ELK Asia Pacific Journals – Special Issue ISBN: 978-81-930411-1-6
PROBLEMS OF CROSS-CULTURAL TRANSLATION AND THE TRANSLATOR'S ROLE
Dr. K. JAYARAJU, M.A., M.Ed., L.L.B., Ph.D., Department of English, Govt. Degree College, Vinukonda – 522 647, Guntur Dt., A.P, [email protected] Cell : 09491108936.
Roman Jakobson divides language into another language. First, the translation activity into three categories: translator has to decide whether the intralingual, interlingual and intersemiotic. translation should be 'free' or 'literal', Intralingual translation is an interpretation faithful or beautiful, exact or natural of verbal signs by means of other signs in translation. 'Literal' translation is word for the same language. Interlingual translation word translation. In 'Free' translation, the is translation proper in which an translator does not follow the form and interpretation of verbal signs takes place content of the Source Text closely. For by means of some other language. instance, while transferring a law book or Intersemiotic translation is known as a science book or a book of information, 'transmutation' in which an interpretation the translator should transfer from one of verbal signs takes place by means of language into another literally. On the signs of non-verbal sign systems. For contrary, if the translator transfers a book example, intersemiotic translation is from of literature from one language to another verbal art into music, dance, cinema or literally, it would be misleading and painting. Here we are concerned with confusing. The traditional dichotomy interlingual translation. It involves between 'literal' and 'free' translation has transference of a text in Source Language been replaced by different modern theories (SL) into Target Language (TL). It is not like Roman Jakobson's (1959) semiotic just finding a synonym or an equivalent of approach to translation in which the a word used in the Source Language (SL) translator has to recode the ST (Source in the Target Language (TL). Text) message first and then he has to transfer it into an equivalent message for Translating is a challenging task the TC (Target Culture) involving two and the translator faces many problems 'equivalent messages' in two different while carrying over a text from one language, Eugene Nida's (1964), 'formal ELK Asia Pacific Journals – Special Issue ISBN: 978-81-930411-1-6
equivalence' versus 'dynamic equivalence', Linguistic problems Cartford's (1965) 'formal correspondence' Structurally English and Odia and versus 'textual equivalence', Peter other Indian languages are different. Newmark's (1977) 'semantics' versus English is a SVO (subject, verb, and 'communicative' translation, Itamar Even- object) language but Odia is SOV (subject, Zohar and Gideon Toury's (1970s) object, and verb) language. Moreover the emphasis on actual translation in the target use of progressive tense form in English culture. In 1980s Susan Bassnett's and Odia poses another challenge to the Translation Studies focuses on unique translator. For example, 'Mu sabu problems of cross-cultural communication dekhuchi' (I am seeing everything), Mu in translation. No longer is translation sabu sunuchi (I am hearing everything) are regarded as linguistic phenomena, but as ungrammatical in English, if these are cultural phenomena. In the eighties, Jose translated literally. The Odia users of Lambart and Clem Robyns viewed English are confused by tense and aspect, translation as an 'intracultural activity' T have met him last week' is not rather than an 'interlinguistic' process grammatically correct in English; but it is (Gentzler 186). In 1990s Mary Snell- grammatically perfect in Odia if translated Hornby presented translation as an literally. The order of sentences and interaction between two cultures. Susan phrases has sometimes to be changed for Bassnett and Andre Lefevere argued that emphasis. So some nuances are lost in translation study was taking ahistoric translation. 'Cultural Turn' as it moved into the nineties (ibid. 185). In other words, at The translator should be competent present translation is not linguistic, but a both in the Source Language (SL) and the cultural transference. Target Language (TL). He should understand and interpret the ST correctly. The translator faces both linguistic The translator commits many mistakes if and cultural problems while translating he does not understand the ST correctly. from one language into another. Here I The translator should always take help of take examples of translating from Odia dictionaries in order to avoid mistakes in into English. comprehending the layers of meaning of a particular word. He has to choose the exact ELK Asia Pacific Journals – Special Issue ISBN: 978-81-930411-1-6
meaning of the word in the context. da', 'badabapa'. 'badama'. The Odia words 'samudi' which means son-in-law's or As it is impossible to find two daughter-in-law's father and 'samuduni' words exactly having the same meaning in which means son-in-law's or daughter-in- one culture and language, similarly it is law's mother have no equivalent word in difficult to find exactly equivalent words English culture and language. So the in two different languages. There is translator should translate the kinship interface between the language and culture words such a manner that the meaning of a place. Language grows out of the does not become ambiguous in the TL. For culture of a particular place. There cannot instance, he should translate 'maushi' as be situational, emotional, social or 'mother's sister'. Sometimes the translator psychological correspondence between has to retain culture-specific kinship words two cultures and hence no equivalent word like 'nana', 'nani', 'bhaina' which is caste- can be found in two languages. The based system of address in Odia culture in translator has to find out the closest order to impart cultural flavour to the equivalent word of the SL in the TL. translation.
Problems of cultural transference Besides, the kinship word 'dada' in (i)Kinship words Odia culture means 'father's brother' in Cultural transference is a challenge eastern and northern Odisha; but. in to the translator. These words have western Odisha 'dada' means 'brother'. So different meanings in different languages the translator should have the knowledge and cultures. The translator faces greatest of the nature of word 'in order to challenge while transferring kinship words reconstruct that which is or might be from one language to another. And the behind the words (Schulte 2). problem multiplies if there is great gap between the cultures of two languages like As Rainer Schutle has rightly that of Odia and English. For instance, in pointed out '...translation is not the English there are a few kinship words like translation of words, even though the final uncle, aunt to express relationships. But in product of our translations appears in the Odia there are many kinship words like form of words and sentences. Words in 'maushi' 'khudi', ' mausha', 'mamu', 'da- themselves are very fragile entities. Each ELK Asia Pacific Journals – Special Issue ISBN: 978-81-930411-1-6
one of us develops different connotations whom one expects love, affection and in our encounter with every word' (2). So personal concern because of close and the translator should 'acquire a sense for intimate, often familial relationship. the magnetic field of words, their semantic Sometimes 'abhiman' also refers to pride fields both in the present as well as in the or arrogance. The translator has to decide past' (2). the exact implication of 'abhiman' in the The meaning of a word is context. Similarly other culture-specific constantly changed or modified in course words in Odia like 'habishya', 'ekadashi, of time on account of social or cultural 'patibrata' are difficult to translate and changes. Idioms and proverbs are also should be retained in Target Text (TT). modified in course of time. So, the Besides, Odia words 'vidhata', translator should be alert about the 'karama', 'kapala', 'daiba', 'bhagya, changing meaning of words or idioms. For 'adrustha'/ niyati' are similar in meaning example, in Odia the idiomatic express, with subtle differences. 'Vidhata' is the 'Tankara bahi sahitadedhasura bhaibohu broadest concept in this series, meaning all samparka' should be translated in the powerful creator who decrees everything. modern context. Earlier in Odia culture a ' English words 'providence', 'fate', 'luck', bhaibohu' that is, 'younger brother's wife' 'destiny' are equivalents of the aforesaid did not see the face of her 'dedhasura' i. e., Odia words. The translator has to select 'her husband's elder brother'. They the most appropriate word depending on maintained distance from one another. But their relevance in the context. For instance, in the modern age 'dedhasura' 'bhaibohu' in Kuntala Kumari Sabat's fiction do not maintain distance. So the above Kalibohu, there is a sentence 'Lakshmira mentioned sentence should be translated kapala phatila' (ch.l). It is translated as, like this to make the meaning clear: 'He 'But fate dealt a harsh blow to Lakshmi'. was a stranger to studies'. Again, Kuntala writes, 'Mo janama vidhata lekhithila brahmana kulare'. It is ii) Culture- Specific words translated as 'Providence decreed my birth Culture-specific words like in a Brahmin family'. Here 'vidhata' is the 'abhiman' have different connotations in broadest term signifying omnipotent different situations. 'Abhiman' means creator. So 'vidhata' is translated as feeling of hurt towards a loved one from 'providence'. ELK Asia Pacific Journals – Special Issue ISBN: 978-81-930411-1-6
huanta? Tame naka na thile guha iii) Idioms and proverbs khaanta', should be carried over with the Translating idioms and proverbs is help of simile to make the meaning clear: the most challenging work of the translator Tou are incapable of taking decisions as of fiction. In this matter he has to follow goats can't do the work of treading on Eugene Nida. According to Nida, 'The stalks of paddy, which is the job of correspondence involving semantically bullocks. You have no sense of dignity. If exocentric expressions, i.e., idioms and you had no nose to smell, you would have figures of speech, are best classified in eaten excreta.' Finally, where the literal terms of types of necessary adaptation, meaning is completely different from the e.g., metaphors to metaphors, metaphors to idiomatic meaning in the Target Language, similes, metaphors to nonmetaphors, and the translator has to translate according to nonmetaphors to metaphors'(219). In other the sense of the idiom. In Odia there is a words, while translating idioms and saying, 'Au karnare taila pradanapurbaka proverbs sometimes the translator has to sayanarabyabastha bhala dishila nanhi'. A give English equivalent of the SL. For literal translation of this would be, 'No example, in Odia, there is a saying, longer did it seem a good idea to sleep, 'Jananijanmabhumischa swargadapi putting oil into their ears.' This translation gariyashi' which is translated as 'Mother does not convey the real meaning. So the and the motherland are greater than translator should translate this according to heaven' to make the meaning explicit. The its sense like this: 'No longer did it seem a translator has to give the equivalent idiom good idea to sit idle, as if they had not a or proverb available in TL. Sometimes an care in the world.' idiom may not only be meaningless, but also may convey quite the wrong meaning iv) Words for technology, food items etc. when carried over into another language. Because of great differences in the In such cases a simile may be substituted technologies of different nations, the for the original metaphor (Nida, 171). The corresponding terms for this area of human translator has to follow this method experience vary greatly. Besides, with a wherever it is possible to do so. For large range of vocabulary for technology, example, the Odia sentence, 'chheli words used for weights and measures, godaredhana mala hele balada loda produce the most acute problems for the ELK Asia Pacific Journals – Special Issue ISBN: 978-81-930411-1-6
translator. Currencies pose special reader. So it should be better dropped. difficulties because of great differences in their purchasing power. Terms associated vi) Slangs, onomatopoeic, humorous with a particular culture also create expressions etc. problems, 'not only because the basic Similarly, slangs, onomatopoeic systems are often so different, but also expressions, nasalized expressions, because the extensions of meaning humorous expressions, ironical appropriate to one system rarely work in expressions pose challenge to the another' (Ibid. 216). So the translator has translator. While rendered into another to retain the names of months like language, these expressions naturally lose Baishak, Jeyestha Ashada, food items like something.Words expressing communal chudaghasa, podopitha, kakara, santula, overtones pose great problem to the currencies like anna, measuring units like translator. While translating the translator bati, bharana. English words cakes, needs to retain these words in order to pastries etc. are no substitutes for Indian impart cultural flavour to the translation sweets. and to make the meaning clear. For v) Colloquial expressions instance, Odia word 'dhoti' refers to a Colloquial expressions like Hindu whereas 'lungi' refers to a Muslim. 'chheeh' in Odia which sometimes implies disapproval, sometimes dislike is a The above-mentioned linguistic challenge to the translator as these and cultural problems are common to expressions cannot be carried over to translators of novels, poetry and dramas. another language. The translator has to However, the translator of fiction faces the retain such words. Even the translator has problem of selecting the unit of translation. to drop certain colloquial expressions He has to decide whether a sentence or a which carry no meaning in the TL. For paragraph should be the unit of translation. example, in Odia there is a popular saying, A paragraph should be the unit of Aleicha, mate dekhi kain paleicha'. translation and the translator should Literally it means, 'My friend, why are you consider the text as a whole. running away on seeing me', which is said to a friend jovially. While rendered into Translating poetry English it only confuses the English The translator faces more difficult ELK Asia Pacific Journals – Special Issue ISBN: 978-81-930411-1-6
problems while translating poetry. into translation, my experienc reveals the Translation of poetry involves not only many hazards and difficulties encountered rendering of similes, metaphors, irony, in the process. ...For example, it is almost paradox etc. figures of speech like prose or impossible to translate poets like Upendra fiction but also rendering of rhyme, Bhanja or Gangadhar Meher. In Oriya rhythm and metre. Earlier poetry was literature the problem is of language, written in metre and rhyme but most of the basically—and this fact is especially modern poetry is written in free verse. It is noticeable with these earlier poets, poets easier to transfer poems written in free who usedlanguage with such powers of verse than rhyming rhythmic poems into magic and devotion that resulted in another language. The translator should instilling in readers' minds a divine and 'feel' the pulse of the poem and transfer it perhaps mystic presence. Neither Upendra to another language. That means the Bhanja nor Gangadhar Meher used free translator should possess poetic sensibility verse, and their Poems literally sag with to feel and understand the poem. He the weight of ornamentation and should not 'rewrite' or 'produce an alliterative sounds....To me, a good interpretation' of a poem. translation into English seems almost impossible. For the verse resembles a Robert Frost said, 'Poetry is that many-petalled flower, each petal having its which is lost in translation'. But poetry is own word-significance, its individual not entirely lost in translation. Something auditory echoes. To render gems like these of it is lost which also happens in case of into English would be futile translation of prose or fiction. However the exercise....(27-28) loss is more in translation of poetry. A good translation of poetry is transcreation. Similarly, it is very difficult to In this context it would be relevant to translate the poetry of Shakespeare, quote views of Jayanta Mohapatra, a Spenser, Milton, John Donne, T.S. Eliot renowned bi-lingual Odia poet and etc. into Indian languages. translator who writes both in Odia and English: Translating drama The translator faces different types Any poem will not move fluently of challenges while translating dramatic ELK Asia Pacific Journals – Special Issue ISBN: 978-81-930411-1-6
texts. It is difficult to transfer dialogues in The translator should strike a balance dialects of one language into another between maintaining close fidelity to the language. Besides, cultural content of ST and complete freedom from it. If the dramatic texts pose serious challenges to translator frees himself completely from the translator. Further, a drama is the ST, the Translated Text no longer completely comprehended only in its remains a translation but becomes performance and dramatic techniques are something else. As Walter Benjamin states changed and modified with time. For in The Task of the Translator (1923), a instance, how can the translator do justice translation participates in the 'afterlife' to a Shakespearean drama or Samuel (Uberleben) of the foreign text, which Beckett's Waiting for Godot while means the original undergoes 'a rendering into Indian languages? transformation and a renewal' in its afterlife (17). In other words, a text Conclusion survives in future through translation. The The world is fast approaching towards a translator makes literary texts survive in globalised village. In this context, future. He should translate what he likes translation activity has a vital role to play and should not succumb to any imposition; in bridging the gap and bringing the people because he would not be able to translate and nations closer. Besides, in a properly what he does not like. Finally, the multilingual and multicultural country like translator would overcome the hurdles India, translation plays an important role with efforts and sincerity. The as a 'link' between various regional proliferation of translations is ample proof languages and cultures. The translator that its popularity is growing. faces both linguistic and cultural problems while negotiating between two divergent WORKS CITED cultures and languages. The translator [1] Bassnett-Mc-Guire, Susan. plays a vital role as a mediator in this Translation Studies. London and multilingual and multicultural globalised New York: Methuen, 1980. world. The translation should be readable [2] Benjamin, Walter. The Task of the while retaining cultural specificity of the Translator'.Trans. Harry Zohn. The ST. The translated text should be Translation Studies Reader. Ed. acceptable to the target language reader. Lawrence Venuti. London and ELK Asia Pacific Journals – Special Issue ISBN: 978-81-930411-1-6
New York: Routledge, 2000. 15- 25. [3] Das, Bijoy Kumar. 'Problems of Translation'. Studies in Translation. ' Ed. Mohit K. Roy, New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers, 2008. 45-65. [4] Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. London and New York: Routledge, 1993. [5] Mohapatra, Jayanta. "Translating from Oriya: An Approach."Cygnus 2: 2, 1981. [6] Nida, Eugene A. Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964. [7] Schulte, Rainer. The Translator as Mediator between Two Cultures', [8] http//www. translationstudies.com. 20.11.2011.