When on the Sig Summariz Frontier H of the Va and Watc Buffalo Fo And

Catlin And AudubOi of the Fur Trad

by BradTem

When Frederick Jackson Turner pn on the significance of the frontier in A summarized, albeit arguably, the pre~ frontier history in the trans-Mississippi of the various frontiers, Turner wrote, and watch the procession of civilizal buffalo following the trail to the salt s and hunter, the cattle-raiser, the pione passed by. Stand at South Pass in the interv~ Common Mouse. from John James Audubon, The Quadrupeds of North America, 1849-54. the same .procession with wider with the 1803 Louisiana Purchase, th passing of the Plains Indian buffalo Mountain fur trade, wagon trails, gold settlement - all by the time Turner , historians are indebted to those who \'\ one group deserves special attention j and naturalists: the artists of the nine Two such artists were George Catlin each visited the fur trading posts of Jj Union journaling, sketching, and pain! trade and its impact on the native peop eleven years separated Catlin's 1832 Audubon's 1843 trip, the two renowl different impressions of the fur trade fl In 1822, while in the early stages Catlin witnessed a group of western Philadelphia on their tour of the em observed the members of the group knew that the westward movement of American Mink, from John James Audubon, The Quadrupeds ofNorth America, J849-54.

Dr. Brad Tennant is an Associate Professor of H South Dakota. Tennant is an active researcher. write 4 to South Dakota and the northern Great Plains. Catlin And Audubon - Impressions of the Fur Trade Frontier

by Brad Tennant

When Frederick Jackson Turner presented his seminal work in 1893 on the significance of the frontier in American History, he specifically summarized, albeit arguably, the previous ninety years of American frontier history in the trans-Mississippi West. Regarding the progression of the various frontiers, Turner wrote, "Stand at the Cumberland Gap and watch the procession of civilization, marching single file - the buffalo following the trail to the salt springs, the Indian, the fur-trader and hunter, the cattle-raiser, the pioneer farmer - and the frontier has passed by. Stand at South Pass in the Rockies a century later and see the same .procession with wider intervals between."l Indeed, beginning "The Quadrupeds ofNorth America, 1849-54. with the 1803 Louisiana Purchase, the American West witnessed the passing of the Plains Indian buffalo culture, the era of the Rocky Mountain fur trade, wagon trails, gold rushes, Indian wars, and pioneer settlement - all by the time Turner wrote his frontier thesis. While historians are indebted to those who wrote about these frontier stages, one group deserves special attention for their work as ethnographers and naturalists: the artists of the nineteenth century American West. 2 Two such artists were George Catlin and John James Audubon, who each visited the fur trading posts of Fort Pierre, Fort Clark, and Fort Union journaling, sketching, and painting their impressions of the fur trade and its impact on the native peoples and wildlife. Although only eleven years separated Catlin's 1832 visit up the Missouri River and Audubon's 1843 trip, the two renowned artists often expressed very different impressions of the fur trade frontier. In 1822, while in the early stages of his career as a portrait artist, Catlin witnessed a group of western Indians as they passed through Philadelphia on their tour of the eastern United States.3 As Catlin observed the members of the group in their native dress, he already knew that the westward movement of the white man would soon alter he Quadrupeds ofNorth America, 1849-54.

Dr. Brad Tennant is an Associate Professor of History at Presentation College in Aberdeen, South Dakota. Tennant is an active researcher, writer, and presenter on a variety oftopics related to South Dakota and the northern Great Plains. 5 the traditional lifestyles of the Indians located west of the Mississippi overhanging branches, floating driftwood, River. Such a realization greatly contributed to Catlin's detennination presented constant obstacles. As a resu that he would someday travel to the Indian nations of the West and travel to daylight hours; however, even become "their historian" through his artwork.4 Missouri often made it difficult to see su Eventually, Catlin made his way to St. Louis in the spring of 1830 decided that he would take the steamboat where he became friends with two notable individuals who each lent would spend some time in the area before their support to his ambitious goal of recording the people and events would allow him time to leisurely travel d of the upper Missouri. The first was General William Clark, whose role tribes along the way.tO as Superintendent of Indian Affairs made him a valuable supporter by The American Fur Company's tradi condoning Catlin's extensive travels among many of the western tribes Clark, and Fort Union were not only iI1 during the l830s. The second person to whom Catlin owed a great deal they also afforded visitors such as Cl of gratitude was Pierre Chouteau, Jr., who already was one of the most opportunities to see the role of the fur tr~ significant participants of the fur trade era. Since Chouteau oversaw the native peoples and wildlife. Indeed,l the American Fur Company's operations as far north as the company's that Catlin did some of his most well-kn< Fort Union post, Catlin's friendship with Chouteau proved to be quite distance of approximately 200 miles fro] fortuitous.5 ran onto a sandbar. Since the captain ani Catlin returned to St. Louis in the spring of 1832 depending on his do little until there was a rise in the wa1 recently established acquaintances with Clark and Chouteau to carry send a group of men by land to Fort Pif out his planned visit to the upper Missouri region. Having already post located in the midst of Sioux countr) gained the confidence and support of General Clark, Catlin began As if the trek of a couple hundred mile! making arrangements with Chouteau for passage upriver. It should be of Chouteau's men were also laden wit! noted that, the previous year, the American Fur Company introduced its painting supplies, including canvasses, p~ steamboat, the Yellowstone, to the Missouri River, and it ventured as far positive note, given the status of the YeUo as Fort Pierre. The 1832 voyage, however, planned to travel to the Fort than originally planned at Fort Pierre, whi Union trading post near the confluence of the Missouri and Yellowstone to capture his first impressions in his ske rivers, a distance of approximately 2,000 miles from St. Louis.6 The Four years earlier, in 1828, the An Yellowstone s trip to Fort Union marked the beginning of steamboat to construct Fort Pierre to replace the ~ travel on the upper Missouri and a new era of transportation for the Columbia Fur Company post. The Ameri region's fur trade'? In fact, fur trade historian Hiram M. Chittenden trading post a few miles above the mou noted the significance of the Yellowstone s travels as "a landmark in day central South Dakota and named i' the history of the West." According to Chittenden, the Yellowstone s Jr. Catlin sketched the post placing it in success "demonstrated the practicability of navigating the Missouri by placed rows of tipis surrounding it ale steam as far as to the mouth of the Yellowstone with a strong probability prairie hills common along the Missour that boats could go on to the Blackfoot country." Chittenden further Catlin wrote: noted that the presence of Catlin as a passenger "added celebrity to the The country about this Fort i voyage."8 producing along the banks of The Yellowstone departed St. Louis on March 26, 1832; however, only, slight skirtings of timber. it soon became apparent that steamboat traffic on the Missouri River selected more pleasing or more faced a variety of challenges. Despite the higher spring water levels,

6 he Indians located west of the Mississippi overhanging branches, floating driftwood, hidden stumps, and sandbars eatly contributed to Catlin's detennination presented constant obstacles. As a result, such challenges restricted reI to the Indian nations of the West and travel to daylight hours; however, even then, the murkiness of the 4 lugh his artwork. Missouri often made it difficult to see such obstacles.9 Catlin already his way to St. Louis in the spring of 1830 decided that he would take the steamboat as far as Fort Union where he th two notable individuals who each lent would spend some time in the area before returning by canoe. This plan s goal of recording the people and events would allow him time to leisurely travel downriver and to visit sites and rst was General William Clark, whose role tribes along the way.lO Wairs made him a valuable supporter by The American Fur Company's trading posts at Fort Pierre, Fort travels among many of the western tribes Clark, and Fort Union were not only important to the fur trade, but Iperson to whom Catlin owed a great deal they also afforded visitors such as Catlin and Audubon excellent :eau, Jr., who already was one of the most opportunities to see the role of the fur trade firsthand and its impact on ~ fur trade era. Since Chouteau oversaw the native peoples and wildlife. Indeed, it was from these trading posts :operations as far north as the company's that Catlin did some of his most well-known works as a painterY At a ndship with Chouteau proved to be quite distance of approximately 200 miles from Fort Pierre, the Yellowstone ran onto a sandbar. Since the captain and crew of the steamboat could is in the spring of 1832 depending on his do little until there was a rise in the water level, Chouteau decided to ances with Clark and Chouteau to carry send a group of men by land to Fort Pierre. Catlin, eager to visit the upper Missouri region. Having already post located in the midst of Sioux country, voluntarily joined the partyP :upport of General Clark, Catlin began As if the trek of a couple hundred miles was not bad enough, several louteau for passage upriver. It should be of Chouteau's men were also laden with the task of carrying Catlin's he American Fur Company introduced its painting supplies, including canvasses, paints, and brushesY On a more the Missouri River, and it ventured as far positive note, given the status of the Yellowstone, Catlin spent more time ge, however, planned to travel to the Fort than originally planned at Fort Pierre, which gave him ample opportunity rtfluence of the Missouri and Yellowstone to capture his first impressions in his sketches and paintings.J4 lately 2,000 miles from St. Louis.6 The Four years earlier, in 1828, the American Fur Company decided lon marked the beginning of steamboat to construct Fort Pierre to replace the aging Fort Tecumseh, an early and a new era of transportation for the Columbia Fur Company post. The American Fur Company built the new ur trade historian Hiram M. Chittenden trading post a few miles above the mouth of the Bad River in present­ Yellowstone's travels as "a landmark in day central South Dakota and named it in honor of Pierre Chouteau, :ording to Chittenden, the Yellowstone s Jr. Catlin sketched the post placing it in the distance with many, neatly ~ticability of navigating the Missouri by placed rows of tipis surrounding it along with the bluffs and rolling he Yellowstone with a strong probability prairie hills common along the Missouri River. In describing the area, Blackfoot country." Chittenden further Catlin wrote: n as a passenger "added celebrity to the The country about this Fort is almost entirely prairie, it. Louis on March 26, 1832; however, producing along the banks of the river and streams teamboat traffic on the Missouri River only, slight skirtings of timber. No site could have been Despite the higher spring water levels, selected more pleasing or more advantageous than this;

7 the Fort is in the centre of one of the Missouri's most the chief known as The One Hom, Ca beautiful plains, and hemmed in by a series of gracefully reactions by the Sioux. On the one hand, undulating, grass-covered hills, on all sides; rising like that Catlin captured in his painting and a series of terraces, to the summit level of the prairies, sorts. Thus, to his admirers, Catlin soon

some three or four hundred feet in elevation, which kah-ga-wakon or the medicine painter. I then stretches off in an apparently boundless ocean of opposition to Catlin's paintings soon d gracefully swelling waves and fields of green.15 that the uncanny likeness meant prema who sat for their portraits. This view Although his drawings of Fort Pierre include few specifics about the omen became significant enough that m fort, Catlin described it as being well-built, about 200 or 300 feet square, became concerned for Catlin's safety. E and enclosing a variety of factories, houses, apartments, and stores. At opponents began accepting the positive the time of his arrival, Catlin stated that Fort Pierre already established Since low water delayed the Yellows itself as one of the most important posts of the fur trade, "drawing from trip, Catlin took advantage o~ ~is time. c all quarters an immense and almost incredible number of buffalo robes, scope of his artwork and wntmgs to If which are carried to the New York and other Eastern markets, and sold Sioux and the trappers who frequented at a great profit."16 For Catlin, this was precisely the type of venue that and painting individuals in their native ( he sought for his work. ceremonies, Catlin became the first aJ After his week-long march, the greatly fatigued Catlin arrived at and, later, many other upper Missou~ t Fort Pierre where he presented himself to American Fur Company that many of the mountain men amv{ officials William Laidlaw, Kenneth McKenzie, and Jacob Halsey. Soon appeared "impatient for a fight" with otl thereafter, Laidlaw introduced Catlin to some of the notable Sioux that occurred resulted in many a trapp leaders whose camps surrounded the trading post in anticipation of that the fighting most often took plac personally witnessing the eventual arrival of the steamboat. In fact, guidelines of fairness, and generally.' one of Catlin's first observations as he approached Fort Pierre was the trappers, who experienced soun~ be~:ll 600 to 700 skin lodges that housed the large number of Sioux people time they returned to the mountams: visiting the post. When the Yellowstone finally arrived, Catlin recorded In addition to the rapidly changmg 6000 his amusement at "the excitement and dismay caused amongst of fur trappers and traders, the imme~: of these wild people" as they stood along the shoreline watching the 17 also left a notable impression on CatlIl steamboat as it chugged up the river. from the Yellowstone to Fort Pierre, ( The Sioux leaders whom Catlin met impressed him greatly, and he large herds of buffalo. Inspired by thl soon decided that much of what non-Indian trappers and traders told him animal Catlin painted and wrote a gre about the Sioux was false. Whereas he expected the Sioux to be a nation his 1832 trip. Regardless of Catlin' of poor, drunken murderers, he instead perceived them as a proud, noble concern that, like the Indian, the buffa people. At the same time, he noted that alcohol had not been a problem the approach of civilized man." To C, IS among the Sioux until Christians introduced it as a trade good. Catlin and other trade goods in return for bul sought to capture the traditional images of the Sioux before the white the bleak future and the demise of the man's influence further deteriorated their culture. Consequently, Catlin Eventually, Catlin once again boa spent his time at Fort Pierre convincing many of the higher ranking bye to Fort Pierre, and arrived at For Sioux leaders to sit for their portraits. After completing his portrait of Union, the American Fur Company':

8 Itre of one of the Missouri's most the chief known as The One Hom, Catlin, however, received mixed lemmed in by a series of gracefully reactions by the Sioux. On the one hand, many admired the resemblance 'ered hills, on all sides; rising like that Catlin captured in his painting and heralded him as a magician of o the summit level of the prairies, sorts. Thus, to his admirers, Catlin soon became known as Ee-cha-zoo­ hundred feet in elevation, which kah-ga-wakon or the medicine painter. On the other hand, a significant an apparently boundless ocean of opposition to Catlin's paintings soon developed by those who feared aves and fields of greenY that the uncanny likeness meant premature death or bad luck to those Fort Pierre include few specifics about the who sat for their portraits. This view that his paintings were a bad Ig well-built, about 200 or 300 feet square, omen became significant enough that many of the fur traders at the fort tories, houses, apartments, and stores. At became concerned for Catlin's safety. Eventually, however, many of the 19 stated that Fort Pierre already established opponents began accepting the positive view of the admirers. rtant posts of the fur trade, "drawing from Since low water delayed the Yellowstone from continuing its upriver lmost incredible number of buffalo robes, trip, Catlin took advantage of his time at Fort Pierre by broadening the York and other Eastern markets,. and sold scope of his artwork and writings to include the lifestyles of both the , this was precisely the type of venue that Sioux and the trappers who frequented the trading post. By describing and painting individuals in their native dress as well as many traditional :h, the greatly fatigued Catlin arrived at ceremonies, Catlin became the first artist-ethnographer of the Sioux ted himself to American Fur Company and, later, many other upper Missouri tribes. In addition, Catlin noted meth McKenzie, and Jacob Halsey. Soon that many of the mountain men arrived with their packs of furs and d Catlin to some of the notable Sioux appeared "impatient for a fight" with other trappers. Although the fights Ided the trading post in anticipation of that occurred resulted in many a trapper being bloodied, Catlin stated ntual arrival of the steamboat. In fact, that the fighting most often took place in make-shift rings, followed illS as he approached Fort Pierre was the guidelines of fairness, and generally resulted in many rambunctious )used the large number of Sioux people trappers, who experienced sound beatings, becoming more civil by the 20 flowstone finally arrived, Catlin recorded time they returned to the mountains. nent and dismay caused amongst 6000 In addition to the rapidly changing native cultures and the presence stood along the shoreline watching the of fur trappers and traders, the immense herds of buffalo on the plains riverP also left a notable impression on Catlin. For instance, during the walk ~atlin met impressed him greatly, and he from the Yellowstone to Fort Pierre, Catlin's party noted impressively non-Indian trappers and traders told him large herds of buffalo. Inspired by the magnificent appearance of this :reas he expected the Sioux to be a nation animal, Catlin painted and wrote a great deal about buffalo throughout instead perceived them as a proud, noble his 1832 trip. Regardless of Catlin's admiration, he expressed his )ted that alcohol had not been a problem concern that, like the Indian, the buffalo was "rapidly wasting away at IS introduced it as a trade good. 18 Catlin the approach of civilized man." To Catlin, the introduction of whiskey 11 images of the Sioux before the white and other trade goods in return for buffalo robes greatly contributed to ated their culture. Consequently, Catlin the bleak future and the demise of the buffaloY onvincing many of the higher ranking Eventually, Catlin once again boarded the Yellowstone, said good­ rtraits. After completing his portrait of bye to Fort Pierre, and arrived at Fort Union on June 16, 1832. Fort Union, the American Fur Company's most valued trading post, had

9 been Catlin's destination ever since the Yellowstone left St. Louis of formidable resistance by the approximately 2,000 miles and nearly three months earlier. As with his chagrin that the fur trade W01 experience at Fort Pierre, Catlin quickly seized the opportunity at Fort Indians as it previously had be Union to record his impressions through sketches and paintings. For wrote that the trinkets and whi a full half hour before the Yellowstone's arrival at Fort Union, Catlin eventually leave the Blackfeet observed Indians running and yelling along the shoreline amazed at dreary and solitary waste."25 the appearance of the steamboat, while cannons repeatedly thundered Since Catlin primarily focu notice of its arrival. According to Catlin, the scene presented "the and scenery that surrounded the most thrilling and picturesque appearance."22 Over the next several Fort Union often show them as weeks, Catlin continued to profess that the people and beauty of the To the viewer, it appears that 1 upper Missouri made it among the most romantic locations for an artist themselves. Nonetheless, as w to practice his vocation. Although this was exactly the setting that he Union lacked in detail, Catlin sought for his work, it would be interesting to hear what the rough and In fact, Catlin knew that the it tumble crowd of trappers and traders said about Catlin behind his back. sense of urgency that drew hirr It is easy to imagine how the men at the posts must have laughed at him Furthermore, it did not take Cat for his flowery language as well as his refusal to smoke and drink.23 If the leadership of Kenneth Mel Catlin was indeed aware of such ridicule, he did not let it hamper his Fur Company's business west mISSIon. stated that it was a substanti The importance ofFort Union lay primarily with its strategic location safe from possible Indian atta< at the confluence of the Yellowstone and Missouri rivers. Perhaps the strategically on a stretch of pra richest beaver country in the West existed here; however, American Yellowstone rivers. Within its fur trappers and traders had to deal with some formidable challenges. of goods for the forty to fifty n Cree, Blackfeet, Piegan, Crow, and Assiniboine Indians were among replenishing the supplies of the the notable tribes who occupied the region. Although tribes such as and for trading directly with a the Crow and the Blackfeet openly fought each another, Catlin noted not underestimate the significaJ that the tribes recognized Fort Union as a no-fighting zone where sketches of the post leave a lot their differences would be put aside should warring tribes be present Catlin spent the next mon at the same time. Meanwhile, the Assiniboine and British often had a and painting a variety of image negative impact on the American trade along the United States-Canada McKenzie, provided Catlin wi borderland. Finally, the Blackfeet also had a long history of opposing where he sat with his paints a American traders, and it was not until 1830 that they began trading with studio, Catlin painted the portr the United States.24 During his stay at Fort Union, Catlin learned that the the area tribes while he used th Blackfeet were long considered the most powerful and fearsome tribe his seat. In addition to portrai in the region. Since their domain included a rich bounty of beaver and engaged in group games, danc{ buffalo, the American Fur Company constantly risked sending trappers observed these latter scenes fre

into their lands despite warnings by the Blackfeet that any man caught such example occurred when I doing so would be killed. These were not idle threats since, during the other men from the fort on a t height of the tribe's resistance, the American Fur Company lost between often criticized the fur trade j fifteen to twenty men at the hands of the Blackfeet. Despite a history animals such as the buffalo, (

10 it !] Ie Yellowstone left St. Louis of formidable resistance by the tribe, Catlin once again expressed his ee months earlier. As with his chagrin that the fur trade would be as detrimental to this nation of 'l seized the opportunity at Fort Indians as it previously had been to many others. Catlin sarcastically 1 sketches and paintings. For wrote that the trinkets and whiskey introduced by the fur trade would , arrival at Fort Union, Catlin j eventually leave the Blackfeet "to inhabit, and at last to starve upon, a long the shoreline amazed at t dreary and solitary waste."25 cannons repeatedly thundered Since Catlin primarily focused on the native populations, animals, :lin, the scene presented "the and scenery that surrounded the forts, his sketches ofboth Fort Pierre and Ice."22 Over the next several I Fort Union often show them as mere structures in a distant background. the people and beauty of the To the viewer, it appears that his work focused very little on the forts umantic locations for an artist themselves. Nonetheless, as with Fort Pierre, what his sketches of Fort was exactly the setting that he Union lacked in detail, Catlin reported more in depth in his writings. ng to hear what the rough and 1 In fact, Catlin knew that the impact of the fur trade frontier created a I about Catlin behind his back. I sense of urgency that drew him to the upper Missouri in the first place. iOsts must have laughed at him Furthermore, it did not take Catlin long to realize that Fort Union, under fusa! to smoke and drink?3 If the leadership of Kenneth McKenzie, oversaw much of the American e, he did not let it hamper his Fur Company's business westward to the Rocky Mountains. Catlin stated that it was a substantial, well-fortified post, which made it larily with its strategic location safe from possible Indian attacks. At 300 feet square, Fort Union sat l Missouri rivers. Perhaps the strategically on a stretch of prairie with access to both the Missouri and :ted here; however, American Yellowstone rivers. Within its fortifications were log houses and stores l some fonnidable challenges. of goods for the forty to fifty men who occupied the fort as well as for iniboine Indians were among replenishing the supplies of the men when they rendezvoused at the fort :ion. Although tribes such as and for trading directly with area Indian tribes.26 In short, Catlin did ~ht each another, Catlin noted not underestimate the significance of Fort Union, although many of his as a no-fighting zone where sketches of the post leave a lot to be desired. )uld warring tribes be present Catlin spent the next month in and around Fort Union sketching iboine and British often had a and painting a variety of images that caught his eye. His gracious host, long the United States-Canada McKenzie, provided Catlin with a room in one of the fort's bastions lad a long history of opposing where he sat with his paints and canvass. In this make-shift painting ~O that they began trading with studio, Catlin painted the portraits of Indians representing a number of t Union, Catlin learned that the the area tribes while he used the breech end of a 12 pounder cannon for t powerful and fearsome tribe his seat. In addition to portraits, Catlin also painted scenes of Indians ed a rich bounty of beaver and engaged in group games, dances, and buffalo hunts.27 Of course, Catlin stantly risked sending trappers observed these latter scenes from outside the walls of Fort Union. One Blackfeet that any man caught such example occurred when Catlin rode with McKenzie and several )t idle threats since, during the other men from the fort on a buffalo hunt. Ironically, although Catlin can Fur Company lost between often criticized the fur trade frontier for its aggregate destruction of e Blackfeet. Despite a history animals such as the buffalo, Catlin admitted that he wanted to kill a

11 buffalo for himself. However, his objective was not that of procuring only mean bad consequences fOl meat; rather, he wanted a trophy of a buffalo head and horns as a case when Catlin painted a pict souvenir from his experiences. He succeeded in getting his trophy, and died. Although the girl was aIr as the buffalo that he shot snorted and staggered, Catlin quickly opened her, the fact that she died soon' his sketchbook and drew the animal in its final stage of life?8 the bad medicine that killed th€ After spending nearly a month at Fort Union, Catlin prepared to questioned the accuracy of the iJ return to St. Louis. As previously mentioned, Catlin originally planned Catlin's artwork. As a result, C to take a canoe down the Missouri by himself, thus allowing him which he called Certificates oj the opportunity to stop whenever he wished. As he prepared for his William Clark and Kenneth M downriver voyage, however, he agreed to have two French-Canadian accurate representations of his trappers accompany him. The trappers, whom Catlin mentioned as upper Missouri.32 Nonetheles! Ba'tiste and Bogard, entertained the artist with numerous stories oftheir critics would be John James At wilderness adventures. Ba'tiste and Bogard apparently had no problem Missouri River in 1843. with Catlin's frequent stops so that he could quickly sketch or paint the Although Catlin is credited wildlife and bluffs found along the Missouri River, even though this traveled up the Missouri Rive meant that the trip to St. Louis would take considerably longer. A week followed. It is, therefore, quite after leaving Fort Union, the three travelers arrived at the American referred to the work of Catlin ~ Fur Company's Fort Clark, where the fort's factor, James Kipp, hosted what they expected to see. Of Catlin for almost a month?9 Audubon is noted as perhaps With Kipp as his host, Catlin visited the nearby Mandan and Hidatsa compared and contrasted his im] villages where he focused his artwork on more portraits, as well as those of Catlin. In some cases,J many cultural aspects of these Indian village farmers. From mid-July Catlin, while in others, he noted through mid-August, Catlin's work on the Mandan proved to be the most that he openly questioned the v: notable highlight of his entire 1832 trip. In fact, Catlin devoted more Audubon's success as a wi pages in his book on North American Indians to the Mandan than any travels to observe animals firsth; other single tribe. While his works titled Indian Council and The Bear age of 58, Audubon prepared tl Dance are often recognized as some of his finest works, art historian I - a trip to the upper Missouri Joan Carpenter Troccoli argues otherwise in a critique of Catlin. One of hoped, into the Rockies. Unfor Troccoli's negative comments notes that Catlin often produced rushed, from venturing into the mount! generic portraits of individual Indians, which sometimes produced a far as Fort Union and its surr01 caricature effect rather than a true portrait of a person. On the other hand, a naturalist and artist, he orig~ Troccoli applauds Catlin, more often than not, for his special attention provide funding for his trip, b to distinctive features of his subjects, including facial expressions and support. Like Catlin, Audubo poses that created lively scenes.3D gaining the support of the Am As previously mentioned, throughout his 1832 trip on the upper Jr. Subsequently, on April 25 Missouri, Catlin faced mixed reactions from Indian individuals. Fur Company's steamboat On: Overall, his ability to capture a person's likeness so well caused many a solitary trip for Audubon, ill to regard him as a man of strong medicine. At the same time, there were hundred and one trappers ofall always those who disliked his work and felt that his portraits would nationalities."35 For Audubon,

12 ~ctive was not that of procuring only mean bad consequences for those whom he painted. Such was the i buffalo head and horns as a case when Catlin painted a picture of a young Mandan girl who later :eeded in getting his trophy, and died. Although the girl was already ill at the time that Catlin painted taggered, Catlin quickly opened her, the fact that she died soon thereafter caused him to be blamed for 28 3 ts final stage of life. the bad medicine that killed the gir1. ! Later, other non-Indian critics Fort Union, Catlin prepared to questioned the accuracy of the images and scenes that were the focus of ioned, Catlin originally planned Catlin's artwork. As a result, Catlin procured a number of statements, )y himself, thus allowing him which he called Certificates of Likeness, from individuals, including fished. As he prepared for his William Clark and Kenneth McKenzie, testifying to his faithful and I to have two French-Canadian accurate representations of his 1832 experiences while visiting the rs, whom Catlin mentioned as upper Missouri.32 Nonetheless, one of Catlin's earliest and biggest it with numerous stories of their critics would be John James Audubon, who made a similar trip up the gard apparently had no problem Missouri River in 1843. Duld quickly sketch or paint the Although Catlin is credited for being the first notable artist who lSSOUri River, even though this traveled up the Missouri River during the 19th century, others soon te considerably longer. A week followed. It is, therefore, quite understandable why later artists often velers arrived at the American referred to the work of Catlin as a standard for what they also saw or >rt's factor, James Kipp, hosted what they expected to see. Of all of the artists who succeeded Catlin, Audubon is noted as perhaps the one person who most stringently the nearby Mandan and Hidatsa compared and contrasted his impressions ofthe upper Missouri valley to on more portraits, as well as those of Catlin. In some cases, Audubon made favorable comparisons to illage farmers. From mid-July Catlin, while in others, he noted that the differences were so compelling e Mandan proved to be the most that he openly questioned the validity of Catlin's work. '. In fact, Catlin devoted more Audubon's success as a wildlife painter came from his extensive :tdians to the Mandan than any travels to observe animals firsthand in their natural environments. At the dIndian Council and The Bear age of 58, Audubon prepared to make one last trip into the wilderness ~ his finest works, art historian - a trip to the upper Missouri and Yellowstone river valleys and, he ~ in a critique of Catlin. One of hoped, into the Rockies. Unfortunately, health problems prevented him : Catlin often produced rushed, from venturing into the mountains; however, like Catlin, he traveled as which sometimes produced a far as Fort Union and its surrounding region.33 Given his reputation as :ofa person. On the other hand, a naturalist and artist, he originally hoped that the government would m not, for his special attention provide funding for his trip, but he was unable to secure any federal cluding facial expressions and support. Like Catlin, Audubon realized that his best option lay with gaining the support of the American Fur Company's Pierre Chouteau, ut his 1832 trip on the upper Jr. Subsequently, on April 25, 1843, Audubon boarded the American lOS from Indian individuals. Fur Company's steamboat Omega and left St. Louis.34 This was not likeness so well caused many a solitary trip for Audubon, as he later wrote that the boat carried "a ~. At the same time, there were hundred and one trappers of all descriptions and nearly a dozen different d felt that his portraits would nationalities."35 For Audubon, this would be his opportunity to witness

13 firsthand the impact of the fur trade frontier in its twilight stages. on American Indians. For ex: As the Omega moved slowly against the Missouri current, Audubon opinion that Indians were poOl noted the visible changes from the settled farming communities near repeatedly admired the noble ( St. Louis to the more sparsely settled traders' frontier and the animal May 13, 1843, eleven Omaha life found farther upriver near Fort Pierre and beyond. Early in the it would stop; however, Audut morning on May 18, 1843, the Omega's captain informed Audubon that because "he hates the red-skins they were meeting four barges, which were passing downriver from that "They looked as destitute II Fort Pierre. Among the passengers on board the boats heading to St. a week, and no doubt would h~ Louis was William Laidlaw, who was still heavily involved in much of and then added, "I pity these: the Fort Pierre trade operations. Just as Catlin did in 1832, Audubon days later, Audubon described introduced himself to Laidlaw and asked questions about what to expect they often sought drowned buff upriver. At the time, the four barges were laden with 10,000 buffalo how rotten and putrid the carcai robes, and Laidlaw and his party told Audubon that there would soon painted and written images w~ be buffalo by the thousands approximately another 100 miles ahead.36 Catlin, I am now sorry to see ~ Upon approaching Fort Pierre, Audubon noted its general that you saw - how very differ appearance with its four bastions; unfortunately, he did not go into any have seen!"42 other specifics.37 The Omega reached Fort Pierre on May 31, 1843, In reading Audubon's jom and, although the stopover was only for a day, Audubon quickly began appear to be largely shaped by sketching as much as he could. His sketches included the post's small traveled and visited. Upon arr herd of buffalo calves, various birds, a grizzly bearskin, elk antlers, a group of Indians visiting the and a variety of other animal curiosities. Upon request, he visited the smelly and whose yelling and ~ storehouse where he saw eight or ten packages of "White Hare skins" to Audubon, of "so many devi prepared for shipping. He also noted the general description of how the distrust of Indians in general VI tipis surrounding the fort were constructed. The next day, the Omega critical of Catlin. For instanc€ resumed its journey. Approximately fifty of the trappers who traveled villages near Fort Clark, he VI on board from St. Louis stayed at Fort Pierre, while most of those who of a Mandan village. AccordiI remained planned on traveling to Fort Union.38 With less cargo and are very far from looking po fewer men, the steamboat soon began moving at a faster pace, reaching render them so by placing the Fort Union on June 12, 1843.39 On the return trip, Audubon stayed at size and form, which is by no Fort Pierre from September 8th through the 14th of 1843, although rain (sic) have different eyes!"44 A hampered much of his activity. Despite several rainy days, Audubon earlier impressions of Indian . used the time to do "several drawings of objects in and about the fort."40 Indian nations during the peric As Catlin did eleven years prior, Audubon regularly recorded his hundred oil paintings of Indian thoughts on American Indians. Whereas Catlin sought to capture images and clothing. Audubon, on the of Indians before the fur trade could further change their lifestyles, that showed Indians who were I Audubon's perceptions derived after the fur trade irreversibly changed he met were dirty. Audubon much of the traditional native cultures. The contrast between Catlin work as "humbug."45 and Audubon's impressions of the fur trade frontier are certainly the As expected, the farther J greatest when it comes to their respective views regarding the effect more buffalo he saw. Upon

14 ltier in its twilight stages. on American Indians. For example, Audubon quickly developed the :the Missouri current, Audubon opinion that Indians were poor, dirty, and untrustworthy, while Catlin :led fanning communities near repeatedly admired the noble character of the native populations. On raders' frontier and the animal May 13, 1843, eleven Omaha Indians hailed the Omega hoping that ~rre and beyond. Early in the it would stop; however, Audubon noted that the captain ignored them captain informed Audubon that because "he hates the red-skins." Audubon then recorded in his journal were passing downriver from that "They looked as destitute and as hungry as if they had not eaten for board the boats heading to St. a week, and no doubt would have given much for a bottle of whiskey" :ill heavily involved in much of and then added, "I pity these poor beings from my heart!"41 Several s Catlin did in 1832, Audubon days later, Audubon described how many Indians were so hungry that Iquestions about what to expect they often sought drowned buffalo floating down the river, regardless of I'ere laden with 10,000 buffalo how rotten and putrid the carcasses might be. The contrast with Catlin's ~udubon that there would soon painted and written images was evident as Audubon wrote, "Ah! Mr. ~ly another 100 miles ahead.3 6 Catlin, I am now sorry to see and to read your accounts of the Indians Audubon noted its general that you saw - how very different they must have been from any that I tunately, he did not go into any have seen!"42 Fort Pierre on May 31, 1843, In reading Audubon's journal entries, his impressions of Indians .a day, Audubon quickly began appear to be largely shaped by the traders and trappers with whom he ~tehes included the post's small traveled and visited. Upon arriving at Fort Union, Audubon witnessed [ grizzly bearskin, elk antlers, a group of Indians visiting the post whom he described as filthy and s. Upon request, he visited the smelly and whose yelling and singing created an appearance, according ackages of "White Hare skins" to Audubon, of "so many devils."43 As his impressions of disgust and : general description of how the distrust of Indians in general were forged, he also became increasingly :ted. The next day, the Omega critical of Catlin. For instance, when Audubon arrived at the Mandan 1)' of the trappers who traveled villages near Fort Clark, he was quick to challenge Catlin's painting >ierre, while most of those who of a Mandan village. According to Audubon, "The Mandan mud huts Union.38 With less cargo and are very far from looking poetical, although Mr. Catlin has tried to oving at a faster pace, reaching render them so by placing them in regular rows, and all of the same return trip, Audubon stayed at size and form, which is by no means the case. But different travellers the 14th of 1843, although rain (sic) have different eyes!"44 Audubon increasingly questioned Catlin's e several rainy days, Audubon earlier impressions of Indian life. Overall, Catlin visited nearly fifty objects in and about the fort."40 Indian nations during the period 1832-1840, and he produced over five .odubon regularly recorded his hundred oil paintings of Indians with special attention given to customs Catlin sought to capture images and clothing. Audubon, on the other hand, questioned Catlin's paintings further change their lifestyles, that showed Indians who were elegantly dressed since the Indians whom : fur trade irreversibly changed he met were dirty. Audubon even went so far as to describe Catlin's , The contrast between Catlin work as "humbug."45 trade frontier are certainly the As expected, the farther Audubon traveled up the Missouri, the ive views regarding the effect more buffalo he saw. Upon inquiry, he learned that the presence of

15 ----, I buffalo herds depended on such factors as the weather conditions and I of the bluffs, which were dry, ( the availability of grasslands for grazing and areas where the herds were with trees that were now dead , not as likely to be disturbed. Considering these factors, buffalo were mentioned that the boat passe< often visible in significant numbers within a short distance from Fort qualified a few sentences late Union, while at other times, hunters might have to travel 25-30 miles many curious cliffs, none ofthe] in order to find a herd. Audubon learned that, during the winter season, further criticized Catlin by wn hay scattered outside of Fort Union kept the buffalo close at hand. Fort extravagant Views of the Counl personnel even attempted to corral some bison by leading them to an old When Audubon was not < fortification-turned-corral by placing a path of hay through the gates. hunting, observing, and sketcl The buffalo, however, would not enter through the gates into the area found in the upper Missouri I where hogs and cattle were kept. Nonetheless, the scattering of hay his trip was to conduct a deta kept many buffalo conveniently close to Fort Union. On one occasion, for which Audubon has since I a shot fired from a four-pounder killed three buffalo and wounded During his stay at Fort Union, several others. Despite such hunting practices, a number of the animals room that quartered Maximilim tended to stay close enough to the post for hunters to readily shoot them Karl Bodmer spent time at the 1 46 throughout the winter season. quarters, he planned to collect Just as Catlin did in the early 1830s, Audubon also experienced the the quadrupeds of the area; ho excitement of a buffalo hunt. For both artists, hunting buffalo remained Audubon regretted that he had. a lasting impression, one that they each recorded in their respective In correspondence sent from S1. journals and in their artwork. And just as Catlin noted during his stay at Fort Union, Audubon wondered how long the buffalo herds would remain. Despite seeing large herds nonchalantly grazing on the open prairie, he noted that thousands of buffalo skins were being transported downriver. According to Audubon, the great herds of buffalo could not last, and "even now there is a perceptible difference in the size of the herds, and before many years the Buffalo, like the Great Auk, will have disappeared; surely this should not be permitted."47 Given the artistic instincts of both Audubon and Catlin, it is not surprising that they each described landscapes too. Audubon's general description of the location of Fort Union was similar to that of Catlin's in that it included mention of fertile soil along the river banks, along with timber, while the rolling prairies above the river valley extended into the distance in every direction.48 Audubon even went so far as to draw an image oftwo ground squirrels with a small image of Fort Union and the Missouri River seen in the distance between the animals.49 Of course, if beauty is truly in the eye of the beholder, the artists definitely had some differences in what they noted of the physical landscape. For example, Audubon, at one point, was astonished by the poor appearance

16 ,rs as the weather conditions and of the bluffs, which were dry, crumbling, and whose ravines were filled 19 and areas where the herds were with trees that were now dead and barren. On yet another occasion, he ering these factors, buffalo were mentioned that the boat passed some beautiful scenery, which he then lithin a short distance from Fort qualified a few sentences later by stating that, although he observed night have to travel 25-30 miles many curious cliffs, none ofthem matched Catlin's drawings .50 Audubon ed that, during the winter season, further criticized Catlin by writing that "We have seen nothing of the pt the buffalo close at hand. Fort extravagant Views of the Country given in Cattlin's (sic) Books ...."51 Ie bison by leading them to an old When Audubon was not critiquing Catlin, he busied himself by :i path of hay through the gates. hunting, observing, and sketching the variety of birds and mammals r through the gates into the area found in the upper Missouri region. In fact, the primary reason for metheless, the scattering of hay his trip was to conduct a detailed study of the animal life - a study :0 Fort Union. On one occasion, for which Audubon has since been criticized for its lack of substance. led three buffalo and wounded During his stay at Fort Union, Audubon spent some time in the same ractices, a number of the animals room that quartered Maximilian, Prince of Wied, when he and the artist for hunters to readily. shoot them Karl Bodmer spent time at the trading post in 1833-1834.52 From these quarters, he planned to collect as much information as possible about ;, Audubon also experienced the the quadrupeds of the area; however, after two months at Fort Union, artists, hunting buffalo remained Audubon regretted that he had little to add to what was already known. lch recorded in their respective In correspondence sent from St. Louis after his return, he claimed to have t as Catlin noted during his stay N long the buffalo herds would ,nchalantly grazing on the open 110 skins were being transported great herds of buffalo could not ble difference in the size of the 10, like the Great Auk, will have ermitted."47 Audubon and Catlin, it is not Iscapes too. Audubon's general n was similar to that of Catlin's )il along the river banks, along lbove the river valley extended ~udubon even went so far as to tith a small image ofFort Union mce between the animals.49 Of e beholder, the artists definitely Iof the physical landscape. For onished by the poor appearance Mandan Village, George Caitlin, circa 1833

17 information on approximately 14 new species of birds and only three or the past."57 Without question, ( four new quadrupeds. Although he emphasized that he produced many along with many other artists 0: good sketches of flowers, landscapes, and the more common animals deserve to be recognized for th such as buffalo, wolves, and antelope, this did not sit well with his good both as ethnographers and as ill friend and supporter John Bachman. Bachman had been asked to advise and help coauthor Audubon's book about his 1843 Missouri River trip, ENDNOTES but he expressed great disappointment with the lack of new material with which Audubon returned.53 1 Frederick Jackson Turner, Tht Of course, in retrospect, whether one examines Catlin or Audubon University of Arizona Press, 1 and their respective focus on Indian life, animals, or other changes that 2 John C. Ewers, Artists ofthe . were taking place, a major emphasis of both artists, either directly or ~ indirectly, centered on their impressions of the fur trade frontier. Catlin 3 Terry J. Ellingson, The Myth hoped to capture the native peoples before their traditional ways were of California Press, Ltd., 2(0) gone forever, yet his 1832 trip occurred at a time when the Rocky 4 Ewers., 72. Mountain fur trade was well underway. His writings and artwork tended 5 Mildred Goosman, ed., Expl, to romanticize the wilderness and contributed greatly to the noble image (Omaha, NE: Joslyn Art Mus€ of the American Indian.54 His images, whether in print or on canvass, tended to be too glowing, too poetic, and too positive to be accepted by 6 Marjorie Catlin Roehm, The J many as true-to-life images. It is as if he often tried to perceive what Chronicle ofthe American We it was like prior to the fur trade, not during. Conversely, Audubon's 1966),57. 1843 trip and his focus on wildlife occurred after the fur trade of the 7 Harold McCracken, George l Upper Missouri and the Rocky Mountains already declined. As such, Dial Press, 1959),39. his frequent cynicism related more to the lasting impact of the fur trade and what little remained in its wake.55 In either case, the presence of 8 Hiram Martin Chittenden, , the fur trade frontier drew both artists to trading posts such as Fort (Lincoln: University of Nebn Pierre, Fort Clark, and Fort Union, and both artists were well aware that 9 Roehm, Letters ofGeorge Ct change was ongoing. Without the support of individuals such as Pierre 10 McCracken, George Catlin Q Chouteau, Jr., William Laidlaw, and Kenneth McKenzie, neither artist would have been able to undertake such expeditions up the Missouri 11 Goosman, Exploration in the River. Audubon admired the courage of those who traveled, hunted, 12 Roehm, Letters ofGeorge 0 trapped, and traded in America's wilderness; however, like Catlin, he also knew that it was only a matter of time before civilization tamed the 13 George Catlin, Letters and Nt wilderness. As the fur trade frontier gave way to the mining, ranching, ofthe North American Indian: and farming frontiers, Audubon reflected on these changes and wrote, Inc., 1965), I: 217. "Whether these changes are for the better or for the worse, I shall not 14 McCracken, George Catlin G pretend to say."56 15 Catlin, Letters and Notes, I: : Historian Ray Allen Billington once said that "Man's artistic creations are, to the historian, invaluable keys to an understanding of 16 Ibid.; Roehm, Letters ofGeo

18 Iecies of birds and only three or the past."57 Without question, George Catlin and John James Audubon, hasized that he produced many along with many other artists of the nineteenth century American West, md the more common animals deserve to be recognized for their impressions of the fur trade frontier, is did not sit well with his good both as ethnographers and as naturalists. :hman had been asked to advise It his 1843 Missouri River trip, ENDNOTES with the lack of new material Frederick Jackson Turner, The Frontier in American History (Tucson: The .e examines Catlin or Audubon University ofArizona Press, 1986), 1, 12. ,animals, or other changes that 2 John C. Ewers, Artists o/the Old West (New York: Doubleday, 1973),7. f both artists, either directly or of the fur trade frontier. Catlin 3 Terry J. Ellingson, The Myth o/the Noble Savage (Berkeley, CA: University ore their traditional ways were of California Press, Ltd., 2001), 179. ed at a time when the Rocky 4 Ewers., 72. ~is writings and artwork tended 5 Mildred Goosman, ed., Exploration in the West: Catlin, Bodmer, Miller mted greatly to the noble image (Omaha, NE: Joslyn Art Museum, 1967), 10. whether in print or on canvass, I too positive to be accepted by 6 Marjorie Catlin Roehm, The Letters o/George Catlin and His Family-A he often tried to perceive what Chronicle o/the American West (Berkeley: University of California Press, uring. Conversely, Audubon's 1966),57. urred after the fur trade of the 7 Harold McCracken, George Catlin and the Old Frontier (New York: The ins already declined. As such, Dial Press, 1959),39. ~ lasting impact of the fur trade In either case, the presence of 8 Hiram Martin Chittenden, The American Fur Trade 0/ the Far West to trading posts such as Fort (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986),338. oth artists were well aware that 9 Roehm, Letters 0/ George Catlin, 58. )rt of individuals such as Pierre 10 McCracken, George Catlin and the Old Frontier, 39. :nneth McKenzie, neither artist :h expeditions up the Missouri 11 Goosman, Exploration in the West, 1]. :)f those who traveled, hunted, 12 Roehm, Letters 0/ George Catlin, 59. mess; however, like Catlin, he Ile before civilization tamed the 13 George Catlin, Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs, and Condition re way to the mining, ranching, o/the North American Indians, 2 vols. (Minneapolis, MN: Ross & Haines, :d on these changes and wrote, Inc., ]965), I: 217. :er or for the worse, I shall not 14 McCracken, George Catlin and the Old Frontier, 48. 15 Catlin, Letters and Notes, I: 208-209. nce said that "Man's artistic Ie keys to an understanding of 16 Ibid.; Roehm, Letters o/George Catlin, 59. ~ t L 19 F !

17 Catlin, Letters and Notes, I: 220,227. 38 Irmscher, Writings and Drawi 18 Ibid., I: 210. 39 In his "Missouri River Journa 19 Ibid., I: 220-221; Clyde Hollman, Five Artists of the Old West: George of 48 days and seven hours fro Catlin, Karl Bodmer, Alfred Jacob Miller, Charles M. Russell, and record by nearly 20 days. Frederic Remington (New York: Hastings House, 1965), 29. Although 40 Maria R. Audubon, ed., Audl many considered it an honor to have their images painted by Catlin, there Charles Scribner's Sons, 1900 were several deaths blamed on him for creating bad medicine. 41 Ibid., I: 487-488. 20 Ibid., I: 228. 42 Ibid., I: 497. 21 Ibid., I: 219,247,249. 43 Foshay, John James Audubm: 22 Ibid., I: 14-15 44 Sanders, Audubon Reader ­ J 23 Roehm, Letters ofGeorge Catlin, 65. 45 Foshay, John James Audub01 24 Ibid., 60-61. 46 Richard Rhodes, ed., John Jc. 25 Catlin, Letters and Notes, I: 52. York: Alfred A. Knopf,2oo6) 26 Ibid., I: 14,21. 47 Audubon, Audubon and His.

27 Ibid., 1: 29; Roehm, Letters ofGeorge Catlin, 63. 48 Rhodes, The Audubon Read~ 28 Catlin, Letters and Notes, I: 26. trading post by Edwin T. Dell journals. Denig was a fur tra, 29 Ewers, Artists ofthe Old West, 79. 49 Foshay, John James AudubOl 30 Ibid.; Joan Carpenter Troccoli, First Artist of the West ­ George Catlin print - one with Fort Union a: Paintings and Watercolors, (Tulsa, OK: Gilcrease Museum, 1993),78,88. 50 Audubon, Audubon and His. 31 Hollman, Five Artists ofthe Old West, 42. 51 McDermott, Audubon in the 32 Catlin, Letters and Notes, I: 11-13. 52 Sarah E. Boehme,John Jame

33 Scott Russell Sanders, ed., Audubon Reader ­ The Best Writings ofJohn Mammals ofNorth America, I James Audubon, (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986),236. 53 Ibid., 73, 161; McDermott, j 34 Ella M. Foshay,John James Audubon, (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Bachman shared a strong i: 1997),121. together, the two wrote and 35 Sanders, Audubon Reader ­ The Best Writings, 236. North America. 36 Christoph Irmscher, John James Audubon ­ Writings and Drawings (New 54 Boehme, John James Audub York: The Library of America, 1999),585. 55 Ibid. 37 John Francis McDermott, Audubon in the West (Norman: University of 56 Foshay, John James Audubo Oklahoma Press, 1965), 109. 57 Goosman, Exploration in thj

20 38 Innscher, Writings and Drawings, 605-607. 39 In his "Missouri River Journals," Audubon recorded that the Omega's trip Ie Artists of the Old West: George of 48 days and seven hours from St. Louis to Fort Union was the fastest on Miller, Charles M. Russell, and record by nearly 20 days. ings House, 1965),29. Although 40 Maria R. Audubon, ed., Audubon and His Journals, 2 vols. (New York: eir images painted by Catlin, there Charles Scribner's Sons, 1900), II: 164-165. creating bad medicine. 41 Ibid., I: 487-488. 42 Ibid., I: 497. 43 Foshay, John James Audubon, 32. 44 Sanders, Audubon Reader ­ The Best Writings, 238. 45 Foshay, John James Audubon, 32. 46 Richard Rhodes, ed., John James Audubon ­ The Audubon Reader (New York: AlfredA. Knopf, 2006), 579, 581-582. 47 Audubon, Audubon and His Journals, II: 131. Catlin, 63. 48 Rhodes, The Audubon Reader, 582. A detailed description of the actual trading post by Edwin T. Denig is included in Audubon's Missouri River journals. Denig was a fur trader and author who worked at Fort Union. 49 Foshay, John James Audubon, 81. There are at least two versions of this ~rtist of the West - George Catlin print - one with Fort Union and one without. Gilcrease Museum, 1993),78,88. 50 Audubon, Audubon and His Journals, I: 530. 42. 51 McDennott, Audubon in the West, 116. 52 Sarah E. Boehme, John James Audubon in the West: The Last Expedition: eader - The Best Writings ofJohn Mammals ofNorth America, (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 2000), 60. 1 University Press, 1986),236. 53 Ibid., 73,161; McDennott, Audubon in the West, 18-19. Reverend John :New York: Harry N. Abrams , Inc., Bachman shared a strong interest with Audubon as a naturalist, and together, the two wrote and illustrated The Viviparous Quadrupeds of Vritings, 236. North America. 'on - Writings and Drawings (New 54 Boehme, John James Audubon in the West, 58. 85. 55 Ibid. the West (Nonnan: University of 56 Foshay, John James Audubon. 110-111. Goosman, Exploration in the West, 4. ! 57 21 .. L