Volume IV, Number 2 Basanta Panchami 2020

Kalakalpa IGNCA Journal of Arts

i ii © Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts New Delhi

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Kalakalpa

The bi-annual journal of the IGNCA with a holistic approach towards the study of arts and stress on the inter-connectivity of various art forms.

ISSN: 2456-8201

UGC CARE Reffered Journal

Editor-in-Chief Dr. Sachchidanand Joshi

Editor Dr. Radha Banerjee Sarkar

January, 2020

Price: Rs. 300/-

Printed and Published by Dr. Sachchidanand Joshi on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, 11 Man Singh Road, New Delhi-110001

iii ISSN: 2456-8201

Kalakalpa

Kalakalpa the bi-annual journal of the IGNCA addresses itself to a holistic understanding of the arts, not as an activity dissociated from life but as a response to it. Its aim is to foster an active dialogue amongst the scholars of various disciplines. The Journal will provide a forum for scholarly articles, research notes and book reviews of the highest quality from cultures around the world and will cover the following field of disciplines: Archaeology, Anthropology, Art History, Linguistics, Literature, Musicology, Dance, Religious Studies, Philosophy, Diaspora, etc. It will welcome original research with new ideas, pertinent to an area of specialization. IGNCA Journal of Arts

Fondled by the imaginative vision and creativity of the sage-like scholars, let this with-fulfilling tree in the field of arts, be an eternal source of joy to its readers.

Volume IV, Number 2, 2020

Board of Editors

Dr. Kapila Vatsyayan Professor Lokesh Chandra Professor Kamlesh Dutt Tripathi Professor Bhupinder Zutshi Dr. Balwant Jani Professor Makkhan Lal Dr. Sudhamani Raghunathan Professor Nanda Kumar Chief Editor: Dr. Sachchidanand Joshi

Editor: Dr. Radha Banerjee Sarkar iv Editorial

To promote awareness of and sensitivity to the historical and cultural heritage of India and other parts of the World in the evolution and manifestation of art and cultural traditions is an important objective of the Indira Gandhi National Centre for Arts (IGNCA). We are very pleased to place in the hands of the scholars, students, critics the IV Volume (2nd issue) of ‘Kalakalpa’. The present volume contains nineteen articles including Hindi and Sanskrit. I hope the present volume will be valued by the scholars and readers across the world. We are grateful to the enthusiastic cooperation and contribution of scholars for the Kalakalpa - Basant Panchami issue. The articles presented in this volume manifest the multi-layered and multidisciplinary subjects. The volume begins with Professor Sunil Sondhi’s analytical article on Sabdanusanam: The Integral View of Communication. Professor Sondhi in his article of contemporary relevance on ‘Sabdanusanam: The Integral View of Communication’ has examined the critical risk from bad communication not only in the realm of culture, but also in legitimacy and sustainability of social and political cohesion. He has argued that we need to give up the Eurocentric paradigm of communication and make concerted efforts to rediscover and reconnect with India’s linguistic tradition since the Vedic times which has consistently focused on restraint and discipline of words to make communication integrative and accommodative. To Aurobindo, Language has been universally recognized by those competent to form a judgment, is one of the most magnificent, the most perfect and wonderfully sufficient literary instruments developed by the human mind. Next paper deals with a very important subject ‘Manasollasa: A Cultural Encyclopaedia’ by Professor Mallepuram G Venkatesh. Karnataka has produced two monumental encyclopaedic works composed in Sanskrit. The first one is AbhilashitarthaChintamani or Manasollasa composed by Savajna Someshwara -

v III an emperor of Chalukya dynasty in the first half of the twelfth century and the second one is ShriShivatattvaRatnakara. Professor Venkatesh has provided us with a trajectory for future research. Mr. Rahul Majumdar’s brilliant paper ‘Disappearing Traditions: The Narrative Songs of Bengal Pata Paintings’ deals with the understanding of a vernacular pictorial tradition of ‘pata-chitra’ of Bengal. The Patachitra scroll painting or Patua scroll painting from Bengal is an enchanting traditional art. I endorse completely with author’s point of view about showcasing Pata painting in a contemporary gallery or museum space (for a start at least) without sacrificing the very core of this age-long performative narrative tradition. Miss Rajeshwari Saha dealt with religion and its depiction through the lens of Patachitra, one of the most respected and long-surviving folk traditions of India. In her paper ‘The Lalon Patachitra: A Discussion on the Syncretism of Scroll Painters in West Bengal’, she discusses Lalon Fakir who was the first person to propagate Baul (minstrel) tradition in Bengal and the narratives related to him. In Bengali culture he is the icon of religious tolerance and harmony. India and Korea are two ancient Civilizations, bound closely by the cultural and religious ties in the pre-modern period. The relationship between Korea and India was forged on the bedrock of Buddhism. Tagore wrote: In the golden age of Asia Korea was one of the lamp bearers That lamp waits to be lighted once again For the illumination of the East

Professor S.R. Bhatt is an Octogenarian eminent scholar. His erudition and knowledge have always been an inspiration for us. Professor Bhatt in his scholarly paper ‘Buddhist Thought and Culture in Korea with Special Reference to Gaya Buddhism’ talked about the Kingdom Gaya which embraced Buddhism and it became an ideological foundation and cultural backdrop of the Korean people influencing every stage of history and every aspect of culture. The history of India bears testimony to the great developments which followed the teaching of Lord Buddha in the realms of culture, art, philosophy, literature and social organizations. Buddhism is historically one of the most important religions because of its tremendous movement.

vi Dr Amrita Singh in her article ‘Orality, Heritage and History: Tracing Approaches to the Study of Early Indian Buddhism’ attempts to bring ‘orality’ and its many aspects into focus for historical investigation enabling wider dimensions to the study of past cultures. She emphasized that orality was integral to understand Buddhism in the past and continues to serve an important purpose till present times. Tagore says: In India where exuberance of life seeks utterance, it sets them to dance. One who knows their peculiar dance- language can follow the story without the help of words. Koodiyattom is unique in its presentation of classical Sanskrit drama through the vitality of the folk medium. Dr Sharmila Chandra in her paper Koodiyattam – The Heritage Drama of Kerala discusses eloquently Koodiyattam, a classical art of Kerala, which is included among the endangered and extinct cultural forms of intangible heritage in India. It suffered from a lack of viewers and was on the verge of extinction. This was mainly because it was restricted to the upper classes of the society and was confined to the temple precincts. Also, the advent of other dance forms like Kathakali and Thullal led to its decline. She provided an overview of Koodiyattam as a performing art and as a cultural heritage of Kerala and its present status in the society. Dance is being revived but if this revival is to continue, we must know the spiritual message of art and make art a part of our lives. Then our very lives will become works of art and India will become a Land of Beauty; a fit vehicle for the message of the Sages and Saviour of humanity (Rukmini Devi). Phulkari is a refined embroidery work of Punjab and Haryana. It has a more emotional, social and cultural value which is quite rare. The art of embroidery in Punjab is centuries old as it was a part of girls’ education. In Guru Granth Sahib, Shree Guru Nanak Dev wrote: Kadd kashidha Paihreh choli, tan tu jane nari (When you have embroidered a choli (blouse) then only you will be recognized as an accomplished woman). Phulkari embroidery is done exclusively by the women and this art form provided a canvas for the women for their imagination and skill.

vii Ms Manvi Singh in her paper ‘Embroidering the Past: A Study of Transforming Phulkari and Bagh Folk Art of Punjab’ highlights the process of commercialization, introduction of new designs and color combinations that are implemented to meet the demands of the market which on one hand have helped in the survival and continuation of Phulkari embroidery, but on the other hand, have destroyed the essence of the folk art. India has a great tradition of embroidery prevalent in each and every region; each of them different from the other. The Himalaya, in common with other mountain ranges the world over, has served as the preserver of many old and varied artistic traditions. Its isolation has helped these traditions to maintain their identity over a long period. Along the Himalayan, there flourished an astounding range of arts and crafts. Western Himalaya was the meeting ground of various races and tribes and their admixture has left its imprint on its history and culture. Mr Chandramolle Modgil’s paper on ‘Sculpting the Heroic Dead in Western Himalayas’ attempts to trace the tradition of memorializing death through stone stellae in certain parts of the state of Himachal Pradesh, India, specifically the districts of Chamba, Mandi and Naggar, from the ninth to the nineteenth century. The Acheulian lithic tradition is probably the most distinctive technological phenomenon of the Lower Palaeolithic. Siwalik area has been famous for the fossil remains of the Late Miocene apes and hominids Sivapithecus, Gigantopithecus, etc. The paper entitled ‘Some Preliminary Observations on the Acheulian Remains of Bam Locality, Himachal Pradesh’ by Dr Worrel Kumar Bain is based on a maiden and first hand study at Bam locality of Bilaspur district, Himachal Pradesh. A greater portion of the state is surrounded by Shiwalik Hills. The author has examined the artefacts insitu. The remarkable continuity of India’s cultural traits, through the ages largely depended on its regional and sub-regional diversity. In fact, the Indian tradition always stressed on the preservation of lifestyle and customs of a specific locality, allowing periodical transformation to the extent of acceptance to any social group. These are the conditioning factors of our cultural richness and heritage. In the early portions of the epics, Brahma is assigned the highest position. Vishnu and Siva came into prominence gradually. The article of Monidipa Dey on ‘Vaishnavism, Panchaviras-Chaturvyuhas, and a unique Vishwarupa Vishnu from Bajoura in Kullu district of Himachal Pradesh’ examines the vyuha concept viii behind the Vaikuntha Vishnu murtis, and the multiplicity in the Viswarupa image with an example of a rather unique Viswarupa Vishnu murti from Bajoura in Kullu district of Himachal Pradesh. Krishna played an important role in remoulding the earlier Vaishnava cult and he became the chief object of devotion. The life and teachings of Krishna Vasudeva have exercised a profound influence on the minds of the Indian people. The story of Krishna is a fascinating tale. He was born, as per the Purana and many other texts, as an incarnation of Vishnu in human form in the Vrishni clan of Mathura to foster good and annihilate evil. Divine and human qualities are extricably blended in him. Dr Rohit R. Phalgaonkar in his scholarly paper ‘Worship of Devki-Krishna in Goa- Tracing the History and Iconography’ deals with the worship of Devki-Krishna which was originally housed in a temple located on one of the islands of Goa before the arrival of the Portuguese. The paper attempts to document the various worships and deities viz. folk and Puranic which influenced Goa’s religious past. Professor Pratapanand Jha’s paper ‘Disaster Management of Digital Data: A Case Study of National Cultural Audiovisual Archives (NCAA)’ project analysed scientifically the importance of digital technology which has transformed nearly every aspect of modern life. For long term preservation of digital data, standards for Trustworthy Digital Repository (TDR) have been framed and further revised in 2012 but to date only two repositories (worldwide) have been certified for ISO 16363 to become a TDR. A case study of NCAA, world’s first ISO Certified TDR, has been presented in this paper. He discussed in detail the Disaster Management (DM) and an attempt has been made in his paper to present the basic aspects of Disaster Management plan, nature and issues related to digital data and data storage and recovery plan adopted for NCAA to take care of DM. The cultural heritage of India become vast and varied comprising of diverse forms and facts including oral traditions, a number of languages and archaeological remains, sites and monuments. The principal factor responsible for shaping the form and pattern of the heritage seems to be geographical conditions of an area, region of locality. The analytical article of Dr Rembemo Odyuo on ‘Nagaland: An Introduction to Naga Cultural Traditions’ is an attempt to highlight some of the rich cultural traditions of the Nagas which has evolved, nurtured, and has been accepted by the people as their ‘way of life’ passed down from generations. The values and principles

ix embodied in their traditions are based on lived reality. The acceptance of the traditions by the Nagas as their ‘way of life’ has been the strength of the system which continues to exist in Naga society till today, despite the various myriad challenges ushered in by the process of globalization. Dr Seema Mamta Minz & Sanjay Kumar Tirkey contributed a well documented paper ‘The Sandsi Kutasi Ritual of the Asurs: A Socio-Sacred Tradition of Early Metallurgist Tribe of Jharkhand, India’. They re-examine the Sandsi Kutasi ritual of the Asurs which is based on historical, ethno-archaeological and cultural studies. The paper aims at documenting and finding a way of preservation of this rich cultural tradition. Authors carried out an ethnographical study by visiting different villages of Gumla, Latehar and Lohardaga districts of Jharkhand state where the Asur tribe resides. Nineteenth century was marked by processes of institutionalization of the field through establishment of centres of higher learning as well as publishing journals and periodicals. One of the biggest projects of colonialism was the translation of orality into written word. Aniket Vaibhav in his learned paper ‘Re-reading Colonial Folklore in India From a Post-Colonial Perspective’ opines that nineteenth century is the ‘Golden Age of Folklore’, as scholars across socio-political and cultural boundaries during this period were engaged in collection vis-a-vis scientific study of tales, songs, proverbs and riddles among various other folk expressions. The article titled ‘fHk[kkjh Bkdqj ds yksdukVd fcnsfl;k esa lkekftd] lkaL—frd ,oa L=h foe’kZ laca/kh lans’kksa dk v/;;u’ written by Gaurav Ranjan studies and discusses the society, culture, and women in context of Indian society through the writings of Bhikhari Thakur (1887-1970), a multifaceted Bhojpuri Playwriter. The author has described and analyzed the pioneering works of Bhikari Thakur as progressive and revolutionary as far as the folk theatre is concerned. The author analyzed his works reflecting upon the social and cultural aspects as well as women. The ‘Bidesiya’ play of Bhikhari Thakur expressing various emotions of women, especially, the anguish caused by abandonment has been noted very well in the article by author. The paper ^NÙkhlx<+ cLrj laHkkx esa gLrf’kYi dyk dk tutkfr;ksa ds vkfFkZd fodkl ij izHkko* by Shiv Kumar Singhal reflects upon the tribal art and culture of Bastar region of Chhattisgarh. The author besides the tribal lifestyle and traditions of Bastar has also documented the metal, stone, terracotta and wooden handicraft technologies practiced them. Further, the author also suggests the ways to promote and market

x the handicrafts not only as an art but means of livelihood for tribal areas of Bastar. the author holds the view that promoting these crafts could also reduce the displacement and loss of tribal traditions to a certain extent. Rupamoy Pandit in his paper ‘Jhen~Hkxon~xhrk;k% lIrekè;k;s JhÑ".kksins'ks"kq ç;qDrkuk& eLePNCnkuka lkjkFkZof"kZ.;uqjksèks.k leh{k.ke~’ writes that the Gîtâ is a philosophy of the Divine and of our existence which also points to the paths leading to our well being. It is the epitome of the knowledge. The paper is based on the commentary Sararthavarsini by Sri Visvanath-Cakravarti-Thâkur based on the Gaudiya-Vaisnava philosophy of Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu. The author has focussed on use of word ‘Asmat’ which with the due course of conversation between Krishna and Arjun has been used several times to satisfy the egoism. I am thankful to our Esteemed Board of Editors and Honourable Shri Ram Bahdur Rai, President, IGNCA Trust for their inspiration and encouragements. I thank Dr Radha Banerjee Sarkar, the Editor of this volume for bringing scholarly articles and editing them on stipulated time. I am thankful to Miss Anupama Dhawan for typesetting and technical support, Miss Rachana Rana, Dr Abhijit Dixit, Dr Raghavan and Miss Ritu for editorial assistance. In case of any typographical mistakes which might have crept in despite our best efforts we crave the indulgence of our respected scholars and readers.

Dr. Sachchidanand Joshi

xi xii Kalakalpa IGNCA Journal of Arts Basanta Panchami, 2020

Table of Contents

Editorial Sachchidanand Joshi v-xi

Sabdanusanam 1-19 The Integral View of Communication Sunil Sondhi

Manasollasa: A Cultural Encyclopedia 21-36 Mallepuram G Venkatesh

Disappearing Traditions : The Narrative Songs of 37-54 Bengal Pata Paintings Rahul Majumdar

The Lalon Patachitra : A Discussion of the Syncretism 55-64 of the Scroll Painters in West Bengal Rajeshwari Saha

Buddhist Thought and Culture in Korea with Special 65-75 Reference to Gaya Buddhism SR Bhatt

Orality, Heritage and History :Tracing Approaches to 77-97 the Study of Early Indian Buddhism Amrita singh

Koodiyattam-The Heritage Drama of Kerala 99-116 Sharmila Chandra

xiii Embroidering the Past:A Study of Transforming 117-129 Phulkari and Bagh Folk Art of Punjab Manvi Singh

Sculpting the Herioc Dead in Western Himalayas 131-151 Chandramolle Modgil

Some Preliminary Observation on the Acheulian Remains 153-184 of Bam Locality, Himachal Pradesh Worrel Kumar Bain

Vaishnavism,Panchaviras –Chaturvyuhas and a Unique 185-198 Vishwarupa ,Vishnu from Bajoura in Kullu District of Himachal Pradesh Monidipa Dey

Worship of Devki Krishna in Goa –Tracing The 199-210 History and Iconography Rohit R.Phalgaonkar,Goa

Disaster Management of Digital Data :A Case 211-221 Study of National Cultural Audiovisual Archives (NCAA) Project Pratapanand Jha

Nagaland : An Introduction to Naga Cultural Traditions 223-239 Rembemo Oduyu

The Sandsi Kutasi Ritual of the Assurs :A Socio Sacred 241-257 Tradition of Early Metallurgist Tribe of Jharkhand, India Seema Mamta Minz & Sanjay Kumar Tirkey

Re reading Colonial Folklore in India from a Post 259-264 Colonial Perspective Aniket Vaibhav

xiv fHk[kkjh Bkdqj ds yksdukVd fcnsfl;k esa lkekftd] 265-280 lkaL—frd ,oa L=h foe’kZ laca/kh lans’kksa dk v/;;u Gaurav Ranjan

NÙkhlx<+ cLrj laHkkx esa gLrf’kYi dyk dk 281-293 tutkfr;ksa ds vkfFkZd fodkl ij izHkko* Shiv Kumar Singhal

Jhen~Hkxon~xhrk;k% lIrekè;k;s JhÑ".kksins'ks"kq 295-300 ç;qDrkukeLePNCnkuka lkjkFkZof"kZ.;uqjksèks.k leh{k.ke~ Rupamoy Pandit

Illustrations 301-328

Contributors 329-330

xv xvi 11 Vaishnavism, Panchaviras-Chaturvyuhas and a Unique Vishwarupa Vishnu from Bajoura in Kullu district of Himachal Pradesh

Monidipa Dey

Abstract

The Puranic Vishnu is a powerful god, and this powerful sect was developed by the fusion of three god-concepts: Vasudeva-Krsna of Vrisni clan, cosmic god Narayana, and Vedic Vishnu. The Vasudeva-Krsna along with some of his close relatives form the bhagavatam group and are said to be the basis of the Bhakti cult. They are best represented in the Vaikuntha Vishnu murti, where the deity has multiple faces representing the four Vyuhas: Vasudeva, Samkarsana, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha; a concept largely developed from the vyuha concept of Pancaratras of the Narayana sect. Another image with the same multiplicity concept is seen in the Viswarupa Vishnu. The article examines the vyuha concept behind the Vaikuntha Vishnu murtis, and the multiplicity in the Viswarupa image with an example of a rather unique Viswarupa Vishnu murti from Bajoura in Kullu district of Himachal Pradesh.

Keywords: Vishnu, Vaikuntha Vishnu, Viswarupa Vishnu, iconography, vyuhas

Introduction

Vishnu, seen as the protector and preserver of all lives, is one among the Hindu triad that comprises of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. An important figure within the pantheons of Hinduism around whom the great Vaishnava sect has

Kalakalpa Vol.IV, No.2(2020) 185 Monidipa Dey developed, he is equal in popularity to that of Shiva and Sakti. However, a closer study of the sect shows that this important figure has little similarity to the Vedic Vishnu, an older god who is mentioned in all the four Vedas. Seen as a god of minor importance in the Rig-Veda (only five verses are dedicated to him), Vedic Vishnu is often associated with the sun, who strode across the seven worlds, and had accomplished the feat of covering the entire universe in three long strides (urukrama), which is believed to denote the course of the Sun. These three steps later developed into the story of Vamanavatara of the Puranic Vishnu. Etymologically, Vishnu may have referred to the word ‘the flyer,’ and it is seen that the Rig-Veda refers to him as the Sun-bird (Suparno anga savitur-garutnian purvo jatah), thus clearly showing his solar identity. The solar connection is well depicted in the dhyan mantra:

dhyeya-ssada Savitri-mandala -madhyavarti Narayana- ssarasijasana sannivishta Keyuravan makara-kundalavan Kiriti haari hiranymaya-vapuh dhrita-sankha-chakra.

Here it is said that Narayana as Vishnu resides within the Savitrimandala or the orb in the sun; and this sloka that is better known as Surya Narayana Vandanam, pays homage to Narayana who manifests itself in Surya (Rao, 1914). The central idea of Vishnu manifesting himself as the sun is still maintained in the form of worship of Surya-Narayana. In Satapatha Brahmana Vishnu is considered one among the 8-12 sons of Aditi, known as the Adityas; and in Mahabharata it is stated that Vishnu is the twelfth Aditya (sun-god). While the early Vedas associated motion or movement with Vishnu, the later Vedas give him more importance by associating him with sacrifice (Satapatha Brahmana) and Aitareya Brahmana gives him the highest place among other gods. However, in the Puranas, Vishnu is seen as a powerful god, and this powerful sect was developed by the fusion of three different god-concepts: Vasudeva-Krsna of the Puranas and the Epics, cosmic god Narayana of the Brahmanas, and Vedic sun-god Vishnu of the Samhitas. Interestingly, the Maha Narayana Upanishad (third century BCE to first century CE) records the couplet (number 29) which shows that integration of Vishnu-Narayana- Vasudeva had been done by that time (Narayanaya vidmahe Vasudevaya dhimahi | Tanno Vishnuh prachodayat).

186 Vaishnavism, Panchaviras-Chaturvyuhas

The Vasudeva-Krsna cult, which was earlier variously known as Ekantika, Bhagavat, Satvata, etc., and later as Vaisnava, formed the basis of the Bhakti movement of the medieval period. As identified by a Vayupurana passage the five Vrsni Viras (kshatriya heroes of a clan ruling the Mathura area) were Vasudeva-Krsna, who along with his close family members Samkarsana (elder brother or Balarama), Pradyumna (his eldest son with Rukmini), Samba (his son with Jambavati), and Aniruddha (his grandson by Pradyumna), were deified by their admirers and followers. Vasudeva finds mention as Devadeva in the Besnagar (second century BCE) inscription; and Vasudeva and Samkarsana in the Ghosundi (first century BCE, near Nagari in Chittorgarh, Rajasthan) inscriptions that talk of shrines erected in their honour. Though in what iconographic forms they were depicted cannot be ascertained. The inscriptions, however, make it clear that Vasudeva-Krsna and his elder brother Samkarsana (Balrama) of the Satavata clan were already deified by his followers (Banerjea, 1941). The Ghosundi stone inscriptions also show that the two bhagavatam deities (Samkarsana and Vasudeva) were already associated with Narayana (the Vedic cosmic god), and worshipped in a stone enclosure within the Narayana complex. In the Mora well inscription (first century CE, Mathura), the holy pancaviras (pancaviranam) were found mentioned for the first time and referred to as bhagavatam, with further mentions murtis and temples that were installed by a devotee named as Tosa (Srinivasan, 1997). The Mora well inscription represents the growth of Bhagavatism from the first millennium BCE that developed into Vaishnavism near the start of the Common Era, where it is seen that rulers with heroic activities (viras) were attracting large number of followers, which started a devotion/bhakti-based cult. The Pancharatra works of the Narayana sect also recognised these Vrsni viras as gods associated with the Satvata religion, and referred to them (except Samba) as the original advocates of the religion.

In my article, I will examine these panca-viras who slowly evolved into gods as per the emanatory or vyuha concept, with examples of Vaikuntha chaturmurtis that are seen in Indian plastic art from the Kushana period onward. In the later half I will examine an interesting Viswarupa Vishnu that I had come across in the Vishvesvara Mahadev temple/Baseswara temple at Bajoura in Himachal Pradesh.

187 Monidipa Dey

Discussion1 As the deification of the pancaviras of the Vrsni clan continued, Samba at a later stage got removed from the list, and among the remaining four, Para Vasudeva became the main source of power or fountainhead from which the other three emerged as his emanatory forms, characterising three different aspects of him, thus bringing forth the vyuha concept. Thus, from the vira concept gradually there is the emergence of the emanation or vyuha concept. Sometime later arose the incarnation/avatar or vibhava concept, which further helped in the consolidation or conceptual merging of Vasudeva, Narayana, and Vishnu. In this new form, Vasudeva-Vishnu-Naryana were attributed five different aspects in the Bhagavadgita: Para- concept of the highest form, vyuha, vibhava, antaryami, and the Arcca (murti) (Banerjea, 1941). The aspect of Arcca actually depicts the other three in the form of murtis or vigrahas, following the iconographic norms as set in the scriptures.

Para Vasudeva, as the Supreme God or the final point of liberation, projects the power of will or icchasakti. His consort Sri projects bhutisakti (matter) and kriyasakti (work). When the three saktis or powers are combined, it creates six gunas: gyan, sakti, virya, bal, aiswarya, and tejas. These six gunas are represented by the four Vyuhas: the Chaturmurtis/Chaturvyuhas. While Para Vasudeva is a manifestation of all six gunas, the Pancaratrins talk of emanation in succession, so Samkarsana represents gyan and bal which emanates from Vasudeva, Pradyumna possesses virya and aiswarya that emanates from Samkarsana, and Aniruddha represents sakti and tejas that emanates from Pradyumna. That the concept of the Vyuhas had already formed in the second BCE is evident from the first-second BCE dhwajas of the vyuhas Vasudeva, Samkarsana, and Pradyumna, found in Besnagar; while Patanjali also referred to the four in his Mahabhasya dated second BCE (Raychaudhuri, 1936, pp. 23-24). The number of vyuhas later increased to twenty-four (chaturvimsatimurtis) in the Gupta period, when greater part of the Puranic literature was compiled with the help of the Pancaratra theology. However, these twenty-four vyuhas or Vishnu murtis in the medieval period are difficult

1 Chaturvyuha Vishnu murtis that explain the relation between God as the Supreme Being and his successive emanatory forms as special beings.

188 Vaishnavism, Panchaviras-Chaturvyuhas to distinguish from each other as they look the same and are only identified by the varying placements of the sankha, chakra, padma and gada in the four hands. The chaturvimsatimurtis of Vishnu are Kesava, Narayana, Madhava, Govinda, Vishnu, Madhusudana, Trivikrama, Vamana, Sridhara, Hrishikesa, Padmanabha, Damodara, Samkarsana, Vasudeva, Pradyumna, Aniruddha, Purushottama, Adhokshaja, Nrisimha, Acyuta, Janarddana, Upendra, Hari and Krsna (Gupte, 1980, p. 95).

In terms of Hindu art and iconography the emanation or vyuha concept can be represented both theriomorphically and anthropomorphically, and the first such representations are seen during the Kushana period from the Mathura school of art. The Vyuha aspect is best represented in arcca form as the Chaturmukha Vishnu or the Vaikuntha Vishnu murtis, the earliest of which was found in Bhita (near Prayagraj) belonging likely to the Sunga period of second century BCE (Srinivasan, 1979, p. 41). The unique feature of this murti is that it has figures sculpted on all four sides, and the viewer can see the four faces while doing a circumambulation of it. Of the four, one head wears a crown and is heavily jewelled, and he is considered to be Para- Vasudeva. Vasudeva’s right hand is seen in an abhaya mudra, while his left hand holds a vase or a jar, and he is attired in an uttariya and a dhoti. On his right is a mutilated human head, and below it is seen a theriomorphic form of a sitting lion as Narasimha. On Narasimha’s right, there is another standing figure with broken hands, and a middle parting in his hair with hair falling in strands on the two sides of his shoulders. Next to him on his right and to the left side of Vasudeva is another defaced human head with a theriomorphic form of a standing Varaha who is seen in anjali mudra and worshipping Vasudeva. The importance of this murti lies in the fact that while many Vaikuntha vigrahas were found from the later Kushana and Gupta era relics, there are no other murtis similar to this particular one. The Vaikuntha Vishnu murtis were further developed by the Mathura school of art under the Kushanas, and later continued into the Gupta period; however, they remained limited to the Mathura and its adjoining areas. In the early medieval period, this cult later shifted to areas now demarcated as Kashmir and Punjab, as apparent from the many murtis found from these regions.

189 Monidipa Dey

The concept of these chaturvyuhas or Vishnu chaturmurti is primarily based on a monotheistic concept that centred around Vasudeva and his relatives. Thus, with the deification of Vasudeva-Krsna came the concept of a composite image of a deity, where the other three forms were merged into the Supreme One. The Nagapatnistuti of Bhagavatapurna [Namah Krsnaya Ramaya Vaudevasutaya ca| Pradumnay-Aniruddhavaya Sattavam Pataye namah] gives a clear insight into this concept of ‘One in Four,’ where the name of Vasudeva (Krsna) comes first as he is the Supreme One, and next in successive order are Rama (Balrama), Pradymna, and Aniruddha (all four are referred to as sons of Vasudeva, the king of Sattvatas) (Banerjea, 1941. p. 408). This ‘One in Four’ concept is what is iconographically seen in the Chaturmukha Vishnu, also known as Vaikuntha Vishnu (in the Vishnudharmottarapurana), with the four faces and four arms.

The Vaikuntha Vishnu murti iconography wise is represented with a human face in front, with lion and boar faces on its two sides, while the fourth face (angry, demonic) is behind and facing back. Interestingly, quite often these murtis were interpreted as the Nrsimha and Varaha avatars of Vishnu. However, according to Banerjea (1941), Huntington (1985), Rao (1914), and Srinivasan (1997), the animal faces are not the representations of Nrsimha and Varaha; instead, they represent the four vyuhas. Figure 40 shows a much mutilated murti of a Vishnu Chaturmurti from Kashmir. The three faces of the god are clearly visible here, while the fourth face is at the back (seen in another murti, as illustrated in figure 38). The front face is that of a human, while on his right is the face of a lion, and on his left is a Boar. The main body is seen wearing a crown, necklace, earrings, and a vanamala, while is front left hand holds a sankha. The back-left hand rests on Chakrapurusha. The remains of a female figure between his legs with her face raised and looking up is likely that of Bhu-devi. The Vishnudharmottara in its book III chapter 85 terms this unique composite murti of the Chaturvyuhas as Vaikuntha, while in chapter 47 of the same book there is an explanation of the imagery concept behind the four faced deity (sometimes the murtis are three faced, where the sculptors did not carve the back (fourth) face, possibly due to lack of space). The book further says that in Vaikuntha Vishnu murti:

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Vishnu, the god of gods, should be represented as seated on Garuda, wearing a celestial yellow garment, with Kaustubha brightening his bosom and with all sorts of ornaments. His complexion would be like that of a cloud, laden with water (Shah, 1961: II, p.141).

Besides the Vishnudharmottara, other texts, such as the Jayakhya Samhita, also describe worship of the Vaikuntha Vishnu with the faces of a human, lion, boar and angry (Raudra/Kapila) heads (Bhattacharya, 1967). Based on textual references, the name Vaikuntha is applicable to the murtis that show a four faced Vishnu alone or with his consort riding the vahana Garuda. In images where the Garuda is missing, as in seen in the Kashmir murtis, those can be referred to as Chaturmurtis. If both Garuda and the consort are absent and the murti focuses only on the vyuha concept then the murti is best known as Chaturvyuhas.

The Vishnudharmottara Purana describes the Chaturmurti as having eight hands and four faces that look in four cardinal directions. Each of the four faces is attributed with two hands that hold the gada and chakra for Vasudeva, the musal and hala for Samkarshana, the bow and arrow for Pradyumna, and the shield and sword for Aniruddha. According to the Vishnudharmattora (chapter 47) the four faces are a representation of the four gunas: gyaan, bala, sakti, and aiswarya. Para Vasudeva exemplifies bala, Samkarsana gyaan, Praduymna aiswarya, while Aniruddha typifies sakti; and in this composite bodily form the supreme God can preserve the entire world (Kramrisch, 1928). Vishnudharmottara along with detailed descriptions of the ornaments, attires, and other attributes of the murti, also fixes the directions of the four faces: the frontal placid human face is that of Vasudeva and it is east facing, the right face (lion) is south facing and that of Samkarsana, left one (boar) is north facing and of Aniruddha, while the back face (angry or Kapila/Raudra) is looking at the west and is of Pradyumna (Shah, 1956). Thus, the two side faces of Chaturmukha Vishnu depict the vyuhas of the Pancaratras, and not the incarnations (vibhava) concept of Vishnu; and this vyuha concept was

191 Monidipa Dey likely to have formed as the Bhagavata gods merged with the Narayana sect; though it is quite possible that the vibhava concept may have helped to visualise and form the imagery concept of the vyuhas.

Explaining the Visvarupa Vishnu

Interestingly there is another very similar concept within Vaishnavism that depicts Vishnu in multiplicity, as seen in the Vaikuntha Vishnu. This concept manifests itself as Visvarupa Vishnu murtis; and much like the Vaikuntha murti, as per scriptural guidelines in the Agamas, Visvarupa is also to be depicted with four faces and riding the Garuda. Visvarupa should be shown with twenty hands (as per Agni Purana), with one right and left hand shown outstretched in pataka mudra, and another right and corresponding left hand in yoga/dhyan mudra. Rest of the right hands should be shown carrying citron fruit, chakra, bana, ankusa, vajra, sankha and hala, while one hand should be varada mudra. The left hands should carry akshmala, musala, sringa, padma, khadga, gada, pasa, and danda (Rao, 1914, v. I-part I).

The multiplicity seen in Vaishnava images is explained in great lengths in the book VI of the Mahabharata, the Bhagavad Gita. It is the Gita that provides a basic model for the concept, while the Puranas and the epics just keep adding more parts as passages to the framework of the basic model. The Gita paradigm gives three forms of a personal god, where it continues with some of the Upanishad’s teachings while also introducing the concept of Samkhya theory in its basic form, and these two ideas are aligned in a way where they explain how the personal god is the Supreme One. The god in his earthly form is revealed as a four-armed form; in his lower form, which is an integral part of the world, he is eight-fold; while in his highest form he is revealed as the all-powerful and all-pervading Visvarupa.

This highest form, which appears in the moment of a sudden revelation, is not visible to a common devotee; hence Arjuna needs the divya-caksu (special eye/vision) to see it: Na tu mam sakyase drashtumanenaiva svachakshusha Divyam dadami te chakshuha pasya me yogamaisvarama (Bhagavad Gita, chapter 11, verse 8). Only after receiving this special eye Arjuna could see the fearsome special form: paramam rupam aisvaram (Bhagavad Gita, chapter 11, verse 47).

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This concept of Vishnu-Visvarupa is given in details in the 11th chapter of the Bhagavad Gita, where we see Arjuna begging Krishna to reveal his Visvarupa: Manyase yadi tachakyama maya drashtumiti prabhau Yogesvara tato me tvam darsyatmanamavyayama (Bhagavad Gita, chapter 11, verse 4). In answer to Arjuna’s request Krishna reveals his fearsome form of Visvarupa: Pasya me partha rupani satasoatha sahastrasaha Nanavidhani divyani nanavarnakrtsni cha (Bhagavad Gita, chapter 11, verse 5). The Supreme One appeared before him as Infinite; with faces in all directions; wearing magnificent jewels; with endless arms that carried endless weapons; innumerable mouths, eyes, hands, legs and other body parts; a formless form that had no end, beginning, or middle (the revelation follows the same description given in the Rig Veda of the cosmic Purusha and the cosmic Visvakarman). Like the Vedic cosmic Purusha and cosmic Visvakarman, the Visvarupa form is also a creator, and thus Arjun said in wonder:

You are the Supreme Brahman, the ultimate, the supreme abode and purifier, the Absolute Truth and the eternal divine person. You are the primal God, transcendental and original, and You are the unborn and all-pervading beauty (Bhagavad Gita, chapter 10, verses 12 and 13).

When Arjuna could no longer bear to see the blazing and fearsome Visvarupa form (termed as ugrarupa form in Bhagavad Gita, chapter 11, verse 13 supra), Krishna revealed his four-armed earthly form to calm him down.

Besides Arjuna, Krishna had also revealed the all-pervading Visvarupa form (in a different way though) to Duryodhana (Mahabharata book 4 and 5, Buitenen, 1979), to warn him from thinking that Krishna is just a single person fighting for the Pandavas. In this form (considered also as ghora or terrifying) Krishna had thirty thumb-sized gods appearing from his body and forming an aureole around him, along with many weapons that were visible in his multiple arms, while the people who were supporting the Pandavas were seen as a part of him.

In another story of the Visvarupa revelation in the Mahabharata, it is seen that the story is associated with Narayana and not Vasudeva-Krisna. In this

193 Monidipa Dey instance, Bhisma tells Yudhishmhira that when Narada visited Narayana in Svetadwipa, and the latter feeling pleased with the former’s devotion revealed his Visvarupa form. In this form various beautiful shades and colours appeared on the body, which had thousand eyes, thousand heads, thousand mouths, and 1000s of other body parts, while in some parts his form remained ambiguous. From his multiple mouths the omkar naad was being constantly recited, while the other mouths recited the gayatri mantra and other hymns from the Vedas and Aryanakas. His hands held sacrificial alter, kamandalu, precious gems, kusa/darbha grass, mrigacharma, dan a/wooden staff, and agni. Unlike the Visvarupa form seen in the Bhagavad Gita, here the Visvarupa form of Narayana is a pleasant one and exudes happiness. Here Narayana in his Visvarupa form tells Narada of his fourfold manifestation, thus explaining the chaturvyuha theology of the Pancaratras. Both the vyuha and the vibhava concepts were separately present much before the Common Era, when the Pancaratra, Ekantin, and Satvata School of thoughts were popular. The vyuha theology talks of emanation where one form emanates from the other in succession; on the other hand, the vibhava theology believes that incarnations are manifested in various forms at different times. While it is clear that the Vaikuntha form is based on the vyuha doctrine, there is a possibility that the Visvarupa concept may have also borrowed and expanded on the concept of the different forms of the One Supreme God; or it may be that Visvarupa was conceptualised as an extreme expression of both the vibhava and vyuha theologies in a joined form.

Vishnudharmottara Purana gives a detailed description of Visvarupa as the supreme form of Vishnu. It states that Visvarupa should be shown with four faces, and above it there should be the four faces of Mahesvara (without the Isana face). Over the Mahesvara faces should be the faces of Brahma. There should be the faces of other deities, celestial beings, and seers, depicted in such a manner that they form a circular curved line on top. Visvarupa’s dreadful faces should be shown in the act of devouring everything, and some forms of various beings must be depicted as emerging from others. His hands should be carrying weapons, accessories, and be shown with mudras that conform to the rules of the Sastras (Rao, 1914). However, according to another verse in

194 Vaishnavism, Panchaviras-Chaturvyuhas the Vishnudharmottara Purana and also the Agamas, the faces of the Visvarupa can also be represented like the Vaikuntha Vishnu.

Describing the Viswarupa Vishnu in the Basesvara Mahadev Temple in Bajoura of the Kullu District

An interesting murti of the Viswarupa Vishnu is seen in the Basesvara Mahadev temple in Bajoura of the Kullu district in Himachal Pradesh. It is a formal sthanakamurti of Vishnu Visvarupa in sambhanga posture, carved on a rounded stele, and depicted with four hands (refer figure 41). The two back hands are now broken and almost indiscernible, but they may have been resting on the heads of the two ayudhapurushas, as evident from the lowered positioning of the two hands. The front left hand holds a padma shaped like an umbrella (Kashmir / North West style), while the front left hand holds a sankha at waist level (covered with a cloth in images 5, 6, and 7). The murti, which would have once been placed on a pedestal, must have been broken off at some point, and his legs are now cemented to the base, which gives a distorted view of the deity’s proportions.

Here Vishnu (refer figure 42) is wearing his signature large leafed vanamala that curves over his arms and loops down to below the knees, with large lotus blossoms on the elbows and knees. He is seen wearing a cluster of pearl necklaces, his pointed ears hold loop earrings with gems or pearls, bracelets, and armlets with floral patterns. The dhoti reaches up to his knees, and the upavita forms a loop below the waistband. His crown is half cylindrical in shape that peaks at the centre and holds a large diamond at the central peak, while the two vertical rims of the crown hold flames, and the upper and lower edges appear trimmed with round pearls or gems. The central crown diamond has two large square jewels set on its two sides that show a design of thick foliage around them, and two round flowers are seen on two lower corners of the crown. Just below the crown rim are seen the curled hairs in tight ringlets that lack any parting, and the long hair from behind the crown fall on the shoulders on two sides in five layers. While the eyes appear held closed as if in meditation and depicting the typical inward glance, the nose and rest of the face are damaged. Just above the crown of Vishnu is Hayagriva, with his front leg hooves resting on the crown, giving the impression of a standing

195 Monidipa Dey horse (on two back legs) and resting his front hooves. On two top edges of the crown are seen two flying vidyadharas (alternatively gandharvas) holding a scarf like cloth that billows over their heads, thus giving an impression of flying. Below the flying figures, just at the base of the crown are seen two animal faces depicting the Matsya (proper left) and Kurma (proper right) forms. Below them, following the Mathura school of art style, are depicted the faces of Varaha in flat side profile (on proper left, at a 45-degree upward slant) and Nrisimha wearing a diadem. Thus, if all the forms are considered, here Vishnu is represented as a six faced figure (refer figure 43).

This Bajoura Visvarupa murti is depicted with a halo/prabhamandala or rounded stele at the back showing seven clearly demarcated friezes, which reflect the whole universe or cosmos. The edge of the halo shows twenty-one human faces in profile looking outwards, except the one on the top of the stele which is facing front. These faces are shown with basic beards and jatas. The seven horizontal friezes divided by bands show seated figures with haloes, which are now impossible to identify owing to the weathering and damages. The figure just above of Hayagriva can be said to be that of Brahma’s from its three faces. This Visvarupa murti conforms to the rules given in Vishnudharmottara Purana for Visvarupa Vishnu image.

According to V.C. Ohri (1975, p. 120-126) the faces on the outer edge of the stele represent the Ashma Bhairavas and Dwadas Rudras, and the image which follows the basic North Indian art style, can be placed at eighth century CE. However, Ohri also points out that the faces of Nrisimha and Varaha are different from the North Indian style of representing them, while the curved top of the prabhavali and the different aspects of Vishnu show more resemblance to the Mathura school of art. According to T. X. Maxwell (1990- 95) the four forms of Vishnu that appear as animal heads emanating from the central head, the top figures of Hayagriva and Brahma above, and the many miniature figures in the friezes along with Bhairava heads on the border show the distinct influence of North Indian style, and a general absence of the Kashmir style. T.X Maxwell further says that the murti does not reflect the style in Gupta or post Gupta sculptures, and the Bajoura Visvarupa shows a distinct Gurjara-Pratihara touch. According to him, while the murti does not

196 Vaishnavism, Panchaviras-Chaturvyuhas directly copy the Gurjara-Pratihara style, but it is most likely the handwork of a local sculptor

who gives every appearance of [following the] reports or written descriptions of the Kanyakubja type of Visvarupa iconography brought into the Vyas valley, probably from the Almora area where a Visvarupa image of the Kanyakubja type has been found (Maxwell, 1990-95, Vol. III, p.10).

However, Maxwell had counted nineteen heads on the edge of the halo or stele instead of the twenty-one heads present there, and had also mentioned six horizontal registers in the nimbus instead of the seven that are actually present there. It is also more likely that murti shows a late Gupta style (as seen from the calm facial features and little jewellery), instead of reflecting the more opulent Gurjara-Pratihara influence as Maxwell had opined. Therefore, while Maxwell placed the dating of this murti to be of ninth -tenth century CE, Doris Srinivasan and Lore Sander (1997, p. 146) in their paper concluded that this image is more likely to be of the seventh century CE, thus placing it closer to the late Gupta style.

References Banerjea, J. N. (1941). The development of Hindu Iconography. New Delhi: Munshilal Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Bhattacharya, B. (1967). Jayakhya Samhita (Vol. 54). Baroda: G.O.S., Baroda. Buitenen, v. J. (1979). The Mahabharata. (v. J. Buitenen, Ed., & v. J. Buitenen, Trans.) Chicago: Chicago University Press. Coomaraswamy, A. (1947). Introduction to Indian art. New Delhi: Munshilal Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Desai, K. S. (1973). Iconography of Visnu. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. Fosse, L. M. (2007). Bhagavad Gita- the original Sanskrit and English translation. Retrieved from Yogavidya.com: www.Yogavidya.com Gupte, R. S. (1980). Iconography of the Hindus, Buddhists and Jains (2nd ed.). Mumbai: D.B. Taraporevala Sons & Co. Private Ltd.

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Harle, J. C. (1974). Gupta Sculpture. London: Oxford University Press. Kramrisch, S. (1928). Vishnudharmottara (Vol. III). Calcutta: Calcutta University Press. Kramrsich, S. (1976). The Hindu temple iconography. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass Publication. Kramrsich, S. (1981). Indian Sculpture. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass Publishers. Majumdar, R. C. (1988). The History and Culture of the Indian People, Vol- III (The Classical Age) (4th ed.). (R. C. Majumdar, Ed.) Delhi: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. Maxwell, T. S. (1990-1995 ). The Viswarupa Iconographic Tradition- North Indian images of Visvarupa Vishnu 5th-13th c. CE. Ohri, V. C. (1975). The Arts of Himachal. Shimla: State Museum, Department of Languages & Cultural Affairs, Himachal Pradesh. Puranas (Vol. I). (1959). Varanasi: All India Kasiraja Trust Fort Ramnagar, Varanasi. Rao, T. A. (1914). Elements of Hindu Iconography (Vol. I). Madras: The Law Printing House Mount Road. Raychaudhuri, H. (1936). Materials for the Study of Early History of the Vaishnava Sect (2nd ed.). Calcutta: R. N. Bhattacharya. Shah, P. (1961). Vishnudaharmottara Purana (Vol. I & II). Baroda: G.O.S., Baroda. Sivaramamurti, C. (1961). Indian Sculpture. Delhi: Indian Council for Cultural Relations. Srinivasan, D. (1979). Early Vaishnava Imagery: CaturVyûha and Variant Forms. Archives of Asian Art, 32, 39-54. Srinivasan, D. (1997). Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art. Brill: New York. Srinivasan, D. M., & S, L. (1997). Visvarupa Vyuha Avatara. East & West, 47(1), 105-170. Srivastava, L. A. (2011). Indian iconography. Delhi: B.R. Publishing Corporation.

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List of Illustrations

Figure 1 : Dynasty tree of Western Chalukyas. Figure 2 : Krishna-leela Pata, Jamal Chitrakar, Narajol, circa 1950s, Private collection of Bahadur Chitrakar of Naya Village, West Midnapore (Note: It’s a continuous vertical scroll. I have made two divisions, which are to be read vertically (left to right). Figure 3 : Scroll panel shown by artist Dukhushyam Chitrakar (Image taken on research site in West Bengal, 2014) Figure 4 : Scroll panel shown by artist Dukhushyam Chitrakar (Image taken on research site in West Bengal, 2014). Figure 5 : Scroll panel shown by artist Dukhushyam Chitrakar (Image taken on research site in West Bengal, 2014). Figure 6 : Scroll panel shown by artist Dukhushyam Chitrakar (Image taken on research site in West Bengal, 2014). Figure 7 : The last scroll depicting the artist himself. Artist: Dukhushyam Chitrakar (Image taken on research site in West Bengal, 2014). Figure 8 : Map (India) showing the area where Koodiyattam is practised as a performing art. Figure 9 : Koothambalam – the sacred hall where Koodiyattam is held (Source: Gopalakrishnan, 2011). Figure 10 : The traditional lamp (Nilvilaku) in a Koodiyattam performance (Source: Gopalakrishnan, 2011). Figure 11 : Baliavadam being performed with pliant masks (Source: Gopalakrishnan, 2011). Figure 12 : The Vidushaka – A comial character (Source: Gopalakrishnan, 2011). Figure 13 : Barsela Monuments, Mandi, seventeenth century- nineteenth century. Figure 14 : Inscribed Barsela, Mandi, eighteenth century. Figure 15 : Sati Barsela depicting women retinue of the raja, Mandi, eighteenth century. Figure 16 : Memorial Stone from Sundernagar, Shimla State Museum, Himachal Pradesh. Figure 17 : Sati Barsela, Naggar, Himachal Pradesh. Figure 18 : Mohalla Kashmiri Fountain-slab, tenth century, Bhuri Singh Museum, Chamba, Himachal Pradesh.

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Figure 19 : Fragment of a memorial stone depicting a woman, Chhatrari Temple complex, Chamba, Himachal Pradesh. Figure 20 : A carved hero stone. Figure 21 : Map of district Bilaspur, Himachal Pradesh. Figure 22 : Map showing the Sutlej river Basin (after Chauhan et al., 2016). Figure 23 : Map showing the tributaries of river Sutlej (after Chauhan et al., 2016). Figure 24 : Geological sequence in district Bilaspur, Himachal Pradesh (Source: Himachal Pradesh District Gazetteers: Bilaspur, Gazetteer of India, 1975). Figure 25 : Google Earth image locating the site Bam (Black circle with red dot). Figure 26 : Terrain Map of the site BAM (Source- ISRO BHUVAN, ISRO Geo Portal). Figure 27 : Panoramic view of the site- Bam. The inset shows the artefacts of the site. Figure 28 : The Physiography of Seer Khad (showing location of the studied site). Figure 29 : Site map of Bam. Figure 30 : Aggradational terraces at studied locality (not to scale). Figure 31 : Exposed section of terrace -3 (T-3). Figure 32 : Some of the recovered artefacts from the studied locality. Figure 33 : Scraper lying on surface of the site. Figure 34 : Sketches of the recovered artefacts. Figure 35 : Percentage figures of Table 1. Figure 36 : State of preservation of the artefacts (in %). Figure 37 : Vaikuntha Chaturmukha, 9th century, Kashmir, Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA). Figure 38 : (left) Chaturvyuhas or Vaikuntha Chaturmurti. The three front faces from left to right are lion, human, and boar; (right) the angry or demonic face, Kashmir, 875-900 CE, Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA). Image 39 : Vaikuntha Chaturmurti, 11th century, Gujarat, The Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya (CSMVS), Mumbai. Image 40 : Chaturvyuhas, with the face of Para Vasudeva in front, 8th-10th century CE, Kashmir, MET Museum. Image 41 : Image 41: Sthanakamurti of VishGu Visvarupa in sambhanga posture, Basesvara temple in Bajoura, Himachal Pradesh. Image 42 : Visvarupa Vishnu in Basesvara temple in Bajoura, Himachal Pradesh. Image 43 : Visvarupa Vishnu with a halo/prabhamandala in Basesvara temple in Bajoura, Himachal Pradesh. Figure 44 : Bronze sculpture of Devki-Krishna, circa 14th-15th century, Goa (©Dr. Rohit R. Phalgaonkar). Figure 45 : Bronze sculpture of Devki-Krishna, circa 14th-15th century, Goa (©Dr. Rohit R. Phalgaonkar). Figure 46 : Block Diagram of a Disaster Management Plan Figure 47 : NCAA Data Management Plan

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Contributors

1. Ms. Amrita Singh 5. Prof. Mallepuram G Venkatesh Assistant Professor Former Vice Chancellor Department of History, Karnataka Sanskrit University, Shyama Prasad Mukherji College Karnataka, India Delhi University, Delhi, India 6. Ms. Manvi Singh 2. Mr. Aniket Vaibhav Doctoral Scholar Doctoral Scholar Department of Modern Indian Centre of German Studies Languages and Literary Studies School of Language, Literature University of Delhi, Delhi, India and Culture Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi, India 7. Ms. Monidipa Dey Freelance Editor, CBSE 3. Mr. Chandramolle Modgil Doctoral Scholar 8. Mr. Rahul Majumder School of Arts and Aesthetics Research Scholar, Art History Jawaharlal Nehru University, Visva Bharati University Delhi, India West Bengal, India

4. Mr. Gaurav Ranjan 9. Ms. Rajeswari Saha Doctoral Scholar Doctoral Scholar Department of Media and School of Media and Cultural Communication Studies, Tata Institute of Social Central University, South Bihar Sciences, Mumbai, India Gaya, Bihar, India

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10.Dr. Rembemo Odyuo 16.Dr. Seema Mamta Minz Research Officer Assistant Professor Indira Gandhi National Centre for Department of Anthropology & the Arts, Delhi, India Tribal Studies, School of Culture, Central University of Jharkhand 11.Dr. Rohit R. Phalgaonkar Jharkhand, India Lecturer, Purushottom Walawalkar Higher Secondary 17.Ms. Sharmila Chandra School Research Fellow Goa, India Indian Institute of Advanced Study, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, 12.Professor Pratapanand Jha India Head, Cultural Informatics Indira Gandhi National Centre for 18.Mr. Shiv Kumar Singhal the Arts, Delhi, India Doctoral Scholar Bastar University, Jagdalpur 13.Rupamoy Pandit Chhatisgarh, India Research Scholar 19.Professor Sunil Sondhi Visva-Bharati University Former Principal Santiniketan, Kolkata Deshbandhu College West Bengal, India Delhi University Delhi, India 14.Professor S R Bhatt Former Chairman 20.Mr. Worrel Kumar Bain Indian Council of Philosophical Doctoral Scholar Research, Delhi, India Department of Anthropology Gauhati University 15.Mr. Sanjay Kumar Tirkey Assam, India Research Scholar Department of Anthropology & Tribal Studies,School of Culture, Central University of Jharkhand Jharkhand, India

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