Fire today ManagementVolume 71 • No. 3 • 2011
Making History
United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service Fire Management Today is published by the Forest Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC. The Secretary of Agriculture has determined that the publication of this periodical is necessary in the transaction of the public business required by law of this Department.
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Tom Vilsack, Secretary Melissa Frey U.S. Department of Agriculture General Manager
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Tom Harbour, Director Mark Riffe, METI Inc., EMC Publishing Arts Fire and Aviation Management Editor
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August 2011
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Fire Management Today 2 Fire Management today Volume 71 • No. 3 • 2011
On the Cover: Contents Anchor Point: USDA Forest Service, Fire and Aviation Management—an Organization of Wildland Fire Professionals ...... 4 Tom Harbour
Greening Fire: Forest Service Style ...... 5 Jennifer Letz, Thomas Fuchtman, and Heather Davis
Repurposed Vehicles: A Tale of Two Trucks ...... 11 Gregory Gettys and Otis Wayne Kennedy Stan Hirsch (right, with pilot Stan Butryn) developed Project FIRESCAN at the Northern Fire Laboratory Working With American Indian Tribes on Wildland Fires: to detect fires using infrared Protecting Cultural Heritage Sites in Northwestern photography from a U.S. Army Mohawk aircraft. Within a few years, California ...... 14 managers adopted this technology to Frank K. Lake identify problem areas within fires, establish safety zones for firefighters, and locate spot fires. This was one A Celebration of Excellence in Wildland Fire Science: in many innovative projects in The International Journal of Wildland Fire Is 20 Years Old . . 22 the ongoing history of the facility, renamed the Missoula Fire Lab. For Martin E. Alexander a glimpse into other efforts and the history of the lab, see the article “50 Years of Service: The Missoula 50 Years of Service: The Missoula Fire Sciences Laboratory . . . 24 Fire Sciences Laboratory.” Photo: Jane Kapler Smith, Diane Smith, and Colin Hardy Harold Pontecarvo, Forest Service. Estimated Smoldering Probability: A New Tool for Predicting Ground Fire in the Organic Soils on the The USDA Forest Service’s Fire and Aviation Management Staff has adopted a logo North Carolina Coastal Plain ...... 31 reflecting three central principles of wildland James Reardon and Gary Curcio fire management: • Innovation: We will respect and value thinking minds, voices, and thoughts of A Tool To Estimate the Impact of Bark Beetle Activity on those that challenge the status quo while Fuels and Fire Behavior ...... 36 focusing on the greater good. Michael J. Jenkins, Elizabeth G. Hebertson, Wesley G. Page and • Execution: We will do what we say we Wanda E. Lindquist will do. Achieving program objectives, improving diversity, and accomplishing targets are essential to our credibility. Fire Management Today Announces 2010 • Discipline: What we do, we will do well. Photo Contest Winners ...... 42 Fiscal, managerial, and operational discipline are at the core of our ability to fulfill our mission.
sHort Features Exploring the Mega-Fire Reality 2011 ...... 41 Photo Contest Announcement ...... Inside Back Cover Firefighter and public safety is our first priority.
Volume 71 • No. 3 • 2011 3 Anchor by Tom Harbour Director, Fire and Aviation Management Point Forest Service, Washington, DC usDa Forest serviCe, Fire anD aviation ManageMent—an organization oF WilDlanD Fire ProFessionals
n recent Anchor Point articles, You might ask where one will I am proud of who we are—who I’ve talked about the National acquire these knowledge, skills, and we have become, and the work I Cohesive Wildland Fire abilities. This will be done through we do. I am especially proud of Management Strategy and how it a combination of education, train programs, such as the National will ultimately help us to all come ing, and experience. As wildland Wildland Firefighter Apprenticeship together, regardless of agencies or fire management professionals, Academy, the Advanced Wildland jurisdictions, to solve the problems we are expected to deal with a set Firefighter training program of wildfire in the United States. I’ve of circumstances and emergency at Schenck Job Corps, and the covered the importance of reinforc management factors uncommon Veteran’s Green Corps, that assist ing fire doctrine and risk manage to any other profession. Our ability us in building future capacity for ment to safely and effectively man to derive favorable outcomes that the wildland fire profession. I am age wildfire when it occurs and the result in a benefit to society is truly proud of the energy that goes into importance of these two factors in unique. ensuring the integrity of our wild- everything we do, every time we do land fire qualifications and certifi it. In this edition, I’d like to talk As I travel around the world and cation program. about professionalizing wildland speak to groups about wildland fire fire management. management, it is apparent that, Success will bring these compo unlike European foresters, we, as nents together into a complete When I say that I believe in pro U.S. wildland fire management package, with a plan that can be fessionalizing the wildland fire professionals, need to understand implemented locally and sustained management program, I mean that ecological relations as well as nationally, building a wildland fire everyone involved in the wildland emergency management relation profession with professional ethics, fire management profession will ships. We are expected to bridge a code of conduct, a philosophy, abide by a code of conduct and the gap between natural resource and professional qualifications adhere to a set of strict ethical stan management and emergency man that create equity and opportunity dards and professional qualifica agement—unlike others within our for every individual who wants to tions that will place our organiza organizations. We are expected to be involved in fire and aviation tion above the rest. We will aim for not only be skilled at both; we need management—who wants to be a our fire and aviation management to be leaders in both. To become wildland fire management profes profession to be the most respected, leaders, we need to also consider sional. admired wildland firefighting orga the diversity of our programs and nization in the world—and that of our organization and to expand admiration will be derived from and that diversity into the future. anchored in our diversity, knowl edge, skills, and abilities.
Fire Management Today 4 greening Fire: Forest serviCe style Jennifer Letz, Thomas Fuchtman, and Heather Davis
he impacts of wildfire are not always confined to the effects The team, composed almost entirely of current or Tof fire alone, but sometimes former firefighters, was quick to focus its energy on extend to the consequences of suppression-related operations. two of the biggest sustainability issues facing fire As always, scale plays a role in camps: waste management and bottled water use. the extent of effects, and a group of Forest Service employees are exploring ways to minimize the from their point of ignition. Yet, ply tents, portable toilets, and fuel ecological footprint of firefighting occasionally, a small fire will grow trucks are just a few of the support operations. until its size and scope over-tax components in a camp, providing the efforts of local fire crews. At firefighters with everything they From Fire to Fire Camp this point, an interagency incident need to ensure a safe and produc Most wildfires begin with a small management team (IMT) is asked tive shift on the fireline. This spark. Due to the swift actions of to take the reins and manage fire impressive logistical feat is accom initial attack crews, the major operations. plished by the coordinated efforts ity of these fires never stray far of the IMT’s logistics section, fire A critical function of an IMT is to caches, dispatchers and buying establish a fire camp—a hub of teams, host unit leadership, and Jennifer Letz is the sustainable operations specialist for the Deschutes and Ochoco firefighting efforts where crews eat, private contractors. National Forests and Pacific Northwest sleep, and refuel while operations, Region Fire and Aviation in Bend, OR. She planning, logistics, and administra is chair of the Western Collective Greening Sustainable Operations Fire Team. Tom Fuchtman retired as a tion specialists plan the intricate at Fire Camp member of the Greening Fire Team and daily operations required of a large assistant fire management officer on the incident. Literally overnight, a In the shadows of this monumen Santa Fe National Forest in Cuba, NM, small, full-service city is created, tal feat hides a problem that, until in July 2011. Heather Davis is a student recently, was simply justified as an in the Forest Service Student Career capable of supporting anywhere Employment Program pursuing a graduate from 100 to 2,000 incident staff. acceptable consequence of emer degree in engineering and working for the Caterering services, showers, sup- gency operations. The problem was Western Collective in Bozeman, MT.
A fire camp is the hub of firefighting efforts, where crews eat, sleep, and refuel. The support portion of the Scott Mountain Fire Camp in McKenzie Bridge, OR, includes overhead tents, shown in the foreground, and shower and catering services in the background. Photo: Jennifer Letz, 2010.
Volume 71 • No. 3 • 2011 5 not something in the camps. It was The Western Collective utilizes the time and something missing from camps: sustainable operations. Sustainable talents of Forest Service employees at all levels of operations, in this context, are the agency across the Western United States to defined as actions that support promote and integrate sustainable operations. work activities, yet minimize nega tive environmental, financial, and social impacts. Initiatives such as Transportation Management,” Service to operate more sustain- recycling; waste mitigation; and issued October 5, 2009, further ably were scattered and unorga fuel, water, and energy conserva clarified the Federal Government’s nized. The need for a structured tion were largely absent from fire previous mandates by requir support system for sustainable camps. Fire camp was one of the ing agencies to “eliminate waste, initiatives within the agency led few places left in the Forest Service recycle, and prevent pollution” and to the development of a unique where waste—in all its forms—was improve efforts in green purchasing internal organization called the still an acceptable cost of business. and energy efficiency. Two months Western Collective for Sustainable before the Executive order was Operations (Western Collective). That’s not to say that waste is released, Tom Harbour, Director of The Western Collective, created in embraced or endorsed by IMTs or Fire and Aviation Management for 2009, is a “place-based” organiza firefighters. Quite the opposite the Forest Service, released a let tion that utilizes the time and tal is true: the fire community has ter requesting the fire community ents of Forest Service employees at become increasingly vocal about take a hard look at such elements all levels of the agency across the its desire to see improvements in as purchasing, fleet, and fire camp Western United States to promote sustainability at camps. Incident operations so that the fire program and integrate sustainable opera managers across the Nation have could “align our traditional land tions. attempted and occasionally suc stewardship work with practices ceeded in addressing some of these that reduce our consumption and The board of the Western Collective issues—a noteworthy effort, con overall use of resources.” is composed of the deputy regional sidering the extremely complex foresters from the Forest Service’s logistics involved in operating fire The bottom-up approach advanced Northern, Rocky Mountain, camps. Yet, these efforts have been with similar energy in 2009. Not Southwest, Intermountain, Alaska, largely unorganized and have not long ago, efforts within the Forest and Pacific Northwest Regions and permeated the fire community as the norm. What, then, is needed to transition these attempts at sus tainability from incidental efforts to standard policy? The answer lies in integrating top-down and bottom- up approaches to engage all levels, agencies, and partners in the fire community.
National Policy, the Western Collective, and the Greening Fire Team The top-down approach to green ing fire gained some footing in 2009 with a number of changes in Federal policy. Executive Order 13423, “Strengthening Federal A truckload of bottled electrolyte drink. Many companies transport bottled beverages in Environmental, Energy, and cardboard trays and shrink wrap, adding to the waste stream of fire camp. Photo: Jennifer Letz, 2010.
Fire Management Today 6 the deputy director of the Rocky brought into the camp to collect There are several ways to reduce Mountain Research Station. The the waste. Depending on the size waste generated in fire camps. board provides administrative of a camp, the waste hauler may First, recycling can be offered support to a number of Western return once or twice a day to deliv and encouraged; second, dispos Collective teams addressing sus er another empty dumpster and able products can be replaced with tainability challenges within the haul away the full one. Typically, durable products; and third, pur agency. The board’s leadership the waste—a significant percentage chasing procedures can be changed links agency policy and direction of which is recyclable materials—is to encourage buying products with operations on the ground trucked to a local landfill where it that have less packaging, are more for employees willing to tackle becomes the burden of a nearby durable, or are made of biodegrad real sustainability issues and work community. able materials. Historically, camp towards pragmatic solutions.
Building on the momentum provid ed by the Executive order and Fire and Aviation Management Director Tom Harbour’s letter, the Western Collective created the Greening Fire Team in the fall of 2009 to examine fire operations as a whole and determine where best to inte grate sustainable operations. The team, composed almost entirely of current or former firefighters, was quick to focus its energy on two of the biggest sustainability issues fac ing fire camps: waste management and bottled water use. The team tapped the members’ collective experience of fire operations and fire camp management to create a Backhaul from a spike camp deposited in a fire camp trash dumpster. Note the number of game plan for integrating sustain recyclable items, including cardboard and plastic bottles. Photo: Jennifer Letz, 2009. able operations into the fire camp community while maintaining fire fighter health and safety.
Waste Stream Analysis The highly mobile and specialized nature of fire camps has promoted a reliance on disposable materi als. Camps quickly become terrific waste generators, and one of the first tasks of a facilities unit leader is to order a dumpster to handle discarded items.
Most waste is generated during the building, daily operations, and demobilization phases of a camp’s lifespan. Often, large, 30-cubic-yard 3 (23-m ) dumpsters, supplied by a The contents of a sack lunch. The large amount of packaging adds to the waste stream of local commercial waste hauler, are a fire camp. Photo: Jennifer Letz, 2010.
Volume 71 • No. 3 • 2011 7 managers have been unable to Changing the current mentality will require a implement such strategies due to a number of factors, including trans phased-in approach, reassuring firefighters portation limitations to remote that the efficiency of filling hydration systems camps, lack of local recycling or can be equal to or greater than the safety and purchasing resources, or lack of convenience of bottled water use. information about local resources communicated to the IMT.
Before the team could make In 2011, the Greening Fire Team to gain a more accurate picture recommendations for reducing will compile the findings from each of the lifecycle of supplies at a fire waste, it needed to know what was audit to glean the true composition camp. Armed with this knowledge, going into the camp dumpsters. of fire camp waste. They will also the Greening Fire Team and oth The Greening Fire Team began examine camp purchasing records ers will work with IMTs and the by performing a waste stream analysis—also known by the more colorful term “dumpster diving.” The team partnered with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency to develop a waste stream audit process to ensure a safe, uniform collection process and consistent analysis standards.
The Greening Fire Team performed audits at six fire camps in four States (Colorado, Idaho, Montana, and Oregon) in 2010. Two or three team members traveled to each camp and spent a day digging through dumpsters, talking to incident managers, and observing fire camp operations. Incident man Forest Service employee Katie Newcomb sorts trash during a waste audit. Note: The agers were eager to share stories 5-gallon (19-L) buckets are hot cans that were also found in the trash dumpster. Photo: of their challenges and successes Jennifer Letz, 2010. implementing recycling programs and ideas to improve sustainable operations on site. irefighters are encouraged to drink at least 1 quart (1 L) of water Fper hour during operations, equaling a minimum of 3 gallons (11 L) Waste auditors typically found that per person per 12-hour shift, or twenty-three 16.9 oz (0.5 L) bottles of establishing recycling was consid water. Based on IMT deployments in 2009, it is estimated that over 2 ered a low priority when setting million bottles of water were purchased. up a camp and often did not occur until the third day. In many cases, Manufacture of the containers alone requires: a significant portion of items that • 50,000 gallons (190,000 L) of petroleum (the raw material), could be recycled were sent to • 201,183 megajoules of electricity, the landfill because of this delay. Auditors also found that discarded • 625,000 gallons (2,370,000 L) of water used to make the plastic, food was a significant component of and waste. • 375,000 lbs (170,000 kg) of CO2 emitted during production.
Source:
Fire Management Today 8 fire community to reduce recycling “The Western Collective group is excited about the setup times, improve recycling progress that is being made in the Greening Fire Team. rates at camps, and recommend This showcases how working across regions can produce greener purchasing options. the desired results of recycling and duplicating success.” Bottled Beverage –Faye Krueger, Deputy Regional Forester, Region 3 Reduction A familiar sight at fire camps is interesting process. Unlike other bottles to roll away if dropped, and a mass of pallets piled high with changes or improvements institut the waste of money and resources cases of bottled water, but firefight ed through policy or hard research, involved in packaging bottled water. ers have not always relied on the the rising use of bottled water at prepackaged 16.9 oz (.5 L) bottles fire camps was driven by a number Conversely, many members of the to provide hydration on the fireline. of social factors, including concern fire community expressed their dis Until the mid-1990s, firefighters over communicable diseases and trust in the “old” ways of supplying traditionally filled personal can the increasing general popularity of water. Memories of rusty potable teens from potable water trucks, bottled water in the United States. water trucks, cubies filled with “water buffalos,” or a local water mystery substances, and long lines source. Five-gallon (19-L) cubit The Greening Fire Team agreed at water buffalos left some people ainers—“cubies”—still common that this reliance on bottled water hesitant to move away from bottled today, were the primary receptacle was unnecessarily wasteful, and water, which is often believed to be crews used to refill canteens on the the team created an informal sur untainted, with its seals and redun fireline. Now, it is estimated that an vey to gauge the opinions of the dant packaging. average fire year can necessitate the fire community. More than 150 purchase, transport, and disposal of people participated, and the poll With this information, the over 2 million bottles of water. revealed that more than 73 percent Greening Fire Team decided to of respondents were interested in promote the elimination of bottled The transition from bulk potable seeing bottled water use reduce sig beverages whenever possible in fire water to bottled water was an nificantly or disappear altogether. camps. However, the team under Survey respondents and other fire stood that the complete elimination community members listed a range of bottled beverages in fire camps of reasons for their dislike of bot is not a realistic goal due to factors tled water, including lack of space such as accessibility or the unavail in crew rigs to store full and empty ability of local potable water sourc bottles, the number of bottles need es. In addition, water availability for ed to fill one canteen or hydration firefighter hydration practices must bladder, the propensity of the round always meet established policies
“Linking the innovative, learning culture of the fire community with the passion and ideas of the sustainable operations community was a no-brainer. Our fire operations require significant resources of all kinds. There are tremendous opportunities to find real-life, pragmatic, and long-lasting changes in our overall environmental footprint in the fire world. It’s most exciting to see that many of those opportunities will also produce significant A firefighter fills a 5-gallon (19-L) jerry can cost savings.” from a potable water truck—a relatively – Anna Jones Crabtree, Executive Director, Sustainable Operations rare occurrence since bottled water became Western Collective the primary source of drinking water at fire camps.Photo: Jennifer Letz, 2010.
Volume 71 • No. 3 • 2011 9 and procedures and should never Sustainable Operations Mandates threaten the health and safety of firefighters. The team also recog Executive Order 13514 nized that returning to the “old (e) promote pollution prevention and eliminate waste by: days” of water delivery would not be a panacea, and new technology and (i) minimizing the generation of waste and pollutants through water transport methods should be source reduction; researched. (ii) diverting at least 50 percent of nonhazardous solid waste by the end of FY 2015 The team spent 2010 researching a number of hydration alternatives, Letter of Direction–Tom Harbour, Director of ultimately partnering with a type 1 Fire and Aviation Management IMT to field-test recommendations, such as requiring sanitary condi “We must seriously consider all opportunities to incorporate sustain tions at potable water trucks, order able operations practices into our routine operations. The resources ing water cooler-type 5-gallon (19 we use to accomplish our resource management responsibilities are L) containers and reusable personal an integral part of our stewardship role. Actions should be taken at water bottles for those who don’t all incident camps to reduce our energy and fuel sources where avail leave camp, or purchasing 1-gal able; implement both waste prevention and recycling activities; and lon jugs of water for field supply. purchase bio-based products and limit the use of bottled water.” Unfortunately, the IMT was never 25 August 2009 dispatched, so field-testing will be attempted again in 2011.
The Greening Fire Team challenges the notion that bottled water is the best way to hydrate firefighters and the cultural mentality and habits that promote its use. Changing the current mentality will require a phased-in approach, reassuring fire fighters that the efficiency of filling hydration systems can be equal to or greater than the safety and convenience of bottled water use. The team also recognizes that time and a substantial educational com ponent will be necessary to change current practices to a preferable condition of sustainability.
An improvised recycling station in fire camp. Recycling stations often appear late in fire Next Steps camp establishment. Photo: Jennifer Letz, 2010. As the Greening Fire Team enters its second year, its work changes assistance in implementing sus- use, food waste, transportation, from research to integrating tainable fire operations. The team and nonpotable water conserva outreach services. While team is not limiting its efforts to trash tion. Through research, education, members continue researching mitigation and bottled water reduc- and partnership, the team believes sustainable practices and making tion, but will also examine other that a safer, cleaner, and fis recommendations, they would like issues, such as fuel use in mobile cally sound fire camp is achievable. the fire community to see them and stationary motors, recharge- Contact the Greening Fire Team at: as a resource for information and able versus nonrechargeable battery
Fire Management Today 10 rePurPoseD veHiCles: a tale oF tWo truCks Gregory Gettys and Otis Wayne Kennedy
e take them to parades. We send them to birthday As fire and rescue services have evolved Wparties. We show them and expanded over the years, so have the off to schools during fire safety week. They are the highlight of apparatus in which we respond. any child’s tour to a fire station. Ask citizens what image first pops into their mind when you say “fire lated area, as well as to other Burke accessing. For years, the depart department,” and it is guaranteed County fire departments, includ ment has provided these areas with most of them will say, “fire truck!” ing Lake James, Chesterfield, and the best fire and rescue protection Jonas Ridge. Oak Hill also provides possible; however, Gettys knew As fire and rescue services have fire protection and rescue services something more could be done. evolved and expanded over the to one of North Carolina’s most That’s when he began investigat years, so have the vehicles (appa densely wooded areas, the Pisgah ing the possibility of acquiring a ratus) in which we respond. If you National Forest. vehicle designed for rugged terrain travel around North Carolina and and capable of being outfitted with visit fire departments, it is easy to Need: Access to Remote Areas firefighting equipment. see innovation and ingenuity taking It is because of this diverse land place in fire apparatus design and scape that Oak Hill fire captain Gettys’ search led him to the mili use. tary’s M-35 cargo truck, commonly known as a “deuce-and-a-half.” Oak Hill Fire and There are numerous While doing research, Gettys came Rescue across a Government-sponsored residences and program that offers surplussed Such an example of innovation properties in heavily Department of Defense vehicles to in apparatus design and use can fire departments protecting rural be found in Morganton, NC. Oak wooded areas of the areas. This program is known Hill Fire and Rescue is a 2-station, district that traditional as the Federal Excess Personal 38-member volunteer fire and res pieces of fire apparatus Property Program (FEPP). cue department located in western would have difficulty Burke County that provides fire, In North Carolina, the FEPP works rescue, and paramedic-level emer accessing. through a cooperative agreement gency medical services to the citi with the Forest Service and the zens it serves. The fire district cov North Carolina Forest Service. ers 57 square miles (148 km2) and Gregg Gettys, a member of Oak Once the North Carolina Forest contains more than 2,000 struc Hill Fire and Rescue since 1983, Service obtains excess property tures. The district’s terrain is quite first identified a need, more than 8 from the USDA Forest Service, unique in that it contains a com years ago, for some type of special it then loans the property to fire plex mix of both urban and rural ized apparatus to provide improved departments for use in fire suppres areas. Oak Hill provides mutual aid fire and rescue services to remote, sion for as long as the departments and medical response to the city of rural regions of Oak Hill’s district. have a use for the equipment. Morganton, a very urbanized, popu- According to Gettys, there are Gettys saw this as an invaluable numerous residences and proper opportunity for his department Gregg Gettys is a fire captain with Oak Hill ties in heavily wooded areas of the Fire and Rescue in Morganton, NC, and and requested the acquisition of an district that traditional pieces of Otis Kennedy is the Chief of West End Fire M-35. and Rescue in West End, NC. fire apparatus would have difficulty
Volume 71 • No. 3 • 2011 11 A New Firefighting Unit This vehicle has fulfilled its duties well on wrecks, After completing the necessary residential structure fires, and several forest fires. paperwork and acquisition process ing, Oak Hill received its deuce and-a-half. Since the acquisition, many modifications have been made to the apparatus in order to meet the specific response needs of Oak Hill Fire and Rescue. Luckily, in 1998, as part of a U.S. military extended-service program, the truck had been upgraded to include a new Caterpillar engine, Allison 1545 automatic transmission, electronically controlled central tire inflation system, air-assisted steering, super-single radial tires, and an improved heater and defrost system. While the apparatus has 4,000 total miles (6,400 km), these new components had seen only 450 miles (720 km) of use. The new Oak Hill Fire and Rescue multipurpose apparatus is the culmination of efforts by With these improvements already many members of the community. Photo: Courtesy of Oak Hill Fire and Rescue. made, Oak Hill was able to focus on the primary goal of outfitting The controls of the the truck as a firefighting unit. For new Oak Hill fire and rescue vehicle a minimal fee, Gettys was able to reflect a heritage acquire a 32-horsepower Waterous of strength and pump, 500-gallon (1,890 L) water durability. Photo: Courtesy of Oak Hill tank, and a complement of forestry Fire and Rescue. hoses, valves, fittings, and nozzles for the apparatus. All of this equip ment was installed with the help of District 2 forestry mechanic Danny Hayes. With the aid of local Oak Hill Ironworks, a skid unit was fabricated for the apparatus cargo area. The skid unit provides for interchangeable bed configurations, allowing for future expansion and flexibility in use. The apparatus was painted by individuals from the North Carolina Department of Corrections. Stevens Signs Company of Icard, NC, provided identifying graphics and pin strip ing. North Carolina South Atlantic Fire and Rescue intends to deploy Fire Expo. Many visitors may have the apparatus on wildland–urban The newly recommissioned M-35 seen it on the apparatus show floor interface incidents, special opera officially went into service in alongside a variety of other unique tions incidents involving off-road August 2010 during the recent fire–rescue apparatus. Oak Hill access routes, and various incidents
Fire Management Today 12 during winter months, when the area is subject to harsh, inclem ent weather. Future plans for the apparatus include addition of a hydraulic winch, turret nozzle, and other equipment that will upgrade the apparatus to a National Wildlife Coordinating Group type III engine.
“Innovation” can be defined in dif ferent ways: while some view inno vation in terms of modernization, others see it in any unique action taken to improve a limiting situ ation. In this case, Oak Hill Fire and Rescue members identified a problem in providing fire and res cue protection to citizens in loca The West End truck has become the preferred vehicle for all incidents with difficult access. tions inaccessible to modern fire Photo: Courtesy of West End Fire and Rescue apparatus and took proactive steps to address that problem with the incident sites is crucial to serving access to and success in the job procurement and customization of the needs of the community, and go hand-in-hand. The crew now this apparatus. Innovation, com transportation can be particularly has the capability to transport bined with care and a concern for challenging. water and supply lines of all sizes the community, makes this piece of on any terrain, and bad weather is apparatus truly unique. For years, the U.S. military has no obstacle in any fire, rescue, or invested time and money in the emergency medical situation. West End Fire and development of response-oriented Rescue equipment to serve many differ Standard equipment maintained on ent purposes. In connection with the unit for rescue work includes West End is a rural community the North Carolina Forest Service extrication tools, a medical sup located in Moore County, in the and the FEPP, West End Fire and plies bag, defibrillator, cribbing, fire Sandhills region of North Carolina. Rescue has also converted a mili extinguishers, and fire hoses. When West End Fire and Rescue responds tary vehicle to fire and rescue use. not loaded with rescue gear, the to roughly 600 calls a year in all vehicle serves as a large multipur types of terrain and weather condi All-Terrain, All-Weather Vehicle pose brush truck, with a 500-gallon tions, including unroaded hills, (1,890 L) water tank and a gasoline- high summertime temperatures, The new vehicle, a 1970 deuce-and powered pump. Housing a very and freezing rain. Accessibility a-half cargo truck, enables the West large winch on the front bumper of equipment and manpower to End Fire and Rescue to transport equipment and manpower into increases the reliability of off-road areas that would be inaccessible to movement. The truck has become a conventional fire truck. West End Fire and Rescue acquired this vehi This vehicle has fulfilled its duties a multipurpose truck for cle at minimal expense, leaving the well on wrecks, residential struc all types of incidents, group able to invest roughly $1,000 ture fires, and several forest fires. and a 4x4 of this nature into modifications. Further customizing will continue in the future, and the unit will makes access to and The truck has become a multipur serve the crew very well in all success in the job go pose truck for all types of incidents, capacities for many years to hand-in-hand. and a 4x4 of this nature makes come.
Volume 71 • No. 3 • 2011 13 Working WitH aMeriCan inDian tribes on WilDlanD Fires: ProteCting Cultural Heritage sites in nortHWestern CaliFornia Frank K. Lake
ederal agencies have a respon agreements between tribes and number of positions specific to the sibility to American Indian Federal agencies provide a frame unique relationship. These posi Ftribes and tribal communities work for clarifying the agencies’ tions include special representa for the management and protec and tribes’ roles in collaborative tives for both the Federal agencies tion of tribal trust resources for and cooperative fire management and for the tribes at various levels reservation and public lands within for the protection, security, and of operations involvement. Heritage tribes’ ancestral lands and terri mitigation of impacts to tribal trust resource advisors (Federal: Forest tories (Pevar 2002, Wilkinson and and cultural and heritage resources. Service) and heritage consultants The American Indian Resources (tribal: Karuk), for example, are Institute 2004). The Indian Self field personnel who coordinate Determination and Education Federal agencies have and work with agency fire incident Assistance Act (1975: Public Law management teams (IMTs) to pre 93-638) also provides mechanisms a responsibility to vent, reduce, or mitigate impacts for establishing working relation American Indian tribes to cultural heritage and natural ships regarding the management and tribal communities resources during wildfire manage of Federal programs (e.g., com for the management ment and burned area emergency pact or cooperative agreements). response (BAER) operations and The Federal Land Policy and and protection of tribal activities. The agency heritage Management Act (1976: Public Law trust resources. resource advisor directs the work of 94-579) requires coordination with the heritage consultant coordina approved tribal management plans tor and heritage consultants. The for the purposes of development A New Structure of agency heritage resource advisor is and revisions of such plans and is Cooperation responsible for requesting heritage inclusive of programs or projects. consultant(s) assistance when and Federal Government consultation, Because the nature of coopera where it is needed. These heritage such as government-to-government tion between Federal agencies and consultant coordinators and level I protocol agreements with federally tribal entities is different than heritage consultants are, at a mini recognized tribes (Executive Order cooperation among Federal, State, mum, light-duty fireline qualified 13175, 2000), provides one mecha and local fire management agen (National Fire Equipment System nism for raising concerns and cies, a different set of agreements [NFES] 2724, 2010) and may have understanding potential impacts to and a whole new set of positions additional training, credentials, cultural resources and related tribal are necessary to ensure proper and knowledge, or expertise related to trust resources resulting from timely communication and efficient archaeological, cultural, or natu Federal fire management activi action. MOUs and fire management ral resources of tribal significance ties. Memoranda of Understanding agreements allow for the identifi (NFES 1831, 2004). (MOUs) and fire management cation of agency and tribal repre sentatives who have the authority Consultation and and are responsible for making Dr. Frank Lake is a research ecologist Collaborative Wildland with the Forest Service, Pacific Southwest decisions pertaining to wildland fire Research Station, Fire and Fuels Program, management actions. Fire Planning in Orleans, CA. Since 2004, he has served The Forest Service is committed as a faculty member at the National Advanced Fire and Resource Institute in In the Pacific Northwest and to consulting with federally rec Tucson, AZ. California, such MOUs introduce a ognized American Indian tribes
Fire Management Today 14 regarding Federal management Before the fire season, the tribal council compiles activities. The government-to-gov ernment protocol agreement sets a list of authorized tribal wildland fire staff to the foundation for agency and trib- represent the tribe’s interests pertaining to al consultation. Other agreements incident activities. and plans of various types define the cooperation between Federal agencies and tribes. The MOUs tier the agency and the tribe, and what with those tribal representatives at to the government-to-government is mutually agreed and understood all levels with planning and opera protocol agreement, and provisions between the parties regarding their tions. During operations, provisions are made for cooperation in land roles in protection of resources. are made to include representatives and resource management plans Additionally, and specific to wild- of the tribe in site-specific actions (LRMPs) or related fire manage land fire management, these agree to preserve or restore cultural heri ment plans (FMPs) that specify ments state who is involved in ini tage sites and related tribal trust goals, objectives, and desired man tial response for wildfires and fire resources. Figure 1 presents one agement actions for reservation or complexes, the actions or activities possible organization of roles for public lands. for which they are responsible, and Federal and tribal interaction. what guidelines apply to incident Tribal concerns can be addressed management and post-wildfire Tribal Duty Officer and in various planning documents, activities, such as BAER activities. Designated Tribal Government including LRMPs and FMPs, afford Furthermore, these documents Representatives ing national forest staff various describe the specifics of positions, Before the fire season, during devel ways to incorporate those concerns duties, and organizational structure opment or renewal of agreements, into fire response. The development for wildland fire management. of LRMPs and FMPs requires tribal the tribal council compiles a list of authorized tribal wildland fire staff consultation but not collaborative For example, in the MOU between to represent the tribe’s interests development; LRMPs may iden the Karuk Tribe and the Six Rivers pertaining to incident activities. tify designated management areas and Klamath National Forests, the This list includes: a tribal duty offi of cultural significance to tribes, stated purpose of the agreement cer, designated tribal government detail area-specific management is to continue the governmental representative(s), heritage consul objectives, and include clarification cooperation between parties con tant coordinator(s), and heritage of responsibilities for these areas. cerning wildland fire and fire man consultant(s). The designated tribal When wildland fires on public lands agement activities. The document government representative serves occur within a tribe’s ancestral further states that such cooperation as agencies’ primary point of con lands or territory or within these “provides for the protection of sig tact within the tribe for wildland LRMP-designated areas of cul nificant cultural resources impor fire notification. The tribal duty tural significance, MOUs and fire tant to the Tribe, Forest Service, officer or designated tribal govern management agreements provide and the public.” The document also mental representative ensures that opportunities for further consulta includes direction for rates of pay individuals identified by the tribe to tion and potential collaboration that are commensurate with the be hired by the agency have neces with tribes or tribal community complexity of incident management sary qualifications, certifications, members. organizational roles and responsi and requirements. During multiple bilities outlined in attachments to wildland fire incidents, the tribal The Framework of the MOU. Response duty officer or designated tribal governmental representative identi An MOU and fire management Incident Roles fies and directs each incident-spe agreement can be combined in the Official positions within the tribe cific designated tribal government same document. These agreements specified in the MOU or fire man representative to coordinate efforts specify the purpose of the agree agement agreement ensure that with incident commander(s) (ICs) ment, the statement of mutual cultural resource considerations are and IMTs. As appropriate and neces benefits and interest to the agency observed. Federal representatives sary, the designated tribal govern and the tribe, the responsibilities of are designated to communicate ment representatives can complete
Volume 71 • No. 3 • 2011 15 Figure 1—The Forest Service and tribal governments establish positions and roles to facilitate fire management interaction on lands of mutual interest. Exact roles are defined in the memorandum of understanding generated for the specific tribal area; the depicted positions represent one possible configuration. Organization of Federal positions is given in the Forest Service qualifications handbook (Forest Service 2005). the qualification requirements of designated Forest Service agency knowledge of and experience with the Interagency Standards for Fire administrator representative (e.g., local tribal customs, beliefs, and and Aviation Operations (NFES a district ranger), in consultation practices. The heritage resource 2724, 2010: the “Red Book”) or with the heritage resource advisor advisor is assigned to the IMT plan Department of the Interior, Bureau and designated tribal government ning section chief and directs the of Indian Affairs (BIA) (National representatives, will determine work of the tribe’s heritage consul Interagency Fire Center 2010: the whether to hire heritage consul tant coordinator and, if employed, “Blue Book”). tants from the tribe(s) to address the heritage consultants. specific cultural and related tribal Tribal Government Liaison and trust resources potentially at risk. Heritage Consultant Coordinator Heritage Resource Advisor and Heritage Consultants The forest supervisor or line officer The agency heritage resource advi The heritage consultant coordina identifies and appoints a heritage sor serves in a critically important tor is a tribal representative who resource advisor and a tribal gov position, coordinating with the may be hired by Federal agencies ernment liaison to work with the Federal resource advisor coordina as needed on incidents potentially tribal duty officer and designated tor on tribal or cultural issues. The involving American Indian cultural tribal government representa heritage resource advisor is selected resources. In conjunction with the tives for the incident. Depending for his or her familiarity with the designated tribal government repre on the size and complexity of the cooperative agreements; fire and sentatives, the heritage consultant incident(s), the forest supervisor or archaeological qualifications; and coordinator coordinates activities and input from the heritage consul tants and works with the heritage The heritage resource advisor is selected resource advisor or planning sec for his or her familiarity with the cooperative tion chief. agreements; fire and archaeological qualifications; As specialists hired for incidents, and knowledge of and experience with local tribal heritage consultants serve as the customs, beliefs, and practices. bridge between tribal concerns and fire management operations. The
Fire Management Today 16 type of involvement and responsi construct fireline near a sacred site Tribes’ ancestral territories. As bilities of heritage consultants are and propose changes to incident individual wildfires spread, some determined by their level: I or II. operations to reduce impacts to site were managed as separate fires and quality and use. some merged into complexes. For Level I heritage consultants work example, the Blue 2 and Siskiyou for and are directed by the heritage How It Works: fires merged to form the Siskiyou resource advisor. Level I heritage Handling an Incident Complex, which spanned the two consultants are usually tribal mem national forests and two tribal ter bers (or descendants) who have In late June 2008, lightning storms ritories (fig. 2). Incident manage cultural and personal knowledge in northwestern California ignited ment organization varied in scale, of the local landscape, vegetation, wildfires on the Klamath and Six from type III, II, and I to national cultural resources, and tribally Rivers National Forests. These incident management organization significant areas or sites and are incidents spread to encompass teams. assigned to work in specific loca areas within the Karuk and Yurok tions (e.g., branches or divisions) of the incident. Level I heritage con sultants may work with IMT branch chief(s), division supervisor(s), fire observer(s), resource advisor(s), or type I or II fire crew leader(s). Their work involves planning for recon naissance of proposed firelines or the construction of selected contin gency firelines or related fire opera tions (e.g., establishing safety zones or drop sites).
Level II heritage consultants are often tribal elders, practitioners, ceremonial leaders, or others who have significant knowledge of spe cific areas where incident manage ment activities are proposed or are taking place. Level II heritage con sultants can and may participate with nonfireline activities such as contingency planning and plan ning incident activities to prevent, reduce, or mitigate impacts to cultural resources, archaeologi cal areas and sites, and culturally significant habitats or areas. The duties and responsibilities of level II heritage consultants are to pro vide local cultural knowledge and recommendations applicable to specific areas for incident planning and operations to lessen or mitigate potential undesired impacts to cul tural and tribal trust resources. For example, a tribal spiritual leader Figure 2—Yurok and Karuk ancestral tribal territories, national forests, Native American contemporary use area, and 2008 wildfire perimeters. Map: Janet Werren, Forest Service, may evaluate planned actions to Pacific Southwest Research Station.
Volume 71 • No. 3 • 2011 17 The Six Rivers National Forest tion, human misunderstandings, to wildland fire management and LRMP recognizes and has designated and other errors resulted in unde BAER operations. Native American contemporary sired consequences. Larger inci use areas as culturally significant dents and longer tours (e.g., cycles Outcome Assessment areas containing ceremonial dis of 14 days on/2 days rest, for up The use of MOUs with components tricts, ancient and contemporary to 3 months) resulted in a greater of fire management agreements village and camp sites, numerous duration of stress and cumulative between American Indian tribes sacred areas, and other recorded and fatigue for firefighting personnel. and Federal agencies can signifi potential archaeological sites. The cantly improve consultation and Klamath National Forest designates Historical and political differences collaboration regarding wildland Cultural Management Areas in their between the two tribal govern fire management. In the 2008 fires, LRMP. Due to tribal sensitivity and ments and appointed tribal rep localized collaborative decision- wildfire management concerns in resentatives regarding acceptable making promoted results that were these culturally significant areas, the activities or actions within shared generally consistent with tribal two national forests utilized MOUs tribal “mutual areas of interest” values and agency goals and objec with the Yurok and Karuk Tribes to presented additional challenges to tives. Increased tribal participation make use of the expertise of desig collaborative wildland fire man with incident operations facilitated nated tribal government represen agement. In remote and limited- protection or reduced potential tatives and level I and II heritage access areas (e.g., wilderness), impacts to culturally significant consultants. In addition, numerous specific challenges arose when resources, areas, and sites. archaeologist resource advisors were two wildfire incidents (Blue 2 and assigned to work with the heritage Siskiyou) occurred within the two The complexity and size of inci consultant coordinators and level I tribes’ ancestral territories and a dents allowed for scaling of the heritage consultants. designated cultural resource man level of participation or positions agement area (similar to a Native by tribes. Designated tribal gov Agency administrators’ (e.g., line American contemporary use area). ernment representatives, heritage officers) briefing and delegation Differences between IMTs and tribe consultant coordinators, and level I of authority documents followed representatives over how and where or II heritage consultants were able the MOUs’ roles for agency and contingency firelines should be to work with agency fire personnel tribal positions (NFES 2724, 2010, located and constructed and the during incident and BAER activi Appendices D and H). (The resource use of burnout or firing operations ties. In addition to and separate advisor coordinator and heritage increased the complexity of man from wildland fire MOUs, other resource advisor were, in this case, agement options. The Karuk Tribe’s opportunities exist for tribal partic involved in the drafting of these doc fire crew is a type 2 initial attack ipation and involvement with inci uments.) Most IMTs lack familiarity hand crew, an interagency resource dents, such as the U.S. Department with such agreements involving made available through a coopera of the Interior, BIA administra American Indian tribes, in part due tive agreement with the BIA. In tively determined hires for tribal to the recent development of such some situations, the crew worked fire crews (type II or I), fallers, agreements and because the quali with resource advisors and level and equipment operators (e.g., for fications, duties, and supervisory I heritage consultants when both chainsaws, water trucks, chippers, roles of tribal heritage consultants tribes desired to limit the amount or excavators). must be defined for each IMT and of nontribal fire personnel within incident. particularly sensitive or sacred areas. Recommendations At times, the lack of agency and Because of the recent development contractor knowledge of—and Many IMTs worked with tribes, and utilization of wildland fire sometimes lack of sensitivity to— respecting local tribal beliefs and management MOUs, IMTs and American Indian customs, beliefs, spiritual sites. Overall, use of MOUs wildland fire personnel need to practices, sacred areas, or sites for heritage consultant coordi be familiarized with positions and strained working relationships nators and level I or II heritage duties of all tribal parties involved. between Indians and non-Indians. consultants increased tribal partici Several recommendations, if Other times, ineffective communica pation and improved tribal input implemented, could improve the
Fire Management Today 18 effectiveness of wildland fire MOUs At times, the lack of agency and contractor with tribes: 1. Enhance programmatic tribal knowledge of—and sometimes lack of sensitivity capacities and assumption of to—American Indian customs, beliefs, practices, leadership roles (see Indian Self and sacred areas or sites strained working Determination and Education relationships between Indians and non-Indians. Assistance Act). 2. Develop, review, modify, and approve agreements prior to 9. Compile and organize all trib each wildfire season. nel. This can provide opportu ally significant data pertaining 3. Have agency and tribal person nities for updating each other to tribal ancestral territories, nel complete all necessary qual regarding emerging issues and areas of mutual interest, special ifications and trainings prior to operational strategies. cultural management areas the beginning of the upcoming 11. If tribe-owned equipment or (e.g., Native American con wildfire season. operators are hired in adminis temporary use areas or other 4. Standardize resource advisor tratively determined crews, have cultural management areas) or training sessions, certification documentation for rates of pay, other geospatially referenced task books, and other materials proof of insurance, and required information for areas where to promote familiarity with and certificates. wildland fires or management renewal or revision of agree 12. Make hardcopy and digital of fires could impact cultural ments with tribes. forms of all necessary docu and heritage resources. This 5. Include local tribal issues in ments available to agency and data should include informa regional or local unit-specific tribal leadership for incident tion from LRMPs specific to training. For example, address planning. tribes, cultural resources, tribal customs and protocols heritage or historic areas, in local prefire season training Additional information about wild- and archaeological sites. This with tribal representatives and land fire management MOUs with data can be helpful for assess agency personnel, or address tribes can be obtained from the ing tribal concerns and val cultural and heritage resources Forest Service, Pacific Southwest ues at risk for Wildland Fire and sensitivity to tribal issues Region, Klamath and Six Rivers Decision Support System–Rapid in regional firefighter refresher National Forests; the Karuk Tribe; Assessment of Values-at-Risk training sessions. or the Yurok Tribe. Contact Frank planning. If desired by tribes, 6. Ensure that BIA-sponsored K. Lake regarding his experience provide site record information tribal personnel have records working as a resource advisor coor from agencies (e.g., heritage or certificates of qualifications dinator and research ecologist with programs and archaeologists) that adequately comply with tribes on wildland fires, forestry, with the appropriate level of NWCG or Interagency stan ethnobotany, and fire management sensitivity to the IC operations dards. Perceived differences in northwestern California. chief. Site records are confi in training standards between dential, but designated tribal the BIA and the Forest Service Acknowledgements government representative(s) can complicate or hamper tribe I am grateful to Paul Claeyssens, and heritage resource advisors member participation. Deschutes National Forest; LeRoy should be able to work directly 7. Include copies of the current Cyr, Six Rivers National Forest; and with information centers and wildland fire management MOU Carl Skinner, Pacific Southwest tribal heritage preservation for each tribe in line officer Research Station, for their review officers to ensure they have briefings and delegation of and suggested revisions to earlier the proper information on site authority documents and in versions of this article. I am grateful records to protect the archaeo IMT information packets. to Janet Boomgarden, Forest logical resources and sacred 8. Review and clarify positions, Service grants and agreements sites. roles, responsibilities, and specialist, for her knowledge 10. At incident briefings, describe duties among IMTs, agency line about and access to agency-tribe and clarify roles, qualifications, officers, and tribal personnel agreements; to Janet Werren, and planning and operations per agreements. Pacific Southwest Research Station coordination with tribal person Volume 71 • No. 3 • 2011 19 Fire Management Operations: Tribal Perspective According to Bob McConnell, a management of their ancestral ter levels—from branch chief and divi member of the Yurok Tribe and ritory. Many IC [incident command] sion supervisors to type II crews— the cultural resources coordina teams may not be accustomed to were not accustomed to having to tor, who served as a designated having to work with tribes.” He work with tribal heritage resource tribal representative on the Blue goes on, “The agreement worked as advisors. At morning briefings, trib 2 Fire in 2008, “It is important well as it could given the complexi al designated representatives were for other tribes to know about ty of the incident. Multiple wildfires able to address the fire personnel and be able to utilize tribal fire involving different levels of IMTs and crews. McConnell recalls how management MOUs.” McConnell and a long fire season increased the this really helped people new to has been requested by other challenges. When tribal perspec working with tribes. “Daily commu tribes nationally to share the tives were shared, and the adoption nication was important to inform example of the Yurok tribe fire or recognition of these values by the fire crews of [tribal] issues. management MOU with the Six IMT personnel happened, relations Incident coordination and work Rivers and Klamath National improved.” ing relationships improved when Forests. tribal representatives could directly In addition to incident manage address firefighters about issues, According to McConnell, the ment teams, many firefighters at all concerns, and particular tribal agreements facilitate the inclu sion of tribal desires, concerns, and perspectives in wildland fire management within their ances tral territory. “Some incident management teams are not very familiar with the agreements. There can be some resistance to incorporation of tribal values and personnel recommendations if incident commanders are not familiar with tribal consultation or agreements.”
In particular, the agreements familiarize incident management teams (IMTs) with the inclusion of tribal values in incident plan ning and operational efforts. McConnell relates, “In north western California, tribes are Reconnaissance of a contingency fireline by a Yurok heritage consultant and an [politically] active and voice their archeologist resource advisor in a tribal sacred area of the Siskiyou Wilderness, concerns and interest regarding Blue 2–Siskiyou Complex, 2008. Photo: Bob McConnell, Yurok Tribe. geographic information systems References at:
Fire Management Today 20 values. Fire crews began to under firefighters posed challenges to tion between the IMTs for the two stand why tribes desired certain tribal representatives. In particular, incidents resulted in overlapping actions and bought into mitigation McConnell recounts, “Planning searches for suitable contingency strategies”—for example, regard meetings with IC went fair to okay lines.” ing the culturally and ecologically most of the time. At least one time, important tree, Port Orford cedar, both tribes [Yurok and Karuk] Furthermore, “Tradeoffs also had strategies to prevent cedar root agreed to a plan of action, but to be made regarding recreational disease and protect sacred sites and the IC changed fire management backpacker versus tribal spiritual areas. actions despite the tribal desires. use, as well as whether the trail The tribes maintained their ‘No’ could be made into a fireline.” At times, McConnell had to address position to the proposed action.” In Conflicting opinions arose as to the various ways some fire person this situation, the IC chose a differ whether to mark the trail with nel did not recognize the contem ent course of action than what was flagging and open it for use as a porary living cultures of tribal peo desired by the tribes. fireline or to maintain the tribal ple. For example, the approach of practitioners’ spiritual seclusion, non-native archaeologist resource Another challenge stemmed from privacy, and use. Differences arose advisors, based on their training, separate tribal recommendations in tribal preferences as to where was to record everything concern for the same area in establishing to put the fireline. ing cultural use sites, while the precomplex unified control to the preference of many tribal heritage merging of the Blue 2 and Siskiyou Despite these day-to-day challeng consultants was to not record fires. Working with the Blue 2 es, overall tribal fire management site specifics out of deference for Fire IMT, McConnell was shown agreements facilitated more effec ongoing use. With this in mind, a map of the Siskiyou Wilderness tive consultation, coordination, McConnell worked with archae with the fire containment bound and collaborative wildfire incident ologist resource advisors to scout ary drawn through Elk Valley, an planning with tribes. The Yurok potential contingency lines during area held sacred to both tribes. He Tribe, for instance, was able to construction of firelines. “This is consulted with Yurok tribal lead have representatives involved with different from the agency perspec ers and elders about the proposed incident planning and operations tive and approach to archaeologi actions. The Yurok Tribe suggested at all levels. McConnell hopes cal site documentation. Nonlocal using a recreational trail as the that other tribes and fire manag archaeologist resource advisors had fireline versus a natural feature, ers who work with or will have to philosophical differences with how the ridge. “This recreational wilder work with tribes on wildland fires to address prehistoric use versus ness trail was recon’ed and flagged, can learn from the Yurok Tribe’s continued site use by contemporary and then nothing was done for a experience. tribal practitioners.” while.” During this time, the Karuk Tribe, independently addressing For more information on tribal Communication challenges were the southwestern boundary of the MOUs and fire planning, contact ongoing, as each operational shift, Siskiyou Fire, proposed a differ Bob McConnell at
Pevar, S.L. 2002. The Rights of Indians National Interagency Fire Center. 2010. Handbook. Washington, DC: USDA and Tribes: The Authoritative American Wildland Fire and Aviation Program Forest Service. Available at:
Volume 71 • No. 3 • 2011 21 a Celebration oF exCellenCe in WilDlanD Fire sCienCe: The InTernaTIonal Journal of WIldland fIre is 20 years olD Martin E. Alexander
WFv19n4_Cover.qxd 6/23/10 6:18 PM Page 1 he International Association of International ournal of ournal International Wildland Fire (IAWF) is a non International Journal of International Journal of profit, professional organization WILDLAND FIRE J Volume 19 • Issue 4 • 2010 W ILDLAND
T ILDLAND W Assessing crown fire potential in coniferous forests of western North America: founded to promote a better under a critique of current approaches and recent simulation studies Miguel G. Cruz and Martin E. Alexander 377–398 NCEP–ECPC monthly to seasonal US fire danger forecasts J. Roads, P. Tripp, H. Juang, J. Wang, F. Fujioka and S. Chen 399–414 F
standing of wildfire. It is built on IRE Effect of fire weather, fuel age and topography on patterns of remnant vegetation IRE following a large fire event in southern California, USA F Nell Blodgett, Douglas A. Stow, Janet Franklin and Allen S. Hope 415–426 Volume 19 • Issue 4 • 2010 the belief that an understanding of Mesoscale model simulation of the meteorological conditions during the 2 June 2002 Double Trouble State Park wildfire Joseph J. Charney and Daniel Keyser 427–448 Scientific J ournal of the International Association of Wildland Fire Beyond Landsat: a comparison of four satellite sensors for detecting burn severity this dynamic natural force is vital in ponderosa pine forests of the Gila Wilderness, NM, USA Zachary A. Holden, Penelope Morgan, Alistair M. S. Smith and Lee Vierling 449–458 Simple models for predicting dead fuel moisture in eucalyptus forests Stuart Matthews, Jim Gould and Lachie McCaw 459–467 for natural resource management, Economic analysis of geospatial technologies for wildfire suppression Hayley Hesseln, Gregory S. Amacher and Aaron Deskins 468–477 Vol. 19(4) 2010 Pages 377–530 Pages Vol. 2010 19(4) Bare soil and rill formation following wildfires, fuel reduction treatments, and pine plantations in the southern Sierra Nevada, California, USA firefighter safety, and harmonious Neil H. Berg and David L. Azuma 478–489 Impacts of erosion control treatments on native vegetation recovery after severe wildfire in the Eastern Cascades, USA interaction between people and Erich K. Dodson, David W. Peterson and Richy J. Harrod 490–499 Effect of fire severity on long-term occupancy of burned boreal conifer forests by saproxylic insects and wood-foraging birds Antoine Nappi, Pierre Drapeau, Michel Saint-Germain and Virginie A. Angers 500–511 their environment. The initiation of fire spread in shrubland fuels recreated in the laboratory Matt P. Plucinski, Wendy R. Anderson, Ross A. Bradstock and A. Malcolm Gill 512–520 Monte Carlo-based ensemble method for prediction of grassland fire spread Miguel G. Cruz 521–530 The IAWF is dedicated to facilitat ing communication within the CSIRO
For research on the entire wildland fire community PUBLISHING ISSN 1049-8001 physical, ecological, www.publish.csiro.au/journals/ijwf economic and social and providing global linkage for aspects of wildland fire Published by CSIRO PUBLISHING for the International Association people with shared interest in wild- of Wildland Fire Photo: © Bushfire CRC land fire and comprehensive fire management. Publications such ing the International Journal of Present Status as the proceedings of wildland fire Wildland Fire, of which the Forest Currently, the International safety summits (Alexander and Service, led by Bill Sommers,* was Journal of Wildland Fire, pub Butler 2008) and the International an early supporter. Since 1991, lished on behalf of IAWF by CSIRO Journal of Wildland Fire contribute the IAWF has published more than Publishing, Australia (
Fire Management Today 22 To a Promising Future who have a requirement to ensure wishing for many more, happy their policies and practices reflect returns! The International Journal of the latest scientific evidence. The Wildland Fire is aimed not only journal thus provides an invaluable at the international wildland fire Reference source of research findings of direct research community, but also Alexander, M.E.; Butler, B.W. 2008. relevance to the global wildland fire Proceedings of the wildland fire safety at practioners and policymakers management community. Here’s summits. Fire Management Today. 68(1): 40.
A Selection of Fire Management-Oriented Articles from the International Journal of Wildland Fire, Volumes 1–20 Predicting behavior of the 1988 An economic evaluation of public N.C. Silver, T. Putnam. 14: 297– Yellowstone fires: Projections and organized wildfire detection in 306 (2005). versus reality. R.C. Rothermel. Wisconsin. T.W. Steele, J.C. Stier. 8: 1:1–10 (1991). 205–215 (1998). Ignition of mulch and grasses by firebrands in wildland-urban A low pressure soaker hose Comparative study of various meth interface fires. S.L. Manzello, T.G. containment system for wild- ods of fire danger evaluation in Cleary, J.R. Shields, J.C. Yang. 15: land fires. S. Kanjanakunchorn, southern Europe. D.X. Viegas, G. 427–431 (2006). P.M.Woodard, P.G. McCornick, H. Bovio, A. Ferreira, A. Nosenzo, B. McDonald. 2: 185–191 (1992). Sol. 9: 235–246 (1999). Development of an index for quick comparison of helicopter Thinning young loblolly pine A patch mosaic burning system costs and benefits. D. Trethewey. stands with fire. D.D. Wade. 3: for conservation areas in southern 16: 444–449 (2007). 169–178 (1993). African savannas. B.H. Brockett, H.C. Biggs, B.W. van Wilgen. 10: Effectiveness of aerial seeding and Air attack—retardants, rheol 169–183 (2001). straw mulch for reducing post- ogy and some new options. H.L. wildfire erosion, north-western Vandersall. 4: 45–51(1994). Forecasting diurnal variations in Montana, USA. A.H. Groen, S.W. fire intensity to enhance wildland Woods. 17: 559–571 (2008). Fire growth in grassland fuels. firefighter safety. J.A. Beck, M.E. N.P. Cheney, J.S. Gould. 5: 237– Alexander, S.D. Harvey, A.K. Beaver. Public perspectives of fire, fuels, 247 (1995). 11: 173–182 (2002). and the Forest Service in the Great Lakes Region: A survey A comparison of water additives A review of prescribed burning of citizen-agency communica for mopping-up after forest fires. effectiveness in fire hazard reduc tion and trust. B.A. Schindler, D. Rawet, R. Smith, G. Kravainis. tion. P.M. Fernandes, H.S. Botelho. E. Toman, S.M. McCaffrey. 18: 6: 37–43 (1996). 12: 117–128 (2003). 157–164 (2009).
Project Aquarius 1. Stress, Long-term forest fire retardants: Testing and classification of indi strain, and productivity in A review of quality, effectiveness, vidual plants for fire behaviour: men suppressing Australian application and environmental con Plant selection for the wildland summer bushfires with hand siderations. A. Gimenez, E. Pastor, urban interface. R.H. White, W.C. tools: Background, objectives, L. Zarate, E. Plamas, J. Arnaldos. Zippered. 19: 213–227 (2010). and methods. G.M. Budd, J.R. 13: 1–15 (2004). Brotherhood, A.L. Hendrie, S.E. Career stages in wildland fire Jeffery, F.A. Beasley, B.P. Costin, Effect of fire shelters on perceived fighting: Implications for voice W. Zhien, M.M. Baker, N.P. fire danger: Implications for risk in risky situations. A. Lewis, Cheney, M.P. Dawson. 7: 69–76 compensation. C.C. Braun, J. Fouts, T.E. Hall, A. Black. 20: 115–124 (1997). (2011).
Volume 71 • No. 3 • 2011 23 50 years oF serviCe: tHe Missoula Fire sCienCes laboratory Jane Kapler Smith, Diane Smith, and Colin Hardy
n September 12, 1960, the brand new Northern Forest OFire Laboratory was dedicated in Missoula, MT. The fire lab’s mis sion was—and is—to improve sci entific understanding of wildland fire so it can be managed more safely and effectively in the field. The first scientists to work at the fire lab initiated research that continues to be used, refined, and extended.
The questions studied and the technology used at the fire lab have evolved continually since 1960, and the lab’s name has changed more than once. Today, it is the Dedication of the Northern Forest Fire Laboratory, now the Missoula Fire Sciences Missoula Fire Sciences Laboratory. Laboratory, in Missoula, MT, on September 12, 1960. The facility includes a 66-foot-high But the original focus—developing combustion chamber, inside the tall part of the building, that allows for burn tests in a greater understanding of wildland controlled conditions. Photo: Forest Service. fire and using the best technology available to get that knowledge into the hands of fire managers—has been a way of life for fire lab scien tists for a half-century.
Fuel Moisture and Fire Danger In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, severe, life-destroying fires plagued forests in the United States. To help field rangers predict and suppress such fires, the Forest Service initiated a fire research program. In the 1920s, Harry Gisborne—the agency’s first full- time fire research scientist—began
Jane Kapler Smith is an ecologist, Diane Smith is an historian, and Colin Hardy is the program manager at the Missoula Fire Recent experiments in the fire lab’s burn chamber simulate various thresholds and Sciences Laboratory in Missoula, MT. limitations to fire spread on a hillside. Photo: Forest Service.
Fire Management Today 24 developing a way to predict fire Computer Tools for lished in 1972. The model predicts danger. Believing that the moisture Fire Prediction the spread and intensity of surface content of fuels was key to under fire based on fuel properties, fuel standing flammability, Gisborne A crucial component of the NFDRS moisture, wind, and slope. Soon weighed known amounts of fuel was the fire model developed by after publication, the model was regularly, calculated their moisture Richard (Dick) Rothermel and pub- content, and related the changes to ambient weather conditions. These results were immediately put to use in the field to assess fire potential, but it was also clear that labora tory experiments were needed. This need was met with the opening of three research laboratories, includ ing the Missoula fire lab in 1960. Jack Barrows was the first director of the lab.
After successfully securing fund ing for the fire lab, Jack Barrows’ next chore was to identify and hire researchers to work in the new facility. Barrows brought in forest ers, physicists, and engineers to develop quantitative indicators of fire danger. Within 5 years, these scientists had conducted more than 200 experimental burns and iden tified thresholds of fuel moisture that could be used to identify “red Jack Barrows, chief of the fire laboratory in 1960, works in the wind tunnel of the new flag” conditions when fire danger facility. Photo: Forest Service. was increasing rapidly. Continued experiments contributed to release of the National Fire Danger Rating System (NFDRS) in 1972, which provided managers with a standard system for assessing fire danger from local weather observations.
With revisions in 1978 and 1988, the NFDRS still forms the basis for local fire danger rating, which is shared with the public on hundreds of Smokey Bear signs throughout the Nation. In 1994, fire lab scien tists developed the Wildland Fire Assessment System (WFAS), which consolidates data from thousands of local weather stations to map fire danger across the country (fig. 1), alerting field managers to regional changes and emerging needs for Figure 1—Fire Danger Class map for conterminous United States, September 9, 2010. Source: Larry Bradshaw, Missoula Fire Sciences Laboratory. fire suppression.
Volume 71 • No. 3 • 2011 25 put to work predicting wildland fire behavior:
• Initially, a system of graphs and charts captured model results. Soon, hand-held calculators were programmed to predict fire spread in the field. • In the mid-1970s, the Rothermel model was integrated with doz ens of supporting models into the BEHAVE system for predict ing fire behavior in multiple weather and fuel conditions. • In the 1990s, the availabil ity of geospatial data on fuels and topography allowed the Rothermel model to be integrat Figure 2—Computer modeling is used extensively to predict fire spread across landscapes. ed with other models into pro Here, FARSITE shows fuel types, topography, and potential fire growth on the landscape. grams for predicting fire perim Source: Chuck McHugh, Missoula Fire Sciences Laboratory. eters and spatial fire behavior, including FARSITE (fig. 2). Scientific Measurement shrub, and herbaceous fuels on the • In 2007, new systems were initi of Fuels forest floor. Some of these measure ated for simulating fire growth ments were consolidated into tables under thousands of weather sce How much fuel is available to feed of numbers that feed the Rothermel narios so that managers could a fire? In the early 1970s, scientist fire model. Today, 40 such quantita estimate the likelihood of fire Jim Brown developed methods for tive descriptions of fuel complexes impacts. measuring the amount of woody, are in use throughout the United States. A recent innovation enables managers to match field observa tions with photographs of known amounts of fuel to improve the accuracy, precision, and efficiency of fuel biomass estimation.
Fire spread in the forest canopy is more complex than on the forest floor. Careful dissection of hun dreds of tree crowns in the late 1990s enabled scientists to describe the vertical distribution of crown fuels. Research currently underway uses fractal mathematics to gener ate three-dimensional models of crown fuels (fig. 3). These models can be used to describe fuel proper ties that are difficult to measure directly, such as surface area and distribution of particle sizes in tree Scientist Jim Brown measures the fuels on the forest floor to establish fuel loading crowns. This approach will improve relationships. This 3- by 3-foot (1- by 1-m) area contained about 10 pounds (4.5 kg) of managers’ ability to predict crown woody fuel. “Brown’s transects” remain the standard for fuel load estimation in the field. Photo: Forest Service, 1972.
Fire Management Today 26 of surface fires in forests of the In more than 30 publications, northern Rockies. In recent years, scientists reported the effects of research forester Emily Heyerdahl prescribed fire in clearcut units on has used fire scars and tree growth tree regeneration, small mammals, rings to determine the climate physical and chemical properties of during years of widespread fires in soils, hydrology, re-establishment Idaho and western Montana. She of shrubs and herbs, and smoke identified 32 years when fires were production. Since that time, fire lab widespread throughout the region. scientists have studied ecosystem- These years had warm springs fol level fire effects throughout the lowed by warm, dry summers. United States, particularly in for ests dominated by ponderosa pine, Figure 3—Research currently underway In the late 1960s, the fire lab, with Douglas-fir, lodgepole pine, and uses fractal mathematics to generate multiple collaborators, initiated whitebark pine. Research on white- three-dimensional models of crown fuels. a rigorous field study addressing bark pine has led to international Source: Russ Parsons, Missoula Fire the role of fire in forests of spruce, collaboration as scientists and Sciences Laboratory. fir, and western larch—the Miller managers seek ways to restore this Creek-Newman Ridge project. unique ecosystem. fire behavior and estimate fire effects in the complex, discontinu ous fuels of the canopy. Emily Heyerdahl cuts through a stump to examine Fire and Forest Ecology tree rings. Dendroecological Through the 1960s, managers techniques enable became increasingly aware of fire scientists to use as a natural agent of change and dead wood to renewal. In the early 1970s, sci learn about the history of fire in entist Robert (Bob) Mutch helped the area. Photo: managers develop area-specific Forest Service. prescriptions for allowing some lightning fires to burn in the Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness. The first such fire occurred in 1972 and covered all of 600 square feet (58 m2). Since that time, lightning fires have burned more than 500,000 acres (202,000 ha) in the Selway- Researchers at the Bitterroot and Frank Church River site of the Miller of No Return Wilderness areas, pro Creek prescribed fire ducing an intricate mosaic of habi weigh water cans before and after a tats across the landscape. Managers 1968 broadcast burn of natural areas across the country to calculate energy now recognize and welcome the release in burning fuels. Photo: Forest ecological benefits of fire. Service.
Most ecosystems have a specific relationship with fire, known as the fire regime: how often fires occur and their size, season, and severity. Beginning in the 1970s, research forester Steve Arno used fire scars on trees to determine the frequency
Volume 71 • No. 3 • 2011 27 International Connections The fire lab not only produces new knowledge but also packages knowledge from around the world so it can be readily used by fire managers. From 1978 to 1981, fire lab scientists authored two of the six “Rainbow series” publications that detail how fire affects various ecosystem components. A compre hensive revision of this series began in 2000, with fire lab scientists edit ing four of the six new volumes.
The First Order Fire Effects Model contains equations from research nationwide that predict tree mor tality, fuel consumption, soil heat ing, and smoke emissions from fire. Ecologists at the fire lab also syn thesize knowledge from thousands of studies, packaging the results in the Internet-based Fire Effects Fire lab scientists have contributed to and edited four of the six national syntheses of fire Information System (
The fire lab’s first smoke measure ments were obtained from instru ments located at Miller Creek in 1967. But local information is not sufficient: fires on all continents contribute to pollutants and green house gases in the atmosphere. In 1987, the fire lab began study ing the chemistry of smoke from burning biomass, whether from wildfires, cooking fires, or charcoal production. Chemists conducted field experiments in Brazil, South Africa, Russia, Mexico, and many other countries to describe the compounds in smoke, how they change over time, and where they go. Chemist Wei Min Hao contributed results to the United Nations’ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, which earned the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 for Studies of fire in landscapes in other countries helped broaden the experience and increasing understanding of cli applicability of fire analysis. Here, smoke samples are taken in a 2006 controlled burn mate change. in Mexico. Photo: Forest Service.
Fire Management Today 28 The Biomechanics of Fire What kind of fire behavior would kill organisms in the soil? How much heat does it take to kill a tree? In the early 1980s, fire lab scientists conducted experiments measuring the transfer of heat from fire into soil and living organ isms. Using the knowledge gained in these experiments, they devel oped a model to predict soil heat ing. This model helps managers predict the effects of fires on soil fertility, underground plant parts, and organisms in the soil. Later Figure 4—State-and-transition diagram uses a graphical technique developed in the experiments looked at heat trans 1970s to show potential paths of forest change. PP=ponderosa pine; DF=Douglas-fir. fer through the bark of trees into Source: Bob Keane, Missoula Fire Sciences Laboratory. living cells. The FireStem model developed jointly between the Missoula Fire Sciences Laboratory and the Forest Service Northern Research Station describes heat transfer through tree bark. FireStem helps managers predict tree mortality based on fire behav ior.
Ecosystems are constantly chang ing. How can the changes associ ated with fire be predicted? Starting in the 1970s, scientists used state- and-transition diagrams (fig. 4) to illustrate patterns of vegetation change after fire. When probabili ties are assigned to these pathways, they can serve as predictive models. However, these models assume that the environment remains unchanged through time. In con trast, the FIRE-BioGeoChemical Succession Model (FIRE-BGC), ini tially developed in the 1990s, bases predictions on the flow of material and energy through ecosystems as influenced by weather, climate, fire, and many other factors. An updated version of the model is currently being used to explore potential changes in ecosystems due to changes in climate (fig. 5). Figure 5—In a watershed dominated by forest in 2009, FIREBGCv2 predicts shrubs will dominate after 200 years of influence from changed climate and wildfire. Source: Rachel Loehman, Missoula Fire Sciences Laboratory. Volume 71 • No. 3 • 2011 29 Finding Fires The sooner a manager knows where a fire is, the better—but it is not easy to locate fires in the vast expanse of America’s wildlands. In 1962, fire lab scientists began using aerial infrared photography to detect and map fires. Within a few years, managers adopted this technology to identify problem areas within fires, establish safety zones for firefighters, and locate spot fires. Infrared flights could map 3,000 square miles (7,770 km2) in an hour. Today’s moderate resolution imaging spectroradi ometer (MODIS) satellite sensor detects “hot spots” across the coun try several times a day. The fire lab receives this information via a A satellite receiving dish installed on the roof of the fire lab collects infrared data several globe-shaped satellite dish on the times a day to map “hot spots” across the United States. Photo: Forest Service. roof of the facility. Scientists use the data to map the burned area • Experimental work contributes effective, and ecologically appropri of ongoing fires; this helps predict to improved guidelines for safety ate management of wildland fire. smoke production, the height of of firefighters and homes. smoke plumes, and smoke disper For more information, visit
Research at the Missoula Fire Sciences Lab continues to build on what has been learned in the past, and new technology is opening entire new fields of inquiry. A few examples:
• Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) imagery describes smoke plumes in ever greater detail. • Mathematical models are being used to map wind flow (fig. 6). This information improves the accuracy of fire spread pre dictions. • Field work increases managers’ ability to predict tree mortality caused by fire and bark beetles. Figure 6—WindWizard predicts wind patterns across a landscape, 2010. Source: Bret Butler, Missoula Fire Sciences Laboratory.
Fire Management Today 30 estiMateD sMolDering Probability: a neW tool For PreDiCting grounD Fire in tHe organiC soils on tHe nortH Carolina Coastal Plain James Reardon and Gary Curcio
n the Southeastern United States, fires in pocosin wetlands and Ignitions in pocosins can quickly “blow up,” Iother similar vegetation commu creating major fire runs that defy control efforts nities with deep organic soils are a serious concern to fire managers. until weather or fuel conditions change. Highly flammable shrubs, such as gallberry and fetterbush, and small evergreen trees, such as red and (4,500 m) and fire spread rates of 2 June 2008 made major fire runs loblolly bay, create the potential to 2.5 miles per hour (3.2 to 4 km encompassing 7,000 to 12,000 acres for extreme surface fire behavior. per hour). More recently in North per day (3,000 to 5,000 ha per day). Moreover, deep organic soils allow Carolina, the Evans Road Fire of In the aftermath of these runs, excessive ground fire smoldering in these communities. The com Fireline preparation bustion of organic soils produces and back-firing on the Evans Road Fire. large amounts of persistent smoke, Photo: U.S. Fish and which is linked to health concerns Wildlife Service. and increases the potential for vehicle accidents due to reduced visibility.
Wetland Ground Fires: A Challenge to Suppress Ignitions in pocosins can quickly “blow up,” creating major fire runs that defy control efforts until weather or fuel conditions change. Smoldering In May of 1986, the Topsail Fire combustion made several major runs and and organic soil consumption on remained uncontrolled for a week the Evans Road in eastern North Carolina. A suc Fire. Photo: Bonnie cessful backfire operation involved Strawser, U.S. Fish and the mass firing of 10,000 acres Wildlife Service. (4,000 ha) and created a convec tive plume reaching 15,000 feet
Jim Reardon is a forester at the Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory in Missoula, MT. Gary Curcio is the fire environment branch head for the North Carolina Division of Forest Resources in Kinston, NC.
Volume 71 • No. 3 • 2011 31 ground fire in the organic soils often must rely heavily on broad Estimated Smoldering consumed up to 36 inches (91 cm) guidelines developed from local Probability of organic soil and generated mas knowledge and past experiences. sive smoke plumes that impacted Their judgments are often based on Ground fire in pocosin soils is asso communities along the eastern visible characteristics, not on other, ciated with a porous root mat layer coast for 2 months (Bailey and oth more subtle changes in fuel charac that is dominated by moderately ers 2009). teristics, such as moisture changes. decomposed organic material and Although their decisions often fine to small roots (fig. 1), as well Suppression of smoldering ground result in positive outcomes, fire as a dense muck layer composed of fires presents serious challenges to managers are sometimes surprised highly decomposed organic mate fire managers. In these wetlands, by extreme surface fire behavior rial. The ability to predict ground suppression alternatives are often and unexpected smoldering in what fire in these soil layers is limited by limited by accessibility, and soils were initially considered benign our understanding of the moisture often cannot support the weight fuels. levels supporting smoldering com of heavy equipment. Frequently, bustion. To determine the moisture the extent and severity of smolder An efficient means of evaluating threshold between smoldering and ing makes flooding the only viable ground fire potential in organic nonsmoldering conditions, we col option for dealing with ground soils would help managers use pre lected soil samples from several fires. For example, the ground fire scribed fire with minimal or limited sites on the North Carolina Coastal on the Evan’s Road Fire was con resources and would increase the Plain and burned the soils in labo tained by over 2 billion gallons (8 effective use of wildfire personnel ratory experiments. The laboratory billion L) of water. The water was and equipment resources during burning experiments simulated moved through existing drainage suppression activities. common field conditions during networks, with some water sources more than 35 miles (56 km) from the fire.
Assessing Ground Fire Potential Tools for evaluating the potential for ground fire in organic soils are limited. Managers commonly use water levels in shallow water table wells and drainage ditches as indicators of local ground fire risk. Intermediate or regional scale esti mates of potential are commonly evaluated using the Keetch Byram Drought Index (KDBI). However, our previous research has reported that the KDBI and water level mea surements are inconsistent estima tors of ground fire risk in these soils (Reardon and others 2009).
Currently, a network of fire danger stations monitors surface fire con ditions, but they do not monitor Figure 1—Root mat soil layer. This layer was between 12 and 18 inches (30 and 45 cm) ground fire potential. Due to the thick on the burn units. Photo: Jim Reardon, Forest Service. lack of suitable methods to evalu ate ground fire risk, fire managers
Fire Management Today 32 which an ignition source establish Our analysis shows that the ESP of 145 percent with the same mineral es a ground fire in the root mat and the root mat soil is related to mois content (fig. 2). Although the ESP continues smoldering into adjacent ture content and soil mineral con of the muck soils is also related to soil. tent (fig. 2). For example, in root moisture content, it is insensitive mat soils with a moisture content to mineral content (fig. 3). Muck Based on this laboratory work, of 93 percent and an average min soils at moisture contents less than we developed the Estimated eral content of 4.5 percent, there is 140 percent have an ESP of 91 per Smoldering Probability (ESP) an estimated 50 percent probability cent or greater, while muck soils at model as a predictive tool for use of sustained smoldering. The ESP moisture contents greater than 250 in the organic soils of these shrub- decreases to less than 10 percent in percent have an ESP of less than 13 dominated wetland communities soils with moisture contents above percent. (Reardon and others 2007). This probability model reflects the chance of continued smoldering after a successful ground ignition, when smoldering becomes depen dent on soil moisture and soil prop erties. Model scenarios represent common ignition situations such as lightning strikes, a flaming com bustion front, or burning embers. At low probabilities, continued smoldering is not likely and control may require limited resources. At high probabilities, there is a good chance that most ignitions will be sustained and control will be more difficult.
Organic soils, including the root mat and muck layers in these wet Figure 2—The estimated smoldering probability in root mat soils as a function of soil lands, often have high moisture moisture and soil mineral content. contents due to their ability to absorb and hold relatively large amounts of water. The percent moisture content of organic soils is determined based on the weight of water in the soil and the weight of the soil when it is dry. When the weight of water in the soil is great er than the soil dry weight, the percent moisture content exceeds 100 percent. Moisture contents of greater than 400 percent are com mon for saturated muck soils in North Carolina, and moisture con tents greater than 800 percent have been reported for saturated feather moss soils in boreal black spruce forests.
Figure 3—The estimated smoldering probability in muck soils as a function of soil moisture.
Volume 71 • No. 3 • 2011 33 Small-Scale Field Tests Fire managers are sometimes surprised We conducted field tests of the ESP by extreme surface fire behavior and model using a series of small-scale unexpected smoldering in what were initially research burns of approximately 4 considered benign fuels. to 6 acres (2 ha) and larger scale operational prescribed burns of approximately 100 to 800 acres (40 to 300 ha). We designed the small- constrained by the water level, nei Large-Scale Field Tests ther the laboratory results nor the scale burns to test the dry and wet Although we conducted the small- depth of soil consumption during moisture content limits of smolder scale research burns with limited this burn supported this assump ing in these soils. In addition, we soil and fuel variability, the larger tion. evaluated some widely accepted scale burns included levels of assumptions about smoldering variability normally encountered Additional small-scale burns con combustion that were based on fire during operational burning and ducted during wet burning condi managers’ past experiences and wildland fires. The larger scale tions replicated observations of lab observations during these burns. burns tested the influence of soil oratory experiments during which characteristic variability on the the ignition of the surface litter One burn, conducted during a application of the ESP model. We layer initiated smoldering in the period of extended drought and dry conducted these larger burns as upper root mat layer, but the verti soil conditions, replicated labora part of the North Carolina Division cal spread of smoldering was con tory observations of a ground fire of Forest Resources Operational strained by high moisture contents that established in the dry root Research Evaluation Burn Project, of the lower root mat layer. Again, mat and spread downward into the which was created to facilitate the this contrasts with the accepted muck soil. On the day of burning, use of new research findings and assumptions that once smoldering the local water table was more than fire management tools to advance was established, it would not be 30 inches (76 cm) below the soil prescribed fire. surface and the water level in the constrained by soil moisture con ditches surrounding the burn unit tent. was more than 3 feet (1 m) below the soil surface. The average root mat ESP was 84 percent, while the ESP was less than 10 percent at depths greater than 18 inches (46 cm) below the surface. Post- burn consumption measurements showed that ground fire consumed the root mat and stopped in the muck soil at moisture levels not expected to support smoldering.
The water depth in shallow water table wells and the water level in the adjacent drainage network are measures commonly used by man agers to evaluate the risk of ground fire. Although conventional wisdom regarding the relationship between water table levels and the depth of smoldering consumption based on these measures suggested that Wet burn in the Green Swamp, Brunswick County, NC. Photo: Gary Curcio, NC smoldering would continue until Division of Forest Resources.
Fire Management Today 34 The monitoring and evaluation of pre-burn ground fire potential or risk was an important part of the planning of these larger burns. A concise way of incorporating our research results into the deci sionmaking process was a simple “Burn–No Burn” moisture content threshold based on an acceptable ESP level. We set the decision point at a moisture content threshold of 170 percent for the root mat soil horizons on these sites. This moisture threshold represents a probability of sustained smolder ing of less than 5 percent with an assumed average mineral content A pine woodland burn site with a thick root mat soil layer above a mineral soil layer was of 5 percent (fig. 2). Burning at characterized by the presence of a pine overstory and a heavy shrub understory. Photo: lower moisture contents and cor Gary Curcio, NC Division of Forest Resources. respondingly higher ESP levels was considered an unacceptable risk due to the uncertainty of soil The thick organic soils along the mineral content combined with the potential for long-lasting residual southeastern Coastal Plain are a unique emissions from smoldering and the resource that are not well integrated in the costs of suppressing a smoldering burning decisionmaking process. ground fire.
On the day of burning, the mea soil consumption. Tools such as References sured root mat soil moisture ESP can provide valuable insight was above the moisture content Bailey A.; Mickler R.; Brownlie, D. 2009. on burning conditions that support Wildland fire spread and fuel consump threshold on all sites. The burns the decisionmaking process and tion modeling on North Carolina pocosin were successful, and the absence of can ultimately help managers use ecosystems: lessons from the Evans Road sustained smoldering following the Fire. 4th International Fire Ecology and fire with more confidence. Management Congress: Fire as a Global burns supports the use of ESP on a Process. 30 November–4 December; wide range of sites. Savannah, GA. Redlands, CA: The Acknowledgements Association for Fire Ecology. This project would not be possible Reardon J.J.; Curcio, G.M.; Bartlette, R. The Future of ESP 2009. Soil moisture dynamics and smol without the work of Angie Carl The thick organic soils along the dering combustion limits of pocosin soils and Margit Bucher at The Nature in North Carolina. International Journal southeastern Coastal Plain are a Conservancy; Danny Becker and of Wildland Fire. 18: 326–335. unique resource that is not well Susan Cohen at Camp Lejeune, NC; Reardon J.J.; Hungerford, R.; Ryan, K. integrated in the burning decision- 2007. Factors affecting sustained smol and the North Carolina Division of dering in organic soils from pocosin making process. Future increases Forest Resources. Funding for this and pond pine woodland wetlands. in burning opportunities in these work was provided by the Joint Fire International Journal of Wildland Fire. 16(1): 107–118. wetland communities are depen Science Program and Department dent on better, finer scale tools to of Defense Strategic Environmental evaluate the potential for organic Research and Development Program.
Volume 71 • No. 3 • 2011 35 a tool to estiMate tHe iMPaCt oF bark beetle aCtivity on Fuels anD Fire beHavior Michael J. Jenkins, Elizabeth G. Hebertson, Wesley G. Page, and Wanda E. Lindquist
ecent bark beetle outbreaks ing litter and fine woody fuel loads Simard and others (2011) also have resulted in the loss of and decreasing canopy sheltering, reported significant increases in Rhundreds of thousands of coni which dries fuels and allows for litter and reduction in canopy bulk fers on approximately 74 million increased midflame windspeeds. density during mountain pine acres (30 million hectares) of forest These factors are most important in beetle outbreaks in the Greater in western North America during increasing the probability of igni Yellowstone Area. They modeled the last decade. Stand conditions, tion and rate of fire spread for the fire behavior using Nexus and drought, and warming tempera found no increase in crown fire tures have contributed to the sever potential during outbreaks, but ity of these outbreaks, particularly We predicted potential increased probability of crown fire in high-elevation forests (USDA decades later in the post-outbreak 2009). Many forests remain suscep fire behavior, including stage. tible to bark beetle infestation and rate of spread, flame will continue to experience high length, intensity, and Online Resources levels of conifer mortality until potential for crowning. Fire managers will increasingly suitable host trees are depleted or encounter timber fires burning in natural factors cause beetle popula fuels affected by bark beetles. We tions to collapse. relatively short period (5–10 years) have developed and maintain a Web site containing research findings Beetle, Fuel, and Fire during a beetle epidemic when yel low to red needles are present in and technology useful to forest Interactions conifer stands. During this phase of health and wildland fire profes It has long been assumed that fuels bark beetle infestation, there is also sionals responsible for managing altered by bark beetle outbreaks an increased likelihood of crown conifer forests affected by bark increase the probability of ignition fire initiation and spread due to the beetles. The Web site is organized and the potential for increased fire increased flammability of canopy through tabs that access research intensity. We reviewed literature fuels. papers, conference presentations, relating to the effects of bark bee a photo guide for appraising bark tles on fuels and fire behavior and In the post-bark beetle epidemic beetle-affected fuels, a tutorial for their implications for forest man phase, fire potential may decrease, modeling fire spread in bark beetle- agement (Jenkins and others 2008). however, as canopy fuel continuity affected fuels, an image gallery, and is lost and herbaceous and shrub a comprehensive, up-to-date bibli Our recent research has shown that fuels grow to dominate many for ography and links to other related bark beetles affect fuels by increas- est cover types. There may be an Web sites and resources. The Web increased likelihood of high-inten site is located at
Fire Management Today 36 populations of bark beetles in Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga men ziesii), lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), and Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii) forests in the Intermountain Region of the Western United States (fig. 2). The primary bark beetle species infest ing Douglas-fir, lodgepole pine, and Engelmann spruce are Douglas-fir beetle (Dendroctonus pseudotsug ae), mountain pine beetle (D. ponderosae), and spruce beetle (D. rufipennis), respectively. All three forest types have experienced vary ing levels of bark beetle-caused tree mortality since the late 1980s.
Specialists within fire and forest health communities may use this photo guide in conjunction with other information to help charac terize bark beetle-induced changes Figure 1—The Bark Beetles, Fuels, and Fire project Web site at
The photo guide contains images of typical fuels associated with endemic, epidemic, and post- epidemic populations of bark beetles in Douglas-fir, lodgepole pine, and Engelmann spruce forests in the Intermountain Region of the Western United
States Figure 2—The Bark Beetle, Fuels, and Fire Photo Guide provides appraisals of fuels associated with endemic, epidemic, and post-epidemic populations of bark beetles in Douglas-fir, lodgepole pine, and Engelmann spruce forests in the Intermountain Region of the Western United States. Fuels data, fuel load, fire behavior model output, and photographs are available for each study site.
Volume 71 • No. 3 • 2011 37 Study Sites and Fuels Two-dimensional fire growth and intensity Data simulations that help predict the consequences Fuels data used in developing this of bark beetle-altered fuels on fire hazard at the photo guide were collected from landscape scale are vital to fire planners and land a number of stands in each of the three major forest types. These data managers. are available by clicking on the data tab in the photo guide section of the Web site. population level in each forest type aspect, and habitat type of each are provided in Table 1. plot. Page and Jenkins (2007a) pro We classified selected stands in vide a detailed discussion of these each forest type as either endemic, We collected ground, surface, and methods. epidemic, or post-epidemic for canopy fuels data on plots system assessment of bark beetle-induced atically distributed throughout Photos of Fuel Loads endemic, epidemic, and post-epi fuel loading. We defined stands Following the collection of fuels demic stands in each of the three with endemic populations of bark data, we took digital photos of all forest types. Ground and surface beetles as those having no evidence fuels transects from plot center. We fuels were measured using methods of current or older tree mortality selected camera settings to obtain developed by Brown (1971), Brown attributed to bark beetle infesta high-resolution, high-quality pho and others (1982), and Anderson tion. We defined stands with epi tos suitable for publication. The set (1974). We collected data used demic populations of bark beetles of images used in this guide were for calculating canopy fuels (total as those having increasing levels of those that best represented the available canopy fuel load and tree mortality and/or at least four spectrum of bark beetle-affected crown bulk density) from healthy clumps of two or more standing fuels observed in endemic, epidem and bark beetle-affected trees on infested trees per acre (five or more ic, and post-epidemic stands when variable-radius plots superimposed per hectare). We only sampled plots compared to average fuel appraisal from plot center using methods with at least one infested tree in and fire prediction outputs. We did developed by Brown (1978), Call epidemic stands. We defined post- not provide fuel appraisals or fire and Albini (1997), and Page and epidemic stands as those that had behavior predictions for individual Jenkins (2007a). We also used fixed- more than 60 percent host-tree images because of the variability of and variable-radius plots to collect mortality generally older than 5 fuels encountered in bark beetle- standard forest mensuration data years. However, only plots with affected stands and because fire (tree species, diameter at breast greater than 80 percent host-tree behavior estimates were deemed height, crown class, tree heights, mortality were sampled in post-epi unrealistic at an individual photo tree ages, and regeneration). Other demic stands. The specific locations scale. of stands sampled by bark beetle data recorded included the slope,
Table 1—Locations of stands used for data and images contained in the Bark Beetles, Fuels, and Fire Web site. Forest Type Bark Beetle Population Level Endemic Epidemic Post-epidemic Engelmann spruce LaSal Mountains* Wasatch Plateau Wasatch Plateau Fishlake Hightop Fishlake Hightop Fishlake Hightop Douglas-fir S. Wasatch Mountains S. Wasatch Mountains S. Wasatch Mountains Uinta Mountains (E) Uinta Mountains (E) Uinta Mountains (E) Lodgepole pine Uinta Mountains (W) Uinta Mountains (W) Uinta Mountains (E) Sawtooth National Sawtooth National Recreation Area Recreation Area
*LaSal Mountains: Manti-LaSal National Forest, southeastern Utah; Fishlake Hightop: Fishlake National Forest, southcentral Utah; Wasatch Plateau: Manti-LaSal National Forest, southcentral Utah; Uinta Mountains (E): Ashley National Forest, northeastern Utah; Uinta Mountains (W) and S. Wasatch Mountains: Uinta-Wasatch-Cache National Forest, northern Utah; Sawtooth National Recreation Area, central Idaho.
Fire Management Today 38 Custom Fuel Models Our recent research of endemic and current epidemic mountain pine beetle conditions, We used the measured fuel charac has shown that bark respectively. The different colors teristics to construct custom fuel beetles affect fuels by represent the probability of fires models using the methods devel increasing litter and growing from the ignition point to oped by Burgan and Rothermel a given boundary over the random (1984). This work produced fuel fine woody fuel loads ly selected, 3-day weather window. models customized to the actual set and decreasing canopy The acres in the output legend dis of fuel conditions resulting from sheltering. play the cumulative acre sizes that bark beetle activity over the course include all of the polygons with of epidemics. With these custom higher probabilities. For example, fuel models and average worst case Resource Management Planning the “less than 5 percent” acre value fire weather estimates, we predicted Tools (LANDFIRE) project to cre represents the size of the entire potential fire behavior (rate of ate FARSITE/FlamMap landscapes polygon including all of the smaller spread, flame length, intensity, and (fig. 3). These landscapes were polygons within it. Interpretation potential for crowning) using the then used to model and compare of these FARSITE model simula Rothermel (1983) fire spread model fire growth and intensity in a tions should consider the weather and BEHAVEplus. lodgepole pine forest prior to and windows used and the limitations during a current mountain pine inherent in conventional surface Image Gallery beetle epidemic on the Sawtooth and crown fire spread and initia Images used in the photo guide National Forest, ID. Figure 4, a and tion models (e.g., live canopy fuel and others taken during the project b, shows the FARSITE projections moisture). are organized in the image gal lery of the Web site. Each image is labeled by species, bark beetle condition, and location, represent ing a broad geographic range in the Intermountain West.
Spread Model Tutorial Two-dimensional fire growth and intensity simulations that help predict the consequences of bark beetle-altered fuels on fire hazard at the landscape scale are vital to fire planners and land managers. The Fire Spread Analysis (FSA) tuto rial tab brings up information for using custom fuel models and the landscape-scale fire behavior mod els FARSITE and FlamMap to simu late fire spread across bark beetle- affected landscapes. Experienced fire managers will find the tutorial useful in simulating the effect of bark beetles on fire spread. Figure 3—FARSITE/FlamMap landscape created using aerial detection survey maps (2000–2006), custom fuel models, historic weather data, and data from the LANDFIRE As an example, we used aerial project. The different colors represent the probability of fires growing from the ignition detection survey maps from 2000 point to a given boundary over randomly selected, 3-day weather periods. The acres in to 2006, our custom fuel mod the output legend display the cumulative acre sizes that include all of the polygons with higher probabilities. For example, the “less than 5 percent” acre value represents the size els, historic weather data, and of the entire polygon including all of the smaller polygons within it. data from the Landscape Fire and
Volume 71 • No. 3 • 2011 39 the bibliography. The image gallery is a fluid resource and is continu ally expanding as our work moves to other bark beetle-host systems and as we revisit stands that are in transition to the post-epidemic condition. We encourage others engaged in bark beetle, fuels, and fire research to contribute to the Web site or provide the site manag ers with links to other information and useful Web sites.
The next phase in our research is to characterize fuel and fire behav ior in high-elevation five-needle pines affected by mountain pine beetle. These species occupy a wide geographic but limited elevational range, often in “sky islands” in the Intermountain ecoregion. The eco systems are ecologically important and especially sensitive to threats posed by climate change, changing fire regimes, habitat fragmentation, and white pine blister rust. Figure 4—Screen capture from Web site showing FARSITE projections of (a) endemic and (b) current epidemic mountain pine beetle conditions. We will use results of previous research to extensively sample Bibliography published articles and conference high-elevation five-needle pines papers, presentations, theses, and The Bark Beetle, Fuels, and Fire across a large geographic range in other works not published else Web site manages literature using western North America. Our goal is where. The Bark Beetle, Fuels, and Digital Commons. The Digital to produce a spatially explicit popu Fire Web site bibliography is fully Commons is an institutional repos lation model using a species–land searchable, and university librar itory that brings together all of the scape approach and high-elevation ians work with publishers to man pertinent research under one appli five-needle pines as the focus spe age copyright issues and provide cation with an aim to preserve and cies. users access to portable document provide access to that research. The format (PDF) versions of papers. institutional repository provides For information, questions, or open access to scholarly works, comments on the Web site, or to research, reports, publications, Summary and Future contribute your work to the bibli and courses produced by research Direction ography, contact Mike Jenkins at ers working with bark beetles, The goal of the Web site is to
Fire Management Today 40 Brown, J.K. 1978. Weight and density of Jenkins, M.J. 2011. Fuel and fire behav Page, W.G.; Jenkins, M.J. 2007a. Mountain crowns of Rocky Mountain conifers. ior in high-elevation five-needle pines pine beetle induced changes to selected Research Paper INT-197. Ogden, UT: affected by mountain pine beetle. In: lodgepole pine fuel complexes within the USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Keane, R.E., ed. Proceedings: The future Intermountain Region. Forest Science. Forest and Range Experiment Station. of high-elevation five-needle white pines 53: 507–518. 56 p. in western North America. In press. Gen. Page, W.G.; Jenkins, M.J. 2007b. Predicted Brown, J.K.; Overheu, R.D.; Johnston, Tech. Rep. RMRS-XX. Missoula, MT: fire behavior in selected mountain pine C.M. 1982. Handbook for inventorying USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain beetle-infested lodgepole pine. Forest surface fuels and biomass in the interior Research Station. 16 p. Science. 53: 662–674. West. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-129. Ogden, Jenkins, M.J.; Hebertson, E.; Page, W.; Rothermel, R.C. 1983. How to predict UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Jorgensen, C.A. 2008. Bark beetles, fuels, the spread and intensity of forest and Forest and Range Experiment Station, fires and implications for forest manage range fires. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-143. Ogden, UT. 48 p. ment in the Intermountain West. Forest Ogden, Utah: USDA Forest Service, Burgan, R.E.; Rothermel, R.C. 1984. Ecology and Management. 254: 16–34. Intermountain Research Station. 161 p. BEHAVE: Fire behavior prediction and Jorgensen, C.A.; Jenkins, M.J. 2011. Fuel Simard, M.; Romme, W.H.; Griffin, J.M.; fuel modeling system-FUEL subsystem. complex alterations associated with Turner, M.G. 2011. Do mountain pine Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-167. Ogden, UT: spruce beetle-induced tree mortality in beetle outbreaks change the probability USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Intermountain spruce-fir forests, USA. of active crown fire in lodgepole pine Research Station. 126 p. Forest Science. 57(3): 232–240. forests? Ecological Monographs. 81(1): Call, P.T.; Albini, F.A. 1997. Aerial and Jenkins, M.J.; Jorgensen, C.A.; Page, W.G. 3–24. Surface fuel consumption in crown fires. An evaluation of fire behavior potential USDA Forest Service. 2009. America’s International Journal of Wildland Fire. 7: in spruce beetle-affected Intermountain Forests Heath Update. AIB-804. 16 p. 259–264. spruce-fir forests using FCCS. Western Journal of Applied Forestry. In review.
Exploring the Mega-Fire Reality 2011 14–17th November 2011, Tallahassee, FL
Dear Colleagues, 2,000 homes and killing 173 peo ple. As we prepare this welcome, On behalf of the Conference the Wallow Fire that started on May Committee, we look forward to 29, 2011, in east-central Arizona welcoming you to “Exploring has burned through 495,000 acres the Mega-fire Reality”—the (200,000 ha), and this largest fire Dan Binkley Peter Attiwill first conference of the interna on Arizona’s historical record con tional journal Forest Ecology and tinues to grow. These mega-fires We look forward to an exciting Management. raged despite the highest prepared and productive conference. ness budgets for firefighting and In many parts of the world, both fire suppression on record. Peter Attiwill and Dan Binkley the area and intensity of wildland fires have increased alarmingly. Knowledge and insights about Co-Chairs, the Conference Not only are fires increasing in mega-fires are developing around Committee number, but the nature of these the world, and we hope that prog fires is also changing. We see ress will be greatly enhanced by mega-fires of increasing size and bringing together experts from a intensity in many parts of the broad range of disciplines in forest 18th November: Field trip to world including Siberia, Alaska, ecology and management. Global Tall Timbers – the home of Canada, United States, and par warming, over-accumulation of the study of Fire Ecology ticularly in Asia and Australia. fuels in fire-prone forests, and growth at the wildland-urban inter (Only 50 spaces available for In 2009, the “Black Saturday” face all suggest that the fire protec the field trip!) mega-fire in Australia burned tion strategies we have used in the more than 1.1 million acres past may no longer serve us so well (450,000 ha), destroying over in the future.
Volume 71 • No. 3 • 2011 41 fIre ManageMenT Today announCes 2010 PHoto Contest Winners
s part of an ongoing series, Fire • Is the image balanced or unbal Awards Management Today hosted a anced? Is the balance or imbal Based on the responses to these photography contest in 2010 in ance appropriate? If there is a A and related questions, we made order to present images of firefight main center of interest, is it well the awards based on both relative ing scenes and operations to its placed in the frame? and absolute merit. For example, readers. Photos are recognized here in a category with numerous high- for their superb depiction of fire Lighting quality images, photographs were fighting conditions and efforts. • Does the lighting show off the given First, Second, and Third subject well? Place awards, with Honorable We asked interested people to sub • Is the contrast level appropriate Mention awards for photographs mit images in one or more of six and effective? that also merited acknowledge categories: ment. Otherwise, for categories Subject/Interest in which only a limited number • Wildland fire, of photographs could be rated as • Prescribed fire, • Does the subject have interest excellent, awards were restricted to • Wildland–urban interface, ing connotations or associa those photographs. • Aerial resources, tions? • Ground resources, and • Are the colors and patterns The resulting award-winning pho • Miscellaneous (fire effects, fire effective? tographs are presented on the fol weather, fire-dependent commu • Does the image contain interest lowing pages. Images of interest nities or species, etc.). ing textures? • Does the image contain interest that are not presented here will ing juxtapositions? be retained for future use in Fire Judging and Award Management Today, either as issue Criteria Originality covers or to enliven pages through We evaluated photos submitted in • Does the image show an original out the publication as space allows. three steps. First, we looked at each subject or an original approach Our thanks go out to everyone who photograph for technical charac to a conventional subject? Is it participated in the contest. We teristics, such as focus, clarity, and anonymous in approach, or does appreciate their efforts, first of all, resolution. Then, the judging panel it show a visual signature or in service to our national resources made sure that images depicting convey a personal vision? and, then, in taking the added effort firefighting operations demonstrat in recording the conditions of that service. ed accepted safety standards and Story/Mood practices—unless the intent of the image was to convey the opposite. • Does the image effectively tell a Finally, the judging panel viewed story or convey a mood? and rated the images on the follow ing representative criteria: Digital manipulation of an image was not a disqualifier for high rat ing, but digital effects were judged Composition independently on their effective • Is the composition skillful and ness. dynamic?
Do you have an image that tells a story about wildland firefighting? Would you like to see your photo in print? Turn to the inside back cover for information about our next photo contest .
Fire Management Today 42 FMT Photo Experts Judges for this year’s photo con Response Framework (NRF). He serves 2 (SOF2) (prescribed burn fire boss test were drawn from personnel on several national committees and type 2 [RXB2] expired) and assists well acquainted with firefighting workgroups related to the NRF and FEMA as an ESF4 primary leader. operations and communications. National Incident Management System In addition to responding to fires, The judging panel took the role of (NIMS), and chairs the National floods, and hurricanes, he spent 2 safety experts who could review the Wildfire Coordinating Group’s NRF/ years coordinating the permit and photographed scenes for accepted NIMS Committee. leading the venue risk management safety practices and content experts team on the Cherokee National who rated images on their individual Kent Evans Forest for the skiing World Cup, merits. Our thanks go to these judg Kent Evans is a fire management staff U.S. Team Trials, and 1996 Olympic es for their willingness to share their officer for the National Forests and events. time and knowledge. The judging Grasslands in Texas. After earning his panel included: bachelor and master of science degrees Karl Perry from Texas A&M, he worked for 2 years Karl Perry is the national audiovi Gordon M . Sachs as a range conservation officer for the sual manager for the Forest Service. Gordy Sachs is the disaster and Bureau of Land Management (BLM) He is responsible for audiovisual emergency operations specialist for in New Mexico, where he hit his first information programs in the Forest the Forest Service, Fire and Aviation fire. He spent the next 32 years with Service, including the administra Management, assigned to national the Forest Service in a variety of jobs: tion of national and headquarters headquarters in Washington, DC. range conservation officer, biologist, audiovisual activities. He serves as In this role, he serves as Forest assistant ranger, ecosystem special the agency audiovisual manager Service liaison to Federal Emergency ist, district ranger, and staff officer in regarding policy, and the audiovisual Management Agency (FEMA) head such places as the Lyndon B. Johnson specialist responsible for the produc quarters staff and coordinates inter- National Grassland, Sabine National tion of national audiovisual and pho agency efforts related to Federal Forest, Chattahoochee National Forest, tographic products. Karl has more firefighting support during disas Cherokee National Forest, Talladega than 30 years of Federal service, has ter response. He also coordinates National Forest, and the National worked as a freelance photographer the national cadre for Emergency Forests in Texas. He maintains his line for Times-Mirror, and has had many Support Function 4 (ESF4), qualifications as an incident command of his photos published in various firefighting, under the National er type 3 (ICT3) and safety officer type publications and magazines.
First Place, Wildland-urban Interface. Close call on the 2007 Jocko Lakes Fire, Lolo National Forest, MT. Photo: John Prendergast, Forest Service, Fire and Aviation Management, National Incident Management Office, Medford, OR.
Volume 71 • No. 3 • 2011 43 Wildland Fire
First Place, Wildland Fire. Burnout operation conducted by Engine 431 and Cedar City Fuels Crew on the north side of the Kolob Fire near Zion National Park, UT, 2008. Photo: Dirk Huber, Ashley National Forest, Vernal, UT.
Second Place, Wildland Fire. Landscape scale burning on the Third Place, Wildland Fire. Brushy fire in the Chiricahua 2007 Jocko Lakes Fire, Lolo National Forest, MT. Photo: John Mountains, Coronado National Forest, AZ, in 2010. With the Prendergast, Forest Service, Fire and Aviation Management, help of delayed aerial ignition devices (DAIDS), crews were able National Incident Management Office, Medford, OR. to secure the road in John Long Canyon. The photo was taken by Taylor Amos while posted as a lookout above Cub Trail (Cub Lookout).
Fire Management Today 44 Aerial Resources
First Place, Aerial Resources. P-3 aircraft retardant drop below Hanging Rock, Blossom Fire, Rogue River-Siskiyou National Forest, OR, 2005. Photo: John Prendergast, Forest Service, Fire and Aviation Management, National Incident Management Office, Medford, OR.
Second Place, Aerial Resources. A heavy air tanker Third Place, Aerial Resources. A California Air National Guard drops retardant to protect the Pine Valley Subdivision Blackhawk Helicopter sips from Booze Lake in the William Coe during the 2006 LaBarranca fire near Sedona, AZ. State Park near Gilroy, CA, during the Lick Fire of 2007. Photo: Photo: John Coil, Sedona Fire District, Sedona, AZ. Jeff Shelton, Orange County Fire Authority, Oceanside, CA.
Volume 71 • No. 3 • 2011 45 Prescribed Fire
First Place, Prescribed Fire. Engine 431, Kings Peak Wildland Fire Module, and Engine 631 burn piles on Reservation Ridge of the West Zone of the Ashley National Forest, 2009. Photo: Dirk Huber, Ashley National Forest,Vernal, UT.
Second Place, Prescribed Fire. Crewmembers of Engine 431 Third Place, Prescribed Fire. North Zone crews on the Picnic/ regroup after lighting a prescribed fire unit in the Anthro Cavern/Kine fuels reduction prescribed burn just outside Nemo, Mountain prescribed burn on the West Zone of the Ashley National SD, on the Black Hills National Forest, 2009. Photo: Bradley Forest, UT, 2009. The burn was conducted to improve greater sage- Hershey, Forest Service, Boxelder Job Corps Center and Nemo grouse brood-rearing habitat. Photo: Dirk Huber, Ashley National Volunteer Fire Department, Nemo, SD. Forest,Vernal, UT.
Fire Management Today 46 Ground Resources
First Place, Ground Resources. Engine 431 supports a burnout operation on the Petty Mountain Fire on the West Zone of the Ashley National Forest, 2003. The fire was conducted to improve bighorn sheep habitat. Photo: Dirk Huber, Ashley National Forest, Vernal, UT.
Second Place, Ground Resources. Captain of Engine 431 on Third Place, Ground Resources. Breakdown on the Poe Cabin the Fork Fire of the Southern Ute Agency near Ignacio, CO, uses Fire, Riggins, ID, 2007. Photo: Kevin Oldenburg, National Park a pencil hose to help contain a fire, 2009. Photo: Dirk Huber, Service, Vanderbilt Mansion and Eleanor Roosevelt National Ashley National Forest, Vernal, UT. Historic Sites, Hyde Park, NY.
Volume 71 • No. 3 • 2011 47 Miscellaneous
First Place, Miscellaneous. An early morning storm brings little rain and spectacular lightning to the Cibola National Wildlife Refuge, AZ, on the Colorado River south of Blythe, CA, in 2006. Four days earlier, lightning from another storm ignited the Cibola Fire. Photo: John Coil, Sedona Fire District, Sedona, AZ.
Second Place, Miscellaneous. Scars from a previous wildfire in Third Place, Miscellaneous.The eradication of juniper the Bob Marshall Wilderness, MT, still remain in 2008, while the trees encroaching into a ponderosa pine community on the fire dependent community rebuilds itself. Photo: Terra Fondriest, Yellowstone Prescribed Burn on the West Zone of the Ashley AZ. National Forest, 2007. Photo: Dirk Huber, Ashley National Forest,Vernal, UT.
Fire Management Today 48 Honorable Mention
Honorable Mention, Ground Resources. Firefighters are transported by jetboat in the Rogue River Canyon, Blossom Fire, Rogue River-Siskiyou National Forest, OR, 2005. Photo: John Prendergast, Forest Service, Fire and Aviation Management, National Incident Management Office, Medford, OR.
Honorable Mention, Aerial Resources. Tanker drop on the Barker Branch Fire, Cumberland Ranger District, Daniel Boone National Forest, 2010. Photo: Evelyn Morgan, Daniel Boone National Forest, Winchester, KY.
Honorable Mention, Prescribed Fire. Public notice and safety signage for the Pole Creek Prescribed Burn on the Kemmerer Ranger District, Bridger-Teton National Forest, WY, 2010. Photo: Lara Oles, Bridger-Teton National Forest, Kemmerer,WY.
Volume 71 • No. 3 • 2011 49 Honorable Mention (continued)
Honorable Mention, Wildland Fire. Burnout operations on the B&B Complex, Deschutes National Forest, OR, 2003, involving multiple agencies combined into engine strike under the Oregon Conflagration Act. This was a tremendous learning opportunity for many departments whose personnel are more experienced with structural fires. Photo: Melanie Fullman, Ottawa National Forest, Ironwood, MI.
Honorable Mention, Miscellaneous. Fall shadows highlight the rebirth of the jack pine forest 5 months after the Meridian Boundary Fire on the Mio Ranger District, Huron-Manistee National Forest, 2010. Photo: Philip Huber, Huron-Manistee National Forest, Mio, MI.
Fire Management Today 50 Fire Management today
announCing tHe 2011 PHoto Contest!
he Fire and Aviation Management branch of the Guidelines for contributors and the mandatory Forest Service began conducting photo con release form can be found on the FMT Web site: Ttests in 2000 for its quarterly publication, Fire
Winners in each category will receive the following awards: • 1st place: One 20- by 24-inch framed print of your photograph • 2nd place: One 16- by 20-inch framed print of your photograph • 3rd place: One 11- by 14-inch framed print of your photograph • Honorable mention: One 8- by 10-inch framed print of your photograph To fax your orders: 202-512-2104 To phone your orders: 202-512-1800 or 1-866-512-1800 For subscription cost and to Order on Line: http://bookstore.gpo.gov
Mail To: U.S. Government Printing Office - New Orders P.O. Box 979050 St. Louis, MO 63197-9000