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SPRING 1970 • VOL. 31, NO.2 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE • FOREST SERVICE A quarterly periodical devoted to forest

CONTENTS

Poge 3 Liquid Fertilizer Tested As WILLIAM C. WOOD 5. Sector Camps Improve Fire Force Efficiency BRIAN SCHAFFER 8 Oscillating Sprinklers Backup For Burnout JOHN D. DELL and GEORGE 1. SCHRAM 10 Retardant Sacks Baled For Disposal JAMES C. ALLEN 11 Structural Fire Prevention Training Pays Off RICHARD R. FLANNELLY 13 LC Retardant Viscosity Reduced In Alaska C. W. GEORGE, R. J. BARNEY, and G. M. SHEETS 15 Coulters Sharpened MAINE FOREST SERVICE 16 Table Speeds Fire Spread Estimates GARY E. CARGILL

COVER-Helicopters help cut down travel time to sector camps. S•• article, p. S.

(NOTE-The use of trode, firm, or corporation nomes in this publication is for the information and ccn. venleece of the reader. Such does not constitute on officiol endorsement or approval of any product or service by the U.S. Deportment of Agriculture to the exclusion of others which may be suitabl •.) ." AFM Library gon, LC 10-34-0 was readily available throughout the Pa­ cific Northwest at a cost about Liquid Fertilizer Tested 25 percent below the TVA product. Approximately 1,500, As Fire Retardant 000 gallons of LC 10-34-0 are stored in Oregon and Washing­ WILLIAM C. WOODl ton agricultural areas. LC 10-34-0 was selected for operational field trials. The Liquid Concentrate (LC) fertilize,' (10-34-0) as a fire retardant main difference between 11-37-0 has been given field evaluation by the Forest Service in the and 10-34-0 is that 11-37-0 is Pacific Northwest Region. There appeaT to be many advantages more concentrated. Since it is to use of LC Ot'e,· other retardants, slightly weaker, less water is added to the 10-34-0 concen­ trate to produce an approxi­ Faced with the prospect of Control Notes article of April mate 8 percent phosphate a major expenditure in retard­ 1968, Vol. 26 (2): 13-16, writ­ equivalent solution. Research ant plant overhaul, the Pacific ten by R. W. Johansen and G. by the Southern Forest Fire Northwest Region made a sur­ L. Crow, "Liquid Phosphate Laboratory indicates that an 8 vey to determine whether other Fire Retardant Concentrates," percent phosphate equivalent long-term fire retardants might which described convincingly will effectively retard fires in offer advantages over the stand­ the advantages of liquid con­ most forest fuels. An approxi­ ard retardant, ammonium sul­ centrate retardant. mate 8 percent phosphate phate slurry. equivalent has been successful­ Contacts with the Southern ly used by the Southern Region Fertilizer? Forest Fire Laboratory at Ma-. for the past several years. con, Georgia, along with ob­ Pat Int-Hout, Fire Staff Offi­ servations of the Southern Re­ Field Test cer of the Wenatchee National gion's use of TVA (LC) 11­ Forest, suggested that Tennes­ 37-0, proved convincingly that For the field test project, one see Valley Authority's Liquid Liquid Concentrate (LC) poly­ gallon of LC 10-34-0 was blend­ Concentrate Fertilizer (11-37­ phosphate fertilizers should be ed with 4 gallons of water to 0) be considered. Liquid Con­ evaluated for use as fire re­ give an 8.7 percent phosphate centrate is a syrupy liquid solu­ tardants. In fact, a survey of equivalent solution. One gallon tion of condensed phosphates the Southern Region's air of· mixed solution costs about referred to in the fertilizer in­ tanker base operations revealed dustry as polyphosphates. Poly­ that the mixing and handling phosphates, when exposed to advantages of LC over slurries Figvre 1.-P2V dropping 1,000 golions of LC retardant from 200 feet. the weather, tend to remain are profoundly in favor of the tacky and do not evaporate liquid retardant. f' '. -'. . readily. Orthophosphate solu­ ' " . •. .' tions such as DAP and water First Step . , • f\ form salt crystals when dried. ~ ," f \ First of all, a prospectus to ~ "_77J~- Int-Hout's suggestion :".~.~y' obtain information on the cost ir:~ -:-~,."J"" prompted a review of Forest and availability of LC poly­ '. ... D Service fire research literature phosphates was prepared and which indicated that nonvis­ circulated throughout the fer­ .. ,.'. cous retardants have certain tilizer industry in Oregon and advantages over thick slurries. Washington. From this, it was Of particular note was a Fire learned that TVA's (LC) 11­ 37-0 required excessive delivery time and was not commercially I Equipment Specialist, USDA Forest Service, Region 6. available in the State of Ore-

3 chee. Evaluation reports by air dling was delayed longer. Sec­ T attack bosses were completed tions of fireline treated with LC $.12. The corrosion inhibitor, for all drops, and, in addition, required less crew holding ac­ sodium dichromate, in the pro­ about 75 percent of these fire tion than those with slurry. portions recommended by the drops were evaluated by With "High" fire-danger rat­ F Equipment Development Cen­ ground forces. . ings and winds up to 15 m.p.h., ter at San Dimas is included several running and crowning in this cost. By comparison, fires in pine types were stopped ammonium sulphate slurry Compared With Slurry completely with LC. On three costs about $.17 per gallon. running fires in heavy fuel, On a number of fires, slurry neither retardant was effective. A The Wenatchee, Wash., and Lakeview, Ore., air tanker and LC were dropped side by bases were each outfitted with side. This gave fire research a storage tank and a meter to scientists and fire bosses a good Ground Coverage accommodate LC. The provi­ opportunity to observe the com­ c sions were relatively simple: parative effect of each on wild­ The area of effective ground the LC storage tank and the fires. Personnel from the South­ coverage from LC was almost F water line were each valved ern Forest Fire Laboratory as­ twice as large as that obtained and piped into the suction side sisted in the evaluation. From with slurry. LC patterns were of a 300 g.p.rn. centrifugal comments of ground personnel consistently longer and nearly pump which discharged and an analysis of evaluation twice as wide. There appeared through a meter reports, it emerged that LC is to be more uniform distribu­ into the aircraft loading hose. at least equal, if not superior, tion of LC over a wider area I Original batch mix facilities to ammonium sulphate slurry while the thick slurry (1600­ were left intact; thus, each in holding and stopping fires. 2000 centipoise) patterns tend­ I base could furnish both slurry ed to have large puddles and and LC. The majority of fires oc­ unequal distribution. Compara­ curred in pine-brush and pine­ tive drops, made later with the In spite of the relatively light juniper-mahogany areas. How­ P2V Neptune on the Medford f 1969 fire season in the Pacific ever, several drops were made Airport, confirmed the in­ Northwest, 117,000 gallons of in grass-sagebrush, in coastal creased pattern size of LC (fig. f LC retardant were dropped on Douglas-fir, and on fires in pine 1). The drop cloud of LC in 28 fires by air tankers working and Douglas-fir slash units. descent resembled a heavy, out of Lakeview and Wenat- swirling rain. The swirling ef­ In all cover types, ground fect apparently caused more crews reported that more LC complete coating of fuel. Ex­ than slurry got through to the amination of vegetation in LC ground, and the cooling effect patterns showed that standing was more pronounced from LC grass, leaves, needles, and than from slurry. Perhaps this brush were usually covered on was due to the temporary in­ all surfaces. crease in humidity and smoth­ ering effect of vaporized LC. Ground crews who left hand The LC appeared to have a tools in the vicinity of drops more lasting effect and seemed where they were inadvertently to draw moisture from the air overnight. LC retardant depos­ sprayed with LC reported that ited on fuels remained moist handles became sticky and had and tacky for several days af­ to be rinsed. No toxic reactions ter the drop, whereas the slur­ were noted, but it was reported ry dried completely after a few that minor cuts and abrasions hours' exposure to sun and would sting when exposed to wind. Knock-down effect on LC spray. This is also true of ', ~-" crowning and running fires was more pronounced, and rekin- slurry.

4 Ai, Personnel Opinion slurry. An analysis of mix plant operations, made by the Fremont National Forest, Sector Camps Air tanker pilots and air showed the man-hour produc­ tanker bosses reported no ap­ tion rate of the LC plant was Improve Fire preciable differences in pilot­ more than 10 times greater ing techniques with LC. One than slurry. Two men can han­ Force Efficiency 'slight advantage is that the dle an LC plant during peak area covered on the ground is activity, while six to eight men BRIAN SCHAFFER' larger. Flight elevations above are required to sustain a slurry the ground and safety precau­ operation. One man can handle tions to avoid injury to ground an LC plant during routine ac­ crewmen are the same. tivity. An additional advantage The use of small sector is that the meter provides a camps, supplied by helicopter Daily washdowns of aircraft, positive measure of the quan­ and/or roads, increases efficien­ which are needed to minimize tity of retardant loaded into the cy of creu's, Reduction of haz­ corrosion effects, are far easier aircraft (fig. 2). Metering of ard. to cI'e/u salety is also an when LC is used. LC is more slurries has been considered imporiont result, .4n example soluble than slurry and is easily impractical. of mallning and supplying removed with low-pressure three sector camps by helicop­ washing. No special modifica­ ier is gi/'81L It illustrates a tion to aircraft tanks is re­ Dye Marker feasible procedure. quired except that gasketing must positively seal all com­ The LC used last year did partments, bolt holes, and not contain a dye-marker. It seams. Tanks which would hold was decided to try to identify slurry reasonably well leaked targets and dropped loads by badly when filled with less means of a Flagmaster, a de­ viscous LC. Usually, each air vice which flips signal stream­ tanker on standby was loaded ers off the wing of the lead to one-half capacity with plain plane. This was only partially water. Upon receipt of a fire successful. Although the field call, the required amount of LC trial was completed without the was pumped into the tanks and benefit of a dye, it became ob­ the remaining quantity of wa­ vious that LC should contain a ter was then added to fill out dye especially for situations the load. This speeded up load­ where multiple drops are made ing time and also flushed the by different aircraft on several pump and meter each time the fires in close proximity. Com­ aircraft was loaded. All con­ mercial suppliers have indicat­ tract air tankers in Region 6 ed that they are prepared to have internal manifolds which furnish LC with a premixed provide for equal mixing of the coloring agent. LC and water in each tank The traveling distance from compartment. On the basis of the 1969 tests, fire camp often results in ex­ it has been decided to convert tremely long work shifts. Shifts all Region 6 air tanker bases required by long travel times to accommodate LC retardant. place unnecessary strain on the Long-Term ERed, Existing stocks of slurry mix , and after a few will be used up and mix plants days, his ability to perform The long-term accumulative will be converted as funds per­ adequately and safely is sharp­ effect of LC corrosion on mix mit. Plans call for installation ly reduced.. plant hardware is unknown, of mix plants similar to those d- but it is expected to be much used to blend liquid fertilizers I Supervisory squadleader, North less than that experienced with in agriculture. t:.. California Service Center.

5 2

figure l.- scrambling for a h.licopter lift to the fire. 9- Long traveling distances not camps were inaccessible by The sector camp should have only tie up men and equipment, road, they could be manned and a number for identifications they put a heavy load on plans supplied by helicopter. If cop­ placed near the helispot or car­ and service operations. They ters aren't available for both go drop point. This number can also increase the accident risk manning and supply, fixed be made from ground-to-air for both men and equipment. wing aircraft could be used as panels or paint spray cans. supplying vehicles. If there When sector camps are to be All these problems were ob­ were a shortage of aircraft, the supplied by 'copter, sling load­ served in 1968 on the Liebre men could walk to their sector ing is the most efficient and Fire, Angeles National Forest. from the nearest road and re­ time saving method. The trucking route from fire main there until the work is camp to the unloading points complete. Zone and forest fire Two or three men could be was on a narrow, steep truck caches could prepare sector responsible to the day sector trail and took well over an drop camps in units of either boss for setting up each camp hour, one way. As a result, the 50- or 100-man camps. Several and heating two frozen meals average work day was 18 hours, of these units could be prepared per day. The use of frozen and one work day was 20 hours. before the fire season begins. meals will eliminate the need The establishment of sector for trained cooks at each camp. camps supplied either by air Lunches could be prepared by or truck would have eliminated Helicopters a catering service or base fire unnecessary travel time and al­ camp and flown in. lowed the firefighters more time If helicopters are used, each for rest in between shifts. camp should have one assigned By assigning men to a sec­ to it after the initial manpower tor, leaving them there until If a sector camp could be lift. foremen would the work is complete and sup­ reached by road, the men re­ make ideal helicopter managers plying them by air or truck, the' quired for day and night shifts for this type of operation. They need for long and sometimes could be trucked there initially, are already trained for loading arduous periods of travel be­ left, and supplied by truck until and unloading 'copters and se­ tween fire line and fire camp ready to come out. If the sector lecting safe helispots. can be eliminated. Only safe 6 areas should be selected for the will be sufficient to bring up ties can probably be brought camp location, however. daily supplies and for neces­ up during some of the routine sary crew movement within the missions during the day. sector. The day shift should be Rest Helps lifted first and early enough so More time for rest between that the fire camp can be sling­ Additional Pointers shifts will decrease the accumu, loaded up next. The fire camp can then be set up by a few men 1. Cost-The average cost per lative fatigue factor and the man to fly to his sector while the night shift is being accident risk. The risk of motor camp is about $15.00 per vehicle accidents on traffic­ brought in. Two men are 5-mile flight. jammed truck trails will be re­ enough to heat the steamed duced. Plans and service oper­ meals and manage the camp. 2. Aircraft-It would be ad­ ations will be simplified. Gains vantageous to have at least will include more productive The helicopter manager's job two aircraft per sector camp working time on the line, high­ during this type of operation available for the initial air er morale of the men, increased will require close coordination lift. The extra helicopter productivity on the fire line, with the air attack boss, line per camp can be released and increased safety. and sector bosses, and the plans after the air lift. and service chiefs. When there Whenever the driving time is an air tanker operation going 3. Density Altitude-W hen from fire camp to sector ex­ in a certain sector, the helicop­ operating at extremely high ceeds 30 minutes, the establish­ ter operation in that sector can temperatures and/or eleva­ ment of sector camps should be be suspended temporarily and tions, the density altitudes considered. The fire boss may that sector's 'copters assigned can be high enough to con­ want to keep one or two hot­ to speed up the air lift to other siderably lower the freight shot crews available at the base sectors. loads. There are roo hard fire camp for trouble-shooting and fast rules as to what hot spots or working the head the helicopter can carry. of the fire. The concept of air Doily Supply Payloads depend on envi­ manning and supply is flexible ronmental conditions. The Water: The minimum water pilot has to make the final enough to handle most situa­ necessary is 2 gallons per day tions that arise. The keys to its decision. success are training, planning, per man. Our drop camp sup­ organizing, and coordinating. ply sheet lists the weight of 4. Tooling UP-When the men water with containers as 90 Ibs. arrive at base camp, they per 10 gallons. One hundred should each be issued a tool A Sample Problem lor Manning men will require 1,800 lbs. of and a gallon of water. They and Supplying A Three Sector water or about two to three should keep their fire bags Fire By Helicopter sling loads. Loads or trips for with them (fig. 1). These water can be reduced if water items should be airlifted Assume 100 men per sector is brought up during other rou­ with the men. There may be i and at least seven light turbine tine missions. times when one man has to helicopters available initially. be dropped from a load due Helitack crews under supervi­ Food: One frozen food com­ to density altitude. Files, sion of the service chief or line pany lists the weight of a 10­ headlights, batteries, and boss should have already se­ meal box of supper meals as paper sleeping bags are in­ lected and completed construe, 20 lbs., and 10 breakfasts as cluded in the drop camp. tion of sector camp helispots. 18 Ibs. The total for one day's During the initial air lift, two meals for 100 men comes, then, 5. Breakinq Camp-When the light turbine copters (Hiller to 580 Ibs. Food for the day can work is completed in a sec­ 1100 types), or One large one be brought up in one load, early tor, the men can either be (Bell 204 B, 205 A), should be in the morning, or brought up flown out or walked out. assigned to each spot. After the late afternoon for the next day. The drop camps can be sling men and fire camps have been loaded in two trips per 50­ transported to their sectors Additional supplies: Replace­ man camp. one helicopter per sector camp ment tools and other necessi- ,I 7 2

Oscillating Sprinklers Backup For Burnout

JOHN D. DELL' and GEORGE 1. SCHRAM' .'

An oscillating sprinkler sys­ tem serves effectively as a back­ up lor burnout. It was used on the Eagle Rock Fi1"C, Willa­ mette National Forest, in 1967 to hold a difficult section 01 control line near the bottom aI a V-shaped canyon where radi­ ant heat was a major concern. Figure 1.-AII equipment for 20 sprinkler units is assembled in a kit for easy transport and handling. A fireline is not complete National Forest, western Ore­ until the unburned fuel between for line construction was im­ gon, in 1967. This same sprin­ possible. Although the control the fire edge and the control kler system, and its application line is reduced or eliminated­ line for the burnout was in a for slash burning, has been de­ difficult location, it was the best usually by burning out. This scribed by Orr and Dell? It is operation is a routine part of that could be found-the line now assembled in kit form for was as close to the fire's edge the fire suppression job-c-urt­ easier transport and handling. less the burnout must be done as a crew could work. If it had The kit (fig. 1) weighs about been necessary to build this under conditions of adverse 175 pounds. It has 20 galva­ topography, wind changes, or line at the nearest natural top­ nized steel conduit standpipes, heavy fuel concentrations. In. ographic break, at least an ad­ 20 sprinkler heads, and acces­ ditional 100 acres of timber this event, the operation is sory hardware for connection usually reinforced with extra and watershed valued at $15,­ to a 11/:!-inch . Cost of holding crews and equipment, 000 might have had to be sac­ parts for the 1,000-foot, 20­ air drops of chemical fire re­ rificed in the control effort. A unit system is about $350, and tardant, or both. 50-foot path on the fire side of it takes about 2 man-days to the control line was cleared of assemble it. Assembly instruc­ smaller trees, brush, and stand­ Oscillating Sprinklers tions, equipment list, and ing snags. Most of this debris An oscillating sprinkler sys­ sources for parts supply were was deposited in the bottom of tem was used effectively as a reported by Orr and Dell. the draw. Ignition of outside backup for a difficult burnout fuels by radiation from the on part of the 1,300-acre Eagle Eagle Rock Fire burnout was a major concern. Rock Fire on the Willamette The situation at the Eagle Rock Fire required burning out Wate, Supplied by Ground Tanker I Forester, Pacific Southwest For. more than a quarter mile of est and Range Experiment Station, critical control line. This line A thousand feet of fire hose stationed in Portland, Oreg. was near the bottom of a "V"­ =Fire control technician, Sweet was laid next to and just above Home District, Willamette National shaped canyon (see fig. 3). the control line (fig. 2). The Forest, Sweet Home, Oreg. Fire control was difficult be­ sprinkler kit was unloaded at "Orr, William J., and John D. Dell. cause the topography included Sprinkler system protects fireline a roadhead, and unit compo­ perimeter in slash burning. Fire Con­ numerous steep cliffs and rock nents were carried or placed in trol Notes 28 (4): 11-12. illus. 1967. outcroppings. Use of tractors backpacks for transport by the 8 d- assembly crew to the burnout foot, Ph-inch cotton jacketed­ became in tense, but no spot area. Hose line fittings were rubber lined (CJRL), hose-lay fires started in the areas cov­ placed at each 50-foot coupling, require a 4,500 gallon per hour ered by sprinklers. Holding and the 20 oscillating sprin­ water supply. crews were able to use the klers were connected to the line. Burning out at Eagle Rock sprinkled area as a heat shield. Stream water was not availa­ started late in the afternoon. Firing was completed at ble for the operation, so the Sprinklers were not turned on 0200 hours the following morn­ water had to come from a until burning was underway so ing, with fire in the upper sec­ 3,000-gallon slip-on tank on a that they could not adversely tor of the line already diminish­ dump truck, with a Pacific affect the firing. As firing crews ing. Sprinkler heads were re­ Mark 3 pump providing pres­ progressed down the draw from adjusted to full circle, so that sure. Four additional nurse the top, sprinklers were turned the burned-over area inside the tankers were used for resupply. on behind them. The sprinklers line would be cooled off for Water was hauled 2 miles from were set on 180 0 rotations so mopup the next day. the nearest natural source. that only the area outside the Through the critical hours of Since the Eagle Rock Fire, we' control line was wet down. have determined that 20 full Sprinklers Assis' Holding the burnout, an estimated 40,­ circle oscillating sprinklers and Mopup 000 gallons of water were used. p,,-inch nozzle) on a 1,000- Heat from the burnout fires In the opinion of the fire over. d- r---:----:------....,.~

/i; Burned Area "/ Main Fire

Control Line

~-_----JJ,~---~\1Burnout Area I ..

I ..

Figure 2.-1" this burnout situation, a 20·unit sprinkler system was used to reinforce the fire control lin. in the 1967 Eagle Rock Fire. Clearing for a burnout control lin. resulted in a dense concentrotion of debris in the canyon bottom. The sprinklers, placed just above Ihe control line, prevented spotting over the line from radiated heat. 9 savings estimate of $10 per head who observed the opera­ ing water by sprinklers offers excellent possibilities for con­ operating day in handling costs tion. the line could not have is realized from the use of the been held without the sprink­ serving manpower and promot­ ing safety in fire control work. baler. Intangible benefits in­ lers. clude: air pollution abatement, Observations f::. improved appearance of the The use of a sprinkler sys­ plant. and better utilization of tem can contribute to the fire available working space. control effort in both prescribed Construction burns and . We believe Retardant Sacks The unit is constructed of %," the system has these specific pipe (fig. 1) and includes a advantages. It: foot press and a latch to hold • provides an even, measura­ Baled For Disposal the press in place while the ble (gal./min.) water diffu­ sacks are being tied. The sacks sion over the fuel area to be are tied with twine. and each treated. JAMES C. ALLEN' bale consists of 25 sacks. one o allows a sprinkler to be shut mixer load. off anywhere along line to The cost of the unit was $46 conserve water when it is for pipe, welding, and assem­ not needed. bly. Scrap material was' used • allows connection of addi­ The disposal of empty re­ for the foot press and other tional hoses and nozzles for tardant sacks has long been a small parts. Pipe cutting and covering spot fires across a problem around retardant bas­ painting was done by the plant line. es. Methods vary from throw­ foreman in his spare time. Es­ • can have a favorable effect timated cost to have the unit on burning conditions within ing the sacks on the ground or onto a truck or trailer to throw­ constructed by a commercial several hundred feet of the ing the sacks directly into an source is $125-150. sprinkler line. incinerator for burning on the Plans • generally conserves water spot. Plans are available from For­ supply because of low flow est Supervisor, Deschutes Na­ rate from small orifices on Disadvantages tional Forest, 211 East Revere. sprinkler heads. Bend, Oreg. 97701 f::. • can be used to help protect Each of these methods has special areas, such as recrea­ disadvantages. During periods tion sites. plantations. build­ of high fire occurrence. the en­ ings. and homes. tire area around the retardant • can be used to reinforce nar­ mixing plant is covered with row control lines. sacks when they are thrown in­ • can be used to reinforce discriminately on the ground. and wet grass-covered fuel It is expensive to keep a vehicle breaks on fire perimeter. on hand for carting sacks away. • serves as a heat shield for and air pollution restrictions line crews during holding. have outlawed the use of the backfiring. or burnout oper­ incinerator in many areas. Retardant Plant Foreman ations. • can be used in helping mop­ Robert H. Mayfield designed a up by gradually moving the baler that was installed at the system inward from the fire's Redmond Air Center plant in 1968. It has since been adopted edge. The Eagle Rock Fire marks for Service-wide optional use. one of the few instances in the The sacks are now baled and stacked until they can be hauled Pacific Nor t h w est Region . '/ where sprinklers have been away at the end of the day. A Figure 1.-T e bcler is conveniently located where slurry is mixed and empty sacks con used on a . Improve­ be dropped in the baler. One mixer load ments in some of the equip­ of 2S socks comprones into 0 bale of I Air Center Manager, Redmond ment and assembly methods we Air Center, Deschutes National For­ approximately 2' It 3', convenient to handle and neatly and ecuily stacked. used can be expected. Distribut- est.

10 162. We cell it an EXPLOSIONI This is why- Structural Fire Prevention Training Pays Off

RICHARD R. FLANNELLyl

A trainee-oriented fire pre­ vention program sharph] re­ duced the number of structural fires at Forest Service Civilian Conse1"Vation Centers. The pro­ gram contained a basic and a review cow'se, as well as a self­ contained course for staff mem­ bers and advanced C01·psmen. If you walk into a dusty In 1966, the pace of estab­ place smoking a cigarette- lishing 45 Forest Service Civil­ ian Conservation Centers was so hectic the potential problem of structural fires was not placed in the proper perspec­ tive. These Centers are in isolated locations and must depend pri­ marily on their own resources to suppress fires. By February 1967, 18 fires had occurred, re­ sulting in a' financial loss of $84,000. By phenomenal luck, ·. ~ . . ., . no one was killed or injured. Safety experts say that wheth­ er or not a given exposure to accident results in no injury, minor injury, major injury, or death is merely a matter of luck. Our assumption was that This can happenl we had just about run out of luck. The Forest Service is noted for its prowess in preventing and suppressing forest fires but has limited experience with structural fires. For this rea­ son, we decided to start a train­ ing program for structural fire­ fighting and open this program to proposals from private train­ ing contractors. d-

1 Employee Development and 'I'rairring Branch, Division of Per­ sonnel Management, Washington Of­ fice, USDA Forest Service.

11 165. Turn to page 2 and answer this text from his manual. At key question. points, the Corpsmen are re­ Where can a spark cause an ex­ quired to respond either orally plosion? or by checking in their response -A spark in a room of gasoline booklets. The following sample vapors. from the instructor's manual -A spark in a dusty room. demonstrates this technique: -A spark in a room of paint fumes. Insert Illustrated Frames -All of those. In frame number 3, the in­ structor tells the Corpsman which page to turn to in the Corpsman's answer book. The same picture appears in the Corpsman's answer book as ap­ 166. The answer is ALL of these. MANY pears on the screen. The Corps­ kinds of dust, vopors, and fumes can man indicates his response by explode. checking the picture. The Basic Course covers sev­ en subject areas by units: A. Some Facts About Fire and . B. Explosions and Fire Pre­ paredness. C. What To Do if Fire Oc­ curs. D. The and the . 'T 4. Centers are limited in E. What To Do if Fire Oc­ TECO Instruction, Inc., of audio-visual equipment, and curs-Some Special Cases. Atlanta, Ga., was awarded the there are no provisions for F. Special Fire Hazards contract. TECO staff talked purchasing new equipment. (Smoking, Clothes Dryer, with Corpsmen and Job Corps The Training Course and Electrical Appli­ personnel, observed fire related Entitled "Structural Fire ances) behavior and attitudes, and at­ Prevention and Control," the G. Other Fire Hazards. training course consists of 1,014 tempted to determine common During the Basic Course, fire hazards at several Job color slides and 16 booklets. It is divided into three major fire demonstrations are provid­ Corps Centers. ed that build on knowledge Data collected outlined the units: The Corpsmen Basic Course, Corpsmen Rev i e w learned in the classroom. These differences between the Corps­ demonstrations include Fire man's actual fire prevention Course, and the Self-Contained Course for staff members and P I a n Orientation, H a z a r d behavior and their desired be­ Hunts (each becoming more havior, The training program, advanced Corpsmen. The Basic and Review Courses involve the specific), Fire Extinguisher then, had to be planned around Practice, and Fire Evacuation the following constraints. use of 35 mm. color slides, in­ structor manuals, trainee re­ and Rescue Practice. 1. At least 40 percent of the sponse booklets, and demon­ The Review Course covers Corpsmen in every Center strations. The Corpsmen book­ the same subject matter and have a reading ability below lets contain pictures only-no demonstrations as the Basic the third grade level. words. Course, but with less detail and 2. Corpsmen's a t ten t ion The instructional method in explanation. It was designed spans are short in the class­ the Basic and Review Course as follow-up and refresher room. includes classroom presentation training for Corpsmen. 3. The Center cannot use and demonstrations. The in­ The Self-Contained Course programs that require outside structor shows a series of has the same content as the assistance. slides while reading a prepared Review Course, but the printed 12 message is printed alongside should stay with a Corpsman The Alaskan Study the corresponding ·visual. The long after he leaves the Center. Thickened ammonium phos­ Self-Contained Course is for The same fire prevention prin­ phate (Phos-Cheke 202 2 ) has use by staff members and by ciples will apply equally as well been used to combat wildfire in Corpsmen who are advanced in in his home. Alaska for the past several reading skills. If you wish more informa­ years. An evaluation of drops The finished product was tion about this course,' contact on wildfires during July 1969 demonstrated to officials of the the Training Branch, Division near Fairbanks indicated fuel Interior Department. They de­ of Personnel Management, For­ coverage and penetration were cided to adopt the program in est Service, USDA, Washing­ not complete. The slurry effec­ their Conservation Centers. ton, D. C. 20250. I:::.. tively coated spruce, birch, as­ One Year Later pen, and associated aerial fuels There has been a sharp re­ but exhibited limited penetra­ duction in fire losses since the LC Retardant tion into heavy ground fuel. program was initiated. Only (Slurry samples taken had a two buildings have been lost Viscosity' Reduced viscosity of 1500 centipoise and and one damaged, and no in­ diammonium phosphate salt juries or loss of life were in­ In Alaska content of nearly 12 percent by volved. All three fires were C. W. GEORGE, weight.) This coverage was caused by arson, a problem R. J. BARNEY, effective in halting the rate of which we knew about but did and G. M. SHEETS' spread through aerial fuels. Al­ not believe could be prevented though flaming combustion was by a training COurse. But the sometimes extinguished for as lack of injuries may be traced More than million ceres of long as an hour, the retardant to improved evacuation of 4 forest and rtmqeltmd. wej'e did not prevent smoldering and buildings. Obviously, one train­ burned by urildfire in Alaska glowing which continued be­ ing course cannot be given full dUl'ing the summel' of 196:1. neath and through the treated credit for reducing fires or sav­ Airtanker« played a major sup­ fuel. ing lives. A great amount of Penetration and coverage by management attention was fo­ pression role by dropping mm'e than Z million gallons of vis­ Phos-Chek 202il1> can be im­ cused on the Center fire prob­ proved by lowering the viscosi­ lem by adoption of the training, cous fire retardant chemical. Some of the numerous drops ty of the solution or possibly by policy statements, and inspec­ adding a wetting agent, but not tions. were investigated, and follow­ up discussions with fire control without a concurrent decrease The concern and involvement personnel indicated that chang­ in the salt content. Thus, use of of management has been a es in the physical properties of non viscous liquid ammonium critical factor in this program the chemical solution might im­ phosphates is an approach as it is in any safety or training prove fuel penetration. and cov­ which can improve application program. Those Centers which eraqe, thus enhancing suppres­ characteristics without impair­ had not implemented structural sion cluiracterisiics, ing the salt concentration. fire training listed lack of time A preliminary evaluation of The following liquid concen­ as the primary reason. A man­ nonviscous liquid concentTate trates, which had demonstrated ager must always weigh the in­ lCUS undertaken to determine desirable characteristics in pre­ vestment of time for safety icheiher retardant effectiveness liminary laboratory tests at the and training against the con­ Northern Forest Fire Labora­ sequences of w'hat may happen could be improved in the Alas­ kan fuels by reducinq the vis­ tory, were also evaluated for if he does not invest the time. cosity and surface tension. Alaskan use: In his safety role, a manager 1. Fire-Trol 930' (liquid 10­ has to be accountable not only 34-0 manufactured by Allied I Respectively, research forester, to the la w but also to his super­ Northern Forest Fire Laboratory, Chemical Corporation and con­ visor, his subordinates, the Intermountain Forest and Range Ex­ taining 1.5 percent by weight total organization, and his own periment Station, Missoula, Mont., Na 2Cr20, as a corrosion inhibi­ conscience. project leader, Pacific, Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Sta­ tor). d- We will never know the ulti­ tion, at the Institute of Northern mate value of structural fire Forestry, College, Alaska; assistant fire control officer, Bureau of Land ~ Phos-Chekds 202 is a product of training because the effects Management, Fairbanks, Alaska. the Monsanto Company.

13 •

9-2. Fire-Trol 934' (Fire-Trol are given in table 1, 'with the their effectiveness. This was 930 with a surfactant or wet­ chemical analysis of each re­ attributed to: ting agent added). tardant. The limited amount of liquid 1. Drops being made from 100 feet or 'less (tapeline alti­ concentrate available (enough Results to mix 6,000 gallons of retard­ tude), made possible by rela­ ant solution) allowed only a Apparently the three retard­ tively low canopies and smooth few airdrops of Fire-Trol 930 ant solutions where the Fire­ terrain. and 934. Both materials were Trol 930 and 934 stopped the 2. The largest percentage of evaluated, howe v e r, using fire, Phos-Chek 202® acted as the drop ending up on ground Phos-Chok 202® drops as a a suppressant also. Where both fuel. Normal fire spread was basis for comparison. All re­ liquids failed or only reduced through ground fuels, although tardant drops during the tests the rate of spread, Phos-Chek crowning of individual trees were made from a PB4Y2, ca­ 202@ had similar effects. Where far behind the flame front pable of carrying 2,500 gallons none of the three was success­ sometimes contributed to fire in eight individually gated ful, the spread could be attrib­ spread by spotting. A thick re­ tanks. uted to flaming or smoldering tardant coating on aerial fuels By opening two gates to­ through unpenetrated or un­ was not necessary. coated fuel. Where ground gether, 625 gallons could be r. dropped; to stretch the limited fuels were heavy and tussocks 3. A 30-percent higher salt , supply of liquid retardant, a numerous, all retardants were content in the liquid retardant 500 or 1,000 gallon drop size ineffective. (nearly 8.5 percent compared was used. The drops were made Drop patterns for the un, with 6.0 percent P,G, equiva, from as close to 100 feet (tape­ thickened 930 and 934 were lent for Phos-Chek). Greater line altitude) as possible at a similar though larger than dispersion and less solution re­ speed of between 110 and 120 those for Phos-Chek. Under tained on fuels could be toler­ m.p.h., in winds of less than 5 the drop conditions described ated, yet an effectiveness equal m.p.h. elsewhere in this article little to that of Phos-Chek would still The retardant was dropped difference in the effective pat­ be maintained. on uncontrolled fire fronts in tern area could be resolved. the Fairbanks area when con­ Fire-Trol 930 and 934 dis­ ditions and logistics were fa­ persed and more uniformly The only noted disadvantage vorable. The evaluation was coated aerial and ground fuels. of F'ire-Trol 930 and 934 used made by teams both in the air Phos-Chek tore up turf and under these conditions was lack and on the ground at the time broke trees, but little evidence of color. These unthickened so­ of the drop. The duration and of Fire-Trol 930 and 934 im­ lutions were not visible to the extent of effectiveness for each pact was apparent. pilots and made tying together drop were noted. The date, size, consecutive drops nearly impos­ and number of drops evaluated sible. Lack of coloring may be Discussion a minor consideration, though, The low viscosity of the if the retardant is used pri­ 3 Fire-Trol 930 and 934 are mar­ liquid retardants (less than 50 marily for initial attack on keted by Arizona Agrochemical Cor­ poration. centipoise) did not hamper small fires. Table 1. - Cbarocterietice of retardant d1'opped

Salt content Drop No. of Size of Desired Percent Percent Retardant Date drops each drop mixing ratio Density Viscosity DAPby P,O, weight equivalent l• Gallons Lbs./yal. Centipoise Phas-Chek 202 July 6 4 500 1.14 lbs/gal. 8.90 940 11.21 6.02 July 10 10 1,000 1.14 lbs.Zgal, 8.89 920 11.08 5.96 Fire-Trol 930 July 6 4 500 5 to 1 by vel. 9.13 <50 8.69 July 9 2 500 5 to 1 by vol. 9.12 <50 8.57 Fire-Trol 934 July 10 2 1,000 5 to 1 by vol. 9.06 <50 8.28

14 Summary ter (when it is mounted) are Obviously, from the limited welded %" nuts over these number of drops made, definite holes. %" cap screws are in­ conclusions cannot be drawn. serted in these nuts which The evaluation did indicate are used to aline the coulter that unthickened liquid retard­ disc to insure it is rotating ants can be successfully used in a true,circle. in the Alaskan fuel type under •A 6" Milwaukee hand grind­ difficult fire conditions and at er is mounted on a flat 2" x 1 drop heights that minimize dis­ 14 12" x lh" bar in which a persion. Success in the Alaskan hole has been drilled at each situation will be greatly en­ end of the bar. The handle of hanced by development of an the grinder is removed to adequate coloring agent. Possi­ enable the stud that holds ble advantages, such as sim­ the handle to be used to" plicity of mixing and cost of Coulters Sharpened "mount the grinder on the flat material, should also be consid­ bar. ered. Transportation costs 10- . The Operation: gistics. of summer storage, 'and MAINE FOREST SERVICE overwinter storage of excess • In positioning the grinder concentrate in Alaska's long Cliff Chapman, Maine Forest wheel against the coulter, the periods of extremely low tem­ Service, Unit Ranger at Gor­ correct bevel is obtained be­ peratures may prove to be lim­ ham, has developed a device for fore tightening the two bolts iting. sharpening a coulter disc. in the flat bar (one securing the grinder and the other se­ The basic concept of this curing the bar to the plat­ coulter disc sharpener is to form on the framework). FROM BACK COVER mount the coulter in such fash­ The pressure of the grinder " Forward rates of spread vary ion that it rotates and brings against the coulter is main­ with many factors from region the emery wheel of a hand tained by hand or by attach­ to region. The estimated rate grinder into contact with the ing a spring to the grinder. of spread to be used in calcu­ disc at the correct angle. This After grinding one side the lation of probabilities should be eliminates the danger of over­ coulter will have to be re­ developed from local studies. heating and insures the cor­ versed to grind the other Most regions include rate of rect bevel around the entire side. spread information in their cutting edge of the coulter. • To convert the device to a Overhead Note­ power grindstone, the flat bar book. The Setup: and hand grinder are re­ •A l~ h.p. motor with a 2" moved and an 18" grindstone This table is an estimating set up on bearings mounted guide only. Like other aids, its pulley drives a 12" pulley mounted on a 114" shaft to on the framework. The value is related to the skill with grindstone is turned by a which it is used. Forward ad­ which is attached a 3" x 31/ 2" pulley on the opposite end. belt running from the 3" x vance and shape of fire must 1 To the 3" x 3 1/,' pulley is 3 / 2" pulley to a 10" pulley be adjusted for actual condi­ on the grindstone shaft. tions. welded an 8'/2" x I/S" circular disc. Four holes are drilled in • An electrical j unction box is When placed in a source com­ this circular disc to match mounted at one end under monly carried in the field dur­ the four holes in the coulter. the platform. This junction ing fire season, such as the This is the way the coulter is has outlets to plug in the Firefighting Overhead Note­ attached to the circular disc. hand grinder and one for the book, the table is readily availa­ • Four additional holes are 11:1 hp. drive motor. ble and can easily be used to drilled in the circular disc For more detailed informa­ reduce the margin for error in approximately V2" from the tion, contact the Maine Forest determining control require­ outside edge. On the side of Service, Augusta, Maine 04330. ments. Do the disc away from the coul- Do 15 ;-~, u.a. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE WASHINGTON. D.C. 20280 pOSr"GE & FEES P"ID United States Deporhnent of Agriculture OFFICIAL BUSINESS

ally this results in action which the fire is then circumference is too little, too late, or too of that circle with adjustments Table Speeds Fire much. made to reflect more nearly the This article provides a table actual shape. l Spread Estimates which is a quick means of fig­ uring control requirements, be­ The factors involved are: GARY E. CARGILL' cause perimeter is given direct­ p = perimeter ly from rate of spread and -r = 3.1416 elapsed time, without first cal­ c = circumference culating area or plotting the d = diameter or forward Fire perimeters can be quick­ fire. ad vance of fire ly estimated using a "rate of The assumption is that for­ The formulae are: spread/elapsed time" table. ward rate of spread in chains Minimum perimeter = c = -d This eliminates the need [or per hour multiplied by elapsed = 3.1416d plotting the fire aCl'eage in 01'­ time will equal the forward ad­ Usual perimeter 1.5c 1.5 de,' to determine the perimeter vance of the fire and that the = = ("d) = 4.7124d of the fire, and control force forward advance is approxi­ .Iv!aximum perimeter 2c requirements based on fire pe­ mately equal to the diameter of = = .I 2 ("d) =6.2832!l ,imetC>' .can be determined a circle which would enclose quicker: the fire area. The perimeter of SEE P. 15 Present methods of deter­ mining fire control require­ TO USE THIS TABLE ments generally involve calcu­ 1. Determine forward ROS for fuel type and wind velocity from your lation of area with reference to Firefighting Overhead 'Notebook. an area perimeter table in or­ 2. Determine elapsed time for which perimeter is desired. der to find chains of fire line to 3. Determine approximate shape of fire; l.e., circular, fan shaped, or be constructed. Because of the rectangular. calculations involved, existing 4. On the table, locate forward ROS and elapsed time. Read perimeter guides for estimating initial at­ from intersecting column. Use minimum perimeter for circular fires, usual per-imeter for fan shaped fires, maximum for rectangular fires. tack and reinforcement re­ 5. Acreage may be found by referring to area perimeter table. quirements are not always used as often as they might be. Calculating the area involves RATE OF SPREAD (ROS) PERIMETER TABLE plotting the perimeter and Forward Elapsed Time in Hours using a dot grid or map scale. ROSin 1 2 3 4 These methods, while gener­ Chains Chains of Perimeter ally more accurate for larger Per Hour Min, Usual Max. Min. Usual Ma.'l:. Min. Usual Mnx. Min. Usual Max. fires, are time consuming and 1 3 5 6 6 9 13 9 14 19 13 19 25 2 6 9 13 13 19 25 19 28 38 25 38 50 require maps and hardware. 3 9 14 19 19 28 38 28 42 57 38 57 75 When calculation of probability 5 16 24 31 31 47 63 47 71 94 63 94 126 information is needed most 6 19 28 32 38 57 75 57 85 113 75 113 151 8 25 38 50 50 75 100 75 113 151 100 151 201 during the first few hours of 12 38 57 75 75 113 151 113 170 226 151 226 302 suppression, time, maps, and 17 53 80 107 107 160 214 160 240 320 214 320 427 hardware are scarce. Occasion- 20 63 94 126 126 188 251 188 283 377 251 377 503 33 104 156 207 207 311 415 311 467 622 415 622 829 40 126 188 251 251 377 503 377 565 754 503 754 1005 I Division of Fire Control, South­ 60 188 283 377 377 565 754 565 848 1131 754 1131 1508 western Region, USDA Forest Serv­ 80 251 378 503 503 754 1005 754 1131 1508 1005 1508 2011 ice. 120 377 565 754 754 1131 1508 1131 1696 2262 1508 2262 3016 16