimes, military tribunals todetermine whethersus- tion ofsuspectedterroristsalsoprovidedfor President Bush issued tojustify the deten- der itscontrol. ThesameMilitaryOrder that those trialsonitsterms andmore orlessun- op- posed totheideaoftrials,butitwanted entirely wasn’t administration The erwise behavingasiftheywerecriminals. them ontrial asif theywerePOWs, butoth- prisoners indefinitely andwithoutputting was tryingtohaveitbothways:lockingup (Worthington Guantanamo Files to similar effect aboutthe prisonersaswell world. Americangeneralsgavestatements the worst,mostviolent criminals inthe month saidthattheprisonerswereamong “committed terrorists,” andlaterthatsame that the Guantanamo prisoners were example, statedpubliclyinJanuary2002 128).Thegovernment r releasewouldhave 127). 75 81 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

view”). propaganda (Worthington Qaeda, butwhichserved onlyasterrifying inform thejurorsabout thenature of Al prejudicial evidence, validity, andthepresentationofpointless, tance ofhearsayevidencehighlydubious testimony behindcloseddoors,the accep- problems, includingthehearingofsecret v. Rumsfeld violated theGenevaConventionsin Court decidedthatmilitarycommissions parts ofan earliertr was, infact,becauseofhisexclusionfrom and bodyguardforOsama binLaden.(It dan, aman accusedofworkingasadriver prison opened) wasthetrial of SalimHam- more than six yearsaftertheGuantanamo be successfully concluded(inJuly2008, military trial of an“unlawful combatant” to commission wouldbe,ofcourse.Thefirst tions tosee howunfair atrialbymilitary situa- hypothetical to turn not need One ther theGenevaConventionsorICCPR. ness andindependencerequirements ofei- would almost certainly prescribed by thePresident’s MilitaryOrder Commissions” 339).Mili thority (Koh“TheCaseAgainstMilitary never betrulyindependentofexecutiveau- take orders from thePresident they could the judgeswouldbemilitary officerswho national court (Greenbe decision inanyAmerican, foreign,orinter-

tribunal wouldbeunabletoappealthe

thermore, anypersonsubjecttosucha conviction orsentencing dent couldreview Defense, andeitherheorthePresi- would bemadebytheSecretary of .) Thetrial wasriddledwith ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 ial thattheSupreme supposedly meant to rg 25-28).Because never meet thefair- and decideonthe “A criticalover- tary tribunalsas ofatrial.Fur- Hamdan finished servinghissentence, man hasstated thateven whenHamdanis Hamdan’s detention.APentagonspokes- to havenorelationship seems sentence court’s the worse, What’s tably, inDecember 2001JohnWalker opening ofanypermanent prisonsites. No- tions inAfghanistan,even ment beganearly onduring military opera- The useoftortureanddegradingtreat- 360). military command structure (Greenberg ized atthehighestleve law. Theuseofsuchtechniqueswasauthor- cal banonsuchtechniquesbyinternational rogation methods, inspiteoftheunequivo- terror by the UnitedStates, atfirst, as inter- dignity havebeenusedduringthewaron human to degrading activity and Torture victims ofthewaragainst terrorism. or domestic, whenitcomes tothedetainee tice ortherule of law,whetherinternational Bush andhisadvisorsdidnotcareaboutjus- anything else,shouldprovethatPresident POW anyway.This,atleastasmuch him indefinitelyasso tanamo, theadministration wantstohold ing towhat passes for justicein Guan- he hasbeen convictedandpunished accord- edly violating the laws of war,buteven after deprived ofprisonerwarrightsforalleg- of theBushadministration. Hamdan was demonstration oftheparadoxicalreasoning nothing less than amockery ofjustice and a as an“enemy combatant” (CNN). Thisis be subjecttopotentially b. TorturebyAmerican personnel i. Afghanistan a. Overview 4. Torture mething otherthana ls ofthecivilian and indefinitedetention with thereality of before the official beforethe official 11 he may still 76 82 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

(Worthington Guantanamo Files wound inhisleg,forseveraldays beaten, restrained,had violent. Manyprison intelligence increased theybecame more regulations, butasthe demand foruseful by theGenevaConventionsand military tors triedtohewtherulesofbehaviorset interrogation system. Atfirst theinterroga- number ofprisonerswereenteredintothe in January2002,andforthefirsttime alarge opened Kandahar in prison permanent A transported totheKandaharprison(Bonner). while being struck by comfortable positionsfor hoursatatime known locationsandforcedtokneelinun- He alsostatedthathewastransported toun- was notgivensufficient imprisoned onboardanavalshipwhere he threatened withdeath, thorities hehadgunspo after hewashandedovertoAmerican au- claimed inanofficial lian whofoughtforthe and nationality,wasDavidHicks,anAustra- soldiers andinterrogators ately received extraattentionfrom American Another detaineewho,likeLindh, immedi- during theprocess(RothandWorden 165). in chargeofLindhto“taketheglovesoff” closely, authorized the military interrogators who wasmonitoring theinterrogation office ofSecretary ofDefenseRumsfeld, ment for hisinjuries

interrogations, anddenied medical treat-

taped toastretcherwhilenakedduring ing photographs,threatenedwithdeath, ban,” wasmade toposefor humiliat- U.S. media as“the AmericanTali- Lindh, knowncolloquiallyinthe ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 and thatlaterhewas , includingabullet affidavit thatshortly ers werephysically their fingersbroken, inted athim andwas guards beforebeing Taliban. Hickshas becauseofhisrace quantities offood. : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 82).The prisoners in awaymeanttocause them night. “Stresspositio cold waterthrownonhis bodyduringthe the coldwhilenaked,and atleastonehad prisoners statedthattheywereexposedto not unheardofatKandahar,either,asmany Even harsherexposuretoextreme coldwas that forcedthemtostandoutsideinthecold. because of“inspections” duringthe night were oftendeniedadequateamounts ofsleep sponses toruleviol respect (Jehl). Beatings werecommonre- then theywouldhavebe plied andtheprisoners that iftheGeneva Conventionshadbeenap- were “nobodies,”andatleastonebelieved can soldiers weretold thattheirprisoners overreactions andarbitraryabuses.Ameri- American guardsespeciallypronetoviolent September 11terroristattacks,made the the generalspiritoftakingvengeancefor neva Conventionstandards,combined with anything, evenworse.TherelaxationofGe- The behavioroftheprisonguardswas,if 94-98). prisoners (WorthingtonGuantanamoFiles were usedinlaterinterrogations to threaten photographed andthatthosephotographs oners asserted thatthese actionswereoften application ofelectrica liquids andcigarettes,sexualviolations, included burningprisonerswithscalding CIA andFBI.Theseextreme techniques ing SpecialForcessoldiers andagents ofthe tary Intelligencechainofcommand, includ- by some interrogators outside the usual Mili- pared tothemost extreme techniquesused brutal astheywere,arerelativelytame com- during interrogations.Eventhesemethods, or hadhardobjectsthrownattheirheads ations, andprisoners l shocks.Manypris- ns,” thebindingof labeled as“soldiers” en treated withmore

77 83 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

“monstering.” Thename reflectedthatthese stay up, aprocess informally called as longtheinterroga keeping prisonersawake went fartherthantheyhadbeforethemove, trained and ethical military interrogators gence grew stronger.Eventhemostwell- tion routines as pressure toobtain intelli- deprivation wereincorporated intointerroga- Kandahar, either.Stre did notimprove duringthetransitionfrom interrogators and guards from abuse The (Worthington GuantanamoFiles dows boardedupwithrustysheetsofiron made from woodandbarbedwire,win- with hastily throwntogether cells and pens prison camp Bagram leftmuch tobedesired, tary prisoninthecount has servedas thecentral UnitedStatesmili- the prisonatBagram AirForceBase,which tainees were transferred from thatlocation to months, andinthespringof2002manyde- run prisoninAfghanistanforonlyafew The KandaharfacilitywasthemainU.S.- (Worthington GuantanamoFiles aswell werefairlycommon Mohammed ing profanitiesaboutIslam andtheProphet books inordertotaunt them; yelling insult- guards damaged and desecrated theholy was givenhisowncopyoftheKoran,some against their wills.Although eachdetainee portant to maintain for Muslims, shaved ess. Manyhadtheirbeards,whichareim- were mocked andphoto

go nakedwhiletheywereabusedand

cal ones.Prisoners wereoftenforcedto curred, oftenintand Pyhlgcl bss lo oc- also abuses Psychological mon. physical pain,wasalsofairlycom- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 ss positionsandsleep tors themselves could ry eversince.Asa graphed intheproc- in longsessionsfor em withthephysi- 170). 88). (Worthington GuantanamoFiles fore hesuccumbed to in thelegsrepeatedlyoverseveraldaysbe- lah wasshackledina as disciplinarymeasures. MullahHabibul- in detentionusingpowerfulblowstothelegs were largelycausedbyreservistsuntrained abuse from guards.Bothconfirmed deaths inmates havediedasaresultofphysical ture ofabusewasdeath;atleasttwoBagram The perhapsinevitable result of thiscul- 170). no officerswereprosecuted atall(BBC tenced toonlyafewmonths imprisonment; convicted ofcriminal abusein2005 and sen- diers directlyinvolved in thedeathswere portant factor(McCoy126).Twoofthesol- that the damageto the legs wasthe mostim- documentation from armydoctorsindicates ascribed thedeaths only toheart attacks,but died afterfivedays.Officialpress releases non-compliance duringaninterrogation,and chained and beatenrepeatedly forapparent second man, knownonlyasDilawar, was abated (Worthington GuantanamoFiles rapes, andelectrical miliations, religiousinsults, death threats, if notworse,andthelitanyofbeatings,hu- was asbad asithad ev 471). Unwarrantedviolencefrom guards the greater frequency astime wentby(Mackey selves to use othercoercivetechniques with gation rooms,andgenerallyallowedthem- outsideofinterro- isolation andhandcuffing to 36hours,ordered creased theupperlimit of tors wereuse. When new, lessexperienced interroga- sent to workcruelest technique that theywerewillingto at Bagramearly interrogators considered ittheworst, they in- torturecontinuedun- holding cellandstruck increased amounts of his injuriesanddied er beeninKandahar, sleepdeprivation 188).The

78 84 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

tice, this meant morebeatingsof them “break”underinterrogation. In prac- the detainees wasgeared toward making This meant thatevery aspectofthelives of gators -ashe putit, to guards andtheMilitary Intelligence interro- ordinate the activities of theMilitary Police that thebest waytoobtain results wastoco- (Goldenberg). Itwas cizing guards for committing verbal abuse ing detainees tokeeptheir Koransand criti- predecessor wasconsidered“soft”forallow- as thenewcommander ofthebase.His jor GeneralGeoffrey tions from lackofgoodintelligence,Ma- the worse inOctober2002when,duetofrustra- much became Guantanamo in Conditions (Rose). chological counselingafterhisrelease tized byhis experiences thatheneeded psy- organized prisonerstrikes,wassotrauma- he frequently targetedbytheERFbecause Dergoul, aGuantanamo detaineethatwas behavior withincrediblesavagery.Tarak would respondtominor ornonexistentmis- ofsoldiersinriotgearwho or ERF,asquad committed bytheExtreme ReactionForce, worst, most violent transgressions were (Worthington Guantanamo Files amounts ofverbal abusefrom guards the tainty leadingtointense fear, andlarge amounts offood,anatmosphere ofuncer- -air cages forlivingquartersandinsufficient ment involved generalconditions, likeopen

fairly mild. During thistime mistreat-

tanamo Baydetention facility were existence, interrogations attheGuan- During most of the first year of its of year first the of most During News). ii. Guantanamo Bay ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Miller wasappointed “settheconditions.” Miller that decided : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 132).The (Worthington Guantanamo Files temperatures andsleepdeprivation involving prolongede the institution of newinterrogation routines ing, thecontinueduseofERFteams, and “uncooperative” prisonersbyguards,includ- 11 the “twentiethhijacker”ofSeptember hammed al-Qahtani,infamously knownas the harshtechniqueswe leaked to 239). Accordingtoan zation severalweekslater(Greenberg237- detainees. Rumsfeld rescindedhisauthori- facial hair,andtheuseofdogstofrighten gious paraphernalia,theforcedshavingof sory andsleepdeprivation,removing reli- ing suchtechniquesasstresspositions,sen- new interrogationmethods, explicitlyallow- feld respondedpositiv In November 2002DefenseSecretaryRums- thorize more violentforms ofinterrogation. with high-level decisions toexplicitly au- coincided roughly appointment Miller’s sonal spaceinordertohumiliate him. rogators wouldfrequentlyinvadehisper- stress positions.Additionally,female inter- using the guards to constantly maintain an side Baghdad,wherethe same of practice tion operationsattheAbu Ghraibprisonout- provide a similar overhaul totheinterroga- tember 2003,hewassenttoIraqinorder apparently had broughttoGuantanamo Bay.InSep- was pleased with thechange administration The (Woodward). treatment hesufferedamounts totorture refer al-Qahtani toprosecution because the Guantanamo Bayhasstated that shewillnot cently, the toplegal military official in th attacks,includingsl Time magazine, duringthatinterim ely toarequestfor xposure to extreme xposure toextreme s thatGeneral Miller official logthatwas re usedagainstMo- eep deprivationand 193). 12 Re- 79 85 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

reported, many resulting even worse, asseveral severe beatings were ing transfers toprisons thetreatment was their handscuffedbehindbacks.Dur- often threatenorstrikesuspectswhohad process. Atthetime soldierswould ofarrest was presentineverystep ofthedetention the partofUnitedStatesmilitary personnel that periodinIraqsome levelofbrutalityon and November2003indicatesthatduring based ondatagatheredbetweenFebruary The ICRCmedical inspectordiscovered that through thefacility’shallways whilenaked. wrist wounds,andbeing forcedtowalk binding ofthehandsina manner that caused the RedCrossincludedsleepdeprivation, light. Otherabusivemethodsobservedby ited “rewards”suchas naked; cooperationwi totally dark rooms, for daysatatime,while interrogation subjects incompletely empty, Abu Ghraibwasthesolitary confinement of by used Military Intelligence(or MI)interrogators at technique common most The Army’s MilitaryIntelligence Corps. tions performed byme to theRedCross,occurredduringinterroga- which rosetotheleveloftortureaccording documented instancesofmistreatment, reported (Greenberg390).Theveryworst contact withhotmetal surfaceswere also two casesofmajor burnscausedbyforced and aleast oneresultin A IR rpr rlae i 20 and 2004 in released report ICRC An

(Goldenberg). internal investigation of abuse stituted andmentioned in theArmy’s to successful interrogations was in- environment supposedlyconducive ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 iii. Iraq Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 th interrogators mer- beds,clothing,and g indeath.Atleast mbers oftheUS in serious injuries them towear,inorderhumiliate them. and providingonlywomen’s underwear for taking awayclothesfr yelling, doorslamming, orloud music and sleep deprivationofce MPs wereresponsibleformaintaining the government agencies”)bytheguards.The “other for theFBIorCIA,calledOGA(for anonymous officialsthoughttobeworking sisted mostly ofMIpersonnel,butalso oner treatment from interrogators,who con- policy theMPstookorde General Miller’s transplanted Guantanamo lect information about. Inaccordance with didnotobserveorcol- the ICRCapparently guards were committing seriousabuses that an the of Part relatively benignbycomparison? not MIpersonnel,whentheirbehaviorwas members oftheMilitary PoliceCorps,and regard totheAbuGhraibscandal were diers chargedandconvictedwithcrimes in question: Why wasitthatmost ofthesol- rations (Greenberg397).Thatraisesthe confinement andwithholdingofcigarette ordinary measures of temporary solitary many asfourhours, inaddition tothe more exposure tothesunwhilehandcuffedforas measure used against detainees wasforced shoved detainees,andth noted thatguardssometimes slappedor prison facilities runby military police. It detainees that werebe worst sortsofabusemostly didnotoccurto Oddly enough,thereportstated thatthe interrogations (Greenberg393). from thephysical andmental stressoftheir dencies, whichwerejudgedtohaveresulted lems, poormemory andsuicidalten- such as several detainees ha swer isthat some MP d psychologicalprob- om certaindetainees ing heldinregular rtain prisoners with at onedisciplinary rs regardingpris- 80 86 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

have instigated riots out inthetents were later. Agroupofse behest ofinterrogatorstook place afew days MPs ontheirowninitiative andnotatthe by out carried acts egregious most The by theMilitaryPolice. to beingtheworstabuseatprison,even photograph’s infamy itdoesn’tcomeclose It looksbad,andit fell offoftheboxhewasstandingon(177). oner wastoldhewouldbeelectrocutedif wires weretiedtohisfingers,andthepris- forced exercise. Then, inactiveelectrical - sleepdeprivation,yelling,stresspositions, real name. Atfirsthi were instructedtomake him toconfesshis this prisonerwaslyingabouthisidentityand vember 3 with wires attached to ing aponchoandhood,standingonbox from abuse Abu Ghraibisaphotographofmanwear- of image best-known The ers ontheirownlater. played unwarrantedviolencetowardsprison- of theMPs,itisnotsurprising that theydis- deleterious effects onthemoral sensibilities normal experienceforhim (104).Giventhe at thebehestofinterrogatorshadbecome a do. Torturingprisoners what hewasaskedto he wasnolongershockedorrepulsedby process hadnumbed hi as well.OneMPguarddescribedhowthe not onlyfortheprisonersbutguards behavior hadpsycholog

several minutes (Gourevitch98).This

method was forcingthem toexercisefor their discretion,butthemost common rogations; howexactlywasleftto “soften up”detainees prior tointer- Often theMPswereinstructedto rd , 2003,theMPshadbeentoldthat ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 is ven prisonersthoughtto s treatment wastypical bad,butforallofthe hishands.OnNo- m tothepoint where ical repercussions, : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 mation andpreventabuse.He ski had done too littletodisseminate infor- and thatprisoncommander General Karpin- bers toAmericanpersonnel ortheprisoners, tions werenotprovidedinsufficientnum- law, andthatcopiesoftheGenevaConven- and therulesof international humanitarian sufficient trainingin found thattheguardsatAbuGhraibhadin- (Greenberg 417).General Tagubaalso none abovetherankofStaffSergeant rest were all members of theMilitary Police, contractors, onewasan people named assuspects,twowerecivilian also described inthereport. Of thethirteen from chemical lights onto detainees were gunshot, andpouringphosphoricsubstances threatening detainees wi examples, improperuse ofmilitary dogs, occurred; in additionto theaforementioned found thatabuseofpris charge oftheinvestigation.Thereport the “Taguba Report”after the general in result wasan Army document referredtoas Ghraib, aninvestigationwaslaunched.The discipline, andprison lax abuse, prisoner of reports of Because seemed tomakemuch ofit(200). cident tosuperioroffi several guards felt theneedtoreport thein- did again(196).Itwasunusualenoughthat abuse onthatscalebefore,andtheynever bation. TheMPshadnevercommitted put inpositionssimulating sexandmastur- or “dog-pile”whilebeingphotographed,and bally assaulted, forcedtoform a“pyramid” about thehands, feet,faceandchest, ver- their cellstheywerestrippednaked,beaten hours beforetheguardsbroughtthem to transferred totheMIcells,andforseveral cers, butnoneofthem MIsergeant, andthe detention operations er escapes atAbu oners byguardshad th rapeanddeathby 81 87 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

responsible forallowing dations, andsenioroffi never broughttoaccountforhisrecommen- was demoted onerank.GeneralMillerwas General Jane Karpinski, theMPcommander, tors wereeverbroughttotrial.Brigadier war crimes. NoOGAorcivilianinterroga- mand. Noonewaschargedwithtortureor moted onerankandrelievedofhercom- and BrigadierGeneralKarpinskiwasde- faced finesandadministrative reprimands, cent, wascourt-martialed. Afewothers commissioned officer,whowasfoundinno- spiracy, orderelicti and convictedofcrimes suchasassault,con- Intelligence soldiers werecourt-martialed Several Military Police and a few Military television some sortofactionwasnecessary. leaked tothepressandshownonnational abuse atAbuGhraibtakenbysoldierswere doesn’t mean thatthosewhogavethe orders, since the Nuremberg trials.However,that tion forwarcrimes hasbeenanon-starter using ordersfrom asuperiorasjustifica- and theyshouldhavebeenpunishedforit; the guardsdidinAbuGhraibwaswrong, consequences either(McCoy134).What MP commander orofficers,faced no official developed bytheCIA chological torturetech who hadauthorizedtheuseofextreme psy- (270). LieutenantGeneralRicardoSanchez, teriorate tosuchalevel inthefirst place When theshockingphotographsof

their roleinprisonabuse(420).

inquiry intoMIinterrogatorsregarding sonnel involvedwithprisons,andan tion andthe laws of war for all per- ating procedures,trainingindeten- recommended anoverhaulofoper- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 on ofduty.Onlyone niques thathadbeen cials werenotheld thesituationtode- without tellingthe the same physiologicalandmental pouring waterontohisface ing aprisoner,covering hismouth, and boarding. This lattermethod involvesbind- bombardment and,most infamously, water- sleep deprivation,sensorydeprivationand water while lockedinacoldcell, severe stantly dousingnakedprisonerswith cold prisoner foroverfortyhoursatatime, con- of stresspositions that couldbeused ona standard elsewhere,includingasevereform at the black sites inaddition towhat was niques werealsoofficia tech- interrogation “enhanced” Several pects”). Guantanamo (Priest “CIA HoldsTerror Sus- ods thathadbeenusedinAbuGhraiband same typesofdegradingandtorturousmeth- rogators were allowedto subject them tothe tives of theRedCross,andtheirCIA inter- lawyers, agents ofthepress,orrepresenta- oners wereheldsecretly,withoutaccessto their existence.The so-called “ghost”pris- official oversightoracknowledgment of or otherterroristorga cially important information about Al Qaeda rogating prisonersthoughttopossessespe- used forthepurposeof and EasternEurope.Theseblacksiteswere throughout theworld,includingThailand isted inthosecountriesandotherplaces ated bytheCentralIntelligence Agencyex- cially knownas“blacksites”thatwereoper- Afghanistan, andCuba,smaller prisonsoffi- In additiontothemajor prisonsinIraq, either. carried out,donotbearanyresponsibility such orderscouldconceivablebegivenand and thosewhocreated conditions where iv. Secretprisons nizations withoutany lly authorizedforuse detaining and inter- inordertocause 82 88 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

the September11 tanamo Baycamp.much like Fortunately, tional lawwentbeyond eventheGuan- tal subversionofdueprocess andinterna- crecy andlackofaccountability, and theto- tainee policy. Thelevel of torture, these- excesses oftheBushAdministration’s de- worst very the represent sites black The (Priest “CIA AvoidsScrutiny”). of hypothermia inhiscellduringthenight of aCIAinterrogatoran Pit” hadhisclothingremovedontheorders Afghanistan thatwascodenamed“Salt the One unidentifiedinmate tion, andexposuretoextr abuse, includingsleepdeprivation,starva- try reported multiple forms of tortureand released fromthesecretprisonsinthatcoun- ghanistan. Severalprisonerswhohavebeen the onesbeingheldinblacksitesofAf- niques, stillsuffereda jected tothemost extreme “enhanced”tech- The otherghost prisoners, whilenotsub- day, respectively(37). mately 3and6waterboardingsessionsper in March2003,averagingouttoapproxi- August 2002,andKSMsufferedit183times 6). Zubaydahwaswaterboarded83times in ticle 16oftheConve tion ofUnitedStatesObligations UnderAr- Rahim al-Nashiri(Bradbury“Re:Applica- andAbdal- ers; KSM,AbuZubaydah, boarding wasusedonthreeoftheseprison- who isregardedastheprimary plannerof

Khalid Sheik Mohammed (or“KSM”), Khalid SheikMohammed

sessed important information, including ior members of AlQaedawhopos- a dozenprisonersbelievedtobesen- procedures wereusedagainstabout sensations asdrowning.These ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 th attacks(Ross). Water- ntion AgainstTorture” great deal,especially d subsequentlydied of asecretprison in : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 eme coldweather. pected ofterrorism, andinmany casesthe has renditionedseveral peopleonlysus- CIA the administration Bush the Under ter September 2001. were magnified asitsusewasexpandedaf- 1990s, theflawsofrenditionprogram (Mayer). Asbadastheprogram wasinthe ances weregenerallynotworthmuch place, although evenbackthenthoseassur- sort ofassurancethat innocent peoplefromrenditionandsome (usually Egypt),withsafeguardstoprotect absentia viduals withstanding basis duringthe1990s, limited a on practiced were Renditions Article 3oftheConvent tured whileintheircustody,contravening even anexpectation,thattheywouldbetor- when therehasbeen over many prisonerstoforeigncountries 2001 theBushadministration hasturned the ideaisnotnecessarily illegal, but since rogated andpotentially country’s securityforces and givinghim into one wheretheprisonerinquestionwasborn, oner toanothercountry,generallythesame to thepracticeofsecretlytransporting apris- refers rendition” “extraordinary term The trials. ment willimmensely complicate their future other forms oftortureanddegradingtreat- Mohammed, underwentwaterboardingand Qaeda members, includingKhalidSheik fortunately, thefactthatthese senior Al Obama shortlyafterhisinauguration.Un- closed byanexecutiveorderofPresident Guantanamo theblacksiteswereordered c. Extraordinaryrenditions convictions inforeigncountries torture wouldnottake a highprobability,or arrest warrants or the custodyofthat prosecuted. Initself ion againstTorture. exclusively forindi- inordertobeinter- in 83 89 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

Arar wastransported to only neglectedtheirresponsibilities under traordinary renditionsgovernment agents not vention againstTorture. Incarryingoutex- enough toqualifyforArticle3oftheCon- custody ofthesecountries of prisonersbeingtortur threat the that imagine to impossible is It 230). riod oftime (Worthington GuantanamoFiles small cutsalloverth stanis weren’t, includ were willingtousemethods thatthePaki- Morocco expressly becausethe Moroccans one man wastransportedfrom to Pakistan prisoners for information (Grey). Atleast that theUzbekgovernment wastorturing tal told theBritishambassador that heknew the senior CIA operative inthe Uzbek capi- ing from theUnitedStatesbut expected it; torturing theprisonersthat theywerereceiv- not onlysuspectedthat and (toalesser extent)Jordan. CIAofficials Uzbekistan to befairlycommon, including where tortureandpris were alsorenditioned In additiontoEgypt andSyria,prisoners terrorist organization inthattime (Mayer). betweenhimfound anyconnection andany charges; theSyrianshadapparentlynot sonnel before beingreleasedwithout held forayearandtorturedbysecurityper- suspected of terrorism. Onthatflimsybasis

cause heknew (vaguely)another man

Syria. Hewas arrested inanairportbe- Canadian citizenwhowasbornin weak. Forexample, MaherAraris a with terrorist orga evidence connecting these persons ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 e bodyoveralongpe- oner abuseareknown ing theinflictionof Syria,wherehewas these countrieswere ed oncesent intothe to othercountries nizations wasvery isnotsubstantial

members donotobeythe laws ofwaras purview oftheConventions; andAl Qaeda a civil war, andtherefore isnotunder the ghanistan isneitherawar betweenstatesnor the GenevaConventions;warinAf- ghanistan: AlQaedais Conventions iftheywerecapturedinAf- Qaeda wouldnotbepr forth threereasonswhy members ofAl inJanuary2002thatput ment ofDefense a drafted memorandum fortheUnitedStates Depart- Yoo John Assistant Deputy potential security threattotheUnited States. garding thematter ofdetaineeswhoposeda not restrict thedecisions ofthePresidentre- humanitarian andhuman serted thatotherelements ofinternational pected ofterroristactivity.They alsoas- interpreted tonotapplyprisonerssus- fect thattheGenevaConventionscouldbe White Houseadvanced arguments totheef- terrorism, several legal advisorswithin the Starting intheearlyyearsofwaron ments. tail inordertopres fore necessary to examine them insome de- Itisthere- to thepointofbeingfrivolous. lacking inanumber of officials. Thesearguments areseverely the most unpalatableabusesawayfrom top ties anddirectrespons suspected of involvement interroristactivi- or excusethe abusivetreatment ofdetainees both internally andexternally, which justify administration Bush have presentedanumber oflegalarguments, the of Members sought toviolateitsrequirements. the Conventionagainst 1. InapplicabilityofInternationalLaw IV. LegalJustifications ent thoroughcounterargu- respects,althoughnot otected bytheGeneva ibility forcommitting Torture butactively not aState Partyto rightslawcould 84 90 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

Afghanistan war. disregarding theGeneva Conventionsinthe of thepositiveandnegative ramifications of own memo toPresidentBush,advisinghim described above,Albert memorandum the receiving after Shortly the powersofPresident(112). States andthereforeisincapableof binding law isnotthefederal lawof theUnited law, itwouldnotmatter becausecustomary law wereapartofcustomary international instruments of international humanitarian stance oftheGenevaConventionsorother nate it(110).Itstated obviating theneedforth removing “doubt”astotheirlegalstatusand meet thoserequirements, thussupposedly termined thatallTaliban members failed to 5 wouldbeunnecessary that competent tribunalsrequiredbyArticle meet theArticle4(a)(2) requirements, and tected byGCIIIbecause oftheirfailure to Taliban members wouldstillnotbepro- applied inAfghanistan,thememo argued, (50). Evenif international humanitarian law be legallydistinguished from eachother Qaeda thatthetwoorganizations couldnot Taliban was connectedsocloselywithAl the Talibancontrolledit,andbecause cause Afghanistanwasafailedstatewhile even thoughAfghanistanisaStatePartybe- forded protectionsundertheConventions the likelihood of thenegativeoutcomes hap- of theTalibanwould

Ti mm as age ta members that argued also memo This

(Greenberg 49). to distinguish themselves from civilians wearing uniforms orvisiblesymbols such ascarryingarms openlyand required byGCIIIArticle4(a)(2), ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 13 Inhis arguments against thatevenifthesub- o Gonzalessenthis not needtobeaf- e tribunalstoelimi- if thePresidentde- : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 phrase “severe pain”asused in other definition further, byshowingthat the pain orsuffering.”Ita tive wordsbeing“severe physicalormental United StatesCodeSection2340,theopera- TheBybee memo referredtothe definition oftortureth members. would allow ininterrogations of AlQaeda Yoo, wasaboutinternationallawandwhatit Deputy AssistantAttorneyGeneralJohn legal prohibitionsofto sel, concernedtheapplicationofdomestic eral JayBybeeoftheOfficeLegalCoun- The first, written byAssistantAttorney Gen- 2002 andweresenttoAlbertoGonzales. ofwhichweredated1August memos, both word “torture”inapairofcontroversial pal and international legal definitions of the tion advanced extremely restrictive munici- administra- Bush the in working Lawyers erations (243). does notapply to international military op- the UnitedStateshasheld that the ICCPR Department opinions,andalsoassertedthat tion waslargelyinformed bytheseJustice interroga- detainee on report internal An not amatter oflaw(135). manely anyway “[a]samatter ofpolicy”but POWs, butthattheyshouldbetreatedhu- considered unlawfulcombatantsinstead of and that allTaliban detainees were tobe fect thatGC III did not applytoAlQaeda 2002, PresidentBushgaveorderstotheef- military culture (119-121). On7February countries andtheundermining ofAmerican would preventseverebacklashesfrom other official orders to treatprisoners “humanely” pening, GonzalesassertedthattheBush’s 2. RedefiningTorture ttempted torefinethat rture. Thesecond,by at isfoundinthe

85 91 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

This isinterpreted tomean thattheCAT ried out in areas under their jurisdiction. ties to“prevent”suchacts from being car- tion againstTortureca treatment, thememo notesthattheConven- degrading or inhuman, cruel, Regarding (178). of hisactions, according tothis argument prosecution regardlessof should provideasufficientdefenseagainst not resultinthatkindof faith withthebelief that hisactions would if heactedwithsome otherpurposeingood to beguiltyundertheterms ofSection2340; to causethisprolongedmental harminorder any potentialdefendant possibly could.Thememo alsoarguedthat post-traumatic stressdisorderordepression bly notqualify, whereas actionsresulting in strain fromlonginte interpreting thestatute, arguing thatthe Bybee focusedontheword“prolonged”in stration ofdrugs,orthre acts, suchastheinflictionofpain,admini- mental harm” causedbycertainintentional mental painofsuffering”as“prolonged “severe defines further 2340 Section

therefore pain

legal definitionoftorture,andthat this phrase meant the same thinginthe physical damage. Bybeearguedthat to constitute torture. (Greenberg176) pairment of bodyfunctions–inorder death, organfailure physical condition or injurysuchas associated withasufficientlyserious the levelthatwouldordinarilybe …must riseto asimilarly highlevel- tor ofdangerousandpermanent American statutes meant anindica- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 rrogation wouldproba- lls onlyforstatepar- mental that damage, must haveintended theactualoutcome ats todothesame. , or serious im- serious , or cluding forcedstanding, stresspositions, pected AlQaedaleader AbuZubaydah,in- wanted touseintheinterrogation of sus- This memo regardedtechniques theCIA tion of torturewere officially transmitted. day thememos regardingthegeneraldefini- by JayBybeeon1August2002,thesame One wassenttotheCIA’sGeneralCounsel were alsoissuedbytheJusticeDepartment. legality ofspecificinterrogationmethods theregarding opinions legal Additionally, United StatesundertheCAT. also applies tothetreaty obligations of the treme definition of what constitutes torture means thatthesame verynarrowandex- Alberto Gonzalesonthesame day,this Taken togetherwiththeBybeememo sentto United StatesisboundbytheCAT(220). it isbythisdefinition state without itsconsen ing inmind. Becausetreatiescannot affecta 2340, andthatitwasratifiedwiththismean- have thesame definitionasfoundinSection “torture” asrelating the treatytoeffectthatitunderstood first President Bushincluded areservation to against Torture,the United Statesacceded totheConvention the when that noted memo Yoo John The same levelas torture (214). degrading withoutactuallybeingonthe were many actswhichwouldbecrueland physical andmental pain,andthatthere only themostextreme actionsofinflicting that theword“torture” legallyreferred to concluded memo Bybee the Ultimately, of methods ofinflictingpain(185). farthest, most extreme endofthespectrum further demonstrating that “torture” isatthe does notrequiresuchactstobecriminalized, to theConvention administration ofthe of torture thatthe t, thememo argued, 86 92 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

detainees (45). prevent serious threats tothesafety of the were legalsolongastheymonitored to the conclusions wasthatallthetechniques 2340A” 7-13).Aswiththepreviousmemo, Application of18U.S.C.§2340- sitions and waterboarding (Bradbury “Re: cold water) thatstill encompassed stresspo- (including force nudity covering agreaternu CIA interrogationswasissuedinMay2005, on “aHighValuealQaedaDetainee” during mediately. Pentagon was firedorforcedto resignim- abuses, andnooneatthe White House orthe victed inacourtof lawfor theAbuGhraib non-commissioned officerwasevercon- as notedabove,noone to takesomeresponsibility,atleastverbally; and investigationsforc able photographs.Lateron,publicreports mitted theabusesseeninpubliclyavail- individual soldierswhohadpersonallycom- the blame waslaidsquarelyatthefeetof parties responsible. Atfirst theentirety of public responseandthepunishment ofthe Bush administration’s detaineepolicy,a greater extentthanany otheraspectofthe prisoners atAbuGhraibrequired,toamuch of treatment the regarding scandal The concerning techniquesthatcouldbeused 3. Shiftingresponsibilitydownthechainof

of theUnitedStates(18).Anothermemo

under theinternationa techniques failedtoqualifyas“torture” ultimately concluded that allof the and waterboarding(Bybee 2).It physical blows,sleepdeprivation, ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 command ed some topofficials higher-ranking thana anddousingwith mber ofmethods : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 l legalobligations that the scenes in th ing atAbuGhraib.However, italsoheld eral warningsignsabout whatwashappen- It alsoaccused them ofhavingmissed sev- ture thatwasconducivetoallowingabuses. the Pentagon forcreating aclimate andcul- part oftopofficialsatCentralCommand and which blamedfailuresofleadershiponthe the scandal,released and appointedbyRumsfeldtoinvestigate mer DefenseSecretary James Schlesinger mented. Onepanel,whichwasledbyfor- of punishment wasrecommendedorimple- leaders, butnottothepointwhereanysort damning toupper-levelmilitary and civilian Theinvestigations whichfollowed were 146). vised intheUnitedStates(RothandWorden few” soldiersinanaddressthat wastele- May Bushcalledtheabusesactionsof“a be broughttojustice(Stevenson).On24 investigated, andthatallresponsiblewould by thescandal,thatitwouldbethoroughly in earlyMay toclaim hewasappalled that television Arab on went Bush President meaning (Shanker). not investigatedhisword considering thathedidnotresignandwas Congressional hearingsafewdayslater,but for whathadhappenedinAbuGhraibduring Rumsfeld stated that as “exceptional andisolated”(DefenseLink). of thosepeopleandreferredtotheiractions press briefing,Rumsfeld few Americanpersonnelseeninthem.Ina tempted tolimit theblame totherelatively retary Rumsfeld andPresident Bushat- were showntothepublic,bothDefenseSec- photo- the graphs ofdetaineeabuseinAbuGhraib after shortly 2004, May In e photographswerenot a reportinAugust2004 he tookresponsibility decriedtheactions s seem tohavelittle 87 93 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

sions; thatgeneralpolic tary investigations came tosimilar conclu- “failed state” carries no weight ininterna- ghanistan (Greenberg124) tion of international humanitarian lawinAf- to AlbertoGonzalesadvocating theapplica- Secretary of StatePowellstated inamemo cluding theGenevaConventions, asthen obligations underAfghani the UnitedStates,hadtreateditashaving stan theinternationalcommunity, including recognized asthe however, althoughtheTaliban hadnotbeen United Statesandothercountries.Infact, been consistent with thepractice of the Conventions, might havebeenvalidhadit therefore wasnotaStat not itslegitimate government, andthatit a was failed state, thattheTaliban wastherefore Afghanistan that argument The CIA leaders(RothandWorden153). there, noonerecommendedinvestigating Ghraib and theiractions towarddetainees Intelligence Agencyinterrogators atAbu were. Inspiteof the involvement of Central held accountablethe but thattoppolicymakersshouldnotbe uted towhathadhappenedinAbuGhraib, a. ReasonswhyGenevashouldbeappliedto V. RefutingtheBushadministration’sar- punishment (Watson). Other internal mili-

military leader resign or facesome other 1. Whyinternationallawisapplicable

Rumsfeld or anyotherseniorcivilianor panel didnotrecommend thatSecretary shift” outof control.Critically,the merely excesses oftheprison“night the resultof directordersandwere Afghanistan ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 de jure guments Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 way theactual guards e PartytotheGeneva y errorshad contrib- leadersofAfghani- stan’s treaties,in- . Infact, theterm

soldiers qualify asmembers of military These criticshavealso or shedoesnotqualify for suchprotections. and untilacourtremoves anydoubt thathe automatically betreatedasaPOWunless They havearguedthatanyprisonermust Conventions totheconflict inAfghanistan. the rationalefornotapplyingGeneva of theUnitedNations, cluding theICRCandth individuals Other (Greenberg 129). was protectedbylaw,ornoneofthemwere ryone involvedintheAfghanistanconflict the Taliban butnottoAlQaeda;eithereve- not bepossibletoapplytheConventions the DOSlegaldepartment heldthat itwould the partofUnitedStates.Furthermore, tion ofthoselawswouldbeinconsistenton from 1998,andnotrecognizingtheapplica- here tohumanitarian lawinaresolution parties tothe conflict in Afghanistan toad- The UNSecurityCouncilhadcalledonall legacy the DOSwasreluctant tobreak with. forces into conflicts inthepast, whichwasa recognized them when Afghanistan. TheUnited Conventions shouldhavebeenappliedin State agreed withPowellthatthe Geneva of Department the from advisers Legal tance from theinternational community. favored detentionpolicies with less resis- stration triedtouseinordercarryoutits facts, butratheral fore notareasoneddecisionbasedonthe to liveup itstreaty obligations was there- to treatAfghanistanasafailedstateunable sive warfare(deNevers remained intact eventhroughyearsofdivi- tional law,andAfghanistan’slegalrights

oophole thattheadmini- andorganizations,in- arguedthatTaliban 385).Thedecision ever itbroughtits have alsocriticized e SecretaryGeneral Stateshad always 88 94 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

nated. Evenwithoutlegal doubtthatany captured prisonerswoul the needfortribunals tohearthe casesof can beclassified asawarcriminal atonce, that every single member of anarmed militia Even acceptingforthesakeofargument tured onthebattlefield. dealing withpotential warcriminals cap- justice iscarriedoutcorrectly,even when an independentcourtis tional humanitarian andhuman rightslaw; in legalproceedings requiredby interna- impartial judge violates theneedforfairness nals, without theinvolvement ofasingle people ascriminals, orevenalleged crimi- criminal behavior.Classifyingthousandsof dards ofdueprocess foraccusationsof customs ofwar,circumvents traditionalstan- are, essentially,inviol unilaterally decidethat giving theexecutivebranchpower to organization towardsnoncompliance. Also, status inspiteofgene meet therequirements forprisonerofwar individual members ofthatmilitia might sibility, howeverremote, thatanyunitsor for anumber ofreasons.Itignoresthepos- quirements ofGCIIIArticle 4(2) isweak bers of afighting militia fail tomeet there- the UnitedStates can decide thatallmem- The legalargument thatthePresident of (a)(2) (Greenberg587). laws andcustoms asdescribedin4 ofwar

war regardless ofth

thus needtobetr (a)(3) ofGCIII.Suchfighterswould Power” asdescribedunderArticle4 b. Needforcompetent tribunals recognized bya forces loyalto“anauthoritynot ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 eated asprisoners-of- thousandsoffighters ation ofthelawsand ral trends withinthe needed toensure that eir obedience tothe d stillnot be elimi- : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 the Detaining serving. Moreover,it overlooks thefact safely ignoredisdisingenuous andself- claring thatithasno power andcanbe and domestic lawthroughouttheworld. De- custom tothedevelopment of international the historicalandcontinuedimportance of ignored soflippantly.Thatwouldoverlook ever, thatdoesnotmean thatitshouldbe proved bytheUnitedStates Congress;how- It istruethatcustomary lawisnotap- tions thatmay haveen and otherelements oftheGenevaConven- however, therebyattemptingtonegateAPI international lawinhisJanuary2002memo, Yoo dismissed theimportance ofcustomary law regardingthismatter (Sands150).John entered orbecome customary international their status,iswidelyregardedashaving involved inarmed conf which guaranteescertainrightsforprisoners the United States; however, Article 75, neva Conventionshas Ge- the to Protocol Additional First The claiming tohavebeenwrongly arrested. isted toswiftly review thecasesof detainees frequency andduration would almost certainly have beenreducedin months oryearsafterward.Theseerrors ther inAfghanistanorGuantanamo Bayfor and thatmany ofthem wereimprisoned ei- were members oftheTaliban or AlQaeda, under themistaken as gence personnelinAfghanistanandPakistan arrested byUnitedStates military and intelli- tion. Ithasbeenshownthatcivilianswere vidual is,infact,amember ofsaidorganiza- doubt may remain still whetheragivenindi- meet thelegal standards requiredby GCIII, member ofacertain organization fails to c. APIMinimum Standards tered intocustom. not beenratifiedby sumption thatthey if tribunalshadex- licts regardlessof 89 95 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

they areused(Greenberg 592), violate Article7regardless ofhow orwhy ers thathavebeenusedbyAmerican forces cluding sleepdeprivation,hooding,andoth- tee hasfoundinthepastthatmethods inother purpose.TheHuman RightsCommit- any exceptionsfornationalsecurityor ICCPR areabsoluteand donotcountenance grading treatment foundinArticle7ofthe prohibitions The prison (McCoy219). and calledon theUnitedStates toclosethe Guantanamo BayviolatedtheConvention abuse andindefinitedete Torture foundthatth More specifically,theCommittee against sensory bombardment (Greenberg568). tures, longperiodsof binding oflimbs, exposuretolowtempera- CAT, includingfrequentbeating,excessive degrading treatment undertheterms ofthe American interrogators constitute torture or has foundthatseveralmethods usedby world. TheUNCommitteeagainst Torture terrogation ofprisonersanywhereinthe State Partyinvolvedinthedetentionorin- and dutiesofanygovern degrading treatment tobeapartoftherules quires itsprohibitionsagainsttortureand re- have jurisdiction.TheCATspecifically apply wherevertheStatesPartytothem 2. Whysometechniques used bytheU.S.are ICCPR andtheConventionagainstTorture

The prohibitions against torture in the in torture against prohibitions The

degrading treatment (Greenberg600), ternational lawregardingtortureand cepted the validity of customary inthat United States courtshaveac- d. Human Rights Treaties ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 torture againsttortureandde- Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 e patternsofphysical sleep deprivation,and ntion ofprisonersat ment officials ofa of the Bybee memo.of theBybee JackGoldsmith, who Justice Department objectedtothe reasoning Evenlawyerswhowere workingatthe their custody. ecutive branchlicense risked giving officials workingfortheex- cruel, degrading,andinhuman treatment Against Torturetolegallypermit theuseof memo’s interpretationoftheConvention forces. DeanKohalsoarguedthatthe carried outbySaddam would excludemany oftheheinousactions understood meaning oftheword,andthatit it contradictedtheordinaryandcommonly row definitionof“tortu “clearly erroneous.”Hestatedthatthenar- theopinion School HaroldKohcalled in January2005,theDeanofYaleLaw given before theSenateJudiciary Committee legal experts.Forexample,intestimony the Bybeememo wereroundlycriticizedby of arguments the release public its After practices. have sinceappliedthat wordtoAmerican and many lawyers,politicians,andNGOs It’s definition of “torture” hasbeenrejected, terrogation methods inforeigncountries. practices oftheUnited Statesregardingin- able, andwasalsoinconsistentwiththe legal experts after itbecame publiclyavail- yers, generatedapowerfulbacklashfrom fought bycertainJusticeDepartment law- tic and international law. Thememo was ered objectionablewerelegalunderdomes- forms ofinterrogationthatmight beconsid- tremely narrowsetofpracticesandthat could belegallyappliedonlytoanex- went very far in asserting that the term memo “torture” 2002 August Bybee’s Jay a. Legalarguments re” containedwithin to abuse peoplein Hussein’s security 90 96 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

143). Now,itwouldcert tion, andwaterboarding(RothWorden sure toextreme temperatures, sleepdepriva- but arenotlimited to,stresspositions,expo- criticized foreign countries for using include, United Stateswhichthe StateDepartment in itscustody. The typesoftechniquesusedbythe techniques against suspected terroristsheld the United Statesitself hadbeenusing these methods inforeigncountries.Unfortunately, demned astorturetheuseofinterrogation political input,andthe2003reportcon- It isgenerallywritten in everyothercountrythroughouttheworld. report onthestateof The Department ofStateissuesanannual ing” (Levin). “torture” and“physicalmental suffer- contained lessrestrictivedefinitionsof leased inDecember 2004;thisnew opinion the Bybeememo whichwasofficiallyre- The OLCpreparedanew opiniontoreplace until heresigned inJuly2004(Klaidman). course ofasingleadministration before– which hadalmost neverhappenedoverthe DOS waswillingtocr on suchthings, after all. However,thatthe State Department isn’tanabsolute authority used, severeenoughto c methods arenot,depend make aseriousargument thatsome ofthose overturned andtheopinionwithdrawn–

other OLClawyerstohavethatpolicy

shortly afterward. Heworkedwith tion policywaslegallyproblematic cided thatthistorture andinterroga- Legal CounselinOctober2003,de- became theheadof Officeof b. U.S.government practices ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 withoutunduepartisan human rightspractices iticize thesemethods onstitute torture;the ing onhowtheyare ainly bepossibleto : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 sification inGuantanamo be should injurious.” Itseems thattheuseof clas- the others wereclassified asmerely “self- two attempts beingofficiallyreported, while involving twenty-three manner. Amass suicideattempt in2003 stances ofprisonersactinginaself-abusive suicide attempts andoverthree hundred inthere weretwenty-eightofficiallyrecognized eighteen monthsofthecamp’s operation abuse attheprisoncamp.Duringfirst ditions offear,uncer Guantanamo were driventosuicidalbehaviorbythecon- at held prisoners Several result of theirtreatment. gerous andlong-lasting mental illnessesasa cal injuries anddisabilities, aswell asdan- victims havebeenleftwithpermanent physi- unequivocally denouncedthem, andtheir national human rightsorganizationshave vere definitionsoftheBybeememo. Inter- Torture, and evenby in theICCPRandConventionagainst meaning oftheworld,definitionfound constitute tortureaccording tothe plain terrogation methods whichunquestionably There are,ontheotherhand,certainin- fications, shouldneverbetolerated. anyone, regardlessofth acceptable. Theuseofsuchtechniquesby to theleveloftorturedoesnotmakethem that some ofthe above the StateDepartment is in thewrongand Even sayingforthesakeofargumentthat cruel, degrading,orinhuman treatment. the point where theyrise tothe levelof gally andmorallyobjectionable,atleastto document meansthatthesemethods arele- so stronglyinanoffi c. Severityoftechniques cial, publiclyavailable techniquesdonotrise the unreasonablyse- tainty, andconstant prisoners ledtoonly eir exactlegalclassi- 91 97 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

treatment. Aleakedinternaldocument from torture or extremely cruelanddegrading world, asmostof themclearly constitute humanitarian organizationsthroughout the come particularlyharshcriticism under by used bytheCIAatitssecretlocations have techniques” interrogation “enhanced The (McCoy 144). tors atamakeshift f sult ofbeatingsfrom CIAandMIinterroga- vember 2003diedseveraldayslaterasare- who surrenderedtoAm cates. Forexample, anIraqiairforcegeneral homicides or“unexplai dozen ofthesedeaths wereruledeither at AbuGhraiband secr several Iraqiprisonersdiedwhileincustody pressed butlaterreleasedalsorevealedthat States military documents that hadbeen sup- personnel (Greenberg393).OfficialUnited cies asaresultoftheirinterrogationsbyMI the inability tospeak,and suicidal tenden- memory loss,anxiety,problems speakingor displayed signsof mental illness including tain prisoners theyinterviewed atthe prison tion visitingAbuGhraibconcludedthatcer- Cross doctorsthatwerepartofthedelega- cause severemental andphysicalharm.Red American also beenknownto personnel inIraqhave by abuse and Interrogations ble forms ofmental illness (280). proximately ahundredha taking anti-depressantmedications andap- reported thatafifthof

group ofBritishcitizens released in2004

among theGuantanamo prisoners,asa also beendisproportionatelycommon vere instances ofme Guantanamo Files with some suspicion(Worthington ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 acility inthedesert ned” ondeathcertifi- erican troops in No- theprisonerswere et CIAfacilities; a d otherclearlyvisi- 271).Lessse- ntal illnesshave of thetechnique. considers the painful and debilitating nature question, which isdisconcertingwhen one gorically andunequivocallyanswerthe nor RobertMukaseywerewillingtocate- is illegal torture. Neither Alberto Gonzales hearings whether they been asked attheirSenateconfirmation Attorney GeneralsoftheUnitedStateshave members wasfirstrevealed;thepast three suspected ofbeinghigh-rankingAlQaeda sciousness eversinceitsuseonprisoners stitutes torture has beeninthe national con- The questionofwhetherwaterboardingcon- and mental sensationssimilar todrowning. with water,allofwhichproducephysical means offthevictim’s forcutting airsupply “Waterboarding” canrefertovarietyof prisoners andarguablythemost severe. that hasbeenusedonthesmallest number of “waterboarding,” the focus ofcontroversyanddebateis particular the been has that method One 34). even worsethanhungerorthirst(Conroy the desireforuninterruptedsleepcanfeel lived intheSovietUnion,evenwrotethat gin, whoexperiencedsu qualifies as torture; the late Menachim Be- “enhanced” methods thatunquestionably also qualifiesasoneoftheapproved Cross Report”).Severesleepdeprivation methods (Shane, “BookCitesSecretRed standing werethemost physicallypainful reported that stress positions and forced who hadexperiencedth “torture” basedoninterviewswithprisoners Cross, forexample, labeledthesetechniques the International Committee of theRed “enhanced technique” believe thetechnique em. Manyprisoners ch methods whilehe 92 98 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

wrote themoremodera an AssistantAttorneyGeneralin2004and ture. DanielLevin,forexample, servedas tor- it consider also experts legal Other tional). the Second World War (Amnesty Interna- cause theywaterboardedprisonersduring victed Japanesesoldiersofwarcrimes be- memo. American courtshaveevencon- “mental suffering”foundintheBybee thus fulfilling eventhe strict criteria for ing inyearsofanxietyandpanicattacks, long-lasting psychologicaldamage scribed aboveitshould From alltheabusesthathavebeende- the Bushadministration (Montanaro). tunate reversal in inte confirmation hearing,anindicationofafor- boarding istortureduringhisown Senate Holder, declaredunequivocally thatwater- torney General of the UnitedStates,Eric (Greenburg anddeVogu berto GonzalesbecameAttorneyGeneral was fired,perhapsunsurprisingly,afterAl- effective protocolsforit the Bushadministra unless doneinaveryrest concluded thatitwouldconstitute torture ing toundergowaterboardingpersonally,he replaced theBybeememo. Aftervolunteer- the legalityofinterrogationmethods which by drowning.Ithasbeenknowntocause 3. Whyabusewassystemic andaresultof

it doesindeed feel very similar todeath

terrifying feelingsit because oftheextremely painfuland bee’s “death or organ failure” criteria, ture, byanystandard,evenJayBy- Waterboarding isundoubtedlytor- top-down authorization ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 tion hadnotprovided rrogation policiesfrom s application.Levin te legalopinionon elicitsandbecause e). ThecurrentAt- ricted way,andthat be fairlyclearthat : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 14 result- phere (170). deliberate creationofa pro-tortureatmos- prevent theseabuses,and possiblyforthe the veryleast,fornot havior acceptable.Theyareresponsible,at throughout theworldtoconsidersuchbe- and many oftheirfellow servicemembers a tolerant environment thatallowed them there, but their actions and wordsdidcreate to beat,threaten, andhumiliate theprisoners for example, the “night shift” at Abu Ghraib leaders may nothavegi President, the SecretaryofDefense,orother able (RothandWorden 162-164).The mane treatment forthem wouldbeaccept- dehumanize them signalsthatinhu- andsent “very dangerous”or“likedogs”servedto ments from military leaders calling detainees combatants” byPresident Bushand state- including theapplicatio top American civilian andmilitary leaders, plain language.Officialdeclarationsfrom misms andpermissive messages insteadof cent pasthaveoftenbeencouchedineuphe- hundred years,orderstocommit itinthere- garded asmorallyabhorrentforthepastfew Becausetorture hasbeenuniversallyre- prisoners throughouttheworld. in theWhite Houseandmistreatment of and responsibilitybetweendecisionsmade grading treatment alldrawalineofcausality tions for permitting acts of torture andde- coercive interrogation,andlegaljustifica- indefinite detentionandextreme methods of tion rightsfordetainees,theauthorizationof Conven- orders regardingthelackofGeneva ples” couldaccountfor.Thememos and ence ofafewpoorlysupervised“badap- far more wide-ranging thanthemere pres- torture carriedoutbyAmerican personnelis doingnearlyenoughto n oftheterm “enemy ven directordersto, 93 99 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

and thehumandignityof mosphere ofdisrespectfor theruleoflaw methods inseveralcasesandfosteredanat- specifically condonedtheuseofillegal The most seniorBushadministration leaders ber ofsoldierswhodidn’tknowanybetter. was waged,andnotbecauseofasmall num- of operationswherethe“War onTerror” Prisonerabuseoccurredineverytheater Vogue). by thisgroup(Greenburg,Rosenbergandde in specific cases wereconsistently approved quests forpermission tousethetechniques tional SecurityAdviso Attorney GeneralJohnAshcroft, andNa- Council, includingVicePresidentCheney, by selectmembers oftheNationalSecurity methods chosenandinitiallyapproved were 18). Thespecifics ofthe CIA’s“enhanced” CIA leaderswereundoubtedlyaware(Bybee ment opinionofwhichWhiteHouseand Abu Zubaydahbyanoffi positions werelegally validated for use on Waterboarding, sleepdeprivation, andstress ees atGuantanamo 237). Bay(Greenberg stress positionsandforcednudityondetain- also personallysignedoffontheuseof less endeavorwhichrestricts ouractions Obeyinginternationallaw isn’tapoint- to many otherabuses. VI. WhyEnforcingand Respecting Inter- national Law isintheBestInterest ofthe Walker Lindh’sinterrogators(165).He

off” authorizationfrom Rumsfeld toJohn

the aforementioned “take thegloves high-ranking American officials,like that wereapprovedandorderedby inhumane treatment byAmericans There arealsocasesoftortureand United States ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 r Rice.Further re- detainees that led cial JusticeDepart- Fourteen men weretakenfrom theregular standard foralltheinternees (Melaugh). mistaken identity.Beatingswith clubs were rested because ofoutdated intelligence or plemented, andseveralinterneeswerear- (Conroy 4).Theoperationwaspoorlyim- rounded upand“interned”inAugust1971 pathy withtheIrishRepublicanArmy were Catholics suspectedofmembership orsym- need forevidenceorcourts.Hundredsof “internment,” indefinitedetentionwithno to preventfurtherdeterioration,startingwith ment feltthatithadtotakedrasticmeasures rapidly escalating,and among CatholicsinNorthernIrelandwas Intheearly1970sviolentunrest techniques against Palestinian detainees. use limited levelsofcoerciveinterrogation raeli security forceswerelegally allowed to second, thetime from1987-1999whereIs- them bytheUnitedKingdom in1971;and experimental tortureofaboutfourteen hundreds ofNorthernIrishCatholicsand lar situations. Theyare: first, the arrest of ture sponsoredbydemocraticstatesinsimi- ful tobrieflyexamine twpothercasesoftor- counterinsurgency operations,itwillbeuse- a war,especiallyonewithheavyfocuson grading treatment onastate’sabilitytofight tention, torture,andcruel,inhumane, orde- Indiscussingthe world tobemorecooperative. soldiers, andconvincepeoplealloverthe the world,discreditourenemies, protectour the standingofUnitedStatesthroughout contrary, adheringtoth without generatinganybenefits.Onthe . TheUnited Kingdom andNorthern a. 1. ComparativeAnalysis Ireland, 1971 effects ofindefinitede- the Britishgovern- e lawwouldincrease 94 100 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

from bothvisualand course oftheseabusesmany mensuffered ment (McGuffin57-60).Duringthe camps oners weremovedbacktotheregularintern- heard. Aftertheendofthisordealpris- that preventedanythingelsefrom being subjected tooverwhelm sufficient amountsoffoodandsleep, exposed tocoldtemperatures, deprivedof they collapsed from this standing position, while hooded,beatenseverelywhenever methods ofimprisonment andinterrogation sorted toextreme, extralegal and illegal striking. Inbothcases, agovernment re- The parallels withthe UnitedStates are own levelofviolentaction(Melaugh). Irish RepublicanArmy, whichsteppedupits test, andCatholicsgavemoresupporttothe Northern Ireland’sgovernment outofpro- Irish nationalists refused toparticipate in caused amarked downturn.Nonviolent tion inIreland,theinternment andtorture situa- security the improving than Rather the affair(Conroy 187). or officialswereprosec Amnesty International. NoBritish soldiers the opinionofRepublicIrelandand grading, andillegaltr of torture but didconstitute inhuman, de- the fivetechniquesdidnotrisetolevel European Court ofHumanRightsruledthat sies ofescapeandsuicide(73).In1978the such asmusic, religioussermons, andfanta- a wallinpainfully uncomfortable position

The men wereforcedtostandagainst

to them overthecourseofeightdays. ing onsensorydeprivation ercive interrogation techniques focus- where acourse ofexperimental co- prison camps tosecretlocations ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 eatment, contraryto uted fortheirroles in ing soundrecordings audio hallucinations : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 15 was applied Te ehd ue b te sals rou- Israelis tinely exceed thelimits setintheLandau the by used methods The completely nario) oncivilians.Both attempts failed minent attacks(the“tickingtime bomb”sce- only toprisonerswhohadknowledgeofim- they could beapplied bylimiting theiruse tions andthenumber ofsuspectstowhich cive methods usedthroughofficialregula- attempted to limit boththeintensity of coer- (Conroy 213).TheCommission’sproposal to hidetheiractions from publicscrutiny that theycouldbee amount offorceduringinterrogations,so guidelines fortheuseofa“moderate” security forcesshouldbeprovidedwithlegal concludedin1987thatthe dau Commission pointed toinvestigatethematter. TheLan- headed byJusticeMoshe Landauwasap- Israel’s security forces, acommission lack oftransparency and useofviolencein of pair a After were formally legalized. period whencoercive cially acute, however,duringatwelve-year torture beingusedonprisonerswasespe- “Absolute Prohibition”).Theproblem of even uptothepresent day(B’Tselem mistreating Palestinianciviliansforyears, lems withits military andsecurityforces prob- chronic well-known, had has Israel terrorists’ cause. tions andencouragingthem tosupportthe innocent people,infuriatinglocalpopula- actual extremists andinsteadhurt mostly methods relatively littletoimpedethe did rorist group.Alsoinbothcases,the“tough” in order to eliminate a b. IsraelduringtheLandauCommission era, 1987-1999 scandalsconcerningthe ffective withouthaving interrogationmethods threat posedby ater- 95 101 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

(41-42). widespread violations of international law to spreadthroughoutth for authorization,causedacultureofabuse cion, evenwithguideli allowing limited amounts ofviolentcoer- tice itroutinely.AsintheUnitedStates, torturers become desensitizedtoitand prac- and ethicalprohibitions by Israel’sexample. Without absolutelegal allowable in alimited fashion isshown false possibility The international lawin1999. security servicesforviolatingdomesticand banned allthecoercivetechniquesof these abusesuntiltheHighCourtofJustice 40). TheIsraelijustice system didnotcheck the “tickingtime bomb” (RothandWorden this time period,justif time –wastortured byIsraelisecurity during Palestinian interrogatedbyIsraelduringthis charity workers,andothers –nearlyevery cion. Activists,religi having vital information necessitating coer- also claimed fartoomany casesofdetainees and Interrogation”). The security services pressure thehusbands(B’Tselem “Detention confessions ofwrongdoingorotherwise men being interrogated inordertoforceout rested, harassed,anda Worden 36-37).Security forcesalsoar- died from being shakentoomuch (Rothand

2. TheimportanceofGeneva Convention shaking. AtleastonePalestinianprisoner

sensory bombardment, andviolent treme temperatures, stress positions, protections forAmerican soldiers sleep deprivation,exposuretoex- the level of torture,and included Commission’s guidelinesroseto ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 of torture being legally Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 ied bythespecterof nes andrequirements ous leaders,Islamic e system, leadingto bused thewivesof against torture,the soldiers deployedabroad thaneveryother points outthat,asthe community ofnations. Admiral Hutson guards fromoursoldiers andrejectingthe requirements wewouldberemoving safe- well-being ofAmericans, andbyderidingits who adheredtoGCIIIafter1949wasthe mary concernofallthe U.S.policymakers compel otherstofollowthem too.Thepri- laws itself willtheUnitedStatebe ableto goal, andthatonlyby ventions lay outawaytoaccomplish that will allowforpeace,that theGeneva Con- that warneedstobeconductedinaway to thesafetyofAmerican troops.Heargued the importance oftheGenevaConventions lated very clearly inCongressional hearings admiral oftheUnited States Navy, articu- Franklin PierceLawCenterand aformer JohnHutson,whoisthePresidentof our example inthefuture(DeNevers387). makes itmore likely that otherswillfollow rity, improves ourmoral standing,and they treat us demonstrates American integ- Americans. Treatingourenemies betterthan tice tothosewhowouldabusecaptured the lawwewouldmake of theGenevaConventionsandfollowing in whichweparticipateundertheauspices bring ustotheirlevel.Byplacingconflicts spect thelawtheyshouldnotbeallowedto we arefacedwithenemies thatdonotre- diers whentheyarecaptured, and even when manitarian law oftenprotectsAmerican sol- make our troops safer.Internationalhu- but forthesimple fact love foresoteric,abstractlegalprinciples, respect theGenevaConventions,notoutof have experts called upontheUnitedStates government to legal and military Many United States has more thattheConventions complying withthose it easier to bringjus- 96 102 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

and theGenevaConvent Senator McCain argued thattheRedCross that obeyingthelawhindersoursoldiers, that the ICRC weremere“do-gooders” and Ghraib scandal.Cautioningagainsttheview international lawinthe wakeof theAbu called ontheAmerican peopletorespect network. While this dilemma between com-network. Whilethisdilemma between an attackor effectivelydisrupt aterrorist least toobtainitquickly enoughtoprevent information from recalcitrant terrorists, orat necessary in order to obtainvital, life-saving expediency. Suchmethods may bethought treatment ortorture reliesonnecessityand amounting tocruel,humiliating, inhuman violent, coercive of acceptance the behind reasoning The Geneva Conventions. us needanddeservetheprotectionsof diers abroad. Thosewhosacrificetoprotect is vital tothewell-being of American sol- believe that international humanitarian law alike experts legal and veterans Military (McCain). of fairtreatment towardsprisoners rule oflawwhichmeets universalstandards and standingasanationgovernedbythe States should seektomaintain its integrity safeguards. Healsoasserted thatthe United this andfuturewarsbyundermining those increased thedangerforAmerican troopsin diers, andthatthosewho committed abuses 3. abuse than SenatorJohn McCainhas also

No lessanexpertonprisonerofwar The ineffectiveness of coercive interrogation The ineffectivenessofcoercive

(Hutson). of international humanitarian law cerned about maintaining theintegrity should rightfullybethemost con- nation intheworldcombined,we ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 interrogation methods ions protectoursol- : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009

accomplished withoutthreats, the successes heandhisunitachieved were cilitate intelligence what tookplace inAbuGhraib doesnotfa- example, wrotethat degradation suchas MI officerwhoservedinAfghanistan,for on bothfrontsholdthesame opinion.One can military interrogators whohaveoperated reliably yield accurateinformation; Ameri- only ones whohaveclaimed thattorturedoesnot the not are researchers Academic (Fein 35). racy ofsubsequentlyacquiredinformation to them, thuspotentiallyreducingtheaccu- tive functionsofthebrainthosesubjected of stress-inducingmethods impair thecogni- compliance thanincrease it,andthattheuse tion subjectwouldbemo cation of paintoanuncooperativeinterroga- tive. Itspecifically concluded that the appli- gested thatsuchtechniques werenot effec- the majority of anecdotalinformation sug- been applyingthem effective,butthat were in thefashionthatAmerican personnelhad whether coerciveinterrogationmethods used that therewasnorigorousresearchon cember 2006.Thisstudycruciallyfound for StrategicIntelligence Research inDe- tion methods waspublishedbytheCenter A studyoftheeffectivenessinterroga- modern terrorists. duced goodresultsevenwhenusedagainst that legal,non-violen information, whereasthereismuch evidence lently coerciveinterr lemma exists.Thereisnoevidence thatvio- cal question, inactual practicenosuchdi- to bekilledposesaninterestingphilosophi- and possiblyallowingthousandsofcivilians mitting universally reviled actsof brutality gathering, andthatall ogation yieldsaccurate t techniqueshavepro- re likelytoreduce 97 103 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

properly conductedin for punishingterrorists.Hestressedthat sary forgatheringinformationorappropriate tional stressshouldnotbeviewedasneces- torture andthatextreme physicaloremo- techniques skewedthepublicdebateover gued thattheperceived tance, and training Escape(orSERE) fashion duringSurvival, Evasion,Resis- militarily voluntarily undergo ina limited that some members oftheUnitedStates information. Theywerebasedonmethods the do nothaveahistoryof as chosen CIA’s “enhancedinterrogation”repertoire methods specific The accurately. extract information from prisoners fully or concluded thatcoercive unintentionally giveou specific information, butalsoforthem to likely forprisonerstobeunablerecall cive methods wouldnotonlymake itmore “natural fragilityofmemory,” andthatcoer- like theaforementioned CSIRstudy,the point. ColonelKleinman alsonoted,much therefore useless from anintelligencestand- example, butthese weremostly falseand during theKoreanandVietnam wars,for war crimes from American prisoners-of-war nist interrogatorsoftenforced confessionsof force gators, whereascoercivemethods canonly cooperation while testifyingbeforeCongress.Hear-

the coercive interrogationasineffective

the UnitedStatesAirForce,denounced ligence and interrogation specialist of compliance from aprisoner;commu- Colonel Steven Kleinman, an intel- Kleinman,an ColonelSteven xxv). beatings, or humiliation (Mackey betweenprisoners and interro- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 t misinformation. Het misinformation. interrogation fails to effectiveness ofsuch terrogations induce elicitingaccurate these torturousmethods hadbeennecessary Effectiveness MayProveElusive”). Evenif vealed information (Shane“Interrogations’ what circumstancesZubaydah andKSMre- conflicting reportsaboutwhenandunder rectly prevented aterrorist attack.Thereare gations did notyieldintelligence thatdi- Mueller) haveclaimed whereas others (suchasFBIDirector Robert led totheacquisition of vitalintelligence, have claimed thatthe officials and Bushadministration leaders subjected towaterboarding.FormerCIA Zubaydah duringthetime whentheywere telligence wasextractedfrom KSMand ing (Zagorin). Itisunclear exactly whatin- cant, claiming hehadliedtostophissuffer- Qaeda duringhisinterrogationsonlytore- other prisoners there of affiliation withAl tortured atGuantanamo Bay,accusedmany members. Mohammed al-Qahtani, whowas ercive interrogationmethods onAlQaeda tion exactlyhasbeengainedfrom co- using informa- what to as ongoing are Debates they areforacquiringaccurateintelligence. ple saywhattheyaresupposedtothan techniques” aremore usefulformaking peo- which became the“enhancedinterrogation (Shane andMazzetti).TheSEREmethods to suggestibilityandmemory loss,nottruth in 1956statedthattheChinesemethods led war crimes; astudyoftheireffectspublished them mostlyto extractfalse confessions of ods wereunaware of.TheChineseused approved theenhanced that high-levelgovernment officialswho the ChineseduringKoreanWar, afact they wereused against American POWs by trained toresist the SERE techniques isthat courses. Thereason thesepersonnel are use ofthetechnique that coercive interro- interrogation meth- 98 104 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

rogators made an effort to verify his story story his verify aneffortto made rogators had been mistakenly arrested, andtheinter- offered anexplanationfor whyandhowhe (136). Onatleastone occasion aprisoner and relationshipsbetweenimportant figures able toextractvitalde the first place, military interrogators were problems thathaddriventhem toviolencein them (often false) hopes for solving the relationships withprisoners andoffering disruptive, violentattacks.Byestablishing in preventing suicide bo Mesopotamia wasofparamount importance and commandstructure ofAlQaedain obtaining information abouttheoperations nificant intelligencecoupsinIraq,where sig- to lead humanely prisoners Treating ist” 6). GC III(Alexander “How toBreakaTerror- and compliance with thestandards setby connections andincentives forcooperation, circumstances andtheirbeliefs,establishing niques involvedrespect sciences ofAmerican citizens. Thesetech- or degradeprisonersandshockthecon- different methods, onesthatwouldn’tdebase tary interrogators deliberately set outtouse dia exposure of theAbuGhraibabuses, mili- against terrorists in Iraq. Followingtheme- historically, buteven gation methods hasbeenborneoutnotjust interro- nonviolent of effectiveness The non-coercive methods. bly couldhavebeenel

the highvalueAlQaedadetaineesproba-

ever, allthe intelligence gainedfrom benefits ofit. of usingthem Qaeda leadersgaveup,thehighcost to acquiretheinformation theseAl ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 16 In alllikelihood,how- during the current war tails aboutsafehouses probablynegatedthe mb attacksandother icited through legal, ing prisoners,their : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 and returned totheirhomes. Thesexual accounts ofthosewho have beenreleased spread throughthemedia and thepersonal Stories ofdisrespect,ab iconic inpredominately Muslim countries. and itsorange-suitedinmates havebecome Bay Guantanamo at prison the of Images Global AttitudesProject). countries wheredatawasavailable(Pew States declinedin ove Regardless, positive views of theUnited can presence inIraqcontributing aswell. unilateral invasionofandcontinuedAmeri- other factorssuchassupportforIsraelorthe would bedifficulttopindownexactly,with American policies regarding detainees well. Howmuch ofthatisbecause of nantly Muslim countriesbutinEuropeas ministration, especiallyamong predomi- declined significantly during the Bushad- States United the of perceptions Global United States becauseof thesepolicies. extremist organizationsandfightagainstthe many ofthemhavebeenconvincedtojoin strong among MiddleEasternMuslims; detention andtortureha policies. Negativereactions toindefinite cause ofthe Bushadministration’s illegal rule oflawhassufferedtremendously be- leader inmorality,ethics,andupholdingthe The standingoftheUnitedStates asa (166). personnel inAfghanistan it hadbeenconsistently lot ofinnocentpeopleGuantanamo Bayif ing, thesortofeffort toassume wasly- instead ofcontinuing he have hadoninternationalperceptions 4. Effecttortureandindefinitedetentions of theUnitedStates that wouldhavekepta appliedbyAmerican use, andtorturehave r two-thirdsofthe ve beenespecially earlierinthewar 99 105 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

as many killedintheSeptember11 people that thosepoliciesledtothedeathsofabout because ofAmerica’s torturepolicies,and Iraq onfighterswhojoinedterroristgroups went sofarastoblame halfthecasualties in Ghraib scandalbearsthisout.Oneveteran in Iraq2004and Te eee wors severe The vilians (Weber 1). violence against American soldiers andci- a waronIslam aremore likelytosupport who believethattheUnited Statesiswaging because research hasshown thatMuslims on Islam itself(Sengupta).Thisisimportant interrogation techniques who shouldberequired tousenonviolent banned absolutelyfor all U.S.personnel, coercive interrogation method must be degrading treatment, andanyothersortof policy andlaw.Torture,cruel,inhuman and of thefutureingeneral,asbothamatter of against terrorists, and allmilitary operations be applied tothe allmilitary operations country. The Geneva prevent lawlessness from takingoverthe the damage donetoourabilitylead,and United States torestore nated inorder fortheretobeachancethe ods of thepastmust be completely elimi- and illegal The tured”). terrorist attacks (Alexander “I’m StillTor- terrorism isjustafront or disguise for awar

strengthened theideathat the waragainst

the sacredness oftheQuran,have tions ofMuslims, suchasbeardsand diers demeaning thereligioustradi- as wellstories ofAmerican sol- humiliation and abuseof detainees, VII. Conclusions ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 counterproductive meth- Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 ening ofviolent attacks Conventionsshould 2005 aftertheAbu instead.The Guan- its reputation,repair

sordid affair. a realpossibilityfor redemption from this spite this,the newadmi of suchproblems (Spiegeland Demick). De- Chinese, isprobablythe most extreme case ing newhomes becauseofpressurefrom the Uighur prisoners,whofacedifficultiesfind- prisoners fromGuantanamo.Thecaseofthe finding placestoput tionally, there willprobably bedifficulties press onwiththatissu to, althoughCongressionalDemocrats may responsible fortorture want thegovernment toinvestigatepeople dent Obama hasalsostatedthathedoesn’t challenge their detentions (Savage).Presi- Air ForceBaseinAfgha continued to try to de aren’t perfect. Obama’s JusticeDepartment has policies new the Unfortunately, reportedly will takeabout ayear. prisoners’ filesre-reviewed,aprocesswhich Guantanamo BayNavalBaseclosedandthe ture methods, andorderedtheprisonat sites, bannedwaterboa He hasorderedtheclosingofCIAblack dent oftheUnitedStates,BarackObama. already being carried are policies these of many Fortunately, prosecuted tothefullestextentoflaw. ble fortortureshouldbeinvestigatedand American courtorreleased.Thoseresponsi- ascriminalsmands, charged inanormal treated as prisoners of warasGCIIIde- should beclosed,andallprisonerseither tanamo prisonandtheblacksites Bay ny prisonersatBagram out bythenewPresi- as the CAT requires it as theCATrequires many ofthereleased rding andothertor- e regardless.Addi- nistration represents nistan therightto 100 106 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

tonly. sity andcarriedoutunlawfully andwan- of property, notjustified bymilitary neces- and extensivedestructionappropriation the presentConvention,takingofhostages rights offairandregular wilfully deprivingaprotectedpersonofthe to serve in theforcesof ahostilePower,or tected person,compelling aprotectedperson transfer or unlawfulconfinement ofapro- body orhealth,unlawfuldeportation causing greatsufferingorseriousinjuryto including biologicalex “wilful killing,tortureorinhuman treatment, Article 147ofGCIVdefinesthem as trial prescribedinthisConvention.”And oner ofwartherightsfairandregular hostile Power,orwilfully depriving apris- a prisoner of wartoserve intheforces of the serious injury tobody or health, compelling ments, wilfullycausinggreatsufferingor man treatment,including breaches as“wilfulkilling, torture orinhu- 2 other considerations(Shaw90). ing onhowwidelyadoptedtheyareand provisions tocreatecustomary law,depend- law, ofcourse,anditispossiblefortreaty may codifyor reflec what itsprovisionsare(Shaw69).Treaties where customary law exists and exactly Article 130ofGCIIIdefinesgrave ternational law,butitcanbehardtodefine

state practice.Itis

custom, whichisbasedontraditionsof 1 International law can also come from ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Endnotes t preexistingcustomary the oldestform ofin- periments, wilfully

trial prescribed in : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 biological experi-

7 6 5 4 3 8 official biographyonth cializing inhuman rights,accordingtohis is ManfredNowak,anAustrianlawyerspe- include itasapr eignty; most human rightstreatiesexplicitly flows fromthelegalprincipleofstatesover- low. 296). many andJapan(Truman Library)(Kerr cluded allegedPOWabusers frombothGer- on lower-rankingwarcriminals andalsoin- 196). Othertrialswhichfollowedfocused of Germany andJapan(North)(Boister crimes withwhichthey chargedthe leaders cluded prisonerofwarabuseamong thewar bunal fortheFarEastinTokyobothin- emberg andtheInternationalMilitaryTri- (Boister 184). agreement waslegallybindingonJapan judges attheTokyotriallaterdecidedthis to observetheConvention.Amajority of with the Alliesnear th Japanese government made anagreement bound theGerman government, andthe war; thatparticularConventiondefinitely largely similar setof the 1929GenevaConventionafforded a did notoperateduringthewar.However, The currentSpecialRapporteur fortorture The “exhaustionofdomesticremedies rule” Ibid See discussionofunive The Trial of MajorWar Criminals inNur- The 1949GenevaConventions,obviously, . ovision (Shaw254). e opening of hostilities rights toprisonersof e OHCHRwebsite. rsal jurisdiction,be- 101 107 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

Quran, theholybookofIslam (Labott). guards hadphysicallydisrespectedthe detainees atGuantanamoindicatingthat ICRC alsogatheredcredibletestimony from males andforcedshavingoffacialhair,the aforementioned invasion ofspacebyfe- ing theirreligiousbeliefs.Inadditiontothe tacking men whopracticedIslam bytarget- it; his sentence willbe up inJanuary 2009. spent inGuantanamo Baycountingtoward years of imprisonment, withtime already time frame judge andgivenatria criminal chargesmust bebroughtbeforea states thatanyonewhoisarrestedwith than is necessary, and tected personsmust notbeheldforlonger cle 75,paragraph3ofAPIstatethatpro- 10 execution. Onestudyof theeffectsoftor- waterboarding isarguab 14 and “quaint.” on terrormaking partsofGCIII“obsolete” famous comment aboutthenatureofwar ignoring GenevathatGonzalesmade thein- 13 12 11

This waspartofageneralpatternat- Hamdan wassentencedtofiveandhalf Arti- Specifically, Article42ofGCIVand Because itsimulates deathby drowning, It was inthediscussion of thepositives of

East didthesame fortheTokyoTrials.

national Military Tribunal for the Far berg Trials, andthe Charter of the Inter- rules andprocedurefortheNurem- Military Tribunal 9 The Charter of theInternational ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 Article 9,paragraph3 l withinareasonable ly aform ofmock established the the UnitedStates, below. 16 6). referred toas “the fi and bombardment with whitenoise, later vation, starvation,forcedstanding,hooding, 15 experienced amock execution(Conroy180). significantly higheramong victims whohad ture foundthatpsychologicalproblems were See sectiononinternationalperceptionof Specifically, acombination ofsleepdepri- ve techniques”(Conroy 102 108 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

Alexander, Matthew. HowtoBreak aTer- I SawinIraq.”TheWashingtonPost Press, 2008.---.“I’m StillTortured by What Ghraib.” MotherJones Bazelon, Emily. toAbu “FromBagram 2002. ics.” TheWashingtonTimes Barber, Ben. “Rumsfeld AssailsPOW Crit- man RightsFirst:Washington, D.C.,2008. Guantanamo DetaineesinAfghanistan Arbitrary Justice: Trials of Bagramand R511772007en.html AMR51/177/2007/en/dom http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/ vember 2007.Lastaccessed12April2009 Slopes andthepolitics Amnesty International November 2008. Deadliest ManinIraq Brains, notBrutality,toTakeDown the rorist: The U.SInte mohammed-badan-al-sebaii-sebaii guantanamo/detainees/64-abdel-hadi- 2009http://projects.nytimes.com/ 25 September 2004.Lastaccessed11April Al-Sebaii (ISN64):CSRTSet3,pp.45-55. hamdan-trial.html www.cbc.ca/world/story/2008/07/21/

accessed 12April2009http://

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st terrorism trialbeginsatGuan- Bibliography ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 . . rrogators who Used 30.2(2005):50-57. . 21July2008.Last . NewYork:Free . “USA:Slippery of torture.”9No- : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 9February .

. Hu- . 30 ees.” May2007. ture andIll-Treatment of Palestinian Detain- B’Tselem. “AbsoluteProhibition: TheTor- 30 May2005. Abused While inU.S.Custody.”TheNew Bonner, Raymond. “Detai York: OxfordUniversityPress,2008. Military Tribunal:AReappraisal article/0,9171,1071284-1,00.html www.time.com/time/magazine/ Last accessed 12April2009 south_asia/4182952.stm ration gation ofHighValuealQaedaDetainees Techniques thatMayBeUsedintheInterro- Convention AgainstTo States ObligationsUnderArticle16ofthe gence AgencyRe:Applicationof United Deputy GeneralCounsel,CentralIntelli- ---. Memorandum forJohnA.RizzoSenior tainee Interrogation ofaHighValuealQaedaDe- tain TechniquesThatMayBeUsedinthe cation of18U.S.C.§2340-2340AtoCer- sel, CentralIntelligence AgencyRe:Appli- John A.RizzoSeniorDeputyGeneralCoun- Bradbury, StephenG.Memorandum for York Times Boister, Neil,andRobertCryer.TheTokyo tion ofDetainee063.”Time Bennet, Brian, April 2009 'lenient'.” TheBritishBroadcastingCorpo- BBC News.“Afghanabusesentence . 25August2005.Lastaccessed11 . 10May2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/ . 20March2007. et al . “InsidetheInterroga- . rture toCertain nee SaysHeWas . 12June2005. . . New http:// . 103 109 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

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109 115 Proceedings of GREAT Day, Vol. 2009 [2010], Art. 47 Great Day 2009 SUNY Geneseo

Imposing Democracy: State Building and the War on Terror Submitted by James M. Duhe

Abstract Since September 11, 2001 terrorism The terrorist attacks of September has been a chief concern of American na- 11, 2001 fundamentally reprioritized US tional security. The days of US protection foreign policy. In this environment the Bush from foreign threats because of its geogra- administration crafted what came to be phy are long gone. Al Qaeda displayed not known as the Bush Doctrine. Though a pre- only its ability to attack the United States, cise definition of the Bush Doctrine remains but that it was capable of doing so from contested, definitions typically include the American soil. From lone snipers to an- idea that the United States may preemp- thrax delivered through the mail, Americans tively attack countries harboring terrorists, became acutely aware of the potential for and that the US should support the spread of additional terrorist attacks. Fortunately, democracy. But, after eight years, the many experts agree that terrorists generally United States is not safer. This paper ana- lack the logistical capabilities necessary to lyzes democratization as a theory and as an inflict mass casualties. Unfortunately, ter- element of the Bush Doctrine through case rorists are constantly working to overcome studies of Iraq and Afghanistan. By tying these obstacles. Instead of conducting gran- the notion of victory in the War on Terror to diose attacks, terrorists may use smaller, democratization, the United States has an- inexpensive strikes that require low levels gered many Afghanis and Iraqis, wasted an of technical expertise and training. Regret- enormous amount of resources, and dam- tably, states (especially liberal democracies aged its relations with other countries. Over- like the United States) have great difficulty all, efforts by the Bush administration to countering this approach toward violence. impose democracy in these countries have States are bound by international norms and counterproductive at combating terrorism. I laws. Democracies like the United States conclude with policy prescriptions for the are further constrained in the application of Obama administration, namely that America violence and surveillance in counterterror- must remove itself from the political proc- ism by popular consent. Given the ability of esses of Iraq and Afghanistan, rebuild ties terrorist organizations to adapt and over- with the international community, and de- come state defenses, alternative methods are velop a strategy for complete American needed for states to preserve their national withdrawal from these areas. security from terrorist attacks. In this environment, the Bush administration crafted what would later 110 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47 116 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

tion todemocracy. Thisisimportant be- but, doesnot necessitate asuccessfultransi- ereignty restedinthewillofpeople); of democracy (governancewith popularsov- exceptional becauseitid transitions” (2007,16). to fostersuccessful,peacefuldemocratic tional conditionsinthesequencemost likely ratize isto,“try tocreate favorable institu- Snyder’s bookElectingtoFight.Todemoc- definition from EdwardMansfieldandJack democratization. Forthisterm, Iborrowa several words.Essentialtomy argument is for thepurposeofthisessay,Imust define language usedbeaclearaspossible.Thus, Definitions andTerms War onTerror. minished America’s capability towagethe tize IraqandAfghanistan lems resultingfrom thepledgetodemocra- despite rationaltheo disastrous. In thispaper, Iwillshowhow hasproved zation inIraqandAfghanistan agenda ofeliminating terrorism, democrati- democratization tofurther itsforeign policy tempts bytheBushadministration touse ernment andcitizenry.However, despiteat- a subtletoolcapableofchangingbothgov- element ofthe War onTerror because itwas democratization isaparticularly interesting ple, seeMonten2005).American backed weapon inthe“War onTerror”(forexam- States—supported democratization asa

perceived aggressorsandusingUnited

legitimizing preemptive strikes against dispute, definitionstypicallyinclude tion of theBush Doctrine isstill in For thisstudy, itisimportant thatthe trine. Althoughtheprecisedefini- become known astheBushDoc- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 retical backing,prob- This definitionis entifies theessence havegreatlydi- : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 Bush administration hasnotidentified gence (Hersh2004,264). Thus,sincethe terms toprovide leeway ingathering intelli- ministration intentiona Ghraib andGuantanamo Bay,theBushad- the caseofprisonerdetentionsatAbu made noefforttoclarifyitsterms. Infact,in Discouragingly, theBushadministration disambiguation ofsuchconfusinglanguage. of USpolicysincethistime hasbeenthe of thelargestobstacles its counterterroristactivitiessince9-11.One Bush administration to rorist areterms thatwerewidelyusedbythe War onTerrorism, War onTerror,and ter- term todefine.War onTerrorism, Global ess ratherthan aresult. vital toperceivedemo can involvement inthesetwocountries,itis stand themotivations forcontinuousAmeri- in IraqandAfghanistan.Thus,tounder- sociated withcontinuedAmerican presence ment ofthispaperregardstheproblems as- cratic state inthefuture.Thecentralargu- cause ofthepotentialemergence ofan auto- long historyofAmerican democracy be- years. Itwouldbeunfairtodiscountthe antee thatautocracy willnotprevailin100 for overthepast150years,thereisnoguar- States has been arelatively stabledemocracy tory, nostateiseternal. While theUnited Additionally, within th on theemergence ofademocratic state? definition of democratiz predict thefuture, howcanareasonable This isvery logical. Since itisimpossible to result intheformation of guarantee that democratization willactually cause, despitebestintentions,thereisno War onTerroristhenextimportant cratization asaproc- lly obfuscatedthese toanyseriousstudy e spanofhumanhis- describe anddefine ation becontingent ademocratic state. 111 111 117 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

substate groupscurrently ghani regimesfrom theactionsofcurrent guish theactionsofformer Iraqi and Af- groups must beseparatedifonlytodistin- the intent of incitingfear.Thus,thetwo commit horribleacts against citizens with authoritarian. Bothstateswouldfrequently these countries,governments werebrutally and Iraq.PriortotheAmerican invasionin interest inmyinvest will becloud thetopic athand.Thestatesof state sponsoredterrorismintothisdiscussion bating human suffering.However,allowing the effectivenessofcounterterrorism atcom- rorism, asunnecessary, ultimately reducing state—sponsored terrorismandsubstateter- some might perceiveseparationbetween fering causedbyterrorismisequal.Thus, actions ofthe9-11hijackers;allhuman suf- should beconsideredte in concentrationcamps duringtheHolocaust that actionsbyNazis this beliefmightargue like asubstateactorwould.Proponentsof ians withthe intention of instillingfear just some stateshaveintentionallyattackedcivil- the fieldofcounterterrorism. Manyargue Admittedly, thisisahotlydebatedtopic in attacks ofsubstateactorsisveryintentional. acts ofterrorism. is anemotion thatcanbeevokedthrough commits anactofterrorism. Finally,terror 2006, 33).A“terrorist”isanypersonwho population achieveasanend(Hoffman

with theintent tocause fear inagiven

any attackconductedbyasubstateactor man’s definition anddefineterrorism as For thispaper, Iadapt Bruce Hoff- The decision tolimit terrorism tothe fore looktowardsapracticalusage. precise definitions,wemustthere- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 igation areAfghanistan Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 rrorism justlikethe inthese countries. these reasons,GlobalWar onTerrorisan seek toharm totheUnitedStates. For all the War onTerroriswiththeterrorists who otherwise haveleftAmerica alone.Really, draw theireofterrori where, theUnitedStates isless likelyto going towaragainstallterrorism every- a tacticinitself(Byman 2009,472).Bynot Some thatthisabsenceisactually may argue has beennotoriouslyabsentfrom theWar. tivity todestroythePPKorTamil Tigers threaten USinterests.Forexample, USac- eliminate terroristmovements thatdonot reality. Americahasmade nogreateffortto ist activity on ascalethat itmuch larger than rorism isthatitalludestoUScounterterror- problem withthephraseGlobalWar onTer- be usedinmy paper. Because ofthis,neithertheseterms will rorism itselfdoesnotreallymean anything. ism couldbeeliminated, butattackingter- tack terrorism insofarasthecauses of terror- not befoughtonabattlefield. Onecouldat- ism. Becauseitisintangible, terrorism can- to singleoutillegal identify anillegalimmi trator ofterrorism justasonemay beableto though onemight beabletoidentifyaperpe- and terrorism areabstractconcepts. Al- legal Immigration. Both equally ineptlynamed American War onIl- gous policytotheWar onTerrorism isthe war withanaction.Inthissense,analo- 2001. Tobeatwarwithterrorism istobeat counterterrorist policysinceSeptember 11, these terms act45uallydescribesAmerican note thesamething.Furthermore, neitherof ism, andtheWar onTerrorism donotcon- It isworthmentioning thatanother ObviouslyGlobalWar onTerror- immigration orterror- st groupsthatmight grant, itisimpossible illegalimmigration 112 118 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

not alwaysthecase.The ideatoform the Terror areacrosstheocean, thisiscertainly true thatmany ofthefrontsinWar on word israther misleading. While itmay be ther. Breakingdownthephrase,first tion haschosenisnot ever, the newterm theObama administra- I cancertainly agreewiththesegoals.How- counterterrorism. bediscussedlater, Aswill ending dedicationofAmerican resourcesto war withIslam, andtobreakfrom theun- the implication thattheUnitedStates isat gesture wascertainlyintendedtoeliminate Overseas ContingencyOperation. Such a phrase chosentoreplaceWar onTerroris eign policy(Baker2009).Interestingly,the terms from lexiconofUnitedStatesfor- the Global War onTerrorismandallsimilar ministration stateditwasremoving theterm minology. InMarch2009,theObamaad- by theObama administration regardingter- cent changeinrecentpolicychangesmade eliminate. was justdiscussed,isvirtuallyimpossible to US counterterroristpolicysinceterrorism, as sary element inanydescriptionofcurrent eliminate terrorism itself. Thisisaneces- more, waronterrordoesnotimply intentto be attackedbytheUnitedStates.Further- advance hisagendaheisaterroristandmay the same. So longasapersonusesterrorto ploys terrorism. Ittreat a terroristandfreedom fighterwhoem-

nates ambiguity indistinguishingbetween

US action.First,War onterrorelimi- most suitable term todescribe current I wouldberemiss toignorethere- I arguethatWaronTerroristhe policy since9-11. inappropriate term todescribeU.S. ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 particularly goodei- s bothofthesegroups : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 mocratic ruleintarget nations.” (Pie etal. building compelled itto trytoestablish de- need tosustaindomestic supportfor] nation- tury hasAmerica’spolitical ideals and its 64). “Only[sinceth Minxin, AminSamia, andGarzSeth2006, American effortsatregime change(Pie tives. Realpolitickhastypicallyguided proach isbestforunderstandingcurrentmo- Research Service,16). Ahistoricalap- lion (UnitedStates now costtheUnitedStatesalmost $864bil- been some purposetotheeffortsthathave democratization. Afterall,theremust have American Motivations using thetermWar onTerror. policy, Ibelieveitwouldbebesttocontinue poor jobatactuallydescribingAmerican term onitsown.Sincethisterm doesavery Operation, whichisreallyameaningless word thataccuratelydescribesU.S.policyis carrots of traditional diplomacy. Theonly actors arelesssusceptible tothesticks and terrorist isnotanoption.Asstated,substate strength acontingenc tivity istheexerciseofAmerican might “Contingency” ismystifying. Forwhatac- ists may be forgotten.Theword of atwo-prongedapproach tofightingterror- overseas activity,appreciation for the utility ism. Byrenaming theWar onTerrorasan and international efforts toeliminate terror- correctly viewedtheneedforbothdomestic Security 2002,i).TheBush administration “defeating terrorism” (OfficeofHomeland shared” nationalvisionforthepurposeof intended to“createacomprehensiveand ated immediately following9-11,andwas Department ofHomeland Security,wascre- Let usnowturntothereasonsforUS Congress Congressional e early twentieth cen- y? Diplomacy against y? Diplomacy 113 119 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

Saddam had Hussein the tion arguesthattheIraqi government under nental ballistic missiles. essary toattacktheU.Ssuchasinterconti- weapons, itlackedthedeliverysystemnec- ous, butevenifIraqhadpossessedsuch breach ofinternationallawisobviouslyseri- WMDs afterthe1991GulfWar. This forbade Iraqfrom possessingordeveloping tions 687,678 and1441whichallexplicitly United NationsSecurityCouncilResolu- numerous internationallaws;notably, case, Iraqwouldhavebeeninviolationof (Galbraith 2006,70).Hadthisbeenthe covert weaponsdevelopment program struction (WMDs)it that Iraqpossessedw plicated. Initially, the UnitedStatesclaimed battleground intheWar onTerror. asamajorUnited StatessawAfghanistan ber 11,2001,itwasnosurprisethatthe organizer oftheterrori al Qaedawasdiscoveredtobetheprincipal Soviet Invasion(Bhutto2008,112-114).As ment andtrainingofmujahedeen duringthe curred asadirect resultof American arma- irony, much of alQaeda’sdevelopment oc- the Soviets.Inwhatturnedouttobeatragic ghanistan duringthe1980swhilefighting of itsorganizationaldevelopment inAf- Taliban. Infact,al been thesafehavenforalQaedaunder

tainly included secur

mocratizing IraqandAfghanistancer- stration’s motivesforinvadingandde- as, “bloodforoil,”theBushadmini- Nevertheless, theBushadministra- The caseofIraqwasabit more com- gross simplifications ofUSpolicy 2006, 65)Tolookbeyondsuch ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Qaedaunderwentmuch Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 had acquiredthrougha eapons ofmass de- st attacksofSeptem- ity. Afghanistanhad potential forselling was for American instillation of a States thanitspredecessor. Onepossibility ment wouldbefriendliertowardsthe United needed toensure thatany successor govern- its national security, theUnitedStates needed forthetwocountries.Tostrengthen ter theinvasions,newgovernments were power aswell.Butoncethedustsettledaf- spiring withterrorists,was removed from contravention ofinte a countrytheUnitedStatesbelievedwasin President Saddam Hussein,thePresidentof granted toalQaedaoperative.Former Iraqi was deposed becauseoftheasylum it was toeffectregime change.TheTaliban tion betweenthetwogroupsweretrue. posing regime changeinIraqiftheconnec- American wantedtoberesponsibleforop- Congress (Althaus andLargio2006,4).No cull dissent,evenfrom manyDemocrats in Bush administration wasstrongenoughto nuclear conflicts,thefearcreatedby can fearofterrorism. thestakesin Given was possible,therebyexacerbating Ameri- ance withalQaedaagainst theUnited States Bush administration argued tween IraqandalQaeda. Nevertheless, the derscores theacrimonious relationshipbe- Although the offerwasnotaccepted, itun- Arabia fromIraqduringthefirstGulfWar. the useofalQaedaforcestodefendSaudi Saudi KingFahdbinAbdul exemplified byOsama binLaden’sofferto Qaeda. Anexample disconnectis ofthis strange bedfellowfortheSunniIslamist al (Iraq’s governing party)wouldhavebeena The secular Arab-nationalist Ba’ath Party ica. Admittedly, this was rather unlikely. or distributingWMDs toenemies ofAmer- In bothcases,UnitedStatespolicy rnational lawandcon- thatanIraqialli- AzizalSaudof 114 120 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

tize, thatthedeptha three things: thatall countries todemocra- time andtoday,heessentiallyarguedfor minology differsslightlybetweenKant’s to warwithoneanother.Althoughtheter- would benecessarytostopstatesfromgoing manuel Kantoutlinedwhat hebelieved ten in1795,thepoliticalphilosopherIm- Forging aDemocratic Peace to itssecurity dilemma. tion turned todemocratization astheanswer the firstplace.Instead,Bushadministra- to theconditionsinAfghanistanandIraq tatorships and authoritarianism waswhatled terrorist wasanimportant goal.Astrictly changing the “heartsan United States(GauseIII, 2005).Ofcourse, support attacksperpetrated against,the democratic ideals,andbelikelytoattack,or tries became democratic, theywouldabsorb administration reasonedthatifthesecoun- war everywhere. Nevertheless,theBush would certainlynothavebeentheendtoall democracies, therewouldbenowar. [1795] 1970,98).Thus,ifallcountrieswere tend togowarinselfdefense(Kant 98). Kantreasonedthatdemocracies only tional tradeincrease zations (IGOs) increase, andthatinterna- ments ofstatesinIntergovernmental Organi- ture ofterrorism. supportofdic- Arguably,

stable countriesparticularlygiventhena-

in empowering dictatorsinalreadyun- can officials likelyrealizedthedanger out theColdWar). However,Ameri- In hisessay “Perpetual Peace” writ- A democratic IraqandAfghanistan mark ofUS foreignpolicythrough- dictatorship (ashadbeenthehall- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 nd number ofinvolve- (Kant [1795]1970,93- d minds” ofpotential : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 attempt toremove them to democracy inthese two states,and did tion realized some of lishing thetwocountriesasdemocracies. invasions, theUnitedStatesbeganreestab- the aftermath oftheIraqandAfghanistan mention theKurdsinNorthernIraq.Thus, demographically dominant Shi’a(notto sein regime betweenrulingSunniandthe power relationshipduringtheformer Hus- sideration because ofthe deconstructed amongst Iraqis.Thiswasanimportant con- help preventtheemergence ofviolence ciations createdbycivil societymight even the theoriesofAshtoushVarshney,asso- violence. Furthermore, toextrapolatefrom tent withthestatus through whichcitizenscanexpressdiscon- change. Civilsocietyprovidesamedium many groupsincivilsoci society. Importanttothisdiscussionisthat pate inmany differentma political actiongroups,Americans partici- Americans. From localreligiousgroupsto 2004). Thisconceptiscertainlyfamiliarto negotiated” (LondonSchoolofEconomics, though inpractice,thisrelationshipmay be retically divorced from activities ofthestate, purposes andvalues.Civilsocietyistheo- collective actionaround shared interests, of civilsocietyas,“thearenauncoerced Economics providesanexcellentdefinition robust civilsocieties. potential wouldbethroughthegrowthof the potentialforterrorism.Thediminished aging democracy wouldalsohelpdiminish ist groups.Theoreticallyhowever,encour- ily haveinfluencedsubgovernmental terror- state-focused approachwouldnotnecessar- To theircredit,the Bushadministra- quo withoutresortingto TheLondonSchoolof the seriousroadblocks . Immediately after ety seek toeffect nifestations ofcivil 115 121 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

destroyed eitherasadi cally much oftheinfrastructurehadbeen gressional Budget Office2008,16).Ironi- Iraq alone(UnitedStatesCongress.Con- States Government over$100billionfor of August2008thishascosttheUnited the reconstructionofstateinfrastructure.As 180,000 independentcontract Bonn Accords,wasobviously apivotalstep 2006, 157).Thisprocess, aslaidoutinthe than aUSledcoalitionforce (Goodson freely-elected Afghangovernment rather transitioning sovereigntyofAfghanistantoa anti-Taliban groupsto establish aprocessfor this major issue, theUnitedStates relied on rupted societies”(2006,153).Because of what isusuallyencounteredinsuchdis- in Afghanistanlate2001wasfarbeyond gree ofreconstruction… change, societiesusuallyrequiresomede- Goodson explains,“Afterconflictorregime even worsethanthesituation inIraq.Larry American. government wouldnotbeexplicitlyanti- Iraqi polityinthehopes United Stateswasclearlyreaching out tothe providing Iraqis withbasic amenities, the moting internationaltrade.Furthermore,by the development inturn,pro- ofbusiness, Assisting ininfrastruc nous pillagingimmediately followingthem. can attacksduringthe in Army CorpsofEngineersandhiredover

more, theUnitedStatesbroughtin

trade forthetwocountries.Further- cally, thisenabled more international with IraqandAfghanistan.Theoreti- The situationinAfghanistanwas tion liftedmanyofitstradebarriers the invasions,Bushadministra- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 ture projectssupported rect resultofAmeri- butthedestruction vasion orbyindige- that afutureelected ors toassistin This wascertainly thecase for Afghanistan offensives terterrorist and providesasafehaven duringthecoun- ficial documentation suchasvisasfor travel, This relationshipprovidesterrorists withof- may evencolludewithcertainorganizations. ther betooweaktoeliminate terrorists,or 2009, 80).Weakandfailedstatesmayei- or post-invasionIraq(Gvosdev andTakeyh. weak andfailedstatessuchasAfghanistan ertheless, terroristgr terrorists canlivevirtuallyanywhere.Nev- the pervasiveness of With theadventofhigh-speedinternetand Nor istherenecessarilyaneedforone. ernmental group,thereis prove problematic. Obviously,asasubgov- ist group.First, simply agroupmay finding very difficulttocompletely destroyaterror- tions. Toadegree,they trying torootoutspecif these methods betterth actions, theBushadministration believed democratization areinherentlystate-level properly. Although invasionandsubsequent ping terrorism,solongasitwasexecuted may afeasiblesolutionforstop- havebeen can presencewithoutanyendinsight. from hasprolongedtheAmeri- Afghanistan the UnitedStates toeradicatetheTaliban mocratization combined the lackofbenchmarks forsuccessful de- forces intheAfghancountryside.However, the military – was free tofighting Taliban democracy, theUnitedStates –specifically By relyingonlocalAfghanistoestablish out ademocratically electedgovernment. Democratic governanceisimpossible within establishingdemocracy inAfghanistan. Democratic PeaceTheory(DPT) telecommunications, oups areattractedto ofothercountries. an thealternativeof ic terroristorganiza- were correct. Itis with theinability of no terrorist“state.” 116 122 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

chain ofcommand.Lack and thereisnodirectlinksupordowna nodal quality.Cellsoperateindependently, ism,” “newterrorism” ischaracterizedbyits Unlike thehierarchical style of“oldterror- tional structureofterroristorganizations. terrorist activity isidentifying theorganiza- (Patrick 2009,102). on effectivecounterterroristcampaigns spect state sovereignty canseriouslyinfringe tribute. Tothem, victoryiszero-sum. Ad- cannot bedealtwiththrough coercionor Since terroristsdonot state focusedresponse(Howard 2009,113). sire tomaximize casualtiescallsforanon- ism suchasreligiousmotivations andade- combined withotherqualitiesofnewterror- continue tofightandrecruit.Thisresiliency in hiding,branchesofalQaedaliveonand der inPakistan.EvenwithOsama binLaden much oftheSwatregion,justoverbor- writing, Talibanforceshaveconquered movement didnotdie.Infact,asofthis believed tobetopalQaedaleaders, the stan, andkilledorcapturemany ofwhoit When theUnitedStatesattackedAfghani- organizational structure may evenbeanantiquated conceptin the cells operateindependently,“leadership” of aterroristgroup.Furthermore, sincethe possible todetermine the sizeandleadership link oneterroristtoanot failed statesfrom international norms re-

forded toterroristgroupsinweakand

the UnitedStates, theprotection af- (Wright 2006, 355).Forcountrieslike Afghan military from 1997-2001 Another problem formostcounter- worked with alQaedatotrainthe which, undertheTaliban,had ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 control states, they her, itisalmostim- of terroristgroups. ing theabilityto : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 zation, haditbeencarried outproperly, entirely throughregime change.Democrati- to alQaedacouldbereduced oreliminated military. The servicesthese states provided are easilyidentifiable and targetablebythe States, unlikeamorphous terroristgroups, and Afghanistanarefairlyreasonable. the Bushadministration’s invasionsofIraq mocracies aswell. sible toturnAfghanistanandIraqintode- and West Germany, perhapsitwouldbepos- tics ofsuccessfuldemo United Statescouldharnessthecharacteris- can military officials(Ike 1950,24)). Ifthe lished inaConstitution drawn upbyAmeri- this tradition sprangfrom provisions estab- oped anofficial offensive military (albeit, In fact,sinceWWII, Japanhasnotdevel- been involvedinaninternational conflict. these countriesdemocratized, neitherhad for Iraqireconstruction).Furthermore, since the former leaderaswell(particularlysalient spite arecentcult-of-personalitysurrounding Democratization occurre viously ruledbyauthoritariangovernments. war-ravaged countriesafter having been pre- Both ofthesedemocracies emerged from tized twostates:JapanandWest Germany. WWII America has successfully democra- Iraq shouldhavebeensuccessful.Since attempts todemocratize Afghanistanand the Bushadministration tobelievethat its why Idistinguishbetweenthetwogroups. terrorists” rather than“old terrorists.” Thisis fought intheWar onTerrorresemble “new However, thecharacteristics of theterrorists ism versusand “old”terrorism isdebated. mittedly, the verynotionof a“new”terror- Takenatfacevalue,thereasonsfor, It wasnotentirelyunreasonablefor cratization inJapan cratization d inbothplacesde- 117 123 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

invasion ofIraq,theUnited Statesusedthe has provenelusive. for victoryinAfghanistan.Unfortunately,it Democracy hasbecome thesingle criteria mocracy necessaryforDPT totakeeffect. stan hasbeenunabletodevelopintothede- trade, andalackofinfrastructure,Afghani- nal insurrection,abur control overthewhole ghan nationalgovernment hasyettogain 2009). Becauseofthisinstability,theAf- after insurgentsalongtheborder”(Obama “partner withAfghansecurityforcesandgo additional 17,000troopstoAfghanistan 2009, PresidentBarakObama orderedan The fighting issointense thatinlate March and alQaedaforces military continues tofight against Taliban emerged. TothisdaythatUnitedStates safe environment nordemocracyever (Fukuyama 2006,234).However,neitherthe that ademocratic government couldflourish ment inAfghanistan,itwouldbemorelikely believed thatbycreatingasecureenviron- of Afghanistan.TheUnitedStatescorrectly its time fighting against Talibaninthe hills tial invasion, theUnited two countries.InAfgha by politicalelitestodefinesuccessinthe lies inhowdemocratization hasbeenshaped drance tothe War onTerror?The answeris tization inIraqandAf ory fordemocratization,whyhasdemocra-

Democratization The Shortcomingsof

As discussedearlier,before the2003 With suchatheoretically soundthe- tential for terrorism. could havefurther reducedthepo- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 throughout Afghanistan. geoning illegaldrug ghanistan beenahin- country. Facinginter- nistan, aftertheini- States spent mostof and overthostility.It Coalition troopshavebeen met withintense Richard Cheneypredicted, as“liberators,” stead ofbeing greeted,as VicePresident aroused inIraqiandAfghanicitizens.In- based ondemocratizationhasbeentheanger resulting fromacontinuedU.S.presence Angry Afghanistan,InfuriatedIraq Presence The ProblemsofContinuedUnitedStates on Terror. ability of the UnitedStates towagetheWar ence thathascausedseriousdamage tothe and Afghanistan.Itis for acontinuedAmerican presenceinIraq encouraging peace,hasbecome anexcuse tion, whileatheoreticallysoundmeans of the criteriafor success. Thus,democratiza- sion, theU.S.turnedtodemocratization as of anyotherlegitimate reasonfortheinva- ons ofmass destruction.However,forlack pendent ofthepresenceorabsenceweap- Admittedly, Iraqneeded reconstruction inde- United Statesbegantodemocratize Iraq. rassed andresponsibleforafailedstate,the tive (Duelfer2004).In of theinvasion.Thereportcame backnega- dam HusseinpossessedWMDsatthetime Coalition of theWilling todetermine if Sad- ternational investigation bymembers of the 87). However,aftertheinvasion,inanin- military squadrons (Galbraith 2006,86— personnel were imbedded into American destruction duringtheinvasionthatmedia that itwouldencounterweaponsofmass casus belli.SocertainwastheUnitedStates Saddam andOsama asa Hussein binLaden presence ofWMDsandtheassociation One ofthemostobviousproblems isfaroutsidethe thiscontinuedpres- ternationally embar- 118 124 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

in civilreconstruction, Not onlyhas theAmerican military engaged played thelargestrole mense, byfar theUnitedStatesmilitary has rebuild IraqandAfghanistanhasbeenim- manpower spentonprivatecontractorsto national unity. damaged IraqiorAfghaniconceptionsof the UStoengageinstate-building,andhave groups isthattheyall dish state,the most important aspectofthese state whileanothermay desireafreeKurs- while onegroupmay anIraqiSunni want on democratization efforts.Forexample, them togetherwhenanalyzingtheirimpact organizations, itismost usefultogroup than addressthespecificgoalsofparticular their impact ondemocratization. Rather movements mustbeconsideredregarding vated politicalparties tives. terproductive forachieving American objec- will eventually emerge, thisangeriscoun- stan onthegroundsthat States continuesitsst less likely(ElectingtoFight).AstheUnited emergence ofdemocratic institutionsmuch larly whenangercausesviolence,makes the for regime change. However,anger,particu- shown thatangercanbeusedasacatalyst ment instate building.Infact,historyhas ger isnotnecessarily

ratic changes.Itshouldbenotedthatan-

Afghanistan haveundergonedemoc- a significantimpact onhowIraqand suffice tosay thatitexists, andithas Although theamount ofmoneyand The emergence ofreligiouslymoti- legitimacy ofthisanger.However, scope ofthisessaytodiscussthe ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 ay inIraqandAfghani- just anegativeele- inhibit theabilityof and ethnicseparatist inreconstruction. but itseffortstopro- ademocratic state : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 hostile tothe American presence. ate democracy inanenvironment extremely Iraq andAfghanistan,it is attempting tocre- on Terrortheemergence ofdemocracy in United StateshaspeggedvictoryintheWar victim (Howard2009,113).Thus,whilethe them seriouslyfavorstheattackerover out theseattacksasopposedtopreventing American military,andthecostsofcarrying arms fireareaconstant problem forthe terrorist attacks.Roadsidebombs andsmall military inIraq andAfghanistan hasbeen one ofthegreatest threats totheAmerican despite itssuperiorweaponryandtraining, pability andinabilitytobe detected. Thus, Unfortunately,asmentioned earlier remarkable for itssimplicity, destructive cain thisessay,terroristattackmethodology is the statebuildingprocess. rity isancrucial element important part to bate the reader falls,sufficetosaythatsecu- matter whichsideofthischicken—eggde- ing democracy (Forman 2006,196).No no democratic institutions,obviouslyinhibit- may claim thatwithout securitythere canbe much lessDPT,willnotfunction.Others can benosecurity,andthus,democracy, development of democratic institutions there their book racy toemerge. Thesetwo scholarsarguein democratic institutions necessary fordemoc- sively since1995regard mocratization was taken) Snyder (from whommy definitionfor de- ate democracy. EdwardMansfieldandJack what orderconditionsne answer asto precisely what isneeded andin states. Althoughthereis pensible fortheemergence ofdemocratic vide securitytothe Electing toFight two countriesareindis- noclear,universal ing theorderingof ed toemerge to cre- havewrittenexten- that without the 119 125 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

the “Northern Alliance”) hadworkedexten- stan (UFI,andknownto Western media as Islamic FrontfortheSalvationof Afghani- assistance bynativeAfghanis. TheUnited invasion in2001wasdonewithsignificant it shouldberecognizedthattheAmerican organizations. Tofullygraspthedifference, tion, butonenolesshinderedbyseparatist other groups. have opened thefloodgatesforsecessionby table regardingIraqi Iraq toremove itselffromthenegotiating Maliki government. To solution fortheBushadministration andthe secede from theIraqistate wasanuntenable ing the2003invasion,allowingregionto an invaluableassettotheUnitedStatesdur- though theKurdsinNorthernIraqhadbeen rest ofIraq.(Galbr gion votedfor theirindependencefrom the in whichIraqis inthe NorthernKurdish re- exemplified bytheJanuary2005referendum three state system wasverypossible. Thisis troops weredeployedtoIraq,theideaofa troop “surge”inwhichanadditional30,000 2006, priortotheBushadministration’s tedly, thisisnotalwaysthecase.Until tempting tobreakupthe efforts because,atpresent,theUSisnotat- separatist movements cannotsupportUS involvement instatedevelopment. InIraq, characteristic: theyboth tendtoreject US this essay becausethey share animportant

of organizationsareconsideredlinkedin

on democratization. Thesetwotypes ganizations andseparatistmovements of religiously motivated political or- Afghanistan isinadifferentsitua- within the context of the emergence Now considerhowallof this ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 aith 2006,193)Even Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 reconstruction could allowaportionof Iraqi state. Admit- government throughdemocratic reform tempts bytheSunnistotakecontrol of the the governingprocess.Furthermore, at- not-so-subtle efforttoremove Sunnisfrom already beguntosee democratization asa Baathification oftheIraqigovernment, had acceptable toSunniIraqis who,with theDe- nance oftheconstitutionalprocesswasun- Iraqi Constitution.Of had beenthedominant forceindraftingthe Shiites, themajority Muslim faction inIraq, the state(Galbrait Shiites inIraq almost causedabreakup of political parties,di democratization byreligiously motivated Kabul. effective atgoverninginareasmuch beyond the Afghannationalgovernment provedin- cerned itselfwithsecurityinAfghanistan, 129). Thus,whiletheUnited Statescon- ernment asillegitimate (Weinbaum 2006, see perceivethenewlyformed Afghangov- southern andeasternAfghanistanbeganto Northern Allianceloyalists,warlordsfrom ghan bureaucracybecameoccupiedby southern partsofthecountry.AsAf- whose members reside were thelargestgroupsinAfghanistan,but Pashtuns andShiaMuslimHazaraswhich ance, andthus,thenewgovernment, were ties inAfghanistan.Absentfrom thealli- Panjshiris, and Uzbeks;allrelative minori- was suchthat itwasdominated byTajiks, ethnic composition oftheNorthAlliance cadres (Weinbaum 2006,127). However,the UFI packedgovernment positions withits ately followingthecaptureofKabul, Britian duringthe2001invasion.Immedi- sively withtheUnitedStatesandGreat As forthespecificdangers posedto h, 2006,181-208).Iraqis strust amongSunni and d ineasternand course, Shiitedomi- 120 126 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

tend their political cont acted atheperfectvenueforSunnistoex- parties werethelogical outcome. They a genuinedemocracy.Religiouspolitical America wasnot really interested informing ostracized the Shiite majority whofelt that generated bythedestruction oftheoldre- ments werefulfilling the gapincivil society religious groupsand obstacle inestablishingpeace inIraq. frequency ofsectarianviolenceasamajor as lateAugust2007notedthedisturbing prominent, aUSintelligence reports released (Galbraith 2006,246)Theviolencewasso age deathsperdayrosefrom 11to34. for themonths afterthe attackwhereaver- uted totheupswing in many as165deaths,a the bombing wastheimmediate causeofas taliations werecommon. Itisbelievedthat ple ofthebloodfeudthatconsumed IraqRe- the alAskariMosqueisanexcellentexam- sectarian violenceafterthe2006bombingof bigger retaliation.Themassive upswingin came retaliations.Biggerattacksyielded groups andviceversa.With eachattack rific scale.SunnigroupsattackedShiia power, sectarianviolenceeruptedonahor- groups, andwiththegroupscompeting for a premium ofimportance. As aminority group,politicalpowerwasat the UnitedStates topacifySunnidissent

sequent attemptsbytheUnitedStates

proposed,” (Galbraith2006,194)Sub- object to“nearlyeverythingthatwas This causedSunnirepresentativesto Essentially, thepolitical motivated With powerconcentrated inafew Ba’athists as athreat to theirpower. were viewedbymany former ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 the separatist move- nd mostlikelycontrib- violence thatoccurred rol overtheprocess. : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 ing theproductionofpoppy verydifficult. infrastructure makes thelogisticsof curtail- ghani government. Lawlessnessand poor poses aserious concernfor thefledgling Af- intensely lucrative, andtheirproduction as heroinandmorphine. Thesedrugsare production ofmany typesofnarcoticssuch which opiumcam beextracted,isusedinthe nuts, figs,andpoppy.Poppy,aplantfrom easily. Among thesearecertaintypes of essentially tothefew ghan’s main agriculturalproductsarelimited Because oftheinhospitableclimate, Af- for Afghanfarmers toscratchoutaliving. structures insome regions,itisverydifficult Rocky, dry,andlackingevenbasicinfra- stan. Afghanistanposse the productionofpoppyinpartsAfghani- ernment hasenabledamassive upswingin ance onthepartofAfghan nationalgov- The PoppyProductionDilemma the likelihoodofdemocratization decreases. there isviolence, andasviolenceincreases, tuns inAfghanistan.Without civilsociety Shi’a andKurds inIraq,orTajiksandPash- statement couldeasilybeappliedtoSunnis, Hindus andMuslims inIndia,thesame dom regardingtherelationshipsbetween though Varshneywrotethesewordsofwis- lence incommunitieswillincrease. Al- Varshney positsthat connections made throughcivilsociety, on avarietyofissues(2002,4).Without the the otherthatallowspeopletocome together tween thestateononehandandfamilies society as“thepartof ethnic conflictandcivi mocracy. AshutoshVarshney,ascholaron gimes. Civil societyisthelifebloodofde- The inabilitytoadminister govern- the potentialforvio- things thatcangrow our life that exists be- c life,definescivil ss littlearableland. 121 127 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

Thecentral theme ofthispaperis how continuedAmerican presencein Iraq Unending Investment prolong thebleeding. emergence ofademocratic statewillonly continued American presencebasedonthe does, America ishemorrhages resources.A stan areundermined. Nomatter whatit grow, previousefforts United Statesallowsthepoppycropsto democratization (Moore1966,xxii).Ifthe emergence ofamiddle classandharming thereby decreasingthelikelihoodof harms thewellbeingofAfghanfarmers poppy cropstodiscouragenarco-terrorism, it production. IftheUnitedStatesdestroys itself inano—winsituationregardingpoppy ers tosubsist. TheUnitedStateshas placed controlled substance,an tion ofacropthatcanbysynthesizedinto position ofbothneedingtostoptheproduc- ghan government findsitselfinthetenuous the UnitedStatesAf- andthenewlyformed all-time high(Weinbaum 2006,126).Thus, ghanistan, poppyproductionhasreachedan ability toadminister government acrossAf- certainly after theNorthern alliance lostthe the Northern Alliance came topower,and duction hadbeenoutlawed.However,after during thereignofTaliban,poppypro- funding (Weinbaum 2006,133).Ironically, terrorism, andisachief element interrorist the saleofpoppyhasbeenlinkedtonarco- lic health care clinics,

port facilities(rehabi

ticularly thosewithpoordomestic sup- are aproblemforanygovernment, par- harmful. Drugsproductionandsale duction ofthesegoodscanbevery Nevertheless, theunmitigated pro- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 etc.).Furthermore, to stabilizeAfghani- litation centers,pub- d theneedfor farm- suggest thateconomic development isa sional BudgetOffice2008, 3).Thisisnotto dollars (UnitedStatesCongress. Congres- from intheamount of$5billion Congress velopment (USAID)receivedappropriations United States Agencyfor International De- comparison, between2003and2007,the were certainlyother,better,usesforit.By used toreducethethre not used.Even ifthemoneywasstillonly these numbers, thinkofhowthismoney was (HERSZENHORN, 2008)Toappreciate actually beashigh$4trillion economist, claims thecostsofwarcould Joseph E.Stiglitz,aNobel—prizewinning Terror evenclaim thisnumber isdeflated. Bank, 2007).Some criticsoftheWar on (Purchasing PowerParity)in2007(World of averageannualAmerican GDP ber isincredible. Itisalmostonethirteenth sional ReportService2008,16).Thisnum- and Iraq)(United StateCongressCongres- and reconstructionactivityinAfghanistan ing theWar onTerror(includingallinvasion locating almost onetrilliondollarstofight- October 15,2008,Congressadmitted toal- Speakinginfiscalterms, thewarhas money. InaCongressionalreportreleased cost Americans aphenomenal sum of accumulated. will explore howandwhythesecosts have respond tofuture dangers.Inthissection,I reduced theabilityof the UnitedStates to debt from invasionandreconstructionall leadership, andtheaccumulation ofmassive damaged American confidence inpolitical strained andpreviously engaged military, States towagetheWar onTerror.A tion hasreduced theability of theUnited and Afghanistaninthename ofdemocratiza- at ofterrorism,there 122 128 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

on, asAmerican expensesandcasualties proval. However,asthe conflictsdragged ministration receivedanother spike in ap- the runuptowarinIraq, theBushad- ‘round theflag”effect(Muller2005,47).In ered tobe amanifestation ofthe“rally record approvalratings;whatmany consid- 9-11, PresidentGeorgeBushexperienced two countries.Intheimmediate aftermath of Thecredibility of American political of thecontinued American presence inthese elites hasalso sufferedimmenselybecause testament tothisdeficiency. organizations inIraqandAfghanistanisa private contractorsa quantity ofmoneythathasbeenspenton obviously proveninsufficient.Thesheer infrastructure. However,theseeffortshave of Engineers forassistance increating civil for democratization such astheArmyCorps sess afewresourcesthatwouldbehelpful mentioned earlier,theUSmilitary didpos- reconstruction (Dobbins2006,223).As missions necessaryforstatebuildingand environments, notthesort ofpeacekeeping soldiers predominantly trainedfor combat for whichitwasnotdesigned.American TheUnitedStatesmilitary hasalso efforts. TheU.S.military isengaged intasks suffered asaresultofitsdemocratization not beenthe case. may bearable.However,thishas havebeen turned intomodeldemocracies, these costs United States.HadIraqandAfghanistan

Iraq andAfghanistanfeeltowardsthe

have reducedtheanimosity many in tance, theUnitedStatesmight atleast ever, byprovidinghumanitarian assis- tization in the War onTerror.How- suitable alternativefromdemocra- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 nd byNongovernmental : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 conducted byPrinceton Survey Research of Bush’shandlingIraq (NewsweekPoll poll found68%ofAmericans disapproved the endofsecondBush term, the same 61% disapproved,and5%wereunsure.At This time, 34%ofAmericans approved, Associates Internationalconductedthepoll. changed. Again,Princeton SurveyResearch later, American viewshadobviously not sure.InAugust2005,overtwoyears dling, whileonly26%disapprovedwith 5% proved oftheBushadministration’s han- of Iraq,69%American less than one month after theinitialinvasion dling thesituationinIraq?"InMay2003, prove ordisapproveofthewayBushishan- 1,003 adultsnationwide,“..Doyouap- vey ResearchAssociatesInternationalasked Newsweek pollconductedbyPrincetonSur- American viewsofPresidentBush.Ina negative sentiment wasdirectly reflected in of thosesurveyedwith7%unsure.This results werenotworth were worthitwhilethosewhobelievedthe only 29%ofthosesurveyedthoughthecosts gone downsignificantly.InMarch2008, that accordingtotheirsurvey,supporthad CBS polledthesame groupanddiscovered (CBS NewsPoll,2009).InMarchof 2008, the costswerenotworthitwith9%unsure were worththeresultswhile 45%thought surveyed saidthattheybelieved thecosts Iraq, ornot?"InAugust2003,46%ofthose American life andothe of thewarwithIraq wasworththeloss of adults nationwide,"Doyouthinktheresult 844Americanpoll conductedbyCBSasked clearer, Americanpublicopinionwaned. A sary forsuccessfuldemocratization became mounted, andastheamount oftime neces- the costsroseto64% r costsofattacking s saidthat theyap- 123 129 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

in fullfighterregaliaon the deckof 2, 2003,U.S.PresidentGeorge Bushlanded were “victory”and“democracy.” OnMay most important terms thisdiscussion for discussion oftheWar onTerror.Two ofthe tion introducedanumber ofterms intothe form politicalsupport,theBushadministra- cians (Ravi 2005,55).Becauseofthisuni- simply perceivedas stration. Thestakesforbeingwrongwere politicians stoodagainsttheBushadmini- leading tothe2003invasionofIraq,few mocratic society. Similarly, intheweeks so wouldhavebeenpoliticalsuicideinade- the invasionofAfghanistanin2001.Todo ror. FewAmerican politiciansstoodagainst guity of important terms intheWar onTer- The answerliesintheepistemological ambi- credibility inthename ofdemocratization? ing ofAmerican dollars,lives,anddomestic further damage. the credibility of political elitesmay suffer the sakeofdemocratization, itislikelythat prolongs itsstayinIra deplorable. Obviously, each lifelostintheconflictsbecame more Iraq andAfghanistanwasmade unattainable, cal. AsthecriteriaforAmerican victoryin Reifler 2009,8).Thiscertainlyseemslogi- sight ofbodybags.”(FeaverGelpiand evaporates rapidlyandirrevocablyatthe support fortheuseofforce,but ment state argues thattheremay beinitial

Gelpi andReifler 2009,8).Thisargu-

ership is“casualtyphobia”(Feaver and supportingAmerican military lead- Americans stoppedfavoringthewar But whathasenabledthe hemorrhag- One popularlycitedreasonforwhy Associates International,2009). ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 too highbymostpoliti- q andAfghanistanfor as theUnitedStates for thenascentAfghaninational formation Service2005). Removing support States couldonlywatch (United NationsIn- postponed from 2004until2005,the United ghanistan’s parliamentary electionswere ington-approved checkpoints.When Af- developing Iraqigovernment reachedWash- precarious position,wasunabletoensurethe from thetwocountries,andbecauseofits against theuse oftimetables forwithdrawal the Bushadministration remained steadfast stration still expectedit.Onasimilar note, changed, itwasclearthat theBushadmini- though thedefinition forvictory had (Berinsky Drukman, 2007,128)Even “Plan forVictory”nexttohispodium 15 times, andevenposedasignthatsaid, Iraq, GeorgeBushusedtheterm “victory” where hediscussedstrategyforthewarin guity, inaNovember 30,2005address stration neverexplained.Despitethisambi- Thetion andparticipation? Bushadmini- free andfairelections ratic Iraqmeant. Internationally accepted provided aboutexactlywhatafullydemoc- Of course,therenoexplanationwasever current definitionofafullydemocratic Iraq. “victory” again.This gram, theBushadministration changed cluded IraqneverpossessedaWMD pro- However, whenweaponsinspectorscon- ria forasuccessfuli paigns against Iraqseem like the only crite- ministration made winingmilitary cam- not yetfinished.Nevertheless,theBush adis nowknownalltoowell,themission was said, Iraqwas“MissionAccomplished.” As coln wastodeclareasthebannerbehindhim President Bush’svisit to the Abraham Lin- U.S.S. Abraham Lincoln.Thepurposeof nvasion (Ravi2005,45). ? Highvoterregistra- ? time, victorytookthe 124 130 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

tions SecurityCouncilResolution 1441. tigating Iraqi compliance withUnited Na- and UNMOVICwereresponsible forinves- national law. Inthe technology for theircompliance withinter- investigating countriespossessingnuclear tions areinternational had beeninvestigatingIraq.Theseorganiza- and InspectionCommission(UNMOVIC), Priortothewar,International United NationsMonitoring,Verification, Atomic EnergyAgency(IAEA)andthe allies soured. relations between theUnitedStatesand its ing uptotheUnitedStatesinvasionofIraq, two andahalfyearslater,intheweeks lead- armed force.”(Gordon2002,5)However, ther bypledgingactionincludingthe“useof all.” Themembers ofNATOwentevenfur- shall be considered anattackagainstthem more oftheminEuropeorNorthAmerica stating, that“anarmed voked Article5oftheNorthAtlanticTreaty tack, thenineteenmembers ofNATOin- was astounding.Immediately aftertheat- international solidarity against thehijackings had coolerrelationssuchasIranandLibya, Britain tocountries withwhichtheU.S.has ica’s support.From longtime allies like nations aroundtheworl War onTerror.Immediatelyfollowing9-11, job ofalienatingU.S.alliesthroughoutthe The Bushadministration didaspectacular

in 2005.

and hopeforbetterelectionconditions keep promoting securityinAfghanistan that theUnitedStatescould dowas Unfriendly Friends yielded fasterdemocratization. All government wouldnothave ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 case ofIraqtheIAEA bodies chargedwith attack againstoneor d flockedtoAmer- : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009

by theUnitedStates(Anderson Bennisand strongly influencedbybribes andcoercion during awarwithIraq,the coalitionwas a “CoalitionoftheWilling” tosupportit United Stateswouldclaimthatitassembled disconcerting (Wall, 125).Althoughthe tional communitysawU.S.militarism as compliance toResolution1441,theinterna- vestigators presented evidenceforIraqi Theinternational communitywasnot Particularly afterIAEAandUNMOVICin- supportive of U.S.military actioninIraq. justification for th later beusedbytheBushadministration asa rity.” ItwasNegroponte’scaveatthatwould resolutions andprotec posed byIraq,ortoenforcerelevantUN from actingtodefenditselfagainstthethreat tion doesnotconstrainanymember state event ofafurtherIraqi rity Councilfailstoac Negroponte didcomment representative toth gers formilitary action.Nevertheless, U.S. The Resolutioncontainednospecifictrig- of Resolution1441(Galbraith2006,102). program andwasthereforeincontravention Iraq wasnotfullydisclosingitsweapons areas, theBush administration claimedthat willingness toallowinspectors intocertain the Bushadministration. CitingIraqiun- vestigation ofIraqwasnotfastenoughfor Resolution 1441,2009).However,thein- War (TheUnitedNationsSecurityCouncil ited armament inthewakeof1991Gulf both anuclearmaterial andcertainprohib- resolutions restricting previous UnitedNationsSecurityCouncil final opportunitytohaveIraqcomply with Resolution 1441offeredSaddam a Hussein e Iraqinvasion. e UnitedNationsJohn t worldpeacesecu- t decisivelyinthe Iraq’s possessionof violation, thisresolu- that, “IftheSecu- 125 131 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

items thatcontained th cowardice, andevenchildishrenaming of ror thathavearisenas dress the major obstacles totheWar onTer- when necessary. Thesethreetactics willad- nity tosharetheburden of statebuilding while convincingtheinternationalcommu- the USandinternational community needs toworkhealrelationshipsbetween practices. Finally, theObama administration tility towards Muslims withinUSmilitary the USmust reducingin Afghanistan asmuch aspossible.Secondly, extricate itself from thepoliticsof Iraq and three parts. First,theUnitedStatesmust Theanswertothisisin War onTerror? to correctAmerica’s course infighting the steps shouldtheObama administration take Policy Prescriptions unlikely tochange. the emergence ofdemocracy,thisviewis and Afghanistanbecauseofadedicationto United StatescontinuesitspresenceinIraq deeply troubling(Wall 2004,126).Asthe use of theU.S.military.” whichtheyseeas icy, awillingnesstoimpose democracy by strain ofmessianic universalism inU.S.pol- part, “TheFrench seeanewaggressive tional goodwill createdaf None ofthisisgoodfo “french fries” became “freedom fries”). products, jokes focusing onFrenchmilitary

can rancorthroughboycottsofFrench

France inparticular experiencedAmeri- cases bythe American public itself. “Coalition” wereostracized,inmany Given thesegrotesquerealities,what countries thatwerenotpartofthe Cavanagh 2003,8—10).Those ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 aresultofattemptsby e word“French”(i.e. r utilizingtheinterna- stances ofoverthos- ter 9-11.Fortheir nal powerstruggleswill make aunified citizens. Without legitimacy, constant inter- eignty, governments areunabletocontrol society intolawlessn these thingswillresult in thedevolution of macy andsovereignty.Lackingeitherof concern themselves withtwothings: legiti- less. Atabasiclevel,governments must ated bythese democratizations may befruit- all othermeasures tofixtheproblemsgener- Afghani governanceiscritical.Without this, the challenge. only questionthatremains isifheupto States fightstheWar onTerror.Now,the in auniquepositiontoshapehowtheUnited President, and aman withMuslim family) is Obama (aDemocrat, America’s first black eradicated. AsPresident,BarackHussein to democratize AfghanistanandIraqcanbe is neededbefore theill—effectsofattempts of thesegoals.However,much more work taken several significantstepstowards many this writing,theObama has administration mistakes other if theUnitedStates seekstocorrect its ground” must beaddressedonewayoran- plementation. However,“obstaclesonthe likely toencounterseriousproblems inim- mented sooner. Theaboveprescriptionsare have necessarilyoccurredifimple- likely tocarryrepercussionsthatmay not have. Thus,theimpacts oftheseactionsare would havedegeneratedasseriouslythey two invasions,itisunlikelythatconditions taken these policies intheearly days of the start. HadtheBushadministration under- Afghanistan. Theserecommendationsarea the UnitedStates todemocratize Iraq and American removalfrom Iraqiand It isimportant tomention thatasof ess. Without sover- 126 132 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

mocracy forAmerican effortstobefruitful. ernments mustworkdiligentlytowards de- minish. However,theIraqiandAfghani gov- macy ofindigenousgovernments may di- America, the potentialfor harming thelegiti- not justinareas that are friendly toward States enforcessecurity everywhereequally, governments. Furthermore,iftheUnited capable ofupholdingsecuritythantheinfant the UnitedStates military iscertainly more spite itsweaknessesinfightingterrorism, accompanied byreasonabletimetables. De- must bereasonableandtheyalso be governments toaccomplish. Thesegoals goals anditexpectstheIraqiAfghani ously, theUnited Statesmustcreate alist of good example ofthisissecurity.Simultane- object goodsforallIraqisandAfghanis.A more, thesegoalsneedtobeapoliticaland cretion ofthehostgovernments. Further- these countries, andfulfill them atthedis- objectives the UnitedStateswillpursue in Obama administrationmu of thepoliticstwocountries.The certainly startbyremoving itselffrommuch vorce itselffrom IraqandAfghanistan,itcan United Statestoquicklyandcompletely di- weak civilsocietiesmay befatal. legitimacy ofthenewgovernments with groups jockeyingforpower,suchchinksin groups andreligiouslymotivated political tal legitimacy in theprocess. With separatist (Obama, 2009)) ithashinderedgovernmen-

Iraqis incombat andsecuritymeasures

extensively trainedlocalAfghanisand eignty (theUnitedStates military has may assist in governmental sover- While itmay notbefeasible for the presence inIraqandAfghanistan government impossible. Whileits ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 st developalistof : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 of American foreignpolicyisanother step the phrase“Waronterror” from thelexicon step. Asdiscussed,intentionally removing Guantanamo Bay,Cubaisan excellentfirst military base andprisoner detentioncenter at regard. ClosingtheinfamousAmerican Obama hasmade significantstridesinthis the UnitedStates isat warwithIslam. not allowfurthercausetothosewhothink To correctitscourse,theUnitedStatesmust tudes Project,PewResearchCenter,2009). tions withmanyMuslims (PewGlobalAtti- War onTerrorhavescarredAmerican rela- Overt targeting of Islam andMuslims inthe be sufficienttooutweighMuslim antipathy. soundbites from PresidentObama maynot war withIslam” 2009).Ofcourse, (Cooper, United States, “isnotand willnever beat was toassure the“Muslim world”that the cuses ofPresidentObama’s first tripabroad was sosignificantthatoneofthemajor fo- of Muslims aroundtheworld.Theproblem counterterrorist activityontheperceptions ministration wastheimpact ofAmerican democracy. way thatitwillmore likelyresult inafull support todemocratization, butinsucha the UnitedStates willbe providingstrong ing delineatingresponsibilitiesandgoals, who areagainsttheUSpresence. Bycreat- more difficultforAQItogainsupporters achieve this,whilesimultaneously makingit the Iraqigovernment may bethebestwayto (AQI) agentsapprehended.Working with States governments want alQaedainIraq ber ofkeyissues.BoththeIraqandUnited and Afghaniobjectivesmay synconanum- is likely thatAmerican objectives and Iraqi Interestingly, ifthispolicyisundertaken,it A seriousblunderoftheBushad- 127 133 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

higher, andthelikelihood forsuccess willbe on Terror,coststoAmericans willbe much out theinternational involvement intheWar domestic supportwillco then proving thatpoliticians willnot lose the notionofpreventingterroristattacks, get more countriesintheworldinvested cern ofeverycountry.IfBarackObama can munity thatfightingterroristsmust beacon- needs toimpress uponth Second (althoughrelated),PresidentObama popular supportjustbyassistingintheWar. cians thatthey willnot necessarily loose ror. First,hewillneedto convincepoliti- ternational community intotheWar onTer- will thusbetwofold fo two conflicts.President Obama’s charge supplies themajority of resourcesfor the problem fortheUnitedStates whichalready from theCoalition.Thisisobviouslya ises thattheywould tralia andSpaincame topowerwithprom- Similarly, politiciansin tic backlash thathelo the IraqiInvasion,receivedsomuch domes- chief supporteroftheUnitedStatesduring Tony Blair,Prime Mini ing tothisuneaseistheknowledgethat volunteer intheWar onTerror.Contribut- have made it unlikelyforothercountriesto ica combined withAmerican pomposity However, thecostsofinvolvement toAmer- spread international supportafter9-11. into theWar onTerror.America hadwide-

to reintegrate theinternational community

opinion ofMuslims aroundtheworld. States isevertowinbackthepublic Finally, theUnitedStatesmust work must becontinuediftheUnited in therightdirection.These efforts ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 remove theircountry st hispositionasPM. r reintegrating thein- countrieslikeAus- ster ofBritainand me naturally.With- e internationalcom- wage theWaronTerror. States willbeinamuch betterposition to and Afghanistan,inthelong run,theUnited less commitment todemocratization inIraq not impossible. ByhaltingAmerica’s tire- These taskswillbedifficult toachieve, but War onTerrorarebeneficial toallstates. countries, butalsobecausethegoalsof fer some oftheexpensesWar onother cause itwillenabletheUnitedStatestode- War onTerror.Thisisimportantbothbe- stration must involveot Afghanistan. Finally,theObama admini- ting ajudiciouswithdrawalfrom Iraqand tory andabidebythosecriteriaforcommit- tion must developconcretecriteriaforvic- Islam.” Furthermore, theObama administra- what many Muslims perceiveasa“Waron work todifferentiatetheWar onTerrorfrom corrected. The Obama administration must Despite these issues,Americanpolicycanbe and hastarnishedU.S.image internationally. resource investment fromtheUnitedStates, ghanis, necessitatedenormousandcontinual angered many indigenousIraqisandAf- mocratic governments. Thisdecisionhas two countriesastheemergence offullyde- political eliteshavedefinedvictoryinthese Despite thisslownessindemocratization, democratic institutions inthesetwostates. resources havestymied theemergence of However, poorplanning,andinsufficient ghanistan aftertheUnitedStatesinvaded. been thesolutionforrebuildingIraqandAf- Theoretically, democratization may have United StatestowagetheWar onTerror. mocratization hasharmed Conclusion much lower. In thisessayIhaveshown howde- her countriesinthe theabilityof 128 134 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

13 April2009) www.pollingreport.com/iraq.htm. (Accessed Iraq, ornot?"http:// American lifeandothercostsofattacking the warwithIraqwasworthlossof Poll. CBS News Boston jema. andBarryR.McCafrey. McGraw Hill: Howard, ReidL.Sawyer,NatashaEBa- Security Environment. 2009byRussellD. Counter Terrorism: UnderstandingtheNew Options: ATaxonomyInTerrorism and Byman, Daniel.2009.US Counter-terrorism ennial: NewYork lam, Democracy,andtheWest.HarperPer- Bhutto, Benazir.2008. 141. Opinion Quarterly.Vol.71Issue1,126— man.2007. Adam J.Berinsky,James N.Druk- (Accessed 5April,2009) www.nytimes.com/2009/04/03/us/politics Times Online.http:// but Havethe Policies? Baker,Peter.TheWordsHaveChanged, althaus.pdf. (Accessed10 March,2009) www.communication.illinois.edu/salthaus/ #1. PSOnline.http://

the ChangeinAmerica’sPublicEnemy Saddam: OriginsandConsequencesof

cember 8,2004. Scott L.Althaus,DevonM.Largio.De-

THE POLLS—REVIEW References ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 "Do youthinktheresult of When OsamaBecame TheNewYork Reconciliation: Is- : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009

.Public kins University Pres Beyond Afghanistanand Iraq.JohnsHop- Fukuyama, Francis.2006. NationBuilding: timore yama. HopkinsUniversityPress:Bal- Johns ghanistan andIraqEditedbyFrancisFuku- Went AwryInNationBuilding:BeyondAf- Baghdad: HowPostconflictReconstruction Forman, JohannaMendelson. chusetts Go toWar. ing toFight:WhyEmergingDemocracies Edward Mansfield,JackSnyder.2007 index.html. (Accessed10 February,2009) general-reports-1/iraq_wmd_2004/ WMD. https://www.cia.gov/library/reports/ the SpecialAdvisortoDCIonIraq's Duelfer, Charles.ComprehensiveReportof (Accessed 12April,2009) content~content=a773453684~db=all 106. http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ Iraq. Survival.Volume 49,Number 1.85— Dodge,Toby. timore yama. HopkinsUniversityPress:Bal- Johns ghanistan andIraqEditedbyFrancisFuku- of Iraq Dobins, James.2006,LearningtheLessons (Accessed 9April,2009) europe/07prexy.html?partner=rss&emc=rss http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/07/world/ Islam, ObamaInsists. Cooper, Helene.AmericaSeeksBonds to InNation Building:BeyondAf- MITPress:Cambridge, Massa- The CausesofUSFailurein s: Baltimore The NewYorkTimes. Striking Outin Elect-

129 135 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

frey. McGraw Hill:Boston yer, NatashaEBajema. BarryR.McCa- and 2009 byRussellD.Howard, ReidL.Saw- standing theNewSecurityEnvironment. In Terrorism andCounterTerrorism: Under- Hoffman, 2006. Bruce. washington. (Accessed4February,2009) http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/19/ War CostWere NotClose toBallpark. Herszenhorn, DavidM. February, 2009) Gordon/2002wintersurvival.pf. (Accessed9 www.brookings.edu/views/Articles/ ber. Survival.Volume 43.Number 4.http:// Gordon, PhilipH.NATOAfter11Septem- University Press:Baltimore ited byFrancisFukuyama. JohnsHopkins Building: Beyond AfghanistanandIraqEd- tion-Building inAfghanistan Goodson, LarryP.2006. eign AffairsMagazine 2005. CanDemocracyStopTerrorism?For- Gause III,Gregory F.September/October corporated: NewYork War Without End How AmericanIncompetenceCreatedA Galbraith, Peter W. 2006.

Princeton

Conflicts. Princeton UniversityPress lic Opinion andCasualtiesinMilitary Human Costs ofWar:AmericanPub- Human Costs and JasonReifler.2009. Peter D.Feaver,ChristopherGelpi,

ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 . Simon andSchuster,In- Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 Defining Terrorism Estimates ofIraq The LessonsofNa- The EndofIraq:

InNation Paying the :

July 11-12,2007.(Accessed 13April, www.pollingreport.com/iraq3.htm. Created Bush ishandlingthe Do youapproveordisapprove oftheway vey ResearchAssociates International Newsweek PollconductedbyPrincetonSur- zine. Volume 84.Issue6.44—54 The IraqSyndrome Mueller, John.November/December 2005. 112—156 International Security.Volume 29.Issue4. and DemocracyPromotioninU.S.Strategy. of theBushDoctrine:Power, Nationalism, Moneten, Jonathan.Spring2005. Beacon Press:Boston Peasant inthe MakingoftheModernWorld. of DictatorshipandDemocracy:Lord Moore, BarringtonJr.1966.SocialOrigins 2009) Created March1,2004(Accessed26 April, collections/CCS/what_is_civil_society.htm. Civil Society? http://www.lse.ac.uk/ London SchoolofEconomics. 2004. dom House:NewYork Tower: Al-QaedaandtheRoadto9/11.Ran- Lawrence, Wright. 2006.TheLooming Greenwood PressPublishers of Political Democracy inJapan.New York: Ike, Nobutaka.[1950]1969.TheBeginnings McCafrey. McGrawHill:Boston R. Sawyer, NatashaE.Bajema. andBarry ment. 2009 byRussellD.Howard,ReidL. Understanding theNewSecurityEnviron- ism. Howard, RussellD.2009. InTerrorism andCounterTerrorism: . ForeignAffairsMaga- situation inIraq?" The NewTerror- The Roots What is .". . 130 136 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

GHANISTAN AND PAKISTAN. ANDPAKISTAN. GHANISTAN DENT ONANEWSTRATEGYFORAF- Obama, Barack. Hill: Boston lating Peace:Democracy, Interdependence Bruce Russett,JohnOneal. 2001.Triangu- No. 1,45—62 ternational Journalof Coverage oftheIraqWar. Patriotism, andCulturalValuesShapedthe Flawed Journalism:HowNationalInterests, Ravi, Narasimhan.2005. March, 2009) http://pewglobal.org/reports. (Accessed24 America's ImageandU.S.ForeignPolicy Global WarmingAlarmintheU.S.,China: Share U.S.ConcernsOverIran,HamasNo Center. Pew GlobalAttitudes Project, PewResearch Johns HopkinsUniversityPress:Baltimore Iraq (2006) In NationBuilding: BeyondAfghanistanand Building Nations:TheAmerican Experience Minxin Pie,SamiaAmin ,andSethGarz. (Accessed 3April,2009) Strategy-for-Afghanistan-and-Pakistan/. Remarks-by-the-President-on-a-New- www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/ jema. andBarry R.McCafrey. McGraw

Howard, ReidL.Sawyer,NatashaEBa-

rity Environment. 2009byRussellD. rorism: UnderstandingtheNewSecu- Home? America's ImageSlips,ButAllies Do TerroristNetworksNeedA Nikolas K.Gvosdev,RayTakeyh,

Edited byFrancisFukuyama. InTerrorism andCounterTer- REMARKS BYTHEPRESI- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Press/Politics, Vol.10, Looking beyond : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 TheHarvardIn- http://

. 10. Issue2.123—139 French—American War Over Iraq. Wall, IrwinM.Winter/Spring 2004. dia and CivicLife:HindusMuslimsinIn- Varshney, Ashutosh2002.EthnicConflict 2009) assets/nat_strat_hls.pdf (Accessed15 April, Security July 2002.NationalStrategyforHomeland United StatesOfficeofHomeland Security. Code RL33110 on TerrorOperationsSince9/11. of Iraq,Afghanistan,andOtherGlobalWar search Service.October15,2008. United StatesCongress.CongressionalRe- inIraq.Pub.No.3053 for USOperations 2008.Contractors’Support Budget Office. United StatesCongress.Congressional unscr1441.htm. (Accessed3February,2009) www.worldpress.org/specials/iraq/ rity CouncilResolution1441.http:// United NationsSecurityCouncil.UNSecu- Security Council.Pub.No.SC/8339 tary Elections, Special Representative Tells Possible DateforAfghanistan Parliamen- March 23,2005.Mid-SeptemberEarliest National Information ServiceinVienna. United NationsSecurityCouncil. ton andCompany:NewYork and InternationalOrganizations.W.W. Nor- . NewHaven:YaleUniversity Press . http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/ Order The Cost Volume Volume The 131 137 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

GDP_PPP.pdf. (Accessed3February,2009) DATASTATISTICS/Resources/ siteresources.worldbank.org/ 2007, PPP World Bank.2007.

Hopkins UniversityPress:Baltimore

Edited byFrancisFukuyama. Johns Building: Beyond AfghanistanandIraq Lessons, andProspects building Afghanistan: Impediments, Weinbaum, MarvinG.2006. . http:// ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Gross DomesticProduct Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 In Nation Re- 132 138 : The Proceedings of GREAT Day 2009 Great Day 2009 SUNY Geneseo

State Capacity, Social Mobility, and Terrorist Groups In Thailand and the Philippines Submitted by Sarah McDonald Abstract and institutions that support social aspira- Thailand and the Philippines face similar tions. security issues, including separatist violence in their southern provinces. However, the Glossary developmental paths of the two countries ARMM – Autonomous Region of Muslim and the governments’ reactions to the mi- Mindanao nority ethno-religious separatist movements, Berastu – Unity, separatist group in Thai- the Malay in Thailand and the Moro in the land Philippines, have varied greatly. In Thai- BNPP - Barisan Nasional Pembebasan land, the government’s desire to create a Patani singular national identity from mixed ethnic BRN – Barisan Revolusi Nasional (National and religious backgrounds has created peri- Revolutionary Front) ods of forced assimilation tempered by at- CPP – Communist Party of the Philippines tempts at conciliation. Conversely, the Phil- CPT – Communist Party of Thailand ippines continued colonial policies of eco- Malay – ethnic minority group in Thailand nomic and political oppression of the Moro MIM – Moro Islamic Movement formerly but created the institutions necessary for the Moro Independence Movement social pluralism. The differing policies of THE MNLF - Moro National Liberation the Thai and Filipino governments have Front shaped the orientation of the separatist MILF - Moro Islamic Liberation Front movements within the countries. Currently, Moro - ethnic minority group in the Philip- the size and power of the MILF in the Phil- pines ippines has forced the government to at- OIC – Organization of the Islamic Confer- tempt peace talks with the group. However, ence in Thailand the reclusive nature of the PAO - Provincial Administrative Organiza- BRN‑C remains hinders communications tions (Thailand) with the Thai government. This paper dem- PULO - Patani United Liberation Organiza- onstrates that the actions taken by the gov- tion ernments of Thailand and the Philippines SBPAC – Southern Border Provinces Ad- have fostered current separatist and terrorist ministration Centre movements. Addressing these problems will SPCPD – Southern Philippines Council for require state policies that reflect pluralism Peace and Development 133

Published by KnightScholar, 2010 139 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

eiiu eorpis 94%Buddhist Religious demographics tist group Organization ofsepara- Some claim Jamaa Malayhaveappealedto Outside funding Regional affect Class issues Focusofgroupun- Focus ofgroups/conflict Size ofgroups BRNandBRN-C Separatist groups ment Reaction fromgovern- Education Regulation ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 Hindu, Sikh, orJewish <1% Christian, 5% Muslim tary andpoliticalwing the BRN-C,withamili- Top downstructurein claims and scholarsdenythese the BRNbut Islamiya connectionto for aidincrisis Malaysian government revolution inlate1980s put/wages until industrial based iously andethnically The conflictisbothrelig- known. members as 300to500active estimated attimes aslow side leaders hideincountry- Goals murky atbest, deal withviolence than political actionto Relied onmilitaryrather Forced assimilation in punohs Thailand Exact numbers unknown, Low overallcountryout- of curriculum Sikh, oranimist <1% Buddhist, 5% Muslim 90% Christian Army) the BMA(BangsaMoro central committee and infrastructure including a Loosely knitwithsome Kadaffi Aid from Libyaunder (weapons, transport,etc.) Malaysian government Borneo community inSabahand Connection withMuslim (cycle ofpoverty) Christians of ancestralMorolandto Government reallocation Moro religious identity of the based ontheethnic/ broader politicalgoal MILF aimed fora members At peak30,000estimated goals Well knownleadersand MNLF andMILF Direct political action ceasefires Peace agreements and Secularization ofschools Philippines 134 140 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

History beforetheModern States treaties with lead tonegotiations andattempted peace about theirleadershipandaims, whichhas has enabledseparatistgroupstobeopen readiness tomitigate societal issues. That oppression hasbeentemperedbyapolitical the Philippinesgovernment’s economic the system inseparatistgroups.However, some Malayhavebeguntoworkoutsideof which toexpress their problems. Duetothis, Malay withfewoffi which tomediate identityissues,hasleftthe create lastingandstab tity issues, andthegovernment’s inabilityto movements. ThefocusinThailandoniden- tions andlevel ofsuccess withtheseparatist countries havegreatlyaffected theirreac- and governmental resp mental paths oftheseparatistmovements spite largely similar histories, thedevelop- land andthe Moro inthe Philippines. De- Philippines, whichhashad animpact onthe further than thecreati tory oftheMalayand United States until1946. However,thehis- came aunifiedstate,itwascolonyofthe ony ofSpain.EvenafterthePhilippinesbe- local leaders andthePhilippineswasacol- Thailand wasaseriesofprovincesruledby Thecreation ofThailand andthe the early twentieth century. Priortothis, Philippines asunified states only occurred in religious groups,namely theMalayinThai-

The violencestems fromminority ethno

violence intheirsouthernprovinces. curity concerns,includingseparatist are currently experiencing similar se- Thailandand thePhilippines Introduction the government. ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 cial avenuesthrough on ofThailandandthe le institutionsthrough Moro datebackmuch onses ofthetwo

: TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009

‑- southern provinceswould continueto mous. Forthenexttw Malay andbeing Muslimbecame synony- south bythelatefifteenth century,andbeing quickly became thedominant faithinthe Islamic religion(Islam 1998,443).It southern provincesandwithitbroughtthe Around thissame time,tradeboomed inthe often calledrajasorkings(Harish2006,50). inces were allowed toretainlocal leadership, ments oftributetotheking,butprov- This newarrangement includedthepay- of theKingdom ofSiam (Thaigovernment). the provinceswereplacedunderwatch Portuguese hadovertaken Malaccaandallof 1511 (Harish2006,50).Atthispoint,the trolled underthelocal Pattani, Narathiwat, while, thesouthernpr common faithandChineseheritage.Mean- assimilated withtheThai,asthey shared a the provinces. Intim leadership similar tothatalready existing in (Wyatt 2003,20).TheThaicreatedlocal gether astheMon-Khmer, wereBuddhist the Monand Khmer, sometimes placedto- the Malay in thesouthwere animists, and provinces. Of thesethreeethnicgroups,only area ofThailandandcontrolledindependent Mon, Khmer, andtheMalay,residedin to theThai arrival, Thailand (Wyatt2003,30).However,prior in theNorthernprovincesofmodern and controllingregionsinChinaaswell the Thai,beganmigrating southfromChina thirteenth centuries tory canbe tracedtotheeleventh through Thailand current separatistmovements. The beginningsofmodern Thaihis-

three ethnicgroups,the when theethnicgroup, and Satunwerecon- e, theMonandKhmer ovinces ofThailand, o centuries,the three area ofMalaccauntil ‑day 135 141 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

tive bodytorulethe“a government createdanofficialadministra- from theBritishgovernment theSiamese end whenin1901,underpressure ential inthesouthernprovinces.Thiswould local stattained some control oftheThaigovernment, therajare- (Islam 1998,443).Despitebeingunderthe and placedthem underdirectSiam control out thetwentieth century. the ThaiBuddhistsand Malaythrough- lay inthesouthanda tically change thequality of life for theMa- mainly ofThaiBuddhists).Thiswoulddras- under thecontrol ofthemilitary (composed posed inacoupandThailandwasforced in 1938,thefledglingdemocracywasde- representation from allprovinces.However, new government, includingpluralityinand that Thailandwasbeginningapromising liament (Harish2006,52).Itwouldseem mal spotsintheNational Assembly andPar- racy inThailand,theMalaywonsomemini- ment. With theestablishment of ademoc- virtually norepresenta of ademocracy inThailand,theMalayhad marginalization ofthekingandcreation ending thepowerofloca of theprovincesThailand–thusfinally so thattheking hadofficialcontrol over all ated a“unified” Thailand (thancalledSiam), inces” (Harish2006,51).Inessencethiscre- Siam overthrewtherajaofprovinces

and refusalstopaytribute,theKingof

der directcontrol. Siam government butnever beingun- In 1785,afternumerous rebellions From thispointuntil1932,withthe engaging inskirmishes withthe govern themselves, occasionally ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 ffect relationsbetween us andcouldbeinflu- tion inthegovern- rea ofthesevenprov- l southernleaders. as partoftheBatesTreaty thatendedthe the PhilippinestoUnited Statesin1899 and Sulu,theSpanishrelinquished control of only inthesouthernprovinces ofMindanao that Spanish control wasmaintained largely were neverofficiallyaSpanishterritory,and southern provinces. religious andethnic vert) inanattempt toforcibly change the Catholics (andthoseth began to“reallocate”MorolandSpanish were largelyunsuccessfulsotheSpanish vert theMoro toCatholicism. Theirefforts nately inthe attempts bytheSpanish tocon- anyway. Thisisexemplified most predomi- provinces butgovernedthem asacolony never officiallygainedamandate overthese in 1565(Islam1998,444).TheSpanish Sulu (predominately Moroincomposition) the southernprovincesofMindanaoand Philippines, theSpanishgainedcontrol of Shortly after Islam wasintroducedin the ion, most closelyassoci 444). Soonittoobecame thedominant relig- teenth centuryth the southernprovincesinearlyfour- larly toThailand,Islam wasintroducedin sia remained aforce inpolitical life.Simi- existed andoutsideinfluencesfromMalay- danao. Nounified state of thePhilippines largely inthesouthernprovinceofMin- often termed sultans.TheMororesided 444). Theyweregovernedbylocalleaders, termed Malayo-Polynesian(Islam 1998, habited bymany ethnicgroups,collectively lands that compose thePhilippines were in- historical pathtothatofThailand.The is- The Philippines The Philippines facedasimilar early Despite thefact that the Philippines

rough trade(Islam 1998, composition ofthe ey areable to con- ated withtheMoro. 136 142 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

Beginnings ofSeparatistMovements Filipinos. cally, andfinanciallyfromthemajority of differed religiously,et This createdasystem underwhichtheMoro redistribution takeplace(Noble1976a, 406). until thelate1980sdidanysignificantland dominant practiceuntilthe1960s,andnot Moro andtenantfarming remained thepre- tle ancestral landwasgiven backtothe farmers ontheland.However,inrealitylit- the Spanishandwereworkingastenant whose landwasstrippedfrom them under to redistributelandback ernment claimed thatitwasactively trying (Magdalena 1977,300).TheManilaGov- emptively quellanygrowingdissidence special administrative areacreatedto pre- ing theprovincesofSuluandMindanao,a creation oftheMoroProvince, encompass- government andtheMoro.Thisledto government pressureforMalaysto take Thai riculum inpunohs(re Malay languageinschools, regulatedcur- issue. Thisincludedth ment ontheMalaybecame anincreasing tempted forcedassimilation bythegovern- cal atmosphere inwhichthepatternofat- tary coupin1938create government policies.InThailand,the mili- SeparatisttensionsinbothThailand late 1940sandearly1950s, asareactionto and thePhilippinesbegantoemerge inthe there wasoccasional conflict between the

During American ruleinthePhilippines,

ernment torule overthePhilippines. United StatescreatedtheManilaGov- ence until1946, untilthat time the ippines wouldnotgainindepend- Spanish-American War. ThePhil- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 ligious schools),and hnically, geographi- e eradicationofthe d anunstablepoliti- totheMoropeople, : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009

ever, thishadanegative effectonthe ductivity levels(Noble1976a, 406).How- from anincreasingpopulationandlow pro- thus solvetheproblems thatwerearising which wereproducingbelowcapacity,and crease productioninthesouthernprovinces, claimed toundertakethismovement toin- (Noble 1976a,406).Thegovernment and Catholicsintothesouthernregions hastening migrationofnorthernFilipinos ping theMorooftheirancestrallands by administration continuedthepolicyofstrip- independent Islamic state(Islam 1998,446). BRN andthePULO,itsaims includedan precursor tothecurrent separatist groups the 1940s (Islam1998,446).TheBNPPwasthe Jalal, afollowerofHajiSulong’sinthe Patani) wasbeingformed byTengkuAbdul BNPP (BarisanNasionalPembebasan 1959, astheemergency wasending,the provinces that wouldlastforadecade. In tion ofastateemer mainder oftheyearendingwithdeclara- in asteadystream ofviolenceforthere- were arrestedin1948fortreason,resulting 444). Sulongandsome ofhissupporters the threesouthernprovinces(Islam 1998, as wellfor ittobeth restoration oftheMa to beutilizedinthoseprovinces,andforthe money derivedfrom thesouthernprovinces the Islamic faithfor the basisof thelaw,for were aseparatecourtthatwouldrecognize (Christie 1996,183).Amongthedemands to theThaigovernment inApril1947 Pattani Province,sending alistofdemands ment inThailand, theIslamic Councilofthe came theleaderoffirstseparatistmove- names (Harish 2006,52).HajiSulongbe- InthePhilippines,Magsaysay lay languageinschools gency inthesouthern e officiallanguageof 137 143 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

Front). group, theMNLF(Moro NationalLiberation tant precursor toacurrently active separatist 1976a, 408).However,MIM wasanimpor- the government disbandedin1970(Noble (Muslim IndependenceMovement), which organized separatistmovement, MIM the incident, UdtogMatalam formed thefirst unit toSabah(Noble1976a,408).Following purposefully attempted tosendanall the government murdered thesoldiersand differently bytheMoro,whobelievedthat killed. However,theincidentwasinterpreted rising inwhichthirtyMorosoldierswere cials claimed thatthesoldiers staged anup- soldiers refusedtheirorders.TheThaioffi- many Morohadrelativesthere,the were activelyengagedintradeSabahand Moro military unit.However,astheMoro attack, thegovernment constructedanall area forMoros.Inordertoundertakethe the government believedtobeasmuggling laysia. Sabahwasapopul ment wasplanninganattackonSabah,Ma- 1968. InMarch1968,the Filipino govern- a reactiontotheCorregidorIncidentin first coordinatedseparatistgroupformed as trolled the legal system inthesouth.The wealthier Filipinoswhoeffectivelycon- their landbeingtakenbytheCatholicsand ership (Noble1976a,407) tral landshadlegaldocuments toproveown- Moros wholivedandworkedontheirances- and oftenoverMoroland,asfewofthe

ment positions andwealth intheregion–

thus gainedcontrol Catholics andnon jority inthesouth.Acombinationof ern Filipinossoonbecamethema- Moros, astheCatholicsandnorth- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 ‑Moro northerners of thelocalgovern- ar tradingportthat . Thisresultedin ‑Moro ‑ - Modern SeparatistGroupsinThailand staples inthe conflict until thepresent. eral separatistgroupsemerged andbecame versely, inthePhilippines inthe 1960s sev- recent violenceoccurring since2004. Con- undertaking inthe1980s tist violence from onegroupuntilalarger groups, buttherewasnotconsistentsepara- uprisings wereundertakenbyvarious after thispointintime leadership positions intheThaigovernment. and amarked absenceof educatedMalay in caused some graduatestoleaveThailand, hire them (Tan-Mullins2006,146).Thishas land andbeunabletowork asnoonewould degrees abroad,onlytocome backtoThai- by collegegraduateswhohadreceivedtheir pendent Pattanistate.Thegroupwasformed lar innature butstillaimstocreate an inde- lution. ThePULO,unliketheBRN,issecu- to createanindependentstatethroughrevo- cently, whenitdeclaredthatisattempting the grouprarelydiscussed itsgoals untilre- cretive group,thele 1998, 447).TheBRNremains alargelyse- compared totherest ofThailand(Islam proportionately impoverished Muslims as fected thesouthernprovincesandthusdis- market inthe1960sdisproportionatelyaf- ern provinces.Thedeclineintherubber to economic issuesdevelopinginthesouth- wellasresponding pinnings oftheBNPP,as tion). TheBRN retainedthereligiousunder- PULO (PataniUnitedLiberationOrganiza- Thetwomainseparatistgroupsthat (National RevolutionaryFront)andthe currently operate inThailandaretheBRN Themovements tookdifferentpaths aders areunknownand . InThailand,periodic and laterthemost

138 144 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

has createdanatmosphere ofsuspicion in communication withthe government. This of thegrouphashindered thepossibility of Additionally, therelative has limited itsmembership (i.e. thePULO). BRN retains apureIslamic message, which ture oftheconflictw groups ineachcountryhasaffectedthena- ever, theorientationofmodern dominant goals forindependentstates/regions.How- proximately thesame time,andsemi-defined nic group,movements originatingatap- Theseparatistmovements inThai- qualities, includingaminorityMuslimeth- land andthe Philippines sharesome similar Differences inSeparatistMovements in the1970sand1980s(Noble1976a,411). in Malaysiawhichactivelyfundedthegroup support notonlyinthe Philippines but also martial lawinOctober1972,theMNLFhad As aresult,whenthegovernment declared their causethandid created alargerscopeandsupportbasefor spond toinequality.Indoingso,theMNLF provinces andgovernment failurestore- cluding economic disparitiesinthesouthern MNLF focusedonbroadersharedgoals,in- tify basedonreligionaswellculture,the with thegovernment. While theMoro iden- out thestrugglebeenin the grouparewellknownandhavethrough- characteristic oftheMNLF,asleaders group. Opennessandclaritywouldremain a well asthereasonsfor formation ofthe

It directly outlined itspolitical goalsas

branch ofMIM,came totheforefront. banding ofMIM,theMNLF,youth Almost directly after the dis- Philippines Modern SeparatistGroupsinthe ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Thai separatistgroups.

ithin thecountry.The periodicdiscussions silence andsecrecy : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009

most directlyaffectedthe ability ofthe government tomanage theseissuesthathas financially. However,it is thecapacityof derrepresented politically anddevastated misappropriation oflandlefttheMoroun- tions. InthePhilippines, thegovernment’s relentlesslymaintain totheircultural tradi- tity has caused theMalay toreact by fighting ment’s relentlesspursui separatist groups.In Thailand andthePhilippineshasfueled Action takeninpartbythegovernments Philippines Government ActioninThailandandthe that stems from them. the severityofgroupsandviolence separatist movements thathaveinfluenced been thegovernments’ responsestothe will havediplomatically; however,ithas level ofsuccessorfailurethemovements separatist organizations provinces. Itisevidentthatthenatureof Moro, Muslims, andpeopleofthesouthern promise onissuesofimportance tothe were willing andabletomeet withandcom- in August2008,theleadersofMNLF the treatyandsubsequent spite theFilipinocourts sulted inthesigningofapeacetreaty. De- peace talkswiththegovernment thatre- lowed forcompromise, asseenintherecent The broadermessage MNLFhasal- ofthe leaders wellknownthroughoutthecountry. its peak,withthenames andfacesoftop MNLF hasexceededthe tensofthousandsat 2006, 145).Conversely,membership inthe or isnotamember of theBRN(Tan-Mullins often remark thattheyareunsureofwhois even Malayslivinginthesouthernprovinces the southernprovincesofThailand,where

Thailand, thegovern- hasinfluencedthe ’ failuretoapprove t ofanationaliden- relapseofviolence 139 145 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

1976b, 181).Thegeneral terms were acon economicandsocialdevelopment (Noble in additionalgovernment positions focused thority aswell as theplacement of Muslims would bedirectlyunderhis(Marcos’s)au- region wouldhaveacommissionerthat structed from thethirteenprovinces. Each ence; instead,fourregionswouldbecon- offering autonomy butnotfullindepend- 1976b, 181).PresidentMarcosrespondedby danao andtheSuluarchipelago(Noble southern provincesincludingallofMin- gion, whichwouldbecomprisedofthirteen MNLF wantedapoliticallyautonomousre- Islamic ConferenceinJeddah (OIC).The MNLF leaderspresentedtheirgoals tothe and maintained. Beginningin1975,the leaders. Aceasefirewas quicklyestablished cos, hechosetonegotiatewiththeMNLF 180). DespitetheincreasedpowerofMar- president andprime minister (Noble1976b, and Marcosholdingboththepositionsof that allowedhim toappointlocalofficials, 2000 government positions, areferendum president. This includedthefiringofover solidated andstrengthened hispoweras ally, from 1972through1978Marcoscon- tioned inthe southernprovinces. Addition- signment oftroops,withover70percentsta- ern provinces.Thisincludedamassive reas- dent wastodeclare martial lawinthe south- 1972. OneofMarcos’sfirst actionsaspresi- consolidation of President Marcos power in dor Incidentof1968andthesubsequent

tist organizationbeganaftertheCorregi-

Separatist Movements InthePhilippines,major separa- Initial Government Responsesto violence. government to mitigate separatist ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47

last threedecades.Th tween thegovernment andtheMNLF forthe which hascontributed topeacetalks be- main separatistgroupsinthePhilippines, discussions betweenthegovernment and precedent allowedfuturenegotiations and pecially followingthe1976 ceasefire.This ing afive‑yearperiodofrelativepeace,es- leaders. Marcoswassuccessfulinestablish- between thegovernment andtheseparatist through theOICcreatedapositivedialogue create peaceinthePhilippines.Working the separatistgroupsinordertoattempt government waswillingtonegotiatewith tant controlbyundemocraticmeans, the an authoritarianmanner andamassed exorbi- though MarcosgovernedthePhilippinesin was setbytheMarcosadministration. Even Filipino government, animportant precedent peace agreement betweentheMNLFand peaceful coexistence. only affect Filipino society butalso hinder Hence, colonial polic peace agreement subsequentlyfellapart. regions votedforautonomyandtheTripoli Following avote,onlyte government duringSpanishcolonization. Catholic “land reallo the southernprovinceswas aresultof the lims didnotconstitute amajority inall of constitute the majority. The reasonthatMus- thirteen proposedregionsMuslims didnot to accept theseterms since insome ofthe southern provinces.Thegovernment refused tation ofMuslim leadersandlawinthe called forfullautonomy andtheimplemen- agreement werebeingnegotiated,theMNLF However, asthefinedetailsofpeace cepted byboththeMNLF andMarcos. Despite thefailure tocomplete a cation” pursuedbythe ies continuedtonot e value that Marcos n of thethirteen 140 146 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

in themain separatistgroups,thePULO and secrecy abounded.Thiswas evidentnotonly the country,inThailand an environment of and positionswerewell known throughout cated withthegovernmentandtheirnames in whichseparatist among thePULO.UnlikeinPhilippines, creased throughoutthe1970s,particularly groups. Inresponse,separatistviolencein- and unwillingtonegotia of Thailand),createdagovernment unable the military andtheCPT(Communist Party This, alongwithincreas (Morell andSamudavanija 1979,319-20). tary followedbyamilitary coupin1976 dent organization wassquashed bythe mili- time, Thailandwaspoliticallyunstable;stu- and thesouthernprovinces.Duringthis tion; whichcontinuestooperateinThailand the military todirectly combat separatist ac- Command) wasformed the ISOC(InternalSecurity Operational troops tothesouthernprovinces.In1974, gency effortsincludingthereassignment of United States,Thailandbegancounterinsur- edly differentoutcome. With aidfromthe spond toseparatism. Thisresultedinamark- pines did,chose onlymilitary means tore- diplomatically andmilitarily asthePhilip- cate withthegovernment. to usingpurelyviolentmeans tocommuni- political avenuesforseparatistsasopposed goals; inessence, this createdadditional

their grievances andcommunicate their

mechanism forseparatist groupstoair tions andcreatingwhatwouldbecome a carrying throughtofutureadministra- Thailand, insteadofrespondingboth formally institutionalized inasense, placed onnegotiationsbecame inra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 leaders openlycommuni- ing tensionsbetween as asubdivisionof te withseparatist : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 agreement backupforvoteinareferendum public Act6734putth originally proposedunder Marcos.TheRe- efforts torenegotiatethe peaceagreement 1987, 196-97).Additionally, Aquino made ings withthe leaders of theMNLF(Villegas Government ResponsestoSeparatist with, separatistgroupsbecame elusive. in whichidentifying,le the Thaigovernment created anenvironment of theThaimilitary inthe1970s;however, open communication,sotoodidtheactions peace talkswithMarcos placedvalue on the hillsofsouthernThailand.Justas separatist groupsandtheCPTretreatedinto vated groupssuchastheCPT.Both the BRN,butalsoinother politically moti- political prisoners,andface such asthewritofhabeascorpus,freeing included the reinstatemen for thesetwo goalstobeaccomplished. This she beganto recreatethestabilitynecessary nomic growthandanend totheinsurgency; Aquino establishedaplatform basedoneco- Corazon Aquino(Villegas1987,195). ment coming topowerunderPresident and anewdemocratically electedgovern- plished throughtheresignationofMarcos 194). Theendoftherevolutionwasaccom- tos Avenue)Revolution(Villegas 1987, ferred toastheEDSA(EpifaniodelosSan- the four However, in1986Marcoswasoustedduring economic andsocialissueswentunresolved. creased inthe Marcosadministration and early 1980sparticularly once againbegantoincreasethroughoutthe the Philippinesofearly1970s,violence Movements inthe1980s After thefailed peace negotiations in ‑day FebruaryRevolution, alsore- e originalpeace t alonenegotiating ascorruptionin-

t of civilliberties ‑to ‑face meet- 141 147 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

continued toexista of thethirteenprovincesunacceptableandit the groupdeemed theinclusionofonlyfour longer actasaseparatistgroup.However, mous Mindanaoandwouldsubsequentlyno MNLF hadreacheditsgoal ofanautono- (Bertrand 2000,40).Itma in favorofinclusionareundertheARMM governments ofthefourprovincesthatvoted operates asanautonomous government;the ratist groupcame totheforefrontin Phil- verity ofattacks. was aclearreductionin the amount and se- continued inthesouthernprovinces,there tist groups.Whilesome violentoutbreaks amount ofwidespread policy wasoverall effectiveinreducing the external debt(Villegas1987,201).This abroad aswell astoreduce thePhilippines’ worked toimprovethePhilippines’ image pines hadimprovedandAquinoactively of therevolution, the economy inthePhilip- tralized power underMarcos.Within ayear greater institutional capacity after the cen- for afunctioningdemocracy, including throughout thecountrythatwerenecessary Instead Aquinofocusedonissuesofstability martial lawordirectmilitary involvement. the insurgencythroughmeans otherthan ernment inthe1980sfocusedontempering government. danao) wascreatedin1990.TheARMM

(Autonomous RegionofMuslim Min-

favor ofthereferendum, theARMM four ofthethirteen and Chalk2001,92).Despiteonly During the1980s,asecondary sepa- The newpolicies of theFilipino gov- provinces voted fortheact(Rabasa in 1989;however,onlyfourofthe ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 nd communicate withthe Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 violence from separa- provincesvotingin y appearasifthe which Thaicitizenscould expresstheir which legitimate institutions existed through represent positive changes inThailand, in Thailand(Paribatra1993, 883).These and therewasthecreation ofamiddle class ment, political parties grew andexpanded, freer tooperateindependentlyofthegovern- (Paribatra 1993, 882).Themedia became political activity andthecreation of theCPT ber Revolution,withtheincreaseinstudent come evidentinthe litical awareness,whichhadbeguntobe- an increaseinedu 14). With expandingeconomic powercame be dubbed“Asia’sfifthtiger”(Hussey1993, Thailand made beginningin1985,leditto gaged inagriculture, ern MalayProvincesremained largelyen- poverty (Hussey1993,14).While theSouth- lowest wagesintheregionandwidespread resulting inThailandhavingsome ofthe relied ontheexportofagriculturalproducts, in Thailand.Priortothe1980sThailandhad panding economy andrapidindustrialization These changes werefacilitatedbyanex- ized changesinThailand(Melvin2007,34). 1988) toliberalizeandcreateinstitutional- Tinsulanonda asprime minister (1980to due inparttotheactionsofGeneralPrem violence inThailandthe1980s.Thiswas from theMILF. sions, whichonlyaided failed toincludetheMILF inthediscus- with theMNLF andonseveraloccasions government was accustomed tonegotiating communication withthegovernment, asthe gained afollowing.Thislatercomplicated eration Front),anoffshootoftheMNLF ippines, whentheMILF(MoroIslamic Lib- There wasasignificant decrease in cational fundingandpo- 1970s duringtheOcto- thesignificant gains in fuelingviolence 142 148 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

conjunction withCPM43, theSouthernBor- southern provinceswaschanged in1981.In changed, butalsothe the government ensuredsecurityin thesouth 2007, 13).Notonlyhadthemanner inwhich not holdciviliansagai constitution ofThailandandthereforecould south inthepast,CPM43wassubjectto Unlike thesecurity forcespresent inthe ated CPM43,anewsecuritytaskforce. within theThaigovernment. tionalize theroleofsouthernprovinces ment begantotakepolitical steps toinstitu- the government inThailand.Thegovern- of theMalaysignified creation ofacourtto ing thepolitical situation inthesouth. The between ThaiBuddhists The goalwastofostergreaterunderstanding killing ofsuspectedseparatistsympathizers. onment oflargegroupscivilians,andthe of many Malayactivists, themilitary impris- military rule including the “disappearance” cile theegregious crimes committed during 2006). Thiswasdoneinanattempt torecon- tary reignin the1970s(Macan-Markar report crimes thatoccurred duringthe mili- was establishedtoallowMalaycitizens provinces as well.Amilitary-civilian court Inadditiontopoliticalandsocial dressseparatist concerns inthesouthern changes, changeswereimplemented toad- rality notyetseeninThaipolitics.

(more political parties) allowed for aplu-

political activity a government. Additionally,increased countability andtransparencyina Prime MinisterTinsulanonda cre- the press iscrucialincreatingac- political beliefs.Thefreedom of ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 address the problems administration ofthe nst Thailaw(Melvin nd politicaloptions the changingroleof and Malaysregard- : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 Government Actioninthe1990s the 1980s. by thegovernment reversedtheprogressof in Thailandandalackof fulltransparency early 1990s,whentheplummeting economy emerging democracywaschallenged inthe Thai history.However,thefragilityof had notbeenpossiblepriortothispointin response priortoandafterthe1980s.This tary means, acrucialaspectmissing instate also toensuretheirsuccessthroughnonmili- pability notonlytocreateinstitutionsbut ernment. The Thaigovernment hadtheca- sign oftheincreasingcapacitygov- tion ofseparatistgroups.Thiswasaclear rather thanfocusing directlyontheeradica- participation and legitimate institutions of thenewgovernment pushforpolitical amnesty forformer separatists.Thiswaspart provinces bylocalofficialsandestablished This allowedgreaterco (SBPAC) wasformed2007,13). (Melvin der ProvincesAdministration Centre, hold amajority inparliament, in Thaipolitics.Noone political partycould in the1980scame widespreadfactionalism the increase inpolitical parties andplurality several reasonswhythecoupoccurred.With the international community. There were prised Thaigovernment ment. wasunexpectedandsur- Thecoup tary coupoverthrewtheelectedThaigovern- prospects weresetbackin1991whenamili- effectively andpeacefully.Howeverthese mocratic transition inThailand wouldoccur (Neher 1992,595).Itappearedasifthede- to beanelectedmember ofParliament In1988,PremTinsulanondastepped Choonhavan down asprime minister and became thefirstprime minister ntrol ofthesouthern officials aswell Chatichai

143 149 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

Black MayinThailand(Paribatra 1993, This resultedinwhatcame tobeknown as prime minister forthedurationofhisterm. stipulated thatKrap ity supportedtheproposedamendment but member ofParliament necessary fortheprime minister tobe a chun hadbegunworkon,thatwouldmake it amendment totheconstitution thatPanyara- sions byclaiming thathewouldsupportan The Prime Minister attemptedtorelieveten- was notanelectedmember ofParliament. ister. TensionsquicklyflaredasKraprayoon tional PeaceKeepingC Suchinda Kraprayoon(amember oftheNa- tions resulted intheappointment of General were scheduledforMarch1992.Theelec- in 1997)andeconomic reforms. Elections a Thaiconstitution (whichbecame effective 1993, 887).Panyarachunworkedoncreating chun asinterim prime minister (Paribatra Council, whichappointedAnandPanyara- that calleditselftheNationalPeaceKeeping (Neher 1992,596). the overthrowofelectedgovernment in 1991,therewerenoimmediateproteststo try. Thus,whenthemilitary coupoccurred poor majority, ledtodiscontentinthecoun- the gapbetweenwealthyelitesand the government toinstitute with theincapability/unwillingness of the bined withthefrustrationofThaipublic ported onanalmost dailybasis.This,com-

Tinsulanonda, thecorruptionwasre-

freedom ofthepressinstitutedunder ruption stillhauntedThailand.With the quickly andthepastproblems ofcor- The military coupwasledbyagroup ever, coalitionallianceschanged so coalitions werenecessary. How- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 rayoon shouldremain Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 . Thecoalition major- policiestodecrease ouncil) asprime min- violence inThailandwas almost the downturn.Duringthis time separatist poorest inThailand weremost effectedby Thailand’s economic growth;assuch the land wasneveradequatelyaddressedduring gap betweentheelite (Pempel 1999,149-150).Inaddition,the large amounts ofmoney tooutsideinvestors out ofThailandandthegovernment owed “burst” inthelate1990s,investorspulled and loans.Whenthebubbleongrowth created largelythrough begun inthelate1980sandearly1990swas other Asiancountries.The growththathad downturn inthelate1990s,alongwithmany instability inthe continued tobeignoredduethepolitical poverty inthesouthernprovinces,which premiership continued,namely widespread problems thatreignedduringChoonhavan’s time (Paribatra1993,890).However,the and relative peacereturned toThailand fora stration wereremoved from theirpositions, military leaders oftheKraprayoonadmini- reinstated himself asprime minister. The terim prime minister fromthemilitary coup, (Shenon 1992).AnandPanyarachun,thein- Kraprayoon’s term asPrime Minister elected member ofParliament, thus,ending stipulate thattheprime minister hadtobean cided toenacttheamendment thatwould Under clearpublicscru mately fifty deathsandhundredsofarrests. press theprotesters,resultinginapproxi- tially respondedbytryingtoviolentlysup- miership ofKraprayoon. Themilitary ini- thousands ofThaicitiz and continueduntilMay20.Hundredsof 888). BlackMaybeganon17,1992 Thailand facedasevereeconomic central government. and thepoorinThai- ens protestedthepre- tiny thecoalitionde- foreign investments 144 150 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

of theagreement tookplaceoverathree tion oftheagreement. Theimplementation SPCPD wasplacedincharge of the execu- Marcos. Anadministrative council, the of theinitialTripoliAgreement setoutby ment wassigned. tions underwhichthe1996 PeaceAgree- (Bertrand 2000,39).Thesewerethecondi- macy throughtheirbackingbytheOIC the Philippinesand that democracy wasbecoming entrenchedin talks. TheRamos hadshown government other wouldupholdtheirendofthepeace ment andtheMNLFhadconfidencethat seemed possible.Boththe Filipino govern- democratic andassuchalasting agreement tion, the newFilipinogovernment wastruly istrative region.Unlike more provincestobeincludedintheadmin- creation oftheARMM,MNLFwanted peace talkswiththeMNLF. Despitethe Ramos government attemptedtoreconvene ciding withtheprecedent setbyMarcos,the and theMILF) (Bertrand2000,38).Coin- the main separatistmovements (theMNLF eral public inthePhil considered tobelegitimate byboththegen- 1986, thesubsequentadministrations were the FebruaryorPeoplePower Revolutionin separatist violenceinthe Philippines. After 1990s representedatime Shinawatra in2001.

turned withthepremiership ofThaksin

ratic initiativesinThailandwereover- of thenewconstitution in1997,democ- active. However,despitethesigning The agreement waslargely basedoff Similarly toThailand,theearly lieve thatthegroupswerenolonger nonexistent, leadingsometobe- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 ippines aswellby MNLF gainedlegiti- Marcos’s administra- of relativelylittle : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 ‑- MNLF withdecreasedmilitary poweras (the military branchof the MNLF)left the Additionally, thebreakaway oftheMILF mate government, membership decreased. the relativepeaceof losing powerinthesouthernprovinces.With unlikely. First,theMNLF hasbeensteadily the possibility ofalasting peacesettlement ming from thepeaceagreement thatmade nities. represents the interests of thelocal commu- opposed toanadministrative bodythat of thegovernment” (Bertrand2000,48)as accused ofactingasthe“implementing arm (Bertrand 2000,47).TheARMMhasbeen make totheFilipino suggestions government power; itsfunctioninsteadistoconvene ARMM. AssuchtheSPCPD holdslittlereal remain apartoftheadministration ofthe transitory organization; tain role.The SPCPDwassetuptobea the budget),andSPCPDhadanuncer- management (inparticularwithregardsto creation. Bothhavebeenplaguedbymis- ARMM andtheSPCPDs gage politically. through whichseparatistleaderscoulden- lasting institutionsand of theseadministrative (Bertrand 2000,42).Intheory,thecreation after avotebythef for thefourteenthen the ARMMcreatedoneadministrative body oftheSPCPDand SPCPD, aconsolidation SPCPD. Then,aftertheestablishment ofthe as thepolice,inadditiontotopspots were givenpositions inthemilitary aswell year periodinwhichmembers oftheMNLF There wereseveralproblems stem- Problems begantoemerge withinthe ourteen provinces ‑ the 1990sandalegiti- independent provinces, a politicalframework bodies wouldcreate it wasnotcreatedto hortly after their 145 151 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

due tothedecrease in down aspresident,Vice President Gloria nappings in2000.After Estrada stepped lowed, withanincrease in violenceandkid- gal gambling. Aresurgenceinviolence fol- 2000, facingallegations ofpayoffsfrom ille- pines. Estradasteppeddownaspresidentin drop fortherisingtens Estrada. Estrada’s presidency settheback- was elected, former VicePresident Joseph large lossfortheMNLFandanewpresident Peace Agreement, the1998electionswerea Amid thefalloutofproblems ofthe1996 Movements The CurrentStateof Separatist sent) (Bauzon1999,264). people (whichtheMILF claimed torepre- not addressthetrueproblems oftheMoro lems of theMNLF,theybelieved that itdid they agreethatitmay havesolvedtheprob- the lossofMoroancestrallands.Also,while agreement failedtoaddresstheproblem of This wasbecausethe MILF claimed thatthe posed thesigning ofthePeaceAgreement. complicate matters further,theMILF op- ARMM, settheagreement upforfailure.To number ofprovinceswillingtojointhe gether, aweakenedMNLFandthelimited their successunlikely.Thesetwofactorsto- ciency ofthe ARMMandtheSPCPDmade Also, thewidespread of anactualautonomous regiondifficult. This limited participation made thecreation only afewyearslaterwasslim especially

of theremaining provincesvotingtojoin

the ARMMin1989andlikelihood ond, onlyfourprovincesvotedtojoin eager tosign apeaceagreement. Sec- numbers). Thismade theMNLF well asinfluence(dueto decreased

ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 corruption andineffi- separatist supporters. ions inthePhilip-

the MILFleadersandviolence hasonce Supreme Courtwasdeemed unacceptableby speak (Montlake2008). This actionbythe ernment andtheseparatistleaderswould called forahearinginwhichboththegov- was seenaspossiblyunconstitutional and to blockthesigningof the FilipinoSupreme Courtissuedaruling fied a“homeland”fortheMoro.However size oftheARMM. Thiswouldhavesolidi- leaders reachedanagreement toexpandthe 2008, theFilipinogovernment andtheMILF maintains this patternaswell.InAugust The most recentactioninthePhilippines three yearsofviolence(Montlake2008). ceasefire wasbroken,resulting inanother fighters attackedgovernment troopsandthe the Philippines,inJanuary2005MILF Philippines. Inkeepingwiththepattern in sulted inyetanotherpeace agreement inthe (Montesano 2004,97).Thepeacetalksre- place aceasefire andinitiate peace talks along withtheOICtoattempt toputinto met withtheMILF,andnotMNLF, Onceagain,peacetalkswereiniti- the southernprovinces.Inlate2003Arroyo ated totryputan separatist group(Montesano2004,96). MILF, thenowmore violentandpowerful This correspondedwithbombings bythe litical corruption(Montesano2004,95-96). tary bases andcontinuing accusations ofpo- nist Party of thePhilippines(CPP)onmili- problems, includingattacksbytheCommu- groups. Thegovernment wasplaguedwith the government from addressingseparatist term, withotherpoliticalissuesprohibiting continued togrow (Montesano 2004,94).Separatistviolence Arroyo became presidentofthePhilippines during Arroyo’sfirst end totheviolence in the agreement, asit 146 152 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

and 1990sinThailand,th southern provinces. sponded bydeclaringmartial lawinthe assassinations andkidnappings. Thaksinre- the southinJanuary2004, includingdaily Zissis 2008).Renewedviolenceemergedin south intheprevious which hadreceivedlittlesupportfrom the power ofhispoliticalpartyThaiRakThai, democracy, inanattempt toincrease the turned totheThaitraditionofcentralized (i.e. CPM43andtheSBPAC). re- Thaksin stability withtheremoval of keyinstitutions had takenplace inThailandandcreatedin- mined thepositive democraticchanges that 37). TheseactionstakenbyThaksinunder- would responddirectlytohim (Storey2008, than installed localprovincial leaders who been abletocreate andmaintain. Thaksin lated toseparatist the onlysuccessfulpolit of tling ofCPM43andtheSBPAC,some (Storey 2008,36).Thisincludedthedisman- tions ofpastseparatism withinThailand terror. Thaksin attempted toeradicate indica- invasion inThailandas ror. Clearly,thiswasdue as theUnitedStatesannounced awaronter- if separatistviolence Prime Minister Thaksin wanted toappear as the terroristattacksonSeptember 11,2001, had beendormant forthirtyyears.Following -first centurysawarenewalofviolencethat Despiterelativepeaceinthe1980s

tempt tohuntdowntheMILFleaders.

tinues asFilipinosecurityforcesat- killed inthe ensuingviolence thatcon- ple havebeendisplacedandhundreds inces. Hundredofthousandspeo- again marred thesouthernprov- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 violence Thailandhad had endedinThailand elections (Bajoriaand part ofthiswaron ical institutions re- toafearofU.S. e turnofthetwenty : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 from onseparatist violence.As focusing protests onceagaindistracts thegovernment Thailand. The attentionnowfocused onthe by thecorruption andpolitical instability in separatist members, butcitizensfrustrated lence from thepolice.Theprotestorsarenot the NewYearfestivities andinciting vio- marched onthecapital,Bangkok,disrupting Thai government. ofprotestors Thousands in April2009,exhibit Malay population.Themost recentprotests, committing heinousacts against thelocal Thai lawsandhistoricallyhasnot,instead the military doesnothave tocomply with has tofollow Thailaws.Undermartial law, to beincontrolofsecuritythesouthand violation oftheSPBAC,whichissupposed (Bajoria andZissis2008).Thisisaclear military having full controlof theregion continued inthesouthernprovinces,with fighting beganagain have beenover1,500casualtiessincethe southern provinces,peakingin2007.There Violence continued andworsenedinthe resolving the currentseparatist violence. such thepeace talkswerenoteffectivein rent members ofseparatistgroups,andas this, the peace talks di disbanded groupswereconsulted.Dueto and thePULOare,sosecondaryleadersof leaders ormembers oftheBRN(BRN-C) the government stilldoesnotknowwhothe separatist leaders for the first time. However, Thai government attempted peacetalkswith SBPAC andCPM43werereinstalled.The prime minister wasappointedandthe coup (BajoriaandZissis2008).Aninterim try andin2006 hewasreplaced inamilitary lence continuedtowreakhavoconthecoun- Thaksin quicklylostsupportasvio- in 2004.Martiallaw d notoccurwithcur- the weaknessof 147 153 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

a seriesofLandReform Acts thatwere in the1950sFilipino government passed ances ofthepeople.For example, beginning tutions wereinplace to address thegriev- BRN. from the eliciting anangered ued intothetwenty throughout thetwentiethcenturyandcontin- weak toreachdemands, hadrepeateditself attempts atreconciliation, eachtime too tern ofgovernment repressionfollowedby government (Albritton2005,171).Thispat- results hadstillnotbe 170). However,bytheendofyear tion onfinancialmatters (Albritton2005, would haveallowedforMalayrepresenta- of budgetsmustbeapprovedbythePAO,it as35percent (i.e. theMalay).Additionally, and representationfordifferingviewpoints would havecreatedpoweratthelocallevel istrative Organizations). Intheory,this bodies) aswellPAOs(ProvincialAdmin- for Tambon councils(localadministrative in 2004,whenthegovernment heldelections be seenintheperiodfollowingmartial law a periodoftime. Amorerecent examplecan SBPAC, andeventheywere dismantled for began withtheexceptionofCPM43and in thesixty yearssince separatist violence no lastingpolitical institutions werecreated have failed.Thisisevidenthistorically,as that wouldaidtheMalayweretriedthey public, when attempts toinstitutepolicies

with thedemand forresponsefrom the

been largely incapable of keepingup provinces. Conversely inthePhilippines,insti- In Thailand,whereinstitutionshave protests, violencemars thesouthern government attempts tocontrol the ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 ‑first century,eachtime and violentresponse Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 en confirmed bythe Analysis greater socialjustice. lished tomonitor progressandworktoward Department estab- ofAgrarianReform were been outlawedandinstitutionssuchasthe been more successfulassharetenancyhas Land ReformActs,inthelastdecade,have Moro couldexplaintheirconcerns.Recent committees andcouncilsthroughwhichthe tutions present inthe Philippines there were its passing.However,duetothestronginsti- 50,000 peoplewithinthefi the actsastheystoodaidedfewerthan attainable amountfortheMoro,andassuch the taxesowedperparceloflandwasanun- to regaintheland;however,amount of farmer topaythetaxesonlandinorder nal LandReform Actscalledforthetenant that wasimpoverishing theMoro.Theorigi- aimed atending thecycleoftenantfarming tions andinfrastructure, and maintain ments’ abilitytoenactchange,create institu- separatist situationineach country. sis theorywillbeused tion), andbothcapacitycrisisvs.noncri- and early1990s(post–democratictransi- to explaingovernment actioninthe1980s while crisisvs.noncrisistheorywillbeused the Philippinesfrom 1940stothe1970s, the explain government actioninThailandand transitions). Statecapacity willbeused to crisis transitions(ath analyzed: statecapacity nents uponwhichthecasestudieswillbe separatist violence. analyze how government actionhasaffected Afterchroniclingthedevelopment of ment responsestothem, itisimportant to the separatistmovements andthegovern- State capacityreferstothe govern-

There aretwocompo- eory aboutdemocratic to explainthecurrent andcrisisvs.non- rst thirtyyearsof 148 154 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

Thailand fromthebeginning ofthegovern- (Huntington 2006,5).This canbeseenin tions wouldbegreatlyundermined the integrity of thecurrent political institu- ability tocreate newinstitutions aswell expanding politicaldemands,thenthestate’s Thailand, were tobeunablemeet those and participation.Ifast dustrialization, sotoowillpolitical demands sult ofincreasedliter as politicalconsciousnessincreases,are- Changing Societies Samuel Huntington’sPolitical Order in compared totheoriesthat werepresentedin rounding lowstatecapacity,whichcanbe the Moro. and 1970storestoreth pines beganlandreform actsinthe1960s beginning in 1975.Additionally,thePhilip- Philippines andtheleaders of theMNLF tions occurringbetweenthePresidentof state capacity,with tutions. However, thePhilippines had high ability tocreatemeaningful andlastinginsti- ble (frequent military coups) andlacked the had lowstatecapacity, different levelsofstatecapacity.Thailand Thailand and thePhilippines represented State Capacity government responsesto as aguidelinethroughwhich tocharacterize (though theybothfitthe

within ThailandandthePhilippines

applied nottothedemocratic transitions Haggard and RobertKaufman, willbe tion theory,asproposedbyStephen Thailand suffered from sur- issues Beforetheirdemocratic transitions, try. Thecrisisvs.noncrisistransi- political stabilitywithinthecoun- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009

. Huntingtonstatedthat routine peacenegotia- acy, education,andin- e ancestrallandsof was politically unsta- ate, inthisexample separatistviolence. model), butinstead : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 ineffective government action,Thailand ratist groups.Duetoitslow capacityand seemed toonlyfurtherthecauseof sepa- lence. What actionthegovernment took make progressinreducingseparatistvio- government ofThailandfrom beingableto could beestablishedovertheMalay. mechanism throughwhichThaicontrol represent their interest chularajamontri only confirmed theMalaysuspicion thatthe their liaisontothecentralgovernment, this leaders inthe southe chularajamontri Bangkok area(Marshallsay2008,4).Asthe often the come from thesouthernprovinces;instead Additionally, the ment tomonitor andundermine theMalay. the kingwasyetanotherwayforgovern- creation ofanadvisoronIslamic affairsto anger among theMalay,asmany thoughtthe ment expected.ThePatronageActincited people didnotrespondastheThaigovern- tage andfamily affairs.However,theMalay southern provincesonissuesrelatedtoheri- lowed Islamic lawtobeusedinfourofthe age ofIslam Act,theThaigovernment al- ally, shortlyafterthepassingofPatron- Thai king(Marshallsay 2008,4).Addition- lamic advisor, thechularajamontri, tion withintheThaigovernment foranIs- forced assimilation. Theactcreatedaposi- namely the Thaigovernment’s attemptsat the complaints ofthesouthernprovinces, in 1945.TheActwasaimed ataddressing ernment passedthePatronageofIslam Act As anattempt atconciliation,theThaigov- ment’s reaction tothe separatist movement. Low statecapacityprohibited the chularajamontri wasnotcreatedinorderto wasincontrol of the local chularajamontri rn provincesandwas s, butinsteadanother came fromthe did not not did tothe 149 155 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

ginning ofseparatist society (seven military coupssincethebe- group isalargeaccomplishment. With the communicate andnegotiate withaterrorist The abilityforagovernment toeffectively peace negotiations andaceasefire in1976. with separatistleadersinordertoengage stated earlier,President Marcosfirstmet the government andseparatistleaders.As worked tofosterpeacenegotiations between separatist violence. failed toencouragepol the legitimacy oftheThaigovernment and ditionally, the military abuses undermined ther theircausewith per separatistgroups;itonlyhelpedtofur- This typeof military response didnottem- and executionswouldoccurwithouttrials. held withoutcharges,peoplewentmissing, in thesouthernprovinces.Individualswere this obviouslyresultedinwidespreadabuse military didnothavetofollow Thailaws; tary tohandletheseparatistmovements. The the government’s decision toallowthe mili- lence. Numerous problems emerged from created theISOCtomanage separatistvio- stemming from theCPT),government (a military coupin1976aswellviolence land facedpolitical instabilityinthe1970s When government actionfailedandThai- capable ofdealing with military theonly lasting governmental force the relative strength of themilitary in Thai

separatist groupsin1949. Additionally,

response totheformation ofthefirst the decade separatist groups.Thisisevidentby In thePhilippines, control theterrorist largely relied onthemilitary to ‑long emergency calledin ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 the Malaypeople.Ad- violence) made the itical actionover separatistviolence. highstate capacity actionsofthe political decisions, andthemilitary and opposition powers gaingreater influencein tion, thegovernment willactquickly, the and noncrisistransitions. Inacrisistransi- tics thataresaidtobe emblematic of crisis crisis manner. Thereareseveralcharacteris- shape whetheritrespondsinacrisisornon- try during itsdemocratic transition will social conditionsthatarepresentinacoun- sitions. Thetheorystates thateconomic and Kaufman, usedtoexplaindemocratic is tran- signed byStephenHaggardandRobert Crisis vs.Noncrisis Theory noncrisis theory. of “moral hazard”aswellthe crisisvs. this reaction willbediscussed inthe analysis fast enoughtotheirdemands. Thecausesof cause theFilipinogovernment failstoact an unfavorableresultin outbursts. Thisisoftendoneinresponseto more recently, periodically renewviolent groups, namelytheMNLFandMILF yet tobelasting peaceas theseparatist peace inthePhilippines. However,therehas were helpfultoolsin in theARMM. MNLF tomakethetransition tolocal leaders participation necessary for leaders from the would establishthebeginningsofpolitical were heardbytopgovernme through whichseparatistleaders’voices it institutionalized apolitical mechanism ties couldairtheirgrievances.Additionally, ated amechanism throughwhichbothpar- vice versa.Thisform ofopendialoguecre- goals andstance totheseparatist leaders and the Philippineswasable tocommunicate its OIC actingasamediator, thegovernment of Crisis vs.Noncrisis Theory,asde- Peace negotiationsandceasefires creatingtemporary areferendumorbe- nt officials.This

150 156 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

transition. Thisisev after their democratic transitions. ernments’ responsestoseparatistviolence used toexplain theThaiandFilipino gov- However, thesecharacteristicscanalsobe tions, respectively,withintheirtheory(270). as examples ofnoncrisisandcrisistransi- Kaufman ThailandandthePhilippines use sponding toeconomic crisis.Haggardand is basedongovernments intransitionre- Kaufman 1997, 269).Thetheorypresented strong withinthecountry(Haggardand the military and communistparties are has givendisproportionate powertoleaders leaders inorder tocreatepeaceagreements patterned responseofgoi ing separatistviolence.The government’s bly thePhilippineslargestproblem infight- given totheopposition power. Thisisargua- of acrisisresponseisincreasedinfluence MNLF leadersin1976.Thesecondcriterion since Marcos’sinitialdealingswiththe There havebeenoversix peaceagreements fully createaceasefir with theMNLF leadersinordertosuccess- of thePhilippines reengages innegotiations Shortly afterviolencebegins,thepresident repeated negotiationswithseparatistleaders. dent inthePhilippines in thegovernment’s government responsetoanissue.Thisisevi- first criterion of acrisistransition isquick ment’s actiontowardseparatistgroups.The position haslittleroleingovernment, and

mains with authoritarianfigures,theop-

acts slowlytothreatsandpowerre- a crisisresponse.Thegovernment re- response looksalmost theoppositeof The Philippines represents acrisis According tothetheory,anoncrisis communist partyareweakened. ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 ident inthegovern- e andpeaceagreement. ng totheseparatist : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 groups. Thepowerinthe Thaigovernment litical action wastakentotemper separatist litical instability. Because ofthis,littlepo- violence fromthecommunist partyandpo- ernment’s focusonotherissuesincluding quent reliance onthemilitary, andthe gov- the government’s inabilitytoactandsubse- respond toterrorists.Thisisfortworeasons, response. Thegovernment hasbeenslowto to act. party hascrippledthegovernment’s ability the powerof themilitary andcommunist Thailand where political instability due to on theissueofseparati groups hasenabledthegovernment tofocus Additionally, thewea party, are characteristic of thePhilippines. two criteria, aweakmilitary andcommunist can begarneredthroughviolence.Thelast agreements theyenterin the separatistgroupstouphold thepeace demands. Assuchthereisnoincentivefor including furtherprovisionstomeet their will returnwithanother peaceagreement, ate aviolentbacklashandthegovernment pino government, alltheyhavetodoiscre- aware that if theyseekmore from theFili- The leadersoftheMNLFandMILF are power thatithasgiventhe separatistleaders. ments andceasefires backfiredduetothe government’s capacitytocreatepeaceagree- influence inthecountry. the separatistgroupsseekgreaterpowerand led tothebreakdownofpeaceinsouthas demand more from thegovernment. Thishas leaders, andtheseparati created government positionsforseparatist ment hasalready createdtheARMMand of theMNLFandMILF.Thegovern- Thailand isanexample ofanoncrisis kness ofthesetwo st violence,unlikein st groupscontinueto to, asgreaterresults It appearsasifthe 151 157 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

lence) andlimited thesizeandscope of sions (withtheexception ofperiodicvio- crisis responsehaseffectively managed ten- groups. WhiletheThaigovernment’s non- tions ontheCPTasopposedtoseparatist dent bythegovernment focusingitsatten- Thaigovernment.BRN-C bythe Thisisevi- as greater than thethreat of theBRNor of power,asthethreat of theCPTwasseen inces. TheCPT clearlyexhibitedagreatdeal its taskofcontrollingthesouthernprov- action, andthemilitary’s powerisevident in teria havebeenshownthroughgovernment ture andsecludedlocations.Thelasttwocri- cruit newmembers duetotheirsecretivena- group, asitisdifficultforthegroupstore- This hasinpartreducedmembership inthe inces) aswellbybrutal military action. retreated intothehillsof thesouthernprov- against thecommunist party(asbothgroups fueled bythegovernment actiontaken SBPAC). Theseparatistgroups’secrecywas the (i.e. there-installationofCPM43and part bythegovernment cannotbeenforced resurgence inviolenceasactionstaken pacity ofthegovernment hasallowedfora disbanded. Additionally leader from agroupthathaslongsincebeen officials met withasecondary separatist aware ofwhotheseparatistleaderswerethat government, thegovernment wassoun- negotiations werefacilitatedbytheThai eth century. Whenrecentattempts atpeace tempt tonegotiate with them inthetwenti-

lack ofpoliticalac

land andbecauseofthegovernment’s C andthePULOarenotknowninThai- sponse. TheleadersoftheBRN/BRN- ernment duetoitsnoncrisisre- has remained withthecentralgov- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 tion, therewasnoat- , thecurrentlowca- Issues inThailand:Stability and ernment. gained greaterpoweroverthecentralgov- through whichtheseparatistgroupshave ments hascreatedapatternofviolence, quences forviolationsof thepeaceagree- ernment’s failuretoimpose strictconse- gotiations andceasefires.However,thegov- from theOIChasledtomultiplepeace nement coupledwithinternationalsupport ippines, thestrength full military control of thesouth.InPhil- sponses toseparatistviolenceandattimes ment hasresultedintheuseof military re- land, thehistoricallyweakcentralgovern- ful inendingseparatis movements, foreithercountrytobesuccess- to altertheir policies toward separatist BothThailand andthePhilippines will need the Philippines violence has ledtowidespread military reliance onthemilitary tocontrol separatist tist threats. TheThaigo unable toresponddiplom free elections, thegovernment willremain create lastingstability,includingopenand recent elections.Untilthe government can tests rageinthecapita Asnotedpreviously,thecentralgov- establish politicalstability.Currently,pro- ernment ofThailandcon Issues forFuture PeaceinThailandand tions inplace toarbitrate theconflict. does nothave themechanisms andinstitu- ratist violencebegins suppress theviolence,notstopit.Once sepa- occur. Themilitary hasonlybeenable to to mediate separatist violencewhenitdoes separatist membership, ithasnotbeenable Diplomacy

of thecentralgovern- , theThaigovernment t violence.InThai- l inresponsetothe vernment’s historical tinues tostruggle atically tosepara-

152 158 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

Issues inthe Philippines: MoralHazard the conflict. mechanisms inplacewithwhichtodiffuse lence), thegovernment willnothave the country (protestorsaswellseparatistvio- land, whenthereisdissatisfactioninthe tionally, asisoccurri help tofurthertheseparatistcause.Addi- occur underfullmilitary control willonly Without diplomatic action,theabusesthat tion oftheSBPAC andCPM43in1981. taken. Thisoccurredbrieflywiththecrea- toward reducingseparatistviolencecouldbe sessed inthe1980sand1990s,thensteps could reestablish the le has beenthecaseinThailand.IfThailand ence increased violence andinstability,as dergoing ademocratic transitiontoexperi- ness. Itisnotuncommon foracountryun- political participation and political aware- 1990s inThailand,whentherewasincreased beginning of thiswasseeninthe1980sand the publicwillneed tobe putinto place.The institutions thatareviewed aslegitimateby political stability, greater transparency and would beunlikely.ForThailand toestablish ment tofollowthroughonanyagreement in question.Also,theability ofthegovern- sequence asthegovernment’s legitimacy is PULO), theagreements may beoflittlecon- the main separatist groups,theBRNand ernment couldeffectivelyfindtheleadersof Theconcept ofmoral hazardapplies with separatistleaders(providingthegov-

Thailand weretosign apeaceagreement

ances. through whichtoexpresstheirgriev- Even ifthecurrentgovernment of bers withnopoliticalavenues abuses andhasleftseparatistmem- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 ng presentlyinThai- vel ofprogressitpos- : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009

one ofitslargestgoa ing. Thisagreement c region andapercentage areas not tobeincluded intheautonomous made bytheMNLFincludedonlycertain of thePhilippines 1976). Concessions tobe ern provinces(GovernmentoftheRepublic members for crimes committed inthe south- for politicalprisoners well asinallFilipino courts, andamnesty for Muslims inthecentralgovernment as rate Shariacourts,gua mous regioninthesouthernprovinces,sepa- MNLF, includingthecreationofanautono- made bytheCentralGovernment tothe agreement outlines theconcessions tobe ment orforbreakingtheceasefire.The cussions fornotfollowing thepeaceagree- mentionthe agreement. Thereisnoofreper- would givetheMNLFincentivestoabideby there werenoprovisionsputinplacethat Agreement signedinDecember of1976, groups, thefirst peace agreement, theTripoli self (Mirrlees1999). that violatesmoralnorms then thepartymay intentionallyactinaway weigh thecostsofbreakingagreement, benefits ofnotfollowingthecontractout- When enteringintoanagreement, ifthe will behave according to costsandbenefits. ties; itfunctionsonthe applied toanyagreement betweentwopar- through moral hazard.Moralhazardcanbe ades. Thereasonforthiscanbeexplained ments andceasefires inthelast threedec- groups haveviolatedseveral peace agree- MILF. Asearlierstated, theseparatist pines andtheMNLF,a to thepeace negotiations betweenthe Philip- In thecase of theFilipino separatist ls, thecreationofa andseparatistgroup onceded totheMNLF ranteed representation nd more recentlythe principle that parties of profitsfrommin- orthecontract it- 153 159 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

leaders; thenegotiations to successfully negotiate withseparatist Philippines, despitethegovernment’s ability pines. power andinfluence itwantedinthe Philip- with theMNLF andgavetheMNLF ther peacenegotiations (andconcessions) led theCentralGovernment toengageinfur- ther violenceinthesouthernprovinces.This ties forbreakingtheagreement, incitedfur- the SecurityAspectof GRP-MILFTrip- signing ofthe“Implementing Guidelines on by theFilipinogovernment waswiththe ence inthecountry. the separatists seekgreater powerand influ- the Philippineswillcont Without theseconsequences,theviolencein must beenforcedinthefullestcapacity. consequences laidoutbythegovernment break the peaceagreement/ceasefire, the Additionally, if theMN ramifications forfailuretoupholdacontract. that theyarenotmerely threats,butlegal to bewritten intothe peace agreements so ment. Furthermore, theserepercussionsneed ties forbreakingaceasefireorpeaceagree- government needstoenactstringentpenal- result inanendtoseparatistviolence,the order tocreatelasting to followthestipulationsofceasefire. In the separatistshaveno to breaktheagreement and,withoutpenal-

region. TheMNLFusedthisasareason

were tobeincludedintheautonomous stated, notallofthesouthernprovinces according to Islamic law. However,as This isobviouslyproblematic forthe The onlyattempt totakesuchaction south tobegovernedbyMuslims separate autonomous regioninthe ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 ceasefires thatcould intention orincentive LF ortheMILFdoes arenoteffectiveif inue toescalate as of thepolitical syst serve toforcetheseparatist groups outside the separatist leaders, then itwouldonly government weretodiplomatically cutoff ultimatum seriously. Additionally, if the ernment separatistgroupsmay nottakethe sidering thetrackrecord oftheFilipino gov- con- longer negotiatewiththem.However, agreements thanthegovernment willno that if theydo notcomply withfuture peace place anultimatum ontheseparatistgroups, Filipino case. Thegovernment could simply deal withtheproblem of wards from government. the ating greaterviolence the processseparatistgroupscreate,cre- the sizeofARMM.Thisonlyreaffirms to signapeaceagreement thatwouldexpand ally, thegovernment hasrecently attempted groups touphold theguidelines. Addition- groups, despitethefailure peace negotiations withtheseparatist the government wasonceagainengagingin the guidelines setforth, aswithintwoyears the government failedtofollowthroughon maintained peaceintheregion.However, in thesouthern Philippines temporarily tionally, the presenceofU.S.military troops not betoleratedbythegovernment. Addi- groups andestablishingactionsthatwould asserting itsauthority over theseparatist step forwardbytheFilipinogovernment in with theFilipinogovernment. Thiswasa and violationsofthe MILF thatwould constitutecriminal actions lished actionstaken Philippines 2001).Theguidelinesestab- 2001” (Government oftheRepublic oli Agreement ofPeace There areseveraldifferentwaysto em andmost likely by theMNLFor agreements established to gaingreater re- moral hazard inthe oftheseparatist 154 160 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

interests of thePhilippines inpeace negotia- fensive positionthathas onlyworsenedthe this hasput theFilipino government inade- has beenbehindtheMNLF andtheMILF; MILF hold.Presently,internationalsupport international supportthattheMNLFand ternational supportis tal asopposedtoextra encourage participationthroughgovernmen- ernment. TheFilipino government should through whichtheycanparticipateingov- separatist leadersholdpoliticalpositions leaders. Due tothecreation of theARMM, ments andgiveconcessionstotheseparatist to necessarily continuetosignpeaceagree- this doesnotmean thatthegovernmenthas demands oftheseparatistgroups.However, ers; itisitsdirect linktothemotivations and should continuetomeet withseparatistlead- sponse tononcooperation.Thegovernment international support,and amilitary re- This wouldincludebothinternaldiplomacy, a multifaceted approachtotheseparatists. option availabletothegovernment istotake the problem ofseparati does notprovideforlong‑term solutionsto and thecurrentpositi portionate power totheseparatist leaders by thegovernment hasalreadygivendispro- However, thepatternthat hasbeencreated relative peace foras the statusquo,inwhichitisabletoprocure movements.

a mistake toalienate theleadersofthese

into the politicalsp have beenable tomarginally integrate government thatthe The government couldcontinuewith ern provinces.Itisabenefittothe increase theviolenceinsouth- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 hort periodoftime. on ofthegovernment necessary duetothe ‑ st violence.Thethird political means. In- ectrum; itwouldbe : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 separatist leaders lence will,intheshort the government takesagainstseparatist vio- ate peace. It islikely thatanynewinitiative not tosaythatthisplanwillcreateimmedi- lems noncompliance.This ofseparatist is intervention, butalsothelong problems of violent outbreaks withmilitary peace. Itaddresses not only theimmediate tion seems themost viableforlong not gainseparatistcomp loose inthesouthernprovinces,whichdoes military initiative, not simplylettingtroops There needstobeaclearplanandgoalof again negotiatingwith and deaths,butsoonthegovernment isonce certain events, whichturns intoseveral raids sent to“hunt”downleadersresponsiblefor military initiatives. Instead themilitary is the government hasnotsetguidelinesforthe tive thanthecurrent military action,because violating theagreements. Thisismore effec- clear understandingofth ments andceasefires,separatistswillhavea consequences tonotabiding bypeaceagree- motivations. Bysettingout specific military its important linktothegroups’goalsand separatist groupsdiplom stated, itwould beamistake tocutoff the groups continuetobecombative.Asearlier tary force,may benece ment orceasefire. Thelastcomponent, mili- consequences forbreaking apeaceagree- Filipino government isserious about the the separatistgroups also actasapreventative measure, so that sary againsttheseparatistgroups.Thiscan national backing if military force isneces- stronger frontatnegotia the Filipinogovernment canpresenta tions. With the properinternationalbacking, understand thatthe run atleast,increase separatist leaders. ssary if theseparatist tions andhaveinter- liance. Thislastop- atically becauseof e repercussionsof ‑term prob- ‑term 155 161 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

capacity forcedarelianc countries. InThailand,thecountry’slow shaped thecurrentsecuri sponses totheseseparatistthreatshave countries. However,thegovernments’ re- nic groupsinthesouthernregionsof lence stemmingfrom the Philippinesexperienceseparatistvio- Thecasestudies ofThailandandthe responses toterrorism. BothThailandand Philippines exemplify differinggovernment Conclusions andPrescriptions separatist violence. be abletotemperandhopefullyeliminate ernment actionhasbeenthroughdiplomatic whereas inthePhilippines, thefocus ofgov- government tousediplomatic means; separatist violencedueto military means throughwhichtosubdue the region. provinces inordertoga continue towreakhavoconthesouthern peace agreement, theMNLFandMILF tist groupstoensuretheirupholdingofthe ever, without restraints gotiations with topseparatist leaders. How- government’s highcapacityallowedforne- separatist violence.Inthe Philippines, the prisoners. This abusecontributedtoongoing tations wereusedindetainingorexecuting straints onthemilitary, few legalimplemen- control separatistviolence.Without re- long‑term peace,then the Philippines will

sponse andcontinuewithaplantoward

can mitigate theshort‑term violentre- their goals.However,ifthegovernment the statusquo,asitbenefitsthem and In thissense,Thailandusedonly the separatists arequite contentwith separatist violence.This isbecause ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 minority Muslimeth- minority placed onthesepara- in greatercontrolof e onthemilitary to ty situations inthe theinability of the

the military forashortperiod, knowing the separatist havebeenwillingtodeal with government threatensmilitary repercussions, operate withthegovernment. Even whenthe sages offernoincentiveforseparatisttoco- provinces intheARMM.Thesemixed mes- ers twomore times, toofferanexpansionof government met againwithseparatistlead- “guidelines” werepresented, theFilipino late peace agreements. Evenafterthe ernment expressedwhatactionswouldvio- the government. Onlyrecentlyhasthegov- to violence,andthengainconcessionsfrom separatists tobreakpeaceagreements, resort the government hashistoricallyallowed will handle separatist violence. Asitstands, needs tocreateoneclearmessage onhowit point, sinceitsbeginningsinthe1940s. 1990s, separatistviolencewasatitslowest in thesouth, late 1980sandearly domestic issues andnotmilitary intervention social. When thegovernment on focused country, whetheritispo willing toaccept positive changeinthe effectiveness. Itseems thattheseparatist are 1990s, whenthegovernment wasatitspeak were largelydormant inthe1980sand government. SeparatistgroupsinThailand is strengtheningandlegitimizing thecentral land, thefirststeptowardreducedviolence Inorderfor lastingpeacetobe changes, willneedtobe enacted.InThai- achieved byThailandandthePhilippines cycle ofviolence. violating peace agreements hasresultedina pose strictandmeaningful repercussionsfor follow have beentakenrecently), butthe lackof means (though increased military initiatives ‑through bythegovernment toim- In thePhilippines,government litical, economic, or 156 162 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

the country. welding thepower,willcontinuetoplague then negotiations,withtheseparatistleaders Otherwise, thecurrentcycleofviolenceand Agreement, December 23.UnitedStatesIn- public ofthePhilippines. 1976.TheTripoli Studies: I.B.Tauris.Government of theRe- and Separatism Southeast Asia: Decolonization,Nationalism, Christie, CliveJ.1996. 73.1 (Spring):37–54. Peace Agreement isFragile.” in theSouthernPhilippines:Why the1996 Bertrand, Jacques.2000. “PeaceandConflict Report Philipppines: AnAssessment.”Ethnic Studies The 1996PeaceAgreement fortheSouthern Bauzon, KennethE.1999.“ThePhilippines: (February 5,2009). cfr.org/publication/12531 muslim_insurgency land.” CouncilonForeignRelations. “The MuslimInsurgencyinSouthernThai- Bajoria, JayshreeandZissis, Carin.2008. (Jan/Feb): 166–173. The CrisisintheSouth.” Albritton, RobertB.2005.“Thailandin2004: follow throughwiththeseconsequences.

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needs tonotonlyse agreements. The Filipino government 17.2(July)253–277. ments, asin the2003and2008peace new incentivesandpeaceagree- the government willsoonoffer Works Cited . InstituteofSoutheastAsian ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009

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pines. 2001. Government of theRepublic of thePhilip- (April 25,2009). ments Digital Collection: Philippines. United States InstituteofPeace,PeaceAgree- Agreement ofPeace2001,August7. Security AspectoftheGRP-MILFTripoli implement_guide_08072001.html www.usip.org/library/pa/philippines/ library/pa/philippines/tripoli_12231976.html idnews=35094 April 5,2009. Muslim Rebels.”IPS(Oct 13)Accessed Coup LeadersEngagein ShadowyMalay Macan-Markar, Marwaan.2006.“Thailand: vey and MindanaoofthePhilippines.” pendence Movements inPataniofThailand Islam, SyedSerajul.1998.“TheIslamic Inde- Review tion inThailand;1986-1991.” Hussey, Antonia.1993.“RapidIndustrialza- in ChangingSocieties Huntington, Samuel P.2006.PoliticalOrder east Asia in SouthernThailand.” Investigatingthe age? Harish, S.P.2006“EthnicorReligiousCleav- (Apr): 263-283. Transitions.” 1997. “ThePoliticalEconomy ofDemocratic Haggard, StephenandKaufman, Robert. 2009) Collection: Philippines. stitute ofPeace, Peace Agreements Digital 38.5(May):441-456. 83.1(Jan):14-28. 28.1(Apr):48–69. Implementing Guidelinesonthe Comparative Politics http://ipsnews.net/print.asp?

. Yale University Press. Nature of theConflict Contemporary South- http://www.usip.org/

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http://books.sipri.org/files/PPSIPRIPP20.pdf search Institute.AccessedApril6,2009. 20 (Sep),Stockholm InternationalPeace Re- in thePataniInsurgency.”PolicyPaperNo. Thailand: Islamism, Violenceandthe State Melvin, NeilJ.2007.“ConflictinSouthern Asian Survey surgency: Changes inLeadership Potential.” anan. 1979.“Thailand’s Revolutionary In- Morell, DavidandSamudavanija, Chai- woap.html www.csmonitor.com/2008/0805/p06s01- tor, August5.http: Accord Blocked.” Montlake, Simon. 2008.“Philippines’ Peace New.” pines in2003:Troubles,NoneofThem Montesano, MichaelJ.2004. “ThePhilip- (Jan): 3-21. I.” Hazard andUnobservableBehaviour:Part Mirrlees, J.A.1999.“TheTheoryofMoral apsa2008/Refereed-papers/Marshallsay.pdf April 23,2009 Association Conference(July).Accessed September 11.”AustralianPoliticalStudies Minorities inThailandandSingaporepost- curity, State-Society Marshallsay, Zanaiah.2008.“NationalSe-

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Journal ofPeace Research 299 –313. Asian Survey Philippines: AnEmpirical Analysis.” “Intergroup ConflictintheSouthern Magdalena, FedericoV.1977. (April23,2009). 19.4(Apr):315–332. http://www.polsis.uq.edu.au/ ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Christian ScienceMoni- 44.1(Mar):93–101. Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 Relations andMuslim 14.4(1977): 66.1

support.html world/thai-premier-loses-coalition-s- MR1344.ch9.pdf monograph_reports/MR1344/ Institute. ity ofSoutheastAsia.”MR1334,RAND “Indonesia’s Transformation andtheStabil- Rabasa, AngelandChalk,Peter.2001. Economic Crisis Pempel, T.J.1999.ThePoliticsof the Asian 893. Democracy?” Society inThailand: HowFragilethe Paribatra, Sukhumbhand. 1993.“Stateand Pacific Affairs tional Liberation Front in thePhilippines.” Noble, LelaGarner.1976b.“TheMoroNa- Asian Survey 1975: ConsolidatingtheRegime: PartII.” Noble, LelaGarner.1976a.“Philippines – 605. in Thailand.” Neher, ClarkD.1992.“PoliticalSuccession Critical AsianStudies38.1(2006):145– tani –Fears,Suspicion,and Confusion.” Tan Mullins,May.2006. “VoicesFromPat- land.” Separatist Conflict in Storey, Ian.2008.“SouthernDiscomfort: 23 http://www.nytimes.com/1992/05/23/ Coalition’s Support.” Shenon, Philip.1992.“Thai Premier Loses Asian Affairs http://www.rand.org/pubs/ (April 14,2009). 16.2(Feb):178–185. Asian Survey Asian Survey 49.3(Autumn):405–424. . Cornell University Press.

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Post- Marcos Era.” Reconstruction inthe . YaleUniversity Press. Philippines in1986:Democratic Villegas, BernardoM.1987. “The ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Thailand: AShort Asian Survey27.2 : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 159 165 Proceedings of GREAT Day, Vol. 2009 [2010], Art. 47 Great Day 2009 SUNY Geneseo

Sir Thomas Roe at the Mughal Court: Seventeenth Century English Cultural Assumptions Submitted by Katherine Schwartz

Throughout his time at Emperor Ja- continuously, if only nominally, from 1526 hangir’s court, Sir Thomas Roe, the first until 1756.3 The Emperor Jahangir ruled official English ambassador to the Mughal from 1605 until 1627, and while he was not Empire in India, complained about the “a great general, a great organizer, or a great Mughal people, saying that “my toil with builder” as his predecessors had been, his barbarous unjust people is beyond pa- reign saw expansion through conquest and tience,” and that “we live in a Barbarous he was a great patron of the arts, particularly unfaithful place.”1 This type of writing is painting and architecture.4 consistent with later characterizations of By the time the first part of what English superiority and of the Indian people would become the Mughal Empire had been under British control in the nineteenth and conquered, European traders, particularly twentieth centuries. However, from 1615 the Portuguese, had been active in the In- to 1619, when Roe was stationed in the dian Ocean for twenty-eight years. How- Mughal court, England had little value in ever, the English did not establish official trade and no political or military power in presence in the Indian Ocean until 1601, the Mughal Empire. That Roe writes of the and it would take seven more years until inferiority of the Mughal people from such a they made contact with the Mughal Empire. strong conviction of English supremacy tells On December thirty-first in the year us something important: that English culture 1600, a royal charter was granted to “The even in pre-imperial times contained those Company of Merchants of London trading elements and assumptions necessary for the into the East Indies.”5 The most important later rise of Imperialism. reasons traditionally given for this were the When Sir Thomas Roe was pre- simultaneous feelings that England deserved sented to the Emperor Jahangir, the Mughal a role in international trade and concern that Empire had been a major power on the In- England would be barred from participation dian subcontinent for almost a century and in this lucrative commerce. Worries that controlled an enormous area of land.2 Ex- Dutch presence in the East Indies would cut cept for a fifteen year period where control off England’s participation in this profitable was taken by Afghan nobles, the Mughal trade spurred the creation of the English dynasty ruled on the Indian subcontinent East India Company and the subsequent 160 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47 166 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

appointed representative fascinating character,and asthefirst royally overseas. pany andstrengtheningBritain’sposition securing tradeandprivileges fortheCom- I, indicatinghismissi pointed officialambassador byKingJames good fortheCompany,” Roewasalsoap- are greathopesthathemay workmuch comely personage,andoneofwhom there well spoken,learned,industrious,ofa ently aman of“pregnantunderstanding, mas Roe’sname wasproposed. OnOctoberfourthintheyear1614, dor totheGrandMagore’scourt,”Sir Tho- during thedebateon“sendinganambassa- the 1620’s. when itreceived itsoriginal charter, upuntil pany wasactiveinsome fashionfrom1600, searches. mainly duetoarguments overcustoms did notleave theship forafullweek, “an occasion ofdignityandsplendor,” Roe his arrivaltotheMugha the Indian subcontinent. Determined that ern cityofSurat,onthenorthwestcoast eight months atSwalle SirThomas RoeleftEnglandwitha March sixth,1615,andarrivedafteralmost fleet ledbyCaptainWilliam Keelingon large inthehistoryof behind acomprehensivejournal,Roelooms Mughal court,whoalsomanaged toleave communal sourceofcapital.TheCom-

joint-stock ownership,amorelong-term,

several fleets,theCompany turnedto experimental, butafterthesuccessof pany’s voyageswereshort-term and themselves. At first, the Com- 8 7 English voyagestotheEastIndies Althoughhewastoldmultiple Sir Thomas Roeisbyhimself a ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 on’s dualpurposesof the EnglishinIndia. y Holenearthemod- l Empire shouldbe ofEnglandinthe : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 6 Appar- Empire andtheEnglishEastIndia a broadrangeofhist Hawkins, andThomas Mun,nottomention Edward Terry,William Keeling,William the CalendarofStatePapers,works court isalsoreflectedinthedocuments of the journal,butRoe’sworkatMughal subconscious culturalat light. Thispaperfocusesmainly onthe himself andhisactionsinthebestpossible ers and,consequently,Roetriestopresent an accountofhisexpensesforemploy- problems. Roe’sjournalwasintendedtobe cal source,Roe’sjournaldoespresentsome Mughal Empire.While itisarichhistori- England, to1619,whenhedepartedthe nal whichhekeptfrom 1615,whenheleft the Mughalcourtaredocumented inajour- tract, forpermanent trade.Roe’seffortsat perately toobtainaroyalfarman, orcon- tation among Mughalofficialsandtrieddes- riod, helaboredtoimprove England’srepu- from placetoplace.Throughout the pe- he followedJahangir’scourtasitmoved ruary seventeenth,1619,duringwhichtime Roe livedintheMughalEmpire untilFeb- Emperor JahangironJanuarytenth,1616. the court,wherehewaspresentedto thecurrentlocationof the journeytoAjmir, approximately fiveweeks,finallymaking September 1615, Roeremained inSuratfor barous usage.” no means submit tothis“Common bar- and above ordinarycustoms” andhewouldby kings andtheirAmbassadors hadbeen thought thattheyhad Roe refusedtosubmit, sayingthathe“had tom house,andtherehadtobesearched,” try thatnothingcouldpassbutbytheCus- times that“itwastheCustom ofthisCoun- 9 Afterdisembarking inlate ories abouttheMughal understood thatfree titudes expressedin 161 167 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

Custom ofthisCountry,”forexample using of ambassadors, eveninthefaceof“the he wasdue,basedupon European treatment sisted onreceivingth ground” intrying. or “laymy lifeandfortunebothinthe opinion ofandrespectgiventotheEnglish “King’s Honor”byimproving thegeneral pire. Heclaimed thathewouldrestorethe erful, ifnotmoreso,thantheMughalEm- convinced thatEnglandwasatleastaspow- However, Roecame totheMughalcourt dards, andinefficientill-equipped. military was small, evenbyEuropean stan- possessed capablenavalpower,theEnglish England intheearlyseventeenth century TheEnglishfactorsintheMughal pendent ontheemperor’s favor.While Empire inRoe’stime completely were de- seas influence. world powerandreallyhadverylittleover- ous inatimewhereEnglandwasnot ward Saidterms Orientalism, areincongru- though, andthebroaderideologythatEd- English Imperialist culture. Theseideas, and twentiethcenturiesintegralpartsof others, thatbecame laterinthenineteenth lish superiorityandtheinferiorityofexotic Roe’s society,namely tion, Roe’sjournale mind. Despitethisl Roe wasnotwritingwithImperialist aims in as Michael BrownandColinMitchell that It hasbeendocumented byhistorianssuch

the culturalassumptions

details itdivulges butalso becauseof tastic resourcenotonlyfor thefactual his time intheMughalcourtisafan- Roe’sjournaldocumenting Company. ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 10 Tothisend,Roein- Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 xposes elements of ack ofconsciousinten- e courtesyhethought feelings aboutEng- feelings thatitreveals. [Jahangir].” of a“MightyPrinceinleaguewithhim peatedly sayingthathewastheambassador very hardtoassert daily interactions with the court,Roetried munications withtheEmperor aswellhis and Mughalofficials.Inbothformal com- disrespectful oftheemperor, theprinces, Roe comes obstinate,and offasdemanding, ignorance.” “barbarous prideandCustoms” and“dull and thattheyarecharacterizedby “their Prideenduresnoterms ofequality” Archbishop ofCanterbury,Roeclaimed that court inaletter toGeorge Abbott,the cessive pride.When describingtheMughal ceived moral faults,oneofthesebeingex- Atthesame time thatRoeexagger- grated theMughalcourtforvariousper- ated England’spowerandprestige,hedeni- not yetseeforswelling.” sought withCourtesy,whichthisKingcan- Compel thatbyyourpower,whichyouhave your MajestyisLordof “at lastbyourforceteachthem toknow in aletter toJames IthattheEnglishwould two yearsintheMughal court, Roeasserted virtue inaheathenPrince,” andcomplained Roe begrudgedany“admiration of sucha tianity, inRoe’s eyesthe onetrue religion. posed arrogance theyrefusetoaccept Chris- ception ofthem asheathens.Intheirsup- Mughal peopleisconnectedwithhiscon- Roe’s negativeevaluation erned byprivateinterestandappetite.” that attendedonlyadvantageandwere gov- “the prideandfalsehoodofthesepeople, the Mughalcourt,Roelikewisebemoaned with Emperor Jahangir. his ownforms ofreverencewhenmeeting 14 12 Neartheendofhistenurein Evenafterspendingalmost England’s prestige,re- 11 alltheSeasandcan 13 Inhisjournal, of thepride

162 168 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

do evil.” wanting noartnorwickedsubtletytobeor teach isfrequent, eveninthecourt,whereis as wellthat“allCunningtheDevilcan his son,andtome obsequious,even toflat- some toys,wassoreconciledastobetray official], forasordidhope onlyofbuying how “AsaphKhan[animportant Mughal Two yearslater,Roehadoccasiontolament in thatkind:presentswereforsuitors.” he “must notexpectany[presents]from me as whenhetoldtheGovernorofSuratthat early oninhistime intheMughalEmpire, thoughts aboutpresentswereestablished the form ofjewelsandnovelties.Roe’s contemptible vanityanddesireforwealth in more manifestation oftheMughalpeople’s Roecomplained strenuouslyabout diplomacy. InRoe’smind, thiswasyetone the practice of gift-giving withinMughal vor. order toforcethem fromtheEmperor’s fa- Mughal alliestalkingbadlyoftheEnglishin have todowiththePortugueseortheir Other forms ofdeception thatRoenoted those times whenhehadpresentstooffer. This continued, according toRoe,except for which Roetakesasasignoffalseness. verbal promisesandnotactingonthem, instances ofMughalofficialsofferinghim be learned,ortodespised.” practiced aloneinEurope;hereisenoughto Policy andwickedcraftoftheDevilisnot was courtintrigue. AsRoewrote,“all the

cal lifethatRoeoftencomplainedabout

grapes.” AnotherfacetofMughalpoliti- forth Crabs,andabastardstock having thetruevineshouldbring 19 that “withenvyandsorrow…we Roerecordedtime andagain 17

ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 18 Roe stated 20

Mud, whichIwasenforcedtobuildhalf.” allowed nothingbyJahangir“butahouseof the Mughalemperor, forexample, Roewas king. Insteadofbeinglavishlyhostedby an independentman withthepowersofa officials, RoewasasubjectofJahangir,not eyes oftheemperor, Roe’sactualpositionwithin the of self-worthandnationalpride.Inthe Mughal courtisastrikingfoiltohissense and willinplain terms demand it.” except itCome accompanied [bypresents] Roe said“nevertakes any requesttoheart greed, eventheEmperor Jahangir,whom Mughal officialseems unaffectedbysuch his verymanhood, forabauble.No willing togiveuphishonor, inRoe’s mind cluded, consumes him tothepointthatheis to expressanoathofloyalty totheemperor; “staying anylengthoftime wereexpected [Mughal] nobility,”and those whowere incorporated intoth matic practices. more significantinlightofMughaldiplo- speaking withtheprince,butitbecomes as aphrase AsaphKhan“must use”when be atrivial incident,asRoeinterpreted this “were hisSubjects.” Asaph Khanmentioned thattheEnglish Surat. While tryingtoputKhurram atease, about thetreatment ofEnglishmerchants at see Prince Khurram, thefutureemperor, Khan, oneofJahangir’sprimary advisors,to Roe explainedhowhewastakenbyAsaph him asasubject.OnOctobertwelfth,1617, the extenttowhichhisMughalhostsviewed Roe’s journal,whenreadcarefully,reveals prize.” was thathemight buytheGoldtakenin tery; forthegroundofallthisfriendship 21 AsaphKhan’sgreed,Roecon- 25 MensuchasRoewere e “rankandfileof 24 andalsotheMughal This might appearto 22

163 169 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

with different intentions. loyalty,” whichRoedid,thoughperhaps sents totheruler “to formalize theoath of doing, andalsoofferingsmall, personalpre- to theemperor, whichRoetriedtoavoid cluded followingtherulesofreverencedue Roe’sjournal alsomade itclear that is given.” may [weartheking’sIm eyes oftheMughalcourt, asserting“none this giftbutacknowledg Roe didnotcomprehend at leastoutwardly,loya it signifiedthatJahangir mony andthesocialpositionthatwentwith remain loyaltotheEnglishking,thiscere- Jahangir most likelyknewthatRoewould and utterlyloyaltoth member ofthecirclenoblescompletely This outwardlysimple giftmarked him asa signify hispositionasclientoftheemperor. of goldasbigsixpence”from to Jahangir ducted intothisgroup,receivinga“medal seventeenth, 1616,SirThomas Roewasin- votion totheimperial throne.OnAugust was essentiallyapers Mughal emperors, Jahangirestablishedwhat his journal.Aswascustom among the ThatRoewasconsidered asubject Mughal Empire,canbeseenelsewherein of theEmperor Jahangir,andthusofthe dinate status. worked tounderscoretheforeigner’ssubor- The ambassador’s subsequentdutiesin-

if theyenjoyedtheemperor’s favor.

and wererewardedwithlandstitles granted rankintheMughalgovernment These diplomats wereregularly masters while in aforeign court.” an envoy,ineffect,servedtwo 29

ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 e emperor.Although onal cultbasedonde- l andsubordinate. ed itsvalueinthe expectedRoe tobe, age] buttowhom it 28 the significance of Inall,these 27 27

European].” than everany Frank[a and thattheemperor “moreesteemed me appointed me aplaceaboveallothermen” despite Roe’sprotesta English asagrouporRoeanindividual, journal, made notasinglemention ofthe Even Emperor Jahangir,inhispersonal writings bymembers oftheMughalcourt. there isalmostnomention oftheEnglishin trading partnerarevali requisite goodstobe Roe’s fearsthatEnglanddidnothavethe ther toestablish atrade onfreeConditions free heartcanendure,that Idoresolveei- and subjecttosomany suchasno slaveries, that “sobaseareourConditions inthisPort Swalley Hole,Roewasalreadycomplaining 1615, barelytwoweeksafterlandingat toms searches.AsearlyasOctoberninth, not begranted,suchasfreedom fromcus- dling, though,includeddemands thatcould English. Roe’s ideaofreasonablehan- sidered tobereasonabletreatment forthe sign afarman guaranteeingwhatRoecon- immediate insistenceth gences. Initially,thiswasmanifested inan fair treatment, andothersimilar indul- treaties securingpermanent tradingrights, Roe’sbeliefinEnglishsuperiority feeling thatEnglandde seems, inmatters of tr King thatsentpresentsofsosmall value.” “whether theKingof upon receivinggiftsfromRoeaskedaJesuit even recountingastoryabouthowJahangir, trading goodsandpresentswereinferior, eral occasions thatthequality ofEnglish by theMughal elite.Roe admitted onsev- English tradewasuncertainanddevalued 31

seen asavaluable England wereagreat tion that“[Jahangir] ade, toequatea general term fora dated bythe factthat served tobegiven at Mughalofficials 30

164 170 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

tion.” ing “everywayafflicted- fires,smokes, dured nearlyunbearable circumstances, be- Throughout, Roecomplained thatheen- Roe’sjournalrevealsafundamental Mughal Empireaswell ofitspeople. loathing oftheland,climate, andfoodofthe Hole. in 1615whenRoefirstlandedatSwalley trade wasjustasuncertainin1619it very little,financially work intheMughalEmpireamounted to agreement ontrade.Roe’slongyearsof vented him from obtaininganypermanent herence toatreatyfavoringEnglandpre- poses ofhisembassy ashisdetermined ad- accordingly failedinoneofthemain pur- cant matter, evenlateinhisembassy, andhe Roe refusedtocompromise onanysignifi- privileges didnotenterRoe’sthoughts. English tradeenoughtograntthem special the ideathatMughalcourtdidnotvalue noble person,wouldhaveagreedtothem; been seenbytheemperor, he,asajustand Roe automatically assumed that,had they base andsordidness,heismost open.” Khan wasonlya“bribe,towhich,even seen them, orelse”themessage from Asaph merely abluff,andthat“thekinghadnot ately jumped totheconclusion thatthiswas OnAprilthird,Roereceivednotice found tobeunreasonable,andheimmedi- from AsaphKhanthathisdemands hadbeen of “Articles to his

twenty-sixth, 1616, Roesubmitted aset

rules andprocedures.OnMarch be exempt from customary Mughal 33 strate a sense thattheEnglish should

Roe’s tradenegotiationsdemon- or todomy besttodissolveit.” ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Majesty’s Considera- speaking,andEnglish : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 34

not ahouseforman torestin.” and villagesallbuilt of “a miserable andBarrenCountry,thetowns “Brampore,” thehome ofPrinceParwiz,as Roefrequentlycomplained aboutthe ing. Onhisjourney condition ofMughalterr perceives intheMughal pe of speakingit.” place thatever Isaw,and makes me weary the MughalEmpire “isthedullest,basest gave usnot.” ment orthenaturaldispositionofClime ishment whicheitherthewantofGovern- saying that“therewasnotamisery norpun- but alsoofthewayjourneywashandled, proved notonlyoftheconditionsroad without meat andwater.” and Camels lyinginthewoodyMountains which time “thousandsofCoaches,Carts ished... thekingrestedtwodays”during an impassible way,wheremany per- Camels with bushes, tired withtheincommodities of through woodsandoverMountains,torn Jahangir’s court,Roenotedthat“wepassed cember twenty-sixth,1616,whilefollowing that lastedforseveralmonths in1616. the Mughalpeople,in illness, Roealsorecordedepidemics among tion tomentioning instancesofEuropean [him]” from thebrinkofdeath. vine interventionsavedhim as“Godraised and thatfiveothermen wereill. I waspastsenseandgivenoverfordead,” Roe claimed thathewas“sosickasatnight journey fromSurattotheemperor’s court, ject toillness. perate orquietseason, floods, storms, heat,dust,flies,andnotem- Roe explains thecultural defectshe 41 35 Insum, Roeclaimed that When making hisinitial 42

to Agra,Roedescribed cluding oneinAgra ” andalsobeingsub- Mud, sothatthereis itories whiletravel- 40 Roedisap- ople by 37 36 39 Inaddi- Onlydi- OnDe- 38

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the executiondoneby times seeswithtoomuch delightinblood pled byelephants,and that Jahangir“some were sometimes puttodeathbybeingtram- Early on,Roenotedthat are ofviolenceandphysicalsavagery. Many ofRoe’srecordsMughalbarbarism merited it,would givehimliberty.” him asaservant,andifhisgoodbehavior God fellowtoaBeast”and sohewould“use neither wasitlawfultomake of theImage high favor…inEnglandwehadnoslaves, replied that,thoughthiswas“esteemeda or todisposeofhim atmypleasure.” felony… [and]senthim tome… foraSlave, had “CondemnedaMogullonsuspicionof twenty-third, periority ofEnglishcustoms. OnMarch occasions for Roetoexplicitly state thesu- stances ofcrueltyalsoprovideconvenient Kings)ishere,whereIsee it,almost duereverencetothePersonsof contemptible… thatIadmired inEngland (reserving thateven thisgreatness andwealth King’shousesandsome fewothers): thebuildingsofmud (exceptthe withbarbarism, religions infinite, withoutPolicy,theCustoms mingled souncertain,withoutwrittenlaw, ofthisplace… ButtheGovernment Fame hasdonemuch fortheGlory he wrote: other writings.InalettertoKingJames I,

ity andwithlackof culture isseen inhis

Roe equatesbarbarism withbothbrutal- crude, backwards,andbrutal.That and theirculturewereuncivilized, barism. Tohim, theMughal people retreating into th

1616, RoewrotethatJahangir ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 his Elephants.” 43 convictedcriminals

e languageofbar- 46 45 Later 44 Roe In- Moore abovemoney.” and thataChristianes not beignorantIhadmore mercy thanhe, would make surethattheJahangir“should their ransom andfreethem” andindoingso “would notbuythem asslaves,onlypay the earliersituation,Roerepliedthathe his family, letalonehiscountry. [Nur Jahan]”andsocouldnotevencontrol “yielded himself intothehandsofawoman consort, totheextentthatemperor had at courtrestedwithNurJahan,Jahangir’s soft” andrepeatedly asse example, thatJahangir was“gentle[and] Jahangir aseffeminate.Roeclaimed, for Many ofthesefocusongender,presenting concern theemperor Jahangirhimself. of Roe’sbroadlydisapprovingcomments lives, but tosellthem for slaves.” thieves, and“therewasnowaytosavetheir of howJahangirhadcondemned agroupof that same Roerecountedanotherstory year Sir Thomas Roelivedlongbeforethe Raj ward Saidhastermed Orientalism. Although Inpart,Roe’sobservationsseem to about Asiaticregimes, anoutlookthat Ed- have beencoloredbyaset ofassumptions expressions ofreligiousprejudices. East Indies”isparticularlypepperedwith Discourse of Trade,fromEnglanduntothe members likeThomas whoseessay“A Mun, scriptive andbusinesswritings ofCompany and Thomas Bonner,aswellinthede- Terry, William Hawkins,William Keeling, pany employees, suchasthoseofEdward found inthejournalsofcontemporary Com- timents aboutEnglish TheviewsthatRoeexpresses,both writings ofotherEnglishmen. Similar sen- directly andindirectly, teemed thelifeofa 48 superiority canbe are alsoseeninthe Interestingly,most rted thatrealpower 49 47

Asin 50

166 172 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

ality.” ism, Orientalsplendor,cruelty,[and]sensu- serves displayelements of“Orientaldespot- people hemeets andtheactivitiesheob- ces inEngland,Roe’sdescriptionsof the ters hewrotetoemployers andacquaintan- interacted withandacted towardscolonized existing attitudesinformed howEngland became arealinstitution becausethesepre- ideas inthetime before EnglishImperialism century. Itisimportant touncoverthese tural mind evenintheearlyseventeenth powerful, werepresentintheEnglishcul- rialism toflourish,andwhichkeptitso that allowed Orientalism andEnglish Impe- lustrates thefact thatthekeycultural ideas English superiority inhiswritings, Roeil- Mughal Empireanditsso England’s civilization trigue, RoeclearlypositionedEnglandand greed, lasciviousness,despotism, andin- IndiscussingsuchthingsasEng- court, theclimate oftheEmpire, religion, land’s prestige, hisplaceintheMughal “whores” who“didsinganddance.” festivals entertainment wasprovidedby Jahangir hadfourwives sexual appetites,aswhenhementioned that sure tonote,disapprovingly,theemperor’s inces bythatauthority.” own wordrules,andhisGovernorsofProv- run with“nowrittenLaw.TheKingbyhis ample, thefactthatMughalEmpireis out hisjournal,andpa

pean stereotypesaboutAsia.

Said suggestswereintegraltoEuro- nicely intothe“’Oriental’ideas” that 52 people oftheMughalEmpire fits Roefrequentlylamented, forex- pire inIndia,hisevaluationofthe and theheightofBritishEm- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 as superiortothe rticularly inthe let- 53 and alsothatduring Healsomade ciety. Instressing : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 51 Through- 54

Society, 1899),460,490. Correspondence 1615-1619: AsNarratedinHisJournaland mas RoetotheCourtofGreatMogul, pany, 1991),9. (New York:Macmillan PublishingCom- History oftheEnglis 5 4 3 2 1 Daniel, 1641). clesiasticall course Concerningthe 208; andalsoJohnDrury, See: Brown,ItinerantAmbassador oning apan-nationalProtestantAlliance. 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 48. 9 University pressofKentucky,1970),38. The LifeofSirThomasRoe(Lexington: 8 376. and Ibid.,“17-18January1615(879)”,363- 7 1616, 324-331. dies, ChinaandJapan,Volume2:1513- 6 twentieth century. populations alloverthe John Keay,TheHonourableCompany:A Ibid., 100. Ibid., 282. Ibid., 106. Sir Thomas Roe, Roe, TheEmbassyofSirThomasRoe Michael Brown, Ibid., “1-20September 1614”,317-324; “1-5 October1614(770)”, Roe wasaveryactiveProtestant,champi- Ibid., 508. Ibid., 310,496. Ibid., 497. Ibid., 53. Ibid., 44. Ibid., 46. (Cambridge: PrintedbyRoger References , Vol.1(London:Hakluyt Itinerant Ambassador: The EmbassyofSirTho- h EastIndiaCompany Work ofPeaceEc- world, evenintothe A Summary Dis- A Summary CSPC: EastIn-

, 198- , 44, 167 173 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

2003). Jahangir (Rampur: RampurRazaLibrary, Jahan Begam:aContemporaryAccountof Siddiqi, ries, forexample: Kami ShiraziandW.H. any Europeanincontemporary courthisto- Similarly, thereisvirtuallynoreferenceof (Oxford: OxfordUniversityPress,1999). annotated byWheeler M.Thackston Jahangir, Emperor ofIndia,trans.,ed.,and Jahangir, and theMughalEmpire ity isdifficult.” Mitchell, SirThomasRoe bassador fromtherestof theMughalnobil- some instances,demarcating avisitingam- 400 zatin1611,and,asMitchellsays,“in Empire, 165. 23 Edward Terry,hischaplain, EdwardTerry, servants specifically toshoe theflies away, references tothefactthat theemperor had 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 22 Ibid., 115,257.Thejournalreferencedis: Ibid., 119. Roe, 244. Ibid. Mitchell, Ibid. Ibid., 435. Ibid., 134. Ibid., 248.While Roeonlymakes afew Ibid., 156. Ibid., 150. Ibid., 68. William Hawkinswasgrantedarank of

Ibid., 201,183. of highvalue,asmentioned onpage426.

21 20 Ibid. Theprize ispresumably apearl Ibid., 63. 19 bid., note1 18 Waqa-i-uz-zaman: fathnama-I Nur 17 The Jahangirnama:memoirsof Ibid., 358. Ibid., 367. Sir ThomasRoeandtheMughal ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 , 163,165. 44 43 42 41 40 39 flict theMughalpeopl 38 37 36 1864. don: HerMajesty’sStationary Office,1860, Calendar ofStatePapers Colonial 54 53 52 Vintage Books,1979),4. 51 1968). versity ofLondon(Farnborough,Gregg, Library ofEconomic Literature,TheUni- lished fromOriginalsintheGoldsmith’s A CollectionofFiveRareWorksRepub- Indian Trade:SelectedWorks,17 from EnglanduntotheEast Indies,in 50 49 48 47 46 45 Printed forJ.Wilkie, 1777),117. tice of,inourPassageThither…( -India; WhereinSomeThingsaretakenNo- the table.” (EdwardTerry, “cover our meat assoon asitwasplaced on his chaplain, statesthattheflieswould Ibid., 120. Ibid., 113. Ibid., 393. Ibid., 368. Ibid., 89. Foradiscussionofthediseasesthataf- Ibid. Ibid., 100,86. Ibid., 145. Roe, 110. Ibid. Edward Said,Orientalism Thomas Mun,“ADiscourseofTrade, Ibid., 293,362. Ibid., 306. Ibid., 305. Ibid. Ibid., 150. Ibid., 108. Bibliography e, seeTerry,225-231.

A VoyagetoEast (NewYork: th

London: . Lon- Century: East 168 174 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

Century: ACollection East IndianTrade:SelectedWorks,17 Cambridge: PrintedbyRoger Daniel,1641. sota Press,1971. 1617. Minneapolis:University ofMinne- Keeling andMasterThomas Bonner,1615- India CompanyJournals ofCaptainWilliam Keeling, andThomas Bonner.TheEast Strachan, Michael, Boies Penrose,William ety, 1899. Correspondence 1615-1619: AsNarratedinHisJournaland mas RoetotheCourtofGreatMogul, Roe, SirThomas. pur: Rampur RazaLibrary,2003. contemporary accountofJahangir. uz-zaman: fathnama-iNurJahanBegam:a Kami Shirazi,andW.H. Siddiqi. Press 1999. peror ofIndia. hangirnama: MemoirsofJahangir,Em- Jahangir, andW.M. Thackston. dia Corporation,2005. Clements R.Markham. N.p.AdamantMe- Queen Elizabeth,andJamesI. Voyages DuringtheReigns ofHenry VIII, tain William Hawkins.In Hawkins, William. Gregg, 1968. University ofLondon.[Farnborough]: smith’s LibraryofEconomicLiterature,The Republished fromOriginals inthe Gol at HamburgintheYeareMDCXXXIX.

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Presented totheConsiderationofMy Confederation AmongstProtestants: Concurre withtheAimofaCivill Peace EcclesiasticallHowItMay course ConcerningtheWorkof Dis- Drury, John.ASummary Oxford: Oxford University Oxford:OxfordUniversity . London:HakluytSoci- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 The EmbassyofSirTho- The Journalsof Cap- of FiveRareWorks : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 The Hawkins’ Editedby The Ja- Waqa-i- Ram- th

1994. Mughal India. Study ofBritishMercantile Activitiesin Growth ofEnglishEastIndia Company:A Chakrabarty, Phanindranath. The UniversityPressofKentucky,1970. The LifeofSirThomasRoe. Brown, MichaelJ. 1984. nolds. NewYork:Harper&Row,1982- of EverydayLife. Capitalism, 15 2002. Braudel,Fernand. India Company.Rochester:D.S.Brewer, Nigel Rigby,eds. Bowen, H.V.,MargaretteLincoln,and trait Gallery,1990. British, 1600-1947. Bayly, C.A.,eds. ham: DukeUniversityPress,2005. nial EncountersinWorldHistory. eds. Ballantyne, TonyandAntoinetteM.Burton, University byAsiaPublishingHouse,1966. Department ofHistory,AligarhMuslim Aurangzeb. NewYork:Publishedfor the Athar Ali,M. lishers &Distributors,2001. Asian Studies. Mughals, 1628-1658.Vol.35of Anwar, Firdos.Nobility Underthe 1777. as DelighttheReader.London:J.Wilkie, Inferences UpontheStory,toProfitasWell Mixt withSomeParallelObservationsand Most SpaciousEmpireoftheGreatMogul: Our AbodeThere,WithinThatRichand in OurPassageThither,butManyMore Wherein Some ThingsAreTakenNoticeof, Terry, Edward. Bodies inContact:RethinkingColo-

Calcutta:PunthiPustak, th New Delhi:ManoharPub- AVoyagetoEast-India; The MughalNobilityUnder -18 Translated bySian Rey- The Raj:Indiaandthe th The WorldsoftheEast London:NationalPor- Itinerant Ambassador: Century:TheStructure Civilization and Lexington: Rise and Dur- South 169 175 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

ford: Blackwell,2004. Mukhia, Harbans. lishingHouse, 2001. their Contributions. New Pub- Delhi:Gyan Mukherjee, Soma. Centre forEurope, University ofKarachi, 2000. Mughal Empire. Mitchell, ColinPaul. Harvard University Press,1990. Gender fromtheGreeksto Freud. Laqueur, Thomas. MakingSex:Body and 1991. Company, New York:MacmillanPublishing History ofthe EnglishEast IndiaCompany. Keay, John. TheHonourable Company: A University ofMinnesotaPress, 1976. World inthe Age ofExpansion. Orient, 1600-1800. Vol. 2 ofEuropethe and Furber, Holden. RivalEmpires of Tradeinthe Press, 1993. Mughal India. New York: Oxford University Findly, EllisonBanks. cutta: OxfordUniversity Press, 1987. dia andtheIndianOcean, 1500-1800 Das Gupta, Ashin and M.N.Pearson, eds. CambridgeUniversity Press,1999. Asia IntheEarly Modern Era. Cambridge: Merchants, Companies, and Trade:Europe and Sushil and Chaudhury, Michel Morineau,eds. 1978. Press, sity

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Economic Classics,1965. New York: Reprints of NewYork:Reprints 1600-1640. Early Joint-StockCompany India Company: TheStudy ofan Chaudhuri, K.N. Karachi: The AreaStudy- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 The Mughals ofIndia Royal MughalLadies and Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 The Trading World of Sir Thomas Roe and the Roe and Sir Thomas Nur Jahan,Empress of The English East Minneapolis: Cambridge:

. Cal- . Ox- In- Raj Kumar. IndiaUnder ShahJahan. bridge: CambridgeUniversity Press, 1998. The NewCambridge History ofIndia prise inPre-ColonialIndia. Prakash, Om. Richards, John F. 2000. edition. New Delhi:Anmol Publications, Ziad, Zeenut,ed. cago Press,1998. in MughalIndia. Chicago: University ofChi- musicological StudyofMusic,Art,and Culture Wade, Bonnie C. 1995.York: ManchesterUniversity Press, gali’ intheLateNineteenthCentury. ‘Manly Englishman’ andthe ‘Effeminate Ben- Sinha, Mrinalini. 2005. Press, sity ine K.Waghmar. New Delhi: Oxford Univer- Corinneited by Attwood. Burz- Translatedby Great Mughals: History Art, andCulture. Schimmel, Annemarie. TheEmpireof the Beacon Press,1993. in theMakingofModern Science Schiebinger, Londa. University Press,2003. NewYork:Oxford Early ModernEngland. Shepard, Alexandra. tage Books, 1979. Said, Edward. 1997. hibs Saha, B.P. 1993. dia I, vol.5of New York:OxfordUniversity Press,2002. . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Press, University Cambridge Cambridge: . . New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, The NewCambridgeHistory ofIn- Begams, Concubines,and Memsa- European CommercialEnter- Orientalism The Magnificent Mughals. The Magnificent Colonial Masculinity:The Imaging Sound:An Ethno- The Mughal EmpireThe Mughal Nature’s Body: Gender Meanings ofManhood in PartII,vol. 5of . New York:Vin- . Boston: New . Cam- 1 . Part Ed- st

170 176 : The Proceedings of GREAT Day 2009 Great Day 2009 SUNY Geneseo

Front and Center: An Anthropological Analysis of Drag Queens in American Culture Submitted by Seth Palmer In imitating gender, drag implicitly reveals the discipline for being paternalistic, if not the imitative structure of gender itself – as blatantly racist. The process of creating the well as its contingency. Indeed, part of the “other,” however, continues today both in- pleasure, the giddiness of the performance side and outside of the university, creating a is in the recognition of a radical contin- need for scholars to deconstruct the very gency in the relation between sex and gen- categories that are meant to define and con- der in the face of cultural configurations of strain individuals within specific cultural casual unities that are regularly assumed to groups. be natural and necessary (Gender Trouble, In my research on drag queens in 187). contemporary American culture, I have The idea of society is a powerful image. It been interested in finding a language with is potent in its own right to control or to stir which to deconstruct the institutionalized men to action. This image has form; it has gendered and sexualized categories imposed external boundaries, margins, internal on individuals in American society. I have structure. Its outlines contain power to re- been largely unsuccessful in this endeavor. ward conformity and repulse attack. There Rupp and Taylor had the same struggle in is energy in its margins and unstructured their research on drag queens in Key West: areas (Douglass, 137). “Although we argue that drag queens and drag performances break down the bounda- As the discipline has been institu- ries between woman and man, gay and tionalized, anthropology within the academy straight, we continue to use these categories, has traditionally focused on the study of however flawed they might be to identify what “the West” considers to be the exotic, people. In part, the language gives us no the strange, the weird, and the odd. In the choice” (Drag Queens, 5). The Sapir-Whorf late 19th and early 20th centuries, anthro- hypothesis, developed by Edward Sapir and pologists were interested mainly in claiming Benjamin Whorf, speaks to the fact that as “a people” (often considered primitive) individuals whose cognitive categories are from which they could develop a profes- influenced by a specific language, anthro- sional career and academic prestige; for Ma- pologists themselves have difficulty in dis- linowski it was the Trobriand Islanders, for cussing concepts that exist beyond the Boas it was the Kwakiutl, and for Lewis bounds of their own culture. How can I, as Henry Morgan it was the Iroquois. Such a native English speaker, examine concepts attitudes today are highly criticized within of gender that go beyond “male” and 171

Published by KnightScholar, 2010 177 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

and assassination won two Academy and assassinationwontwo Academy nity organizerHarveyMilk’s risetopower Milk dent andPresident,respectively. Thefilm both foughtfortheseatsofVicePresi- candidates Sarah Palinand Hillary Clinton paign, thecelebrated(andreviled)political example. Duringthe 2008 Presidential cam- ready inplaceUtahandMississippi,for adopting children.Similar measures areal- even unmarried heterosexualcouples)from kansas, preventsgayandlesbianparents(or ida andArizona.Act1,whichpassedinAr- state. Similar measures werepassedinFlor- vember, prohibitinggaymarriage inthe Proposition 8inCaliforniapassedthisNo- LGBTIQ communityacrossthecountry. important politicaldecisionsforthe the November 2008electionsledtomany tures intheUnitedStates.Mostobviously, normative genderedandsexualizedstruc- few oftheissuesthathavechallenged American society.Thefollowing arejustof sive sexistandhom voices havecontinuedtocontesttheoppres- MystudyofdragqueensinAmeri- vant overthepastfewmonthsasqueer can culturehasbeenmade increasingly rele- lace. trol overthecontemporary American popu- and sexualitynolongerhavecomplete con- apparent thatstandardconceptionsofgender such movements, itbecomes increasingly the queercommunity today.Because of

androgynous identitymovement within

, describingthepo identities giventhegenderqueerand cuss diversegenderedandsexualized ogies willhavetobecreateddis- the task,newlinguisticterminol- “female?” Despite thedifficultyof ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 ophobic structuresof Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 litician andcommu- tember 30 marry” (Zeleny,1).Morelocally,onSep- lowing abrotherandsisterto couples tomarrywas Mr. Warren saidthatallowingsame-sex cent interview withtheWeb siteBeliefnet, President Obama’s inauguration:“Inare- erend RickWarrentogivethebenedictionat was furtherangeredbytheselectionofRev- pray” (Lyons,1).TheLGBTIQcommunity it comes on theradioIbowmy headand ing…I can’tevenlisten and itsmessage isshameful anddisgust- the song.Itclearlypromotes homosexuality Christian Preachertoldth Ironically, Perry’smother, anEvangelical Song atthe2009Kid’sChoiceAwards. summer, andwasnominated forFavorite Girl” toppedtheBillboa Awards. KatyPerry’shitsingle“IKissed a women andsexualminoritie in partconcernedwiththe representationof State UniversityofNew YorkatGeneseois Even thedebateover curriculum at the will attempt toresolve that issue” (Cioffi, 1). ‘male’ or‘female.’ Thenewhousingproject cal distinction,toiden match asocially-definedgenderorbiologi- coming freshmen, eventhosewhomaynot current housingform, whichrequiresallin- college newspaper,recognizesthat:“The wide. Anarticle inthe taking place oncollege campuses nation- represents thegendere State UniversityofNewYorkatGeneseo -neutral housingoptionon-campus atthe First Amendment. ofagender Theapproval made peopleagainquestionthelimits ofthe Geneseo, approvedbyCampus Scheduling, College GreenattheStateUniversityof th ananti-gaydemonstration onthe no differentfromal- tify themselves as d revolutionthatis tothatsong…when Lamron rd Top100chartlast e pressthat:“Ihate s. Inhisletter , Geneseo’s 172 178 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

trary genderedandsexua tions donotaddress,of raising fosterchildren? Whattheseques- unmarried heterosexualcouplecapable of Are twomothers, twofathers,orevenan afforded tomarried heterosexualcouples? married andthusbeprivytothesamerights States? Shoulditbelegalfortwomento President orVicePresident oftheUnited cal sphere.Isawoman capableofbeingthe and sexualminorities in theAmerican politi- the problematic status ofbiologicalwomen Underneath allofthesei eronormative discoursecanrununcontested. in theUnitedStates,amale-dominated, het- ered tobe one of themost liberal institutions the settingofunive Who cookedtheirmeals?floors? Evenin Whoscrubbedtheir washed theirdishes? freely philosophizedayandnight.Who acquired theresourcesneededtobeable not askhowitcame tobethatsuchmales these “great minds” werewriting; they do fail torecognize the socialstructure inwhich -bodied persons.Theselearnedindividuals philosophy andhistory dence that allof thebestworksof literature, males” (2).Inotherwords,itisjustcoinci- pen tohavebeenwrittenmostly bywhite white males. Theyaregreatbooksthathap- ered greatbecause theywerewritten by Western Humanities Iand IIare not consid- Blackman writes: “Therequiredworksin minds” (1).Similarly, ProfessorLarry

books leftbehindbythegreatest

humanities isthe studyof the great fessor Walter Soffer arguesthat: “the the Western Humanities course, Pro- Force, concerningthedebateover to theCurriculum ReviewTask ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 rsity, oftenconsid- course,arethearbi- were writtenbymale ssues, ofcourse,lies lized categories that : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 an actofresistance tosocial norms, United States,dragshould beseenpartlyas the historyofqueer acceptable gender practices.Indeed, given those individualswhodefyculturally- structure that attempts edges, butheavily emphasizes, thepower Additionally, my anal like tobeinabox–I’m claustrophobic.” “People trytoputyouinabox,andIdon’t Champagnetation. Asmyinformant stated: limits ofanysingleanthropologicalinterpre- group ofindividualswhoarebeyondthe perform indragasanextremely diverse contextualize theexperiencesofpeoplewho American culture,Ihave beencarefulto ing usedinader tant shared experiences; theterm isnotbe- group ofindividualsthathavemany impor- a waytofindunityamongst ahighlydiverse tinues tobecontroversia outside ofthecommunity,anditsusecon- is notacceptedbyallmembers withinor once usedagainstthecommunity.Theterm culture isused toreclaim aterm thatwas The word“queer”inacademia andpopular gender, Intersex,andQueer)community. LGBTIQ (Lesbian,Gay,Bisexual,Trans- “queer” willbeusedtoencompass thewhole arena ofAmericanpolitics. literal andsymbolic relevance inthelarger constructed categories, queens speakdirectlytothesesocially- United States.Theperformances ofdrag tant signifiersinpoliticaldecisionsthe “male” and“female,” then become impor- base theiropinions.Suchconceptionsof the American populace uses from whichto In studyingdragperformance in Throughout thispaper,theterm ogatory sense. peoples livinginthe ysis notonlyacknowl- to controlthelivesof andhaveimportant l. Iusetheterm as 173 179 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

cluding suchfilms asPriscilla,Queenofthe American culture through thecinema, in- performances haveenteredintomainstream celebrates them asapeopleworthyofstudy. the UnitedStates, andmostimportantly, alize theexperiences ofdragperformers in disciplinary piecethatattempts tocontextu- ing websites(suchaswww.youtube.com personal pagesofdragqueensonvideoshar- changed overtime. Finally,Ireviewedthe perception ofdragqueenshas,andhasnot, culture togainanunderstandingofhowthe tions ofdragqueensinpopularAmerican students. Additionally, Istudiedrepresenta- held withagroupofyoungqueercollege and afocusgroupdiscussionondragwas conducted with afewselectdragqueens, gay barinRochester, NY;interviews were by watchingdragperformances atasmall the UnitedStates. Fieldworkwasconducted literature ondragandqueercommunities in rary gendertheory,andtheanthropological tural historyofdragperformance, contempo- and analyzedforthisstudyincludedthecul- of thosewhoperform init.Literatureread Foo, ThanksforEverything! JulieNewmar ing Game Victoria Desert www.myspace.com www.facebook.com and socialnetworkingwebsites (suchas examine themeaning ofdragandthe lives

video sharing websiteswillbeutilized to

views, film, andsocialnetworking erature, fieldwork experiences,inter- , TorchSongTrilogy In thispaper, data collected from lit- Recently, representations ofdrag , Birdcage very simplified explanation. although thisbyitselfwouldbea , ConnieandCarla ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 , Mrs.Doubtfire ). Thispaperisamulti- and Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 , Tootsie , andToWong , TheCry- , Victor/ ) . drag, suchasSome LikeitHot Many olderfilms thatportraycharactersin dimensional characters,asseeninTorch however, they arepainted asmulti- in theaudience’s interest; inother cases, are attimes usedasanexoticfeature todraw films, charactersidentified as“dragqueens” would otherwisebebarredfrom. Innewer their identity and/orenter spacesthatthey erosexuals whocross-dr ously confinedtothemargins, arenow address thoseindividuals who,whileprevi- sphere, American society willbeforced to challenging gendernorms inthepublic munity continuetofeelmorecomfortable Additionally, asmembers ofthequeercom- print media, television,film, andcyberspace. fronted withdragperformances through of theLGBTIQcommunity arebeingcon- landscape. Increasingly, Americans outside trialized environments ontheAmerican no longerrelegatedtoliberal,urban,indus- can homes, theconceptof thedragqueen is available inanestimatedmillion 35 Ameri- as theultimate diva.With LOGObeing which dragqueenscompetetobereignedin Paul’s DragRace the LGBTIQcommunity) beganairingRu- cable channel withprogramming thattargets typically involving the police force. light-hearted comedies orviolentthrillers, one oftwoextremes, eitherintheform of drag performances infilm oftenappearas Song Trilogy appearing inthe1959filmSome LikeitHot highly problematic, representationsofdrag over time, with oneofthemost iconic,yet popular culturehavech Such representationsofdragperformance in This winter,LOGO(anAmerican . Overall,representationof , arealityTVshowin anged dramatically ess inordertohide , feature het- . 174 180 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

house ofanthropology: analysis ofgendersandsexualitiesinthe ognizes thefecundityofaperformative formances inandofthemselves. Morrisrec- “normative gendersandsexualities”asper- more importantly, onecanunderstand social constructionthat ties, one can critique on theanthropologyofgendersandsexuali- performance studiesto cept of used inthisstudywas context. The primary theoretical perspective in aspecific historical, spatial andcultural zations asculturalconstructionsembedded standing genderedandsexualizedcategori- tions highlightthe importance ofunder- as “institutionsofambi what anthropologistRosalindMorrisdefines performance studies,andinpartfocuseson

the interdisciplinary

exemplary counter-exampleanda mies inthemodernWest through seat thehegemony dichoto- ofsexual Oscillating betweenadesire toun- tance within thesesame systems. ity, multiplicity, abjection, andresis- systems andtheactualityofambigu- categories ofnormativesex/gender dissonance betweentheexclusive cerned withtherelationshipsand tions, however.Instead,itiscon- formance theoryresists suchconfla- emerging undertheinfluenceofper- The anthropologyofgenderis discipline that integrates theoryfrom ders andsexualitiesisadynamic sub- Thenewanthropologyofgen- gender performativity. Theoretical Orientation fighting forinclusioninthecenter. ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 the genderbinaryasa Judith Butler’scon- isperformed, and guity.” Suchinstitu- the existing literature fields ofqueerand : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 Bylinking on thisperspective: this conclusion aswell.Morriscomments Other gendertheoristshavebeendrawnto retical conclusionisbynomeans original. drag performance inandofitself.Thistheo- that allgenderedperfor American culturehasledme torecognize are mandatory” (Morris,572-573). and, intheprocess,come tobelievethatthey that people mistake theactsfor essence derives itscompulsive forcefrom thefact although genderisasetofacts,itworks and goes furtherthanthiswhenshearguesthat, appearance ofacoherent substance…Butler but asetofactsthatproducetheeffector argues thatgenderisnot then becomes something veryfluid:“Butler all culturesenactonadailybasis.Gender, the genderedperformances thatallpeoplein drag queens,therefore,onecanunderstand By studyingthegenderedperformances of genders and/orinstitutionalized sires…In thiscontex supposed todetermine sexualde- only prescribessocial binary difference,adifferencethat What isbeing imitated is theideal of erosexuality isase Western system ofcompulsoryhet- drag, theymean that,likedrag,the tivity saythatallgenderisaform of When theoristsofgenderperforma- kathoey America, the tism” suchas the examples of“inst new anthropologyofgenderseeks… in non-Western systems, much ofthe yearning tolocateresistantpractices My analysisofdragperformance in ofThailand(570). hijra itutional transves- berdache ofInda,orthe t of limitations. mance isinherentlya t, cases of third a factoranessence, rolesbutalsois ofNorth 175 181 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

a stateofperform within queerperformances oneisalwaysin logical import. cles asinstitutionalized performances critiqueallgenderedspecta- it ispartofaqueersub-culture,butthatsuch formance comes notonlyfrom thefactthat tably, thepowerofananalysisdragper- queer, oroften“othered”population.Veri- does notrelegatesuchexaminations toa ance isdrag, onecancreateadialogue that recognition ofthefactallgenderedperform- these exaggerations(Zadjermann). Through Gender Trouble the 1950sand1960spromptedhertowrite themselves. Analyzingboththeaudience which arehighlydiverse groupswithin ence member andoftheperformer, both of ances from boththeperspectiveof audi- however, musttrytoin when thecurtains fall.Theanthropologist, throughout one’slifetime anddoesnotend ture ofgenderassomething thatcontinues emphasizes thecontinuedperformative na- coming awoman (Zadjermann). Thus,she woman, shebelievesthatoneisalways that oneisnotbornawoman, butbecomes a notes thatwhile Simone deBeauvoirargued mentary onJudithButler,Butlerherself and inthestreet.Inaninterviewforadocu- ances that they areproducing onthestage for thegenderedandsexualizedperform- always beingcritiqued,analyzed,andjudged and female gendernorms ofHollywoodin Third Kind,Butlernotes thatthestrict male

ler: PhilosophicalEncountersofthe

In fact,inthedocumentary binary sexuality (580). tivity that underlies the entire logicof It isalsoimportant tonote that framed examplesoftheperforma- tranvestism canbetreatedas inordertomake senseof ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 ing Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 ; thatistosay,one terpret suchperform- actswithlittlebio- Judith But- beexpected toleadastrange andsomewhat were usuallyyoungboys who“wouldbe formance. Bakernotesthat theseactors would worktoperfecttheir owngenderper- tently playtheroleofwomen onstageand this socialfact,certainactorswouldconsis- women fromactingonthestage.Becauseof cause ofarestrictionagainstbiological dressing was essential in Britishtheater be- -up theAmerican social landscape. enced bythediverseethnicgroupsthatmake States has only more recentlybeeninflu- Contemporary dragcultureintheUnited dered performance ontheEuropeanstage. of dragperformance ismainly rootedingen- (or continentalEurope);however,thehistory other thanthose that existed inGreat Britain performance hasborrowed from cultures culture. Itisclearthatcontemporary drag porary dragqueenperformance inAmerican United Statesinordertounderstandcontem- in GreatBritain toitscurrent form inthe study thehistoryofdragfrom itsbeginning this tradition, Ibelievethat itisimportant to and developmental trajectory.Followingin own entity,withitsparticularhistory thropologists shouldstudyeachcultureasits early 20 foundation forAmerican anthropologyinthe Historical RootsofDragQueens this generalization. ber arefarmorediverseanddynamicthan tions betweenperformer andaudiencemem- reasons. However,the drag queensperform primarily foreconomic formances primarily for entertainment, while stage. Audiencemembers come todragper- ologies arenegotiatedonandaroundthe to understand howspace,behaviors,andide- and theperformer allo From aEuropeanperspective, cross- Historical particularlists,whosetthe th century, believed thatcultural an- ws theanthropologist interactions and rela- 176 182 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

performances weresexually-suggestive, and at theturnof thetwentieth century. Such theatrical arenasofburlesque andvaudeville ders orsexualities. Later itentered intothe address political concerns oralternative gen- ances werepurelycomedic, andnotmeant to ceived tobeheterosexual.Theirperform- ances wereenactedbymen whowereper- United States,male-bodied dragperform- ity inLondonpublished1881”(123). Cities of the Plain collection of essayscalledTheSinsofthe Park andbotharedealtwithquitefullyina were Ernest Boultonand FrederickWilliam were widelyknowntobehomosexual. They Baker notesthat“twoofthemost famous female impersonators isnotentirelyclear, While thesexualorientationoftheseearly the roleofwomen: land, itbecame lesspopularformen toplay

introduced women ontothestageinEng- tion asweseeittoday(Baker,103). nings ofthepantomime dame tradi- and herewemay discernthebegin- his burlesqueoffemale characters man calledLacy,becamefamous for tended tomake them comic. One,a their partsgotshorterandthey As theybecame lessindemand, so gan toburlesquetheirfemale roles. from theElizabethanperiodandbe- the refined,serious tors. Theyceasedtoimpersonate on to thelastof the female impersona- For thisiswhatultimately happened

playhouse” (66-67).AfterCharlesII insalubrious atmosphere ofthepublic rowdy populaceinthedangerousand young womanandparadebeforethe Throughout the19 to dressupdailyasafascinating dubious life.Hewouldbetrained ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 , asurveyofhomosexual- level thatderived th : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 Centuryinthe women incertainsocialenvironments periences ofbiologicalmen whoperform as life” (21).Chaunceyalso highlightstheex- nymity andsegmentation of metropolitan ban phenomena.Theydependontheano- communities areentirely urbanandsubur- Newton similarlynotedthat:“Homosexual Writing in1972,theanthropologistEsther urbanization: scape onlybecame possible afteraperiod of visible queercultureontheAmerican land- United States,noteshow thepresenceofa scholar ofgayandlesbianhistoriesinthe gay cultureemerges. GeorgeChauncey,a industrial urbanenvironments thatavisible ans” (Chauncey,295). were, withrareexceptions,dame comedi- in women’s clothes onth well: “as the nineteenth century began, men had animportant comic element tothem as kin, anotherwithgayfriends(133). sure; oneidentity before biological one identityatwork,anotherinlei- privileges of thestraight:assuming the gayworldwithoutlosing necessary for them toparticipate in struct themultiple publicidentities made itpossibleforgaymen tocon- city’s socialandspatialorganization on Bowery…Thecomplexity ofthe and bynighttoleadthelifeofafairy any queerwould havebeendenied, by daytoholdarespectablejobthat social worldsandleadadoublelife: possible forhim tomove between neighbors. Butinthecityitwas stant…surveillance ofhisfamily and he hadbeensubjectedtothecon- conventions ofthecommunity,for conform atalltimes tothesocial In hishometown hehadneededto It isnotuntiltheriseofAmerican e professional stage 177 183 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

that] wasregularlycar as ‘swishing’inthegayworld[something ated, swivel-hipped,mincing walk–known identified by “alimp wrist oranexagger- tury” (Chauncey,47).Such men couldbe in theearlydecadesofcen- city’s working-class and amusement districts men visibleinthestreetsof whowere homosexuality wasconsideredapsychologi- defined bytheirpathology. Upuntil1973, as theBowery,theywere firstandforemost accepted inveryspecific urbanspacessuch While thefairies may havebeenmarginally ing toChauncey, ing gaycultureinNewYorkCity.Accord- important geographicspaceforthedevelop- small neighborhoodinManhattan,wasan would” (Chauncey,57).TheBowery,a as anyman might wishawoman them: theybehavedasnotman should,but ventions ofgenderevenastheyviolated drag queens, “Thefairies reaffirmed thecon- fairy” (Chauncey,55).Like contemporary street asasignofthe‘true’ ville stage andoccasionally seen onthe reinforced bythecountlessothereffeminate

pression ofthatlifetheyconveyedwas tury (47). trict intheearlydecades ofthecen- working-class andamusement dis- visible inthe streetsofthecity’s less othereffeminate men whowere veyed wasreinforcedbythecount- the impression of thatlife theycon- most famous symbols ofgaylife,and play attheBowery resortswerethe

famous symbolsofgaylife,andtheim- The ‘female impersonators’ ondis- were labeled fairies, and “werethemost streets, bars,andprisons.Suchmen were notlimitedto,publicparks, Such environments included,but during theturnof20 ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 icatured onthevaude- th century. ances becameincreasingly common in tury, however,male-bodied dragperform- ment of adragqueenidentity. would beanimportant stepinthedevelop- them” (176).Thisgenderedperformance ting ona‘show’fortheothercustomers of matters, dancingwiththeirfriends,evenput- gather inpublic,sp Some ofthemboldlyclaimed theirrightto restaurants, cafeteriasand speakeasies. they negotiated their presence inthecity’s “gay men pursuedavarietyofstrategiesas homosexual toothers.AsChaunceynotes: “feminine” manner toidentify themselves as Gay men, then,wouldoftenperform ina sition wasunaffectedbyhissexuality”(43). ogy. Nothingthatwentintohistotalcompo- anatomy andpossiblyamysteriousphysiol- form, andamorphology,withanindiscreet in additiontobeingatypeoflife,life age, apast,casehistory,andchildhood, cording toFoucault,he “became aperson- homosexual wasamarked individual.Ac- sex drive).Duringthis tionally masculine men witha“perverted” sexuals, butas“perverts”whowereconven- active rolewerenotperceivedofasahomo- ual encounters atthistime, men takingthe was internally awoman (inmale-male sex- other biological men because oneofthem biological men couldonlybeattractedto forced compulsory heterosexualitybecause In otherwords,themedical community rein- ing whytheywereattractedtootherwomen. sexuals hadamasculine spirit,thusexplain- attracted tomen. Likewise,female homo- spirit, thusexplainingwhytheycouldbe ing thatmale homosexuals hadafeminine standing ofhomosexuals as“inverts,”mean- the nineteenth century, createdanunder- gists, beginningaround cal disorderintheUnitedStates.Sexolo- After theturn of thetwentieth cen- eaking loudlyaboutgay time period,themale the second-halfof 178 184 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

standard featurein gay audience.Thisbuffoonery became a gay men, tothehootsan typical mannerisms tomimic andridicule as “straight actorsputt formances toblackface,characterizingthem tified asheterosexual.Chauncey theseper- Sometimes, however,such again oftentoheterosexualaudiences. formed theirsexualorientationonstage, highly effeminate homosexualmen whoper- Pansy actswereperformances givenby yeuristic pursuits: notes the connection between thesetwovo- mosexual performances onstage.Chauncey ances; theywouldalsogotowatchmale ho- to listen toAfrican-American jazz perform- during thistime periodinAmerican history residents ofNewYorkwent“slumming” tural movement. Upper-classheterosexual to theProhibitionera,embodiedthiscul-

Craze, whichhitNewYorkCityjust prior ‘perversity’ ofgayculture”(309). equally intriguedbythe black culture,heterosexualswere trigued bythe ‘primitivism’ of lowed it…If whiteswere in- the pansycrazethatsoon fol- the mid-twenties set thestagefor many waysthe‘NegroVogue’of aspect ofthisphenomenon, andin performance isthebest-known with African-American jazzand white middle-class clubgoers to thegrowingfascinationof presarios tocultivateandrespond

gay worldofNewYorkCity.ThePansy became increasingly visible within the performances byfemale impersonators bition Era inthe1920s,dragballsand “The effortsofnightclubim- ture. ParticularlyduringtheProhi- urban areasdominated bygaycul- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 the burlesqueandhigh- ing ondragorstereo- d jeersofananti- : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 performers iden- structure thatprevented drag performances way ofreinforcingthevery hegemonic remained illegal(384). Suchactions werea York andSanFrancisco in the1960s,drag sex. AccordingtoSenelick, eveninNew cles ofclothingthatmatched theirbiological required individualstow Laws werepassedacrossthecountrythat ture female impersonators”(Chauncey,331). night clubs,especiallyof thosewhichfea- nounced: “There willbeashake-upinthe lice Commissioner EdwardMulrooneyan- West Fifty-FirstStreet.”Thenextday,Po- Eighth Streetandth lice] raidedthePansyClubonWest Forty- the nightofJanuary28,1931,they[thepo- clubs featuringfemale impersonators…on city’s newspapersbeganacampaign against milial ties.Infact,by1931“severalofthe often leadingtolossofemployment orfa- names beplacedinthenewspaper, would only wouldtheyserveasentence,buttheir lice; ifanindividualshouldbearrestednot bian barswererout solidarity” (Chauncey,353).Gayandles- tween acceptable andunacceptable public years andtheblurringofboundariesbe- perceived “excesses”oftheProhibition 1930s waspartofalargerreactiontothe “The revulsionagainstgaylifeintheearly fell underincreasinglyheightenedscrutiny: and gaylesbiansculturesingeneral, over American society,dragperformances, 1929 andtheGreatDepressionEra loomed New YorkCity. Malin became famous fo tion ofalcohol.PerformerssuchasGene ness thataccompanied theillegalconsump- and embodied thedaringsenseofrebellious- als” (310).Theywe the dominant public image ofhomosexu- class cabaretvenuesalike,whichreinforced After thestock market crashedin inely raidedbythepo- e ClubCalaisat125 re incrediblypopular, r theirpansyactsin ear atleast fivearti- 179 185 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

known nowas‘genderfucking’…and Iwas- arms, moustache…which iscommonly drag perse.Dragwasa hairy chest, “when Ifirstarrivedout here, dragwasnot on FireIsland, toldEsther Newtonthat: Teri Warren, adragqueenwhoperformed or theywere completely comic innature. meant figures, toimpersonatefamousfemale formances priortothediscoerawereusually queen performance intheUnitedStates,per- ralism inAmerican culture. (although stillcloseted tive policies, andto performances tochalle Jewel BoxRevuebrokegroundforfuture 380). Asthefirstinte win acceptancethroughcomedy (Senelick, was gearedforstraight audiences,aiming to tirely byhomosexuals,theJewelBoxRevue a gaybarandwasmanaged andstaffed en- States. However,“althoughitoriginatedin most famous dragvenueintheUnited in Miami. Thiswouldsoonbecome the 193). In1939,theJewelBoxRevueopened and dressedinappropr Ken Stein;thecopsabsurdlyworeperfume always knewwhenraidswerecoming, said ries posingashomosexuals, theferryowners “Since thecopsoften to perform ashomosexuals themselves: restrict gayandlesbia 333). Ironically,however,policeattemptsto return ittothecity’s

ties, theauthorities were determined to

tainment district, butintheearlythir- of NewYork’smost prestigiousenter- gay visibilitytomove intothecenter Following thelargertrendsofdrag “Prohibition culturehadallowed from entering mainstream culture: ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 createamore open Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 periphery”(Chauncey, n cultures forcedthem rracial dragclub,the went overonthefer- iately” (CherryGrove ) dialogueaboutplu- nge restrictive legisla- , background” (CherryGrove n’t intothatform ofdrag,soIstoodinthe Grovers” (Cherry Grove which offendedconservative gags andveryexplicitsexualsuggestions men tended towardbroadandvulgarsight When theydidcomic drag,working-class the wordsofarecorded female vocalist. former simply mouthed, or‘lip-synced’to formances: “Inmost glamourdragtheper- that differedfrom previousdragqueenper- disco eracame theconceptofglamour drag can Americans, LatinoAmericans, and clear whatimpactNative Americans, Afri- may suggest.While itisnotcompletely pean past,despitewhatmuch scholarship the UnitedStates isnot restricted toa Euro- members ofthequeercommunity. spaces tocreatesocialsolidarity amongst formances were(andare)enactedin private tions” (CherryGrove portant venuesofcamp representa- ductions… theme partieswerethemost im- such performances: “Besidestheatrical pro- larly teaparties,wereapopularvenuefor private spaces.Houseparties,andparticu- would oftenrestrictsuchperformances to forming indragapublicspace,gaymen police raidsandthephys norm” (CherryGrove culture inwhich camp wasthe tion onthemainland, butanevolvingsub- only anescapefrom heterosexualdomina- and boldlytocreate a‘gay reality’ –not gender reversalwereusedevermore openly witty repartee,parody,double-entendre, and claim aterritoryastheirown:“After1950, allowing residents,particularlygaymen, to serts thatdragplayedanimportant rolein The cultural mosaicthat makes up , 77).Thus,dragper- , 75).Duetoconstant , 174).Newtonas- ical dangersofper- , 174).With the 180 186 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

After beingpulledover, the officermade cop shethought:“we’re when Davidstuckhishead outtotalkthe dressed indrag.Champagne statedthat friend drivingthecar,David,wasalso was ridinginherfriend’scardrag.Her was pulledoverbyapoliceofficerwhileshe from Schenectady,NewYork,notedthatshe police force.Champagne, adragqueen tinue tohaveanuneasyrelationshipwiththe Foo local lawenforcemen escape thegraspofanangry,homophobic drag queensmustgoontheruninorderto Thanks forEverything!JulieNewmar ment (TheAdventures gle tosurvive inahate attacks inthe Australianoutback,and strug- three drag queens faceviolent, homophobic cause sheidentifies astransgender.The faces hecklingfrom theotherqueens be- his son.Anotherdragqueen,Bernadette, cult struggle of revealing hisreal identity to for example, onequeen,Tick,facesadiffi- ventures ofPriscilla,QueentheDesert often reflectthisstigmatization. InThe Ad- sub-culture. Representa stigma bothoutsideofandwithintheirown tional genderperformance, dragqueensface Drag Queensas“Other” stage. queen performances are“racialized”onthe this paper willbe devoted tohowdrag

communities of color.Anothersection of

). Eventoday,some dragqueenscon- been appropriatedandalteredwithin ous theconceptof“dragqueen”has queen” intheUnitedStates,itisobvi- As individualswithanunconven- historical evolutionofthe“drag Asian Americans havehadonthe ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 t official(ToWong ). InToWong Foo, -filled socialenviron- tions ofdraginfilm all going tojail.” : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 , three , ment” (DragQueens drag queenshavebeenanembarrass- phile movement ofthe1950’stopresent, of gayandlesbianactivism, from thehomo- similationist ‘We’re justlikeyou’ tendency and Taylorconcur,stating:“From theas- class, andgendernormative” (227).Rupp implicitly marking ‘gay’ aswhite,middle feminate men, andtheleathercommunity– lesbians –dragqueens,butchwomen, ef- representing non-‘respectable’ gaymenand mainstreamed theirgoals how many queerrightsorganizationshave who specializesintran States. DavidValentine,ananthropologist within the queer community intheUnited free tooppressothers,andthesame istrue for whotheyare. and theinability of society toaccept them ture oftenfocusontheirmarginalization, Narratives ondragqueensinAmerican cul- “you letitrolloffyourbackandmove on.” actions withthepolice,Champagne said friends. Inresponsetothesekindsofinter- laughing atDavid,Champagne,andtheir cle andsaid“okay,youcangonow”while nally, thepoliceman camebacktothevehi- and flashedtheirspotlightsinthecar.Fi- of time otherpolicecarsdrovepast while them waitintheircarforanextendedperiod als. Chaunceynotesthat: types that society placed onmale homosexu- towards fairiesforembodying thestereo- the first half of the20 queens today,certaingayAmerican men in they felt withthem asfrom the resulted asmuchfrom affinity the toward thefairies, though,may have The resentmentmany gaymen felt Oppressed groupsoftenfeelquite , 185).Likedrag th sgender studies,notes centuryfeltangry “attheexpenseof 181 187 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

Camp unless theyarerecogni one onthestreet or inany otherpublic place sonators must learnisnottorecognizeany- and oneofthefirstthingsthatfemale imper- low endofthecontinuumstigmatization, overt. Theyareconsistently placedonthe considered bymost homosexualstobetoo nity: “Forinstance, female impersonators are queens were stigmatized withinthe commu- 1960s, EstherNewtonalsofoundthatdrag

The dragqueen symbolizes allthat (104). ‘less extreme’form ofthefairy on whichtheyrepresentedmerely a to thepublicstereo as partofacontinuum linkingthem extent towhichtheysawthemselves ‘extreme homosexuals’ suggeststhe

profess total lackof interest inthem. mosexuals deploredrag shows and from ‘drag’completely. Theseho- tempt todisassociate themselves queens underanycircumstancesat- selves or beidentifiedas drag who donotwanttothinkofthem- but notinanout-groupone.Those be allrightinanin-groupcontext ‘nigger.’ Andlikethatword,itmay term ‘dragqueen’ iscomparableto fact, thestigma. Inthisway,the feel guiltyabout;he in themselves, allthatthey saythey homosexuals saytheyfearthemost ‘swishes’ as‘obvioustypes’or referred to‘flaming faggots’ or , 25).Newtongoesontonotethat: styles. Thefactthatmany men In herresearchondragcultureinthe from thedifference intheir affinity they felt withthem as ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 type, acontinuum zed first”(Mother symbolizes,in mainstream gaymen anddragqueens (106). Eventoday,antagonism between gay men wereapartofthemiddle-class working class, andthemajority masculine as themajority of fairies wereapart of the fairies wasreallyaki tagonism betweenmasculine gaymen and 241) homosexuality laughedat’”(CherryGrove hostile towarddragbeca son, “understoodthatthegaymovement was Cherry Grove’sstardragqueens,DickAddi- personation” (CherryGrove supplement theirincomes from im- female mate employment thatwouldallow them to ented becamehairdressersastheonlylegiti- tion; many ofthemore andtal- ambitious tling, whichcompounded theirstigmatiza- ers orthosewithdrug poorest andleastaccomplished asperform- support themselves economically: “The a dragqueenmade itdifficultforthemto Newton notesthatthesocialstigma ofbeing During thissame timeperiodonFireIsland, the subculture(MotherCamp queen isdefinitelyamarked man in heterosexual culture.Thedrag ‘projecting thewrongimage’to ies for‘givingusabadname’ or female impersonators andstreetfair- in homosexual contexts,butdeplore sexuals admire dragandqueens heterosexual culture.Thesehomo- do notwanttobestigmatized bythe being queensamong themselves, but queen. Otherhomosexuals enjoy between themselves andthedrag the expressionofvastsocialdistance one ofcondemnation combinedwith Their attitude toward drag queens is . Chaunceyalsosuggests that thean- nd ofclassantagonism, habits turnedtohus- use ‘theydon’twant , 133).Oneof , 104). , 182 188 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

der dichotomy. often sexually-explicit tive homosexual agendasthatrestricttheir must resistbothheterosexualandconserva- In theirperformances, then,dragqueens similarly notesthat: stigma thatdragqueensembody. Berkowitz ances, onemustalsorecognizethedouble analyze thepoliticalim whole” (355).Thus,whenonebeginsto within the gay community asa occupy alower, more stigmatized position homosexuality aseffeminacy andtherefore queens literallyembody thestigma ofmale chy withinthegaycommunityinwhichdrag “Likewise, thereisaninternal socialhierar-

Atlanta, GeorgiaMcNealnotedthat: bizarre (13). havior isperceivedasunusualand creases thelikelihoodthatthisbe- small number ofdragqueensin- tities. Furthermore, therelatively the effects of multiple negative iden- ual crossdressers,andthusendures tized groups,gaymen andheterosex- sists of theoutcasts of twostigma- queen ispartofasubgroupthatcon- erosexual transvestites.Thedrag non-cross-dressing gaymen andhet- rated from thestigmatized groupsof mainstream society,butisalsosepa- that isnotonlylabeledasdeviantby Drag queens comprise acommunity

thropological studyofdragqueensin is goingtobeadragqueen.”Inhisan- friend asserted:“noboyfriendofmine terviewed, statedhowaformer boy- persists. Champagne, whom Iin- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009

critiques ofthegen- port ofdragperform- : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 them” and“byallowingpeopletobehave and restraintsobviously serves toemphasize argues that:“thelifti African ritualsofi the establishedorder.”From hisanalysisof “intended topreserveandeven…strengthen norms; somehaveevenarguedthattheyare that suchritualsofinversionsubvertcultural signments.” Notallanthropologistsbelieve tion ourstereotypesandgenderroleas- considered dragnow.Dragmakes ques- us what men woreasregularclotheswouldbe havior. Ifyoulookbackathistorysome of We arenotbornthatwa comes tohairstyle,makeup, [and]clothes. tated howeachsexshouldlookwhenit gender: “Itisweashumanbeingswho dic- can revealthe socially-constructed natureof forms inRochester,believesthatdragshows cieties: gender.PandoraBoxx,whoper- tant organizingprinciplesinallhumanso- queens aredisruptingoneofthemostimpor- categories of “man” and“woman,” drag Dicks”, 116).Inotherwords, byconfusing heterosexual gendercodes”(“Chickswith becomes aweapontocontestthedominant the socialbasisofgenderandsexuality tests, thebodyofperformer highlights politics ofthebody Drag performances arealsolinkedtothe said toshow uptheartificeofgender”(583). fabulously artificial, these performances are agrees, notingthat“Bymaking genderso binary. Anthropologi constructed natureofgenderandcritiquethe drag performances revealthesocially- United Stateshasbeenwell-documented; formances inqueercommunities inthe Subversive Politics:DragasaPoliticalAct The subversivepowerofdragper- nversion, MaxGluckman because:“Insuchpro- ng ofthenormal taboos st RosalindMorris y. It’salearnedbe- 183 189 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

Taylor andRuppagree: “We suggest that are notartisticperformances forart’s sake. Trouble ceptions asthe“reality”ofgender” (Gender one takesthe firstterm ofeachthoseper- a woman orawoman dressedasaman, then If onethinksthatseesaman dressedas litical agency.Thepointisratherdifferent. versive actionor,indeed,asamodel forpo- a mistake totakeitastheparadigm ofsub- they interpret theperf the actor’s“true”biologicalgenderbefore ther, arguing thataudience members assume think Ijustlactated.” informed thataudienceonenightthat:“I Ambrosia Salad,adragqueeninRochester make commentsabouttheirfeminine bodies; speak inlowbaritonevoices.Theyalso appear tobeparticul American culture.Drag queens,whocan notions of “masculinity” and“femininity” in time, yetitcontinues tochallenge traditional the UnitedStates hascertainlyevolvedover is notconsideredacceptablebehavior. fers willevolve, changing whatisand what “established order”to Through time andspace,thevery nize the dynamic quality of cultural systems. spective hassome validity,itdoesnotrecog- bounds” (Gluckman, 125).While thisper- keeps this rebellion within very ritualsofrebelli [which] seems toallowunbridledlicense,

as rightandgood,evensacred,

“the acceptanceofth of socialorder”(115-116).Itis,then normal rightness ofaparticularkind The practiceofdragperformance in , xxiii).Insum, dragperformances expression, inareverseform, tothe normally prohibited ways,gave ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 arly convincingwomen, Butler goesevenfur- on, fortheorderitself ormance: “Itwouldbe whichGluckman re- e establishedorder ity” (DragQueens tional thinkingaboutgenderandsexual- which identityisusedtocontestconven- cial performancebutasapoliticaleventin should beunderstoodnotonlyascommer- drag asperformed atthe801[Cabaret] cial tofurtheringaga AIDS inthegaymale communitywascru- States, particularlyduringtheoutbreakof gay andlesbian activism intheUnited in theU.S.Indeed,theatricalaspect of always been political for queercommunities tistic, theperformative, andtheculturalhave that herperformances arepolitical: performs inRochester,definitelybelieves hind thescenes? they aredealingw out andsmile tothepeople while own versionofadragfaceandgo How many politiciansputontheir the appearanceofsomeone else. way too.Dragisallaboutputtingon ken. American politicsaredragina become morepoliticalandoutspo- more visibleisdoespoisedragto think becausedragqueensareoften becomes political at somepoint.I Anything thatgoes ticization and AIDSawareness space haveproliferated sites ofpoli- tion betweenpublicand private has disruptedthecloseting distinc- “outness” bywhichqueeractivism tice of“die-ins”andthetheatrical “performance” ofdeathintheprac- sibility: thehyperbolic politics is,Iwouldargue,animpos- litical withincontemporary queer “To opposethetheatricaltopo- Judith Butleremphasizes thatthear- , 2).Pandora Boxx,who y andlesbianagenda: ith the devilbe- against thenorm 184 190 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

You know,Imean likejustazoo”(Cherry was theattitude…’Oh, started tospray. Thatwas terrible. Butthat took acanofRaidandwentoutsidejust daughter’s here!’…Andanothertime she jumped said,‘Come upand onin,your cute, they’reeating!’WhereuponBabe husbands standingbehind[said]‘Oh,how noted thatonetime “agroupofwomen, with homes duringthe1970s.Amelia Migliaccio regularly spyongaysandlesbiansintheir Fire Island.Heterose out ofdragwasdocumented byNewtonon tance withinthegayandlesbiancommunity Grove

Matter search andoutreach” (Bodies That government fundingofAIDSre- attention and outragetothefailure of activists infavorofdrawingpublic of publicforums bylesbianandgay of thelesbian; tactical interruptions tively countersthede-sexualization sexuality andiconographythateffec- tivism; performing excessivelesbian of theatricalwork benefits forAIDS…theconvergence by QueerNation;dragperformance cisco); die-insbyACTUP,kiss-ins York City)andtheparade(SanFran- the slidingbetween themarch (New walking, butch-femmespectacles, cross-dressing, dragballs,street history might includetraditionsof

cality forqueers isatstake…Such a increasing politicization of theatri- , 247) tories might betoldinwhichthe An example ofperformativeresis- Indeed, animportantsetofhis- throughout thepublicrealm. , 233). . Champagne, adragperformer ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 xual touristswould with theatrical ac- look, they’reeating.’ : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 during theearly20 pansy (notadragqueen)inNewYorkCity example, Malin,whoperformed asa Gene powerful performances ofresistance.For have usedtheirpersona there” (Drag Queens viewed bythemovement, havebeen 1969, dragqueens,howeverambivalently night oftheraidatStonewall Innin queen chorus linechallengingthepolice the queen andpoliticalcandidate,tothedrag lesbian movement. FromJoseSarria,drag also beenimportanttotheorganizedgayand and Rupp,whonoted:“theirresistancehas lesbian movement wasnotlost onTaylor portance ofdragqueensinthelargergayand wouldn’t bewheretheyaretoday.”Theim- if itwasn’tforstonewall,alotofgayrights queens whowerepulledoutandarrested… bunch ofgaymen andlesbians,itwas drag larly duringtheStonewallRiot:“itwasn’ta larger gayandlesbianmovement, particu- role thatdragqueenshaveplayedwithinthe from UpstateNewYork,notedtheimportant to standupfor himself: 316). the originalfoursome (Chauncey, tance ofthesurvivingmember of taxi drivers coming totheassis- fight wentinto thestreet, withtwo three of them intoinsensibility, the pitched intothem. After beating water athimashedancedby, looking birdstossedapitcherofhot clothes…when apartoffourrough ing botheredtochangehis dered intoacafeteriawithouthav- wich Village dragball, hehadwan- ‘best dressed woman’ ataGreen- After winningaprizeforbeingthe th Century,wasnotafraid ,186). Dragqueens to enactparticularly 185 191 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

members: members: Bless America.” Amelia, aparticipant, re- pated, andastheymarched theysang “God wearing “themost ridi protest. Betweeneight dressed indragandmarched tothePines in group ofgaymen (andat “not properlyattired.”Aftertheincident,a dinner, but wasnotserved becausehe was gay communityonFireIsland)indragtoget Pines (aprimarily upper-class,conservative, Italian-American drag queen wentto the the Pines.ItbeganwhenTeriWarren, an ance inAmerican culture istheInvasion of they arestilllookingforacure.” people, itstillexists,weneedmoney, now –it’s[referringtoHIV/AIDS]stillhere know becauseit’skind responsible…a lotof want tobepoliticallyaware andyouknow make ofwhat’sgoingon,you them aware to updatethem [theaudience],youwantto queen performing inherbenefit“youwant AIDS.” Champagne sa performing becausetheyhave“died of edges thatalotofdragqueensarenolonger sonal issueforChampagne, whoacknowl- Benefit, whichshespearheads.Itisaper- HIV/AIDS throughtheannualSnowball money for children andfamilies affected by history isnotloston get peopleawareofwhatthiswas.”This when itfirst wasthegaycancer…trying to

out anddoingbenefits,givingmoney

was thedragqueenswhoweregoing “when AIDSandHIVfirstcame outit tion ofHIV/AIDSintheearly1980s: An important ritualofdragperform- drag queensreactedtotheintroduc- Champagne alsodiscussedhow ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 peopledon’tfucking Champagne, whoraises culous drag”partici- a likereallyblasé andfourteenpeople, ys thatasadrag leasttwolesbians) and reassertsgaynationalism” (Cherry vidious classandgenerational distinctions on kinshipandcommonality…bridgesin- 270). Newtonarguesthattheritual“insists worn bySarahPalin.In theperformance glasses, awigandwardrobe similar tothat Lake thencame outontothestagewearing ester, NY]from herhouse.”MissDarienne she canseeIrondequoit[locationnearRoch- you…she wasjustdebatingagainstBiden… audience. “Wehaveaspecialtreatfor loud setofapplausetheneruptedoutthe A politics? ence: “Howmany arefollowing the show,AmbrosiaSalad,askedaudi- queen performasSarahPalin.Theemcee of my fieldworkwaswhenIwitnessedadrag Grove numbered inthethousands”(CherryGrove and thecrowd awaiting them therecouldbe ferry tocarry alltheinvaders tothePines, late 1980sittookthe largest double-decker This protestbecame atradition,and“bythe (Cherry Grove were theretheyboughtusadrink of] andtheyweresoecstaticthatwe rant thatTeriWarren waskickedout went intotheBlueWhale [therestau- And wejustwalkedaroundand they thoughtitwasreallyfunny. everybody startedtolaugh,Imean kill us.”…But whathappened was we’re gonnadiehere.They’re saying, ‘We’re gonnadie,Iknow don’t knowhowtolive.’AndI’m people areplastic’or,‘Pines people carrying thisbigsign. we gotoutoftheboatandNickis say, ‘whatthehellisthat?’…Well, So…people …startedtolookand , 271). A particularlypoi , 269-270). gnant moment in Itsays,“Pines , 186 192 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

lor observeddragqueen performances. InKeyWest,Rupp and Tay- are made asside-barcommentaryin drag audiences. theme thatdragqueenstrytobringtheir as SarahPalin,aresexual,andthisisa even socially-conservative politicians, such nence-only education.Allhuman beings, hypocrisy of apoliticianwhosupportsabsti- feminist perspective,itdoespointoutthe representation isclearly mom wholosesherlipstick.” While this Ambrosia Saladsaid:“She’s acock-sucking In fact,afterherperformance theemcee, the notionofSarahPalinasasexualbeing. socially-conservative façadeandplayswith highly sexualized;ina representation ofSarahPalin,however,was two terms inoffice.MissDarienneLake’s President GeorgeBushsupportedduringhis segment RepublicanPartythatformer ofthe and represented thesocially-conservative Palin sparkedfearinthequeercommunity, munity. Asasocialconservative,Sarah American conservatism andthequeercom- tary, gendercritique meaning; itcanberead nographic moment washeavilysteepedin American washergreatestasset.Thiseth- Palin’s abilitytospeak thecommon political commentators’ “she’s veryfolksytoni After theperformance, AmbrosiaSaladsaid

tongue actionandrevealedalargebosom.

was highlysexualized;sheusedalotof that women sport.Herperformance multi-faceted rolesandpersonalities Often, overtlypoliticalstatements “Bitch,” whichemphasizes the . shesangMeredithBrooks’song ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 , andthehistoryof ght” inreference to way thiscountersher aspoliticalcommen- opinionsthatSarah problematic from a s “talkaboutthegay : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 included: erning body”(466).Theirpoliticalactivism Board ofSupervisors,San Francisco’sgov- Sister Boom Boom…ran forapostonthe ter SearchingforMen.Thefollowingyear, Homo Fellatio,SisterHy cluding SisterMissionaryPosition, tained fifteensistersandtwonovices,in- As Senelicknotes:“By1981theordercon- tivism present inthe Roman CatholicFaith. course aparodyonthest are clearlypoliticalinnature,andof lic nuns.Theirhighlyvisibleperformances ers whowearthetraditional attireof Catho- tional organizationconsistsofdragperform- brought upintheconversation.Theinterna- seo, theSistersofPerp the StateUniversityofNewYorkatGene- among collegestudentsandalliesat queer Americans. Inafocusgroupdiscussion makes itsointriguingtoyoung,queer rebellious natureoftheperformance that community are.Infact,itistheradicaland formances assome oldermembers ofthe not seem tobeasembarrassed bydragper- Gore wassupposedtowin.” for some of you…Youknow,backwhen hanging chads…maybe thisistoolongago cried out:“Youknowthestatewith performer from Florida,Ambrosia Salad work aswell;whenintroducingavisiting observed suchstatements duringmy field- and discrimination” (DragQueens and lesbianmovement, AIDS,gaymarriage, us protectourselves.’They the prejudiceofRonald Regan/Let public events, forexample, ‘From reciting litaniesa Young queersasawholeseem do nd antiphoniesat etual Indulgencewere rict socialconserva- sterectoria, andSis- , 143).I 187 193 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

formance triestocreatea sense ofunity ence asawhole,andthroughout theper- lead byanemcee whowelcomes theaudi- found thatdragperformances arealways shit.” Inmy fieldworkinRochester,Ihave think thesame…we “we’re allpeople…we breath thesame…we beings share.AsChampagne emphasized, seem toemphasize theunity that all human sexual orientation specifically), theyalso their performances (interms ofgenderand differences betweenaudience members in lifestyle. youth totryconvertthem toahomosexual that gaymen andlesbianshaveto“prey”on assertion inmainstreamheterosexual culture asserted: “they’re recrui period ofcollectivelaugher,athirdstudent “they’re doingmissionary work.”Aftera ately, anotherstudentinterruptedsaying: world, theyareallovertheplace.” Immedi- Perpetual Indulgence]areeverywhereinthe Onestudentnotedthat:“they[Sistersof

ual (468). eral ofthem female and/orheterosex- benefit there werethirtysisters, sev- dence in1989withaformal ADIS celebrated theirDecade ofDeca- and gayrights.Bythetime they pearances todebatepoliticalissues They made frequenttelevisionap- Tomlin, andShirleyMacLaine. travelers asHarveyFeinstein, Lily conferred sainthoodonsuchfellow-

readings ofTheSatanicVerses,and and PhyllisSchalfly;gavepublic vey Milk; exorcised Jerry Falwell While dragqueensemphasize the city bycanonizingthelateHar- protested thePope’svisitto ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 go throughthe same ters,” playingoffthe claim tobeableinterpret asociety’s then, canasocial anth Turner positsthissame question:“How, paradox thatexistsinth ining ritualstudies,ha ous anthropologists,particularlythoseexam- Numer-thropologist’s ortheperformer’s? Whose interpretation,th any lesscompelling”(DragQueens intentional, solidarit ances ofprotestanyle tity,’ butthat doesnotmake their perform- sexual meanings’ oreven‘collectiveiden- toires’ or‘counter-h seen, are unlikelytotalk ‘cultural reper- drag queensandtheiraudiences,aswehave the academy. RuppandTayloragree: “the which isoftenrelegatedtotheivorytowerof within the framewor pect them tounderstandtheirperformances der andqueertheory.Thus,onecannotex- the languageandconceptsexploredingen- demic community,areoftenunexposedto individuals oftenlivi one must acknowledgethatdragqueens,as politics, judicialsystem its most formal sense(inreferencetoparty “political” itself, andit ances politicalorno mining whetherqueensviewtheirperform- ily political.Partof cal jokes,herperformances arenotnecessar- pagne assertedthatasidefrom afewpoliti- formances asinherentlypolitical.Cham- through theirperformances onthestage. emphasize the humanity ofallpeoples lor havealsonotedhowdragqueenstryto of dragqueensinKeyWest,RuppandTay- amongst everyoneinthebar.Intheirstudy Not alldrag queensseetheirper- y-building, orindeed, egemonic genderand t istheveryterm k ofgendertheory, the difficulty indeter- ng outsideoftheaca- ropologist justifyhis ve notedtheetic/emic ss confrontational, is oftenonlyreadin s, etc).Additionally, e discipline.Victor en winsout,thean- , 22). 188 194 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

erties ofthatfield”(ForestSymbols setting anddescribeth can placethisritual inits significant field they…you aresupposed to representyour we canandcannotmarry…who the fuckare tell uswhowecanandcannotloveand chimed inwith:“it’slikeyou’retrying to of GeorgeBush’spresidency,Champagne feisty personalities.When discussinglegacy Americans withtheirsassy,dynamic, and dress the discrimination facedbyqueer Overall, drag queensarenotafraidtoad- performance” may bevastlydifferent. gist andtheperformer definea“political zens. However,thewaythatanthropolo- treated andrepresented made political inasociety wherethey are inherently political; theirveryexistence is course, thelivesofLGBTIQindividualsare ance betweenthesetwoperspectives.Of the end,Ithinkitisim the meaning behinddragperformance. In tion makes me well-suitedforinterpreting self-identified gayman, given ritual”(ForestofSymbols society, andalsointherolestructureof sitions, both inthepersisting structure of his or evenasetofsituationallyconflictingpo- is circumscribed byhisparticularposition, means thattheanthropologist’s“ownvision his own“structuralpersp the anthropologistisembedded withinher/ 27). Atthesame time,heacknowledgesthat assumes that allanthropologists aremale]

meaning ofaperformance: “he[Turner

can andshould interpret thesymbolic Turner thinksthattheanthropologist themselves?” (Forest ofSymbols comprehensively thanthe actors ritual symbols more deeplyand ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 e structuresandprop- portant tofindabal- as second-classciti- I thinkthatmyposi- I ective.” Bythishe : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 , 27).Asa , 26- , 26). (hooks, 214). petuating misogynistic, racistthemes been criticalofdragperformances for per- is Burning this issueisamongst gendertheorists(Paris Paris isBurning rounding JennieLivingston’sdocumentary One needonlylookatthecritiquessur- ies ofdragproblematic forscholars: central theoretical issuethathasmade stud- tions thattheysupport. United States istheof studying dragqueenperformances inthe cal hurdlesthatone breasts. Perhapsoneofthegreatesttheoreti- tractive, highly sexualized, withlarge often representedaswhite,blonde,veryat- type ofwomanonthestage.This is -femininity, dragqueensrepresentacertain ist blackfaceperformances. With theirhyper pare theperformances of dragqueenstorac- ages ofAmerican women; infactsome com- queens areseen aspe Misogyny in Drag Problematic Performances: Racismand entire country.” 583). ultimately resolvedblurring (582- opposition throughaninstructive but buttressing andreconfirming binary those that seethem asanelement the dominant sex/gendersystem and dered performances assubversiveof that treat transvestite and transgen- this topicisdividedbetweenworks structural models.Theliteratureon its exemplary instances, andits has turnedtodragforitsmetaphors, Indeed, thetheoryofperformativity Within somefeminist circles, drag ). bellhooksinparticular has tounderstandhowdivisive must confrontwhen rpetuating negativeim- ten sexistrepresenta- Morrisdescribesthe 189 195 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

painfully that performances intheUnitedStates,notes anthropologist tohavestudieddragqueen phobia. McNeal,perhapstheonlygaymale tity, identity politics, as anti-feminist isrooted inissues of iden- The debatecenteringondragperformances participating inthe experience:

forming indragpreventedlesbiansfrom the realm oftheunconscious”(584). nipulation canneverfullyenterinto because thesubjectofconsciousma- vides anexemplaryresolutionbut nant ideology–notbecauseitpro- of gender,dragcanreinscribedomi- consciously addressedtothematter indicate that, evenwhenself- what soberingly,accountslikethese masquerade inthefeminine. Some- and gaymen rejectedtheirrightto bians attempted toenteradragshow Cherry Grove,NewYork,whenles- description ofaconf “Newton hasdonejustthatwithher

final interpretationofdrag because lysts wedonotforeclose uponany it isimportant thatasobservingana- subversive andparodicby turns.But mative aspectsofgender,anditis others…Drag highlightstheperfor- they attempt toreclaim andrectify oppressions atthesame time that acerbate and evenintensifycertain how individualsandgroupsmay ex- We shouldremain evercognizantof raphy ofFireIslandinwhichmen per- Esther Newtondescribesinherethnog- Morris recountsanincidentthat of misogyny indragperformances. Other criticshavenotedincidents ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 and internalized homo- lict thatarose in came outonstageandproceeded topunch Lake, whowasstilldressed asRhianna, simulate anabortion.Then,MissDarienne (handed toherfrom backstage)onstage to show, thedragqueenusedacoathanger den undertheclothes.Atendof stomach (afakepregnantstomach washid- polka dotpatternfabriconthebreastsand of blackfabric,andhadablack-and-white M.I.A. woreattheGrammys–itwasmade queen woreanoutfit similar tothe one nant SriLankanfemale rapper.Thedrag Aggy DuneperformedM.I.A.,thepreg- as stage byanotherperformer.Later,Miss and waspunched,kickedscratchedon body (withaparticularlydarkblackeye), stage wearingmake-up tosimulate abruised abuse. MissDarienneLake came outon news forhavingsufferedfrom domestic cal artistwhohadjust formed asRihanna,apopularfemale musi- the performance, MissDarienneLakeper- ter, NYthatwaspartic tic. Iobservedoneperformance inRoches- performances thatcanbereadasmisogynis- have seenseveralexamples ofdragqueen stigmatization andsexism(360). play ofdragthatresortstore- transcendence throughthemarginal assertiveness, empowerment, and disheartening toobserveattempts at and sexuality…Itissobering dominant culturalmodels ofgender as eithersubversiveorreaffirming of simplistic toposedragperformance much asitsubvertsit.Itis too and buttressesthestatusquoas hegemonic system ofbinarygender in many ways it re-instantiates the From myfieldworkexperiences,I recently been inthe ularly troubling.In 190 196 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

McNeal (who self-identifies asagay male) spective ofpsychologi ances canbeverylimiting. Usingthe per- feminist critiquesofdrag queenperform- ist andmisogynistic lens.Shenoteshow drag performances throughbothaheterosex- tive, Newtonisabletolookatmale-bodied ter radical feminist position)(BodiesThatMat- matrix, paradoxically,attheheartof tivity (andthustorein into the centerof male/male homosexual ac- womenway forfeminist tomake themselves analysis isinfactacolonization inreverse,a might arguethatatitsextreme, thiskindof male homosexuality aboutwomen andone “The feministanalysis[of drag]thusmakes from bothsidesofthedebate,assertsthat: women. Butler,whofi however, “play”with formances. Suchrepresentationsofwomen, dic, ifnotthemost comedic ofalltheper- found bothperformances extremely come- the performer ranoffstage.Theaudience exclaimed: “codeorange,codeorange!”and from newspaper.Theemcee, PandoraBox, and revealedashort the “recession gown”(cheapattire)category former came outinthesame blackburqain the floortoimitate alawn. Thesame per- flowers andaflamingo whirligigandlayon a blackburqa, andcarriedonstageplastic lawn ornamenttheme. Oneperformer wore attire, meaning thattheyhadtodressina

, 127).Coming from alesbianperspec- amateurs. Oneofthecategorieswaslawn

special dragcontestwasbeingheldfor tic. Duringanother ance canbereadasbeingmisogynis- stomach. Certainlysuchaperform- Miss AggyDunerepeatedlyinher ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 skirt underneathmade theoppressionof scribe theheterosexual cal anthropology, nds awaytomediate fieldwork visit,a : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 sexist: drag queens’performances areinherently women. Boxxdoesnotbelievethat Pandora sees dragperformance as“anhomage” to their performances. Indeed,Champagne are celebrating,notdemeaningwomenin ported bydragqueenswhoassertthatthey ing matters ofdesire”(347).Thisissup- cultural position inre similar, thoughnotequivalent,psycho- fun atthemselves andwomen whooccupya poking funattheworld,butalsoby have respondedtothissituationnotonlyby these performances. upon them bymainstream societythrough priate thefemininity thathasbeenplaced men areabletocontrol,andindeed,reappro- puted controloverthe fication oftheirownstigma takesundis- present whoenjoyandlaughasthepersoni- show providescatharsisforthosegaymen tance: “thesymbolic performing asdragqueensisanactofresis- through representingwomen onthestage, hegemonic straightworld”(346-347).Thus, control andassertive, retaliating against a men isnotstigmatized andashamed, butin moments, the ‘femininity’ attributed togay forming aswomen because“Forthesefew formances. Inpart,gay men embraceper- tions ofwomen indragqueenper- emerge tries tounderstandhowsexistrepresenta- stage andcelebratethe image ofa they wouldnotbeableto goouton hated women oranythinglike that negative light.Ifdragqueens truly so amazingly ifyouviewitina lous. Youcan’tportraysomething comes from butIthinkit’sridicu- I certainly understand where that inversion ofthedrag Therefore, “Gaymen lation tomen concern- court” (348).Gay 191 197 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

many misogynistic themes. performances arelikelytocontinue tohave own internalizedhomophobia, dragqueen Thus, untilgay men areabletofight their phobia andculturallylearnedshame” (348). deeply tiedtogaymen’s internalizedhomo- representations isthatsuch“misogyny…is ever, onewaytomake senseofthesesexist spite anypsychologicalexplanation.How- queen performances areindeedsexist,de- nally, McNealacknowledgesthatmany drag touch withtheirspirituality” (Silvers). Fi- are more emotionallystrong,they’remorein since they’vebeenoppressedsolong…they stronger thanmen generallyanywaybecause The otheragreed, stating; “Women arealot I’m payinghomage tostrongblackwomen.” “I thinkofmyselfasabutchdragqueen– their opinions ontheissue. Oneargued that: African-American dragqueensdiscussed 144). Inthedocumentary Wigstock they areallthatth and lookinguptowomen andthinkingthat we spendallofourtime beingeffeminate here ifitwasn’tforthem…Andthat’swhy men, women arepower.Youwouldn’tbe West exclaimed: “Yes,ladiesandgentle-

It’s allaboutlove. our ownmothers, loveof femininity. love ofthepowerfulwoman, loveof love. Loveoftheimage ofawoman, like awoman comes fromaplaceof because Ihatewomen. Dressingup who says,Idressuplikeawoman

if youwouldeverfindadragqueen look likeandbelik we havedeemed women should Similarly, Milla,adragqueeninKey pokes funattheimage ofwhat woman. drag If anything ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 ey are”(DragQueens Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47

e. Idon’tknow , two , stereotypes of black femininity inAmericanstereotypes ofblackfemininity acter, which clearlyplayed offpainful lac.” Thestudentwastroubled bythischar- who hasnineteenkidsand drivesaCadil- ter isathreehundred about: “ablackfacedragqueen…thecharac- York atGeneseonotedhowshehadheard focus groupattheState UniversityofNew blackface. OnestudentinaPRIDEmeeting drag queenperformers actuallydodon have been“gendered.”Some contemporary also alwaysbeen“raced” asmuch asthey must performasdragqueens. order toperform venues,they inprofessional not besaidtoperform women; as instead,in both” (27).Inotherwords,dragqueenscan- front, theactor willfind thathemust do or byadesiretomaintain thecorresponding vated byadesiretoperform thegiventask acquisition of therolewas primarily moti- ready beenestablishedforit.Whether his ally hefindsthataparticularfronthasal- actor takesonanestablishedsocialrole,usu- must accept. AsGoffman notes,“Whenan tablished norms andrules,whichamateurs try. Suchperformances havetheirownes- similarities indiffere drag performances tendtohaveparticular unique subculturewithintheUnitedStates, cause dragqueenshaveformed theirown tend torepresentanextreme femininity.Be- stead, theyperform asdragqueens,which really notaboutportrayingawoman.” In- notes,“it’s als untoitself.AsChampagne drag queens,auniquecategoryofindividu- ing women; insteadtheyareperforming as temporary drag queensarenotimpersonat- made within thequeercommunity thatcon- Performances ofdragqueenshave Additionally, theargument hasbeen nt regionsofthecoun- poundwelfarequeen 192 198 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

is rationalfordragque of course,ametaphor forpower,and thusit of American culture. Sexuality isinitself, be readasacritiqueof Americans; indeed,dragperformances can highlight thesexualizedexperiencesof Sexualizing DragPerformance nic identity. “play” withtheconcept ofracialand/or eth- an appropriateculturalspace foractorsto role reversalindragperformances makesit periment withnewidentities.Theritualistic ica havealways requiredperformers toex- of blackfaceis,dragperformances inAmer- realistic looking.Astr face andsaidthatsometimes itcanbe very that shehasseensome performers inblack- (“Queens ofAllMedia”).Champagne noted to darkenhiscomplexion fortherole Jade, tookthisinstruc Winfrey. Atleastoneofthecontestants, to make adragpersonainspiredbyOprah an episodeinwhichcontestantswereasked queens thatairedinthespringof2009,had Race you lookfabulousasablackwoman!” him untilhewalked uptome –Iwaslike and asserted that“Ididn’t evenrecognize has seendragqueensperform inblackface, (McCullom, 1). Champagne statedthatshe has videosfeatured onYouTube well-known withindrag

welfare whohasnineteenchildren.Heis

obese African-American woman on under thepersonaShirleyQ.Liquor,an , arealityshowcompetitionfordrag white gaymale,performsinblackface An important functionofdragisto On anepisode ofRuPaul’sDrag myth, however.ChuckKnipp,a culture. Thischaracterwasnota ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 tion literally,andtried thepuritanicalnature ens tousesexualper- oubling asthehistory queen circles,and : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 forefront ofdragqueenperformances: plain thepowerofbr sive powerstructure.RuppandTaylorex- endos intheirshowstocombat anoppres- formances, jokes,metaphors, acts,andinnu- field Ialsonoticedmany different balls!” (“ChickswithDicks”, 114).Inthe are dragqueens!We dohavedicksand two a dragqueen, remind theaudiencethat:“we fieldwork, TaylorandRupp observedSushi, shocking” (DragQueens in whichanythinggoesandnothingis about sexactscontribu queens useaboutsexandtheirconstanttalk a verypublicaffair…Thelanguagethedrag make sex,whichisusuallyfarmore private, top ofallthisisthefactthatdragqueens performance isits“shoc ferent sense”(DragQueens sexuality thatareshockinginadif- troduction ofideasaboutgenderand ence, creatinganopeningforthein- talk aboutsexactsshockstheaudi- able andthevulgar.Theirbawdy cross the line betweenthe respect- between publicandprivate,they and violatetraditionaldistinctions ries ofgenderandsexualcategories same waythattheyblurthebounda- called apoliticsofvulgarity…Inthe drag queenspracticewhatmight be that theybringintoregularuse,the words forbodypartsandsexacts public talkaboutsexandtheslang female, straightandgay.Intheir ventional understand of thewaygirlschallengecon- and thegropingserveasanextension “the sextalkandthepublicnudity Indeed, animportantpartofthedrag inging sexualitytothe te toanenvironment k factor.”In“On ings ofmale and , 138).Duringtheir , 140). 193 199 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

ways comfortablewiththe highlysexualized when therealSaladBar Review starts.” closes downwelockthe doorandthat’s that’s theafterhoursshow–oncebar no that’sallextraladiesandgentlemen, “we’ll doalittledem show, calledtheSaladBar Review,stated: date oftheshow. Theemcee ofthedrag ized; thiswas especiallyfitting given the ance inRochester,NYwashighlysexual- eve beforeValentine’sDay,adragperform- of sexualitytomy movesonstage.”Onthe make them myown.Thereisusuallyalot try andtakelittlemoves hereandthere Madonna, BritneySpears,Pinkandsuchto means. otherentertainerslike Iwatch dance. I’m noprofessi forms, PandoraBoxxstated:“Well, Itryto When askedhowshemoves whensheper- move theirbodiesinasexualmanner. gender performance bylearninghow to in somany ways.”Dragqueensperfecttheir student notedhow“drag is verysexualized tance ofsexualityindragperformances; one New YorkatGeneseorecognizedtheimpor- the Pride AllianceattheStateUniversityof sexual discourse.Evenstudentmembers of ances; itcombines comedywithanopenly pagne’s statement dragperform- exemplifies aroused…meet me aftertheshow.”Cham- the audience,however,“ifyoudoget point oftheshowisnottosexuallyarouse view withChampagne notedthatthe she

members ontheirgenitalia.Inaninter-

voice, toplacingthehandsofaudience denly speakinginaverylow,masculine would rangefrom dragqueenssud- Some audiencemembers arenotal- to shockthe audience.Such acts performative acts thatwere meant ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 onstration righthere, onal dancerbyany teracted withdragqueens: ent waysthatgayandstraightaudiencesin- research, EstherNewtonobservedthediffer- higher levelsofanxiety.Inherethnographic less comfortable withdragqueens,show seem thatstraightaudiences,whomay be one “category”ofpeople.However,itdoes formances canelicitisnot restricted toany men dothat.” Theanxietythatdragper- “I’ve hadlesbiansdothat,I’vestraight asked aboutwhopushedheraway,shesaid: audience members during theshow;when even pushedherawaywhensheapproached fund yourticketmoney.” Some peoplehave dle thatthenhereisthedoorandIcanre- are heretoentertainyou…ifyoucan’than- you andsitsonyourlap…itsallinfun…we at adragshowifsomeone comes overto pagne “incaseyouhaven’tguessed,are nature ofdragqueenperformances. Cham- than thefirst,‘It’sitsown hair!’and ond woman thenscreamedlouder firmly, itdidnotcome off.Thesec- wigs areusuallygluedon fairly it,’ andpulledhiswig.Sincethe woman jumpedupyelling,‘I’lltouch from me.’ Atthispointanother she actually screamed ‘Getitaway accidentally touchedawoman, and visibly shrankback.Atonepointhe the tablesashewalkedamongthem straight audience,andthepeopleat same performer come downintothe touch him. InKansasCity,Isawthe ally climbed allovereachotherto bar. Thepeopleintheaudiencevirtu- to thegayaudiencesittingalong part ofhisactandheldouthands former came downoffthestageas In Chicago,oneverypopularper- 194 200 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

bachelor partybysaying: “Ibetyou’re young heterosexualman celebrating a Rochester, Samantha harassed a Vegas the restofday.”During ashowin couldn’t sayanything…Iblewhim kisses cock…his mouth wasgapedopenandhe ing pantsandI’llshowyouhowtosucka ing youtherightway? You’regirlfriendain’tblow- what’s wrong? and startedsayingshittome…and Isaid school: “thekidcame outinthehallway tive culture whenbe time whensheresistedmale heteronorma- of thisincident,Champagne alsonoteda Although notperforming indragatthetime [heterosexual men] getkindaembarrassed.” laughing…it’s funbecause they hard…the girlfriendwa he wasturninghishead…hestartedtoget my mouth andgotrightupinhiscrotch on my handsandknees…putthezipperin at therequestofhisgirlfriend:“Igotdown able tosexuallyarouseaheterosexualman vided aspecificexample ofwhenshewas men intheirperformances. Champagne pro- achieving thesexualarousalofheterosexual ditional definitions of sexual identity by sexuality. lenging traditionalno members whomay notbecomfortablechal- and asserttheir dominance overaudience drag queensclaim theirspace onthestage, Queens

I’ll helpyoudown

there. Ifit’snotturnedon,justtellme, the show,there’s anescalator right similarly asserted:“Ifyoudon’tlike In addition,dragqueenssubverttra- , 113).Bymaking suchstatements, Milla, adragperformer inKeyWest jumped back(66). ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 ing bulliedinhigh tions ofgenderand the stairs”(Drag Youdropyourfuck- s takingpicturesand : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 that. Especiallybecause they alwaysget trying totakehisshortsoff andthingslike said thedragqueens‘get some guy upthere The gaymen intheaudience enjoy,asone gay peoplelovetoseeusmake funofthem.’ says, ‘straightpeopledon’tknowhowmuch ciate theirstraight audiences,Kyliealso members: “Althoughthedragqueensappre- Key West badgerstraightmale audience and Tayloralsoobservedthatdragqueensin his boxers,andevenreceivedtips.Rupp proceeded totakeoffhispantsandlowered shirt, danced,andthrust prisingly, whenonstagehetookoffhis come andstagedance tothe music. Sur- was hidinginacornerandaskedhimto picked outoneofthepartymembers who you can’tevenfindthedoor.”Shethen him? Ibetyou’resofarintheclosetthat to getmarried: “Doyouhaveacrushon questioned whyhisfriendsdidn’twant him to “justbackdown.”Samantha Vegasthen performance, thebachel scream likeawoman.” Atonepointinthe cried out:“Ibetyoutakeitlikeaman but when calledupon.Samantha Vegasthen the partywasreluctant toapproachthestage Joe, anotherheterosexualmale member of the male, heterosexual audiencemember. doing so,sheconfusedth fake breastsandputit She thenprecededtohandhim oneofher his shirtshewouldshowhim herbreasts. Samantha VegastoldBenthatifhetookoff to approachthedragqueen.However, men inthe bachelor partywereverynervous and askedhimto“Ben-Dover.”Theother tha thenproceeded tocallhim “Ben-Gay” tom [inreferencetohisredhair]?” Saman- Irish…Oh, welldoesthetopmatch thebot- under hisshirt.In hisbehindatJoe;he or’s friends told him e genderidentityof 195 201 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

Newton observedthisfirst-hand: heterosexual systems. Inherfieldwork, skills ascomediennes toopposedominant something positive, notnegative: which something thatis“sogay”becomes invert thetraditional social structure in celebrating their“gayness,” dragqueenscan Queens show directedatstraightmen” (Drag women. There’salot of hostilityinthe ments andcritique male domination of In thisway,theyexpress anti-male senti- derstand whyshedoesn’twanttoswallow.’ suck ituntilyoucome. Maybenowyouun- him grief:‘God.AndIbetyoubegherto When thestraightman gags,Kyliegives mouths, making comparisons tofellatio. pours right from thebottle into volunteers’ structures in theirperformances: “Kylie trality of fighting male heteronormative

highlighted forRuppandTaylorthecen- (Mother Cam satisfaction ofthegayaudience sexuals whohappenedin,tothegreat bly ‘putdown’ anyobvioushetero- working ingaybarsalmost invaria- ‘Live’ impersonators whom Isaw it; thestraight worldbedamned.’ it, ‘I’m gay,Idon’t’carewhoknows for hisgayaudience,whocannotsay mosexuality. Thedragqueen says declaration, evencelebration,ofho- The dragqueensymbolizes anopen

The performer wasattempting to talk 191). Aspecificethnographicevent hassle straightmen” (DragQueens mented, ‘Imean, Iloveitwhenthey In fact,dragqueenscanusetheir , 134).EstherNewtonarguesthatby that.’ Anothergayman com- thestraightboysuptheretodo ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 p, 64). Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 , man inthebathroom. Shewasfollowed drag queento“de-boxer” a“straight”young night. Oneofthewomen was askedbya both turningfiftyyearsold onthesame nessed twoseparateheterosexualwomen one dragperformance inRochester,Iwit- members intotheirperformances. During would bringheterosexualfemale audience there wereseveraltimes whendragqueens heterosexuality” (359) aspect oftheculturalmodel ofcompulsory he hasatleastmomentarily outwittedone to beatwomenattheglamourgame, thens/ drag queen–ormale homosexual–manages sexual women.Healsoassertsthat:“Ifthe attention of masculin are oftenperceivedasvyingforthesexual drag queens,whoaremost oftengaymen, McNeal notesthatonereasonforthisis women inmanyoftheirperformances. 66). and silencedtheman (MotherCamp This drewalaughfrom audience the twice thebroadyou’lleverpickup.’ I’m more sirthanyou’lleverbe,and rate sarcasminhisvoice,‘Sir…?’ where uponTrisrepliedwithelabo- give up,butrepeatedhisdemand, roast inhell.’Theman wouldn’t wouldn’t payadime towatchyou watch me; you’d betterbelieveI paid adollartocome inhereand [drag queen],whoretorted,‘You sir.’ ThisobviouslyangeredTris a lotbetterifyou’daddressme as The man shot back, ‘We’d get along date as‘thatfatman with.’ you’re could notsee,andreferredtoher to aladyintheaudiencewhom I Drag queensalsoharassheterosexual e men,asarehetero- . Duringfieldwork, , 196 202 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

space ofthebaranddance floor.McNeal transform intoqueensand the“profane” the “sacred”spaceinwhich theperformers about tobegin.Curtains anddoorsblockoff are usedtocuetheaudience thatashow is perience, specificlightingandmusical signs perform From onstage. myfieldworkex- and rulesthatdetermine whenandwhocan indeed, ittooisboundedbyspecificnorms shows begsforananthropologicalanalysis; Theatricality ofDrag drag” (DragQueens to those…who lookmost likewomen in lesbian, tended totalk about their attraction it isnoticeable thatwomen,bothstraightand ple havedifferentresponsestothegirls,but drag queensintheirstudy:“obviously,peo- ual women weresexuallyattractedtothe Taylor’s study,bothlesbiansandheterosex- Queens gory ofgenderandsexual preference” (Drag combine “sexactsthatareoutside theircate- members themselves becausethey often fuse thesexualized identities ofaudience bring them coatcheck. to they weretoo afraid[ofaqueerspace] to holding ontotheirjacketsandpurses,if drag queenaskedthewoman whytheywere drag performance. Uponconfirmation, the asked if thiswastheirfirst time attending a were harassed bythedragqueenemceewho heterosexual female audiencemembers

with thedragqueen.Onanotherdatetwo

stage whereshedancedprovocatively highly intoxicated,wasbroughton off hispants.Theotherwoman, The performativeaspectofdrag , 136).Forexample,inRuppand In general,dragperformances con- man, where sheproceededtotake into thebathroom withthisyoung ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 , 193). : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 or professional, asatheatricalstructure character; alldrag,whether formal, informal, guishing characteristic Esther Newtonnotesthat eclipse ofthesunor bisexuality, tothewilderness,andan in thewomb, toinvisibility,darkness, nality isfrequently lik social andculturaltransitions.Thus,limi- symbols inthemany societiesthat ritualize tributes areexpressedbyarichvarietyof such, theirambiguousandindeterminate at- custom, convention,andceremonial. As the positionsassignedandarrangedbylaw, here northere;they Turner argues: “liminal entitiesareneither of VictorTurner,“betwixtandbetween.” in theirperformances; theyare,inthewords ply limited toplace,but time aswell. tion ofasacredorprofanespaceisnot sim- or occasionally, stripping. Thustheconcep- can beusedasaspaceforresting,dancing, between orbeforeandafteractsthestage is onlysacredduringth forum” (366). Onemust notethatthestage conflicts andambivalences expressedinthat cally defensivereasons–unawareofthe gay men, even thoughtheyare–fordynami- leged windowintothepsychicrealitiesof “circumscribed arenathatprovidesaprivi- describes the sacredspaceasa this spacethattheychallengethestatusquo. ful placeand adangerous place.Itiswithin fines oftheirgender.Thisisbothapower- allowed toexplore,andchallengethecon- they inhabit aspaceinwhichindividuals are “male,” norarethey “female.” Similarly, 95). Dragqueensar Drag queens inhabitaliminal space In herethnographyMotherCamp are betwixt andbetween e not necessarily moon” (RitualProcess ened todeath,being of drag…isitsgroup e dragperformances; : “Infact the distin- , , 197 203 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

following section.Taylor andRuppfound sona, atopic thatwillbeexamined inthe drag queenstogetintoand developaper- to.” Experience withinthetheater allows was Champagne Icouldsayanythingwant Rob wasalwaystheshypersonwhereifI school andIlookedat stated that“Iwasinvolvedindrama inhigh ing theirmannerisms.” Champagne also to doclassesinwatchingpeopleandstudy- acting inhighschool fortable performing onst theater inhighschoolmadehim morecom- made itclearthathisexperience withthe Champagne inSchenectady,NewYork),he my interviewwithRob(whoperforms as forming.” (“ChickswithDicks”,123).In ter sinceshewasten,andshe,too,lovesper- theater asaboy…Ingaha R.V. hadbeeninprofessionalsummerstock ence members havefeltintheirownlives… evoke thepainandangerlovethataudi- she lovesisbeingabletouseherfeelings, in theatergroupsfrom ayoungage.What also identifiesasaperformer. She,too,was being adragqueenismore profound,she and alwayslovedit…AlthoughforMilla involved intheatersinceelementary school background intheater.Scabola hasbeen theatrical identity, a “Being adragqueenalso means embracing a many drag queens havetothetheater: cle, RuppandTaylornotetheaffinitythat by extension,oftheaudi

have asolidcommandofthestage,and

drag performances requirequeensto ity)” (37).Asanartisticendeavor, no dragwithoutdrama (ortheatrical- actor andhis audience,andthereis style. Thereisnodragwithoutan ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 nd many of themhave Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 and everythingwehad it asanactingrole… age indrag:“with s beeninthethea- ence. Intheirarti- queens andmainstream gaymen, muchof the most interactionsbetweenthedrag it wasatthisamateur barthatwewitnessed discrimination bytheirgaypeers. Although and aretheonessubjecttomost overt “amateur dragqueenshave limited status their lip-synching.Be and willoccasionally forget toor mess-up self-confident enoughtoactasprofessionals, sional dragqueens.Oftenamateurs arenot the artistic and performa ances inRochester,Ilearnedtoappreciate she treateddrag “likeacareer.” of my ownperformances” andstatedthat and I’llwatchtheshow videotape andcome backhome thatnight Champagne notedthat:“I’lllikehavea and betterperformances mean bettertips. them performing isaneconomic activity, critical oftheirwork.After all,formostof sisterhood.” Dragqueen seeing everydayyou’regoingtohavethat “any performance, anygroupthatyou’re apartoftheatricalcast: many whoare be expected,asitmirrors theexperienceof ity foundamongagroupofdragqueensisto PRIDE focusgroupnotedthatthecollectiv- (Drag Queens ing makeup throughtheir many dragqueens became familiar withus- ethnography, TaylorandRuppalsonotethat tics” (“ChickswithDicks”,125).Intheir into alignment withtheir identitypoli- the streets -inawayth theater –bothintheca perience, thedragqueensengageinstreet with thetheater: “With theirtheatrical ex- studied inKeyWest also hadfamiliarity that themajority of the dragqueensthatthey By attendingamateur dragperform- , 13).Onestudentinthe rkowitz notesthat baret and literally on at bringstheirwork …I’ve very critical tive talentofprofes- s tendtobevery theater experience 198 204 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

as intraditionaltheater, taking onanewper- West: “Thistheatricalid Rupp recordedsimilar experiencesin Key or learnedfrom oneanother.”Taylor and “Rob andChampagne haveslowlymorphed have inmany waysmerged intoonebeing: pagne) havelearnedfromoneanother,and both sidesof hislife(RogerandCham- calm. However,withtime hehasfoundthat shy; Champagne wasbold,whereashe Champagne wasconfident,whereashe Champagne, wasverydifferentfrom him. blurred. Rogerclaims thathispersona, their dragpersona,however,oftenbecomes between thedragqueen’severydayselfand then youarenotanentertainer.”Theline “If youdon’thavesome sortofpersonae, members. Indeed,PandoraBoxxarguesthat selves identifiabletoreturning audience specific persona asa bodied. Professionalperformers clingtoa which toexpress themselves asfemale- Forging ANewPersona ryone isrunninguptothatbar.” drink theprettierwel made theannouncement: ‘themore you pagne saidthatsheusedthesame saying:“I called thisthe“rulenumberone.”Cham- emcee dragqueen atagay barinRochester the prettierwelook.” to usestartashowis“themore youdrink noticed thatacommonlinefordragqueens United States.From myfieldwork,I have

ferent dragqueenperformances inthe

ances thatarecommonthroughoutdif- appreciation” (29). Drag queens createpersona(s) from There arespecific theatrical perform- disrespect andvulgarity,ratherthan this contact wascharacterizedby ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 way ofmaking them- ook’ soofcourseeve- AmbrosiaSalad,an entity involves,just : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 ment onstageandtoseethatyou’ve ment. Alleyesareonyouforthebrief mo- “Drag cangiveyouasense ofempower- performance tobea positive experience: dom.” PandoraBoxxhasalsofounddrag same personbutyouhaveasenseoffree- there’s asenseoffreedom…you’restillthe Champagne’s words:“kindofliberating… note howtheirperfor that costume.” Indeed,many dragqueens you wouldneverknowthatitwashiminside on…he waslikeatotallydifferentperson… nas), and“assoonashehadthebodysuit Americans playwithnewrolesandperso- is, ofcourse,aholidayduringwhichall who wentoutindragonHalloween(which former. Champagnenotedashymale friend very realpsychologicaleffectuponaper- prostitutes” (“ChickswithDicks”,124). kind ofsexualaggressivenessfemale more as‘actinglikehookers,’deployingthe behavior soundsmasculine, theyviewit “hassle thestraightmen.” “Ifsome ofthis queens theyobservedinKeyWest liketo larly, TaylorandRuppnotethatthedrag they weresellingthemselves ornot.Simi- move, andgesturelikeprostitutes,whether the self-identified “f turn ofthe20 male culture inNewYorkCityjust after the charged femalebody.Inhisanalysisofgay are representative ofanextremely sexually- Drag personas arehighly dramatized, and and more” (“ChickswithDicks”,124). though ‘nowtheyarecoming togethermore tirely differentperson’from Margo,al- queen late in life, desc Sushi. EvenMargo,whobecame adrag sona. ‘SushiisdifferentthanGary,’says The creationofapersonacanhave th Century,Chaunceynotesthat airies” wouldspeak, mances canbe,in ribes Davidas‘anen- 199 205 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

is notwhatanthropologic world. Analyzingthehuman mind however, able forgaymen livinginahomophobic and self-respect inwaysperhapsunattain- have theability toincrease self-confidence sharing websites suchas and withthegrowingimportance ofvideo- agency. Dragperformers arenodifferent, logical processesto of Westernization, but vidual actorsarenotsimply helplessvictims drawn from globalization the most importantconclusionsthatcanbe science orcommercialized tions media, theinternationalprocessesof ences oftelevisionandothercommunica- cies, tourists,refugees,cyberspace,theinflu- transnational corporations,foreignaidagen- migrations, diasporas,commodity chains, cultures than translocalities, border zones, studies arelesslikely tobecommunitiesor subjects ofanthropol ize ethnographicstudies.Hestates:“The lated toglobalization in importance ofunderstandingprocessesre- rary cultural anthropologists, stresses the Ted Lewellen,among manyothercontempo- Globalizing Identitiesand DragCulture munity inAmerica. problematic relationshipwiththequeercom- tion uptothepsychologists,evengiventheir suited for,andIwould body else?”

yourself, howareyougonnalovesome-

crap form anybody…ifyoucan’tlove sona hastaughther:“nottotakeany Champagne alsoassertedthatherper- Drag queenpersonas,itthenseems, way, canreallybetrulypowerful.” affected people,eveninasmall ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 achievepersonal Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 ogical globalization interact withtechno- leave this interpreta- ordertocontextual- www.youtube.com al analysisisbest- studies isthatindi- art”(57).Oneof

define themselvesasa“college graduate.” and bothAmbrosiaSalad andPandoraBoxx the UniversityofMassachussetts –Boston, ter’s degreeinbiomedic Samantha VegasnotesthatsheholdsaMas- “normal,” educatedAmerican.Forexample, mize thepersonwhoperforms indragasa Myspace pagescanalso dressed asSarahPalin Miss DarienneLakefeaturedherpicture a rainbowwiththewords“Obama Pride.” Obama’s presidential ca drag queenpostinganimage usedinBarack were alsoquite political, withatleast one members andfellowqueens.Theirpages featured images ofthem withaudience some aspects.”Thedrag queensonMyspace pagne assertsthatMyspace is“better in able tofindtheirpagesonFacebook.Cham- had pageson Myspace,althoughIwasun- the dragqueensthatIobservedinRochester performances ofasingleperformer. Mostof between performers orlookingatthevaried go from dragvideotoanother,shifting one related videoslink.Thisallowsviewersto online andthreadedtoone anotheron the cuse orMiss Rochesterarealsoposted from aspecificcontest, such asMiss Syra- linked tooneanother. that holdsvideosofasingleperformer tobe easily donebycreatingausername profile video sharingwebsiteYouTube, thiscanbe personas andexhibittheirwork.Onthe performers usetheinternet toadvertise their ings incyberspace. creating identities thatexist asmutable be- www.myspace.com www.facebook.com and socialnetworkingwebsites suchas As professionaldragqueens,these , itisclear that they are and Dragperformances mpaign thatfeatured al engineeringfrom be usedtolegiti- herprofilepicture. 200 206 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

may notbeabletodefinitively identify the ance restsuponthefact bodied. Infact,thepower oftheperform- individual istrulymale-bodied orfemale- the performer, onecanneverbesureifthe selves; without soliciting information from queens areveryambiguous withinthem- however, thattheperformances ofdrag in American culture.Itisimportant tonote, of critiquing theclearly defined gender roles highly exaggeratedmanner, inpartasaway queens tendtoportrayAmerican women ina Drag queensdojustthat.Inaddition,drag pression thatisfostered quests hisobserverstotakeseriouslytheim- an individualplaysapartheimplicitly re- cally female. AsGoffmanasserts:“When the audiencebelievethattheyarebiologi- Theverynatureofdragperformance male-bodied dragqueensdoattempt tomake is oneofillusion.Indeed,onsome levelall Conclusion space aswell. then without ananalysis scends politicalboundaries,isincomplete queens, oranyotheridentitygroup thattran- Any dynamic,contemporary studyofdrag their personasandshowcasework. probably continuetouse can cultureinparticular, dragqueenswill an increasinglyimportant aspectofAmeri- posted pictures,andsixvideos. discussion topics,145wallposts,497

2009 has953members, with12different

Champagne. Thegroup,asofMay12, through whichImet my informant, “Drag QueensRockMySocksOff,” As cyberspacecontinuestobecome voted todragqueens,including Facebook hasseveralgroupsde-

ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 thattheaudience beforethem”(28). ofthisperformance the internet tosell : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 evolving intheLGBTIQ communitysuch ety” (DragQueens twenty-first century changes invalues,ideas, andidentitiesin ing that“dragcanserve asacatalyst for share anoptimistic be partofoursociety.”RuppandTaylor I don’tknowyetbutthinkthatit’sgoingto an important partinthefuture –whatfuture? quite yetdone becausetheirstill gonna play that dragqueens’orkings’historyare prompt, stated:“Idon’tthink Champagne queens inAmerican Without culture? ances. boundaries ontheirownmembers’ perform- own socialnorms, andthereforeimpose community, ofindividualswhocreatetheir are themselves, aparticular category,and not acknowledgethefactthatdragqueens the genderdichotomy. Sucharguments do on stage,dragqueensreinforce,notsubvert, argue thatbyshowinganextreme femininity can societyhasformed. Gluckman would typical performances ofwomen thatAmeri- in thattheyoftenreproducethesamestereo- the same time,however,aparadoxremains ting forthanewkindof norms asagents andact ture. Yes,dragqueenschallengegender drag queensincontemporary American cul- any concreteconclusi and ambiguity, make itverydifficulttodraw These elements ofillusion, parody,satire what is“female-bodied” inthefirstplace. to definewhatexactlyis“male-bodied” and surgery, isnotunknown,itbecomes difficult modification, includinggenderreassignment in thisnewtechnologicalagewherebody biological factsoftheperformers. Certainly What doesthefutureholdfordrag , 6).With newidentities perspective bysuggest- Americansoci- ons from my of study ofresistancebyput- public transcript ; at 201 207 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

munity, making them unabletoimpartially pologists as“trapped” many within thediscipline seenative anthro- thropology tobeconducted. Unfortunately, if nothingelse,callsoutformore nativean- spectives hasdeepenedthisexperience, and American. Theharmony ofthesetwoper- subjective, emotionalperspectiveofaqueer spective ofananthropologist formances from theobjective,analytical per- have attempted tointe beliefs. ture, andthustheirownnorms, values,and munity, bothofwhichhavetheirowncul- munity andacademic anthropological com- neuvered betweenthequeer,ornativecom- Ellen Lewin andWilliam Leap),Ieasily ma- breaking text Outinthe Field many ofthosedescribedintheground- tures orfocusonnon-queertopics,suchas pologists whostudyin“mainstream” cul- my owncommunity.Unlikequeeranthro- native anthropologistan ture hasgivenme theopportunitytoactasa my studyofdragqueensinAmerican cul- Reflections performing indrag. times andinall spaces. Indeed,weareall putting onagenderedperformance atall heterosexual and“gendernormative,” are Americans, especially drag queensrevealthehiddentruththatall

in American culture. Overall,however,

gender-bending inqueer communities formances highlighttheimportanceof such as“genderfucking,”dragper- From thisuniquevantagepoint,I As aqueerstudentofanthropology, “androgynous,” aswellpractices as “genderqueer” and ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 rpret dragqueenper- those whoidentifyas within theirown com- d studythosewithin (editedby and fromthe cursive Limits of“Sex” cursive Limits ofHomosexuality Spaces.” Journal Menin Public andPrivate Queens andGay “TheInteractionofDrag A. Halberstein. Berkowitz, DanaandLind and uniquespaceinanthropological inquiry. that nativeanthropologis American landscapereveals, ifnothingelse, Mystudyofdragqueensonthe first place? “native” andonean“anthropologist”inthe nature ofidentities,whatmakes onea tive’s? Ormorecritically,giventhefluid authoritative, theanthropologist’sorna- tion iscorrect,orat should speakforwhom? Whose interpreta- Who nity ordescribeagivenculture? the privilege,tospeakforagivencommu- mas ofthediscipline:Whohasright,or call intoquestionmany ofthecentraldilem- within the discipline. the paradoxofemic two positionsandprovidenewinsightsinto anthropologists canmediate betweenthese their own,oftenWestern, worldview,native ply bias-filledoutside ern concernthatall native anthropologist?Giventhepostmod- is bettersuitedtorepresent aculturethan thropological theoryandmethodology, who community and“objective”traininginan- analyze it.Iask,withboth membership ina 1993. Butler, Judith.Bodiesthat Matter: OntheDis- September 21,2008. Lee.“Curriculum Larry Review.” Blackman, 11-32. More broadly,nativeanthropologists

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202 208 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

Douglass, Mary.PurityandDanger:An 1999. Arbor, MI:Universityof MichiganPress, Cleto, Fabio,ed.Camp: QueerAesthetics ary 12,2009,1. Gender-Neutral Housing.” Cioffi, Marc.“GeneseeHalltoTryOut Press, 2002. the 21 Globalization: CulturalAnthropologyEnters Lewellen, Ted C.TheAnthropologyof Routledge, 1996. Class attheMovies hooks, bell.ReeltoReal:Race,Sex, and bleday Press,1959. in EverydayLife Goffman, ThePresentationofSelf Erving. England: BasilBlackwellPress,1970. Custom andConflictinAfrica Gluckman, Max.“TheLi Books, 1978. An Introduction Foucault, Michel.TheHistoryofSexuality: York: Plume,1994. Duberman, MartinB.Stonewall boo Analysis ofConceptsPollutionandTa- and thePerforming Subject:aReader York: BasicBooks,1994.

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Century York: Routledge,2006. ---. GenderTrouble:Feminism and the SubversionofIdentity . Westport, CT:Greenwood . NewYork:Pantheon ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 . GardenCity,NY:Dou- . NewYork,NY: cense inRitual.” : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 Lamron. Febru- . Oxford, . New . New . New . Ann Mum.” Daily Record “The Razz:KatyGetsHolyRowFrom Lyons, BeverleyandLauraSutherland. ment, 1990. Burbank, CA:Miramax Home Entertain- Anthropologists the Field:Reflections ofLesbianandGay nal ofHomosexuality What ItMeanstoBeaDrag Queen.”Jour- ---. “Chicks withDicks,Menin Dresses: of ChicagoPress,2003. at the801Cabaret Rupp, LeilaandVertaTaylor. DragQueens 2009. “Queens ofAllMedia.”Narr.RuPaul.Ru 1990. Miramax Home Entertainment, 2005. America ---. Mother Camp: FemaleImpersonators in bian Town Sixty YearsinAmerica’s FirstGayandLes- Newton, Esther.CherryGroveFireIsland: Ethos of GaySelfhoodinDragPerformance.” Gender AmbivalenceandtheDouble-Bind McNeal, KeithE.“BehindtheMake-Up: Advocate McCullom, Rod.“How YouDurrin’?” 15. Jonathan Oppenheim. ParisisBurning Livingston, JennieandPaul Gibsonand Illinois Press,1996. Lewin, Ellen, andWilliam Leap, eds.Outin Paul’s DragRace Paris isBurning Hall, 1972. 27.3(1999):344-378. . EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:Prentice . 981:(March2007). . Boston:BeaconPress,1993. . Dir.JennieLivingston. . Urbana,IL:Universityof . LOGO.16February . Chicago,IL:University 46.3(2004):113-133. . August18,2008,pg. . The

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quette, JoeyArias,Jack Shils, RuPaul,CrystalWaters,AlexisAr- Silvers, DeanandMarlenHecht,Barry Routledge, 2000. tance: HiddenTranscripts Leap. Urbana,IL:University ofIllinois Anthropology Theory: TheEmergence ofLesbianand Gay der’: TheUsesof‘Transgender.’Outin Valentine, David.“We’re ‘NotaboutGen- cago: AldinePublishingCompany, 1969. Turner, Victor.TheRitualProcess nell UniversityPress,1967. pects ofNdembuRitual Turner, Victor.TheForestofSymbols: As- Leguizamo. Universal,2002. 1995.DVD. Wesley Snipes,PatrickSwayze, John Newmar To Wong Foo,ThanksforEverything!Julie Home Entertainment, 2000. Hunter, JuliaCortez.1994.DVD.MGM Stamp, HugoWeaving, GuyPearce, Bill Desert The AdventuresofPriscilla,Queenthe tember 23,2008. Soffer, Walter. “Curriculum Review.”Sep- MGM HomeEntertainment. Wigstock: TheMovie Sex, Drag,andTheatre Senelick, Laurence.TheChangingRoom: Yale UniversityPress,1990. Story.” Domination andtheArtsof Resis-

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46.3 (2004):1-17. . Dir.StephanElliott.Perfs.Terence sonators.” Journal of Homosexuality Customary WorldofFemale Imper- . Dir.BeebanKidron. Perfs. lutely FabulousbutFlawlessly Schacht, StevenP.“TheAbso- . Ed.EllenLewinandWilliam ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 . Santa Monica,CA: . NewYork: ie Beat,andTabboo! . Ithaca,NY:Cor- . New Haven: . NewHaven: . Chi-

New YorkTimes “Obama’s ChoiceofPastorCreatesFuror.” Zeleny, JeffandDavidD.Kirkpatrick. NY: FirstRun/IcarusFilms, 2006. Encounters oftheThirdKind zareingues. Zadjermann, PauleandAnne-FrancoiseBu- Press, 2002. Judith Butler:Philosophical December 20,2008. December . Brooklyn, 204 210 : The Proceedings of GREAT Day 2009 Great Day 2009 SUNY Geneseo

Petro-State Policy-Making and the Oil Curse: A Case Study of Hugo Chávez’s Latin American Foreign Policy throughout the Oil Boom and Bust of the 2000s Submitted by Lucie Coates

Introduction: pendency on oil and a significant decrease Possession of abundant oil reserves in economic diversification. The is often referred to as a “trap” or even a “absorption” problem refers to the initial “curse” for developing countries.1 effect of an oil boom when large increases Despite oil being one of the most valuable in revenue give petro-state administrations commodities in the world today, very few the impression that they can afford to fund petro-states have been able to successfully multiple, capital-intensive policies and pro- convert large oil revenues into long-term jects, such as large-scale development pro- national development. In studying why so jects, military upgrades, social programs, many oil-rich countries have been unable to and job creation.6 In addition, increased oil bring about much needed economic and so- revenues often fuel corruption amongst gov- cial development through large oil revenues, ernment officials. However, this grandiose analysts noticed a pattern known as the spending limits the development of non-oil petro-state curse that oil-rich countries are sectors of the economy while creating an prone to follow. Historically, numerous overly large non-tradable sector. Further- petro-states have fallen into this oil trap, more, the absorption problem leads petro- including Iran in the 1970s2, Nigeria in the states to spend too much money to fund im- 1980s, and Venezuela in the late 1980s3 and mediate projects and policies rather than early 1990s.4 Large oil revenues are easily saving or investing it in sustainable devel- mismanaged and often lead to the two main opment, such as improving oil infrastruc- components of the oil curse: “Dutch dis- ture, thereby leaving them financially ill- ease” and the “absorption” problem. equipped to adapt to a sudden price drop. Dutch disease refers to a common problem Unfortunately, under the leadership of resource-rich countries wherein a sudden of President Hugo Chávez, it looks as increase in the value of a resource causes though Venezuela is once again headed to- the value of the exporting country’s cur- ward suffering from economic and political rency to increase in relation to other coun- instability as a result of his heavy spending tries’ currencies.5Consequently, other sec- throughout the oil boom of the 2000s. tors become less profitable as non-oil ex- Chávez won the 1998 presidential election ports become less competitive in global by appealing to Venezuela’s impoverished markets and as increased oil revenues bring masses and by promising to replace the in more imported goods. The result of flawed Punto Fijo system with a new gov- Dutch disease is, therefore, increased de- ernment and constitution based upon his 205

Published by KnightScholar, 2010 211 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

nues, whichhehasused to fundanarrayof Chávez hasalsogained the company. solidating his administ into essential PdVSApositions, thuscon- tunity topermanently installhissupporters stored. Venezuela’s oiloutputthathasyettobere- ing in2003,whichledtoadecrease strike atPdVSA,beginningin2002andend- April 2002coupd’étatattempt, aswella the temporary overthrowofChávezinan board ofdirectors. and attempted tochangethecompany’s when hefiredthethen-presidentofPdVSA who wereloyaltohim, mostnotablyin2002 ing company employees withindividuals steps towardtakingoverPdVSAbyreplac- zuelan oilindustry.Cháveztookseveral could collectmore revenuesfrom Vene- the foreign investorsoutsothatthegovernment Sociedad Anónima (PdVSA),andtopush tional oilcompany,Petr However,oilpricessoonbeganto consolidate controloverVenezuela’sna- rise andChávezusedthatopportunityto the economy. and continuetheflowofforeignmoney into to encourage investment inVenezuelanoil the UnitedStates andotherwesternpowers fore, Chávezmaintained goodrelationswith nances underthePuntoFijosystem. There- weak asaresultofmismanagement offi-

president, Venezuela’seconomy was

Furthermore, during hisfirst yearas only about$10perbarrel(seeFigure1). prices werelowaseachbarrelsoldfor 9 With complete control over PdVSA, However,Chávezusedthisoppor- he came intoofficein1999,oil leftist ideology of equality. ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 8 His actions resulted in Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 ration’s controlover control overitsreve- óleos deVenezuela 7 When When ity intheregion.Thethird sectionofthe uted tobothpoliticaland economic instabil- Latin America ashisinitiativeshavecontrib- tions that Chávez’s fore The nextsection willexamine theimplica- diminishing westerninfluenceintheregion. Venezuela asastrongregionalpowerand accomplishing hismain goalsofestablishing Latin America andanalyze theirsuccessin will discuss Chávez’svarious initiatives in on hisefforts.Thefirstsectionofthepaper that theendof theoil eign policyinLatinAmericaandtheeffects of Venezuelanoilrevenuestofundhisfor- nomic collapseinVenezuela. predict whatcanbedonetopreventeco- test theeffectsofpetro-statecurse andto Chávez servesasanin oil bust,Venezuelaunder boom andmustnowadjusttothesubsequent state thatspentheavilythroughoutanoil state curse. Asacurrent example ofapetro- leaving Venezuela susceptibletothe petro- policy arelikelytobeexposed,onceagain and thewastefulnatureofChávez’sforeign creased dramatically andsuddenly,theflaws ficiencies. Nowthat to continuefundhispoliciesdespiteinef- throughout thisoilboom,Chávezwasable large oil revenues coming intoVenezuela achieve hisgoals.However,withunusually ful inthat these expensive initiatives fail to gional foreignpolicyrev Latin America. AnalysisofChávez’sre- pensive foreignpolicy tic development, butalsotoaseriesofex- mitted billions of dollars, notonlytodomes- Throughout therecentoilboom, hehascom- costly, large-scalepoliciesandprojects. This paperwillanalyze Chávez’suse oil priceshavede- boom islikelytohave teresting casestudyto initiatives ign policyhashadin eals thatitiswaste- theleadership of throughout 206 212 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

want tominimize thatdependence. dependence onothercountriesand,thus, Chávez, whoarefedupwiththeircountry’s eign policyisexercisedbyleaders,like Chávez’sforeign policy inLatin dependent foreign policy.Thistypeoffor- America canbestbedescribedasacounter- Foreign PolicyinLatin America: of economic security. when leadersareprone toamisleading sense revenues, particularlyduringoilbooms leaders asthey decidehow toallocate oil that shouldbekeptinmind bypetro-state decisions andtoestabl eign policytoextractlessonsfrom Chávez’s the analysisofChávez’sLatinAmerican for- grams. Finally,theconclusionbuildsupon nate many ofhisregionalpoliciesandpro- thereby forcing Cháveztoalter andelimi- period oftime unlessoilpricesrebound, able toavoideconomic collapseforashort zuelan oil revenues,Venezuelawillonly be rather thansavehighpercentagesofVene- funding costlyagreements andprojects bust. IpredictthatduetoChávez’sfocuson and navigatehisc will beable toovercome thesesymptoms governments, aswellsoftpower bypro- strongly influencethedecisions offoreign ten throughtheuseofeconomic means to used acombination ofhardpower, mostof- achieve hisforeignpolicygoals,Chávezhas “absorption” problem orwhetherChávez

tim to“Dutchdisease”andthe

lead Venezuela’s economy tofallvic- whether hisheavyspendingislikelyto oil curse inordertodetermine

foreign policytothetheoryof paper relatesChávez’sexpensive ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 ountry throughtheoil ish generalguidelines : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 10

To throughout LatinAmerica. States intheamount ofdirectaidprovided year, VenezuelahassurpassedtheUnited promising billionsof dollarsinaid each opment andenergy security.Inrecent years, aimed toward goalssuchaseconomic devel- and multistate initiatives inLatinAmerica Chávez hasdevelopednumerous bilateral Central America,andthe Caribbean. throughout thecountries and onfosteringasenseofsolidarity largely onprovidingdevelopment assistance throughout Chávez’spresidencyhasfocused Using thesetools,Venezuelanforeignpolicy neighboring countriesin revenues tohisefforts to form alliances with dedicated largeportions of Venezuelanoil and ambitions intheregion,Chávez has gain crucialsupportfo an ill-definedconcept. equality intheregion, sustainable leftistagenda thatwillencourage cialism” thathefeelsisanimproved, more head thespread of“twenty-first century so- in LatinAmerica.Chávezseekstospear- Venezuela asaninfluentialregionalpower One ofChávez’smajor goals istoestablish America: Strengthening Venezuela’sPositioninLatin West. minimize LatinAmerican dependenceonthe the creation of alliances intheregion andto zuela’s positioninLatinAmerica through fill twomain goals:tostrengthenVene- countries intheregion,Chávezseekstoful- trade agreements onpreferentialterms with throughout LatinAmerica andestablishing large amounts ondevelopment efforts Latin America inorder to attractsupport. moting hisBolivarianideologythroughout 13 r hisradicalpolicies though itis,thusfar, Assuch,inorderto of SouthAmerica, Latin America. In 12 Byspending 11 207 213 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

cies inothercountries plans fordomestic socialgrowth,which in- ized skills and services tofulfill Chávez’s Venezuela requiresindi Firstofall,eachcountryisableto import about100,000barrelsofoildaily and fill avoidfor theother, as Cubaneedsto analysis ofChávez’sre ter twoexchanges thatar lighted inthemedia. However,itisthelat- leaders isveryevidentasitoftenhigh- The personalfriendshipbetweenthetwo in thename oftheBolivarianRevolution. pursuit ofcommongoalsforLatinAmerica services, andtheyhavejoinedtogetherinthe have arrangedfortheexchangeofgoodsand have establishedapersonalfriendship,they operates onthreelevels:ChávezandCastro has cultivatedbetweenVenezuelaand Cuba Azicri, thestrongrelationshipthatChávez Chávez’s presidency.According toMax Venezuela’s most important allythroughout Evo Morales.Cubahasarguablybeen dent FidelCastroandBolivianPresident gion, most notablywithformer Presi- Cuban to strengthenimportant alliancesinthere- America. his goalofbroadeninginfluenceinLatin he hasonlyhadlimited successinachieving America forhis regionalambitions, however tives haveearnedhim some supportinLatin ernments.” get citizens, thepress, and otherconstituen-

government’s diplomatic effortsthattar-

diplomacy, whichcanbedefinedas“a Americans throughtheuseofpublic tries towinoverthesupportofLatin Chávez hasusedoilanditsrevenues port ofLatin American leaders, he addition totryinggainthesup- 14 Hiseconomicandoilincen- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 ratherthantheirgov- gional foreignpolicy. viduals withspecial- e ofgreatinterestto 15

Inadditiontotheimmediate benefit and Cuba,Chávezconnects withCastroon derived from closetiesbetweenVenezuela structure inbothcountries.” “the creationorimprovement ofrailinfra- 2005 alonerangingfromloweringtariffsto dency, includingforty-nineagreements in of agreements throughoutChávez’spresi- Venezuela andCubahavereached anumber hoods. to poorpopulationsinneedyneighbor- vided basicandevenspecializedhealthcare had relocated toVenezuela wherethey pro- thousand Cubandoctorsandhealthexperts to thisprogram. whom hadneverreceived medical careprior seventeen millionVenezuelans,many of extending freehealthcareservicestoabout health professionalsandmedical suppliesby 2003, buildsuponthisexchangeofCuban social program initiatedbyChávezinApril treatment. TheBarrioAdentromission, a to become doctorsor toreceivefreemedical zuelans totravelC tries. trainers, andexpertsinarangeofindus- ceive servicesfrom Cubandoctors,sports daily onpreferentialterms, andinturnre- provide Cubawith53,000barrelsofoil ber 30,2000statingthatVenezuelawould Venezuelan Petroleum Pactsigned on Octo- and Cuba,beginningwiththeCuban- numerous exchanges betweenVenezuela Chávez cameintopower,therehave been has beencultivatedunderChávez.Since through theCuban-Venezuelanalliancethat ways, Venezuelareceives immediate benefit eas ofthecountry. providing medical caretoimpoverished ar- clude educatingVenezuela’spopulationand 17 Theagreement alsoallowedVene- 19 Inadditiontomedical exchanges, 18 By 2005,overtwenty 16 Therefore,inmany uba toreceivetraining 20 208 214 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

diplomacy. tional legitimacy throughactionsofpublic better mastered theabilitytogaininterna- Bustamante andSweigclaim thatCastrohas to developingnationsaroundtheglobe. ing Cubandoctorsandhealthprofessionals on publicdiplomacy, mostnotablybysend- has focusedmuchofCuba’sforeignpolicy (See Table1).1shows thatnotonly negatively thanhisVenezuelan counterpart tries andCastrois,infact, regardedmore pollsters ineighteenLatin American coun- least popularworldleaders asevaluatedby that both CastroandChávezareamong the every yearbetween2005and2008,show nobarómetro polls,whichwereconducted over publicsupportinLatin America. Lati- campaigns havenotsucceededinwinning Chávez’s andCastro’spublicdiplomacy otherwise havedifficulties.However, and trustofsome countrieswherehemight Castro couldhelpChávezgainthesupport were accurate, thenhaving thesupport of ers. unease amongst UnitedStatespolicymak- that hisalliancewithCubacontributesto States, andChávezis symbolic ofdefianceagainstthe United nomic sanctions,Castroisinmany ways assassination attempts pressures, numerous UnitedStates-backed ability toholdontopowerdespiteColdWar hegemonic views.Ononehand,duetohis

two sharesimilar socialistandanti- 21

model andamentor toChávez, asthe lations, Castrohasservedasarole On theotherhand,Ca Sweig oftheCouncilonForeignRe- If Bustamante andSweig’sclaim Michael J.Bustamante andJuliaE. an ideological level. According to 22

ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 certainly well-aware , andyearsofeco- : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 stro, likeChávez, “Axis ofGood.” three leaders begancalling theirpactthe tion. among Bolivia’spoor via theradio,therebypromotingliteracy broadcast aliteracyprogram toruralareas million toaBoliviansocial project that will more, Chávezpromised tocontribute$1.5 change foragriculturalproducts.” with 150,000barrelsofdieselfuelinex- programs andpledgedtosupplyBolivia “offered $30million inassistanceforsocial Morales paidtoVenezuelain2006,Chávez similar tothoseofChávez.Duringavisit neoliberal andanti-Uni dent, isaleftist leaderwho alsoholdsanti- Morales, Bolivia’sfirstindigenouspresi- Bolivia’s current president, EvoMorales. Chávez hasalsoestabl ing hisimage inLatinAmerica. him gainlegitimacy andmay evenbehurt- in some leftist countries,itisnothelping ance withCuba may giveChávez legitimacy ers. Therefore,althoughVenezuela’salli- ing pollsters toevaluate alist of worldlead- declined since Latinob but supportfor bothCastroandChávezhas world leaderseveryye three leaders comprise the bottom three American President George W. Bush,asthe were CastroandChávezrankedsimilar to However, Bolivia may also be However,Boliviamay also ductive Chávez’santi-Western policycan viewed asoneexample ofhowcounterpro- Chávez andCastroinDecember 2004. cussed later, whichwa (ALBA), anagreement whichwillbe dis- the Bolivarian Alternative for theAmericas tions. Forexample, in2006,Moralesjoined ness tostandbyChávezonmany ofhisac- 24 Morales hasdemonstrated his willing- 26 indigenous popula- ished closeties with s originallysignedby arómetro began ask- ar exceptfor2008, ted Statesviewsquite 23 Further- 25 The 209 215 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

much soyasColombia did. lacked theeconomic strengthtoimport as fact thattheVenezuelanmarket probably zuela wouldpurchasetheirsoy,despitethe assured BoliviansoyproducersthatVene- its importation ofBoliviansoy.Morales the UnitedStates thatwouldhaveaffected was consideringafreetradeagreement with Bolivia. Forexample, in2006,Colombia commitment toextendaidandagreements to confident inhisallian years, Moraleshasappearedtogrowmore ple, Moralesstoodalongside Chávezin Chávezcanusuallycountonsupport have provenusefultoan extent.Forexam- from hisclose“AxisofGood”allies who out foreigninvestment. its economic returnfortheseresourceswith- ral gas,yet still lacks the means tomaximize Bolivia whichisrichinresourceslikenatu- drocarbon industry,Chávez’sadvicehurt ofthehy- case ofBoliviannationalization tive andmore profitable.Therefore,inthe livia’s hydrocarbonindustrymore produc- eign investment whichcouldhavemade Bo- products atthetime. ported about $700million worthofBolivian portant tradepartners,Brazil,whichim- decision alienatedoneof Bolivia’smostim- the hydrocarbonindustryinBolivia.This posed policies,forexample,bynationalizing of Chávez’sadviceandadheredtohispro- creased confidence,Morales hastakenmore attacking the UnitedStates.Yet,inrecent

served than Chávez’swhenitcomes to

sequently been somewhat moresequently beensomewhat re- natural gas.Morales’actionshavecon- despite itslarge reserves of valuable foreign aidthanVenezuela does, be. Boliviareliesmuch moreon ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 28 ce withChávezandhis It alsoimpeded for- 27 With thisin- 29 United States thatgrants itsforces the opted nottorenewanagreement withthe constitution inEcuador. tion ofanationalassembly todrafta new that proposedthecrea- sworn inaspresident passed areferendum shortlyafterbeing varian ConstitutioninVenezuela,Correa passed areferendum toapprovehisBoli- office. Forexample, similar toChávezwho some moves ofChávez’s whenhecame into Correa hastakenseveralactions that reflect notion of“twenty-firstcenturysocialism.” and heannouncedhissupportforChávez’s stated thathisgovernment wasBolivarian 2007 wherethenewEcuadorianpresident Correa’s swearing-inceremony inJanuary ity andfriendship. Chávezalsoattended Simon Bolívar’sswordasasignofsolidar- the election, Chávezsenthim areplicaof win forChávezaswell.When Correawon uador. Inmanyways,hiswinrepresenteda In2006,RafaelCorrea,aleftistwho United States,waselec received hisPh.DinEconomics inthe of theorganization. position thanVenezuela,remains amember Bolivia, whichisinaless securefinancial threat bywithdrawingfrom CAN,however 2006. trade agreements withtheUnitedStatesin with bothPeruandColombiasigningfree ued free trade talks withtheUnited States their threat,allthreeof tries toaccepthisproposedpolicies.Despite not enoughtopersuadeneighboringcoun- free trade agreement withtheUnited States. other threePetroandina countriessigneda Community ofNations(CAN)ifanythe threatening towithdrawfrom theAndean Yet thesupportofChávez’salliesisoften 30 Chávez didfollowthroughwithhis 31

thecountriescontin- ted presidentofEc- 33 Furthermore, he 32

210 216 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

livia didwiththeirhydrocarbonindustries. Ecuadorian oilindustryasChávezandBo- uador, hedoesnotintendtonationalizethe profit tax” for foreign oilcompanies inEc- For example, althoughhesetupan“excess However,Correaisnotasclosean has beenmuch lessradicalinhisactions. ally toChávezasCubaandBoliviaarehe President Luiz Inácio LuladaSilva of Brazilhasalsocooperated withVene- leaders choosetodo. the UnitedStates asmany LatinAmerican Ecuador’s relationswithbothVenezuelaand cies andideas,Correaattempts tobalance Though hesupportssome ofChávez’spoli- tries settledthedisputediplomatically. border ofColombia beforeallofthecoun- also orderedEcuadoriantroopstogothe onto hiscountry’sterrit large response sinceth zuela placed pressureonCorreatohave a to theevent thatdid notevenoccurinVene- of Colombia, howeverhisinflatedresponse Chávez sentVenezuelantroopstotheborder dorian territory.In tary troopstoattackaFARC camp onEcua- situation in2008afterColombia sentmili- Chávez putCorreainan uncomfortable Furthermore, aswillbe discussed later, dor. agreement tobuildalargerefineryinEcua- zuela andEcuadorevennegotiatedajoint issues. SinceCorreacame Vene- topower, seen eyetowitheachotheronmany

had afriendlyrelationshipandtheyhave

35 the same war. States use ofVenezuelan territory for

to ChávezwhodeniedtheUnited the American war ondrugs, similar to useEcuador’sMantaairbasein ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 34 response totheaction, Thetwo leadershave e incursionhadbeen ory. Assuch,Correa : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 37

idea of“regionalenergyself-sufficiency.” needs, butalsoLula’sinterestinChávez’s oil imports tofulfill itsnational energy zil’s dependence atthetime onVenezuelan cialists toVenezuela reflects notonlyBra- to. Lula’sdecisiontosendPetrobrásspe- out ofPdVSA,arequestwhichLulaagreed suming oilproductionduringthe2003lock- send oilexpertstoVenezuelaassistinre- tory inBrazil,Chávez d’état. Furthermore, themajor discoveryof accused ofinvolvement intheHaitian coup is aknownopponentofAristide andisoften good relationswiththeUnited States,which Prince reflects Brazil’s desire tomaintain and protectthenewgovernment inPort-au- administration. Lula senttroopstoHa ognize thenewly-instatedregime, whereas from office,Chávezrefusedtoofficiallyrec- President Jean Bertrand Aristide was ousted Chávez. Forexample, in2004afterHaitian DespiteLula’scooperationonsev- dent hasnotstoodunequ eral issuesandprojec civic centerinBrazil. highway andbuildingasportscomplex and lion towardfundingthepavingofamajor zuela. Chávezhasofferedabout$273mil- have exploredforoilnearthecoastofVene- proving refineriestogeth Since then,inadditiontobuildingandim- Bolívar’s sword. lations aswell asareplicaofSimón his supportforLula,extendingcongratu- Latin America. Chávezpubliclyexpressed work withhimtoresist neoliberalism in Chávez hopedthatthenewpresidentwould won the2002presidentialelectioninBrazil, zuela quiteabitunderChávez.When Lula 41 38 Lula’s decisiontorecognize Shortly afterLula’svic- ts, theBrazilian presi- 40 iti toprotectthe new requested thatLula

er, thetwocountries ivocally alongside 39 211 217 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

giant,” comparabletoPdVSA. amounts ofoil,couldmakePetrobrásan“oil which, ifproventopossesssignificant has discoveredthreemoredeep-waterwells which comprise themajority of Petrocaribe for Venezuelain2006,the Caricom nations, win aUnitedNationsSecurity Councilseat tance oftheregiontoChávez: in theCaribbean notesthestrategic impor- A 2007articleanalyzingVenezuelanpolicy the OrganizationofAmericanStates(OAS). prise theregioncarryparticularweightin gional influenceasth est toChávezinhisquest forincreased re- cies andactions. more autonomytochallengeChávez’spoli- Brazilian energy needs.Assuch,Lulahas zuelan oil importswere filling thegap in Venezuela compared to2003whenVene- discoveries decreaseBrazil’sdependence on energy. Furthermore, Petrobrásbelievesit

render Brazil self-sufficient interms of

billion barrelsofoilwhichisenoughto to carrybetweenfivebillionandeight discourse ofthesebodies. cies could influence significantly the could getthem onhisside,poli- Caribbean groupattheUN.Ifhe solid blocintheLatinAmerican and situation areplayedout;andtheya bates onthehemispheric political the 34votesinOAS,wherede- com countriesrepresen and Chávez. Theoilfieldisestimated Indeed, whenChávezwas seekingto The Caribbeanisofparticularinter- may relationsbetweenLula affect the TupioilfieldinBrazil2007 [Chávez] recognizesthatCari-

ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 e countriesthatcom- t almost halfof 42 Theseoil 43 accusations of him funding foreign accusations ofhim funding Chávez’s presidency,there havebeen many neighboring countries.Throughout Chávezhasalsoattempted togain cal candidates innational elections in regional alliesbypubliclysupportingpoliti- countries intheregion. efforts havebeencount America, howeveranalysisshowsthathis from some andleadersinLatin countries has beenable toearnconditional support countries. Through hisforeignpolicy,he ing fordevelopment projectsinneighboring focuses onprovidingoil,money, andfund- tensive andverycostly from therecentoilboomtocarryoutanex- zuela’s largesupplyofoilandhighrevenues attract allies, ChávezhasexploitedVene- military allianceswithin LatinAmerica. To He hasalsomentioned thepossibilityof partners todiversifyVenezuelanmarkets. policies similar tohis,alongwithnewtrade who sharehisideologi in theregion.Chávezispursuitofallies order tofurther hisleftist goalsandpolicies rally supportthroughoutLatinAmerica in his ambitions. port of crucial majoriti port, heisstillunable towinoverthe sup- foreign policydecisionsearnhim some sup- which suggeststhatevenwhereChávez’s However, Venezueladidnotwintheseat, bean inhisbidfora his abilitytogainth support forhisambitions asdemonstrated by eign policyhasbeensu zuela. later), publiclylent (an agreement whichwillbediscussed 44 Chávez seeks toacquire alliesand Onsome levels, then,Chávez’sfor- their supporttoVene- e supportoftheCarib- Security Councilseat. es andwillimplement es toachievemany of foreignpolicythat ccessful ingaining erproductive insome 212 218 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

monic globalstructure, Chávez’sforeign With hopesofchallengingthecurrent hege- Decreasing Dependence ontheWest: abroad hasmet with Chávez’s supportforpoliticalcandidates Chávez aswell. support, making Humala’s defeatalossfor Humala declinedasaresult ofChávez’s dent. from electingGarciaastheirnewpresi- threat didnotstopthePeruvianpopulation Alan Garciabecame president.Yetthis Venezuela’s diplomatic tieswithPeruif Chávez wentsofarasto threatentoend not fulfillhisrhetoric throughaction, ence intheAndeanregion.Thoughhedid it wouldhavegivenVenezuelastronginflu- have beenakeyvictory forChávezbecause terproductive. taken beforetheelection,provedtobecoun- expected towintheelectionbasedonpolls leftist candidateOllantaHumala,many who election, forexample, hisferventsupportfor YetChávez’seffortshavenotalways tions inhisfavor. Inthe2006Peruvian been successfulininfluencingforeignelec- tion andtookofficein2007. clearly supported,wonth election outcome, Ortega,whoChávezso Chávez’s oilshipments hadaneffectonthe help Ortegagainsupport. cians todistributeth providing subsidizedoiltoSandinistapoliti- Nicaraguan presidenti

inista candidate Daniel Ortega inthe

tion. the 2002Bolivianpresidentialelec- 48 Morales whenhewasacandidatein Infact, many arguethatsupportfor been accused of financiallybacking 45 elections. For example, he has ChávezactivelysupportedSand- 47 AwinforHumala would 49 ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Therefore, itisclearthat onlylimited success. roughout Nicaraguato al electionof2006by 46 e presidential elec- : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 Whether ornot goods andperpetuatingwestern thereby forcingthem tocontinueimporting less equipped tofulfillthe country’s needs, that couldhaveproduced theproductare if thepriceof imports increases,thesectors causing dependenceontheWest. However, imports outcompete domesticproducts, limited inLatin American countriesbecause opment ofpotentialproductive sectors is created that hurtsLatin America: the devel- cheaper thandomestic products,acycleis than domestic products.Asimports become countries makewesternimports cheaper because agricultural subsidies inwestern throughout LatinAmerica. Thisislargely the vastnaturalresourcesthatarefound could potentiallyproducethemselves given often import resourcesandgoodsthatthey (see Figure2). region isexpected tocontinue toincrease like theWorldBank,andIFIlendingto larly loansfrom western-basedinstitutions Latin American countriesincreased,particu- global financialcrisis,IFIloanstakenoutby Figure 2).Furthermore, inlightofthe Central America,andthe Caribbean(see viding loanstocountriesinSouthAmerica, based IFIsastheseinstitutionsarestillpro- America isnot yetfreefrom debttowestern- Monetary Fund (IMF). already paidoffitsdebt the World BankinApril2007andhaving completing thelastofitsdebtpayments to aged topayoffitsIFIdebtsfiveyearsearly, financial institutions (IFI). Venezuelaman- the West andonwestern-basedinternational meant tominimize countries’dependenceon cused largelyonaidand agreements thatare policy throughoutLatinAmerica hasfo- In additiontodebt,thesecountries 51

50 s tothe International However,Latin 213 219 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

pay backpartoftheirIFIloans. and $500million toArgentinabeused to extended loansof$300million toEcuador forts. AccordingtoTerryGibbs,Venezuela lessly spentbillionsof them tosettletheirIFIdebts,hehasdoubt- from LatinAmerican countriestopermit spent offeringloanstoandpurchasingbonds vary astothe exactamount Chávezhas part oftheirIFIdebts.Although estimates OneofthewaysChávezhasused tries withtheeconomic means topayoff increased oilrevenues ability ofIFIstoexertinfluence overgov- based IFIsand,consequently, inlimiting the ing LatinAmerican dependenceonwestern- Chávez’s policy hassucceededin diminish- pared with80percentin2005.” than 1percentofits in theareahas fallento$50million, orless 2007, Bloombergreportedthat“IMFlending presence inLatinAmerica. InFebruary efforts havesignificantly limited theIMF’s debts isextremely costly, howeverChávez’s ing thismuch money topaythesehighIFI he extendedanofferof$1.5billion. IFI debtsishiscloseally,Bolivia,towhich which Chávezhasofferedloanstopayback the IMF. Argentina tofinishpaymentsonitsdebt $3.5 billionworthofbondsthatpermitted Manochehr DorrajstatethatChávezbought more recent article,Michael Dodsonand possible.

make LatinAmerica asself-sufficient

ish dependenceontheWestandto foreign policyintheregionistodimin- Chávez seekstoaddressthroughhis trends, oneofthemajor goals 53 dependence. Notingthesetwo Amongst othercountriesto ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 global portfolio,com- dollarsontheseef- is byprovidingcoun- 52 55 Ina In thisway, 54 Offer- ica byestablishingaCompensatory Fund agreement intendedtointegrateLatin Amer- ALBA, ontheotherhand, isamultistate the poorercountriesof hemisphere. promote nationaldevelopment andgrowthin tinational corporations, whiledoinglittleto would continuetoserv encouraged bytheBushadministration, of theAmericas (FTAA),whichwasheavily unity. Chávez feelsthat theFreeTrade Area based, instead,uponregionalintegrationand TheBolivarianAlternative forthe as analternative toneoliberalism thatis Americas (ALBA)wasproposedbyChávez self-sufficiency. some stepstowardregionalintegrationand come tofruition,howeverChávezhasmade its conditions. with theIMFandbeingforcedtoabideby need money ratherthantakingoutaloan vide loanstoLatinAmerican countrieswho create aBankoftheSouththatcouldpro- one ambitious suggestionofChávez’sisto Latin America economically. Forexample, come upwithnumerous ideasforintegrating challenge Westerndominance. Chávezhas mote self-sufficiencyintheregionandto solidarity ofLatinAmerica inordertopro- stresses inhisBolivarianRevolutionisthe discussed inthefollowingsection. American countries, an ier, dependenceforimpoverished Latin new,andrisk- redirection ofdebtmay create state IFIstoonenation,Venezuela.This redirecting theirindebtedness from multi- their IFIdebts essentially, Chávezis merely loans toLatinAmerican countriestopayoff policy doesnoteliminate debt.Byoffering ernment policiesintheregion.However,his One ofthemajor goalsthatChávez 56 Thisproposalhasyetto e theinterestsmul- of issuewhichwillbe 57

214 220 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

dependence onwestern-basedinstitutions. tion, endogenousdevelopment, andending such ascombatingpovertyandmarginaliza- focusesonregion-wideissues ALBA, thus, Chávez hascommitted Venezuelato provide Caribbean lackingoilreserves oftheirown, Cuba. fourteen Caribbeancountries, including caribe, whichwassignedinJune2005by most important oftheseagreements isPetro- Petrosur, Petrocaribe, three regionaloilcooperationagreements: Between 2004and2005,Chávezsigned the promotion ofregionalenergyintegration. sparking cooperationbetweenstatesthrough sources, Chávezhasseen more successin With largeoilandgas reserves in countries possessingnaturalenergyre- Venezuela andseveralotherLatinAmerican hopes thatotherswilljoinhiscause. foreign policyonALBAprinciplesandhe thus far,ChávezbasesmuchofVenezuela’s very fewcountriesha Cuba, Bolivia,andNicaragua. lies andpoor,leftistcountries,most notably port fortheproposalareChávez’scloseal- countries thathaveshownenthusiasticsup- America, itisof littlesurprise thatthe only to themore impoverishedcountriesofLatin the proposalbeingaredistributionof wealth However, withoneofthekeypremises of so much morethananyonecandoalone.” we haveincommon… Togetherwecando with aneyetoward

Latin American countriesto“…integrate

strengthen theregion. Chávez, this agreement encourages 62 to lesseneconomic disparityand With most ofthecountriesin poorer nationsoftheregioninorder that willbeusedtodevelopthe ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 solving theproblems ve signedontoALBA and Petroandina.The : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 58 Accordingto 61 Although 59 60

opment projects. able todraw from thefundtofinancedevel- nine Petrocaribecountrieshavealreadybeen $100 million totheALBA CaribeFundand PdVSA website,Venezuelahasdonated the ALBACaribeFund.Accordingto projects inthePetrocaribestates,knownas meant tofinancedevelopment programs and Petrocaribe setupacollectionofsavings Unlike theother two countries areunabletopaywithmoney. be exchangedforgoodsandservicesif shipments receivedthroughPetrocaribecan guay. by Venezuela,Argentina, Brazil, and Uru- signed inLatinAmerica anditwassigned first regional oilintegration agreement tobe Petrosur, developedinlate2004,wasthe PetrosurandPetroandinaarecur- they havetakenlittl rently lessdevelopedthanPetrocaribeand has established. energy integration agreement thatChávez caribe isthemostela Caribe Fund,thereisnodoubtthatPetro- be exaggeratingthesuccessofALBA price ofoilfallsbelow$50perbarrel. rate ofonepercent,ortwo percentifthe of approximatelytwentyyearsataninterest the remaining costistobepaidoveraperiod cent of thebill withinthree months. Then receiving oilshipments mustpaysixtyper- fers them atypeofloanwhereincountries subsidized oil, but rather theagreement of- tion. Petrocaribecountriesdonotreceive cies gearedtowardtheneedsoftheirpopula- so thatleaderscanpursuedevelopment poli- bean countrieswithnatural energyresources daily. the regionwith198,000barrelsofoil 67 63 ThePetroandinaagreement was Petrocaribe aims toprovideCarib- 66 AlthoughPdVSAmay e meaningful action. borate andsuccessful regional agreements, 64 Oil 65

215 221 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

fuel, buttheprojecthasyettobegin. $1 billionitspends ment thatcouldsaveth oil toberefinedinVenezuela,anarrange- ing onnegotiationstosendsome ofitscrude ple, throughPetroandin necessary actiontobeginthem. Forexam- of potentialprojectsrather thantaking the Petroandina hasmostly beenthediscussion vices. for oilshipments throughgoodsandser- structure awayfrom thecurrenthegemonic agreement wouldhelptoshifttheglobal from abroad. spend theextramoney toimport woodpulp to make paperratherthanbeingforcedto Colombia toproducewoodpulpregionally ergy. Forexample, hewantsVenezuelaand sufficient withmore resourcesthan just en- agreement willmake LatinAmerica self- Finally, Chávezhopesthatthisintegration Venezuela’s northerncoast toArgentina. than halfthelengthofSouthAmerica from such asagaspipelinethatwouldrunmore facilitate large-scaleinfrastructureprojects Secondly, he hopesthatPetroAmérica will gional agreements already aim toachieve. the distributionofenergyasthreere- envisions that this agreement willinclude known asPetroAmérica. Firstly,Chávez Chávezhopesthatonedaythese ments willmerge intoonelarge entity three regional ener ing options, andpermitting countries topay

extra costs,extendingpreferential financ-

meet theirenergy needsbyminimizing ments istoensure that the signatories 69 zuela. Thus far,theresultofPetrosurand lombia, Ecuador,Peru,andVene- signed inJuly2005byBolivia,Co- 72 68 Thegoaloftheseagree- The implementation of this ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 gy cooperationagree- annually onimporting Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 e countrypartofthe a, Ecuadoriswork- 70

71 goods atalowercost,making products other countriesmay beabletoproduce would decreaseefficiency intheregionsince require. Limiting tradetoLatinAmerica countries toobtainany certain productsandthentradewithother countries tospecializ sustainability. Internationaltradeallows would severelylimit thesystem’s long-term trying tobecome aself-sufficient continent lion barrelsin2007(seeFigure3).Finally, lion barrelsperdayin decreased significantlyfrom about3.5mil- 2003 strike,oilproductioninVenezuelahas government controlofPdVSAfollowingthe maximum level.AfterChávezconsolidated be most abletokeepoilproductionatits enced foreignoilcompanies haveprovento Latin America’s hydrocarbons,asexperi- tablishing government control overallof foreign investment wouldbewiserthanes- debt. Furthermore, leavingoilfieldsopento drive countries intheregion further into quickly drainLatinAmericanresourcesand tinent-wide energyintegr extremely expensivejusttolaunchthiscon- of pipelinesandothe the long-term.Firstof the agreement wouldbe fully set upPetroAmerica, itisunlikely that near future. and gainsupportforPetroAmérica inthe that Chávezwillhavethe resources tosetup and globalrecessionsetti affairs. However,withtheoilboomover western powers couldexertoverregional quently, limiting theamount ofinfluence largely self-sufficientregionand,conse- global structure,making LatinAmerica a Even ifChávezwereable tosuccess- r equipment wouldbe e intheproductionof 1997toabout2.7mil- all,theconstruction other goodsthatthey able tosucceed in ng in,itisdoubtful ation. Itcouldvery 216 222 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

country. ful statesand,consequently,alienatethe as thesestrategiesoftenangermore power- stances, they often fail to achievetheirgoals policies may meet withsuccess insome ining hisGoals: Effectiveness ofChávez’s Policies in Achiev- a delicatebalance between relations with American leaders,suchasLula,arepursuing Cuba thantoVenezuel costly andarguablybrings more benefit to exchange ofmedical servicesforoilisvery the form ofqualitymedical care,butthis brings some directbenefittoVenezuelansin region. inability toestablish sition inLatinAmerica, largelyduetohis in hisattempt tostre pendence ontheWest. power andminimizing LatinAmericaan de- establishing Venezuelaasamajor regional been unsuccessfulinreachinghisgoalsof regi his that reveals take. Assuch,analysisofChávez’spolicies vider ofeconomic incentives wants them to does notalwaystaketh words, therecipientofeconomic incentives instrument” forstateleaders. outcome, howevertheyarea“lessprecise tives whichsometimes produceadesired foreign policyisbasedoneconomicincen- mand.

be large,profitablemarkets withhighde-

but internationally therewillprobably likely tobelimited foragivenproduct, market balance, asregionaldemand is 75 Although counterdependentforeign First ofall,hehasbeenunsuccessful 73 sumers. It would alsothrowoffthe

Hisstrongrelationshipwith Cuba cheaper forLatinAmerican con- Furthermore, much ofChávez’s ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 onal foreignpolicyhas ngthen Venezuela’s po- strong alliancesinthe a. MostotherLatin e actionthatthepro- : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 74 Inother ica. spected andinfluentialpower inLatinAmer- Chávez hasfailedtomake hiscountry are- fairs andbyofferingcountries incentives, by involvinghimself in ineffective orcounterproductive.Therefore, cans, many ofChávez’spolicieshavebeen can government officialsandLatinAmeri- widespread supportfrombothLatinAmeri- this aversion toChávez.Failingreceive fairs ofothercountries Chávez’s involvement inthedomestic af- 2008 (seeTable 1).Thereislittledoubtthat according to aLatinobarómetro polltakenin was rankedoneoftheworstworldleaders of powerasdemonstrated bythefactthathe Latin Americans whodonotholdpositions thermore, Chávezisnot well-received by United NationsSecurityCouncilseat.Fur- his many suchaswinninga ambitions, trouble gainingenoughsupporttoachieve countries oncertainissues,hehasstillhad though hehaswonthesupportofsome Venezuela amajor regional power.Al- policies andfurtheringhisgoalofmaking largely inhibitedChávezfrom spreadinghis ing Chávez. weigh thebenefitsa as most LatinAmerican leaders prefer to have brought him only conditional support such, Chávez’sattempts tobuildalliances mala’s defeat inthe Peruvianelection.As have outrightbackfiredasinthecaseofHu- Chávez’s attempts togainalliesinthe region Chávez inallofhispolicies.Some of cial strength tosta livia, Ecuador,andNicaragualackthefinan- countries withleft-wingleaderssuchasBo- Venezuela andwiththeUnitedStates.Even This lackofreliablesupporthas nd unfalteringly with nd therisksofsupport- is amajor factorin other countries’af- 217 223 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

thus, analyzetheconfli interest atthe time. Thenextsection will, policies thattheyexpect tobeintheirbest socialist models varies as leaders support Latin America assupportforneoliberaland have ledtomuchc can neighbors.Thesetwo clashingmodels of hisBolivarianmodel byhisLatinAmeri- other hand,Chávezencouragestheadoption tains astrongpresenceintheregion.On and alsobytheUnitedStateswhichmain- Latin American countries,suchasMexico, neoliberal model ispromotedbynumerous working inLatinAmerica. Ononehand,the success, therearenowtwoseparateforces ence inLatinAmerica havehadonlylimited Venezuela andminimizing westerninflu- as theIMF. western-based multi-state organizationssuch ments, non-governmental organizations,and fore, stilldependentonthewesterngovern- very littleaction.LatinAmerica is,there- that Venezuelahassignedhaveprompted two ofthethreeregi tions withtheUnitedStates.Inaddition, gion arenot evenintere grams. most Assuch, countriesinthere- their needforWestern-based assistance pro- cans (seeTable1),theyareforcedto accept country isnotpopularamongstLatinAmeri- presence intheregionandeventhough larly theUnitedStates,maintains astrong pendence ontheWest. TheWest, particu-

has noteliminated Latin America’s de-

tries’ debtstowestern-basedIFIs,he have minimized some individualcoun- ence ontheWest.Althoughhemay As Chávez’sgoalsofstrengthening in endingLatinAmerican depend- Furthermore, he hasnotsucceeded ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 ontroversy throughout onal energyagreements Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 cts andthe instability sted inendingrela- West. continued necessitytocooperatewiththe region andapragmatic understandingofthe Chávez duetowaningsupportforhiminthe beginning todistancethemselves from on theWest. Firstofall,many countriesare gion andminimizing regionaldependence of strengtheningVenezuel limited success inaccomplishing his goals in theprevioussection,Chávezhashadonly of LatinAmericaasawhole. Asdiscussed the bestinterestofc America shows thathispolicies are not in decisions andtheireffectsthroughoutLatin out LatinAmerica: Policythrough-Implications ofChávez’s cies intheregion. that hasarisen asaresultofChávez’spoli- shows, LatinAmerican opinionsofChávez known tomakeandretract. AsTable1 bined withthehastyd against thosewhodisagree withhim, com- This islargelyduetohisaggressiverhetoric figure bothregionallyandinternationally. Foreign Policy: Political Instability Re gion. political andeconomic instabilityinthere- fully, butratherthey are notunifyingLatinAmerica meaning- gion. Chávez’sforeignpolicies,therefore, pose agreat threat toth import-substituting industrialization(ISI) cies toLatinAmerica’s failed experiment of similarities ofChávez’sdevelopment poli- nological cooperation.Furthermore, the region, despiteincreasedeconomic andtech- ric are evencontributing toconflict inthe 76 Chávez’sstrongattitudesandrheto- Analysis ofChávez’sforeignpolicy Chávez hasbecome acontroversial ountries intheregionor are contributingbothto ecisions hehasbeen sulting fromChávez’s e stabilityofthere- a’s roleinthere- 218 224 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

over their policies andin emerged amajor divideinLatinAmerica most prominent figuresintheregion,there cording toLatinAmericans andtwoofthe of themost negativelyperceivedleadersac- America. AsChávezand Bushbecame two Nicaraguan electionof2006, althoughOr- defeat theopposition inelections. Inthe has become atacticusedbycandidates to cusing politiciansofhaving tiestoChávez Latin American countries,exposingandac- volvement inPeruvianaffairs. population whowereagainstChávez’sin- “Peru orChávez” attractedmany inthe term between1985and1990,hissloganof remembered for from hisfirst presidential economic catastrophethatAlanGarciawas a resultofChávez’ssupport.Despitethe Humala whothenlostth vian electionswhenChávezpubliclybacked cussed, thiswasthecasein2006Peru- their populace. now runtheriskoflosingsupport cians whohaveconnectionstoChávezmay Firstofall,supportforChávezhas, cians inLatinAmerica,” meaning that politi- in many become ways, a“liabilityfor politi- Chávez wishestosee. regional integration within the region rather thanfacilitating the icy differenceshaveledtopoliticalconflicts ceived acrossallofLatinAmerica andpol- Chávez’s policieshavenotbeenwellre- teemed leaderthathehopestobeinLatin

gest thatChávezisnotthehighlyes-

George W. Bush. Thesestatisticssug- individuals about,with leader thatLatinobarómetro polled more overallthananyotherworld between 2005and2008decreased 77 Indeed, aspreviouslydis- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 and cooperationthat e election,inpartas fluence. Assuch, : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 theexceptionof 78 Inother felt towardChávezwho supported Morales’ in Bolivia,andfrustration wasonceagain Inaddition,tensionsaroseinLatin sion tonationalizeth America asaresultofMorales’2006 deci- dent. American opinion oftheVenezuelan presi- tries contributed tothislargedropinLatin ence inthedomestic affairsofothercoun- It isvery likely, then,that Chávez’s interfer- were guidingtheirdecisioninearlierpolls. of votersthanotherdomestic issuesthat important concernforasignificantportion ence must havebeenperceivedasamore for leftist candidates, the threat of his influ- so definitivelyfollowingChávez’sbacking For supportofleadingcandidatestodecline Chávez’s involvement indomestic affairs. Latin American populationareagainst strates thatsignifican of political tiestoChávez clearly demon- ing totheir opponentfollowingaccusations ico ofsupportforthele in Table1.ThetrendbothPeruandMex- age of4.9onascale10to4.5,asshown Americans suddenlydroppedfrom anaver- plain whyapprovalratingsamong Latin national electionsin2006may helptoex- tion byamargin oflessthanonepercent. lead inthepolls andCalderónwontheelec- Calderón’s adcampaign, Obradorlosthis accusation thatObradordenied. López ObradorofhavingtiestoChávez,an derón accused hisopponent AndrésManuel election, presidential tega’s supporters. Sandinista leadersasat nent usedChávez’s shipments ofoilto tega ultimately won Chávez’s involvement innumerous 79 Even inMexico’s2006 the election,hisoppo- e hydrocarbonindustry t percentagesofthe candidate FelipeCal- ftist candidateshift- actic tocriticizeOr- 80 Following 81

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drocarbon conflict,Petrobrás officials cent years.Forexample, followingthe hy- once supportedhaswaned evenmore inre- for some ofChávez’s policies. Thatbei was neveranabsolutesupporterofChávez’s as discussedintheprevioussection,Lula aged byChávez.Itisimportant tonotethat, alization ofgasreserveswhichwasencour- its tiestoChávezinlightof Boliviannation- analysts believethatBrazilbeganloosening matic inhisrelationswithVenezuela,some tions intwoBoliviangasfields. would allow Petrobrástocontinueitsopera- that BrazilandBoliviareachedadeal stance infavorofBraziliannationalinterest, 28, 2006,afterLuladevelopedafirmer mented gasprices.Itwas notuntilOctober withMoralestonegotiateaug- fused tomeet ize Bolivia’s gasrese lomatically of Morales’decision tonational- ported from Bolivia. gas consumptioninSãoPaulobeingim- more than50%ofBraziliangasand75% in theBolivianhydrocarbonindustrywith on theotherhand,wasmuchmore invested paid beforeBoliviannationalization. per billionBTU ascompared tothe$3.18it rather quicklybyagreeingin2006topay$5 Brazil, wasabletostrike adealwith Bolivia which imported significantly lessoilthan Bolivia’s hydrocarbonindustry.Argentina, tively impacted byth

bon industryand,therefore,werenega-

heavily investedinBolivia’shydrocar- state oilcompanyPetrobráswereboth company YPFandBrazil’s Repsol Although Lulahasremained diplo- carrying itout. decision andofferedhimadviceon ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 ng said,Brazil’ssupport Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 84 rves, howeverhere- policies that ithad e nationalizationof Lula spokeverydip- 82 Argentine-Spanish 85

83 Brazil, torial disputes. downplayed politicaltensions,suchasterri- tries focusedonpursuingtraderelationsand “degulfisation,” meaning thatthetwo coun- Rafael Caldera,followedapolicyof former presidentsCarlosAndrésPérezand and Venezuela,underth Prior toChávez’stakingoffice,Colombia wanting tocooperatewithitsneighbor. Chávez hasperiodical neighbor tothewest had particularlyrockyrelationsisits ize itshydrocarbonindustry. couraging andassistingBoliviatonational- criticized Chávez forhisinvolvement inen- States totrainitsmilitary toeliminate drug lombia receives$1.3billionfrom United the adopted PlanColombia, aplanwherein Co- quickly worsened,partic is sympathetic. guerilla group inColombiatowhich Chávez Armed Forcesof Colombia(FARC),aleftist dress issuessurroundingtheRevolutionary as thetwoleaders worked together to ad- WhenChávezfirstcame topowerin then-Colombian PresidentAndrésPastrana 1999, heexperiencedgoodrelationswith bia. gressive rhetoricand the twocountries andChávez’s use ofag- ing betweenpragmatic cooperationbetween United States)havebeendynamic, alternat- bia (whichisknowntoha Chávez’s presidency,relationswithColom- tina. zuela, traverseBrazil,and endinArgen- envisions andthatw build the $20 billionpipeline thatChávez sounded lessenthusiast 86 More explicitly, the Brazilian press One countrywithwhichChávezhas 87 88 However,throughout However, theirrelations , Colombia, though ould begininVene- actions towardColom- ly shownsignsof ic aboutplansto e administrations of ularly afterPastrana ve closetiestothe 220 226 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

bombers.” and threateningtodeployRussianfighter ions oftroopstotheborder withColombia ambassador inCaracas,sending10battal- embassy inBogotá,expellingtheColombian sponded tothisby“closingtheVenezuelan camp territory.Chávezre- onEcuadorean lombian military troops toattack aFARC Relations betweenVenezuelaand frontation in2007whenUribeorderedCo- Colombia came closesttoamilitary con- ences. have remained poorduetopolicydiffer- two countriesworsened,onceagain,and took office.However,relationsbetween the as itscurrentPresident ÁlvaroUribe Vélez more cooperativeattitudetowardColombia Venezuelan president, Chávez showeda coup d’étatthattemporarily oustedthe ten createcontroversy and couldeven lead tory demonstrates howChávez’sactions of- that did notevenoccuron Venezuelanterri- sion tomobilize histroopsoveranincident Venezuelan troops,however hisrashdeci- Venezuela. Chávezquicklycalledback the prospectofwarbetweenColombia and with Chávezinmany situations,discouraged and Lula,whohaveenjoyedgoodrelations regionally andinternatio border. Chávez’sresponsewascriticized sending troopsofhisowntotheColombian sion intoEcuador pressuredCorreainto Chávez’s exaggeratedresponsetotheincur- stored topower following theshort-lived

ers. In2002,havingrecentlybeenre-

farmers rather thanWestern drug abus- the livelihoodofLatinAmerican coca eradication planwrongfullytargets Colombia, believing thatthisdrug trafficking. 90 Aspreviouslymentioned, ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 89 ChávezopposesPlan nally. EvenCastro : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 GDP onnationaldefense. worthy, spendingabout3.8percentofits Chile’s military expenditures are also note- sequent PatriotPlan. lombia throughPlanColombia andthesub- a responsetotheUnitedStates’arming Co- been implications thatthesearms dealswere zuela’s outdatedarsenal,howevertherehave chases aremerelyintendedtoupdateVene- Spain. Chávezmaintains thatthesepur- well aswithBrazil,Belarus, China,and even more weaponsdealswithRussia,as in LatinAmerica. thereby causing more instabilityanddivide an arms racewillescalate intheregion, in surroundingcountries,itisveryplausible threatened by thelevel of military spending ward thecountries 2008 military budget. ian Congresssetaside Lula, forexample, requestedthatthe Brazil- to significantly increase military spending. other LatinAmerican countrieshavebegun between VenezuelaandColombia remain. matic tiesfollowing the conflict, tensions Uribe agreedtomeet toreestablishdiplo- to military conflicts.AlthoughChávezand tries. to aborderdisputebetweenthetwocoun- Chile’s heavy investment initsmilitary due for example, Perufeelsthreatenedby in military spending throughout theregion, have expressedconcer $3 billion. jets, andhelicoptersforthepriceofnearly Russia bypurchasingassaultrifles,fighter Venezuela struck amajor arms dealwith Anothermajor politicalconcern starting aregionalarms race.In2006, within Latin America is thatChávezmay be 96 AsmoreLatinAmerican leaders feel 92 Sincethen,Chávezhasstruck 93 Since then,several n overthese increases about $5.6billionto- 95 Some countries 94

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theory behindISIgrowth: book ModernLatinAmericadescribes the mately failing bythe early1980s. Latin America beginningin1930andulti- an alternative tocapitalism andwastested in alization (ISI). ISIis sufficient throughi can countrieshopedtobecome self- in LatinAmericanc all, itfailed toeliminate foreign dependence ica duetothreekeyshortcomings. Firstof ISI failedduringthis failed policy ofimport-substituting industri-

gration ofLatinAmerica resembles the

however hisplanfortheeconomic inte- according to hisBolivarianideology, America tooccur underhisterms and for theregionsindustrialgrowth. America furnished critical impetus and participation,th industrial firms. Throughprotection companies andinvesting directly in tant, establishinggovernment-run for themilitary); and,mostimpor- (involving, forexample, purchases producers ingovernment contracts creating demand byfavoringlocal fully compete inthemarketplace; local industrialfirms couldsuccess- imported goodstothepointwhere tariff barriersandraisingthepriceof They didsoinvariousways:erecting actively promotedindustrialgrowth. States, Latin American governments century EnglandandtheUnited sez-faire policiesofnineteenth- Chávez wantsintegrationofLatin The PathtoEconomicInstability: In contrast tothelargely lais-

ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 ndustrialization and ountries. LatinAmeri- Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 apolicythatprovides period inLatinAmer- e stateinLatin 97 The 98

country. forced toaccept market demand withintheir trade betweencountriessocompanies were quantities. Furthermore, therewaslittle who couldaffordthem didnotneedlarge and, giventhenatureofproducts,those Many localscouldnotafford suchgoods industrial goods,suchasrefrigerators. tured productsastheyweremanufacturing Next, ISIlimited localdemand formanufac- Chávez’s beliefthatLatin American West tobeasminimal aspossible. Despite wants LatinAmerican dependenceon the policies. Yet asprev nues tocarryouthisdomestic andforeign to stopall trade asChávez relies onoilreve- of endogenousdevelopment isnotintended ual needsofaspecificcountry. latter focusesonsovereigntyandtheindivid- ence betweenISIandhispolicyisthatthe However, Chávezclaimsthatthekeydiffer- products overforeignimports. development bygivingpreferencetolocal sembles ISIinthat itencourages national Chávez’s policyofregionalintegrationre- the integrationandsolidarityofregion. ica tobecomeself-sufficientbypromoting buy thefinishedproducts. increased andfewpeoplecouldaffordto been donebyhumans, unemployment rates performing tasksthatcouldhaveotherwise placed much manual labor. With machines nologies limited jobproductionastheyre- than thefinishedproductsthemselves. machinery tomanufacture products,rather on theWest forexpensivegoods,suchas sufficient, itmade thesecountriesdependent rather thanmake Latin America self- manufacturing theirowngoods.However, Chávez isencouraging Latin Amer- 100 Finally, theuseofadvancedtech- iously discussed,he 101

102 103

His policy 99

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dependent onimporting. altering thegoodsthatLatin America was dustrial equipment from theWest, thereby chase productssuchastechnologyandin- to industrialize,thesecountrieshadpur- tieth century LatinAmerica isthat inorder One major problem withISIgrowthintwen- direct LatinAmerica’s foreign dependence. American dependenceontheWest onlyre- tion, Chávez’sattempts tominimize Latin failure toeliminate dependenceontheWest. eth-century experiment withISI,whichisits the shortcomings of LatinAmerica’s twenti- for Venezuelatostep into thatrole.Despite ergy intheCaribbean,however theyallowed and Tobagowastheprimary provider ofen- Caribbean. PriortoPetrocaribe, Trinidad is nowtheprimary energysupplierinthe his foreignpolicyintheregionasVenezuela stability ifChávezwereforced toabandon tries wouldbeparticular precarious situation.ThePetrocaribecoun- help Bolivia financially, Boliviawillbeina ever, ifChávezcannotaffordtocontinue with aidandsupportfromVenezuela.How- tions withChávezhaveprovidedBolivia from Washington’s orbit”ashiscloserela- Morales hasshownsigns Venezuela. Forexample, inrecentyears, Latin American countriesdependenton oil diplomacy, hehasalreadybeguntomake flexed hispowerinLatinAmerica through opment plans willbesusceptible toone of

twined inChávez’s economic anddevel-

countries thatbecome toocloselyen- Chávez’s foreignpolicysuggestthat ment inthe region,analysisof As mentioned intheprevioussec- will promote sustainable develop- integration andendogenousgrowth ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 ly susceptible toin- 104 of“driftingaway : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 AsChávezhas state runsintofinancialtrouble, money will multiple states, therefore if onecontributing Bank areinstitutions thatdrawfundsfrom reached. IFIsliketheIMF andthe World numerous andcostlyagreements thathehas pendent uponhisabilitytoperpetuatethe region rendersLatinAmericancountriesde- Furthermore, Chávez’sforeignpolicyinthe way ifhebelievesitwillfurtherhisgoals. Chávez willuseVenezuelan loans inthis loans. However,thereisagoodchancethat mandatory conditionsinordertoreceive erce developingworldgovernments toadopt using loansasameans ofhardpowertoco- Chávez haspersistently criticized IFIs for recipients toabidebycertainconditions. ally asaformofhardpowertocoerceloan use loansthat Venezuelaprovidesunilater- Chávez’s loan andtradeoffers.Chávezcan Latin American countriesthataccept continue any agreements thatarereached for ates dependenceonChávez’sdecisionto vided inrecentyears.Firstofall,thiscre- sible formany oftheloansChávezhaspro- loans, Venezuelaisthesolecountryrespon- rather thanmultiplecountries contributingto worrisome thandependenceonIFIsbecause foreign policycreates back-up options. icy, thePetrocaribe nationswillhave few rising debtforce Venezu oil supply. any reasontherewereto unable tofilltheregionalenergyvoidiffor would selltheiroil in Manning hasmade itclearthathiscountry plier oftheregion,Prime MinisterPatrick Trinidad andTobagoasprimary energysup- the decisiontopermit Venezuelatoreplace The newdependencethat Chávez’s 105 If decreasingoilrevenuesand newmarkets andbe is potentiallymore beadisruptionin ela toalteritspol- 22 229 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

barrel. they havebeenhoveringatabout$50per on December 26,2008and,inrecentweeks, then, pricesfellaslow$32.06perbarrel of $137.98perbarrelinJuly2008.Since $8.85 perbarrelinDecember1998toapeak price ofoil,withpricesrisingfrom aslow benefited from significa out most ofChávez’spresidency,hehas cult topredict.Figure 1showsthatthrough- ral resource,oil,ofwhichthevalueisdiffi- dependent onhighrevenuesfrom onenatu- projects that Chávez hascommitted toare ica isthefactthatallofagreements and are unpredictable,asi countries becauseoilpricesvarygreatlyand America. tive effectsthatwillbefeltthroughoutLatin out theregion,whichislikelytohavenega- make many changestohispoliciesthrough- sion settingin,Chávezwillbe forced to With theoilboom endingandglobalreces- drive Venezuelatowardunsustainabledebt. mand inthecontextof the globalcrisis will Figure 3)andtheaddi production isnotashighitcouldbe(see Venezuelan oilinfrastructure, PdVSA’soil political agendaasopposedtoinvestment in revenues goingtowardadvancingChávez’s larly problematic formany LatinAmerican

Venezuela. Thisdependence isparticu-

the economic andpoliticalstabilityof loan recipientsbecome dependenton 106 With Venezuelaasthesole lender, The biggestdangerforLatin Amer-

cial contributions With somuch ofVenezuela’soil still beavailableduetothefinan- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 llustrated inFigure 1. tion ofdecreasedde- nt increases inthe of otherstates. Venezuela by respectingelections. which wassaidtoprotect democracy in power-sharing agreement signedin1958 Chávez. ThePactofPunto Fijowasa was thepoliticalsystem thatpreceded the PuntoFijosystem or WhenanalyzinghowChávez’spoli- helpful toconsider thepolicy weaknesses of cies arebeing affected Venezuela, Chávez,andtheOilCurse: neighboring countriesinLatinAmerica. fications bothforVenezuelaand essary thatarelikely not continuetorise,budgetcutswillbenec- oil curse this year.Ho able toresist Venezuela’ssuccumbing tothe ings of$42.2billionwisely,Chávezmay be ing Venezuela’sinternationalreservesav- adjust todecreasedoilpricesandbymanag- around. per barrelthatitwasoriginallyfigured prices of$40perbarr Venezuela’s 2009budget,basingituponoil March 2009,heannouncedplanstorevise on Venezuelanoilfields. allowed Western oilcompaniestomake bids light ofthedecrease making hisdecisions.InJanuary2009,in politician andtohaveapragmatic sidein throughout hispresidency spite hisstrongrhetoric,hehasproven slope ofthepetro-statetrap.However,de- too, may be headedtowardthedownward prices hoveringatabout$40perbarrel,he, grams reveals that, withVenezuelanoil AlthoughChávez has,thusfar,been eign policy,analysisof able tousehighoilrevenuesfundhisfor- Chávez’s ForeignPolicy: The EffectsofFall 108 Bytakingtheproperactionsto ing OilPriceson in oilprices,Chávez to havenegativerami- el ratherthanthe$60 bytheoilbust, itis wever, ifoilpricesdo hispoliciesandpro- puntifijismo 107 tobearational Furthermore,in 110 , which

109

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diversify hisgovernment’s sources of reve- decreased oilvalue,Chávez must attempt to collapse throughthisin Punto Fijosystem. Topreventaneconomic several fundamental weaknessesofthe trends ofthepetro-st headed towardthetwomaindestabilizing economic policyrevealsthathe,too,may be litical systeminVenezuela,analysisofhis Chávez’s rhetoricabout way for political instability. the weaknessesofsystem andpavingthe oil cursebegantoappear,therebyexposing prices plungedinthe1980s,trendsof flaws of century, oil wealthmasked many of the ThedownfallofthePuntoFijosys- of theoilcurse. Forabout aquarterof tem canbeprimarily attr Bolivarian Constitution. when Cháveztookpowerandcreatedhis boom. Puntofijismo 1980s, largelyasaresultoftheendoil nomic andpolitical instability ensued inthe Venezuela for aboutthirtyyearsuntileco- 1998 Venezuelanelection. system, ultimately ledhim which towinthe and promising tooverturnthePuntoFijo port among thepoorandworkingclasses advantage of thisinstabilitybyrallyingsup- litical system. shutting theCommunist mocratica (AD) andCOPEI,intentionally political partiesofVenezuela,AcciónDe-

limited politicalpowertothetwomain

ment policy.In prac differing viewpointsinforming govern- ties thatsignedthepactandconsider members oftheot puntofijismo Elected officialswereto workwith 111 Thesystem wasstrongin ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 officiallyendedin1999 ate cursebyreplicating , howeverwhenoil definite periodof creatingabetterpo- 112 Party outofthepo- ibuted totheeffects tice, thisagreement : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 her politicalpar- 114

113 Yet,despite Cháveztook ity. wages), and,consequently,politicalstabil- (as measured byhealth,education,and life compared tothere rapid economic growth,ahigher quality of tween 1960and1980thatcontributedto tem, Venezuela enjoyedtwooilboomsbe- Firstofall,asamajor oilexporter, for Venezuela.UnderthePuntoFijosys- Dutch diseasehasbeenaconstantconcern tures. nue andcutdownonunnecessaryexpendi- booms toregress. gress thathadbeenmade duringtheoil currency, whichultimately causedthepro- out foreignloansandartificiallycontrolits sources ofexportrevenue,forcingittotake ernment couldnotfallbackuponother plunged inthe1980s,Venezuelangov- Venezuela. Assuch,whenoilprices suppressed non-oilproductionsectorswithin lan bolívarwithrelati revenues asthehighvalueofVenezue- ing imported intoVenezuelaskyrocketed, 2003 PdVSAstrike,the value ofgoodsbe- revenues increasedfollowing theendof Venezuela between1998 and2007.Asoil escalating problem ofDutchdiseasein and import rowsinTable2illustrates the Venezuelan products.Analysis oftheexport cheaper andloweringthe competitiveness of relation toothercurrencies,making imports strengthened thevalue of thebolívarwith unable todevelop because large oilrevenues jismo policies. Aswasthecaseunder almost entirelyonoilrevenuestofinancehis Dutchdiseasehascontinuedtohave Chávez’s leadershipas an adverseeffecton 115 , Venezuela’snon-oilsectorshavebeen Thegovernment wasdependentonoil 116

the non-oilsectorunder on toothercountries st of LatinAmerica his policiesalsorely puntofi- 225 231 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

jobs. provide Venezuelanswithsustainable puntofijismo to problems facedbyadministrations under lar threat tostabilityinVenezuela.Similar With thevalueof oilbeinglessthan boom, DutchDiseasestandsoutasaparticu- one-third ofitsvalueatthepeakoil 1943, whichincreasedtaxes onoilcompa- Karl, eversincetheHydrocarbons Law of cording toVenezuelaexpert TerryLynn be donebyincreasingnon-oil taxes.Ac- less dependentonoilrevenueswhichcould Tostaveofftheeffectsof Dutchdis- government’s sourcesofre ease, Chávezmust findawaytobroadenhis less competitive inglobal markets. while exportsbecome moreexpensiveand trends bymaking imports artificiallycheap in recentyears,reinforcingDutchdisease to thedollarhascontributedhighinflation valued fixedexchangerateof2.15bolívares thermore, Chávez’sdecision tosetanover- stops providingthem withresources. operatives fail shortlyafterthegovernment tably expandthenon-oilsectorasmanyco- not enoughtocreatelong-term jobsandno- up cooperatives.However,thismission is oil sectorbyassisting attempts tocreatejobsandexpandthenon- cent annuallyoverthepastthreeyears. downward trend,shrinkingbyabout5per- zuela’s non-oilsector Data compiled in2009showsthatVene-

decreased between2005and2006.

money gainedthroughnon-oilexports ing the2003oilstrike,amount of 120 oil revenuesroseconsistentlyfollow- Chávez’s Vuelvan Carasmission billion. reaching anunprecedented $29.5 , Chávezhasbeenunableto 117 ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Ontheotherhand,while Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 continued inthis Venezuelans in setting venue sothatitis 122 121

118 119 Fur-

be effective. cial programs, whetherornottheyprovedto spent asignificantamount ofmoney onso- ers mismanaged funds,andthegovernment purchased throughincentives,corruptlead- sponsibly as military loyalty waslargely der thissystem, oilrevenueswerespentirre- the oilboomsbetween1960and1980.Un- Thefall of problem byVenezuelanpresidentsduring in large part toillha revenues. may belessdependentonunpredictableoil his sourcesofgovernment revenuesothatit The increase willallow Cháveztodiversify oil companies. from corporate income taxes,primarily from ing 70.3percentofVenezuelantaxrevenues which, between1977and1979,wasreceiv- major downfall of the quately collectnon-oiltaxesprovedtobea the bolívar’sexchangerate, causingdebtto money internationallyand artificiallycontrol Venezuela, presidentsopted toborrow 1980s, ratherthanimplement more taxesin When thesecondoilboomendedin lying primarily onoilrevenuestodoso. its policiesduringthis thus, spentlargeamounts ofmoney tofund increase salestaxes along withhis2009budgetcutsplanto tofijismo nize that this wasamajor weaknessof tion ofdomestic groups.” subsidized activitieswhileavoidingthetaxa- panies asameans ofsustaining oil- tation tocut intothe profits of foreign com- ernment, there hasbeen“apermanent temp- fifty” betweenthecompanies andthegov- nies sothatprofits andhe,consequently,announced 126 124 TheVenezuelangovernment, Chávezappearstorecog- puntofijismo would besplit“fifty- in Venezuelaaswell. ndling oftheabsorption period,yetitwas re- Punto Fijosystem 123 Failuretoade- wasalsodue pun- 125

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lion worthofweaponsfrom Russiaalone. eral countries,agreeingtobuyover$4.4bil- multiple major weaponspurchasesfrom sev- As previouslydiscussed,Chávezhasmade dollars to upgrading Venezuela’s military. military, Chávezhascommitted billionsof purchased new arms as incentives forthe presidents underthePuntoFijosystemwho under thePuntoFijosystem. Similar to Furthermore, based IFIs. can countriestobreakaway from western- Chávez’s population, suchasenco indirectly related to missions, cies tofurther severa nues, hehaspursuedavarietyofcostlypoli- bility. Empowered bytheinfluxofoilreve- sense ofeconomic stability,andeveninfalli- revenues fromoilexportshavegivenhim a shows that,likeother fund variouspoliciesaroundLatinAmerica such largesums money ofVenezuelan to alone. on “oilassistancehandouts”lastyear revenues, includinganestimated $12billion programs andprojectsthatdependonoil spent billionsofdollarsoncapital-intensive success inachievinghisgoals.Chávezhas regional foreignpolicyhashadonlylimited out LatinAmerica, despiteevidence thathis lars onaidanddevelopment projectsthrough- section, Chávezhasalsospentbillionsofdol- Furthermore, asdiscussedthroughoutthefirst

is replicating many of

policies and,ashespendsthatmoney, he

129 ment financeoftenineffective funds to testament tohisunwiseuseofgovern- Chávez’sforeign policyisa The fact thatChávez hascommitted toms disease. ofDutch accumulate and reinforcingsymp- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 benefiting Venezuela’s l goalsthatwereonly petro-states, thehigh uraging LatinAmeri- themistakes made : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 127

128

mission is$5billioneachyear. in Venezuela.Theoperatingbudgetfor this Cuba if medical treatments arenot available involves transportingpatientstoandfrom in additiontosupplyingCubawithfuel,it cussed, isalsoverycostly forVenezuela,as Adentro mission, whichwaspreviouslydis- and $61inLatin America. of $47inSub-SaharanAfrica, $30inAsia, when compared totheaverage perpupil cost ate throughthisprogram, averyhighcost $536 peradult that successfullybecame liter- fund themission. price asthegovernment spent$50millionto if theydidreachthis goal, itcame atahigh write asChávez claims itdid,howevereven ing 1.5million Venezuelanadultstoreadand rural population) actuall mission (whichaims toeducateVenezuela’s Venezuela. ItisdoubtfulthattheRobinson ful cooperativesandsustainablejobsin only hadlimitedsuccessincreatingsuccess- mentioned, theVuelvanCarasmission has success hasbeendebatable.Aspreviously ing billionsofdollarstofinance,yettheir been oneofhislarges plemented duringthePuntoFijoera,have which arecomparable tosocialprograms im- money, howeverwhenthe valueofoil high, banksarewilling to lend thesestates petro-states. Aslong boom canbeparticularlytroublesome for so much. Takingoutloansduringanoil zuela nowthat theoil prices havedecreased ThefactthatChávezhasborrowed cies could be somewhat alarming forVene- money inrecentyearstohelpfundhispoli- grams withonlyalimited rateofsuccess. can see,theyareveryexpensivesocial pro- only threeofChávez’smissions,yetaswe 130 Thisequatestoabout t expenditures,requir- as oilpricesremain y succeededinteach- 131 The Barrio 132 These are 227 233 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

Chávez fundhismassive arms purchases. agreed toloanVenezuela$1billionhelp zuela underthePuntoFijo also deepened thefinancialtroublesofVene- den plungeofoilpricesin1986. itself indebtandunabletoadjustthesud- pensive, wastefulprojects,andthenfound money duringa1980soilboom tofundex- tries. particularly whenco Venezuela’s GDP,amanageable percentage, because itrepresentsonly 14.7percentof instability in Venezuelaasitdid inNigeria rent rate,debtisunlikelytocauseeconomic the 1998figureindollaramounts, atitscur- Yet, despitethefiftypercentincrease from cash. in shipments ofrefinedoil,ratherthanin billion loanwhichVenezuelaistopayback China agreedtofurnishVenezuelawitha$4 loans. billion asChávezhastakenoutseveralnew 2008, externaldebtincreasedtonearly$48 the Venezuelan debtsteadily decreased,however of 2005(seeTable2).Following thispeak, a peakabout$47.1billio $27.9 billionwhenhewaselectedin1998to Venezuela’s externaldebtrosefromabout Throughout further intodebt. taxes, tookoutloanswhichledthecountry Chávez’s administrations, reluctanttoraisenon-oil presidency, this patternasitbo

ple ofapetro-statefa C.I.A. WorldFactbook

in. Nigeriabecame aninfamous exam- time whenless oilrevenues arecoming 136 138 135 must quicklypaybacktheirloansata InSeptember 2008,Russiaalso Forexample, inFebruary2008, Although oilpricesarecurrently at to continuelendingandpetro-states decreases, banksbecomeunwilling ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 134

rrowed large amountsof Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 mpared toothercoun- iling asaresult of n inthesecondhalf system asthelater reportsthatin 133 Loans Loans 137

clines inthe valueof oil. 1990 tohelpoffsettheeffectsoffuturede- which isastabilizati (formerly theGovernment PetroleumFund) to itsGovernment PensionFund—Global most successful petro-states,inlargepartdue nomic collapse. Norwayhasbeenone ofthe led otherpetro-statestothepointofeco- cated severalcommon weaknessesthathave shows thathiseconomic policieshaverepli- tain itselfthroughthisoilbust.Thisanalysis the questionofhowlongVenezuelacansus- AnalysisofChávez’smismanage- common trendsofthepetro-statecurseraises ment ofoil revenueswithrelationtothe during thisoilbust. oil revenuethatVenezuel tional reservestotemporarily supplement the nificant amount ofmoney savedininterna- Punto Fijoadministrations, Chávezhasasig- about $48perbarrel,unlikeNigeriaandthe improve theefficiencyofthosethat are policies, evaluate theireffectiveness, then Chávez mustlookcarefully ateachofhis economy withoutsquanderingitssavings, from rapidlydestabilizingVenezuela’s of thepetro-state curse. plete destabilization in ments tohisbudgetinorderavertcom- time. Chávezwillneed tomake wiseadjust- economic declineforalimited amount of however thesereservescanonlypreventthe from some oftheeffect reserve savings may insulatethecountry $326 billion. with Norway’sfundwhichisworthabout only valuedatabout$800 million compared for Macroeconomic Stab has astabilizationfund,knownastheFund To preventtheabsorption problem 141 Venezuela’sinternational 139 on fundestablishedin

Venezuela asaresult s oftheoilpricedrop, 140 ilization, thoughitis a isabletogenerate Venezuelaalso 228 234 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

significantly. percent, andeconomic growthhasslowed rently thehighestinLatinAmerica at30.7 and lowerrevenues.Itsinflationrateiscur- of payment problems withitshighimports now.” of economic growththatwe’reseeing result istheshortages, inflationandslowing these booms toovercome poverty.The end [previous] regime hasbeenabletomanage Karl stated,“Regardl regards toVenezuela’scurrentsituation, prevent economic declinecompletely. With Venezuela, howeverhewillnotbe able to be abletoforestall economic collapse in eliminating ineffective policies, Chávez will sources ofnon-oilrevenueandalteringor funds. Chávez isnot squanderingVenezuelan must bechangedoreliminatedsothat types ofineffectivepoliciesandprograms Adentro, andRobinsonmissions. These demonstrated bytheVuelvanCaras,Barrio effectiveness hasbeenseverely limited as missions needtobereconsideredtooastheir his intendedgoals.Forexample, Chávez’s stall economic collapseaslongChávez throughout 2009,Venezuela islikelytofore- stability withinseveralmonths. However, Venezuela couldbeslated foreconomic in- middle (seeFigure1),then ofFebruary continue toriseastheyhavebeensincethe his ambitions andtheyhave not achieved

only earnedhim conditionalsupportfor

policies throughouttheregionhave two sectionsofthepaper,Chávez’s 142 vealed through analysis inthefirst By expandingthegovernment’s not absolutely necessary. Asre- Venezuelaislikelytofacebalance crucial andeliminate those thatare 143 Indeed, ifoilpricesdonot ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 ess ofintentionsno : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 and theircounterparts multaneously boththeirdomestic audience meaning thattheirpoliciesmust “satisfysi- are alwaysinvolvedin In making foreignpolicydecisions,leaders can servepassedinFebr the number ofterms thatelectedofficials after hisreferendum toeliminate limits on ing conditionswithinVe Thethreatofeconomic andpolitical nues willforce Cháveztofocus onimprov- instability resulting from decreased oil reve- eign Policy: Changes toChávez’sLatinAmericanFor- poverished countries. pense ofsome ofLatinAmerica’s mostim- changes that aremade may come attheex- oil bustlastsseveralyearsandanypolicy quate fundstoavoideconomic declineifthe fortunately, Venezueladoesnothaveade- handles government fundsresponsibly.Un- will havetoalter oreliminate. Given the region willbeamong thosepoliciesthat he loans, credit,andoil grams andagreements thatoffercheap goals intheregion. Chávez’s current ideological influence and Venezuela, resultinginaturnawayfrom actions areeffective anddirectly benefit Latin America toensure thathis political to reevaluatehispoliciesandprograms in As arational leader, Chávezwillbe forced exacerbate Venezuela’s domestic problems. his supportersbyallowi Constitution), Chávezcannotriskalienating before hisreelectionundertheBolivarian dential term (includinghisbrieffirstterm tion inVenezuelaandserveafourthpresi- Seeking towinthe2012 presidential elec- First ofall,many ofChávez’spro-

to countriesaroundthe in othercountries.” a“two-levelgame” ng theoilbustto uary ofthisyear. nezuela, especially 144 145

229 235 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

percent ofthecostoilupfront. ment thatcountriespayfifty nowrequire lower oilprices,theconditionsofagree- est rate of one percent. With significantly difference overthenext25yearsataninter- percent oftheoilupfront,andthenpay through Petrocaribeonlyhadtopayforforty signed in2005,countriespurchasingoil America. When theagreement wasfirst tant agreements hehas reached inLatin Petrocaribe, whichisoneofthemost impor- Venezuela currentlylacks theextrafunds projects willstillbecarried outaspromised, tempted togivetheimpression thatsuch gua andEcuador. refineries thathadb try’s abilitytofundth Chávez wasalreadyreconsideringhiscoun- neighboring countries. lines, thathehaspromised tohelpbuildin -scale projects, suchas he willbeunable tofund thenumerous large stituency content towinthe2012election, Chávez needingtokeep hisVenezuelan con- its valueatthepeakofpriceboomand low. With oilworthlessthanone-thirdof on holdaslongthepriceofoilremains energy integration planswillhavetobeput development inothercountries. gion, forexamplebylimiting funding for adjustments tohispoliciesaroundthere- will inevitably havetomake many similar January ofthisyear,Chávez already altered

spending Venezuela’slimited revenue.In

to these agreements tokeepfrom over- to make budget cutsandimprovements achieving hisgoals,Chávez willhave Furthermore, Chávez’slarge-scale compared withtheir effectiveness in cost ofmaintaining suchprograms ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 147 Althoughhehasat- een plannedforNicara- Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 e development ofoil refineriesandpipe- AsofJanuary2009, 146 Chávez fragile stateoftheworld economy, even Latin American ReserveFund. Andean Development Corporation,and the the Inter-American Development Bank,the from regionalmultilateral lenders including credits whichCorreawouldpreferto receive Chávez, islookingtotakeout$2.6billionin which maintains goodrelationswith light oftheeconomic crisis. are allbeginningtotakeoutnewIFIloansin Salvador, Jamaica, Colombia,andMexico American countriesincludingCostaRica,El through 2009asthecrisisworsens.Latin sis beganandthistrendislikelytocontinue cantly in2008whentheglobalfinancialcri- taken inLatin America increased signifi- shows thattheamount ofIFIloansbeing veloping countrieslike tries whichtendtobemorestablethande- to theUnitedStates American leadersarelikely tomove closer tional supportthroughou very policiesthathavewonChávezcondi- omy lackingthestrengthtocontinue States. However,withVenezuela’s econ- tions betweenVenezuelaandtheUnited leaders have attempted tobalancetheir rela- Chávez’s presidency,most LatinAmerican ern influenceinLatinAmerica. Throughout strong regionalpowerandminimizing west- Theresultofthesebudgetadjust- policy goalsofestablishingVenezuelaasa ments willbe a reverse of Chávez’sforeign zuela’s domesticaffairs. oil bustwill force Chávez toprioritize Vene- jects throughoutLatinAmerica becausethe these large-scale energy infrastructurepro- gress willbemade towardthecompletion of ises. Therefore,itisunlikelythatmuch pro- that arenecessarytofulfillChávez’sprom- and otherwesterncoun- Venezuela. Figure2 t theregion,Latin 148 Ecuador,too, 149 Giventhe 230 236 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

and loansfrom VenezuelaovertheWest tance andMorales has opted toreceiveaid ready extremely dependentonforeign assis- will beforcedtomake asthecountry isal- suffer heavilyfrom budgetcutsthatChávez weak. Bolivia,ontheotherhand,islikelyto vided ifVenezuela’seconomy becomes too medical services thatVenezuelans arepro- the amount ofoilsent However, Chávezstillmaybeforced tolimit Venezuelans intheform ofhealthcare. zuela because itbrings direct benefit to Adentro mission betweenCubaandVene- cal careexchangethatissetupbytheBarrio Chávez islikelytocontinuetheoilformedi- Chávez’s assistance totheircountries. have becomeparticularlydependenton them withnecessaryaid.CubaandBolivia tions with the UnitedStates asitprovides bean willcontinue tomaintain strong rela- tinue Petrocaribe, the Although itislikelythatChávezwillcon- be forced toalter the buy anditis verypossible thatChávezwill the poorerCaribbeancountriescanaffordto oil may theamount affect ofoilthatsome of Petrocaribe countriesmustpayupfrontfor ample, thetenpercent increase ofmoney of them totheWest aswell.Forex- closer pendent onChávez’spolicies,pushingmany American countriesthathavebecomede- will most hurtthe impoverished Latin maintaining goodrelations,suchasaid.

other incentivesthatcouldcome from

courage foreigninvestmentalongwith lations withtheWest inordertoen- pursue policiesthat Chávez’s foreignpolicybudgetcuts relations withChávezarelikelyto countries thatmaintain amicable ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 agreement evenmore. countries oftheCarib- to Cubaandthefree : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 improve their re- and toinfluenceneighboring countriesto to actdefinitively against American interests United States wouldlimit Chávez’sability the necessitytoimprove relationswith the beneficial inmaximizing itsoilproduction, ment inVenezuela’soilindustrywouldbe eign revenue. ing theUnitedStates,inordertoattractfor- pursue betterrelationswiththeWest, includ- This suggeststhatChávezwillonceagain those funds. near futureifChávezfindsthathe needs that Boliviawillbeunable topayback inthe lated over $100 million indebtto Venezuela when hecould.Asaresult,hasaccumu- zuela’s oilreservesinJanuaryofthisyear. ern oilcompanies tomake oilbidsonVene- post-oil boomperiod,Chávezinvitedwest- fragile stateofVenezuela’seconomy inthis a move thatreflectshisrecognitionofthe tion, capitalflight,andlowoilprices.” then, including“recession,confrontedinfla- same economic problemstodaythatitfaced Venezuela toonceagain facemany ofthe zuela’s economy weak,theoilbust has led ment underthePuntoFijosystem leftVene- year inofficewhenfinancialmismanage- the UnitedStates. Similar toChávez’s first GivenVenezuela’seconomic fragil- be forcedtopursueimproved relationswith ity duetotheoilbust,Chávezhimself may able toprovide. ized western countrieswillmost likelybe is dependentonforeignaidthatindustrial- dance withwesterninterests because Bolivia forced topursuepoliciesthatareinaccor- grams inthecountry, thenMoraleswillbe financial strengthtoco situation worsening,if Although increasedforeigninvest- 150 With theglobaleconomic Venezuelalosesthe ntinue itsaidandpro- 151 In 152

231 237 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

will needtofind awayto dom topursuehispolicies,especiallyashe industry wouldgreatlylimit Chávez’sfree- viting foreigninvestment inVenezuela’soil recently discoveredinBrazil.Assuch,in- oil fieldstoinvestin,suchasthosethatwere foreign oilcompanies maylooktoward other Due toconcernoverChávez’spastactions, attempt toregain control overtheir oil fields. when oilprices rise,Chávez willonce again drastic, howeverpetro-states must do their oil bustof2008wasparticularly suddenand quately planforsuchmarket changes.The petro-state if thegovernment doesnotade- shows canhavedevastatingeffectsona accompanied bypricebusts thathistory ing, thereforelargeoilbooms arealways oil boom. Oilpricesar plunge thatinevitablyfollowedthesudden wealth shows littleforesight for theprice reserves, hismanagement ofVenezuela’soil Despite saving$42.2billi wasteful policiesthroughoutLatinAmerica. by usingthemoney tofundlavishand attempting tocapitalizeoffofanoilboom state administrations aroundtheworldby downfall of into the samepetro-state trapthatled tothe Conclusion: zuelan oilisaworthwhileinvestment. foreign investorssothat PdVSA. Foreigninvestorsmay fearthat

and consolidategovernmentcontrolover

vestors from Venezuela’soilindustry given hisactionstoremove foreignin- be waryofinvestinginVenezuela As wehaveseen,Chávezhasfallen likely that westerncompanies will do thesame. Furthermore, itisvery puntofijismo

ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 e constantlyfluctuat- theyfeelthatVene- andotherpetro- regainthetrustof on ininternational ing fewermedicalservices, whichwould the amount ofoilthatisshippedand offer- dergo changes,forexample, bydecreasing to Venezuelans.Assuch, itis likely toun- range ofmedical treatm cient due tothelarge oilshipments andthe program iscurrentlyexpensiveandineffi- Venezuelan foreignpolicy.However,the it isaprogramworthpursuingthrough lans priortothemissi service thatwaslackingformost Venezue- Venezuelans withhealth Chávez’s BarrioAdentro mission provides primary goalsoftheircountry.Forexample, and pursueonlypoliciesthatwillfurtherthe rather theyshouldprioritizedomestic affairs must completelyneglectforeignpolicy,but achieve. This isnot tosay thatpetro-states accomplishing thegoalsth term and,furthermore, wereineffectivein not directlybenefit programs throughoutLatinAmerica thatdid oilrevenuesoncostly much ofVenezuela’s budget duringanoilboom.Chávezspent state leadersshouldavoidinmanaging their policy servesasanexample ofwhatpetro- as quicklytheyrise.Chávez’sforeign country rich, becauseoil pricescanplunge oil boom donotmake an oil-dependent understand thatincreasedrevenuesfrom an source ofrevenue. when thatresourceisthecountry’sprimary natural resourcemanage who facethechallengesthataccompany should benotedbyotherpetro-stateleaders cycle ofoilpriceso eign policythroughouttheboom-and-bust oil prices.AnalysisofHugoChávez’sfor- best toprepareforsuchsuddenchangesin First ofall,petro-stateleadersmust Venezuela inthelong- ffers many lessons that on’s creation,therefore ents that areoffered ment, particularly care,animportant at theysetoutto 232 238 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

economy. promoting andtaxingnon-oilsectors ofthe and alsodiversifytheirsources ofrevenueby some foreigninvestment intheiroilindustry Petro-states must,therefore, allowatleast keeping itsoilindustry upkeep ofacountry’soilinfrastructureand foreign investment iskeytomaintaining the tors topleasethepopulation. ment’s budget,andlowtaxationofothersec- complete controlofittoincreasethegovern- heavy taxationoftheoilindustry,oreven the easiestpolicyoptionmay appeartobe that oil pricesarelow.For petro-state leaders, try wouldbebringingin were atitspeakinVenezuela,thenthecoun- the oilboom.Furthermore, ifoilproduction zuela withmoremoney andjobsthroughout oil revenuesthatcouldhaveprovidedVene- doubtedly lostbillionsof oil perday(seeFigure3).Venezuelahasun- duction droppedbyabout800,000barrelsof takes ofhispresidencyasVenezuelanoilpro- in 2003provedtobeoneofthegreatestmis- consolidate government controloverPdVSA peak oilproduction.Chávez’sdecisionto have proventobemost effectiveinensuring dustry aslarge,experienced oilcompanies chase awayforeigninvestment inthe oilin- state governments.

then theymay beworthpursuingbypetro- change program totraindomestic workers), such aprogram withaneducationalex

the public(for example, through coupling

toward thedirect,long-term benefitof are cost-effective, efficient,andgeared Furthermore, petro-states must not long assuchpoliciesandprograms and economicallysustainable.As make theprogram more efficient ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 at peakproduction. morerevenuesnow dollarsinpotential : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 153 However, Russia, Brazil,andeven Libya. nues tocreatestabili set asidelargeportionsoftheirresourcereve- quires it.Manypetro-statesarebeginningto touched unlesstheireconomic situationre- strong stabilizationfund should followNorway’sleadinestablishinga its revenues.Assuch,otherpetro-states the worldduetoresponsiblemanagement of has beenoneofthemost stability intheeventofanoilbust. generate realwealthandtosecureeconomic ings andinvestment throughoutoilbooms to states must maintain very highratesofsav- negatively impactpoorLatin American Furthermore, hiswasteful spendingwill mediately andtosavelessforanemergency. Chávez’s decisiontospend more money im- economy willquicklyde remain lowordropevenfurther,Venezuela’s cline asaresultoftheoi made hiscountrysusceptibletoeconomic de- throughout theoilboom-and-bust cyclehas zuela, Chávez’smanagement ofoilrevenues mistake. petro-state leadersca nues throughhiscostlyforeignpolicy.Other stead tosquanderlargeamounts ofoilreve- Venezuela’s stabilizationfund,choosingin- the otherhand,hasnotinvestedheavilyin Fund. way hassavedinitsGovernment Pension little compared tothe$326 billionthat Nor- Venezuela getthroughthisyear,however itis billion thatChávezmanaged tosavemay help offutureoilbusts.Themental $42.2 effects Finally,itisessentialthat petro-state large amounts ofmoney tooffsetthedetri- leaders exercisegreatprudencebysaving 154 Unfortunately, inthecaseofVene- Duetoresourcedepletion,petro- zation funds,including n, thus,learnfrom his l curse.Ifoilprices stabilize dueto that isnottobe stable petro-states in 156 Chávez,on 155 Norway 233 239 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

cure country thatwas quickly transform from aneconomically se- stand the mistakes thatallowedVenezuelato state leaders,bothpresentandfuture,under- is important, then,thatheandotherpetro- be secureintheevent of dictable natureofmarket prices. ensure economic securitydespitetheunpre- nue, andsavelargeamounts ofmoney to vestment andadiversifiedsourceof reve- projects, andinsteadencourageforeignin- fully spendingoilrevenuesonimmediate petro-state leadersmust refrainfrom waste- the durationofo nomic securityofth instability. Inordertopromote theeco- the greatriskofsufferingfrom economic regional influenceinto from hismistakes andprepare Venezuela to

Chávez may have thechance tolearn

luck intheform of rising oilprices, justments to Venezuela’sbudgetand through thecombination ofwisead-

on hisforeignpolicy.However, countries thathavecome todepend ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 eir countriesthroughout il boom-and-bust cycle, Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 purchasing alliesand a countrythatruns afutureoilbust.It 234 240 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

cial Energy Statistics from the U.S. Government Source: Latinobarómetro 2008 an opinion? give to enough know you not Or do good”. “very means and 10 evaluation bad” means a“very 0 Q92ST. I’m going to list a number of foreign leaders. I want you to evaluate them onascale from 0to 10, where Table 1:EvaluationofLeaders,2005-2008 since then. U.S. Energy Information Administration, dramatically per they have declined ata barrel and price of 2008 $137.98 inJuly their peak boomhit recent oil the This graph shows the weekly prices of Venezuelan crude oil between January 1978 and March 2009. Prices from Daniel Ortega George W. Bush Fidel Castro Hugo Chávez Alan García Cristina Kirchner Evo Morales Tabaré Vásquez Felipe Calderón Rafael Correa Álvaro Uribe Fernando Lugo Michelle Bachelet José LuisRodriguez Zapatero King JuanCarlosI Luiz Inácio LuladaSilva

ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009

: TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009

Venezuelan CrudeOil,1978-2009 Figure 1:WeeklyPricesof (Washington D.C.:April 29, 2009). Appendices “Weekly Venezuela Tia Juana Light SpotPriceFOB,” 2005 2005

4.9 4.4 4.9 5.5 5.8 5.8

2006 2006 4.7 4.3 4.5 4.6 4.9 4.6 4.9 5.4 5.6 5.9 5.6

2007 2007 4.5 4.3 4.5 4.6 4.9 4.6 5.0 4.7 4.9 5.4 5.6 5.9 5.6

Offi- 2008 2008 4.0 4.2 4.2 4.3 4.3 4.7 4.8 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.2 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.7 5.9

235

241 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

(Washington, D.C.: Center for Inte for Center D.C.: (Washington,

opment Corporation (CAF), the World Bank, and the In This graph shows the amount of money being loaned to Latin America and the Caribbean by the Andean Devel- Vince McElhiny,CrisisisGood Vince “Global Policy for International Center Source: three IFIs increased significantly. illustrate as However, 1999. since increasing CAF was was down significantly untilabout 2006 fromtheir peak in thelate whiletheamount1990s, tween 1997 and 2008. The amount of loans furnished by the western-based IFIs, the World Bank and the IDB,

Figure 2:IFILendingtoLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean,1997-2008 ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 rnational Policy, January 27, 2009). 2009). 27, January Policy, rnational News for IFIs in Latin America,” Newsin Latin forIFIs d in the graph, between 2007 and 2008, loans from loans all and2008, 2007 between in d the graph, ter-American Development Americas Program Report Bank (IDB)each yearbe- of loans fromthe . 236 242 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

U.S. Energy Information Administration, “Venezuela: Oil,” 1997. around producing was the country that oil barrels of million 3.5 approximately fromthe down significantly oil, barrels of 2.7 about million produced only Venezuela 2007, In ofVenezuela’s trends varying the illustrates graph This 2009). D.C.: January (Washington

Figure 3:Venezuela’s OilProduc ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 oil production and consumption between 1987 and 2007. 2007. and 1987 between consumption and production oil tion andConsumption,1987-2007 Official Energy Statistics from the Government the U.S. from Statistics Energy Official

237 243 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

43. (Boulder: LynneRiennerPublishers,2003): flict ed.SteveEllnerandDanielHellinger Chávez Era:Class,Polarization,andCon- Chávismo Annals oftheAmericanAcademy ofPoliti- and VenezuelanPublicDiplomacy,” Vista Solidarity andth 12 11 Palgrave Macmillan, 2007):152. sis: AComparativeIntroduction(NewYork: 10 9 2004): 287. (Baltimore: JohnHopkinsUniversityPress, ed. JenniferL.McCoyandDavidJ.Myers of Representative DemocracyinVenezuela formation in Venezuela,” in RegimeTrans- to ParticipatoryDemocracy?, 8 Breakdown of 7 6 5 ven: YaleUniversity Press,2007):161-163. Battle forLatin America’s Soul 4 3 1997): 202-203. (Berkeley: University Plenty: OilBoomsandPetro-States Reid, ForgottenContinent,169-171. Jennifer L.McCoy,“From Representative Daniel Hellinger,“PoliticalOverview:The Karl, TheParadox ofPlenty Collier, Michael Reid, Collier, -39. J. Bustamante andJuliaE.Sweig, “Buena Ibid., 64. Marijke Breuning,

York: OxfordUniversityPress,2007): and WhatCanBeDoneAboutIt

2 Terry LynnKarl, Why thePoorestCountriesAreFailing 1 Paul Collier, The BottomBillion The BottomBillion ” in Venezuelan Politicsinthe Puntofijismo ForgottenContinent:The ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Endnotes Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 Foreign PolicyAnaly- The Bottom Billion: The Paradoxof of CaliforniaPress, e AxisofAid:Cuban andtheRiseof ,, 39. , 41. The Unraveling , 64-65. (NewHa- (New

The 38

Thunder’s MouthPress,2006):116. 100 Questions—100Answers Rumbos, mer 17 (New York:Palgrave tics, andChallengetotheUnitedStates 16 ance,” 15 14 formation Network Another ‘Bolivarian’ Socialist,” 13 eralism?” America: Dawn ofanAlternative toNeolib- 25 darity andtheAxisofAid,” 239. 24 Challenge, 169. 23 darity andtheAxisofAid,”235-236. 22 Monthly ReviewPress,2008):14. ington’s WaronVenezeula 21 2007): 164. the ChávezGovernment(London:Verso, Taking Power:TheHistoryandPoliciesof 20 (September 2005):391. Agenda,” Venezuela’s DefianceoftheNeoliberal 19 terly 27,no.2(2006):272. Under Globalisation,” the ChávezEraTellsUsAboutDemocracy 18 1 (January2009):108. 2008): 230. cal andSocialScience Chesa Boudin,GabrielGonzález,andWil- Nikolas Kozloff, Max Azicri, “TheCastro-ChávezAlli- Breuning, Michael KinttoLucas,“Ecuador:Correa, Kellogg, “RegionalIntegration inLatin Bustamante andSweig,“BuenaVistaSoli- Kozloff, Bustamante andSweig,“BuenaVistaSoli- Eva Golinger, Gregory Wilpert, Sheila D.Collins,“Breaking the Mold? Terry Gibbs,“BusinessasUnusual:What Latin American Perspectives New PoliticalScience New PoliticalScience Hugo Chávez:Oil,Politics,and Foreign PolicyAnalysis, The VenezeulanRevolution: Bush VersusChávez:Wash- , January17,2007. Hugo Chávez:Oil,Poli- Changing Venezuelaby MacMillan, 2006):25. 616,no.1(March Third WorldQuar- (NewYork: (NewYork: 27,no.3 29,No.2 Global In- 36,No. 6.

238 244 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

‘Bolivarian’ Socialist.” 2006). Global InformationNetwork(June14, Grasping atUnityStraws, SansVenezuela,” Trade Agreement withColombia,” and Gas.” Elcano RoyalInstitute tionalisation of Boliv darity andtheAxisofAid,” 239. 40 39 Challenge, 109. 38 (Washington, D.C.:March5,2008). Colombian Border,”U.S.FedNewsService 37 36 35 tion, September28,2007):1. (Washington, D.C.:TheHeritageFounda- Serfdom?” Correa Following ChávezDowntheRoadto 34 Peasant Studies10,No.3(July2008):500. Building inLatinAmerica,” 33 32 31 22, 2006). News Service(Washington, D.C.:November 30 29 28 for RegionalIntegration(PartIII):The Na- Lucas, “Ecuador:Correa,Another Kintto Lucas,“AndeanCommunity: U.S. StateDepartment, “U.S.SignsFree Zissis, “Bolivia’s Nationalization of Oil Ibid., 5. Bustamante andSweig,“BuenaVista Soli- Ibid., 113. Kozloff, VOA News,“VenezuelaSendsTroopsto Ibid. Petras, “SocialMovements,”501. James M.Roberts,“Ecuador: James Is Petras, “SocialMovementsandAlliance-

munity ofNations)andtheConsequences

drawal fromtheCAN(AndeanCom- 27 Carlos Malamud, “Venezuela’sWith- on ForeignRelations alization of Oil andGas,” Council 26 Hugo Chávez:Oil,Politics,and Carin Zassis, “Bolivia’s Nation- Backgrounder No.1651 ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 ian Hydrocarbons,” (August29,2006):2. : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 (May12,2006). Journal of U.S. Fed Challenge, 165. 45 (2007): 1352. Chávez,” proaches ofBrazil’sLulaandVenezuela’s Southern Coalition:TheCompeting Ap- 44 467. The RoundTable96,no.391(August2007): bean: ExpandingitsSphereofInfluence,” 43 2008): 34-35. ing High,”Barron’s 42 Challenge, 110. 41 52 for InternationalPolicy, January 27,2009). Program Report News for IFIsinLatin America, 51 466. 50 2006. Leader,” Highlights aPushbackAgainstVenezuelan Loss Chávez; InPoliticalRunoff,Populist’s Cordoba, “InPeruVote,BiggestLoseris 49 (June 10,2006). eign Policy,” 48 Challenge, 123. 47 3. The HeritageFoundation,January11,2008): Backgrounder No.2097(Washington, D.C.: Ortega: TheBalancingAct After One Year,” 46 Kozloff, Kozloff, Sean W. Burges,“BuildingaGlobal Ronald Sanders,“VenezuelaintheCarib- Kenneth Rapoza,“DrillingDeepandFly- Kozloff, Gibbs, “BusinessasUnusual,” 276. Vince McElhiny,“Globa Sanders, “VenezuelaandtheCaribbean,” Matt Moffett,RobertKozak,andJosede “Bruised butUnbowed;Venezuela’sFor- Kozloff, James M.Roberts,“N The WallStreetJournal, Third WorldQuarterly Hugo Chávez:Oil,Politics,and Hugo Chávez:Oil,Politics,and Hugo Chávez:Oil,Politics,and The Economist (Washington, D.C.:Center 88,Iss.26(June30, icaragua’s President l CrisisisGood 379,Iss.8481 28,no.7 Americas June6, 239 245 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

June 2006). 113. (New York:MonthlyReviewPress,2005): Hugo ChávezTalkstoMartaHarnecker Understanding theVenezuelanRevolution: Venezuelanalysis tive forLatinAmerica andtheCaribbean,” (Bancoex), “WhatistheBolivarianAlterna- America, 188. eign Policy,”76-77. IMF Aside,” ploits OiltoLendinLatinAmerica, Pushing 68 67 Anónima, “AlbaCaribe Fund” (2005). 66 100. 65 466-467. 64 Chávez,” 63 62 61 60 59 58 57 56 55 Power América. Bolivariana ParalosPueblosdeNuestra 54 Hugo Chávez FríasandMartaHarnecker, Hugo Chávez Venezuelan BankofExternalCommerce Kellogg, “RegionalIntegrationinLatin Dodson andDorraj,“Populism andFor- Ibid. Ibid., 100. Petróleos deVenezuelaSociedad Azicri, “TheCastro-Chávez Alliance,” Sanders, “VenezuelaintheCaribbean,” Michael Shifter, “InSearchofHugo Ibid. Gibbs, “BusinessasUnusual,”275. PortalAlba, “What isALBA?,” Wilpert,

Christopher Swann,“HugoChávezEx- (Winter/Spring 2008):74.

International Relations Whitehead JournalofDiplomacyand , 99. icy inVenezuelaandIran,” Dorraj, “Populism andForeignPol- 53 Foreign Affairs Changing VenezuelabyTaking Michael DodsonandManochehr Bloomberg, February27,2007. ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 (February5,2004). Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 85,Iss.3(May/ 9, Iss.1 Alternativa The , York Times ica, Venezuela’s Chávez IsaDivider,” 79 78 77 Vote, BiggestLoserisChávez.” 76 History Divided StatesoftheAmericas,” Current 75 74 73 Venezuelan Revolution 72 71 70 69 Challenge 146. 89 88 (September 5,2008):1. and Colombia,” and-Forth Relationship BetweenVenezuela 87 86 2006): 4. Diálogo ExteriorComment para laRelacionesInternacionalesyel The Hydrocarbon‘Conflict,’” 85 84 the CAN,”4. 83 and Gas.” 82 (Washington, D.C.:February24,2009). “Mexico,” 81 80 Juan Forero,“SeekingUnitedLatinAmer- Ibid. Ibid. Moffett, Kozak,andCordoba,“InPeru Michael Shifter andVinayJawahar,“The Ibid., 157. Breuning, Chávez and Harnecker, Ibid., 100-101. Ibid. Ibid. Kozloff, Kozloff, Ibid. María TeresaRomero, “TheFragile,Back- Ibid. Sarah JohndeSousa,“BrazilandBolivia: Ibid., 3. Malamud, “Venezuela’sWithdrawal from Zissis, “Bolivia’s Nationalization of Oil U.S. CentralIntelligence Agency, Ibid. , 99. 105,No.688(February2006):54. Hugo Chávez:Oil,Politics, and The WorldFactbook , May20,2006. Foreign PolicyAnalysis Elcano RoyalInstitute , 123. Understanding the (November Fundación , 153.

New 240 246 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

Oxford University Press,1997):62. Oxford University Modern LatinAmerica4 Renovation,” 6. Arms Race?”Time,December 21,2007. Royal Institute tary Equipment ofLatinAmerica,” cina, “Rearmament orRenovationofMili- 93 January 15,2009. Oil BidsasPricesPlunge,” NewYorkTimes, 107 April 29,2009). the U.S.Government Price FOB,” “Weekly VenezuelaTia JuanaLightSpot 106 469. 105 ica 104 Venezuelan Revolution 103 Power 102 101 100 99 98 97 96 95 94 2007. Ibid., 55. Ibid., 54. Thomas E.Skidmore andPeterH.Smith, Ibid. Malamud andGarcía,“Rearmament or Andrew Downie,“ASouthAmerican Carlos Malamud andCarlotaGarcíaEn-

Simon Romero, “ChávezLetsWest Make U.S. EnergyInformation Administration, Sanders, “VenezuelaintheCaribbean,” Skidmore andSmith, Boudin, González,andRumbos, Ibid. Ibid., 56. Wilpert, Council onHemisphericAffairs , 55.

Factors andForeignPolicyGoals,” 92 Alex Sanchez,“Venezuela’sSecurity , 80. 91 Ibid. Forth Relationship,”3. 90 Romero, “The Fragile,Back-and- Changing VenezuelabyTaking Official Energy Statistics from (January2,2007):3. ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 (Washington,D.C.: , 126. Modern LatinAmer- th ed.(NewYork: : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 , May2, The Elcano

117 116 115 114 113 112 111 110 109 108 131 130 129 128 127 126 125 124 123 Economy,” 17. 122 121 120 119 118 (July 2007):20. Center forEconomic PolicyandResearch Venezuelan Economy intheChávezYears,” (March 2009):2. Latin AmericaMonitor:Andean Price,” March22,2009. (Spring 2008):48. Tiger,” lution inDecline:BewareoftheWounded Times zuela $1BillionforMilitary,” Price.” 2008). Ofra Bikeldir., Mark Weisbrot andLuisSandoval,“The Reid,ForgottenContinent,161. Karl, TheParadoxofPlenty Ibid., 167-168. Ibid., 161-162. Ibid., 168. Ibid. Reid, ForgottenContinent,162. “BoP AConcern,NotYetCrisis,” BBC, Ibid. Francisco Rodríguez,“Venezuela’s Revo- “BoP AConcern,NotYetaCrisis,”3. Michael Schwirtz, “RussiaLoansVene- Ibid., 161. Reid. ForgottenContinent,162-163. BBC Ibid., 89. Karl, TheParadoxofPlenty PBS Online,“TheHugoChávezShow,” Reid, ForgottenContinent,176. “BoP AConcern,NotYetaCrisis,”2. Ibid. Weisbrot andSandoval,“TheVenezuelan (September 26,2008). , “ChávezCutsBudget OverOil “ChávezCutsBudget OverOil World PolicyJournal 25,no.1 Frontline (November25, , 234. New York , 88. 26,Iss.3 241 247 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

22, 2008. and China’sQuietLoan,” 136 150 149 148 147 January 7,2009. macy,” Crude PricesSqueezeChávezOilDiplo- 146 145 Term,” February16,2009. 144 Bloomberg Crisis Hasn’tTouchedVenezuela,” 143 The Guardian, Oil PriceFallCastsCloudonAnniversary,” 142 List,” 2008. 141 December 2007. The NewRulersofFinance,” 140 Price FOB.” “Weekly VenezuelaTia JuanaLightSpot 139 Economy,” 14. 138 Billion for Military.” 137 (Washington, D.C.: March5,2009).

Jorge Santos, “Venezuela:Chávez,Oil James andJones,“FallingCrusePrices.” Ibid. McElhiny, “GlobalCrisis isGoodNews.” Ibid. Ian James andRachelJones,“Falling Breuning, ForeignPolicyAnalysis BBC, Matthew Walter,“ChávezSaysEconomic Rory Carroll, “Hurricane StillSwirling as Sovereign WealthFundInstitute Sudip Roy,“SovereignWealth Funds: U.S. EnergyInformation Administration, Schwirtz, “RussiaLoansVenezuela$1 Weisbrot andSandoval,“TheVenezuelan “Venezuela,”

135 134 133 U.S. CentralIntelligence Agency, Reid, ForgottenContinent,161. Council onHemisphericAffairs, “ChávezWins ChanceofFresh The VenezuelanRevolution Collier, 132 , February9,2009. Boudin, González,andRumbos, February2,2009. The WorldFactbook ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 The BottomBillion,40-41. Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 Stratfor, Euromoney, February , “Fund , 67. , 153.

156 155 154 153 152 151 versity Press,2007):158. seph E.Stiglitz(NewYork:Columbia Uni- tan Humphreys, JeffreyD.Sachs,andJo- in List.” Bids.” Challenge, 61. Roy, “SovereignWealth Funds.” Geoffrey Heal,“AreOilProducersRich?” Sovereign WealthFundInstitute, Karl, TheParadoxofPlenty Romero, “Chávez LetsWest MakeOil Kozloff, Escaping theResourceCurse Hugo Chávez:Oil,Politics,and , 88. , ed.Macar- “Fund 242 248 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

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rent History Divided StatesoftheAmericas.” site=ehost-live&scope=site. N=20586928&loginpage=Login.asp& rect=true&AuthType=ip&db=aph&A di- login.aspx? url=http://proxy.geneseo.edu:2809/ proxy.geneseo.edu:2048/login? (May/June 2006):45-59.http:// Council on Hemispheric Affairs Factors and Foreign Policy Goals.” Chávez.” 20for%20military&st=cse. 20venezuela%20%241%20billion% scp=1&sq=russia%20loans% americas/27chavez.html? www.nytimes.com/2008/09/27/world/ Times, $1 BillionforMilitary.” uiet_loan. zuela_china_chavez_oil_and_chinas_q vene- www.stratfor.com/analysis/ 22, 2008.ary http:// QuietLoan.” China’s (August 2007): 465-476. ence,” TheRound Table 96,no.391 bean: ExpandingitsSphere ofInflu- factors-and-policy-goals/. to-the-press-venezuelas-security- www.coha.org/2007/05/memorandum- 2, 2007.http:// Euromoney Funds: The New Rulers of Finance.” Sudip.Roy, “Sovereign Wealth September 26,2008.http:// ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Foreign Affairs 105, No. 688 (February , December2007. Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 Stratfor New York 85, Iss.3 , Febru- , May Cur- Skidmore, Thomas E.andPeterH. Smith. Swann, Christopher. “Hugo Chávez Exploits Swann, Christopher. “Hugo Sovereign WealthFundInstitute. U.S. Energy Information Administration. U.S. CentralIntelligenceAgency. “Mexico.” U.S. CentralIntelligenceAgency. Teresa Romero, María. “The Fragile,Back- Modern Latin America Modern Latin 2006): 51-57. IMF Aside.” Oil toLendinLatinAmerica,Pushing 2008. http://www.swfinstitute.org/. University Press,1997.York: Oxford Venezuela/Oil.html. http://www.eia.doe.gov/cabs/ Washington, D.C.: January2009. Statistics fromtheU.S.Government. “Venezuela: Oil.” ve.html. publications/the-world-factbook/print/ https://www.cia.gov/library/ Washington, D.C.: March 5, 2009. “Venezuela.” world-factbook/print/mx.html. www.cia.gov/library/publications/the- D.C.: February 24, 2009. https:// The World Factbook.Washington, MOD=AJPERES&attachment=true. df? 2008_Romero_Venezuela_Colombia.p ebb3e70d294206 4/ARI40- wps/wcm/connect/resources/file/ http://www.realinstitutoelcano.org/ Institute (September 5,2008):1-6. zuela andColombia.” and-Forth Relationship BetweenVene- nE. pid=newsarchive&sid=atN8OPWGA4 apps/news? 2007. http://www.bloomberg.com/ Bloomberg The World Factbook Official Energy 4 Elcano Royal th , “Fund List.”

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Years.” Chávez in the Venezuelan Economy UQnk_knSk&refer=news#. pid=20670001&refer=news&sid=a62 www.bloomberg.com/apps/news? Bloomberg Crisis Hasn’t TouchedVenezuela.” D. ntId=12447&RQT=309&VName=PQ did=1494950671&sid=1&Fmt=3&clie pqdweb? 2008. http://proquest.umi.com/ vice lombian U.S.Fed Border.” NewsSer- analysis/344. www.venezuelanalysis.com/ 5, 2004.ary http:// Caribbean.” Alternative forLatinAmerica andthe (Bancoex). isthe “What Bolivarian D. ntId=12447&RQT=309&VName=PQ did=1167062101&sid=1&Fmt=1&clie proquest.umi.com/pqdweb? D.C.: November 22,2006.http:// U.S. FedNews Service Trade Agreement withColombia.” dnav/pet/hist/wepcvetiaw.htm. 29, 2009. http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/ Government. cial EnergyStatisticsfromtheU.S. publications/venezuela_2007_07.pdf. http://www.cepr.net/documents/ and Research (July 2007): 1-22. Juana Light Spot PriceFOB.” stration. “Weekly Venezuela Tia U.S. Energy Information Admini- . WashingtonD.C.: March 5, Center forEconomicPolicy ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 , February 9,, February 2009. http:// Washington, D.C.: April Venezuelanalysis, : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 . Washington, Febru- Offi- Carin Zassis. “Bolivia’s Nationalization of Wilpert, Gregory. www.cfr.org/publication/10682/. lations Oil andGas.” don: Verso, 2007. cies oftheChávezGovernment Taking Power: The History andPoli- (May 12,2006).http:// Changing Venezuelaby Council onForeignRe- . Lon- 247 253 Proceedings of GREAT Day, Vol. 2009 [2010], Art. 47 Great Day 2009 SUNY Geneseo

The West Wing Submitted by David Lombardo

For me The West Wing will be pri- for a well rounded political education. marily remembered as compelling entertain- Many of the lessons that can be ment, but the experiences from this class learned from The West Wing come in a very have proven that a political education can be elementary fashion, so that if this was the gleaned from the episodes. Although ex- primer for an education it would be ade- tracting that knowledge is not an easy task, quate. Aaron Sorkin was writing for a gen- and is one that requires further study as the eral audience, and as such, many of the DVDS of this show could be a useful sup- characters go to great lengths to explain plement to any political science program. what they’re dealing with, the history of the In terms of educating a student The issue, and present all sides of the issue. The West Wing should either be used as a base history and various viewpoints that are pre- from which to build or it should be a final sented are the most compelling reasons why capstone in a curriculum so that students this show could be extremely useful at a ru- can see theories and concepts applied in a dimentary level. At points you feel like meaningful and relatable way. My experi- you’re in a classroom when you watch the ence has essentially been a combination of show, as they delve into statistical sampling, the two approaches, as I began watching the explain Senate procedural rules, and debate show in high school and have rewatched the role of the media. every episode in the second half of my final These conversations serve as an ex- year at SUNY Geneseo. cellent starting point for any political educa- The first approach, using the show tion, and for me they made my textbooks as a foundation for a political education is much more comprehensible. I was able to promising but would seem to have draw- imagine pocket vetoes in terms that didn’t backs. The main drawback is that it presents seem so abstract or have an added apprecia- an idealistic and optimistic world that isn’t tion for how hard reforming social security always indicative of reality, and would in- actually is. still a sort of naiveté in a young student who Beyond added comprehension from doesn’t know anything beyond what he’s the show was an inspired love of politics learned from television. But while the show that might have been equally as important as may present unrealistic outcomes, the sce- any quantifiable knowledge gained. The fact narios and challenges they lay out to poli- that the show was entertaining, and that it ticking and governing are very real, and are presented the political realm in a worth- of a relevant interest to anyone with a desire while light made the whole adventure 248 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47 254 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

ple thatmakes TheWest Wing events. It’s thisdrive that isinstilled inpeo- ing theirown understandingofissuesand plore theissuefurtherand hopefullyreach- for theshowthanageneral audience, and Anupperlevelclassmost likely would beabletohavea higher appreciation paigning, and polling. with issueslikefundinglegislation,cam- that wouldariseoverhowtheshowdeals other classestoensureaninformed debate able toutilizetheir The WestWing bate thevalidityofhowthingsplayouton certain issuesarecovered andpreparetode- level classofupperclassmen toviewhow day discussions.Theideawouldbefora300 probably inamanner similar toourThurs- of referencefrom whichtodebatethings, cementing aneducationwouldbeasaframe point. It’smost usefulcapacityinterms of effects asiftheshowwasusedforastarting tory, wouldmostlikel Thesecondwaytoutilize Wing, asaculmination oftheoriesandhis- accessible books. world outsideoflecturesandsometimes in- trigued, andawareofthefactthatthereisa fore abigrace.Itkeepsyoumotivated, in- starting tool,asifitwasanenergybarbe- purpose bydrivingpeople,likeme, toex-

grounding infact,itservesanulterior

cism oftheshowmay take awayfromits cal science. Thus,whiletheromanti- and eventuallysoughtaB.A.inpoliti- became more involvedinpolitics appealing tome, whichiswhyI . Presumably theywouldbe ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 earlier knowledgefrom y nothavethesame : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 averyuseful The West video. lar tothewayIpresented my GREAT Day sodes andcertainclips,cut inafashionsimi- dents couldreallybenefit from certain epi- mend it.Ithinkaclassfullofengagedstu- level students,whichiswhyIwouldrecom- proach ofusingTheWest Wingforupper Gore’s terriblestrategyandexecution. itself asaninterestingopportunitytoassess in terms 2000electionwouldpresent ofthe strategies utilizedbybothcampaigns, which to bothelectionsyoucananalyzethepublic Presidential election while thelatterwouldbe comparable tothe standoff betweenGingrichandClinton, son four.Theformer wouldbeappliedtothe son five andthePresidential election insea- shutdown oftheFederalGovernmentinsea- ently. Twogoodexamples wouldbethe and contemplate whytheyturnedoutdiffer- pare similar eventsfrom theshowtohistory, West Wing. dictions comparedtothehappeningson to fruitionandcouldespousetheirownpre- could muse abouteventsthathaven’tcome as testcasesforstudentstodebate,they The newstorylines theycreatecouldserve gives theshowahigh own storiesandcreatingnewstorylines, Their roleontheshow,ofprovidingtheir Dee Meyers,andLawrenceO’Donnell. tials includesGeorgeStephanopoulos,Dee tributors withrespectablepoliticalcreden- als thatworkedontheshow.Thelistofcon- would benefitfrom thepoliticalprofession- There isnodownsidetothisap- It wouldalsoserveasawaytocom- of 2000.With regards level oflegitimacy. The 249 255 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

tainment has aroleinrigorousacademic that avideocandotheir job orthatenter- taining. Iknow academics don’tliketothink Wing isderived from the fact thatitisenter- way toapproachpolitics. the White House,anditwouldserveasfresh students, wouldapprecia specific audience,consistingofupperlevel right overaperceivedslight.Ideallymore House contemplatesap the religious rightinpolitics,astheWhite in thehigherlevelclasstodebateroleof that. derstanding thatnoonewouldbelostafter the firstepisodewouldprovideenoughun- and itscharacters,butmandatingtheywatch arises isinunderstanding thefictitious world tently through lecture. The difficulty that think thoseclipscouldbeshownintermit- themes more accessible andthat’swhyI cific episodesthatcouldmake certain can Government class(110),therearespe- ence, whichiswhatyouhaveinanAmeri- specific crowd.Interms ofageneralaudi- can workforageneralaudience or amore in conjunctionwithbothclassesbecauseit level classes aswellupper level classes. ommend Wing utilizing TheWest that understandingthough,Iwouldstillrec- time towatcheverysingleepisode.With duce inaclassroom settingsinceIhadthe

cation, isprobablyimpossible torepro-

own experiencewith which itservedasthebaseformy edu- ter ismore effectiveandrealistic.My Finally, theaccessibility of That firstepisodecouldalsobeused I wouldrecommendusingtheshow approaches Iwouldsaythatthelat- If Ihadtochoosebetweenthetwo ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 peasing thereligious te this dilemma for The WestWing for lower The West , in soned students. beginners andhoningtheideasofmore sea- vating aninterestandknowledgeamongst ment apolitical education, interms of culti- mative itshould beusedasatooltosupple- Wing isentertaining whileremaining infor- with thesource material. SinceTheWest students tolearniftheywereentertained this showfrom educatingstudents. borders shouldbeplacedthatwouldprohibit life, butIthinkthere’s no reasonartificial Frankly, Ithinkitwouldbeeasierfor 250 256 : The Proceedings of GREAT Day 2009 Great Day 2009 SUNY Geneseo

Tomorrow Will Shine Submitted by Geoffrey Griffiths

Martin Luther King Jr’s “Letter from timization of people during the Holocaust. a Birmingham Jail” shares remarkable simi- In 1948, the United Nations introduced the larities with the books Hosea, Jonah, and “Universal Declaration of Human Rights” in Amos from the Old Testament. By compar- an attempt to create a standard, whereby all ing these writings, we discover not only human beings can be treated with respect what makes a prophet and why they arise, and dignity (1). Yet, human rights violations but we also discover the general pattern that still occur today. This can change. The an- prophets follow in their efforts to bring swer is in speaking out against discrimina- about change. The prophets of old, such as tion and cruelty. Conditions cannot change, Hosea, Jonah, and Amos were the messen- if people remain silent. Ultimately, human gers of God, and were usually “outsiders” rights and human flourishing come through with an innate calling to reform social and the tireless efforts of people willing to put moral injustice. At first, the prophets of old their lives on the line to combat injustice. appeared reluctant because they were under- These people are prophets. They are people, taking a dangerous journey; however, with like Abraham Lincoln, Mahatma Gandhi, the help of God, they brought the message Nelson Mandela, Henry David Thoreau, and that all people could earn forgiveness and Martin Luther King Jr.—people who exer- salvation if they changed their ways. Martin cised their freedom of speech to rise above Luther King Jr. can be seen as a modern injustice. They appear in the eighth century prophet, and perhaps he recognized this be- B.C., and they still appear today. cause he likens himself to the prophets of Marvin Perry, author of Western old. King reminds us that prophets are still Civilization: A Brief History, conveys that needed to fix the injustices and immorality prophets are “outsiders” that bring messages of contemporary society. of social change and “attack oppression, Humans have inhabited the Earth for cruelty, greed, and exploitation” (29). In millions of years, and, unfortunately, uni- other words, prophets are “outside” of the versal human rights are still not guaranteed corrupt, immoral, and faithless population— to all people. Freedom is not “ringing” eve- whether it is because they come in from a rywhere, not even in modern times. Within foreign area or because they are not taking the past century, the world has witnessed part in the sins or violations of the majority. some of the worst dehumanizing events, in- Perry asserts that prophets, “often emerge in cluding the repression of women, the op- times of social distress and moral confu- pression of African Americans, and the vic- sion” and “plea for a return to the covenant 251

Published by KnightScholar, 2010 257 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

to educatepeopleabou on aship,butGod“hurled agreatwind before me” (Jon against it,fortheirwickedness hascome up to “goNinevehthat “outsider,” whenheiscommanded byGod prophet, Jonah,alsorepresentsan play theharlot”(Hos.1.2).Asecond the peopleofIsraelhave“lefttheirGod to adultery andhas“playedtheharlot,”justas God. Hosea’swife,Gomer,hascommitted his personallifeto sion, Hos.4.2).Hoseausedananalogyof mitting adultery”(Revised StandardVer- swearing, lying,killing,stealing,andcom- knowledge ofGodintheland;therewas ing “nofaithfulnessorkindnessandno Israel becausethepeoplehavebeenshow- north andenteredthe ists. Theprophet Hoseacomes from the of theearliesthuman a the prophetsofold,andtheyrepresentsome people shouldbetreatedwithrespect. not ameans toanend.”Moresimply, all “treat everyone asanend inthemselves, and philosopher, Immanuel Kant,weshould benefit others.Toborrowanideafrom the only goodforyou,butalsotodowhatwill No religionisrequiredtodowhatnot being morally goodinthoughtandaction. society, tofollowGod’swayisanalogous bring anend todecadence. Incontemporary ments. Itwas thejobofprophetsold

God bydisobeyingtheTen Command-

emerged, whenpeoplesinnedagainst from morality. Theprophetsof old well orwhenpeoplehavestrayed Hosea, Jonah,andAmos arethreeof needed whenthingsarenotgoing and law”(29).Prophetsare . 1.2).Jonahtriedtoescape ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 convey themessage of Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 southern populationof great cityand cry nd civilrightsactiv- t theirsinsand to for morality indailylife” (Perry30). Hosea sought “adeeperspiritual insight orazeal ets soughtsomething beyondthelaw, they act asGod’smessengers” (29).The proph- prophets arepeoplewho“feltcompelled to out againstinjustice.AccordingtoPerry, “gadfly” accordingtoSocrates,andspeak undertake thedangerous themselves—towhether fromGodorwithin penitence andreform” (Perry29). “national misfortune wasanopportunityfor (Perry 29). Forthepr Hebrew Kingsbegantomistreat thepoor tions. With thisdevelopment, thewealthy B.C. Thetransitionresulted inclass distinc- curred inIsraelduringtheEighthCentury tribal society tosettle criticism originates from thetransition from such asalcoholandwealth(Amos 4.1).This the needy”infavorofmaterialisticneeds, people who“oppressthepoor,crush life ofself-indulgence. humbleness beforeGodandhaveadopteda declared thatthepeoplehaveforsakentheir their “transgressions”(Amos 1.3).Amos “God willnot revokethe punishment” for Tyre, Judah,andseveralothervillagesthat, layed God’smessage toDamascus, Gaza, ple ofthedifferentvillagesIsrael.Here- brought thesinsto sequences tootherpeoplebeforeacting. act responsibly,andmust considerthecon- the authorityoveranyoneelse.Peoplemust (Jon. 1.15).Moreuniversally,nopersonhas trol astheultimate moral judge ofhumans work ofGodandthatremained incon- us thattheprophetsofoldweredoing upon thesea”topreventhim. Thisreminds Prophets haveaninnatecalling— Amos, ashepherdfrom Judea, ophets, thistypeof d civilizationsthatoc- attention ofthepeo- Theyhavebecome jobofbeingthe 252 258 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

unless theychangedtheir ways(Jon. would resultinpunishments from God lifestyles and mistreat his dutytowarnthepeoplethattheirsinful the Lordhasspokenagainstyou.”Itwas called forthepeopleto“hearthiswordthat the peopleofIsrael.In moral obligation torelayGod’smessage to role (Jon.1).TheprophetAmos alsofelta and deliveredtoNinevehcontinuehis thrown intothesea,swallowed byafish, was “throwninto”beingaprophet,he mankind, notjustthemselves. JustasJonah are altruistic, andseek emergence offalseprophets.Trueprophets and adoptaselfishlifestyle,leadingtothe prophets canstrayfrom theirnoblecause, purpose (Jon.1.13).Alongthejourney, a treacherous storm to nored hiscalling,whichcausedGodtosend call ofGod,Jonahsetsailonashipandig- or some othermoral judge. After the first their calling;theyneed ets may notbefullypreparedtocarryout 3.2). However,Jonahil city ofNinevehonseveraloccasions(Jon. “proclaim themessage thatItellyou”tothe sors oftheweak. tice, andtostandinthewayofoppres- Israel. Itwashisjobtocryoutagainstinjus- prevent corruptionfrom sweepingacross 9.8). Asthe“watchman,” itwashisjobto

watchman ofEphraim [Israel]”(Hos

tion” (Hos.9.3).Hoseawas“the loved somuch from the“deepcorrup- the landtodeliver theland thathe Being aprophetisdangerous job. Similarly, GodcalleduponJonahto carry thewordofGodthroughout loved Israelandfeltcompelledto ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 ment ofthepoor remind Jonahofhis thebetterment ofhu- chapterthree,Amos theguidanceofGod, lustrates thatproph- : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009

3.5). . people repentedandhad “turnedfromtheir the poplar”(Hos blossom asthelily,heshallstrikeroot as God “wouldbeasthede pented (Hos.14.5).Hoseaconveyedthat heal their faithlessness” ifthepeoplere- fort. InHosea ditions ofsocietycan ment ofpeoplecanbestopped,andthecon- human rightscanbereversed,themistreat- dignity ofothers”(Perry30).Thedenial self orherselfmorally andcouldrespectthe the individualwascapableofelevatinghim- part ofanunalterable erty andinjusticeneednotbeacceptedas “life onearthcouldbeimproved,thatpov- cording toPerry,thepr ets, then Godwillhavemercy onthem. Ac- the peoplefollowmessage oftheproph- ness, salvation,andhopeforthefuture.If Martin LutherKingJr. the time, especiallyduringtimes ofcrisisas “caught upbytheZeitgeist,”orspiritof quences are—perhaps itisbecause theyare fulfill their role nomatter whattheconse- may nothavebeensofortunate.Prophets tively unscathedintheend;however,others Jonah, andAmos may haveremained rela- the prophetsdidfacepersecution.Hosea, never befullyanswered;yet,inmany cases Thesequestionsmayas wasdescribed? protect theprophetsandpunishpeople the messages Would oftheprophets? God violations. Whatifpeopledidnot embrace words, theyspokeoutagainsthuman rights out againstthesinsofmajority. Inother ostracism, andotheratrocitiesforspeaking and Amos persecution,imprisonment, faced In theEighthcenturyB.C.,Hosea,Jonah, Prophets bringamessage offorgive- , Godrevealedthathe“would . 14.6).InJonah,after the natural order,andthat change withsome ef- ophets believedthat, illustrates (King5). w toIsrael; heshall 253 259 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

sinful populationwhen sents the“outsider” bringing messages toa Testament, MartinLutherKingJr.repre- rewarded. can occurandthatgoodbehaviorwillbe sea, Jonah,andAmos illustratethatchange rescued” (Amos3.12).Inotherwords,Ho- as allpeopleofcolor.King callsforanend mistreatment ofAfricanAmericans, aswell who isrespondingtor his callingtoendit. Birmingham isthecenter Birmingham, buthebelongstherebecause blacks” (Colaiaco4).Kingmay notlivein lent effortstosecureequalrightsfor ship Conferenceto“p tion” withtheSouthernChristianLeader- “in Birmingham andby invita- byaffiliation called an“outsider”toBirmingham, heis Although, MartinLutherKingJr.may be boundaries oftheirhometowns”(King,1). their ‘thussaiththeLord’farbeyond century B.C. lefttheirvillagesandcarried is here.Justasthe that heis“in Birmingham becauseinjustice “Letter fromBirmingham Jail,”Kingstates ble” (4). Intheth of theOldandNewTestaments oftheBi- [actually] compareshimself totheprophets James A.Colaiaco relates that,“King mingham andthroughouttheentireSouth. people ofIsraelwhodwellinSamaria be

legs, orapiece ofanear, soshallthe

cued from themouth liontwo ofthe also relatedthat,“astheshepherd res- on theiractions(Jon.3.10).Amos Similar totheprophetsofOld Martin LutherKingJr.is aprophet them, andinsteadcommendedthem evil way,”God didnotpunish ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 ird paragraphofthe prophets oftheeighth Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 articipate innonvio- acial injustice andthe he travelstoBir- of injustice,andit Constitution wouldremain unfulfilled” (3). ica’s DeclarationofIndependence andthe and equality,thedream embodied inAmer- throughout thenationweredeniedjustice tions whenhewrites,“Aslongasblacks against it.Colaiaco fected byracialdiscrimination tospeakup his duty,aswellthedutyofeveryoneaf- continued fartoolongandbelievesthatitis injustices occurringinBirmingham have of despair”(King3).Kingassertsthatthe longer willingtobepl runs over,andmen [andwomen] areno comes atimewhenthecupofendurance against justice whenhewritesthat,“there pronounces hismoral callingtoriseup ance orbeliefsbenefitsnoone. ers withbrutality because oftheirappear- ple istherighttoharm others.Treatingoth- the onlyrightthatshoul would onlyescalatetheproblems. Perhaps, best optionbecauseaviolent campaign similar tothatofMahatma Gandhi,wasthe Americans (King1).Civildisobedience, unjust treatment incourts”ofAfrican bat thesegregation,brutality, and“grossly to undertakeanonviolentcampaign tocom- and otherswere leftwithfewoptionsexcept other civilrightsactivists(Colaiaco1).King cotts ledbyMartinLutherKingJr.and “anti-segregation” demonstrations andboy- The Alabamaclergymen refertotherecent been ‘unwiseanduntimely’” (Colaiaco2). that therecentdirectactionsincityhad lished by“Alabama clergymen charging was writteninresponse toadocument pub- fact, King’s“LetterfromBirmingham Jail” to theimmoralpractices Martin LutherKingJr.adamantly supports King’sasser- unged intotheabyss d bedeniedtopeo- ofsegregation.In 254 260 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

western societyisgive United StatesofAmerica,” everyone in “Declaration oftheIndependence ofthe into amoral obligation.Asiswritteninthe beyond anylaworwrittenruleanditdelves awful” (King3).King’scallingextendsfar logically unsound,itismorallywrongand ies duringthe CivilRights Movement faced ther KingJr.andmany ofhiscontemporar- coworkers withGod” efforts of men[and women] willingtobe but changeoften“comes throughthetireless by allpeople. der, ethnicbackground,orappearanceisfelt rights ofpeople basedon race,color, gen- where” (119).Mistreatmentanddenialof gression inone placeisfeltevery- Kant writesin will continue indefinitely. AsImmanuel must bedealtwith,otherwiseoppression other places. TheoppressorsinBirmingham Birmingham standsinthewayofjustice justice everywhere” (King 1).Injustice in because “injusticeanywhereisathreat to idly byinAtlanta,” while thisisoccurring gation. MartinLutherKingJr.“cannot sit Birmingham throughthepracticeofsegre- These aretheveryrightsbeingdeniedin treatment, discrimination, andenslavement. is protectedbynatura happiness” andeveryone rights” for“life,liberty,andthepursuitof only politically,economically, andsocio-

equally. Thatiswhy“segregationnot

moral laws,suchastreatingpeople ion, andgovernment. Theyarethe that applytoeverycommunity, relig- The roleofaprophetisstruggle, of asociety,thereare“higher laws” Inaddition to thecivil laws Perpetual Peace,“Atrans- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 l laws againstmis- (King 5).MartinLu- n certain“inalienable in westernsociety : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 many ofthestrugglespeopleinpoor the publicspotlight wereforgottenand many ofthehuman rightsviolationsnotin attempt atcreatingunityamong people, Martin LutherKingJr.However,inKing’s improved from theeffortofpeople,suchas Times havechangedandconditions candidates runningforthe2008election. satisfaction ofseeing this year,andwecanonlyguessatKing’s President of theUnitedStates of America King’s faceafterBarack Obama waselected the smile thatwouldhavespreadacross crimination invoting.We canonlyimagine 1965, theVotingRightsActoutlaweddis- tion andoutlawedse 1964, theCivilRightsActcame intofrui- South begantocrumble” (Colaiaco1).In after whichtheforcesofsegregationin “turning pointinthebattleforcivilrights, in Birmingham, andhiseffortsrepresenta his efforts.Kingeventu 1968, beforehecouldseethefullresultof Luther KingJr.wasassassinatedonApril4, the effortsofprophets.Tragically,Martin be seen,positive changelikely prevails with prophets before him haddone. manding an endtosuffering,justasthe for bringingthemessage ofpeaceand de- Even Kingwasjailedaboutadozentimes “suffered savagebeatings”(Colaiaco6). “freedom rides,”many men andwomen were tornapart.Duringsome ofthe Rights leaders wereshot down,andfamilies burned totheground,prominent Civil Americans andwhitesympathizers were ence (Colaiaco6).HomesofAfrican lent campaigns andactsofcivildisobedi- unimaginable horrorsduringtheirnonvio- Although immediate resultsmay not gregation. Then,in the diversityof ally wasvictorious

255 261 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

ity for the people ( Nation Kozol arguesinhisbook,TheShame ofthe tion systems stillexists today,asJonathan gation, butsegregationinAmerica’s educa- Board ofEducation(1954)outlawedsegre- early 1990s?IntheUnitedStates,Brownv. gation inSouthAfricaenduredintothe For example, whydidtheApartheidsegre- rights; however,more workmust bedone. before toguaranteeinguniversalhuman support oftheirpeers. not besuccessful,unlesstheyreceivedthe the injusticesofsoci part too.Societyneedsprophetstoexpose civil andhuman rightsactivistsdidtheir was nottheonlyone.Thousandsofother end segregationintheUnitedStates,buthe years ago.MartinLutherKingJr.helped Hosea, Jonah,andAmos from thousandsof injustice and appliedthesame practices of Luther KingJr.emerged inatime ofracial injustice can berestored morality can bechangedtomorality, and made. Evil canbeconvertedtoGood,im- the effortsofprophets,greatchangesare with their help. Whoever they may be,tomorrow willshine Jonahs, Gandhis,andKingsofthefuture? the oppressed. Who willbetheHoseas, will alwaysneedprophetstospeakup for zol, bringstoourattention.Perhaps,society that anothermodernprophet,JonathanKo- get achance tocombat, anditissomething

injustice and serveasmessengers ofmoral-

than dissenters;theyspeakupagainst

or dissenter,butprophetsaremuch more ciety isalwaysinneedofthe“gadfly,” . Thisissomething thatKingdidnot AsSocrateswouldargue,so- Today, wearecloserthanwere today. Many oftheseproblems persist neighborhoods wereignored. ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 The Apology). Through Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 ety, butprophetswould

tojustice.Martin Colaiaco, James A.TheAmerican Dream Kant, Immanual. Theessay“Perpetual “The UniversalDeclarationofHuman The HolyBible Plato. TheLast DaysofSocrates:Euthy- Perry, Marvin.Western Civilization:A McGee, ArthurR.“Letterfrom aBirming- www.jstor.org/stable/274975>. 1-18 ClarkAtlanta (1960-). Vol.45,No.1(1 the “Letterfrom Birmingham Jail” Unfulfilled: MartinLuther King,Jr.and www.un.org/Overview/rights.html> Rights.” 2009.14April. www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/ ter. 29Jan.2004

Works Cited Perpetual PeaceandOtherEs- . Volume Ito1879.SixthEdi- : RevisedStandardVersion.

st Qtr.,1984),pp.

Phylon 256 262 : The Proceedings of GREAT Day 2009 Great Day 2009 SUNY Geneseo

Diamond Certificate Report: The Ghana Project Submitted by Jesse Parent, Rejoyce Owusu, and Ben DeGeorge

The report is the pinnacle of the Diamond Inspiration: What was your inspiration certificate. Please answer the following for doing your project? questions in your report: The Ghana Project was created in Name: Jesse Parent, Rejoyce Owusu, and Fall 2008; it was born out of GOLD’s Ben DeGeorge “Diamond Civic Engagement” certificate. Title of Project: The Ghana Project GOLD Mentor Rejoyce Owusu developed Dates of Project from beginning to com- the idea as a way to share her homeland of pletion or still in progress Ghana. Joined by fellow GOLD Mentors The project began September 20, 2008 Jesse Parent and Ben DeGeorge, the found- and it is an on gain service learning project ing members The Ghana Project began under the center of community at SUNY working together to establish a group based Geneseo. The Ghana Project originally on civic engagement and service learning, started off as a service learning/civic en- focusing on Ghana and its culture and in- gagement/ volunteering project through the creasing global awareness. A major long GOLD department. The Ghana Project is term goal of the project is helping to build focused on spreading Ghanaian culture or establish a school in Ghana. While the through cross culture dialogue amongst stu- first year of the Project has been about es- dents that have studies abroad in Ghana and tablishing and creating awareness, already students that are thinking about service raised significant funding and made valu- learning opportunities on campus. able connections to help in pursuing this Through the efforts of SUNY Geneseo goal. students we want to create global awareness Funding: Did your project require fund- on campus. Specifically, we want to create ing? How did you go about acquiring awareness and establish a connection with a these funds? University in Ghana. We have successfully Major fundraising for The Ghana Pro- had educational programming, community ject has been sponsored T-Shirts. Thanks to partnerships, fundraising efforts and a a combined effort with SUNY Geneseo’s GREAT Day presentation every year on Educational Department groups – Council campus. for Exceptional Children (CEC), Elemen- Our main goals for this semester were tary and Secondary Educational Association the cultural dinner, T-shirt advertisement, (ESEA), and The Young Children’s Council the 5K race and our Great day performance. (YCC) – The Ghana Project has been able All these events were fantastic. to raise over $1,000 in one week’s time. 257

Published by KnightScholar, 2010 263 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

Speakers includedDr.Osman Alawiye, ing Ghanaianclothing,and otheractivities. traditional Ghanaian dinner, dancing, model- first everGhanaGala.The eventincluded a port sharedtheirstories.March‘09wasthe Dennis Showers.Guestsfrom SUNYBrock- Alawiye, DeanofSchoolEducation,Dr. about Ghana.SpeakersincludedDr.Osman first major event, aneducational model Buffalo, andSyracusecampus. the Brockport,RobertWesleyan,Cornell, and wehaveapartnershipwithstudentsin people, amailing listofover100people, have agrowing facebookgroupofover720 through theprojectissimplyamazing. We amount ofpeoplethat sharing theresourcesoncampus. The ensure that weareworking togetherand issues inAfricaandcreatedacommittee to concentrate onbringingawarenesstothe multiple student groupsoncampus thatalso the Fallof2008,wehavecollaboratedwith tact information for your projectareality?Pleaseinclude con- community and/oroncampustomake withdividuals whoyouworked inthe Partners: Names oforganizations andin- Community Contacts,Collaborators & course ofit’sshortexistence. paper, TheLamron, frequentlyoverthe ity. Ithasappearedinthestudent-runnews- wide recognition,suppor

Ghana. TheGhanaProjecthasreceived

In November‘08,theProject heldits Since thelaunchofGhanaProjectin long term goalof another means toraisefundingforthe “Geneseo Moves forGhana”willbe a Walkathon /5Kracein mid-April. Upcoming fundraisersalsoinclude ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 future reference. have beenreached building aschoolin t, andgreatpublic- ming andeducatingstudentsabout our community througheducational program- ian culture.Theprojec seeks towelcome othersintowarm Ghana- working onmajor culture events,the Project group members theGhanaianhandshaketo is sharingGhanaianculture. From teaching to completingyourproject? Timeline: Whatwere thedifferent steps Angela Snook Hudson, RejoyceOwusu,JesseParent,and Heather Ford,KerishaHawthorne, Theona Boateng, DaliaCalix,DeonEdwards, The members of theteam include:Abigail be wearingtraditionalGhanaianclothing. be acelebration of African culture. We will moves willbeexcitingand energetic. Itwill of thesongareAfrican-French,and nation ofAfricanhiphopmusic. Thelyrics minutethree andhalf dent ChristopherDahl.Ourdancewasa Union Ballroom StageintroducedbyPresi- ject conductedadanceperformance inthe Life, CAS,CEC,YCC,andESEA. all othersupportersincludingGOLD,Res- Scott DirectorofCampus AServices,and School ofEducation,Yolany Gonell,Mark Teaching &LearningCenter,Deanof the velopment &Training andDavidParfitt, Tom Matthews,Leadership Education, De- that hashelpsponsortheprojectsuchas Putnam hall,YolanyGonell. cially AreaCoordina to Wyoming Hallfor hosing theevent, espe- Technical University, Ghana. Specialthanks and Prof.Owusu-Dapaa,from Nkrumah Prof. Wes Kennison,(InternationalStudies) The heartand soulofTheGhanaProject The Ghanaprojecthashadindividuals On April21,2009TheGhanaPro- torWyoming of and long dance-acombi- t wasintroduce tothe 258 264 Published byKnightScholar, 2010

ing withthe college policies,especially in ship styles.Wealsohad to dealwithwork- combining allthree Gold mentors’ leader- dealing withthedirect We haveencounteredmany challenges lenges didyouactuallyencounter? see inexecutingyourproject?Whatchal- Challenges: Whatchallengesdidyoufore- Lamron. even featuredinthestudentnewspaper many spokehighlyaboutit.Wewere people the event hadfullcapacityattendance,and of varioustribesinAfrica.Tosaytheleast, and otherdecorativedisplayofinformation food, music, dancing,clothing,modeling tastic success, withtraditional Ghanaian Ghana. Overall,theGhanaGalawas afan- words withtheaudienceaboutissuesin were bothinattendanceandsharedsome Science andTechnologyinKumasi, Ghana Universityof Law attheKwame Nkrumah Owusu-Dappa, whoteachesintheFacultyof to Ghana.Dr.Alawiye,andProfessor toms oftheGhanaianpeopleduringhisvisit we hadWes Kennison,presentonthecus- Ghana GalainWyoming Hall.Atthe Gala in Ghana. ous communitymembers thathadaninterest Project wereinattendance alongwithvari- Ghana. MembersoftheBrockportGhana De’George presentontheirexperience in tion, andstudyabroadstudentBen department, Dr.Alawiye,DeanofEduca-

Kennison from theInternationalStudies

Recently, the GhanaProjectsponsoreda Hall andwewerehappytohaveWes an informational programinWayne Last semester theGhanaProjectheld about joiningthecause. cause andgettingstudentsexcited ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 ion oftheprojectand : TheProceedingsofGREATDay2009 , The be anongoingserviceproject thatstudents cated inthe future? Future: How couldthisprojectberepli- there. Geneseo continuetoco school inGhanaandhavestudentsfrom awareness of theissuesinGhanatobuilda GOLD program wecouldbringenough different level.We thatthroughthe hope new andchallenge theirleadership skill ona tinue toencouragestudentstrysomething as theGhana Project.Wealsowanttocon- ences throughcivicenga mats acrosstheworldandgainmore experi- also hopestudentswouldbecitizendiplo- contribute aschoolbuildinginGhana.We to establishapartnershipinGhanaand Thelongterm ject? long-term societal benefits toyourpro- Benefits: What aretheshort-termand done. selves rolestheythoughtcouldhave to influencesstudentstakeuponthem- was learninghowtode campus. Anotherimportant thingwelearn pus isconcernwithactivitiestakingplaceon tion wassmoothbecauseeveryoneon cam- lege officialsoncampus sothecommunica- is veryimportant. We hadtoinform allcol- managing every detailaspectoftheproject large civicengagement on campus. Wehavelearnedthatthrougha communication betweenotherorganizations major problems weencounter wasthemis- were notacampus Oneofthe organization. and becarefulnottobreakthesesincewe to beawareofthest regards tofundraisingat Inthefuture,wehopethis projectwill udent associationrules benefitoftheprojectis legate responsibilities nduct theirinternship project suchasthis thecollege.Wehad gement projectsuch 259 265 https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2009/iss1/47

the goalofdoingthatnationaservice. with othercountriesandworkingtowards different waysthroughforming connections ties. Thisprojectcan

dents withvarious

with theglobalworldandconnectstu- hopefully willhelpGeneseonetwork through othercountries.Thisproject tinue toexpandtheirknowledge will bepassionate about andcon- ra a 09 SUNYGeneseo GreatDay2009 Proceedings ofGREATDay,Vol.2009[2010],Art.47 internship opportuni- be replicated in manybe replicatedin 260 266