sign in sign up
<<
Home , Cycling

and Cycling International Literature Review Final Report

prepared for Dr Evelyn Légaré Department of Walking and Cycling Branch Level 15, 121 Exhibition MELBOURNE VIC 3000 Authors of Appendix A 2009 Laura Baum Dr Ann Forsyth Authors of Final Report Dr Kevin J. Krizek Dr Kevin J. Krizek CONTACTS Dr Ann Forsyth [email protected] Laura Baum [email protected] Walking and Cycling Literature Review

This report was commissioned by the Victoria Outline of report Department of Transport and is made available for the purposes of promoting public discussion. However, the views expressed in the report are those of the authors. They do not necessarily GLOSSARY 2 reflect the views of the SUMMARY OF FINDINGS 4 Department of Transport and WALKING AND CYCLING COMMON THEMES 5 may not reflect government policy or government WALKING SPECIFIC FINDINGS 5 recommendations and do CYCLING SPECIFIC FINDINGS 6 not necessarily represent an KEY SUMMARY POINTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 7 action plan for government. SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION 8 This literature review was At the time this report was POLICY MOTIVATIONS AND CENTRAL QUESTIONS 9 commissioned by the then commissioned, Dr Krizek Department of Infrastructure was Associate Professor, STUDYING MUDDIED WATER 10 in 2007 and undertaken by: Urban Planning and Civil DECISION TO WALK OR BIKE: MOTIVATIONS AND BARRIERS 10 Dr Kevin J. Krizek, Associate Engineering, University of DIFFERENCES BETWEEN WALKING AND CYCLING 11 Professor, Planning and Minnesota and Dr Forsyth CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR INCREASED WALKING OR CYCLING 12 Design, University was Professor, Dayton of Colorado Hudson Chair of Urban SUMMARY 13 Dr Ann Forsyth, Professor of Design and Director, What Victoria has done 13 Metropolitan Design Center, and Regional Planning, SECTION 2: SOFT MEASURES: Cornell University University of Minnesota. PRICING, PROGRAMMING, AND EDUCATION 14

Laura Baum PRICING: THE LOW COST OF DRIVING/PARKING 15

Please note that this report uses American spellings and some PROGRAMS AND EDUCATION OR SOCIAL MARKETING EFFORTS 15 American terms. For those unfamiliar with American terms, please note the following. SUMMARY 16 AMERICAN TERM aUSTRALIAN EQUIVALENT SECTION 3: HARD MEASURES: COMMUNITY AND INFRASTRUCTURE DESIGN 17 Sidewalk Footpath Transit Public Transport COMMUNITY DESIGN 18 Downtown CBD or Central Business District Walking findings 18 L.R.T. Light Rapid Transit Cycling findings 18 Airline distance “As the crow flies” distance INFRASTRUCTURE 19 U.S. United States of America Walking findings 19 U.K. United Kingdom Walking and Cycling Literature Review

Cycling findings: Combined strategies work 37 A focus on separated facilities 23 Role of key destinations and design features in walking 37 Separated bicycling facilities and safety 23 Target specific populations 38 Separated bicycling facilities and increased use 24 Policy levers or strategies 38 Separated bicycling facilities: the big picture 26 CONCLUSIONS INFORMED BY LITERATURE INNOVATIVE CROSSING TREATMENTS 26 BUT ALSO BASED ON PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE 39

Bicycle boxes 26 The walkable place 39 BICYCLE LOAN PROGRAMS 28 What type of cycling facilities where? 39 MOTORIZED TRANSPORTATION USING PEDESTRIAN Small distances, big hurdles 40 AND CYCLING FACILITIES 28 The network is king 40 SUMMARY 29 Redundancy of facilities is OK 40 SECTION 4: ROLE OF PREFERENCES 30 Intersections, crossings, and ‘pinch points’ are key 41 SELF-SELECTION 31 AVENUES FOR VALUABLE FURTHER RESEARCH 42 SUMMARY 31 Safety and measures of exposure 42 SECTION 5: ACCOUNTING FOR AND MODELLING Detailed barriers for shorter trips 42 NON-MOTORIZED (NMT) 32 TravelSmart and long-term follow up 42 Land Use/Urban Form Data 34 Detailed accounting for NMT 42 Zonal Structure and Networks 34 Using walking/cycling to increase the transit-shed 42 Inadequate Models 35 Substituting cycling for walking trips 42 SUMMARY 35 No ‘silver bullet’ but how much of each type of program? 42 SECTION 6: CONCLUSIONS AND FURTHER RESEARCH 36 BIBLIOGRAPHY 43 CONCLUSIONS BASED EXCLUSIVELY ON AVAILABLE LITERATURE 37 APPENDIX A 67

Learning about walking and cycling is extremely difficult 37

There is no silver bullet 37

Necessary versus sufficient conditions 37 Glossary

Adequate pedestrian Class A cyclists: Are experienced infrastructure and design: and are happy to operate on By adequate levels of pedestrian collector or arterial . infrastructure and design we Class B cyclists: Include adults mean development is intense or teenagers who ride more enough so that distances occasionally and have less between destinations are not too confidence in than ClassA great, the street system allows cyclists. fairly direct pedestrian routes, and there are enough sidewalks or low Class C cyclists: Include traffic streets to provide options children, the elderly, or other for getting to major destinations. inexperienced populations who either do not ride on or Bicycle box: Also called an where such activity is monitored advanced stop bar, is a right angle by parents extension of a bicycle lane at an intersection, which allows cyclists Derived travel: Travel individuals to get ahead of automobiles after do to engage in activities in other being stopped at a traffic light. places—work, recreation, shopping, health services. Bicycle loan programs: Provide free (or nearly free) access to Hard measures: Physical factors for local transportation directly affected by policy needs. changes. May include development patterns, street Carrots: Colloquial term used to layout, bicycle lanes, foot paths, describe the range of policy intersections, , etc. options serving to make something (NMT) extremely High quality pedestrian attractive, appealing or sometimes infrastructure: E.G., wide, even irresistible. tree-lined sidewalks with attractive paving, artistic street lamps, etc.

2 LOS: Level of Service models aim Soft measures: Non-physical to provide a common rating factors directly affected by policy system for facilities used by changes. Includes pricing of cyclists and/or pedestrians. alternative modes, education, complex information exchanges, NMT: Non-Motorized Travel, etc. including pedestrian and walking travel that is derived. SBF: Separated Bicycle Facility, also referred to as a PMT: Person Miles Travel, used to (mostly in the U.K.), sidepath, refer to the distance for all travel, off-street bicycle paths, and regardless of mode. sometimes Copenhagen bicycle Programming: Educational lanes. For purposes of this report, initiatives or schedules of activities, SBFs are used in a general sense procedures, etc., to be followed to to include all of the above. encourage walking and/or cycling. Sticks: Colloquial term used to Rail-: Multi- or single-use describe the range of policy running through former railroad options serving to make corridors. Often grade separated something (NMT) very unattractive from the adjacent system. and/or expensive. Recreational travel: Travel VMT: Vehicle Miles Travel, usually individuals do for the sake of travel to reference the distance for all such as a walk around the park. travel via motorized means (e.g., auto, , or transit). Self-selection: The phenomenon in which people choose a Voluntary Travel Behaviour neighbourhood or employment Change (TBC): Changes in the area based partially on the travel choices people make, done amenities that area provides for of their own free will, without their given travel preferences. outside coercion or regulation.

Walking and cycling literature review Final Report 3 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

Why don’t people walk or cycle more for day-to- day trip purposes? What can a government do to increase such walking and cycling? This report presents the findings from an extensive literature review aiming to help professionals and researchers in the State of Victoria understand barriers to walking and cycling as well as infrastructure and policy supports for non-motorized transportation. The research team located almost 500 articles, papers, and reports assessing walking and , policies, programs, and models. We reviewed over 300 of them—those judged to be most relevant to the questions raised by the Walking and Cycling Branch of the Department of Infrastructure and rigorous in terms of their analysis and ability to draw robust conclusions.

4 WALKING AND CYCLING perceptions about small WALKING SPECIFIC or low traffic streets to provide COMMON THEMES interventions increase levels of FINDINGS options for getting to major walking and cycling at a destinations. The bottom line • Combined factors: Urban population level. This is • Walking vs. physical activity: then is, once environments are environments with high levels of particularly the case for walking. Recent U.S. literature from adequate it may be better to walking and cycling typically public health has focused on the spend funds on programming • Focusing on robust results: represent a combination of built environment, walking, and around perceptions rather than There are many studies that many factors that help promote total physical activity. The results greatly improving the have significant findings not these modes of travel. The most are mixed or weak in terms of environment, however, much backed up by other studies. If compelling argument, increasing total physical activity more research is needed and we researchers study enough particularly for cycling, is that through environmental only state this to show the variables, run enough only via an integrated range of interventions. The results for complexity of the tradeoffs and regressions, and have enough environmental features travel walking, the focus of the factors involved. The perceptions observations they will uncover (including infrastructure and walking part of this literature of parents about the safety of significant findings.A t the 95 facility improvements), pricing review, are stronger and more children is an important issue that percent confidence level, 5 policies, or education programs positive. has not been adequately dealt will substantive changes result. percent of findings will be •Perceptions: Some studies find with in the literature; but it may This is what has been occurring significant by chance. Some perceptions of the environment well be that fear of stranger in the Netherlands, , findings are significant but the are important associations with danger outweighs fear of traffic and parts of Germany for effects are very small. We walking for transportation; safety related to infrastructure. decades (Pucher and Buehler addressed this issue by carefully however, there is frequently little 2008). attending to the specific type of • Distance: People will walk further Non-Motorized Travel (NMT), the association between perception than the 400 meters or one • Small interventions and population, and the context, and and reality (objective quarter mile that had been perceptions: The conclusion paying most regard to variables environment). That is, increasing proposed anecdotally as a common to most studies is that found to be significant across infrastructure provision may not maximum walking distance, e.g., small infrastructure interventions multiple studies, detailing this in affect the perception of that average distances over 600 (micro-factors) have small or Appendix A. provision. In areas where meters to transit in Singapore little effect on overall levels of infrastructure and community (Olszewski and Wibowo 2005), walking and cycling. An design reach adequate levels, and 40 percent of transit users exception to this finding is where education and programming to living more than 300 meters gaps in the existing system are change how people think and airline distance from a stop in being remedied. However, small feel about the environment may Toronto (Alshalalfah and Shalaby. interventions often affect be important. By adequate levels 2007). Distance, however, is a people’s perception of pleasant of pedestrian infrastructure and real barrier for travel walking. walking or cycling environments design, we mean development is which has positive outcomes. It intense enough so that distances • Carrots: The U.S. literature is should be emphasized, between destinations are not too interested in carrots—can one however, that it is an open great, the street system allows make environments so attractive question whether these positive fairly direct pedestrian routes, that people walk or cycle? Here and there are enough sidewalks studies have mixed findings but

Walking and cycling literature review Final Report 5 Summary of Findings

community design features such design to support such transit, which facility is best. For The findings of the report are as density and street pattern, or can likely increase walking. example, bicycle lanes are gleaned from and supported by a linkages to transit, may have typically not recommended on literature matrix in Appendix A, CYCLING SPECIFIC more effect on travel walking residential streets, where they distilling the literature reviewed in FINDINGS than pedestrian infrastructure, cannot be maintained, or where terms of the following topics: amenities, and general • Distance: Cyclists are willing to “no parking” regulations are • Mode: bicycle, pedestrian, or aesthetics. Findings about travel longer distances than frequently violated. both sidewalks are mixed. pedestrians, though there • Populations: Those who stand remains a decline in cycling, • Type of intervention or • Sticks: Sticks approaches seem to benefit most from the generally, after four kilometers environmental feature to be effective in increasing low-cost aspects of cycling are or so. This distance varies addresses: community design, overall levels of walking—making the young, the elderly, and the dramatically depending on trip infrastructure, mode choice, alternatives to walking very economically disadvantaged. purpose. Entertainment, modelling, programming unattractive and/or expensive. These groups may also be most recreation, and fitness trips can These sticks include increasing in need of separated bicycle • Literature type: peer reviewed, reach 30 to 40 kilometers, while the price and difficulty of driving facilities and other measures to conference paper, report by work and shopping trips and parking. increase sense of safety. Yet, agency, book, or other typically fall within 10 the primary groups of cyclists in • Populations: Certain populations kilometers. Based on findings • Approach: intervention, Australia and the U.S. do not fit may be more sensitive to issues from other successful cycling cross-sectional, etc. into these categories. of high pricing of driving or environments, there is a strong • Place or density: big city, parking or more positive about market for trips less than 2.5 • Bicycle loan programs: suburban, ex-urban, rural, etc. the incidental benefits of walking kilometers. Research on these programs is for , social interaction, scant and has shown few • Sample: who, where, when, • Separated Bicycle Facilities mental health, and such. They successes. However, a crop of how collected, how many (SBFs): separated bicycle may also be more likely to live new, technologically-advanced facilities such as off-road paths • Outcome variables, that is type close to jobs, educational systems has received much are not necessarily safer, of walking and/or cycling institutions, shops, and other attention in the popular press particularly at intersections with examined transportation destinations. They and may prove successful at vehicular traffic.H owever, they value convenience and increasing cycling and/or are perceived as being safer accessibility. These populations reducing Vehicle Miles Travel which may help less confident include: students, low-income (VMT). cyclists make the decision to people, and households without ride a bicycle and may • Transit: Many bus, tram, and children. ultimately lead to higher levels train systems allow bicycles • Transitation: In the U.S and likely of ridership. on-board or provide attached in Australia, a major reason for bicycle racks. However, when • On-street facilities: On-street walking in urban areas, is integrating these two modes, bicycle lanes, wide curb lanes, walking to and from transit the emphasis is often placed on and other non-intersection (Besser and Dannenberg 2005; improving access and safe specific treatments may be Agrawal and Schimek 2007). parking at transit stops and safer in high trafficked areas Besser and Dannenberg (2005, stations. This is due to findings and intersections than 273) find that “Americans who that suggest destinations are separated bicycle facilities and use transit spend a median of 19 usually within walking distance are also much cheaper to minutes daily walking to and of the egress point and bicycles install. Within this category of from transit.” Better transit, are therefore less necessary for facilities, it is case specific over including community or urban this segment of the trip.

6 KEY SUMMARY POINTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 3.1 Community or urban design comfort in navigating them. including gross population density, 3.8 Bicycle loan programs may We summarize the general findings by breaking down the range of street pattern, and accessible have an impact in or close to strategies or policy levers that were studied into a handful of categories, destinations are important in urban core areas, where they are along with a category labelled, “combined.” Based on convergence of creating a walkable environment. findings from the literature, we summarize the efficacy of various usually available, though scant strategies for the two modes differently in Table 1. Dark shading 3.2 While distance is very evaluation precludes any represents features that are very important, lighter grey represents those important for pedestrians, on conclusions at this point. of lesser importance, and no shading represents no reliable evaluations. average they will walk further than 4.1 Planners should not For walking, community design and the use of multiple strategies is the anecdotal rule of thumb of underestimate the important role paramount. For cycling, the presence of mode specific infrastructure is 400 meters used in many planning that predetermined preferences most important, combined with the use of multiple strategies. applications. and lifestyles play in understanding 3.3 The relationship between rates of NMT. In some pedestrian infrastructure environments and for some Table 1: Schematic showing the efficacy of different categories of policy levels (particularly sidewalks) and populations, preferences may walking is complicated. There are undermine the role that other Strategy Walking Cycling many reasons to provide such initiatives—programming or Community design facilities and, if designed to be infrastructure—may have. adequate for such motorized 5.1 NMT planning efforts could be Infrastructure presence Matters more equipment as gophers and for children substantially enhanced with Segways, they will likely be greater information about NMT Infrastructure of high quality adequate for pedestrians. (e.g., wide, tree-lined sidewalks travel; this includes data collection throughout) 3.4 Perception of infrastructure is efforts specifically geared toward Programming important in walking but it is not better understanding the range, clearly related to actual provision. purpose, and impediments for Pricing and convenience That is, providing more walking and bicycling. Combined strategies infrastructure may not in itself 5.2 To best understand NMT change perceptions. It is important travel, analysts require relatively Implications for each broad topic are listed at the end of each section to understand better how small geographical units of and also summarised below. They are numbered by section e.g. point marketing and educational analysis and detailed data about 1.1 is the first point in section 1. programs can be used to to such environments (e.g., modify people’s perceptions 1.1 Interventions for walking and cycling need to be considered destinations as well as networks). separately as the modes have distinctly different characteristics and of walkability. infrastructure needs. 3.5 Separated bicycle facilities are 1.2 Fully understanding NMT is an extremely complex endeavour that particularly troublesome in requires the analyst to wade through muddied waters and to consider intersections involving automobile multiple reasons for use and multiple outcome measures. traffic and do not necessarily appear to be safer. 2.1 Pricing factors are tremendously important for spurring NMT. Auto and fuel taxation and parking are two factors that stand out. If motorized 3.6 Separated bicycle facilities and transportation is more expensive, people may well shift to non-motorized related treatments lead to the modes though they may also merely travel less or take transit. perception of increased safety on behalf of the many cyclists. 2.2 The effect of education or other programs could be important, but more detailed and longer-term follow up evaluation is required in order to 3.7 Intersections are critical pinch fully ascertain the benefits of such, particularly as it relates to NMT. points for cyclists and detailed treatments increase cyclists’

Walking and cycling literature review Final Report 7 SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION

8 POLICY MOTIVATIONS central component, or at least an utilitarian travel) suggests there are • Studies that demonstrate high AND CENTRAL additional justification, for their different emphases or findings quality with refereed articles QUESTIONS favoured designs (Forsyth et al. than if we were to focus on preferred. 2007a). recreational travel as well. The State of Victoria, much like • Such works typically comprise other areas across the globe, has There remain however, many In the main report we synthesize empirical studies with strong been wresting with concerns of questions about which factors findings from available literature in data and research methods or increasing , lead to walking and cycling at the a thematic manner that is more systematic reviews of such depleting non-renewable individual, interpersonal, easily understood than simply studies. resources, the threat of global environmental, and policy levels. recounting batteries of studies. Tier 2 studies are relevant to warming, increasing , and This report examines existing The main body of this report is concerns of the Department of decreasing quality of life. The literature to better understand therefore a higher level Transport and have characteristics automobile is often targeted as a how specific soft (non-physical) or assessment, focusing on findings that demonstrate quality and/or primary culprit for such problems hard (physical) measures influence that converge from a number of relevance. They include reports (Forsyth et al. 2007a). Many fields walking or cycling travel studies and placing the literature in from reputable organizations and are grappling with these issues. behaviour. It is prepared for the context. The companion literature some conference papers. These Non-motorized travel (NMT), Department of Transport (formerly matrix in Appendix A provides an may include work based on an particularly walking and cycling, the Department of Infrastructure) overview of the literature on assessment of a significant seem to provide potential in Victoria, Australia, and is to be walking and cycling, summarizing infrastructure design, other solutions. used by infrastructure over 300 specific studies out of development experience or best professionals and researchers for almost 500 relevant studies that practices. While some Tier 2 Some professions, such as traffic three purposes: we located addressing dimensions studies are referred to in the report engineering and urban design, of NMT that are relevant to the (a) to wade through the existing (and are included in the have been planning for various concerns of the Department of knowledge base related to bibliography at the end), only Tier forms of NMT for some time. Transport. In order to conduct the NMT, 1 studies appear in Appendix A. Others are relative newcomers, for literature review we searched example, the recent interest in (b) to identify plausible several major transportation, The literature review is active transportation from the area interventions, and urban planning, and health international but includes only of public health. Some see NMT databases including TRIS online literature in English. In addition, as creating problems that must be (c) to target future research and Medline. We conducted an there are many parts of the world addressed; for example, safety directions. internet search for reports with interesting interventions—for conflicts between motorists, While walking and cycling for published by government, example parts of Europe and Latin cyclists, and pedestrians. Others recreation are important activities, advocacy or other organizations. America—but little rigorous see NMT as a potential solution to the focus in this report is on active Krizek and Forsyth then classified evaluation of such. As this review environmental and public health and derived travel, that is, the the entire list into two tiers of is of studies that included problems. Urban designers and travel individuals do by walking or studies. evaluation rather than description, many activists regard NMT as part cycling to engage in activities in these interventions are under- of a vibrant, vital, and human- Articles that are summarized in other places—work, recreation, represented. scaled public realm. Trails Appendix A are classified as Tier 1 shopping, health services (as advocates, those from parks and and those we list in the opposed to travel for the sake of recreation fields, and proponents bibliography but do not summarize travel such as a walk around the of and complete are called Tier 2. Tier 1 studies park). The focus on derived travel streets see NMT as either a have the following characteristics. (sometimes referred to as

Walking and cycling literature review Final Report 9 SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION

STUDYING MUDDIED (the sample), the environment or WATER context (central city versus Figure 1: Factors Affecting NMT Use suburban versus rural), the The body of research on walking number of control variables and bicycling, while relatively new, employed, the devices or survey Complex Policy Implications Direct Policy Relevance can be nuanced and complex. instrument used to measure the Consider for example, the multiple outcome measure, the analysis ways in which one particular study e.g., Soft measures strategies employed, the – Weather could measure walking for e.g., emphasis on discerning – Topography – Pricing transportation: number of trips, “transportation” related travel – Social responsibilities – Education/programming total distance of trips, minutes versus “recreational” related travel, spent walking, trips over 10 etc. This report focuses primarily Hard measures minutes, percentage of total trips, on walking and cycling for e.g., purpose of trips, etc. And this is transportation, however, a – Infrastructure – Community design just a few of the ways that walking non-motorized “trip” may combine for transportation has been – Crossing treatments travel with exercise or leisure – Bicycle loan programs measured! What happens when (Forsyth et al. 2007a). cycling is also thrown into the fray? The waters become muddied very DECISION TO WALK OR quickly, resulting in situations BIKE: MOTIVATIONS AND where findings from one study BARRIERS NMT is susceptible to several factors that are easily overcome by appear to contradict the results The decision to walk or bicycle is motorized travel but that require complicated policy and infrastructure from another. ultimately a behavioural one. responses to make non-motorized transportation attractive: Similarly, there is enormous variety Individuals only engage in the • Climate and topography: Rain, cold, and slopes pose challenges for of potential pedestrian and bicycle activity once several criteria are NMT; the latter is particularly an issue for cycling (Bergstrom and improvements that may be used satisfied.F or NMT, a typical Magnusson 2003). Scarf and Grehan (2005, 919) analysed the role of alone or in combination with each thought process for such can be hilliness in cycle travel time and found that “1 m of vertical travel on a other and with urban design broken down into three parts: bicycle can be considered to be equivalent to approximately 8 m of strategies. These include initial considerations, route horizontal travel.” Rainy (or dark) conditions affect users’ perceptions infrastructure: paths (sidewalks or considerations, and destination of the safety of travel. Cold or wet conditions affect one’s personal sidewalks, bicycle or multi-use related considerations. To satisfy comfort level while travelling. Clothing and umbrellas can moderate trails, on-street bicycle lanes), each of these, several factors these effects, programming and education may alter perceptions of crossings (signalised, striped, stand in the way. In most these features, some physical infrastructure such as up-hill cycle lanes coloured, underpasses, developed communities across can lessen the burden, and transit can provide a means of avoiding overpasses, refuges), specialized the globe (outside select areas in them temporarily through motorized transportation without using streets (pedestrian malls, shared Northern Europe), there are more personal vehicles. However, they are complex issues to address. streets), intermodal connections reasons not to walk or bicycle than • Speed and distance: NMT is also limited in speed and distance—an (bus shelters, train stations, there are to walk or bicycle. Like issue in rural areas and for those wishing to access many parts of a bicycle parking areas), and many aspects of human metropolitan area. destination level facilities (change behaviour, pinning down reasons areas, bicycle repair). However to explain NMT travel behaviour is • Carrying things: Carrying parcels or passengers is also more difficult they also include more general fraught with difficulty.1 for pedestrians and cyclists. While children can walk or cycle, they are community or urban design, Impediments to NMT generally even slower than adults and need more attention than when strapped policies, programs, marketing, and divide themselves along two into a seat (Forsyth et al. 2007a). information. tracks: complex policy relevant For example, “Although well-connected streets, small city blocks, mixed In addition, even if studies are factors and direct policy relevant land uses, and close proximity to retail activities were shown to induce examining similar behaviours factors. Each is briefly described in non-motorized transport, various exogenous factors, such as (outcome measures, dependant turn below and examined in more topography, darkness and rainfall, had far stronger influences” (Cervero variables), they might differ detail later in the report. and Duncan 2003, 1482). Factors that are more directly affected by radically in the population studied

1There is a reason, after all, that in most studies aiming to predict various dimensions of travel behaviour, more than 70 percent of the variation in the data goes unexplained (e.g., that is, an R2 of less than 3).

10 policy changes in areas of Figure 2: Key Differences Between Walking and Cycling relevance in planning and engineering come in two forms— Dimension Specific to walking Specific to cycling Key differences soft and hard measures. Research Participants Almost everyone except some There are at least 3 different Cyclists demand more examining the efficacy of these with mobility impairments. types of cyclists: A specific environments, factors is reviewed for this report. (Advanced), B (Basic), and C depending on participants or (Children) purpose; also require more Soft measures are non-physical physical skills (e.g., balance). such as pricing of alternative Range/scale Mostly up to a mile (1.6 km) in Local and regional cycling. Cyclists travel much further. modes and education. Some length. The average trip length The average trip length is 4 involve relatively complex in the U.S. is 1.2 miles (1.93 miles (6.44 km) and 57% of information exchanges between km); between 47% and 60% of cycling trips are less than 2 peers, for example sharing walking trips are less than 0.5 miles (3.22 km). information with a co-worker miles (0.8 km). Recreation/ work trips tend to be longer. about bicycle routes to work (Krizek et al. 2007b). Hard Speed Depends on the purpose of Usually range from 8 mph Cyclists travel much faster. trip; ranging from 1 mph (1.6 (12.9 km/h) to 20 mph (32 measures are physical— km/h) (dawdling) to top speeds km/h). development patterns, street around 4-5 mph (6.44-8 km/h) layout, bicycle lanes, foot paths, for more active walking. intersections, bicycle parking, and Infrastructure Infrastructure requirements for Can share roads with Cyclists require more so on. safe use include sidewalks (or though with safety issues; infrastructure at destinations paths, esp. for children). lanes and paths are options; DIFFERENCES BETWEEN However, exemplary pedestrian need infrastructure at WALKING AND CYCLING environments may also contain destinations (parking, attractive streetscaping. showers) While both walking and cycling are non-motorized—along with such Infrastructure Local land use planners, and Engineers and transportation Responsibility does not planning transportation planners; also planners responsible for always coincide, making modes as animal-powered responsibility considered in subdivision on-road infrastructure; parks coordination more difficult. carts—they are significantly layout and urban design. and recreation planners for different. It is useful to consider off-road. them together when advocating Trip purpose Transportation (including In the U.S., a clear majority of Cycling primarily viewed as a for additional attention to non- accessing other modes, e.g., bicycle trips are related to recreational activity, at least motorized travel. However, when parked cars, transit) and for exercise, health or recreation; predominantly in the U.S. designing policy responses, the recreation travel cycling for transportation often plays a stronger role in differences between them are many other cultural settings. important as is explained in Figure 2 (Krizek et al. 2007b; Forsyth et Safety concerns Crime (real and perceived); Safety from traffic, particularly Pedestrians are concerned safety from traffic at crossings in narrow streets and at about avoiding areas of high al. 2007a). Future research and and on streets without intersections with roads. crime; bicyclists’ prominent practice are likely to consider sidewalks. safety concern often stems walking and cycling independently; from automobile traffic. the initial charge for this literature Key barriers Distance or perceived Distance. Safety from traffic. review separately outlined the distance? Safety from crime or Cost of equipment? learning outcomes for walking and traffic. cycling and we underscore this as Interface with Mainly at intersections, but also Bicycles are often perceived Cyclists often perceived to important (Forsyth et al. 2007a). automobiles any locale without sidewalks. as unwanted distractions in be competing for limited existing roadway space; roadway space with conflicts also occur where automobile drivers. trails intersect with streets. Interface with Focus on the area around bus Require front racks or other Cyclists are more cost transit or LRT stops to make them means to accommodate prohibitive to account for. pedestrian accessible and bicycles. Requires parking at attractive for walkers. transit stops. Table source: Adapted from Forsyth et al., 2007a. Original sources for table: Oregon Department of Transportation (1995); Forester (1994); Zegeer (1998); Statistics from U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration and U.S. Bureau of Transportation. (2002); Bureau of Transportation Statistics (2003). Note: Distances and speeds in blue converted by DOT.

Walking and cycling literature review Final Report 11 SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION

As is explained in Figure 2, most monitored by parents (Krizek et al. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR INCREASED people walk, and most are 2007b). In each case the presence WALKING OR CYCLING sensitive to distance. Route choice of cars provides safety concerns options serve to enhance safety, and/or causes cyclists to avoid Increased use of NMT requires behavioural change—change that interest, and the ability to stop off roads. But, it is critical to theoretically results from a combination of soft and/or hard measures, in at multiple destinations on the understand that, relative to addition to complex policy relevant factors. The interventions from hard same route (Hess et al. 1999; pedestrians, there is much wider measures mostly require changes to the built environment—changes that Humpel et al. 2004a, 2004b; variation in how different types of would increase the access, attractiveness, safety, comfort, and security Forsyth et al. 2007b). For many cyclists respond to different types of NMT. Additionally, they may stimulate changes in perceptions, years urban designers dominated of infrastructure treatments. attitudes, and other psychological factors similar to those anticipated by this literature with transportation soft measures (Krizek et al. 2007b). When directly comparing the planners only addressing the differences between walking and Increased walking and cycling may (a) replace motorized trips, (b) be new, pedestrian environment in passing cycling, it becomes apparent that or (c) be longer. In the longer term this may lead to secondary effects (Gehl 1987; Jacobs 1993; Zegeer the two modes are often more such as changed individual car ownership or community-scale reductions 1995). different than they are similar. in traffic congestion (Krizeket al. 2007b). Many such secondary effects By contrast, far fewer people cycle Therefore, efforts to account for have been identified and include better air quality, improved health, and than walk. Cyclists can move NMT in future planning liveable (Figure 3). Some of these secondary benefits have complex further and at greater speeds than applications often need to use causes and the exact contribution of non-motorized transportation is pedestrians, resulting in the need different strategies as the difficult to assess. Such complexity is also the case for issues like traffic for cycling facilities to be longer. infrastructure requirements and congestion and obesity (Krizek et al. 2007b). Overall, it is crucial to assess Cycles are legally considered environmental supports for each actual effects rather than assuming that effects are significant and in the vehicles in many areas and cycling vary too much. expected direction. requires equipment to conduct the activity and to park at the beginning and end of each trip Figure 3. Typical Conceptual Framework (Forsyth et al. 2007a). While there are different types of pedestrians, cyclists have been commonly Primary effects Secondary effects classified into three classes—a Individual critically important point if one is to characteristics Individual level Individual level Longer term impacts fully understand the merits of shorter term impacts longer term impacts at the community level different infrastructure treatments. Interpersonal • Increased levels of • Decreased auto • Induced development Class A cyclists are experienced characteristics walking/ cycling ownership – Changes in land use and are happy to operate on – New latent walking • Increased transit use – Changes in urban cycling for same design collector or arterial streets. Class B • Increased housing purpose as before • Enhanced public cyclists include adults or Physical affordability – New latent walking health & decreased teenagers who ride more environment cycling trips for new • Increased quality characteristics health care costs occasionally and have less purposes of life • Reduced congestion confidence in traffic. Class C – Mode shifts (e.g., from cyclists include children, the car to bike) • Reduced pollution Non-motorized – Longer walking cycling elderly, or other inexperienced • Enhanced transportation trips environmental populations who either do not ride interventions Stewardship on roads or where such activity is – “soft” measures – “hard” measures • Enhanced livability

Source: Krizek et al. 2007b.

12 Summary 1.1 Interventions for walking and cycling need to be considered What Victoria has done separately as the modes have distinctly different characteristics The Victorian Government has a number of strategic documents that and infrastructure needs. provide a future vision, information and resources for NMT. Three key documents articulate the future of transport planning and policy in 1.2 Fully understanding NMT is Victoria. Melbourne 2030 is a land use and transport plan for the an extremely complex metropolitan area which focuses on growth and endeavour that requires the (Department of Infrastructure 2002). The Linking Melbourne: analyst to wade through Metropolitan Transport Plan integrates the principles of Melbourne 2030 muddied waters and to consider and focuses on four key issues as they relate to transport: safety, multiple reasons for use and congestion, population growth and economic growth (Department of multiple outcome measures. Infrastructure 2004). In 2006, Meeting our Transport Challenges was released, providing a 25-year framework designed to shape transport planning across Victoria, integrating strategies from the two plans (Department of Premier and Cabinet 2006). In addition there are a number of surveys and programs. These include: Surveys • Victorian Activities and Travel Survey (VATS) – travel surveys were conducted throughout Melbourne from 1994 to 1999 (ABS, 2000). • Victorian Integrated Survey of Travel and Activities (VISTA) – travel survey results to be released in 2009 (Department of Transport). Programs • TravelSmart – a travel behaviour change (TBC) program that operates through grants, policy support and programs targeting municipal governments, workplaces, schools, and communities (Department of Infrastructure 2007b; 2007c). • Local Area Access Program (LAAP) – grants that support a range of small-scale infrastructure projects aimed at demonstrating the benefits of improved access at the local level. • Walking and Cycling Infrastructure Program, delivered by VicRoads.

Walking and cycling literature review Final Report 13 SECTION 2: SOFT MEASURES: PRICING, PROGRAMMING, AND EDUCATION

14 PRICING: THE LOW COST largely from public policy association with weekly travel While this literature review was not OF DRIVING/PARKING differences, especially from walking and total walking tasked with the responsibility of differences in automobile taxation measured by survey (Rodriguez et focusing on these dimensions, it is In any effort to learn about NMT, it (see Pucher 1988, for example, al. 2007). Other factors with either necessary to understand the is critically important to for differences between Western no or very weak associations strong influence pricing factors— understand the broader context of Europe and North America). included several measures of broadly defined—have in affecting relative pricing in choices among Furthermore, increases in gas transit access (perceived and mode choice. different modes and, for cycling, taxes are seen as an equitable measured): sidewalks (perceived PROGRAMS AND the availability of vehicles (i.e., and cost efficient strategy in and measured), bicycle paths, and EDUCATION OR SOCIAL bicycles). Furthermore, pricing striving for a more balanced crosswalks, perceived traffic, and MARKETING EFFORTS considerations are not limited to transportation system (Wachs perceptions of many destinations. the strict monetary costs but are 2003). Other instances come from the Programs and education efforts also related to the convenience, urban design experiments come in many different forms, parking, and duration of a trip. For the latter, the strongest—and correlating gradual decreases in ranging from formal to informal, most direct—policy lever to spur parking availability, such as in personalized journey planning to In many developed countries— NMT comes in the form of parking Copenhagen, with a general blanket promotional material. especially the U.S. and Australia— policies for automobiles. In the upturn in pedestrian activity. Many programs focus on the it is well documented that auto U.S., it is estimated that 99 concept of voluntary travel users, on average, pay less for percent of all car trips begin and Finally, as we report below, many behaviour change (TBC), which mobility privileges than other end at a parking space that is free studies find that people with low involves people making choices to modes of transport. The most to the driver (Shoup 2005)—a incomes walk more for change their travel behaviour of notable examples of car use factor that goes a long way when transportation indicating that their own free will without outside subsidization come in the form of one considers the overall costs pricing considerations are likely at coercion or regulation. Examples the financing for roadways, and benefits of a walking or work. For example, Van Lenthe et include: marketing programs, parking, and extremely low fuel cycling trip. Not only does ample al. (2005, 763) drew on a survey of walking clubs, or school-based taxes. Leveraging policies to affect and free parking provide an easy 8,767 adults in the Netherlands programs. Some efforts work with these dimensions promotes a excuse for auto travel, vast and found that “compared to individuals or households to more level playing field where auto parking areas are also the bane of those living in the most understand their personal travel users assume a larger share of the pedestrian travel. Various advantaged neighbourhoods, needs and make them aware of costs for the (e.g., examples are well documented residents living in the quartile of feasible or even attractive NMT pollutants) they generate. where the marginal cost of socioeconomically most travel options of which they were parking has been internalized to disadvantaged neighbourhoods Two pricing factors that are previously unaware. General the users, thereby resulting in were more likely to walk or cycle to extremely influential, large scale, efforts of these sorts go by various higher rates of non-auto use shops or work, but less likely to and directly affected by policy names such as travel blending, (Shoup 2005). A pooled study of walk, cycle or garden in leisure include the costs or taxes travel smart, or personalized travel almost 900 people in Minnesota time and less likely to participate in assessed for auto travel (in the planning. The central theme in and Maryland, controlling for a sports activities (adjusted for age, form of petrol) and the costs these efforts is that certain variety of socioeconomic factors, sex and individual educational associated with parking. For the populations could benefit from found the perception of parking level).” Agrawal and Schimek’s former, it is well documented that either additional motivation or difficulty was the strongest (2007) work with a nationwide variations in travel behaviour arise support or the appropriate survey of 26,000 people in the information to engage in higher U.S. arrived at similar conclusions. levels of NMT.

Walking and cycling literature review Final Report 15 SECTION 2 Soft measuress

The direct effect of such programs follow-up periods are typically people and reported a significant on NMT, however, is relatively months rather than years (e.g., increase in people observed unclear because many of these Ball et al. 2005; Goulias et al. walking. Ogilvie et al. (2004), efforts are also geared toward less 2002). Some merely measure at based on a literature review, auto travel (in terms of distance) the end of the intervention (Clarke estimate such targeted campaigns and more transit use, and are not et al. 2007; Dinger et al. 2005; can shift 5 percent of trips though centred on walking or cycling. Haines et al. 2007). Others find no it is not clear over what period. Other programs focus on significant changes compared Ultimately, more research is increasing transportation walking with controls (e.g., Brownson et al. needed to determine how useful for the health benefits it provides. 2005) or comparing minimal “soft” programs are in the long These programs typically come versus more sophisticated term. We imagine they may be from the public health field and interventions (Chen et al. 1998). most successful when combined often target specific populations, In terms of cycling, Merom et al. with other strategies such as such as school children or rural (2003) surveyed 450 adults who increased transit services, and populations. owned bicycles, interviewing them increased pricing of driving and Nonetheless, some evaluation by phone both before and after a parking. work has been completed. The promotional campaign advertising little research conducted on the opening of a bicycle trail in non-infrastructure-based school western . They found a programs has found some positive slight increase in awareness and results, though methodological an increase in cycling time for and other factors may temper those close to the trail (within 1.5 some of these findings (Staunton kilometers), but in terms of overall et al. 2003). Oliver et al. (2006) physical activity this was more reported on an intervention that than offset by a decrease in included a four-week elementary walking. Overall cycling did not Summary school curriculum in New Zealand; increase because of the trail 2.1 Pricing factors are there was no significant effect on although one subgroup—those tremendously important for the whole sample but the most from a non-English speaking spurring NMT. Auto and fuel sedentary children did increase background living close to the taxation and parking are their number of steps. trail—did increase cycling time two factors that stand out. If mainly due to a few participants Research on adults is more mixed motorized transportation is more using the trail to commute to work and has tended to focus on expensive, people may well (p. 239). walking rather than cycling. These shift to non-motorized modes programs are typically designed However, Mutrie et al. (2002) though they may also merely by the researchers for a specific found a significant change in the travel less or take transit. set of participants and use numbers of participants actively 2.2 The effect of education informational materials, phone to work by walking 12 or other programs could be calls, and in-person meetings to months after receiving an important, but more detailed and encourage increased physical information packet in a work- longer-term follow-up evaluation activity. Most of these programs based program aimed at people is required in order to fully do not distinguish between trip who had irregularly commuted; ascertain the benefits of such, purposes, meaning transportation cycling did not change. Reger et particularly as it relates to NMT. trips are not explicitly identified. al. (2002) in a paid media and Some find modest but significant public-relations based intervention behaviour changes although focused on sedentary older

16 SECTION 3: HARD MEASURES: COMMUNITY AND INFRASTRUCTURE DESIGN

Walking and cycling literature review Final Report 17 SECTION 3 Hard Measures

COMMUNITY DESIGN More recently, Lee and Moudon things and directness of routes. A walking? Can accessible (2006b) asked 438 respondents in review of national data based on a destinations be increased by Community design refers to the Seattle about the last week of one day travel diary filled out by increasing development intensity location and type of different land walking “(a) to work, (b) to school, 26,000 households, found 8.7 and if that is done, will more uses, the overall street pattern (c) to grocery stores, (d) to other percent of trips were walk-only people walk to them? (grid versus cul-de-sac), and the retail or service facilities, and (e) for and almost all the 2 percent of For children, the perceptions of intensity of development. Nearly all recreation or exercise” (2006b, transit trips started with a walk their parents about such issues as literature from this line of research S81). After analyzing dozens of trip. However, 35 percent of traffic safety and stranger danger focuses on the extent to which environmental variables using GIS respondents did not report are such strong mediators that the such characteristics result in less they proposed several variables walking at all that day. For those relationship between overall auto use. However, heightened that facilitate walking, for leisure that did, the median trip was only community or urban design and levels of NMT may not always or travel. Travel walking, measured 0.25 miles (402 meters) but the their walking is a complicated one. be accompanied by lower auto as any walking vs. non-walking or average walk trip was 0.62 miles However perceived distance, use; NMT may complement auto frequent walking versus non- (998 meters) and 23 percent of which is related to community travel rather than substitute. Or, walking, was associated with walk trips were over one mile or design, emerges as the key barrier lower levels of auto use may be distances to office and mixed use 1609 meters. Approximately 20 to children walking to school in consumed by transit trips. In center, restaurants, bank, post percent of trips were to and from several studies (Black et al. 2001; addition, most studies combine office, and grocery store; along recreation or for recreation and CDC 2005). More work, however, walking and cycling, thereby with slope, parcel density, and those with higher educations were has focused on infrastructure and masking the true impact for any area density (Lee and Moudon much more likely to take such education interventions and we one mode. 2006b, s88, s93). Sidewalks were trips, confirming other research deal with that below. Where research has explicitly not significant. In another study, (Agrawal and Schimek 2007). studied walking and/or cycling, it Forsyth et al. (2007b, 2008) Agrawal and Schimek found Cycling findings has typically aimed to tease out measured dozens of density, land utilitarian walking increased with Tenets of community design are the impact of one or more specific use, street pattern, and very high population densities often implicit in many bicycling factors, such as the distance to infrastructure characteristics in a (25,000 people per square mile related initiatives because cycling various establishments (such study of 715 people in Minnesota. measured at the census block has been shown to be highly as retail) or measures of density They found associations between group level, or 97/ha), zero attractive for short distance trips. (which are basically proxies for travel walking, measured via ownership, the lowest incomes, After all, unless common and one another). survey and travel diary, and and higher educational levels. attractive origins and destinations various measures of population These findings are echoed by are brought together within Walking findings density and connected street those such as Olszewski and feasible distances—a feature of patterns, sidewalks, social land Adults: Many studies show Wibowo (2005) who found similar community design—such trips uses (such as libraries, day care, community design is important for average walking distances of over would likely not be realized. Two clinics, theaters, sports areas, adult travel walking including 600 meters to transit in Singapore outstanding questions are: (1) is recreational facilities, and houses street pattern, density, and mixed and Alshalalfah and Shalaby there currently a large enough of worship), and and graffiti use or destinations (infrastructure (2007) who found more than 40 market of relatively short haul trips measured via observations. It is dealt with in the next section). percent of transit-riders in Toronto between common origins and should be noted however, that However, studies contradict each lived more than 300 meters airline destinations to make a difference these and other similar studies other. For example, an early study distance from transit (likely at least (i.e., is the existing urban form/ measure dozens of variables and by Cervero and Duncan using 400 meters on the street network). community design compatible for find only a few to be significant. two-day travel diaries and a It is apparent that some people will such), and (2) how close is close number of GIS-based measures Overall, density, street pattern, walk far further than the anecdotal enough for people to want to walk focused on the built environment and destinations seem to be cut off of 400 meters often cited in or cycle? found only land use mix at the identified in many studies. These planning studies. The issue is, are Bicyclists are willing to travel much origin was statistically significant in relate closely to distance as they these walkers already doing it, or longer distances than pedestrians, a model predicting walk trips are measures of the closeness of is there a market for increasing under five miles (2003, 1401). largely due to higher average

18 speeds attainable by bicycle. At 10 kilometers (6.2 miles). Trip Walking findings demographic features supportive the same time, however, distance purpose is an important factor in of walking. Other studies have The big picture findings can be remains an important constraint determining the length individuals examined provision of street trees, divided by population group. in terms of bicycling use and are willing to travel by , buffering for pedestrians, the distance between common (Iacono et al. 2007). In a review Given basic provision of crosswalks, and such and have origins and destinations is a critical of studies from the Netherlands, infrastructure, adults walking mixed findings.F orsyth et al. dimension of community design. Germany and the U.K., Martens for transportation can do so if (2008) found lighting but not street For example, part of the reason (2004, 281) found that the majority given fairly basic sidewalks or trees increased travel walking in European cities have higher rates of cyclists riding to transit “travel low traffic streets to provide Minnesota. Community design of NMT use than the U.S. is that between 2 and 5 kilometers to a options for getting to major features such as high densities, average trip distances, regardless transit stop, with longer access destinations (Hoehner et al. 2005; connected street patterns, and of mode, are shorter, presumably distances reported for faster Forsyth et al. 2008). A number some types of land uses are due to denser development modes of transit.” That is, people of studies of adults have not typically more important as are patterns than many other settings. will cycle further for a regional train found general sidewalk provisions social and economic factors. A relatively high percentage of than an ordinary to be associated with travel Perception is also important; all trips in European cities are city bus. walking (e.g., Lee and Moudon some find more important shorter than 2.5 kilometers: 44 2006b, s77); others do find them INFRASTRUCTURE than the objective environment percent in the Netherlands, 37 significant (Forsyth et al. 2008) but (McGinn et al. 2007) but it is not percent in Denmark, and 41 When most people consider the findings are mixed. Sidewalks clearly related to actual provision. percent in Germany, compared efforts to induce NMT, their are likely most critical on major That is, increasing provision to 27 percent in the U.S. (Pucher thoughts turn to matters of roads as compared to residential of features such as sidewalks and Buehler 2008). These general infrastructure, specifically streets. As is noted below, if may not increase perception transportation facts yield a strong infrastructure required for walking pedestrian infrastructure is made of that provision. Studies that market for cycling trips. However, or cycling. Relative to overall adequate in network coverage, examine the correlation between as is reported below, Melbourne community layout, infrastructure size, smoothness for motorized perceptions of the environment also has short trips but not the for pedestrians can be retrofitted and such, as legal and the actual environment show same number of cyclists. in many cases with modest requirements and equity concerns little relation (McGinn et al. 2007). expense. Infrastructure for often dictate, it will likely be wide Other and more detailed cyclists is often more expensive. and even and continuous enough However, children are less dimensions of community Overall, NMT is unique in terms for pedestrians. confident dealing with cars and design are also important in of more general transportation their parents may be less willing understanding specific types of For example, Hoehner et al. (2005, infrastructure because of the to let them walk in areas without trip purpose. For example, using 105) found that after adjusting varied types of facilities on which infrastructure such as sidewalks. detailed findings from analysis of for age, sex, and education, it occurs and the need to consider Ewing et al. (2004) using travel the Twin Cities (U.S.) metropolitan walking for transportation was varied types of users. Outside of diary data found distance and area, we find that entertainment, negatively associated with freeways, almost all roadways sidewalks on main roads were recreation and fitness trips appear (measured) sidewalk levelness and neighbourhood streets are associated with walking to school to cover the greatest average but positively associated with a NMT facilities (of course some are although as in other studies distances with some trips reaching number of community design safer than others). There are NMT they found high income and 30 to 40 kilometers (18.6 to 24.8 features such as “perceived and mode specific facilities—sidewalks access to cars decreased active miles). Work trips by bicycle are objectively measured access to for walking and bicycle lanes for transportation. For example, the next longest type of trip, destinations and transit” as well as cycling. There are also combined Boarnet et al. (2005a, 2005b) with most trips falling within a “perceived access to bike lanes, facilities for NMT movement. found parents reported more range of about 20 kilometers. and objective counts of active Because of the specific nature children walked to school after Bike trips for work, shopping, or people in the neighbourhood.” of each of these types of relatively simple but publicized access to bicycle trail facility tend Perhaps older neighbourhoods infrastructure, the literature on sidewalk gap closure projects to be shorter on average, with with less level sidewalks had each type is discussed in turn. in California’s Safe Routes to the majority of trips falling within community design and socio- Schools program.

Walking and cycling literature review Final Report 19 SECTION 3 Hard Measures

A review by Dumbaugh and Frank (2007) found that while there are Figure 4: Facility types gaps in the literature, sidewalks and raised medians do decrease incidence of pedestrian crashes Shared Facilities with automobiles (but crosswalks did not). Low Type of facility Representative photograph traffic speed has been found in numerous studies to decrease accidents, or at least their severity, Roadways and neighbourhood streets so traffic calming mechanisms may also be useful. Overall, children walking to school are affected both by the distance to school and by their parents’ Sendai, Japan Canberra, Australia perceptions of safety (which may be affected by physical Traffic calming improvements such as sidewalks but also traffic volumes, the media, etc.). While some perceptions are based in important realities, others may be altered by education and programming—this includes Taree, Australia , Netherlands education for parents, for children, Shared streets and and for motorists bicycle boulevards

Stockholm, Sweden Berkeley, U.S. Wide curb lanes

Tsukuba, Japan Vallingby, Sweden On-street bicycle lanes—same direction as traffic

Davis, U.S. Atlanta, U.S.

20 Type of facility Representative photograph

On-street bicycle lanes–counterflow

London, U.K. Boulder, U.S.

Combined (shared) off-road facilities for NMT

Izumi Park Town, Japan Minneapolis, U.S.

NMT Mode specific facilities

Separated bicycle facilities

Almere, Netherlands Kista, Sweden Copenhagen bicycle lanes

Copenhagen, Denmark , Netherlands

Walking and cycling literature review Final Report 21 SECTION 3 Hard Measures

Type of facility Representative photograph

Bike boxes

Utrecht, Netherlands Portland, U.S. Footpaths or sidewalks exclusively for walking

New York, U.S. Dubbo, Australia Pedestrian only streets/paths

San Antonio , U.S. Sydney, Australia Bicycle parking/lockers

Amsterdam, Netherlands Minneapolis, U.S. Trip end facilities/stations for cycling (parking plus gear changing facilities, etc.)

Himeji, Japan , U.K.

Photographers: Ann Forsyth, Kevin Krizek, and Laura Baum.

22 CYCLING FINDINGS: A the impact of cycling-specific and infrastructure treatments. SEPARATED BICYCLING infrastructure treatments. FOCUS ON SEPARATED Separated bicycle facilities (SBFs) FACILITIES AND SAFETY Generally, discussions often BICYCLE FACILITIES (also referred to as cycle tracks, turn to the merits of physically The most common argument (SBFs) mostly in the U.K.), including separating bicycle travel from in favour of SBFs stems from sidepaths, off-street bicycle paths, Given the range of populations other modes of travel versus increased safety, which is ironic and sometimes Copenhagen (children and inexperienced to right-of-way facilities that separate since SBFs as a safety measure bicycle lanes (named after the highly skilled) and infrastructure them via painting or striping or is highly controversial and has first known city to install one), are treatments (bicycle boulevard right-of-ways with little separation. even drawn point/counter- often used to reduce interactions to on-street facilities to bicycle We therefore broadly discuss point arguments in leading between cyclists, pedestrians, only off-street paths, see Figure the literature amidst various transportation journals (Forester and motor vehicles. Part of the 4 above), it is extremely difficult considerations, draw conclusions 2001; Pucher 2001). difficulty in understanding the to arrive at similarly big picture where able, and then turn to merits of SBFs stems from the Arguments opposed to cycling conclusions, particularly regarding discussing other related matters varying definitions; generally specific infrastructure cover speaking, they are defined as several points, mostly relying on a path within the right-of-way specific empirics.F irst among designed specifically for cyclists them stems from the cost and separated physically from required for their installation—a motor vehicles. But even within cost that research cannot reliably this definition there is considerable demonstrate is worth it. The cost variation. Physical separation may figures to support such assertions be in the form of bollards, raised are not always convincing, mainly paving, medians, vehicle parking because the benefits are so or a completely different path, difficult to quantify. several meters from the road. A second argument against SBFs The best known and widespread are empirics demonstrating how examples of SBFs come from the they are not necessarily safer, Netherlands and Denmark where when considered vis-à-vis actual such facilities are commonplace crash data. Opponents point throughout many urban core areas to the fact that the majority of as well as other environments. bicycle-auto conflicts are not from Generally speaking, SBFs are cars and bicycles travelling in the usually installed with two key same direction. As information rationales: increased safety in Figure 6 suggests, the bulk (preventing conflicts and collisions of all bicycling oriented crashes between modes) and increased are derived from intersections or use. The literature related to each turning movements. Separating is introduced in turn. the modes via infrastructure, many argue, exacerbates the complexity of intersections and hence leads to additional crashes and conflicts.A good number of studies suggest this.

Figure 5: Cyclist on a “Copenhagen ” on Swanston Street, Melbourne.

Walking and cycling literature review Final Report 23 SECTION 3 Hard Measures

For example, studying driver scanning behaviour in , Figure 6: Bicycle Crashes Summala et al. (1996) found Most frequent car-bicycle crashes by age and urban versus rural that drivers making right turns Urban looked to their left more often than Child Adult their right, thus failing to notice cyclists on the adjacent bicycle 1-Cyclist running stop sign 1-Motorist turning left path. Alternatively Räsänen and 2-Cyclist exiting residential driveway 2-Traffic light changed too quickly Summala (1998) in a study of 3-Cyclist riding on sidewalk turning to exit driveway 3-Motorist turning right bicycle-motor vehicle accidents in , found that the most 4-Cyclist on sidewalk hit by motorist exiting driveway 4-Motorist restarting from stop sign common accident type involved 5-Cyclist swerving left from curb lane 5-Motorist exiting commercial drive drivers turning right and a cyclist Rural coming from the driver’s right Child Adult along a separated bicycle facility, a manoeuvre that has the cyclist 1-Cyclist exiting residential driveway 1-Motorist overtaking unseen cyclist coming from an unexpected 2-Cyclist swerving about on road 2-Motorist overtaking too closely direction. Furthermore, others 3-Cyclist swerving left 3-Motorist turning left suggest that cyclists in streets have fewer crashes. Pedler and 4-Cyclist entering road from sidewalk or shoulder 4-Motorist restarting from stop sign Davies (2000) found that those 5-Cyclist running stop sign 5-Cyclist swerving around obstruction cyclists who bicycled on the Source: adapted from Forester 1993, p. 269 (each category limited to top 5 frequencies) road had fewer interactions with motor vehicles at intersections than those who rode on the cycle tracks. However, this finding must Where safety research does not space for motorists and cyclists SEPARATED BICYCLING be taken lightly, as the skill and focus specifically on SBFs, it often to interact safely, while bicycle FACILITIES AND confidence level of cycle track addresses issues related to on- lanes of 1.22 meters (4 ft) optimize INCREASED USE cyclists was probably lower than street bicycle lanes or wide curb safety conditions. Other research that of on-road riders. In a study lanes. In these cases, the available has supported the findings that The other argument for SBFs of facility safety in and literature suggests the following. vehicle encroachment into the stems from increased bicycle Toronto, , Aultman-Hall Harkey and Stewart (1997), in adjacent lane is reduced (Hunter use, a claim equally as difficult (2000, 10) found that “the rates a study of 1,583 bicycle-motor et al. 1999a, 2005; Hallett et al. to reliably document. We of indicates it is safest per vehicle interactions in 13 locations 2006) and cyclist distance from quickly review a sample of kilometer for travel on the road, in six metropolitan areas in the the curb is increased (Hunter et studies—from the specific to followed by off-road paths/trails U.S., found that bicycle lanes had al. 2005) on streets with bicycle the more general. An inherent and then least safe on sidewalks.” the following advantages over lanes, as compared to wide curb difficulty of this research comes Similarly, Wachtel and Lewiston wide curb lanes: (1) Motorists lanes. Research focusing on when one examines detailed (1994), in a study of bicycle-motor were less likely to encroach on the riding position of the cyclist studies, particularly coming vehicle accidents in Palo Alto, the adjacent lane, (2) Motorists found that cyclists rode, on from the U.S., suggesting the California found that cyclists on had less variation in their lane average, further away from moving relationships are highly nuanced. sidewalks or bicycle paths incur a placement when passing, and (3) traffic where bicycle lanes were For example, research analysing of collision with motor vehicles Cyclists were more likely to ride present and/or wider (Hallett et 2000 census and other data that is 1.8 times as great as that further away from the edge of the al. 2006). More general trends from 43 large cities across the for roadway travel. roadway. In addition, they found related to safety are discussed in U.S. (Dill and Carr 2003) found that bicycle lanes as narrow as the section, “Separated Bicycle that the number of bicycle lanes 0.92 meters (3 ft) provide enough Facilities: The Big Picture”, below. per square mile explains a large share of the variation in bicycle

24 commuting rates. Interestingly selection trouble the ability to or paved shoulders as safer than use paths, Hummer et al. (2005) enough, however, the study arrive at reliable conclusions those without. Many psychologists found that path width, presence differentiated between on-street regarding the merits of such and researchers argue that of other users, and presence of and off-street facilities and the facilities. perceived safety is all that matters a centreline significantly affected model with only on-street facilities and this has been supported in ratings of trail experience, with But rather than simply approach was considerably more robust, some applications. both centrelines and other users the issue as one correlating suggesting that off-street facilities lowering ratings, while path width use with proximity to facilities, The closest stream of research have a small (but still significant) raised them. Studying a variety the causal mechanism may be that addresses perceived safety role. Examining city specific of intersections where cycling less direct. Increased use may comes under the banner of studies, additional factors are facilities end (discontinuities), be related to the dimension bicycle level of service (LOS) accounted for in the explanatory Krizek and Roland (2005) show discussed above, safety, but more models which aim to provide a models and thus, the reliability of that cyclists’ discomfort is related at a perceptual level for the user common rating system for facilities these findings decreases. to increased distance of crossing (rather than actual level). A logical used by cyclists. Models are intersections, having parking after Moudon et al. (2005) surveyed stream of thought emerging typically developed using data the discontinuities, and wider 608 randomly sampled from the literature runs along the from cyclists on their perceived width of the curb lane. Given that respondents in urbanized King following lines. It is asking a lot safety and comfort when riding some research indicates that County, Washington (U.S.) and for all cyclists, particularly young, in different environments. Landis SBFs lead to increased perception found that proximity to trails old, or inexperienced, to ride and colleagues have conducted of safety by a variety of users, an (separate bicycle facilities) and amidst vehicular traffic (even with a number of studies on bicycle expected outcome is increased the presence of agglomerations law abiding and highly educated LOS for different facilities—often cycling. of offices, clinics/hospitals, motorists). SBFs provide SBFs are addressed in such and fast food restaurants were increased choice. This choice may applications. Where SBFs are not The most convincing evidence significant environmental variables be attractive for select populations directly addressed, many of the showing that SBFs result in in respondents cycling at least and others, particularly from a tenets that SBFs aim to shield heightened use comes from once per week. Conversely, safety standpoint. Whereas the cyclists from (e.g., autos, fast relatively large scale studies variables that were theorized above section focused on safety moving traffic) are considered. focusing on the Netherlands, to be significant, but were not, empirics, an equally compelling Denmark, and parts of Germany. In a study describing a generalized included the presence of (on- argument is how they relate Reportedly, from the mid-1970s to urban bicycle LOS model, street) bicycle lanes, traffic speed to perceived safety (whether the mid-1990s, SBFs expanded Landis et al. (1997) highlight the and volume, slope, block size, such safety is real or perceived, greatly in all three countries. In significance of bicycle lane striping and the presence of parks. These however, is another question). Germany, the bikeway network and road condition on cyclists’ findings somewhat comport with more than doubled in length, For many, perception is reality and perceptions of safety. Landis et Krizek and Johnson (2006) who from 12,911 kilometers in in this case, SBFs usually win out. al. (2003) later found that traffic found that only close distances to 1976 to 31,236 kilometers in For example, on-street facilities volume, width of the outside SBFs were statistically significant 1996 (German Federal Ministry elicit varying reactions from through lane, and intersection predictors of choosing cycling, of Transport 1998). In the cyclists. In a survey of members crossing distance are the key though the relationship was Netherlands, the bikeway network of the Texas Bicycle Coalition, elements affecting intersection not found to be linear nor even doubled in length, from 9,282 Taylor and Mahmassani (1996) LOS for cyclists. In another statistically significant at further kilometers in 1978 to 18,948 found that bicycle lanes were study, the following factors were distances. A key point from this kilometers in 1996 (Pucher a stronger incentive for casual found to be significant for urban sampling of studies is that most and Dijkstra 2000; Statistics and inexperienced cyclists to arterials: traffic volume, number conclusions are drawn from cross- Netherlands 1999). The onset of ride than wide curb lanes, but for of through lanes, speed limit, sectional studies that control for facilities was accompanied by a experienced cyclists there was percentage of heavy vehicles, a minimum number of factors. general upturn in the amount of no preference for either facility. surface condition, width of The more disaggregate the unit cycling as well—though these Landis et al. (1997) found that, all outside lane, and the number of of analysis, the muddier the water rates were already notoriously else being equal, cyclists perceive unsignalised intersections (Landis becomes. Additional confounding high relative to most other cities streets with bicycle lane striping et al. 2006). For off-street shared- issues stemming from self- in the world. These claims and

Walking and cycling literature review Final Report 25 SECTION 3 Hard Measures

observations hold much value, though at the same time, one must take into account the power of complementing SBFs with more general and widespread adoption in cycling-oriented policies (Pucher and Buehler 2006; Ministerie van Verkeer en Waterstaat 2007). SEPARATED BICYCLING FACILITIES: THE BIG PICTURE Clearly there are a number of factors to consider in planning for both SBFs and other on- street facilities. A poorly designed separated facility (e.g., next to Figure 7: Example of bicycle boxes in downtown Melbourne. a sidewalk or with inadequate A discussion about these facilities is found below. attention devoted to intersections) is indeed likely to be more dangerous than riding on the There is, however, general increases in the numbers of INNOVATIVE CROSSING roadway. Equally, a rail-trail with consensus on the following. The people walking or bicycling TREATMENTS grade-separated intersections, belief that SBFs reduce the risk of (Jacobsen 2003). This means that In any environment for bicycle easy grades and a 12-foot paved accident is a common reason motorists are less likely to collide movement, intersections are surface is likely going to be a SBFs lead to increased perception with a cyclist bicycling if more particularly problematic. Clearly great alternative to a parallel busy of safety for cyclists across people walk or bicycle and delineated SBFs fail to improve arterial street with no space for different types of users. With initiatives to encourage increased such problems. This draws our bicyclists. increased perception of safety rates of cycling may be an comes increased ridership. And, in appropriate strategy to increase attention to various intersection The available literature, locations with higher levels of overall safety as well. treatments and we highlight unfortunately, does not allow one ridership, there is convincing below some themes where, The most reliable conclusion, to draw direct correlations evidence that, per capita, the unfortunately, only minimal study therefore, drawn from the available between SBFs and increased cycling is safer because of a has been completed. literature about the efficacy of safety. Nor can we draw direct concept referred to as safety in SBFs and related bicycle Bicycle boxes correlations between SBFs and numbers. increased use. It is extremely treatments requires roundabout, The bicycle box (or advanced difficult to make more definite Conventional wisdom suggests though sound, reasoning. SBFs, stop bar) is a treatment aimed to conclusions because studies have that the number of collisions varies however they are defined or reduce conflicts between turning too seldom controlled sufficiently directly with the amount of walking implemented, usually lead to vehicles, forward moving vehicles, for confounding factors. For and bicycling. However, upon increased perception of safety and forward moving cyclists (see example, some studies have examining detailed data from a across a wider array of users Figure 7). The box is a right angle considered off-street facilities to variety of settings—68 cities in which helps induce bicycle use. extension of a bicycle lane that include bicycle facilities and California (U.S.), 14 cities in Communities with higher rates of allows cyclists to get ahead of sidewalks. Alternatively, other Europe, 47 towns in Denmark, bicycle use have fewer crashes automobiles stopped at a traffic studies have not controlled for skill and eight European counties— with motorists on a per capita light. When the light turns green, and confidence level of the cyclist. findings revealed the same picture: basis and are therefore cyclists are able to move more a non-linear relationship, such that considered safer. safely through the intersection collision rates declined with ahead of the autos. In more

26 Figure 9: Coloured treatment for a bicycle lane outside Figure 8: Innovative Crossing Treatments in Muenster of Flinders St. Station, leading into downtown Melbourne. progressive environments, cyclists that exist, intersections are an crossing the path of straight- point out that cyclist speed plays a have their own signal, which turns important focal point in planning ahead bicyclists) with blue large role in collisions and that green prior to the autos’ signal to for cyclists and pedestrians. markings and appropriate signing. changes that increase cyclist give a further head start. However, by themselves, they The few studies that evaluated the speed (such as safer crossings) have limited capacity without impacts of the colour striping may pose a significant safety Little research has been done regard to the larger network of found that motorists were more danger for all users. on the usage or safety of bicycle facilities. likely to yield to cyclists after boxes, though one study by Other than the facilities on which installation; however, the change Hunter (2000b) examined the Many European countries use NMT takes place (trails, roads, also resulted in fewer cyclists effects of the installation of a coloured treatments to demarcate intersections), there are other scanning for motorists or using bicycle box in Eugene, Oregon space for bicyclists (and infrastructure important to to indicate intent (U.S.). The author found that sometimes pedestrians) and to consider—particularly for (Hunter et al. 2000). While the 22 percent of cyclists with the draw motorists’ attention to cycling—such as the availability of majority of cyclists and a near opportunity to do so used the various facilities (Denmark – blue; parking facilities, showers, and majority of motorists reported that bicycle box. While conflicts the Netherlands and Germany - lighting. However, there is too little the lanes enhanced safety, there is between cyclists and vehicles in red, U.K. - red or green, France, study of this infrastructure to allow some question as to whether the the intersection did not change Australia, New Zealand – green). for a robust account to increased comfort level of cyclists following installation, no conflicts Such applications are usually at understand the importance of could lead to additional conflicts or were observed involving cyclists intersections but may often parallel each. collisions. Gårder et al. (1998) who used the bicycle box as heavily travelled routes leading up studied the effects of installing intended. to high trafficked areas. raised and painted bicycle These kinds of innovative The most notable application of crossings through intersections in crossing treatments may well the use of coloured treatments by Gothenburg, Sweden. They found take some getting used to on a municipality formerly with no an overall cyclist risk reduction of the part of cyclists and motorists coloured treatments comes from approximately 30 percent, due to before definitive results on their Portland, Oregon (U.S.). The city both the new crossing and the effectiveness can be seen. striped select conflict points increase in total cyclists using the Considering the safety issues (usually heavy right turning traffic crossing. However, the authors

Walking and cycling literature review Final Report 27 SECTION 3 Hard Measures

BICYCLE LOAN a day, the bicycle sharing operator Motorized quality needed for other purposes. PROGRAMS is allowed to withdraw money from TRANSPORTATION USING We deal with this issue of the the given credit card account. PEDESTRIAN AND benefits of redundant provision A final form of hard infrastructure CYCLING FACILITIES later in the report. strategy—in the sense that it Detailed, systematic, and robust involves metering equipment, studies of community bicycle Finally, while not a focus of this While off-street cycling facilities parking areas and such—is a programs are difficult to come review, intended to focus on will likely have adequate size and bicycle loan program. Bicycle loan by. Recent reports optimistically existing research related to non- grade, these motorized modes programs appear in all shapes suggest positive impacts. For motorized transportation, we note may move more slowly than Class and sizes in cities throughout example, the programs instituted that in addition to cyclists and A cyclists, thus creating issues the world and more recently, are on grand scales in Lyon and Paris pedestrians a variety of motorized related to compatibility. However, the latest fad in this line of work. have received rave reviews in the modes of transportation also in terms of this potential for The central concept of these popular press; anecdotal evidence use pedestrian and cycling conflict with cyclists, there is not a programs is making available free suggests the “loaner” bicycles are facilities (e.g., Segways, gophers, great deal of literature specific to (or nearly free) access to bicycles widely used. The little research motorized wheelchairs, electric these motorized modes. for local transportation needs. that exists on these programs bicycles, and even small motor Variables at play include primary is less optimistic regarding the scooters). Use of such machinery audience (tourists or locals or potential impact of bicycle sharing does not likely affect travel both), length of rental, to charge on reducing auto trips, though walking; however, as numerous or not to charge, membership findings may be highly case- guidelines and prescriptions requirements, etc. Several specific.O ne study by Noland related to width of path indicate, variations of this concept have and Ishaque (2006) surveyed such modes may well require been explored over the past dozen users of the OYBike program in wider and more level sidewalks, or so years—few with any notable and found that bicycles and possibly better lighting, than success. Theft and maintenance were primarily used for leisure and pedestrians alone. are consistent issues. recreation trips and that repeat usage of bicycles was not high. If pedestrian infrastructure The latest fashion of these Results suggest that the primary is provided that is adequate efforts include several European barriers to usage were uncertainty for such machinery, as equity cities (the French cities of Lyon about bicycle condition, difficulty reasons suggest it should, such and Paris as well as London, with the locking system, and the infrastructure will be more than Barcelona, and Stockholm), need to use a to adequate for pedestrians in terms which have signed contracts with check out a bicycle, factors which of width, evenness, and texture. private advertising agencies that need not be inherent to bicycle That is, a more than adequate supply the city with thousands of sharing programs generally. level of pedestrian infrastructure bicycles free of charge. In return, In a case study report without is likely to be provided for equity the agencies advertise both on the empirical validation, DiDonato et reasons to support such modes bicycles themselves and on other al. (2002) report that the majority (though this will not necessarily select locations in the city. These of trips made using bicycle- lead to pedestrian-supportive programs also prevent theft by share bicycles replace walking or community design). Of course, requiring users to pre-purchase transit trips, and therefore do not pedestrians are likely to appreciate user cards with credit cards and contribute to a reduction in overall such features as shade as well but by equipping the bicycle with auto use. shade trees may well be provided complex anti-theft and bicycle for other environmental reasons. maintenance sensors. In the case Overall, pedestrians can benefit of not returning the bicycle within from infrastructure provided at a

28 SUMMARY 3.1 Community or urban design including gross population density, street pattern, and accessible destinations are important in creating a walkable environment. 3.2 While distance is very important for pedestrians, on average they will walk further than the anecdotal rule of thumb of 400 meters used in many planning applications. 3.3. The relationship between pedestrian infrastructure (particularly sidewalks) and walking is complicated. There are many reasons to provide such facilities and, if designed to be adequate for such motorized equipment as gophers and Segways, they will likely be adequate for pedestrians. 3.4 Perception of infrastructure is important in walking but it is not clearly related to actual provision. That is providing more infrastructure may not in itself change perceptions. It is important to understand better how marketing and educational programs can be used to modify people’s perceptions of walkability. 3.5 Separated bicycle facilities are particularly troublesome in intersections involving automobile traffic and do not necessarily appear to be safer. 3.6 Separated bicycle facilities and related treatments lead to the perception of increased safety on behalf of the many cyclists. 3.7 Intersections are critical pinch points for cyclists and detailed treatments increase cyclists’ comfort in navigating them. 3.8 Bicycle loan programs may have an impact in or close to urban core areas, where they are usually available, though scant evaluation precludes any conclusions at this point.

Walking and cycling literature review Final Report 29 SECTION 4: ROLE OF PREFERENCES

30 SELF-SELECTION behaviours, such as walking or community. In other words, people cycling. This is an option they who are likely to walk anywhere, The bulk of existing research on prioritize in their home and work choose the choice to locate in a NMT—if not all of it—responds to location. This suggests that given neighbourhood where they research questions using cross differences in rates of NMT have a better chance of walking or sectional data (i.e. data at one between households in different cycling. Alternatively, populations point in time). The urban planning areas of the city with different might be engaging in walking or community is learning, not access to NMT facilities should cycling behaviour—if for no other surprisingly, that things are not as not be credited to facility alone; reason—than the willingness to simple as some of these cross the differences may well reflect advance health. It may have little sectional studies might indicate. self-selection. In other words, to do with hard or soft measures. Analysing a single policy or people who are likely to cycle, This makes incorporating walking environmental change without fully choose to locate in a given into models of transportation more capturing other important neighbourhood or employment complex, as a walk “trip” may also influences may lead to errant area where they have a better be a recreational activity. conclusions. Such factors hold chance of cycling. particularly true for matters related Suburban residents also tend to to understanding the factors The above considerations are express more dependence on leading to people’s decision to particularly vexing for researchers their cars and also to think cycle. Trying to unravel such aiming to shed light on debates travelling by car is safer than decision-making by isolating the and discussions around causality. walking, biking, or taking transit. specific role of various facilities, for Proving statistical association is Most significantly, in some studies example, is a complex endeavour. not the same as proving causality. suburban residents put more Two phenomena can move importance on safety than do Put another way—as any reliable together due to chance, or there residents of traditional SUMMARY textbook on statistics suggests— could be bi-directional causality. neighbourhoods, who put 4.1 Planners should not correlation does not mean There is no statistical test for somewhat more importance on underestimate the important role causation. It is important to causality. What is the researcher of sociability and attractiveness that predetermined preferences distinguish between the following: cycling and walking behaviour left (Handy et al. 2006). Are these and lifestyles play in (a) documenting correlations to do? How can one reliably say differences in attitudes and understanding rates of NMT. between bicycle facilities and use, that cycling facilities will increase preferences more important in In some environments and for versus (b) claiming that bicycle levels of cycling and walking? It is explaining travel behaviour than some populations, preferences facilities will induce use. The difficult. differences in the built may undermine the role that majority of previous work on the environment, thus supporting the These considerations suggest that other initiatives—programming subject has not adequately self-selection hypothesis? This is differences in travel between or infrastructure—may have. differentiated between the two. the million dollar question that households with different For example, residents (or families) much research is aiming to answer neighbourhood design should not often select locations to match (e.g., Cao et al. 2006b). their desires for certain be solely credited to various interventions that apply to the

Walking and cycling literature review Final Report 31 SECTION 5: ACCOUNTING FOR AND MODELLING Non-motorized travel (NMT)

32 Accounting for and modelling continues to be a major hurdle. In terms of measurement, NMT More specifically self-report has NMT proves to be very difficult Most available information on behaviour can be ascertained by problems with definitions (what because of a range of factors NMT addresses the number (a) self report (e.g., diary, survey), is a trip—does it include walking related to data availability: learning of people who walk or cycle, (b) observation (in person, using to the bus, walking the dog) of behaviours, representing as opposed to number of trips sensors) or (c) via various motion and, because NMT is a virtuous them along networks, and using or miles travelled. The existing detectors (accelerometers, behaviour, people want to win units of analysis and simulation surveys and other sources that pedometers, global position the researchers’ approval by strategies precise enough to address the frequency of NMT systems, etc.) (Troiano 2005). showing that they engage in these detect noticeable differences. We produce a wide variety of results. There is significant work testing activities. However, because many comment on Each source asks about a different the relative reliability and validity walk trips are short and chained each below. time frame; the number of people of these approaches. Figure 10 with other trips they are easy who complete the behaviour on captures some of the differences to forget e.g., walking to transit A basic foundation of NMT a bicycle in a week will be larger across these measures (Troped or from a parked car around a research—knowing the various than the number who ride in a day. 2001; Krizek et al. 2007b). shopping centre. Furthermore, a behaviours of individuals— key issue for walking is that one trip can serve multiple purposes— e.g., travel and health—which is difficult to deal with in models. Figure 10. Measurement Strategies and How Well the Behaviour is Captured These are difficult problems to address. The data necessary to reliably build such models Phenomena / Behaviour to Measure is in short supply for walking and cycling. User and trip Who does characteristics at a suitable level and does not Number Purpose or of aggregation, along with user Measurement strategies walk or cycle of trips Distance destination Intensity preferences for facility design characteristics are currently of Self-report + – + – limited quality and are considered a high priority for improvement Observation – + – – (USDOT 2000). These data items Instrumentation + + – +* are not adequately covered in most large scale survey + = is good at capturing this phenomenon/behaviour instruments, such as metropolitan = fair travel surveys or the Nationwide — = poor Personal Transportation Survey * the ability to measure intensity differs from accelerometers (good) to GPS units (poor) (NPTS) in the U.S. and where they do, there are problems. As Krizek Source: Krizek et al. 2007b.

Walking and cycling literature review Final Report 33 SECTION 5 Accounting for and modelling NMT

et al. (2007b) explain: and/or bulky and the fields lack considered. These two groups sources of data such as business standard protocols for processing must be studied separately to directory telephone listings have For this reason, the recent information. avoid confusion or ambiguity. This been employed elsewhere (Handy version of the U.S. National is generally not an issue with most and Clifton 2001) in the context Household Travel Survey Such issues often result in analysts bicycling surveys, which tend to of the calculation of measures of (NHTS) made a special effort to borrowing assumptions from focus on adults. It is, however, a “neighbourhood” accessibility, prompt respondents about analysis usually slated for other factor in deriving numbers from though these data sets typically walking and bicycle trips using purposes. A common example general travel data collection contain limited information on size a follow-up telephone is an analysis that borrows surveys that deal with the entire or quality of establishments. While questionnaire. Interviewers impedance values (relative time, household. there have been few standard asked, “Did [you] use any other distance, or cost) from a locally approaches to constructing NMT type of transportation during calibrated travel model. The values But NMT research is more related environmental variables, [your] stay in [city here], extracted from these data may than about just learning of the recent work in public health including bicycling and be sensitive to the environment behaviours. It also requires has developed protocols for walking?” So far, I have in which they were collected. data on the context, requiring environmental measurement that recorded [N] trip(s). Before we Ideally, travel survey data would be multiple data sets relating to travel can provide models for such work continue, did [you] take any collected year round and cover all behaviour and land use, each of (Forsyth 2007a 2007b). other walks, bicycle rides, or seasons (Ortuzar and Willumsen which presents unique challenges drives on [trip date]? Please 2001). More commonly, data are for analysts addressing NMT. ZONAL STRUCTURE include any other trips where collected over a period of several AND NETWORKS LAND USE/URBAN [you] started and ended in the months and reflect weather FORM DATA In addition, other efforts often use same place.” Walking trips conditions prevailing at the time zones as units of analysis that do increased significantly between the survey data were collected. The quality of land use and little justice to the detailed nature the 1995 NPTS and the 2001 urban form data directly affects This is especially important in the of pedestrian travel. For example, NHTS, and survey the accuracy of NMT research. case of non-motorized modes they may aggregate information administrators believe this Extending the range of desired and in locations where significant to census tracts (in the United increase is attributable to the destinations beyond employment seasonal climate variations exist. States, approximately 5,000- improved prompts rather than a and improving the accuracy For example, if survey data are 6,000 people), zip or postal code true increase. Also of concern is or robustness of accessibility collected during warmer, drier areas, or transportation analysis the period of time covered by calculations requires data months it is possible that changes zones (TAZs). An ecological the diary: a one-day diary may at a spatial resolution that is in travel behaviour during colder fallacy arises because average miss occasional use of walking not typically available in most or more precipitous months might demographic or urban form and bicycling as a mode of research applications. There be missed. These changes might characteristics are assumed transportation and as a form of are sources of establishment- include mode shifts, in which case to apply to any given individual exercise or recreation (Krizek et level data on attributes such as the number of pedestrians and neighbourhood resident. When al. 2007b). employment, sales and other bicyclists might be overestimated measures of commercial intensity variables that could potentially While at first blush it may seem during cold weather periods, and are aggregated, for example, serve as good proxy variables that instrumentation would be changes in destination choice for each zone reveals the same for attractiveness and be easily more accurate, in fact such discretionary trips, which would measure despite each zone scaled to different levels of methods do have weaknesses affect the length or distance of exhibiting considerably different geographic aggregation. However, – e.g., motion detectors do not travel, and hence the relevant development patterns. The heart these sources are typically indicate purpose and people impedance values. of the problem—and the ability to private financial organisations forget to wear them; GPS units detect such subtle geographical Furthermore, a key distinction or highly confidential. The data do not work in some locations differences—lies with the size related to cycling that has to can be costly to acquire and and do not measure intensity of the units of analysis that are be tracked is that adults are require significant effort in terms of activity; sensors only count employed (Iacono et al. 2007). considerably less likely to ride of cleaning and preparation for people using facilities, ignoring a bicycle than are children, spatial analytical use (Forsyth Networks employed for purposes those who are not active. Many of regardless of the time frame being et al. 2006). Alternate, low-cost of regional travel models typically these detectors are also expensive

34 replicate roadways. Networks INADEQUATE MODELS for walking and cycling are often different and need to be drawn at a Related to the issue of inadequate finer scale. Specifically, the network networks and data is the structure is too coarse to trace applicability of model components the paths chosen by pedestrians (most commonly the well- and cyclists, and the zones are too used four-step transportation large to differentiate many of the planning models) to appropriately shorter trips made by bicycle and represent NMT. Most relevant on foot. Also, few networks contain to several components of any links with specialized facilities for urban modelling system is how non-motorized travel, such as accessibility is represented and sidewalks or SBFs, and on-street the specific impedance function bicycle lanes. used, representing the influence of travel time, money and other costs One way around these problems, on the willingness of individuals as will be described in greater to travel longer distances. In detail in a later section, is to use transportation planning practice, it street network layers encoded has been common to use gravity as geographic information or other synthetic models to system (GIS) files as the basis forecast the spatial distribution of for calculations of a minimum- trips, from which an impedance cost path (with distance as a value can be estimated. While proxy measure for cost) between this approach works reasonably an origin and destination point. well for motorized modes, which These networks can be manually tend to have a more regional modified to include certain types distribution, there are often a of special facilities. However, few large number of origin-destination SUMMARY cities or regional authorities have pairs with zero observations. This complete inventories of NMT problem, known as the sparse 5.1 NMT planning efforts could systems, making the construction matrix problem, is exacerbated be substantially enhanced with of a complete pedestrian and by the application of such models greater information about NMT bicycle network a resource- to origin-destination data for non- travel; this includes data intensive task. If time is the motorized modes, which tend to collection efforts specifically desired impedance measure, then have a more concentrated spatial geared toward better assumptions need to be made distribution (Iacono et al. 2007). understanding the range, about the relationship between purpose, and impediments for It is only the combination of the distance and time in terms of an walking and bicycling. average speed. While this may above and detailed efforts— 5.2 To best understand NMT be acceptable for pedestrian measuring patterns of use, travel analysts require relatively travel, the availability of bicycle networks, attractors—that will small geographical units of facilities may alter bicyclists’ allow robust modelling efforts that analysis and detailed data about travel time, necessitating special can then be used to more reliably such environments (e.g., treatment of these facilities predict induced demand (see for destinations as well as (El-Geneidy et al. 2007). example, Lindsey et al. 2006). networks).

Walking and cycling literature review Final Report 35 SECTION 6: CONCLUSIONS AND FURTHER RESEARCH

Available literature on NMT is in ample supply. It would therefore seem that we could say more with certainty. Unfortunately, this is not the case; several complex factors interfere with our ability to draw general conclusions about the impact of various interventions, be they hard or soft.

This concluding section summarizes and synthesizes the above review into several take away points. The section is divided into three parts: • Conclusions derived from a close reading of available literature, • Conclusions informed by both the literature but also based on professional experience, and • Fruitful areas for future research.

36 CONCLUSIONS BASED Necessary versus sufficient example, consider the age-old would seem to matter a great EXCLUSIVELY ON conditions question: what factors best deal to this group. However, explain the variation among findings from recent research AVAILABLE LITERATURE Understanding that there is no municipalities in NMT use and on destinations or mixed use single bullet, it is important to Learning about walking and what role does policy and (wider) have not been as clear as many recognize that there are instances cycling is extremely difficult traffic policy play? The most assumed it might be, as is where certain pieces of the robust studies suggest it may explained in Section 3. Walking and cycling remain puzzle must be in place to even well be that any particular feature understudied phenomena, allow NMT to occur. We refer to The following findings can be contributes only a little, and particularly when researched in a these as necessary conditions. synthesised: then only for those with some rigorous manner. To increase the For walking, for instance, good psychological, social, or economic • Overall density, which is related knowledge of how users respond community design stands out. predisposition to walk or cycle. to the clustering of destinations to various interventions, more data Lacking tolerable distances for Communities with notably high including other housing units, is must be systematically collected walking between common origins rates of cycling use many different associated with travel walking in in a variety of environments and and destinations, few people will strategies—programming, policy, most, but not all, studies. credibly analysed. Research walk, regardless of how attractive needs to do the best it can to environmental design, and other. the environment is. In some • Specific destinations are seen isolate confounding factors Walking is not so dependent on specialized environments, a similar as important in various studies such as psychological, social, unusual infrastructure but still assertion could be made about but the destinations differ and economic factors. Because significantly benefits from a multi- the role of SBFs—e.g., in corridors between studies. pronged approach that reflects the of these limitations in fully with high levels of fast moving needs of different user groups. • Street patterns are important in understanding NMT and how auto traffic. some studies and not others— it is affected by various policy More specifically, non- Combined strategies work this may be a measurement and infrastructure investments, infrastructure modifications planners and politicians must issue or it may be due to the It is only natural—and may include traffic calming of be careful not to overestimate use of space (for instance in expected—for policy makers residential neighbourhoods, the likely impacts of various suburban areas pedestrians and infrastructure professionals restrictions on motor vehicle use, treatments. may cut through large blocks to want to know the measurable better traffic education of both on paths not identified in the There is no silver bullet impact a given infrastructure motorists and non-motorists, and data collection nor known in investment will have (what will be enforcement of traffic regulations most network measures). It needs to be recognized that no the effect of various intersection protecting cyclists. Coordinated single infrastructure investment treatments, how many more implementation of multi-faceted • Infrastructure has some will have dramatic changes; there cyclists will be induced by and mutually reinforcing policies importance in travel walking— is no silver bullet, especially when constructing a path, will an and programs is needed in order sidewalks, lighting—but merely considering the complexity of on-street bicycle path make a to create successful pedestrian building a sidewalk will not NMT. Yearning for such will only difference?). and cycling environments. make an environment walkable. lead to frustrating dialogue; time and resources should best be However, several factors combine Role of key destinations and However, these features do spend in a more constructive to produce a successful walking design features in walking combine to create a walkable or cycling environment and environment. manner. Walkers are sensitive to distance, ultimately make it attractive for so the location of destinations people to bicycle or walk. For

Walking and cycling literature review Final Report 37 SECTION 6 Conclusions and further research

Target specific populations As pointed out, primary What does this mean and what are report showing five different populations who stand to the planning implications based classes of policy levers or Assessing the effect of different benefit are those who may be on some of the above described strategies used to promote NMT treatments is on surer footing at a disadvantage in terms of conclusions? First, where there (we also include a fifth category: when specific populations are auto-ownership or operation, are real needs and concerns to combined strategies). Dark targeted; certain populations such as the young, the elderly, address young, old or sometimes shading indicates more important; comprise low hanging fruit the economically disadvantaged female populations, it suggests lighter shading indicates less because they are likely to be more or more generally, unlicensed that SBFs have a pronounced important. Based on a close receptive than other populations. populations. In areas rich with role because they are perceived reading of the literature, the We describe several populations these populations, the provision of as safer. For the young, limited efficacy of each policy lever differs and how and why their behaviour free bicycles or enhanced facilities experience and unpredictable by mode and some strategies, may be more responsive to may have greater impact. For movements put children at special such as programming, have walking or cycling improvements example, student populations and risk on streets. Cycling specific extremely little evaluation (thus the or interventions. university towns (Baltes 1996) are infrastructure is more important for absence of any shading). • Recent movers: These notoriously associated with high those with slower reflexes, frailty, Digesting the available literature, it populations are seen as open to levels of cycling (e.g., Stuttgart, and deteriorating hearing and is clear that tenets of community changing travel mode. However, Germany; Muenster, Germany; eyesight. Furthermore, women design (e.g., having origins and studies of soft measures such Gronigen, the Netherlands, have been shown to be more destinations close to one another, as education and counselling Davis, California (U.S.); Boulder, risk averse than men when it street design) is paramount for have found them difficult to Colorado (U.S.)). Enhanced comes to cycling facilities (Krizek transportation related walking. For recruit (Department of Transport facilities in these environments et al. 2005). For pedestrians, cycling, ensuring a higher level of 2005; Ampt et al. 2006). will be heavily used because there this indicates populations where perceived safety is important are more people engaged in the marketing may be useful. because this leads to more use • Low income people including activity. and thereafter, lower levels of students: People with low Policy levers or strategies cycling-auto crashes per capita. incomes have been consistently Outside of college towns, The above conclusions can best found to be more sensitive to however, at least in the U.S., the The hope of many infrastructure be summarized by Table 1 in the pricing of modes. For those predominant cyclist appears to agencies is that specific summary at the beginning of this without constraints such as have few of the aforementioned infrastructure investments will complex trip chaining to reach characteristics. The average child care or distant work, non- cyclist is male, white, higher motorized travel can be cost income, and between the ages effective. of 18 and 44. While in Europe and Asia cyclists are more • Others with lower proportions diverse, the environment and of driver’s licenses (youth, policy context in Australia has seniors) are also potential enough similarities with the U.S. targets for both hard and soft to require close consideration. interventions. Data from a supplemental survey Given these factors, cycling in Queensland by the Australian prompts a conundrum of sorts. Bureau of Statistics showed that Bicycles are relatively inexpensive three quarters of cyclists (people modes of transport (though not who had cycled in the last year) quite as cheap as walking). In were aged 15-44, 60 percent this respect, getting people on were males, male cyclists were bicycles opens up both mobility more likely to ride each day than and accessibility to populations; females (almost 11 percent versus and, enhanced bicycle facilities 4.5 percent) and most cycled for may play an important role in recreation or exercise (Australian Figure 11: Facilities along St. Kilda Road, Melbourne showing such. Bureau of Statistics 2004). redundancy is fine and sometimes necessary

38 increase NMT. For walking, What type of cycling facilities struggled with such general a short stretch. A key point in infrastructure is less important and where? guidelines. Practice in the Figure 12 is that it is important overall design more crucial given Netherlands is reportedly informed to acknowledge that there are Given the range of infrastructure the sensitivity of pedestrians to by using a schematic from which environments where SBFs may options, an outstanding distance. Sidewalks are significant Figure 12 below is adapted; it be unnecessary. These conditions question in many discussions is in some studies and not in others. prescribes different suggested include (1) residential streets, (2) how one can best know what Perhaps, basic provision on major treatments depending on traffic where there is an incapacity to treatment should be applied to roads provides a basis for walking volumes and vehicle speeds. maintain them (e.g., sweeping), different environments. Available and improvements to quality do and (3) where a municipality research can provide only Of course, not all treatments not improve that. However, it can cannot commit to “no parking” broad suggestions regarding are possible in each desired be said that the sidewalk to regulations. Notwithstanding the the applicability of various circumstance due to limitations nowhere will be little travelled. above mentioned generalities, treatments and their merits. of funding, available space or Findings are even less strong for the effects of various treatments Synthesizing central themes from other issues. For this reason, such features as street lamps and on other and more specific various studies and scenarios, corridors might require a range of street trees although this may be populations are mentioned below. professionals concerned with treatments, sometimes a handful due to lack of variation in bicycle infrastructure have of different facility types along provision—if there is lighting and some street trees along almost every sidewalk small variations such as providing decorative Figure 12. fixtures may not make much measurable difference (Forsyth et al. 2008). 11 CONCLUSIONS 10 INFORMED BY 9 LITERATURE BUT 8 ALSO BASED ON 7 C E PROFESSIONAL 6 EXPERIENCE 5 4 A B The walkable place 3 2 Creating a convenient environment D where people have the option 1 Volume of motor vehicles motor of Volume (1000/24hours) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 to walk is a good thing—at the very least it provides choices. Speed of motor vehicle traffic in kilometers/h (85th percentile) While overall community or urban design is vital in creating walkable distances, pedestrian infrastructure has many benefits. Increased numbers of street trees can be justified for reasons Area A: All modes can Area B: In general, a Area C: Some form of Area D: Bicycle tracks Area E: Speed and/or of shade, temperature control, be mixed. The only profile without separation is needed, are desirable, but as density of traffic flow aesthetics, habitat, and so on. reason to consider segregation is but visual separation densities are low, a make it an absolute Continuous pedestrian routes are bicycle tracks or acceptable, but (bicycle lanes) can be mixed profile is necessity to segregate useful for providing choices for bicycle lanes is for the depending on acceptable as well. acceptable. However, bicycles and motor sake of continuity of circumstances bicycle bicycle lanes are not traffic. Separate those who choose not to drive or design on connecting tracks or bicycle lanes advisable. bicycle tracks are the cannot. bicycle routes. can be desirable. only option.

Note: above figure and text modified from http://strans.org/graph.html

Walking and cycling literature review Final Report 39 SECTION 6 Conclusions and further research

Small distances, big hurdles long way towards increasing the mode split for cycling. The market for NMT is strongest Unfortunately, there are big where distances are relatively hurdles to overcome and short; this applies more to walking additional research could shed than cycling but still for cycling useful light on such matters (see nonetheless. The central question section below). is what distance defines a short distance and who defines it—a The network is king matter obviously related to the Given existing land use and population travelling and the transportation patterns in most purpose. It is widely communities, it is a lot to expect a acknowledged that 70 percent of comprehensive and seamless all trips in the Netherlands, for pedestrian and/or cycling network. example, are less than 7.5 It is also unrealistic to expect a city kilometers and that half of these to realize such in short order time trips (35 percent) are cycling (e.g., a few years). This realization (Ministerie van Verkeer en requires communities to creatively Waterstaat 2007). As expected, conceive of prioritized routes for the percentage of cycling trips Figure 13: Confusion between trams, cyclists, and pedestrians frequented origins and increases with shorter distances along one of the existing primary bicycle corridors in downtown destinations and to better improve (44 percent of all trips in the Melbourne, Swanston Street. conditions for existing routes with Netherlands are less than 2.5 modest resources. kilometers and, reportedly, 37 percent of them are cycling Doing so requires one to consider levels of cycling) are spaced Furthermore, planned network (Pucher and Buehler 2008, Figure the larger network of bicycle roughly one per 1.5 kilometers, and corridor designations are 4)). Such startling statistics draw facilities, map common origins and with higher density and trafficked used to prioritize enhancements sharp focus to the potential of destinations, available routes, and areas having less spacing and the maintenance of existing short trips. to seize opportunities to amplify or between corridors. Secondary facilities. They are used to identify improve the existing network. An corridors are equally identified target opportunities for completion According to the recent travel overall network, after all, is what routes and generally rely on as redevelopment opportunities survey for the Melbourne many users cherish (Lawlow et al. residential streets to further arise. A central philosophy of a Metropolitan Area, 40 percent of 2003), not just spot improvements amplify the primary routes and to bicycle network plan is that the all trips are less than 2 here or there. Automobile serve finer levels of geography. sum is more valuable than the kilometers—a surprisingly similar transportation networks typically parts. Rather than investing in statistic to the Netherlands (less In other words, primary bicycle consist of neighbourhood streets, spot improvements, a network than 27 percent of trips in the U.S. routes need not be facilities clearly collectors, arterials, and freeways. philosophy stresses that are less than 2.5 kilometers separated from all other modes of A similar analogue could be improvements should be targeted, (Pucher and Buehler 2008)). travel, or facilities that require considered for cycling routes, prioritized, and integrated within However, the mode share for exorbitant resources. They merely though not necessarily on the the larger system. cycling for these 40 percent of require clearly identified and same routes as automobiles. trips in Melbourne is nowhere near targeted routes with attention Redundancy of facilities is OK the 44 percent in the Netherlands. For example, in Boulder, Colorado, devoted to avoiding high levels of There is often considerable largely considered a leading city competition with other modes, This suggests that other concern expressed when for bicycle transportation, the particularly autos. In less travelled impediments, are getting in the SBFs—especially facilities clearly Bicycle System Plan identifies a routes, multiple types of facilities way—possibly related to culture, separated from auto traffic—are network of primary and secondary could combine to provide users parking, lack of equipment (to planned for corridors parallel to corridors. Primary corridors with strong wayfinding that is carry goods), etc.—impediments popular street bicycle routes. Such (routes clearly demarcated for high welcome and safe. which, if overcome, could go a concerns are understandable

40 because efficiency is paramount Crossings and intersections may and redundancy is often seen as a Figure 14: Examples of underpasses and overpasses also be important for threat to such. In many instances, pedestrians—particularly when however, it is important to children or seniors need to cross recognize that different types of Examples OF UNDERPASSES AND OVERPASSES busy streets or any pedestrian WITH PROBLEMS facilities serve different users and needs to wait a long time for a that one size bicycle facility does crossing signal. While there is little not fit all. SBFs are particularly research on the effects of such appealing for Class B and/or C crossings on overall levels of users (more inexperienced); Class walking, it is logical that very slow A users often prefer to be on the or dangerous crossings would be road amidst traffic because of a deterrent. The literature higher travel speeds. In the right addressing crime prevention contexts, redundancy is all right through environmental design has and should not necessarily be long been critical of underpasses Underpass without clear sight Bicycle and pedestrian bridge with avoided. lines; Cumbernauld, Scotland. adequate but uninspired design and as representing entrapment points, and this is true in many Intersections, crossings, and curvature that limits sight lines; Minneapolis, (U.S.). cases. However, if at-grade ‘pinch points’ are key crossings are impossible or cost The decision to cycle is complex prohibitive, European experience and multi-faceted. Sometimes a BETTER Examples OF UNDERPASSES AND OVERPASSES demonstrates that such single element along the trip—a underpasses can be well designed dangerous intersection, a with good sight lines although it is troublesome bridge, a hairy road recognized that this comes at crossing—may be the single factor some expense. preventing people from cycling along a route. The merits of select intersection treatments were addressed above. However, the literature is non-existent in addressing crossing treatments in Underpass that is only partially Paired bicycle and pedestrian the form of under/overpasses. below grade below raised bridges; Amsterdam, Netherlands. While these facilities are always roadway; Vallingby, Sweden. Sight lines are good. Sight lines are adequate. more costly than at-grade crossings, they often go a long way towards accommodating timid cyclists and well-designed facilities with good sight lines should be strongly pursued, whenever possible, in discreet and strategic locations.

Bicycle (and pedestrian) Pedestrian overpass; Millennium underpass with clear sight Park, Chicago (U.S.). Note, the metal lines; Canberra, Australia. railings do cut off views so the park is fairly heavily staffed with security.

Walking and cycling literature review Final Report 41 SECTION 6 Conclusions and further research

AVENUES FOR VALUABLE strength of such programs is that travel to access multimodal trips, No “silver bullet” but how much FURTHER RESEARCH there is a dearth of analysis that the convenience/impediments of each type of program? assesses the merits of these involved in bicycle on transit, how The strongest message contained Safety and measures programs over longer term NMT distances differ for different in this report is that combined of exposure horizons (e.g., more than a few ends of transit trips, bicycle approaches are most successful months or a year after the parking requirements at transit Discussions of NMT and safety to promote NMT. Available conclusion of the program). stops, and the role of NMT usually focus on the number of research, however, has signage outside of transit stops. crashes independent of amount of Detailed accounting underperformed in allowing users NMT travel crossing the area. This for NMT Substituting cycling to learn more about the relative can sometimes lead to errant for walking trips impact of each approach, that is, In almost all dimensions, there is a diagnoses because routes how important are education, dearth of reliable data about Much research assumes that generally considered safe attract infrastructure, community design, various dimensions of NMT (and cycling trips will replace motorized higher rates of use and thus more signage or other interventions. accompanying urban form and modes. However, due to the accidents. Thus, any discussions Teasing out the relative network data). Data collection significant effect of preferences and research examining the safety contributions of each is difficult. efforts, and subsequent analysis, and lifestyles of individuals, there is of NMT needs to control for However, further research pursued need to be deliberate, focused, increasing evidence to suggest measures of exposure—that is, within the rubric of combined and aimed to address relatively that pedestrians are most likely to how much NMT there is in the area. measures will help planners better specific questions. Notable areas be attracted to cycling. More understand the relative impact of Detailed barriers for of improvement include: systematic research is needed to each and discern where to devote shorter trips measurement of short trips, assess whether NMT as a whole additional resources, all matters attitudes/impediments toward increases when cycling increases. A reported 40 percent of all trips in considered Melbourne are less than 2 short trips, purposes for all trips, kilometers—a statistic relatively the linking with other modes, etc. similar to the Netherlands. Yet Using walking/cycling to Melbourne does not reach close increase the transit-shed to the 35 percent mode split for cycling in the Netherlands. This Bicycling and walking are most suggests a strong need to better appropriate for relatively shorter understand the myriad reasons trips. But one should not dismiss why residents choose not to cycle how the shorter trips enabled by for these short trips. Is it culture, NMT can directly advance longer pricing, the lack of facilities or the trips enabled by transit. inability to carry goods? In reality, it Considerably more research is is probably a combination of each, needed to build on the existing but more in depth survey research knowledge base to understand is necessary to understand the the conditions under which the detailed role of hypothesized transit-shed can be significantly impediments for these shorter broadened to include longer NMT trips. trips. Some research has been completed looking at various TravelSmart and dimensions of this puzzle (see for long-term follow up example, Martens 2004; 2007; As mentioned, initiatives such as Besser and Dannenberg 2005; Rietveld 2000b), but it is all very TravelSmart and other education Figure 15: Bicycle facility along Beach Road (south of Melbourne) programs hold potential for shifting case dependent. More analysis is with the skyline in the background. attitudes and use of NMT. A major required to learn, for example: the shortcoming in understanding the distances residents are willing to

42