United States Department of Agriculture Fire Forest Service - Management

Volume 47, No, 2 1986 Notes

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Notes Volume 47, NO.2 1986 An international quarterly periodical devoted to forest fire management

Contents Fire Management Nores is published by the Forest Service 01 the United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. The Secretary of Agriculture has 3 Forest Fire Shelters Save Lives determined that the publication of this Art Jukkala and Ted Putnam periodical is necessary in the transac­ tion of the public business required by law of this Department. Use of funds for 6 Methods for Predicting Fire Behavior­ printing this periodical has been eo­ You Do Have a Choice proved by the Director of the Office of Managemer.\ and Budget 1t\ICUgh Patricia L. Andrews September 30,1984.

11 HP-7l Replaces TI-59 for Fire Calculations Subscriptions may be obtained from the in the Field Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Robert E. Burgan and Ronald A. Susott Washington, D.C, 20402.

14 Behavior of the Life-Threatening Butte Fire NOTE-The use of trade, firm, or cor­ Richard C. Rothermel and Robert W. Mutch poration names in this publication is for the information and convenience of the 25 An Application of NIIMS on the Uinta National reader. Such use does not constitute an official endorsement of any product or Forest service by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Helen Woods and Lyle Gomm Disclaimer; Individual authors are responsi­ 29 Current Status of BEHAVE System ble 101 Ihe technical accuracy 01 the matelial Roger L. Eubanks, Roger L. Bradshaw, and presented in Fire Management Notes Patricia L. Andrews Send suggestions and articles to Chief, Forest Service (Attn: Fire Management 32 Crew Mobilization: What's the Next Step? Notes), P.O. Box 2417, U.S. Department Stephen W. Creech of Agriculture, Washington, DC 20013. 36 Late-Winter Prescribed Burns To Prepare Richard E. lyng Seedbeds for Natural Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine U.S. Department of Agriculture Regeneration-Are They Prudent? A. Max Peterson, Chief Michael D. Cain Forest Service l.A. Amtcarena, Director ., Fire and Aviation Management I

Francis R. Russ, General Manager

Cover: Fire shelter with section cut away to show fully equipped firefighter prop­ erly positioned. Fire shelters were heavily used during the 1985 fire season, espe­ <:la!!y on the Butte Pire. See articles beginning on p. 3 ..",I 1'. 14.

2 Fire Management Notes Forest Fire Shelters Save Lives

Art Jukkala and Ted Putnam

Forester and equipment specialist, respectively. USDA Forest Service, Equipment Development Center, Missoula, MT

The 1985 fire season proved espe­ crew liaison officer, Santa Fe Na­ played and how they can increase cially active for firefighters tional Forest, who was one of those their chance of survival. . nationwide. Drought and adverse trapped, says, "We would've never weather combined to set the stage for made it without the shelter. There is What the Shelter Can and Can't Do extreme fire behavior. Massive no question about it. No shelter, no The fire shelter protects primarily crowning, spotting, and fast spread walk out of there." by reflecting radiant heat. As demon­ characterized last year's fires, which According to Nick Montoya of the strated on the Butte Fire, even large trapped more than 200 firefighters. Carson Hotshots, who was trapped in cracks or tears do not reduce the shel­ But thanks to good crew leadership the larger of the two safety zones, ter's protective capabilities when radi­ and the fire shelter, many deaths and "Mortality might have been 75 per­ ant heat is the principal hazard. Sev­ serious injuries were prevented. cent without the shelter." Of the 73 eral people on that fire deployed Fires trapped crews in the East deployments in both safety zones, in­ shelters with 4- to 18-inch tears. early in the year. Out West, the most vestigators believe at least 60 These shelters let in some smoke but dangerous fires took place later in the firefighters would have died without still protected their occupants from ra­ summer. Two serious incidents the shelter's protection. Once again diant heat and heavier concentrations occurred in Idaho fires. Some 82 the fire shelter had proved itself. of smoke. firefighters deployed shelters while We estimate that the fire shelter has The shelter's thin aluminum-glass battling the Lake Mountain Fire on saved more than 140 lives since its in­ cloth laminate can withstand only lim­ the Payette National Forest. On the troduction in the early 1960's. The ited contact with flames. Cracks, Butte Fire, in the Salmon National main reason the fire shelter saves tears, or holes reduce its protection in Forest, a fast-moving crown fire lives is because it gives firefighters a direct flames. The shelter should be chased four crews into safety zones. way to protect face and airways. deployed away from fuel The firefighters set up shelters and Breathing flames and hot gases is the concentrations-both natural fuels survived despite intense heat and greatest hazard in fire entrapment; and flammable equipment. smoke. According to one crew boss, thus protecting face and airways is vi­ the fire shelter made the difference: tal. This fact cannot be stressed Techniques for Survival I "The shelter saved our lives. We had enough. A Federal Aviation Adminis­ ~ no escape altemative." tration study of 1,140 bum cases in­ Avoid Entrapment-Experienced Reports from the Lake Mountain volving 106 fatalities concluded that firefighters know the best way to en­ Fire tell us that most firefighters de­ if the lower respiratory tree (trachea, sure their safety on a wildfire is to r ployed their shelters under circum­ main bronchi, and secondary bronchi) avoid entrapment. But when drought I stances that were not life threatening. is burned, death is almost inevitable. conditions and severe fire weather Nevertheless, the shelter is credited We also believe the more 'you know combine, as they did on the Butte with saving a few lives, and it pro­ about the fire shelter, the more confi­ Fire, avoiding entrapment is not al­ tected countless crew members from dence you'll have in it, and the better ways possible. Several people we in­ serious burns and smoke inhalation. prepared you'll be to stay put in your terviewed said that before being shelter should you ever become trapped On the Butte Fire, they felt Lives Saved on Butte Fire trapped. We have learned a lot from they would never let themselves get our investigation of the Butte Fire into such a situation and need a fire The Butte Fire entrapments clearly entrapments and want firefighters to shelter. were life threatening. Eddie Abeyta, know about the role the fire shelter

Volume 47, Number 2 3 We estimate that the fire shelter has saved more than 140 lives since its introduction ....

Although entrapment can't always veteran of 23 fire seasons----estimated down. We hope to improve shelter be avoided, you can make it unlikely winds at 50 to 70 miles per hour. hold-down features in future designs. by: The coolest, cleanest air is within a Wear your hardhat, equipment packs, • Following the 10 Standard few inches of the ground. So stay low and other gear inside the shelter to Firefighting Orders. with your nose pressed to the earth. help keep hot surfaces away from • Knowing the 13 fire situations Once inside the shelter, stick it out your body. Be sure to leave tools, that shout "Watch Out!" no matter how scared you are or how which can cut shelter cloth, outside. • Knowing the four major common painful it is. Remember, it is always Any gasoline or fusees should be left denominators of fire behavior that much better inside the shelter than behind or thrown far from any shelter. lead to tragedy or near-miss fires. outside. If you make a dash for it, In larger safety areas, you may Use the fire shelter as a last resort. your chances of survival are poor. If want to move the shelter to get away Fallow proven escape procedures you leave after the flame front passes from heat concentrations. This tactic first. but while it's still smokey, you risk was effective on the Butte Fire. How­ Select Safety Zones Carefully­ injury-from smoke inhalation. It's ever, firefighters reported that as they The large safety zones on the Butte best to stay put until a crew leader moved the shelters were hard to hold Fire minimized direct flame contact says it's safe to leave. onto, allowing smoke 'to get inside. on the shelters, allowing them to per­ Maintain Communications-The Remember, if you move, there is the form effectively and reflect radiant entrapment reports we've studied danger of exposing your face to hot heat as they were designed to do. show the psychological benefits of flames and gases. First, select safety areas carefully. reducing fear and panic by talking to Shelter Training-The more you Next, look for natural protection trapped coworkers directly or by ra­ know about the fire shelter and what within the safety zone and use it. dio. If you can't talk on the radio, lis­ to expect during entrapment, the bet­ Erect the shelter behind a large rock, ten. Outside observers may be able to ter prepared you'll be should it hap­ dozer blade, or other heat shield. provide valuable information about pen. A new film, "Your Fire Shelter;" Take advantage of constructed or nat­ the fire in your location. At its peak, is a good place to begin. Study the ural depressions or small earth benns. the noise of a fire can be deafening, pamphlet of the same title carefully. On roads, deploy in the cut slope and you may not be able to hear any­ Practice the imaging techniques, then ditch. Such spots expose you and one. Don't panic. As soon as the get hands-on training by deploying your shelter to less heat, smoke, and noise subsides, resume obsolete shelters. Refer to the pam­ wind. communications. phlet for training recommendations. Commit Yourself to the Role of Other Equipment- Re­ Care aud lnspection- Experi­ Shelter-When you know you can't cent fire entrapments illustrate the ences during the past several years escape entrapment, commit yourself value of flame-resistant clothing. This have shown why proper shelter care to the shelter. Deploy it quickly. Use clothing protects you while you're and inspection are vital. Many shel­ any extra time to pick the best spot escaping entrapment or deploying and ters deployed on the Butte Fire had and prepare ihe site by scraping away occupying a shelter. Be sure to wear cracks along the fold lines. Most shel­ flammable fuels. Keep an arm or leg gloves. Butte Fire experiences show ters with this type of damage should through one of the shelter straps. Oth­ that holding the shelter down can be a be screened out in a proper inspection erwise, you might lose the shelter in major problem in high winds. With­ program. The pamphlet "Your Fire the high winds the flame front gener­ out gloves you may burn your hands Shelter" contains details on care and ates. A survivor of the Butte Fire-a and not be able to hold the shelter inspection.

4 Fire Management Notes The events of the 1985 fire season 5. Overhead should recognize that dition to continue in their fire assign­ have reaffirmed the worth of the fire firefighters using shelters may not be ments. A delayed stress response fol­ shelter and the wisdom of having ev­ able to use their radios if turbulent lowing a traumatic incident could ery firefighter canry one on the line. conditions make it difficult to hold the seriously impair the safety and pro­ Entrapment experiences made believ­ shelter in place. On the other hand, ductivity of fireline personnel. ers out of many firefighters during one-way communications should con­ II. The life-saving value of shel­ this past fire season. Learn from their tinue to give instructions and reassur­ ters should be ensured through proper experience-find out as much as you ance. It will be a challenge to over­ care and handling by firefighters. can about how to use, care for, and head to effectively communicate Throwing shelters around, sitting on inspect the fire shelter. This know­ reassurances to sheltered firefighters them, or other rough treatment will how could save your life someday .• while still transmitting key informa­ accelerate the development of tears tion regarding the nature of a major and holes. Shelter Use Observations incident. 12. Missoula Equipment Develop­ 6. When in shelters, firefighters ment Center's field trial publication I. Fire shelters work, even when should continue to talk to one another "Your Fire Shelter" (August 1984) they are not in the best condition. to maintain contact and reduce the contains the most up-to-date informa­ : Some shelters used in the Butte Fire chance of panic. tion on fire shelter use and inspection. .had 4- to 18-inch tears along folds. 7. Once the fire has passed over, All firefighting personnel should care­ · 2. In indirect attack situations, firefighters should stay in their shel­ fully review this publication. The · safety zones should be constructed to ters until the smoke has cleared. publication includes information on · provide effective backup if alternative 8. Sheltered firefighters should not entrapment and on deployment, in­ escape routes are cut off or early wet down their skin or clothing or wet spection, and care and handling of the: evacuation is not possible. handkerchiefs for breathing. Moist shelter. 3. Safety zones on ridge tops heat causes more damage to lung tis­ 13. Measures need to be taken to should be at least 300 feet in diameter sues than dry heat. ensure that all firefighters know how ; in timber with fuel model G or 10. 9. Sheltered firefighters should sip to deploy and use the fire shelter. They may have to be larger in other water to prevent dehydration. Contract sawyers, dozer operators, locations. 10. Incident commanders, opera­ National Guard truck drivers, and 4. The value of competent, well­ tion section chiefs, and emergency other involved persons should be in­ trained, and experienced crew bosses, medical technicians should follow up structed as well. strike team leaders, and division su­ after an incident to ensure that those pervisors cannot be overemphasized. involved in the shelter deployment are Richard C. Rothermel and In the Butte Fire incident, many lives in the proper physical and mental con- Robert W. Mutch were saved through their actions.

Volume 47, Number 2 5 Methods for Predicting Fire Behavior- You Do Have a Choice

Patricia L. Andrews

Mathematician, Fire Behavior Project, USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT

Predictions of wildland fire behav­ ior are used in various aspects of fire management: prescribed fire planning, presuppression planning, real-time fire suppression activities. Methods for calculating fire behavior covered here represent continued im­ provement of the packaging of mathe­ matical prediction models for use by fire managers. Such improvement re­ sulted from expanding user needs, ad­ ditional research results, and new technology. Options available to man­ agers range from manual methods (such as tables and nomograms), to handheld calculators, to computers. These methods mainly differ in pre­ diction capabilities and ease of use. r! . is important to understand that al· Figure I-Fire behavior predictions can be made using manual methods (such as nomograms or ta­ though the methods may differ, all bles), the TI-59 and HP-7JB calculators, or the BEHAVEfire behavior prediction andfuel modeling produce valid results. system. In this article I will discuss the manual methods described by Rothermel in "How To Predict the ing System, for example. I will not cation of his book of nomograms in Spread and Intensity of Forest and cover the role and importance of ex­ 1976." Although that was 10 years Range Fires" (/5), the TI-59 calcula­ perience, except to emphasize that it ago, the nomograms remain useful in tor with a CROM (Custom Read Only is vital to any method of predicting this age of computers. Nomograms Memory) (8), the HP-71B calculator fire behavior. graphically depict potential fire be­ with a CROM (/8), and the BEHAVE havior, showing relationships that fire behavior prediction and fuel mod­ Manual Methods cannot as easily be seen in tables. eling system (6, 7) (fig. I). Nomograms allow quick estimation of Computer programs not nationally Manual methods for calculating fire spread rate, flame length, and inten­ available to all agencies and private behavior include tables, graphs, and sity, based on a minimum of firms, such as FIREMOD (1) and nomograms. Albini's nomograms for information. FIRECAST (/2), will not be dis­ spread rate and intensity (2) were the Rothermel (15) describes the cussed here. In addition, I have in­ first step in providing prediction mod­ nomograms and other manual meth­ cluded only those methods that pre- els to the field. As Dick Rothermel ods for calculating fire behavior that diet site-specific fire behavior. This stated in the preface to "How To Pre­ have been developed through the discussion, therefore, does not in­ dict the Spread and Intensity of Forest S-590 Fire Behavior Analyst (FBA) clude systems designed for other pur­ and Range Fires," Frank Albini "let course. Even with the availability of poses, the National Fire Danger Rat- the genie out of the bottle with publi- calculators and BEHAVE, S-590 con-

6 Fire Management Notes tinues to include the manual methods. BEHAVE System the TI-59 calculator for fire behavior An FBA should be proficient in all calculations (10, 18). The TI-59's are' The next improvement after the de­ methods of calculating fire behavior breaking down and are no longer velopment of the calculator was the (manual, calculator, BEHAVE, and, manufactured. Handheld calculator BEHAVE fire behavior prediction and of course, experience), so as to be technology has advanced significantly fuel modeling system (6, 9, 16). BE­ prepared to cope withcontingencies since the adoption of the TI-59 and its HAVE is currently being expanded to such as battery failure or lack of elec­ CRaM. So the HP is much more than allow additional prediction tric power. a replacement. Its capabilities go far capabilities (7). Anyone who has beyond those of the TI and are almost The S-390 Intermediate Fire Be­ progressed from nomograms to the TI the same as BEHAVE. havior course (13) also covers manual and then to BEHAVE can attest to the methods. So many students take extent of the advancement. BEHAVE The HP fire behavior program is S-390 that it would be impractical to is not only the most comprehensive of patterned after the BURN subsystem require all of them to use a computer the methods for calculating fire be­ of BEHAVE (the FIRE 1 and FIRE 2 or calculator. In addition, the S-390 havior, but it is also the easiest to use. programs). The design, keywords, Field Reference can be readily used in Many of the prediction models in and worksheets are similar insofar as the field. The reference has been BEHAVE were already available in is practical. I anticipate that people nicknamed the "two-bit TI," meaning the form of manual methods or TI-59 will frequently switch between BE­ that it can do what the TI does, at less programs. BEHAVE also includes HAVE and the HP. For example, in cost. models not previously available. One fire camp an FBA may have access to of the major features of BEHAVE is BEHAVE, but on the fireline will use TJ-59 Calculator the capability to design custom fuel the HP. Developing a spread and intensity models. CRaM for the TI-59 handheld calcu­ BEHAVE gathers the prediction Calculatiou Comparison models into one easy-to-use package. lator gave users a quick, easy, and Table 1 shows aspects of fire be­ Tables of predictions can be generated handy means for calculating fire be­ havior that can be calculated, and al­ quickly. For example, in a few min­ havior predictions in the field as well ternative methods for doing so. For utes one can tabulate the effect of var­ as in the office. The automation was a example, forward rate of spread, if ious windspeeds on rate of spread, major step beyond manual methods. upslope with the wind, can be calcu­ whereas it takes days to build tables Additional fire behavior prediction lated using tables, nomograms, BE­ using the TI-59. In the office, BE­ programs for the TI-59 are available HAVE, and the TI-59 and HP-71B HAVE is the logical choice for fire on cards (4, 11). This calculator can calculators. Only BEHAVE and the behavior calculations. process calculations too complex for HP-71B, however, can calculate rate However, despite improved capa­ manual methods. For example, the of spread for any specified direction. bility to access computers from re­ nomograms for maximum spotting Containment by indirect attack can be mote sites, handheld calculators are distance are limited to spotting from a calculated only by BEHAVE; this is still needed for predicting fire behav­ single torching tree on flat ground. the only calculation that can be done ior in the field. The TI program allows for mountain­ by BEHAVE and not by the HP-71B. ous terrain and for spotting from a The table also indicates that BE­ HP-71B Calculator group of torching trees, burning piles, HAVE provides the only means for and wind-driven surface fires. The HP-7IB calculator is replacing designing custom fuel models; the

Volume 47, Number 2 7 Table I-Major elements of fire behavior that can be predicted and various methods of calculation [Numbers in parentheses refer to publications in·the literature cited section.]

Fire behavior element Manual methods TI-59 HP-?1B BEHAVE

Rate of spread; flame length; fireline intensity: Upslope with the wind Tables (13), nomograms (15) CRaM (8) CRaM (18) (6) In the direction of maximum spread vectoring (15) CRaM (18) (6) In any specified direction CRaM (18) (6) Heat per unit area Nomograms (15) CRaM (8) CRaM (18) (6) Reaction intensity Nomograms (2) CRaM (8) CRaM (18) (6) Area; perimeter: With upslope wind Tables (13, 15) CRaM (8) CRaM (18) (6) With cross-slope wind CRaM (18) (6)

Length-to-width ratio Diagrams (13, 15) CRaM (18) (6) Forward spread distance MUltiplication (15) CRaM (8) CRaM (18) (6) Backing spread distance: maximum width of fire CRaM (18) (6) Maximum spotting distance: From torching trees Nomograms (15, 3) Card (11) CRaM (18) (6) From burning piles Card (11) CRaM (18) (6) From wind-driven surface fires Card (11) CRaM (18) (7) Containment (final fire size, line building rate, containment time): Direct attack Card (4) CRaM (18) (6) Indirect attact (7) , Scorch height Graph (2) CRaM (18) (7)

Probability of ignition Tables (13, 15) CRaM (18) (7) Ignition component CRaM (8) Fine dead fuel moisture Tables (13, 15) CRaM (8) CRaM (18) (6, 7) Custom fuel models Develop (9) Use Card (9) CRaM (18) (6) fuel models can then be used on the ior are based on Rothermel's spread nomogram, table, calculator, or TI ami HP. model (14). Therefore, given the computer. Some factors related to individual same input, the predicted rate of Table I indicates that fine dead fuel predictions deserve further discussion. spread will be the same whether the moisture can be calculated using ta- All methods for predicting fire behav- calculations are done using a bles, the TI-59 CROM, the HP-7IB

8 Fire Management Notes CROM, and BEHAVE. Nevertheless, elipse. The results are slightly differ­ time will not accept the excuse of there are major differences in the ent. This modification made it possi­ equipment failure. And when tailgate methods. The TI-59 estimates fine ble to link size calculations to con­ predictions of fire behavior are called dead fuel moisture based on tempera­ tainment calculations and to predict for, a quick look at a nomogram ture, relative humidity, and shade. It fire behavior in a cross-slope wind. should suffice. should be used only as a last resort. The containment calculations for Even with the availability of man­ The S-590 tables allow adjustment for the TI, HP, and BEHAVE are all ual methods and BEHAVE, there has other factors: aspect, slope, position slightly different. The TI model had been overwhelming demand to re­ on the slope, and time of day. The limitations and discontinuities that place the TI-59. Because of advances S-390 tahles are a modification of, were overcome for the BEHAVE ver­ in technology, the HP-7IB CROM and produce results similar to, the sion. The HP requires a tabular ver­ has capabilities far beyond those of S-590 tables. The prediction model sion of the model in BEHAVE be­ the TI-59 CROM. The HP-71B is implemented on the HP-71B and in cause of the number of calculations very similar to BEHAVE, including a BEHAVE is a highly sophisticated involved. user-friendly interface. However, the site-specific model (/7). The different Probability of ignition is the same availability of the HP-7IB does not input required for each of the models for the tables, the HP, and BEHAVE. mean that each TI-59 should be re­ should tell the user that the models (The S-390 table is a condensation of placed with an HP. Although the TI is are indeed different. the S-590 table.) Through oversight, capable of only about 10 percent of The models used to predict factors ignition component rather than proba­ what the HP can do, if that 10 percent other than fuel moisture are not dra­ bility of ignition was put on the fire meets your needs and your TI is still matically different. Answers may be behaviot part of the TI CROM. Igni­ working, there is no urgent need to slightly different, but not significantly tion component was developed for use immediately switch to the HP. The so, when one considers the applica­ in the National Fire Danger Rating predictions from the TI are as valid as tion and the resultant decisions. In System; probability of ignition is used ever. most cases input and output are the for fire behavior prediction. BEHAVE is at the automated end same. The differences lie in the inter­ of the methods scale. It has the most nal workings of the mathematical capabilities and is the most user­ Summary . model. friendly alternative. In most cases The vectoring method for pre­ Methods for estimating fire behav­ BEHAVE is the preferred choice; dicting spread under cross-slope wind ior vary from manual calculations to however, access to a computer is not conditions includes some simplifying computer programs. Manually calcu­ always possible. Although predictive assumptions that permit the use of lated predictions are subject to many capabilities increase in the progres­ manual methods. More sophisticated limitations, and one must be highly sion from manual methods to calcula­ calculations are done in BEHAVE trained to use them. Nevertheless, tors to BEHAVE, each method for and on the HP. manual calculations will always re­ calculating fire hehavior has its own The area and perimeter calculations main useful, especially for a fire be­ niche in fire management activities. for the tables and the TI are based on havior analyst on a wildfire suppres­ You are now fortunate enough to have a double-ellipse formula (5), whereas sion overhead team. Those who need a wide choice in the method that you BEHAVE and the HP use a simple fire behavior predictions at a specified use to calculate fire behavior. •

Volume 47, Number 2 9 Literature Cited 7. Andrews, P.L.; Chase, C.H. BEHAVE: 13. National Wildfire Coordinating Group. Fire Fire behavior prediction and fuel modeling behavior self-study course. 5-390. Boise, I. Albini, F.A. Computer-based models of system-BURN subsystem, Part 2. Gen. 10: Boise Interagency Fire Center; 1981. wildland fire behavior: a users' manual. Tech. Rep. INT-OOO. Ogden, UT: U.S. De­ 14. Rothermel, R.C. A mathematical model for Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agricul­ partment of Agriculture, Forest Service, fire spread predictions in wildland fuels. ture, Forest Service, Jnrermounrain Forest Intermountain Research Station; (in press]. Res. Pap. INT-l 15. Ogden, UT: U.S. De­ and Range Experiment Station; 1976. 68 p. 8. Burgan, R.E. Fire danger/fire behavior partment of Agriculture, Forest Service, 2. Albini. F.A. Estimating wildfire behavior computations with the Texas Instruments Intermountain Forest and Range Experi­ and effects. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-30. TJ-59 calculator: user's manuaL Gen. Tech. ment Station; 1972. 40 p. Ogden. UT: U.S. Department of Agricul­ Rep. INT-61. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department 15. Rothermel, R.C. How to predict the spread ture, Forest Service. Intermountain Forest of Agriculture, Forest Service, . and intensity of forest and range fires. Gen. and Range Experiment Station; 1976. 92 p. Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Tech. Rep. INT-143. Ogden, UT: U.S. De­ 3. Albini, F. A. Spot fire distance from burn­ Station; 1979. 25 p. partment of Agriculture, Forest Service, ing trees-a predictive model. Gen. Tech. 9. Burgan, R.E.; Rothermel, R.C. BEHAVE: Intermountain Forest and Range Experi­ Rep. tNT-56. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department Fire behavior prediction and fuel modeling ment Station; 1983. 161 p. of Agriculture. Forest Service, system-FUEL subsystem. Gen. Tech. 16. Rothermel, R.C. BEHAVE and YOU can Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Rep. INT-167. Ogden, UT: U.S. Depart­ predict fire behavior. Fire Management Station; 1979. 73 p. ment of Agriculture, Forest Service, Notes. 44(4): 11-15; 1983. 4. Albini, F.A.; Chase, C.H. Fire containment Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment 17. Rothermel, R.C.; Wilson, R.A., Jr.; equations for pocket calculators. Res. Note Station; 1984. 126 p. Morris, G.A.; Sackett, 5.5. Modeling INT-268. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of to. Burgan, R.E.; Susott, R.A. HP-71 replaces moisture content of fine dead wildland Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain TI-59 for fire calculations in the field. Fire fuels: input to the BEHAVE fire prediction Forest and Range Experiment Station; 1980. Management Notes. 47(2): 9-1 I. system. Res. Pap. INT-359. Ogden, UT: 17 p. 11. Chase, C.H. Spotting distance from wind­ U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 5. Anderson, H.E. Predicting wind-driven driven surface fires-extensions of equa­ Service, Intermountain Research Station; wildland fire size and shape. Res. Pap. tions for pocket calculators. Res. Note 1986. 63 p. INT-305. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of INT-346. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of 18. Susott, R.A.; Burgan, R.E. Fire behavior Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain computations with the Hewlett-Packard Forest and Range Experiment Station; 1983. Forest and Range Experiment Station; HP-7IB calculator. Ogden, UT: U.S. De­ 26 p. _ 1984. 21 p. partment of Agriculture, Forest Service, 6. Andrews, P.L. BEHAVE: Fire behavior 12. Cohen, J. FIRECAST user's manual. Riv­ Intermountain Research Station; [in press]. prediction and fuel modeling erside, CA: U.S. Department of Agricul­ system-BURN subsystem, Part I. Gen. ture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest For­ Tech. Rep. IN1'-194. Ogden, UT: U.S. De­ est and Range Experiment Station, Forest partment of Agriculture, Forest Service, Fire Laboratory; [in pressj. Intermountain Research Station; 1986. 130 p.

10 Fire Management Notes HP-71 Replaces 11-59 for Fire Calculations in the Field

Robert E. Burgan and Ronald A. Susott

Research forester and research chemist, respectively, USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT

If your Texas Instruments TI-59 is nearing its last gasp, you can replace it with a newer calculator and enjoy the use of improved fire danger and fire behavior programs. The Hewlett­ Packard HP-71B handheld calculator has been selected to replace the TI-59 and is now available on a USDA For­ est Service contract. The HP-71 B has several features that make it attractive as a field calculator: • An alphanumeric display that eliminates the need for keyboard overlays. • A liquid crystal display (LCD) that becomes easier to read in day­ light, rather than more difficult. • Use of complementary metal ox­ ide semiconductor (CMOS) technol­ The HP-7JB has several features that make it an effective field calculator. ogy, which has a very low power re­ quirement, thus pennitting 2 to 3 months of normal use between battery The National Fire Danger Rating grams and are available through the changes. System (NFDRS) program and the agency coordinator. • Field-replaceable AAA batteries, fire behavior program have been put rather than rechargeable nickel­ on separate Custom Read Only Mem­ NFDRS Program cadmium batteries. ories (CROM's) for use in the The inputs required to perform •A continuous memory that re­ HP-71B. Separate user's manuals 1978 NFDRS (3) computations are tains the information stored in the cal­ have also been prepared for each pro­ the same as for the TI~59 and other culator even when it is turned off. gram. The manual for calculating systems. Weather inputs may be re­ •A computational speed about six NFDRS indexes and components is corded on the Weather Service's times faster than the TI-59. "Fire Danger Computations with the "1O-Day Fire Danger and Fire •A capability to be used with op­ Hewlett-Packard HP-71B Calcula­ Weather Record" fonn D-9b or on tional battery-operated printers, data tor:' The fire behavior user's manual the form provided in the user's cassettes, and disk drives. is "Fire Behavior Computations with manual. •A powerful BASIC programming the Hewlett-Packard HP-7IB Calcula­ The major attributes of the NFDRS language that is available for many tor." Both manuals are soon to be program are: other applications. published by the Intermountain Re­ • Output that can be routed to a search Station (2, 4). Separate self­ battery-operated, field-portable study guides have been prepared for Hewlett-Packard inkjet printer. the fire danger and fire behavior pro-

Volume 47, Number 2 11 • Computes NFDRS indexes and spread distance, backing spread dis­ modules can be linked as in the BE­ components from weather inputs tance, and maximum fire width. HAVE system, to easily pass outputs when the program's WEATHER • CONTAIN-calculates length of from one module to another for addi­ module is selected. fireline at containment time, time to tional calculations. The program will • Automatically updates and stores containment, and final fire size or line accomrnodate either English or metric the values of those inputs that must be building rate required to stop the fire inputs and outputs. carried forward from day to day. at a specified size. When the WEATHER module is • SPOT-calculates maximum Purchasing used, these values do not need to be spotting distance. The HP-71 B calculator, fire danger manually reentered each day. • SCORCH-calculates scorch CROM, and fire behavior CROM • The NFDRS fuel models are height. have been placed on contract for the stored in the calculator, not on mag­ • IGNITE-calculates probability following agencies: USDA Forest netic cards. of spot fire ignition. Service; USDI Bureau of Land Man­ • Up to five supplemental "user de­ • MOISTURE-calculates l-hour agement, Bureau of Indian Affairs, fined" NFDRS fuel models may also timelag fuel moisture, fuel level tem­ National Park Service, Fish and be permanently stored in the calcula­ perature and relative humidity, per­ Wildlife Service; and State Forestry tor memory, although no method cur­ centage of area shaded, and probabil­ agencies. Orders should be placed rently exists for building and testing ity of ignition for a specific bum time with: such models. or on an hourly basis. . Government Marketing Services, • MAP-calculates fire dimensions Inc. Fire Behavior Program or spotting distance for plotting on a 701 E. Gude Drive map. Rockville, MD 20850 The fire behavior program, which • SLOPE-calculates slope steep­ Attn: Art Phillips is patterned after the BURN ness, elevation change, and horizontal The original and one copy of the subsystem of BEHAVE (1), imple­ distance between two points. order must be sent to Government ments much more fire behavior tech­ • WIND--<:alculates midflame Marketing, and the order must state nology than was possible with the windspeed from 20-foot windspeed. the contract number: 54-3187-5-35. TI-59. Program capabilities are indi­ • RH-calculates relative humidity Contract prices are: cated by the following list of program and dew point from dry bulb and wet Calculator $349.12 modules and their functions: bulb temperatures and elevation. Fire Danger CROM 37.80 • FUEL MODEL-permits • TWO-calculates weighted rate Fire Behavior CROM 58.80 inputting, loading, listing, saving and of spread for the two-fuel model Those not authorized to purchase deleting models, and listing names of concept. models stored in the calculator. Up to 19 user-defined fire behavior from this contract can order HP-71's • DIRECT-calculates spread rate, fuel models may be stored in the cal­ and CROM's from Government Mar­ heat per unit area, fireline intensity, culator, in addition to the 13 standard keting at commercial prices. flame length, reaction intensity, effec­ models that are always available. Out­ The appropriate battery -operated tive windspeed, and direction of max­ put may be produced as a list of one printer is the HP "Think-jet" printer, imum spread. to three values for each output item or model 2225B. The printer is not re­ • SIZE-calculates area, perime­ up to a 3-by-3 matrix of output values quired for effective use of the calcula­ ter, length-to-width ratio, forward for a single output item. Program tor in the field because the user's

12 Fire Management Notes manuals include forms for recording Literature Cited 3. Deeming, John E.; Burgan, Robert E.; inputs and outputs. The printer is al­ Cohen, Jack D. The national fire-danger rat­ 1. Andrews. Patricia A. BEHAVE Fire behav­ ing system-1978. Gen. Tech. Rep. most a necessity. however, if the user ior prediction and fuel modeling INT~39. Ogden, UT; U.S. Department of plans to write other programs for the system--BVRN subsystem, Part 1. Gen. Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Tech. Rep. INT-194. Ogden, UT: U.S. De­ HP-71B. Ease of programming and Research Station; 1977. 63 p. partment of Agriculture, Forest Service filing capabilities suggest that many 4. Susott, Ronald A.~ Burgan, Robert E. Fire Intermountain Research Station; 1986. behavior computations with the Hewlett­ useful programs can be added to the p. 130 Packard HP-7IB calculator. Gen. Tech. HP-71B calculator. • 2. Burgan. Robert E.; Susott, Ronald A. Fire Rep. INT-QOO. Ogden, UT: U.S. Depart­ danger computations with the Hewlett­ ment of Agriculture, Forest Service, Packard HP-71B calculator. Gen. Tech. Intermountain Research Station; 1986. [in Rep. INT-QOO. Ogden, UT; U.S. Depart­ press] ment of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station; 1986. [in press]

Volume 47, Number 2 13 Behavior of the Life-Threatening Butte Fire: August 27-29, 1985

Richard C. Rothermel and Robert W. Mutch

Project leader, Fire Behavior Research Work Unit, USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Missoula, MT; and fire use specialist, USDA Forest Service, North­ ern Region, Missoula, MT

On August 29, 1985, 73 agencies early the following week. Salmon River measured only 0.31 firefighters were forced into safety The review team was composed of inch of precipitation in June and 0.23 zones, where they took refuge in their Dennis Martin and Hank Walters, inch in July. Although more than half fire shelters for I to 2 hours while a Forest Service Intermountain Region; an inch of precipitation fell on two very severe crown fire burned over Clyde O'Dell, National Weather different days in early August, some them. The incident took place on the Service; Dick Rothermel, Inter­ of this as snow, only 0.12 inch fell Butte Fire on the Salmon National mountain Fire Sciences Laboratory; between August 13 and August 31. At Forest in Idaho. Five firefighters were and Bob Mutch, Forest Service a remote automatic weather station hospitalized overnight for heat ex­ Northern Region. The purpose of this near the fire, 1,0OD-hour fuel mois­ haustion, smoke inhalation, and dehy­ article is to augment and expand the ture readings from the National Fire dration; the others escaped uninjured. results of the initial review through Danger Rating System were rated at 8 Investigators estimated that without additional interviews with those who percent prior to the run up Wallace the protection of the,escape zones and had been on the fireline and an analy­ Creek. the fire shelters, at least 60 of the 73 sis of photographs taken during and The weather on the Butte Fire from firefighters would have died. Thanks after the fire run. Art Jukkala and Ted Monday, August 26, through Friday, to preparation of safety zones, the ef­ Putnam of the Missoula Equipment August 30, was not unusual consider­ fectiveness of the fire shelters, and Development Center have also pre­ ing the location. Elevation at Base the sensible behavior of the pared a report on the performance of Camp was 7,400 feet; elevations on firefighters themselves, disaster was the fire shelter based on many inter­ the fire ranged from 6,400 feet near averted. views with those who used it on the the confluence of Wallace and Owl Behavior of the Butte Fire, particu­ Butte Fire. The article "Forest Fire Creeks to 8,200 feet near the two larly its explosive movement on the Shelters Save Lives" in this issue in­ safety zones. Typical late afternoon afternoon of August 29, is of vital in­ cludes information on their findings. maximum temperature reached 70 to terest to fire behavior specialists, indi­ A separate review of the Butte Fire 78 of, with minimum relative humid­ vidual firefighters, and leaders who and adjacent fires in the Salmon River ity in the 12 to 21 percent range at make tactical decisions based on fire (termed the Long Tom Complex), Sourdough Base Camp. The windiest behavior projections. That an already conducted by the Forest Service period each day occurred between large and intense fire could rapidly Intermountain Region in October 1400 and 1500 mountain daylight escalate to even higher intensity­ 1985, examined such topics as strat­ time. The velocity was generally be­ some have called it a firestorm-and egy, tactics, and other issues. The re­ tween 10 and 12 miles per hour, with move fast enough to overrun 73 sults of this review are on file in the stronger gusts. Inversions occurred firefighters warrants review by any­ Forest Service regional office in each day, breaking between 1130 and one concerned with fire management. Ogden, UT. 1330. Immediately after the shelter inci­ Weather on the day of the blowup, Fire Environment dent, a review team was dispatched to August 29, was not unusual, either. the Butte Fire to document the mete­ Severe drought characterized In the afternoon the temperature orological conditions and fire behav­ weather in the Butte Fire area reached the mid-70's, and minimum ior that contributed to the life­ throughout the summer of 1985, relative humidity was in the upper threatening run up Wallace Creek. contributing to critically low fuel teens. At base camp, low-level winds Results of the analysis were distrib­ moisture levels. The fire weather sta­ were out of the south at 8 to 12 miles uted to all wildland fire management tion at nearby Indianola along the per hour in the afternoon, with occa-

14 Fire Management Notes sional gusts to 17 to 20 miles per lesser severity occurred in Owl Creek, along Owl Creek at the southeast cor­ hour. District personnel reported that the drainage east of Wallace Creek. ner of the fire. fuel loadings ranged from 80 to 100 Both columns were characterized by An understanding of the fire control tons per acre in spruce-fir stands in dense black smoke. By midafternoon operations is essential to understand­ drainage bottoms, to 25 to 40 tons per the Wallace Creek column had ing many events during the 29th. acre in higher elevation lodgepole reached 15,000 to 17,000 feet above Having had little success at close-in pine-fir stands. Fuel models 8 and 10 terrain and had a firm cumulus cap. direct attack on the 26th and 27th, the characterized most of the Wallace Another area of intense fire activity overhead team had decided to use an Creek drainage. took place on the western flank where indirect attack strategy. On the 28th One unusual feature of the area the fire spread northward but was ap­ and 29th, a tractor line was built threatened by fire was the topogra­ parently pulled into the main fire in along the main ridge on the north end phy. The upper slopes did not con­ Wallace Creek. of the fire, approximately 1.5 miles verge into sharp peaks as is com­ north of the nearest spot fires in monly the case in the Rocky Events of August 29 Wallace Creek (fig. I). Fortunately, Mountains, but tended to be On August 29 wind velocities were the line construction included several domelike, with continuous crown not especially high. In the early after­ safety zones 300 to 400 feet in diame­ cover. Wallace Creek itself was a noon, eye level winds were measured ter at approximately 1/4-mile inter­ well-defined north-south drainage that at 7 to 8 miles per hour at the conflu­ vals. The plan for the 29th was to became progressively steeper at its ence of Owl Creek and Wallace conduct a burnout operation in the headwaters near the two shelter sites. Creek. At the higher elevation near late afternoon when humidity was ex­ General Fire Behavior the head of Wallace Creek, the local pected to rise. An aerial drip torch The Butte Fire was started by light­ winds were stronger. Division Super­ would be used for center firing in the ning on July 20, 1985. This fire was visor Jim Steele estimated winds to be upper end of Wallace Creek. Crews part of the Long Tom Fire Complex 10 to 15 miles per hour, with gusts to were to be dispersed along the line to in the Salmon River drainage, which 20 miles per hour across the ridges. burnout from the line after a convec­ included the Com Lake, Bear, Foun­ Measurements nearby confirmed this tion column was developed. tain, Goat Lake, and Ebenezer Fires. estimate, but with gusts of 25 to 30 During the morning of August 29, The Butte Fire was first contained on miles per hour. spot fires near the confluence of August 5 at just over 20,000 acres. Figure I shows the fire area at 0200 Wallace and Owl Creeks threatened Strong winds fanned smoldering fuels in the morning on August 28, the day valuable timber and seemed to have and spread fire across control lines on before the big run, and its extent by the potential to outflank the control August 24 and 25. Fire activity 2200 in the evening. By 0200 in the line to the east. Thus, it was decided peaked on August 27, 28 and 29, as morning of August 29, the fire had to use the helitorch early in the day to the fire made runs of 1,000, 2,000, spread considerably further, having bum out and stabilize the line in this and 3,500 acres, respectively. About crossed the lower end of Wallace area. Initial attempts began just to the 3,000 of the 3,500-acre growth on Creek and moved up the ridge toward north of Owl Creek (marked A on fig. August 29 reportedly occurred in Owl Creek. The burned areas in lower I) about 1200. The area did not bum about 90 minutes. It was during this Wallace Creek were patchy. Of spe­ very well, and ignition attempts were run up Wallace Creek that the 73 cial importance on the morning of repeated. Bill Williams, the opera­ firefighters deployed their fire shel­ August 29 were the spot fires in the tions chief, reported that this fire was ters. Simultaneously, another run of middle portion of Wallace Creek and ineffective at developing a significant

Volume 47, Number 2 15 fire column necessary for improving TlNCUP HILL the fireline. While attempts to burn out line near Owl Creek were in progress, the fire was developing strength in lower Wallace Creek. Three reports substan­ t tiate the development of fire in N Wallace Creek. Bill Williams re­ ur ported a large convection column east of Dishpan Springs. Dave Broberg, 28 division supervisor in Owl Creek, re­ ported two strong columns devel­ oping, one near drop point 30 at the upper end of Sourdough Creek and the other east of Dishpan Springs. Gary Orr, the division supervisor on the west side at drop point 30, saw the fire east of him throwing fire­ brands into Wallace Creek. Orr re­ ported that the fire in this area was becoming active around 1100. The spots along Owl Creek also be­ came active and developed a strong convection column by 1300 (fig. 2). Smoke from these spots and from the helitorch fire was moving to the o~- ..... north. It appeared to some that these I columns were being pulled to the \ north by the larger column developing \ to the northwest. With the aid of in­ \ drafts to these columns, the helitorch % was used to burn out hand line and ~ I \I dozer line in areas C and D near the ,-- confluence of Sourdough and Owl Creek. Meanwhile, Gary Orr at drop point / o 1/4 1/2 3/4 1 Mile 30 reported lots of fire in lower I I Wallace Creek. Considerable red col­ Figure l-Arrows depict major fire runs on the Butte Fire during the afternoon ofAugust 29, 1985. The 73 firefighters deployed fire shelters at the lower shelter area and Tin Cup Hill shelter area. oration could be seen in the smoke Areas A, B, C. and D indicate where the helitorch burnout operation was conducted that afternoon. columns, and at 1300 or 1400 the fire

16 Fire Management Notes ) ~ --- l, " "',,\

)

Figure 2-Convecrion column development near the confluence ofSourdough, Wallace, and Owl Creeks at about 1515 m.d.t, on August 29. These col­ umns originated from spot fires and helitorch operations, was intensifying and moving up dough, Wallace, and Owl Creeks (fig. about 1550, and the fire was con­ Wallace Creek. 2) show the smoke columns building tained along the southern line just as The helitorch continued burning out at about 1515. From this vantage it was reaching full strength in upper the line in area C. Later, at approxi­ point, the strongest column was from Wallace Creek. mately 1500, area D was burned ac­ the burnout operation and spots in cording to Bill Williams and Dave Owl Creek. All of the smoke was Wallace Creek Run Broberg. Photographs looking north moving northward up Wallace Creek. About 1515, Jim Steele, at the taken from a helicopter just to the The firing operation at the south end northeast end of the fire, who later south of the convergence of Sour- of the fire was completed successfully

Volume 47, Number 2 17 went into his shelter at Tin Cup Hill, had moved into Wallace Creek and nature of the fire as it passed around reported that he was walking on the had started a firestorm. I Initial reports the large clearcut: trail above the large clearcut and said it covered about 2 miles in 15 Experiencing intense heat and high could see fire coming up over a ridge minutes. (This later proved to be an winds from all directions. At least to the south. He reported that at that overestimation.) Right after the major three large whirlwinds passed over time he could not see fire in Wallace run, a second run started on the west that were strong enough to knock Creek because of intervening smoke side near drop point 30, apparently people off balance. The area be­ and trees. The fire he saw to the south outside the dozer line. Initially, it came too smoky and dusty to take was probably coming out of Owl spread rapidly to the north, but then photos. The smoke column com­ Creek. veered to the east, probably due to in­ pletely enveloped everyone, and it Bill Williams reported that about drafts from the larger column in was impossible to see the fire. Visi­ this same time a large, strong convec­ Wallace Creek. This secondary run bility was reduced to zero several tion column was standing over the threatened firefighters along the line seconds at a time, the air was very fire. This column was within the main on the west side, who were evacuated hot, and the area was showered northern dozer line, and Bill still by pickup truck and helicopter. Al­ with burning embers. Personnel hoped to use indrafts from the column though this rescue was overshadowed within the clearcut did not take to to complete the planned burnout in by the fire shelter deployment, it was their shelters, a dozer was used to upper Wallace Creek. Because a very nevertheless an intensive effort ac­ build fireline around the vehicles, severe crown fire started moving to complished safely. and the pumper crew worked on the north up Wallace Creek on a west­ Neal Davis, air attack supervisor, small spot fires in flashy fuels. ern exposure (the east side of Wallace flew by helicopter around the fire just Personnel at the lower shelter area Creek) through extremely heavy after 1400 and again at 1515. He pro­ reported that the fire reached them at fuels, the helitorch was never used in vided estimates of the fire location in 16\O. Jim Steele reports that the this area as originally planned. Wallace Creek before the fire devel­ firefighters on Tin Cup Hill went into Gene Benedict, the incident com­ oped the extreme behavior reported their shelters approximately IOta 12 mander, was returning to the fire by later. On his next flight, at 1550, minutes before those in the lower area helicopter between 1500 and 1515 Neal saw the firefighters in the safety did. This would have put them in and reported that "while viewing this zones preparing to go into their their shelters at just about 1600, or a fire I had three other convection col­ shelters. couple of minutes before. Steele fur­ umns in view: Goat Creek on the Firefighter Steve Karkanen, work­ ther reports that the fire approached Salmon National Forest, Hand Mead­ ing between drop point 28 and the them at about 1545 out of a draw to ows on the Payette National Forest (a large clearcut at the head of Wallace the southeast. While Steele was new start), and a fire on the Nezperce Creek, recorded the movement of the preparing to get into his shelter, he near Cotter Bar. All fires were ex­ crown fire as it progressed up Wallace talked by radio to Strike Team Leader tremely active with apparent strong Creek. Steve took color photographs Ron Yacomella at the lower shelter convective activity and substantial of the fire, recording his location, the rates of spread, except for Goat direction he was shooting, and the es­ I Although referred to as a firestorm. it should Creek, which was topographically timated time and location of the fire more properly be called a conflagration, which confined." is a severe spreading fire. The term "firestorm" front. His notes were especially help­ is normally used to describe a severe stationary After landing, Gene received re­ ful in reconstructing the fire move­ fire or burnout of an area within a ports that the fire in Sourdough Creek ment. His notes at 1600 describe the conflagration.

18 Fire Management Notes area approximately 1,000 feet away. Table I-Behavior of Wallace Creek fire run on the afternoon of August 29, 1985 Ron asked if he should start his back­ fire at this time, which he did. His Time period Elapsed time Distance Rate of spread crew burned out approximately 200 min mi milhr ch/hr feet in front of the lower shelter zone 143(}-1530 60 0.32 0.32 26 before the fire hit at 1610. Their 153(}-1550 20 0.48 1.45 116 backfire started easily. At first strong 155(}-1555 5 0.29 3.48 278 indrafts pulled the fire and smoke to­ 1555-1600 5 0.14 1.68 134 ward the fire front, but later the 160(}-1610 10 0.15 0.90 72 smoke blew back over the crew. The Nature of the Fire riods of little or no spread. The recon­ shows the nature of the fire as it structed spread rates are too coarse to passed over the shelter and indicates From observations by Neal Davis, show the surges and appear to be the size of the column in comparison Steve Karkanen, Jim Steele, and Ron slower than the impression received to the trees. In the original color Yacomella, we have reconstructed the by observers on the ground. slide, the convection column, shows probable location and time of the fire Jim Steele reported that on Tin Cup red coloration for hundreds of feet front as it moved up Wallace Creek Hill, firefighters in their shelters were above the trees. The fire at this time and overran the crews (fig. I). The hit by three waves of fire, the first was almost certainly an independent rate of spread during the run is de­ one from the southeast. The second crown fire (4). rived by scaling the distances from one burned up the north side and then Viewed from the front, the fire ap­ the map at each time line. burned back towards them at about peared as a wall of flame 200 to 300 It appears that up until about 1530, the same time as the people in the feet high. Viewed from the air, ahead although crowning and developing lower safety zone were going into of the fire, the flames were estimated strong convection columns, the fire their shelters. The third wave hit from to be two to three times the tree behavior was similar to the behavior the southwest. Each time they were height. The fire front was advancing observed on the two preceding days hit by a new wave of fire, the fire­ as a typical standing flame with the (table 1). The spread rate was low, fighters moved, crawling along the base of the fire in the trees. The about '13 mile per hour. After 1530 ground inside their shelters searching flames in the front were not seen to be . the fire spread much faster, with an for cooler areas of the safety zone. At rotating or turbulent. The smoke was' average rate of about 2 miles. per hour one time they moved away from the rising sufficiently so that the flame and a maximum of about 3V2 miles dozer piles of slash that had been could be seen clearly. The column per hour. This period was described made during the clearing of the safety rose nearly vertically, then tilted to­ as a firestorrn by observers. The fire zone. After 40 minutes in their shel­ ward the north. The rear of the col­ had to travel slightly over I mile in ters, they came out, but dense smoke umn was a turbulent, swirling mass, half an hour to reach the safety zone. forced them back in again for another impressive in its extreme behavior. In order for the firefighters to reach 30 minutes. The air entering the shel­ After the run, aerial inspection of the large clearcut from the lower ters around the lower edges was ap­ upper Wallace Creek revealed a large, safety zone, they would have had to parently remarkably free of smoke. intensely burned area in which all begin the evacuation by 1530. The fire that overran the crews was crown needles and smaller surface As with any fire, this one must very large and very intense. Figure 3 fuels were essentially gone. There have moved by surges, with some pe-

Volume 47, Number 2 19 Figure 3-A view ofthe fire as it reached upper Wallace Creek and overran the fire crews. The crews deployed their fire shelters in safety zones similar to those seen in the foreground. This photo was taken from a helicopter looking toward the east. was, however, no evidence from the down, uprooted, or hroken off as they Nevertheless, the approach and pas­ air, or on the ground near the shelter were in the Pack River Valley as a re­ sage of the fire was a terrifying or­ sites, of firestorm activity such as that sult of the Sundance Fire. deal. Many, in fact, doubted that they seen on the Sundance Fire in the would live through it. The trauma of Idaho Panhandle in 1967. Trees were Inside the Fire Shelters the event was reflected in interviews not laid down in patterns that would with the survivors. That all the firefighters in the es­ indicate large firewhirl activity. Some Witnesses, all of them experienced cape zones survived without serious firewhirls had been observed during firefighters, said that this was no ordi­ injury borders on the miraculous. the fire, but trees were not knocked nary crown fire. To some it was a

20 Fire Management Notes Passage of the flame front was accompanied by a roaring sound, like that of a jet airplane

I ~) standing wall of flame that reached painted a bright orange. Firefighters amounts of scorched fuel and trees 200 feet above the treetops. Others learned to evaluate the color of the within the fire area. The continuous described it as a huge, rolling ball of light as an indication of the fire's in­ fuels and lack of topographic barriers fire with a bright orange glow. Some tensity in order to judge when it was allowed the fire to move up the slopes witnesses reponed large balls of safe to come out of their shelters. of Wallace Creek with only moderate exploding gasses in the flame front. After leaving the shelters, some winds. The topography contributed Passage of the flame front was ac­ firefighters showed symptoms of car­ substantially to the fire behavior and companied by a roaring sound, like bon monoxide poisoning: vomiting, difficulty of control. The slopes from tbat of a jet airplane or a train. One disorientation, difficulty in breathing. the valley bottoms were steep, firefighter found this the most fright­ Emergency medical technicians ad­ contributing to rapid upslope runs; the ening pan of the ordeal: "The noise ministered oxygen to several individu­ ridge tops were rounded and covered builds up until you can't hear yourself als; five were evacuated to a hospital with continuous fuels. Hence, there think and then the ground begins to for treatment and observation. All were no definite fire barriers such as shake." He estimated that the shaking fully recovered. steep rocky slopes, sharp ridges, or and roaring lasted 10 minutes. Over Among those interviewed, the con­ scrubby subalpine fuels. the roar of the fire he could hear the sensus was that without the shelters Examination of weather records shouts of nearby firefighters scream­ none would have survived. A fire­ failed to reveal any factors that would ing for reassurance, followed by fighter with 20 years' experience have contributed to the large-scale shouts of encouragement from other summed it up as follows: "The most convective activity observed on Au­ firefighters. frightening, scariest experience I've gust 29. The extremely dry spring and Strong, fire-induced turbulence ever had, The fire was over us, summer probably contributed to the made it difficult to deploy shelters around us, everywhere. I was in rapid spread of the fire and difficulty and keep them down. One witness re­ Vietnam for a year, but this beats it in controlling it. As on other fires in poned a feeling of weightlessness, of all. " the northern Rocky Mountains at that being lifted off the ground. Another time, tree crowns were extremely reponed the shelter being slammed Factors Contributing to easy to ignite. Certainly the dry fuels down against his legs. Within the Fire Behavior on the ground also contributed, al­ safety zones, everyone moved as far though the major fire runs at this ele­ Fire activity in the preceding days as possible from the flame fronts by vation (6,000 to 8,000 feet) carried contributed to the ease with which the crawling along under the shelter. predominantly through the crowns. fire in Wallace Creek began. Fire be­ Within the shelters, firefighters ex­ havior on the afternoon of Thursday, perienced extreme heat for as much as Fire Behavior Analysis August 29, was a repeat, albeit a 10 minutes. Shelters were so hot that much more severe repeat, of the fire Postfire analysis of the potential they could only be handled with behavior of the preceding two days. fire behavior in surface fuels was gloves. Light entering the shelter Each day took out more acreage and made with the BEHAVE fire predic­ through pinholes changed from dark consequently left a larger holdover tion system (I) and displayed on the red at peak intensity, to orange, to fire for the following day. On the fire characteristics chan (fig. 4). Fuel white, as the fire passed over. One morning of the 29th, the north edge of model 10 was used. The values for survivor said that at one point the the fire was uncontained. Fuels were fuel moistures ranged between 3 and ground looked as though it had been burned in patches, leaving large 7 percent. The light winds of the

Volume 47, Number 2 21 ,

going up steep slopes (2). If we com­ ~ Rate of spread (chains/h) I pare the calculated rate of spread in 100 rr--,--,--...... ------. the surface fuels with the crown fire values given in table 2, we find that for the period 1430 to 1530 the crown 80 fire was 1.4 to 2.3 times faster than the surface fire. In late afternoon, from 1530 to 1610, the crown fire was 2.6 to 5.3 times faster. These 60 values fall within the suggested range mentioned above. There is a great deal of uncertainty in this type of calculation, indicating 40 a strong need for research on crown fire behavior and better guidelines for predicting the onset and spread of 20 crown fires and potential blowup situations.

Conclusions 500 1000 4000 The type of fire run observed in up­ per Wallace Creek on August 29 was not unusual for fires in lodgepole pine during the 1985 fire season through­ out the northern Rocky Mountains. The high-intensity fire runs were the \ result of drought-induced, extremely I low fuel moistures in all size classes ) morning and early afternoon would The calculated rate of spread in the I have produced fireline intensities of surface fuels was 11 to 19 chains per and the speed of the transition from 250 to 500 Btu/ft.sec, making the fire hour in the morning and early after­ surface fires to torching, spotting, and ! difficult to control. The stronger noon. The higher windspeeds in crowning fires. Because large areas • midafternoon winds would have pro­ midafternoon would have pushed the were burning unchecked by either duced fireline intensities in the sur­ rate up to 28 to 57 chains per hour. fireline or natural barriers and a face fuels of 600 to 1,500 Btu/ft. sec, We do not have methods for calcula­ southerly gradient wind had rein­ virtually assuring an uncontrollable ting crown fire rate of spread, but it forced upslope and upcanyon after­ crown fire. The range of the condi­ has been found that crown fire spread noon winds in Wallace Creek, the di­ tions is shown by the ellipses on the can be 2 to 4 times faster than the rate rection of fire spread and crown fire fire characteristics chart. The inputs of spread calculated for fuel model 10 development before 1530 were not a to BEHAVE and the outputs produced in fuels exposed to the wind and as surprise. The distance the fire spread are shown in table 2. much as 8 times faster if the fire is from 1530 to 1600, and its severity,

22 Fire Management Notes Table la-Data used in BEHAVE to assess fire behavior in surface fuels on the Butte Fire Wallace Creek in 15 minutes, or a spread rate of 8 miles per hour. This Element Data estimate now appears to be considera­ bly higher than the actual rate of Fuel model 10 spread. Reconstruction of the fire 1-hrfuer moisture 3 to 7'% front location at various times indi­ 10-hr fuel moisture 6% 100-hrfuel moisture 9% cated that the average spread rate was Live woody moisture 75% closer to 2 miles per hour with a max­ Midflame windspeed: imum of about 3 11z miles per hour. Early afternoon (sheltered) 4 to 6 mi/h The safety zones that were bull­ Midafternoon (exposed) 10 to 15 milh dozed into the tractor line at the head Percent slope 45% Wind direction Directly uphill of Wallace Creek made it possible for 73 firefighters to safely and effect­ Table 2b-BEHAVE outputs ively use their fire shelters and sur­ vive one of the more violent fire runs Rate of Heat per Fireline Flame observed in the northern Rockies in Time spread unit area intensity length 1985. But, as one crew foreman ob­ chainsthr Btulfr Rtutft.sec tt served after the incident, "the best Early afternoon 11-19 1286-1487 251-523 s.r-s safety zone is one where a fire shelter Midafternoon 28-57 1286-1487 664-1563 8.9-13.3 is not needed." This conclusion de­ serves special emphasis whenever the were, however, unexpected. The aerial photo mosaic did not reveal any Butte Fire is discussed. large area of holdover fire adjacent to fire behavior process whereby the continuous timber with heavy surface helitorch burnout could have acceler­ Preventing Future Incidents fuels proved to be a juxtaposition ca­ ated the run up Wallace Creek. The pable of generating an incredible photo mosaic showed a patchy pattern What measures can be taken to pre­ amount of energy in a short time. of burned and unburned areas be­ vent such a life-threatening event Although crown fires are often as­ tween the helitorch burning at the from recurring in the future? If an in­ sociated with strong winds, in this confluence of Wallace and Owl direct attack strategy is selected, then case winds of only 10 to 15 miles per Creeks and upper Wallace Creek. The a fail-safe warning system must be in hour, with some stronger gusts, were burnout operation, however, probably place to absolutely clear the line of sufficiently strong to channel the flow contributed to the shelter incident by personnel well in advance of a high­ up the canyon and produce the excep­ preoccupying the attention of some intensity run. Another approach in co­ tionally intense crown fire that key overhead personnel for so much nifer forests is to select a direct attack strategy, build a line along the flanks overran the crews. The question arose of the afternoon of August 29. The as to whether the burnout operation "eyes in the sky" reconnaissance that of the fire from a well-secured anchor with the helitorch on the south side of had been routinely available on previ­ point, and attack the head of the fire only when fuels, weather, and topo­ the fire directly accelerated the high ous days was not available during the graphic conditions allow firefighters intensity run up Wallace Creek. Inter­ critical time on August 29. to work safely. views combined with a careful inspec­ Early reports on the Butte Fire esti­ tion of burning patterns on a 1/24,000 mated that the fire traveled 2 miles up

Volume 47, Number 2 23 Whatever the strategy selected, the 2. Rothermel, Richard C. How to predict the for the shelter properly. The i fundamental principles of fire behav­ spread and intensity of forest and range videotape provides an excellent sup- " fires. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-143. Ogden, plement to Missoula Equipment De- i ior and fire suppression should always I U'F: U.S. Department of Agriculture, For­ velopment Center's new training film guide decisions that affect the health est Service, Intermountain Forest and and welfare of the firefighter. Despite Range Experiment Station; 1985. on fire shelters. Copies of the the remarkable progress made in fire 3. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest videotape can be ordered from: management in the past quarter of a Service. Your Fire Shelter. Missoula, MT: Bureau of Land Management century-better understanding of fire Missoula Equipment Development Center; Boise Interagency Fire Center 1984. 3905 Vista Ave. behavior, better trained and equipped 4. Van Wagner, C.E. Conditions for the start fire crews, more flexibility in attack and spread of crown fire. Canadian Journal Boise, ID 83705 strategy-conditions like those expe­ of Forest Research 7:23-24. 1977. The tape is offered in the followiug rienced in the northern Rockies in the formats: summer of 1985 call for extreme vigi­ 1. Order No. NFES 1523 3/4" I lance in all aspects of fire suppres­ Butte Fire Shelter Videotape U-matic $22.64 sion. And the safety of the individual Available 2. Order No. NFES 1524 112" firefighter is always the top VHS 11.24 3. Order No. NFES 1527 112" ! priority.• A 33-minute videotape on the B~ II.~ "Butte Fire Shelter.Deployment" is I Literature Cited now available'from the Boise Inter­ Add 19% to all orders for shipping ! and handling. I I. Andrews, Patricia L. BEHAVE: Fire be­ agency Fire Center. Videotaped onsite havior prediction and fuel modeling interviews with shelter occupants just i system-BURN subsystem, Part 1. Gen. days after the incident vividly demon­ ! Tech. Rep. INT-194.. Ogden, UT: U.S. strate the importance of every Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station; 1986. firefighter having a shelter, knowing I 130 p. deployment procedures, and caring

lI'

24 Fire Management Notes An Application of NIIMS on the Uinta National Forest

Helen Woods and Lyle Gomm

Program assistant and chief, Branch of Recreation and Lands, respectively, Uinta National Forest, Provo, UT

roj ,I Since the implementation of the National Interagency Incident Man­ agement System (NIIMS), local of­ fices of Federal agencies and State and local agencies, have banded to­ gether to cooperatively manage com­ INTERAGENY INCIDENT munity emergencies such as fire, COM AND floods, toxic spills, aircraft disasters, rescues, earthquakes, and riots, One of the specific cooperative ventures, a pump and hose-lay team, is described in this article to show how agencies are working together more effectively and efficiently under NIIMS, Many fires along the Wasatch Front of the Uinta National Forest occur in locations where they can be effect­ ively suppressed using water from nearby lakes, streams, and irrigation canals or ditches. Most of these fires start in heavily used campgrounds and Figure l-Cooperating agencies worked together to set up a pump and hose-lay team to help fight fires in the Uinta National Forest. other recreation areas located in river .~, and creek bottoms. The burning of ...-. ditchbanks on farms, debris burning, and other misuses of fire also contrib­ ute. In accordance with the NIIMS concept, the Uinta National Forest, ~ the Bureau of Land Management, Utah Division of State Lands and For­ " estry, and Utah County have cooperatively organized a pump and hose-lay team to fight fires within their jurisdiction. The pump and hose-lay team is a group of trained firefighters from the cooperating agencies who can effect­ ively take advantage of available water sources lu fight fifes along the steep Wasatch Front and in areas that are often inaccessible to engines. This team is trained to work together dur- Figure 2-Equipment used by pump and hose-lay team. I l Volume 47, Number 2 25 • ing the initial stages of the incident to sary fittings have been contributed by equipment and use the trailer. set up the system. After the hose sys­ the Bureau of Land Management. The equipment carried on the trailer tem is in place, the crew can then Utah County took care of painting the is suitable for pumping operations, split into two three-person shifts and trailer. Utah County has also worked but it can also be used with city fire utilize other, untrained personnel to with the Forest Service in training hydrants. It can be used in remote or work along with them. The crew is part of its strike team to operate the desert areas with either large tankers also trained in the use of gravity-fed systems that are used if the water Direction of \ source is high or if a helicopter is fire spread used to fill a tank on a ridge and the fire lies below in a canyon. The pump and hose-lay team is de­ signed to provide initial and second­ ary attack on frontal slope wildfires within and adjacent to Utah County. ~llii~:=~------1200 ft. The high-risk and flashy fuels located along the Wasatch Front require im­ mediate and aggressive action once a fire is identified. Any fire in this area Lateral hoselays has potential to be threatening to life fordirect attack and property. ft. A trailer to house the unit was con­ < ii·.···b.,----800 structed by the Forest Service and is capable of carrying pumps and hose equipment needed to run hose 3,000 feet horizontally and 1,000 feet verti­ 600 ft. cally (fig. 1-2). There are three large pumps, two Mark III pumps, and one Chrysler Flotopump. To augment the ~ ft. large pumps, the two smaller Mark III Burned area 400 pumps (contributed by the Utah Divi­ " sion of State Lands and Forestry) are used to run smaller lines from relay 200 ft. tanks set up to help in moving the water uphill. The exact pump config­ uration, of course, depends on the sit­ uation and application. Four light­ weight relay tanks are included, along Residential area Locationof fire engine with a much larger SOD-gallon, open­ on valley floor pump to first reservoir top tank suitable for helicopter fill op­ erations. Much of the hose and neces- Figure 3-Diagram of use of equipment to fight a typical frontal fire.

26 Fire Management Notes I I j' .. or helicopter drops into artificial ponds. These alternative water sources would be more expensive than using a nearby lake or stream. The equipment used by the team is designed to make water readily avail­ able up I,OOO-foot vertical slopes. This is achieved through lightweight 1200 ft. pumps, small reservoirs, and thou­ Initial attack at head sands of feet of linen hose. The 1000 ft. offirefrom equipment is designed to be within burned area backpacked up the slope as the fire 800 ft. develops. It is also designed for fight­ Reservoir location ing the fire from within the burned area. In this way, direct attack can be 600 ft. made ahead of the fire without threat to firefighter safety (fig. 3-4). 400 ft. 'I Other pieces of equipment have '"Drywest facing slopes ,J been assembled, under the NIIMS directly above established communities concept, to supplement the hose-lay unit. The Interagency Incident Com­ mand Post trailer contains all neces­ sary equipment for an efficient fire Residentiaiarea management operation, A military­ type command and staff organization Figure 4-Equipment used by the pump and hose-lay team is designed to make water available up functions out of this trailer to handle I,OOO-foot vertical slopes. incident objectives to which it is as­ ing capability. The computer will be in developing and maintaining the signed (fig. 5). used to store and retrieve the informa­ command post trailer and the pump During the fire season, the trailer is tion necessary to manage a large fire and hose-lay team is evidence of the outfitted with a generator, lights, ,. organization, information on overhead success, of the NIlMS concept. sleeping gear, and other personal gear personnel, fire crews, earth-moving Utah County firefighters are excited I for six crew members. The unit also equipment, aircraft, fire engines, and about the training they are receiving contains radio equipment for commu­ so forth. in fighting wildfires. Forest Service nications to all cooperating agencies In the Uinta National Forest, crews are eager to use the new equip­ and functions as a backup unit to the NIIMS is working and working well. ment. Each contributing agency can central dispatch office located in the The cooperating agencies are see with pride the result of Utah County sheriff's office. experiencing success in thejoint man­ cooperation. • A personal computer will be agement of fire and other community housed within this facility to provide emergencies that may arise. The ef­ telecommunication and word process- fective interagency cooperation shown

Volume 47, Number 2 27 •

1

------~ Figur~ S-Command post trailer organized under NIfMS concept contains equipment for efficient fire management operation.

•

28 Fire Management Notes Current Status of BEHAVE System

Roger L. Eubanks, Roger L. Bradshaw, and Patricia L. Andrews

Fuels management specialist, USDA Forest Service, Washington, DC; computer programmer/analyst, USDA Forest Service, Boise, ID; and mathematician, USDA For­

\ est Service, Missoula, MT ~

BEHAVE is a set of interactive, Documentation BEHAVE programs and all updates user-friendly computer programs that The primary documentation of the through the regular Forest Service are used for site-specific fire behavior BEHAVE system consists of two For­ software update procedures. The local prediction. An overview of BEHAVE est Service Intermountain Station systems manager is responsible for was given in a previous Fire Manage­ General Technical Reports (GTR). deciding whether or not to place BE­ ment Notes article by Richard C. Burgan and Rothermel describe the HAVE on the system. Those not Rothermel, "BEHAVE and YOU Can FUEL subsystem (3); Andrews de­ using Data General may send a writ­ Predict Fire Behavior" (5). That arti­ scribes the BURN subsystem (1). ten request to Roger Bradshaw stating cle included information on what BE­ Rothermel's GTR "How to Predict the their name, address, and phone num­ HAVE can do, where BEHAVE Spread and Intensity of Forest and ber. Requests for tapes should include applies, and how to make specific ap­ Range Fires" (4) provides the basis the character set, tape density, block­ plications. This article will give infor­ for his article "BEHAVE and YOU ing, labeling, tracks, record length, mation on the current status of the Can Predict Fire Behavior" (5) and and a blank tape. BEHAVE system, documentation that Andrews and Burgan's" 'BEHAVE' Modification of the programs to run is available, how the programs can be in the Wilderness!" (2). The BE- on a local computer is the responsibil­ accessed, and additional development HAVE Terminal User's Guide is a ity of the user. Users are also respon­ that is underway. quick reference for worksheets, sible for making sure that any local codes, program structure, etc. It is copies of the program match the mas­ Responsibility printed in looseleaf format to allow ter. Version numbers are used to indi­ cate changes made in one or more of BEHAVE was developed by USDA for future updates. the BEHAVE system programs. A Forest Service Research personnel at The two GTR's and the Terminal change in the tenth's digit indicates the Intermountain Fire Sciences Labo­ User's Guide are available through minor changes that correct program ratory (previously known as the the NWCG Publications Management errors or enhance existing features; Northern Forest Fire Laboratory). The System in Boise, !D. the one's digit indicates major Aviation and Fire Management Staff changes such as the addition of new in the Forest Service Washington, Programs prediction models. At the time of this DC, office has accepted BEHAVE as The master copy of the BEHAVE writing the version number of all a national system. Local specialists programs is maintained on the USDA three programs is 3.3. trained in the BEHAVE system are computer in Ft. Collins, CO. The A BEHAVE conference is on the responsible for providing users with source code is available to users who conference system at the FI. Collins assistance in operating BEHAVE. wish to use BEHAVE on their own Computer Center. The conference BEHA VE instructors have been computers. The programs are written will be used to announce new ver­ trained in each Forest Service region in ANSI Standard X3.9-1978 Fortran. sions of the programs, indicate neces­ and in other Federal agencies that The largest program, FIRE 1, requires sary changes, and tell how to obtain have wildland fire management re­ approximately 260K bytes to load on updates. Users are responsible for sponsibilities. Others who have re­ Data General MV/8000. BEHAVE is monitoring the conference or making ceived training as instructors include being successfully used on a variety other arrangements for obtaining State and university employees. This of computers. announcements. corps of instructors has responsibility Forest Service users with Data Requests from outside of the for training additional BEHAVE General equipment will receive the United States are handled by Patricia , users. I Volume 47, Number 2 29 System Subsystems Programs Modules

New MOL Site initial fuel model spread rate and intensity calculation module development program (site - specific input)

Fuel Direct fuel modeling spread rate and intensity calculation module subsystem (direct entry ofgeneral input)

Size TSTMDL area and perimeter calculation module fuel model test and Behave adjustmentprogram Contain fire behaviorprediction attack force requirement calculation module and fuel modeling system Spot Fire 1 maximum spotting distance calculation module prediction program Dispstch Burn automatic linking of Direct, Size and Contain fire prediction subsystem Fire2 ~odules prediction program { Calculation to be added later

Subsystems, programs, and modules that make up the BEHAVE fire behavior prediction and fuel modeling system.

L. Andrews. She will see that foreign panded. FIRE 2 will include the fol­ • SCORCH-Scorch height. users are kept informed of updates. lowing modules: The keywords LOG and NOLOG An attempt will be made to arrange • MOISTURE-The fine dead fuel are in the current version of BE- for a single contact for each country. moisture model that is now in SITE. HAYE, but they are not described in So far, BEHAVE has been sent to This model will allow table output for the fonnal documentation. This de­ Canada, Australia, South Africa, ranges of input parameters as well as scription was added in response to Spain, Mexico, and Portugal. graphic output showing diurnal user request. Because the BEHAYE variation. programs are interactive, printing an .' • IGNITE-Probability of ignition. entire session on paper is quite un­ Updates • RH-Relative humidity and dew wieldy. The LOG option saves only A diagram of the current BEHAVE point from elevation; wet bulb and input listings and computed results in . system design is shown in figure I. dry bulb temperatures. a file. When the session is complete, The FUEL subsystem consists of the The FIRE I program will be ex­ the user is reminded to print the file programs NEWMDL and TSTMDL. panded as follows: and then delete it. (The method of At this time the BURN subsystem has • SPOT-Addition of spotting dis­ printing and deleting is a function of only the FIRE 1 program. However, a tance from wind-driven surface fires. the user's computer and is not part of FIRE 2 program is being developed, • CONTAIN-Addition of con­ the BEHAYE system.) In this way a and the FIRE 1 program is being ex- tainment by indirect allack. user can use a nonprinting terminal,

30 Fire Management Notes I 1

'! yet have paper printout of the impor­ Program maintenance is performed 2. Andrews, Patricia L.; Burgan, Robert E. tant parts of the run. The next version by Roger Bradshaw, who can be "BEHAVE" in the wilderness! In: Lotan. of the BURN programs will also have reached at: James E.; Kilgore, Bruce M.; Fischer, William E.; Mutch, Robert W., tech. the keyword COMMENT to allow USDA Forest Service coords. Proceedings, symposium and user notes to be printed in the file. 3905 Vista Ave. workshop on wilderness fire; 1983 Novem­ Boise, ID 83705 ber 15-18; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Summary (208) 334-9458 Rep. INT-182. Ogden. VT: V.S. Depart­ FTS 554-9458 ment of Agriculture, Forest Service, BEHAVE has been an approved Intermountain Forest and Range Experi­ Requests from outside the United national system since 1984 and is cur­ ment Station; 1985: 306-309. States should be directed to Patricia 3. Burgan, Robert E.; Rothermel, Richard C. rently being used for a variety of fire L. Andrews at: BEHAVE: Fire behavior prediction and management applications. It is a dy­ Intermountain Fire Sciences fuel modeling system-FUEL subsystem. namic system that is expected to Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-167. Ogden, trr Laboratory change as new technology becomes U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest P.O. Box 8089 available for field application. Watch Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Missoula, MT 59807 Experiment Station; 1984. 126 p. for future articles in Fire Management (406) 329-4827 4. Rothermel, Richard C. How to predict the Notes describing the updates and ap­ FTS 584-4827 • spread of forest and range fires. Gen. plications in more detail. Tech. Rep. INT-143. Ogden, UT: U.S. If you have any questions or sug- Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Literature Cited gestions, contact Roger Eubanks at: Intermountain Forest and Range Experi­ USDA Forest Service I. Andrews, Patricia L. BEHAVE: Fire be­ ment Station; 1983. 161 p. 5. Rotherrnel, Richard C. BEHAVE and P.O. Box 2417 havior prediction and fuel modeling system-BURN subsystem. Gen Tech. YOU can predict fire behavior. Fire Man­ Washington, DC 20013 Rep. INT-194. Ogden, UT: U.S. Depart­ agement Notes. 44(4): 11-15; 1983. (703) 235-8666 ment of Agriculture, Forest Service, FTS 235-8666 Intermountain Research Station; 1986. 130 p. j,

Volume 47, Number 2 31 Crew Mobilization: What's the Next Step?

Stephen W, Creech State fire coordinator, Indiana Department ofNatural Re­ sources, Division of Forestry, Martinsville, IN

This is the second part of a two­ fires required in excess of 25 class I of several ways. They may be consid­ part article dealing with interagency teams, 2,510 miscellaneous overhead, ered a single resource, they may be fire crew mobilization. Part I dealt 276 category I crews, 1,010 category joined with another crew and formed with the preparation and planning that II crews, 749 smokejumpers, 473 into a strike team, or they may be­ are necessary to pull personnel to­ fixed and rotary wing aircraft (fire come part of a task force. How they gether in the most efficient manner to suppression aircraft), $9,721,000 are utilized will depend upon the meet mobilization deadlines. Part 2 worth of catering services, needs of the incident and may change will deal with fire camp, fireline oper­ $1,194,000 worth of shower facili­ according to changing needs. ations, and demobilization. This in­ ties, and $8,500,000 worth of charter Next, crew manifests and time­ formation is intended to address some and contract aircraft. In addition, sheets must be taken to the finance of the problems that the crew bassi more than 50,000 firefighters were section (this is the same under both strike team leader, and squad boss, as moved throughout the country. These NIIMS and LFO). A close check well aSJrookie and veteran statistics do not include ground trans­ should be made here to see that a firefighters, may encounter and to uf­ portation or the assistance provided timesheet is made out for each mem­ fer suggestions to make the assign­ from the military. ber of the crew. A little extra effort ment as positive an experience as pos­ I think that now you can appreciate here can prevent problems later on. sible. We must all remember that our a little better why there may be some The last stop will be to check in with role in these assignments is to serve unexpected delays and perhaps be the staging area manager (NIIMS) or the host agency and not vice versa. able to deal more effectively with the the camp officer (LFO). Here you Part I left off as the crew boarded questions fired at you from the crew. will be assigned an area to assemble the aircraft for the fire assignment. I will now jump ahead a bit and as­ your crew. Once this area is estab­ We will now pick up as the plane sume that we have safely reached fire lished, place a sign (one may be pro­ lands, and we begin our assignment. camp. vided) on the perimeter showing the However, you and your crew have not Fire camp is always a very hectic crew name and crew leader. This area already encountered lengthy delays place. Don't expect to be greeted at will become your home for the next you had better prepare yourselves for the gate and shown to your quarters. several days. the inevitable. These sometimes The first thing to do is to let someone The strike team leader/crew boss lengthy and always frustrating delays know that your crew has arrived. The must decide if the crew is sufficiently I.• are probably the number one enemy fire camp may be operated under ei­ rested, considering travel time and of good crew morale. Dealing with ther the National Interagency Incident rest opportunities, to accept a line as­ the possibility of delays at the begin­ Management System (NIIMS) or the signment. The incident may not re­ .' ning can prevent more serious prob­ Large Fire Organization (LFO). The quire that your crew be placed on the lems later on. reporting procedure will vary. Under fireline immediately, but if you are What I would like to do now is de­ NIIMS, the strike team leader/crew asked to assume a fireline role, it is viate from the story line a bit to look boss or the crew representative should your responsibility as leader to evalu­ at some of the National Interagency first report to the planning section, re­ ate the crew's ability to safely carry Fire Coordination Center (NIFCC) source unit leader (RESTAT). Under out out the assignment. The crew's statistics for 1985. There were ap­ LFO the crew boss would report to well-being depends on you. Regard­ proximately 83,000 reported fire the maps and records section. less of whether you are immediately starts that burned more than You should understand that your assigned to line duty, there are certain 2,975,000 acres. To combat these crew members may be utilized in one things that must be routinely taken

32 Fire Management Notes I l'

care of concerning your personnel. can spell disaster. The need to ob­ other personnel and literally disable a Your crew will do a better job if serve this must be stressed at the early crew. All members of the crew should they are happy and healthy. Preven­ briefings. Individual counseling may feel as though they can discuss their tion is the key to success. Let's look be necessary in some cases. Since the problems openly at any time. at some simple yet effective preven­ fire situation can change very rapidly, 6. Safety. Safety is one area that tive measures: it may be necessary to alter plans. For can never be stressed enough. Safety 1. Hold briefings. Your crew that reason it is suggested that a in camp, on the way to the fireline, members want to know what is going schedule be established while the and on the line must be constantly on. They are not looking for detailed crew is in camp, so that someone is at monitored. Unsafe conditions should information-they just want to know the designated crew area at all times. be corrected or brought to the atten­ what is happening and what is their This will greatly improve response tion of others. Don't think that the role. Where are they? Where will they time and will eliminate unnecesary Safety Officer can catch every safety be going? What is the fire doing? delays. problem. Safety is the responsibility What is the terrain like? How long is Note-As a strike team leader/crew of all firefighters, but particularly the work shift? Tell them what you boss you may be faced with a situa­ those in a supervisory position. know. Don't lie and don't speculate. tion where your crew is allowed to go 7. Per.formance evaluation. It is Personnel who feel informed will into a nearby town. This can happen the crew member's responsibility to have fewer morale problems than during staging or during 24-hour onl obtain crew performance evaluations those who are kept in the dark. 24-hour off work cycles. You are still from the unit supervisors they are 2. Information dissemination, responsible for your personnel, and working for. Don't assume that the Make sure good information gets back you have the ultimate authority to ap­ evaluations will automatically be to the home unit and that the home prove or deny the privilege. It is not completed for you. The crew per­ unit passes the information along to an easy decision and can prove most formance evaluation is proof of how family and friends left behind. The unpopular. well your crew performed and should good public relations that can be ob­ 4. First aid. First-aid problems point out areas that need improve­ tained from fire assignments goes a must be attended to immediately. ment. These evaluations can mean the long way to ensure that the crew Problems can occur while on the line difference between being utilized members will be available the next or in camp. Don't assume the prob­ properly and not being utilized at all. time they are needed. As long as the lem will go away. Make sure prompt Incident commanders are looking for firefighting personnel feel that their medical attention is provided. If first­ personnel who can do the job. The best interest is being considered, they aid is administered on the line, have evaluation is your proof that you and will remain happy and productive. It the individual report to the first-aid your crew can perform satisfactorily. will be necessary to plan ahead how facility upon return to camp. Docu­ The key to success on any fire as­ and when family and friends will be ment any problems to assist in future signment is to maintain control and contacted. The home unit has the re­ claims. work as a team (fig. I). Work to the sponsibility to disseminate timely in­ 5. Personal problems, Action here best of your ability, and don't be formation. Planning is the key to suc­ must be swift and firm. You may afraid to admit that you can't do cess here. need help in dealing with certain mat­ something or that you are not properly 3. Proper camp habits. Insist on ters so don't be afraid to ask. Morale trained or qualified. Firefighting is a good eating, rest, and hygiene habits. or attitude problems, if left dangerous profession and the more we Failure to adhere to anyone of these unchecked, can rapidly spread to all know and the more we work to-

Volume 47, Number 2 33 proof, but it sure helps smooth out the process. Once you arrive at your official duty station, you still have a few loose ends to tie up before you can close the books on this incident. You need to reclaim the fire gear from your personnel. Any materials that came from the fire cache should be put back, or plans should be made to replenish depleted items. If it is feasi­ ble, have the crew members acknowl­ edge that they arrived home safely. A quick phone call back tu the home of­ fice or to the strike team leader/crew boss is all it takes. You should plan to hold an assign­ ment critique when time allows, pref­ .1 erably while the incident is still fresh Figure i-The fire crew's performance will be reflected in a crew performance evaluation. in everyone's mind. The critique should look at the following areas: gether the safer and more effective we than it did to get in. I. Incident management. You become. Once you are sure of your demobi­ should include an evaluation of each We will now assume that our as­ lization plans, particularly flight of the phases of the assignment. Ex­ signment is completed and we have plans, it is a good idea to make one amine mobilization, staging, fire gone to demobilization status. Once last contact with your home unit to as­ camp, line assignment, safety, organi­ you have fulfilled your time require­ sure that someone will be there to zation, and demobilization. You are ment or the emergency has subsided, meet you. Remember that on a large­ looking for items, both good and bad, you must be released back to your scale operation things can change and that could make future assignments home unit. The process of checking messages and arrangements occasion­ operate more efficiently. out is much the same as checking in. ally get messed up. It may not always 2. Personnel evaluation. You You will be required to turn in any be possible, but a short call just prior need to look at all of your fire person­ accountable, issued gear. You will to demobilization may save a lot of nel and evaluate their performance on have to verify, sign, and take charge confusion later on. You need to indi­ the assignment. Did they follow or­ of timesheets. You must obtain copies cate mode of transportation, the carri­ ders? Were they team players? Were of any request for treatment forms er's name, the destination (airport and they good representatives of your from the first-aid area. Your camp gate location if known), and approxi­ home unit? Did they perform up to area must be cleaned up, and you mate time of arrival. You might also standard? Could they be considered must sign out through RESTAT. It plan to have a meal waiting just in for transfer to a different position (for may seem harder to get out of camp case. This kind of planning isn't fool- example, firefighter to squad boss, or

34 Fire Management Notes '" squad boss to strike team leader/crew ing for some of your personnel? on the next assignment for everyone. boss)? Were they physicaIly quali­ Training is an ongoing consideration. If you are a veteran leader you fied? Poor performers should be re­ It is needed both to maintain profi­ should have picked up some helpful moved from the roster and not al­ ciency and to prepare personnel for reminders from this article. If you are lowed to participate in future advancement. a veteran firefighter you should have assignments until shortcomings are Once you have completed the cri­ gained some useful information in rectified. Remember the whole team's tique you should make copies avail­ case you are ever given the responsi­ evaluation may hinge on one person '8 able to your home office, the sending bility to lead your own crew/strike actions. agency, the receiving agency. and team. If you have only dreamed of 3. Training needs, You should each of your personnel. The critique going on an out-of-state fire assign­ evaluate training needs very closely. should be objective and honest. You ment you should have a better appre­ Was there a need for training that you should immediately develop a plan of ciation of what to expect and also a or yourcrew have not had? Do certain action to correct those areas within better understanding of what goes into personnel need a refresher course? Is your jurisdiction that need improve­ such a complex undertaking.• there a need for more advanced train- ment. Your efforts here will payoff

Volume 47, Number 2 35 Late-Winter Prescribed Burns to Prepare Seedbeds for Natural Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Regeneration-Are They Prudent?

Michael D. Cain 'f Research forester, USDA Forest Service, Crossett Experimental Forest, Southern Forest Experiment Station, I Crossett, AR. ,

Density, percent stocking, and total toring in North Carolina has shown tained from two active research stud­ heights offirst-year loblolly and that 71 percent of loblolly seeds fall ies on the Crossett Experimental For­ shortleaf pine (Pinus taeda L. and by the end of November (1) and that est in south Arkansas. Soil on the P. echinata Mill.) seedlings were 84 percent of all loblolly seeds fall study areas is Bude silt loam measured one growing season after a before January (13). Similarly, in (Glossaquic Fragiudalfs) with a site late-winter prescribed burn in south Arkansas, Grano (12) found index of 85 to 90 feet for loblolly pine uneven-aged pine stands in southern loblolly-shortleaf pine seedfall to be at age 50 years. Arkansas. These data were compared 77 percent complete by the end of Study A-The purpose of this with data from the same year for an November and 92 percent complete study was to assess the effects of area where there had been no pre­ by the end of December. Chaiken (6) prelogging hardwood control for es­ scribed burning. Although a partial monitored loblolly pine seedfall for 6 tablishment of natural pine regenera­ seed catch on the late-winter burn years in South Carolina and noted that tion. When the study began, the stand area produced significantly fewer 92 to 100 percent of all viable seeds contained about 100 square feet of pine seedlings, the burn coincided were disseminated by February 1. pine basal area per acre. On four with a bumper seed year that resulted On the basis of these findings, an 0.25-acre plots all hardwoods having in a high-density, well-stocked crop of effort should be made to coordinate a groundline diameter of I inch or pine seedlings after one growing the timing of prescribed fires for larger were stem-injected with season. seedbed preparation with natural pine picloram (Tordon IOlR) in March seedfall. For example, Lotti and 1983. Herbicide spotguns were used others (14) surmised that if a to treat four other 0.25-acre plots with Introduction preharvest prescribed winter fire takes hexazinone (Velpar-L) using 4 pounds place after the main seedfall in lob­ a.i. per acre on a 4- by 4-foot grid in The use of prescribed fire for lolly pine stands, almost full depend­ April 1983. A basal area reduction seedbed preparation in natural regen­ ence must be placed on the following harvest of overstory pines was done in erationof loblolly and shortleaf pine years' seed crop for pine regenera­ July and August 1983, removing an (Pinus taeda L. and P. echinata tion. The reasoning has been that pine average of 6,000 board feet per acre Mill.) is widely practiced throughout seed on the ground will be destroyed (International 'I.-inch rule). This re­ the South. The recommended tech­ by the fife. duction left a 76-year-old even-aged nique is to use a winter burn to reduce Yet, fuel and weather conditions stand of loblolly-shortleaf pines fuel accumulation and follow up with for prescribed burning in the South averaging 68 square feet of basal area one or more hot summer burns to top­ are often most favorable during the per acre in 28 trees per acre. Since the kill small hardwoods and expose min­ winter when cold weather fronts pass intent of the study was to facilitate eral soil (7). To maximize seed catch, through with steady north winds (8). pine regeneration from natural prescribed burning should be done It is therefore appropriate to investi­ seedfall, data from the study were just before seedfall (8. 16). Such tim­ gate the effect of a late-winter pre­ used as a standard for comparison ing of prescribed bums will provide a scribed bum on subsequent pine seed­ with data taken from the area where mineral soil seedbed yet will not de­ ling establishment from a current late-winter prescrihed burning was stroy the current year's seedfall. year's seed crop. done in study B. Natural seedfall for loblolly pine Study B-The purpose of this begins in October and may persist Methods study was to determine the effect of into spring. However, seedfalt rnoni- Data for this investigation were ob- overstory pine basal area and cyclical

36 Fire Management Notes I Ir

~', burning intervals on establishment Table i-Averege cortditions during prescribed burning ott January 3/, 1984 and growth of pine regeneration in Variable Measurement uneven-aged stands of loblolly­ shortleaf pine. Before the study, these Precipitation: stands contained over 100 square feet Time since last accumulation 8 days of pine basal area per acre. Prescribed Amount 1.22 inches Air temperature during burn 34toSO°F winter burns were first conducted on Relative humidity during bum 70 to 24 percent January 14 and 15, 1981. In August Wind: and September 1981, all hardwoods I Direction From the south inch in diameter at breast height Velocity 3 miles per hour (d.b.h.) and larger were stem injected Time 01 day 10 am to 4 prn CST Type of burn Back and flank tires with Tordon IOIR. Merchantable Fine fuel moisture 1 12 percent pines were cut in June and July 1982, Mean fireline intensity" 92 Btu/ft-sec removing an average of 7,000 board Range in lireline intensity 47 to 127 Btu/tt-sec feet per acre (International Y4-inch Estimated ground coverage by fire 83 percent

rule). This left a balanced uneven­ 'Oetermmed from fuel-moisture slicks at midd

Volume 47. Number 2 37 collection period, pine seedfall was Table 2--Comparison of pine seedling establishment on seedbeds prepared before seedfall (A) and more than 75 percent complete by De­ on seedbeds prepared after the bulk of seed had fallen (B) cember I and 90 percent complete by the time of the January 31 prescribed First-year pineseedlings burn. Seedbed 1984 merchantable pine Even though seedfall was nearly treatment' Density Stocking Total height basal area complete before burning in study B, the bumper seed year provided suffi­ Stems/acre Percent Feet Square feet/acre cient seeds after burning for ensuring A 62,979 a' 100 a 0,46 a 70 a natural pine regeneration. Ten percent B 20,607 b 89 b 0.36 b 78 b' of the sound seed crop, or nearly lA = Hardwood control + logging; B = Late-winter burn. 95,000 sound seeds per acre, was col­ 2Colurnnar means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the 0.05 level. lected in traps after January 31. Thus, "eesmateo from 1982 postharvest inventory (9). in this bumper seed year, 10 percent B (table 2). ling). Seeds that lay on the ground of the crop was equal to an entire seed Total height of first-year seedlings from early October until germination crop in an average seed year. Also, in study A averaged 0.46 feet, signifi­ the following spring were available to some additional seeding probably cantly taller than the first-year seed­ any number of predators such as in­ occurred after the March I termina­ lings of study B, which averaged 0.36 sects, birds, and woodlot mammals, tion date for seed collection. feet (table 2). The additional 8 square Pine seeds that fell to the ground fol­ feet of basal area in the overstory lowing the late-winter burn were Seedling Establishment pines and higher stem density of mer­ available to predators for a much As would be expected, study area chantable pines in study B resulted in shorter period of time before spring A, which had been site prepared for more shade and subsequently less germination. There are two possible natural pine seeding prior to seedfall, growth of pine seedlings, Brender and sources of pine seedlings that arise on had substantially more pine seedlings Barber (4) reported that the level of burned areas when burning is done af­ after I year when compared with pine overwood shade, measured by ter the bulk of seed has fallen. Ac­ study area B, which had received only the height to live crown, ranks with cording to Chaiken (6), either new partial seeding following the late­ overwood density as a major factor seeds are disseminated after the fire or winter prescribed bum. First-year affecting the growth rate of loblolly seeds that had lodged in sheltered or seedling density in study A, where pine seedlings and that survival and protected areas on the ground where there was a complete seed catch in the growth of understory pine seedlings they were not destroyed by fire were winter of 1983-84, averaged nearly are poorest under low overwood still viable. 63,000 seedlings per acre. This figure shade. Crown heights of the old­ Density and Stocking was significantly higher than the growth overwood in study A were Recommendations nearly 21,000 seedlings per acre in taller than those of the uneven-aged study B with the partial seed catch overwood in study B. In uneven-aged management of (table 2). Stocking of first-year pine Appreciably fewer pine seeds were loblolly-shortleaf pine, the recom­ seedlings in study A averaged 100 required to produce a seedling in mended density for the submerchan­ percent, again significantly higher study B (5 seeds per seedling) com­ table stand (<;;4-inch d.b.h. classes) is than the 89 percent stocking in study pared to study A (15 seeds per seed- 500 to 700 pines per acre (10). On

38 Fire Management Notes , I I

fire--control and use. New York: McGraw­ Hill Book co.. 1959: 61-89. 6. Chaiken, L.E. Extent of loss of loblolly pine seed in winter fires. Res. Note 21. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agri­ culture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station; 1952. 2 p. 7. Crow, A. Bigler; Shilling, Charles L. Use of prescribed burning to enhance southern pine timber production. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 4(1): 15-18; 1980. 8. Davis, Kenneth P., ed. Forest fire-c-corurol and use. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co.; t959. 584 p. 9. Farrar, Robert M., Jr. Density control-natural stands. In: Karr, Bob L.; Baker, James B.; Monaghan, Tom, eds. !' clear-cut areas in even-aged manage­ investigation, percent stocking and Proceedings of the symposium on the lob­ ment, it is desirable to have between density of loblolly-shortleaf pine lolly pine ecosystem (west region); 1984 March 20-22; Jackson, MS. Mississippi 1,500 and 2,500 loblolly-shortleaf seedlings established following a late­ State, MS: Mississippi Cooperative Exten­ seedlings per acre the first year after winter prescribed bum were signifi­ sion Service; 1984: 129-154. establishment from natural seedfall cantly less than stocking and density 10. Farrar, Robert M., Jr.; Murphy, Paul A.; (11). Percent stocking is another crite­ of seedlings on areas undisturbed dur­ Willett, R. Larry. Tables for estimating rion for judging the success or failure ing seedfall. Even so, a bumper pine growth and yield of uneven-aged stands of loblolly-shortleaf pine on average sites in of natural pine regeneration. Accord­ seed crop that coincided with the late­ the west gulf area. Bull. 874. Fayetteville, ing to Trousdell (15), areas that con­ winter bum resulted in a pine seedling AR: Division of Agriculture, University of tain 90 percent stocking of loblolly stand that met or exceeded published Arkansas, Arkansas Agricultural Experi­ pine seedlings from natural seedfall recommendations for both adequate ment Station; 1984. 21 p. are considered well stocked. stocking and density. 11. Grano, Charles X. Growing loblolly and shortleaf pine in the midsouth. Farm. Bull. In the investigation, after the late­ These data suggest that land man­ 2102. Washington, DC: U.S. Department winter prescribed bums in uneven­ agers who rely on prescribed burning of Agriculture; 1967. 27 p. aged stands of loblolly-shortleaf pines to prepare seedbeds in advance of nat­ 12. Grano, Charles X. Conditioning Ioessial during a bumper seed year, sufficient ural pine seeding in the South can soils for natural loblolly and shortleaf pine seeds were available to result in a possibly extend the burning season seeding. Res. Note SO-116. New Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, For­ high-density, well-stocked crop of through January during bumper seed est Service, Southern Forest Experiment pine seedlings. Although exact perio­ years and still obtain adequate pine Station; 1971. 4 p. dicity of bumper seed crops cannot be seed catch for regeneration purposes. 13. Jemison, George M.; Korstian, c.F. Lob­ predicted, better than average or lolly pine seed production and dispersal. abundant seed crops of loblolly pine • Journal of Forestry. 42: 734-741; 1944. 14. Lotti, Thomas; Klawitter, Ralph A.; can occur at 2- to 4-year intervals (13, Literature Cited LeGrande, w.e. Prescribed burning for 17). 1. Allen, Peter H.; Trousdell, Kenneth B. understory control in loblolly pine stands of Loblolly pine seed production in the the Coastal Plain. Sta. Pap. 116. Asheville, Summary Virginia-North Carolina coastal plain. Jour­ NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, For­ nal of Forestry. 59: 187-190; 1961. est Service, Southeastern Forest Experi­ When managing for natural 2. Baker. James B.; Balmer, William E. Lob­ ment Station; 1960. 19 p. loblolly-shortleaf pine regeneration lolly pine. In: Silvicultural systems for the 15. Trousdell, Kenneth B. Favorable seedbed using seed tree, shelterwood, or selec­ major forest types of the United States. conditions for loblolly pine disappear 3 years after logging. Journal of Forestry. 52: tion (uneven-aged) cutting methods, Agric. Handb. 445. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture; 1983: 148-152. 174-176; 1954. timing of seedbed preparation can be 3. Bonner, F.T. Seed testing. In: Seeds of 16. Van Lear, David H. Natural regeneration of a critical consideration. Late-winter woody plants in the United States. Agric. southern pines. In: Mann, John W., ed. prescribed burning for seedbed prepa­ Handb. 450. Washington, DC: U.S. De­ Proceedings of a seminar on site prepara­ ration may result in an insufficient partment of Agriculture; 1974: 136--152. tion and regeneration management; 1980 November 18-20; Long Beach, MS. Long supply of viable seeds for regenera­ 4. Brender, E.V.; Barber, John C. Influence of loblolly pine overwood on advance re­ Beach, MS: Forestry and Harvesting Train­ tion purposes if done in poor to aver­ production. Sta. Pap. 62. Asheville, NC: ing Center and Clemson University; 1980: age seed years. For example, in this U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 64-72. Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment 17. Wahlenberg, W.G. Loblolly pine: its use, Station; 1956. 12 p. ecology, regeneration, protection, growth, 5. Byram, George M. Combustion of forest and management. Durham, NC: Duke Uni­ fuels. In: Davis, Kenneth P., ed. Forest versity School of Forestry; 1960. 603 p.

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