25 Year Master Plan for Management Komodo National Park Book 1

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25 Year Master Plan for Management

Komodo National Park

Book 1

Management Plan

Proposed by Komodo National Park’s Authority Assisted by The Nature Conservancy and Gajah Mada University, and supported by Manggarai District Authority.

Coordinated by: Direktorat Jenderal Widodo S. Ramono Direktorat Jenderal Perlindungan dan Perlindungan dan Konservasi Alam Konservasi Alam Novianto B. Wawandono Komodo National Park Johannes Subijanto The Nature Conservancy Editors: Dr. Jos S. Pet The Nature Conservancy, Dr. Carey Yeager The Nature Conservancy. Contributors:: Novianto Bambang Wawandono Kepala Balai TN Komodo, Rili Djohani MSc. The Nature Conservancy, Dr. Djuwantoko Fakultas Kehutanan, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Liber Habut Camat Komodo, Kabupaten Manggarai, Agus Marhadi Direktorat Konservasi Tumbuhan dan Satwa Liar, Arnaz Mehta The Nature Conservancy, Agus Sriyanto Direktorat Konservasi Kawasan, Johannes Subijanto The Nature Conservancy, Sudibyo Pusat Pendidikan dan Pelatihan Kehutanan dan Perkebunan, Ign. Herry Djoko Susilo Direktorat Konservasi Kawasan, Listya Kusumawardhani Sekretariat Ditjen PKA, Untung Suprapto Direktorat Konservasi Kawasan, Wiratno Kepala Unit KSDA, DI-Yogyakarta, Istanto Direktorat Wisata Alam dan Kebun . GIS and Maps: Dr. Peter J. Mous The Nature Conservancy, Sam Ataupah Teknisi TN Komodo. Front cover design and drawings: Donald Bason The Nature Conservancy. PREFACE

First of all, let us thank the Almighty God for blessing us in the finalization of the Komodo National Park 25-Year Management Plan after a long preparation process that began in 1995. This Management Plan specifically tries to provide alternatives for various marine problems throughout the Komodo National Park and its surroundings. These areas are not only potential resources for the surrounding community; they also potentially handle strains for the conservation of nature. It is difficult therefore to disregard the marine component, although the land component containing the habitat of Varanus komodoensis is still the main symbol of this National Park and the management priority.

In order to anticipate challenges and uncertainties in several aspects (e.g., political, economical, social, culture and the environment), this management plan, with its priority on the conservation of biodiversity, focuses on management and the use of indicators in choosing alternative solutions.

In addition, this plan has been set up to accommodate site specifics, geographical conditions and the surrounding community demographics. In order to make this document an adaptive management guide, it will continuously be updated with recent information and analysis regarding management aspects, reviewing aspects of both biodiversity and the surrounding community. It is our hope that this Management Plan will provide an initiative that complements the current Basis of Preparation of National Park Management Plan.

Lastly we would like to extend our gratitude for the cooperation and support from various parties in finalizing this Management Plan. Hopefully this cooperation will continue in the implementation of this Plan.

DEPARTEMEN KEHUTANAN DAN PERKEBUNAN DIREKTORAT JENDERAL PERLINDUNGAN DAN KONSERVASI ALAM BALAI TAMAN NASIONAL KOMODO Alamat Labuan Bajo, Flores Barat, Nusa Tenggara Timur 86554 Tel. (0385) 41004, 41005 Fax (0385) 41006

RENCANA PENGELOLAAN TAMAN NASIONAL KOMODO TAHUN 2000 – 2025

Sponsored by:

The David and Lucile Packard Foundation, Keidanren Nature Conservation Fund, Sekisui Chemical Co., Ltd., USAID, The Japanese Embassy in Jakarta, The Perkins Foundation, and The Nature Conservancy

The David and Lucile Packard Foundation

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION TO THE MANAGEMENT PLAN ...... 5 1.1 BACKGROUND ...... 5 1.2 PURPOSES AND OBJECTIVES OF THE KOMODO NATIONAL PARK...... 5 1.2.1 General Objectives...... 11 1.2.2 Detailed Management Objectives ...... 11 1.3 TARGETS...... 11 1.3.1 Protection...... 11 1.3.2 Conservation ...... 12 1.3.3 Resource Use...... 12 1.3.4 Education ...... 12 1.3.5 Improved Management System ...... 12 2 SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND CULTURAL CONDITIONS...... 13 2.1 GENERAL POPULATION STATISTICS ...... 13 2.1.1 Demographics ...... 13 2.1.2 Education ...... 15 2.1.3 Health...... 15 2.2 LOCAL ECONOMY ...... 15 2.2.1 Economically Important Species and Fishing Methods...... 15 2.2.2 Marine Productivity ...... 16 2.3 SOCIO-CULTURAL AND ANTHROPOLOGIC CONDITIONS...... 16 2.3.1 Traditional Customs...... 16 2.3.2 Institutions...... 16 2.3.3 Religion ...... 17 2.3.4 Anthropology and Language...... 17 2.4 IMPLICATIONS OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND SOCIO-CULTURAL ASPECTS...... 17 3. MAJOR THREATS TO THE NATURAL RESOURCES OF KNP ...... 18 3.1 HUMAN POPULATION PRESSURE...... 18 3.2 DESTRUCTIVE FISHERIES...... 18 3.2.1 Fishing with Explosives ...... 18 3.2.2 Fishing with Cyanide ...... 20 3.2.3 Reef Gleaning for Invertebrates by Breaking down Corals (‘Meting’) ...... 20 3.2.4 Fishing with Natural Poisons, Herbicides and Pesticides...... 20 3.2.5 Fishing with Traps (Bubu), Hook and Line and Gillnets...... 20 3.3 OVER-HARVESTING...... 21 3.4 EXOTICS...... 21 3.5 POLLUTION ...... 21 3.6 TOURISM...... 21 3.7 POACHING ...... 22 3.8 EL NINO – LA NINA WEATHER PATTERNS ...... 22 3.9 GLOBAL WARMING...... 22 3.10 OTHER THREATS: ...... 22 3.11 IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGEMENT ...... 22 4. MANAGING THE PARK’S NATURAL RESOURCES ...... 23

4.1 MANAGEMENT OPTIONS...... 23 4.1.1 Co-Management with the Provincial Government and Local Communities ...... 23 4.1.2 Adaptive Management...... 24 4.2 BIOLOGICAL MONITORING AND EVALUATION...... 24 4.2.1 Terrestrial Animal Censuses...... 24 4.2.2 Vegetation Monitoring ...... 25 4.2.3 Environmental Monitoring...... 25 4.2.4 Coral Reef Monitoring...... 25 4.2.5 Grouper and Napoleon Wrasse Spawning Aggregation Sites ...... 27 4.2.6 Diversity and Abundance of Cetaceans ...... 29 4.2.7 Oceanography...... 30 4.2.8 Seagrass Beds ...... 30 4.3 GENERAL MANAGEMENT ISSUES...... 30 4.3.1 Area Rehabilitation and Conservation ...... 30 4.3.2 Individual Species Management ...... 31 4.4 RESOURCE USE PATTERNS...... 32 4.4.1 Monitoring of Marine Resource Utilization...... 32 4.4.2 Marine Resource Use – Management Implications...... 33 4.5 RESEARCH...... 33 5 BORDERS AND ZONATION FOR THE KOMODO NATIONAL PARK ...... 36 5.1 LOCATION AND BORDERS ...... 36 5.2 BOUNDARIES...... 36 5.2.1 Rapid Ecological Assessment...... 36 5.2.2 Border Coordinates...... 40 5.2.3 Buffer Zone Coordinates...... 41 5.3 ZONATION ...... 41 5.4 PROPOSED REGULATIONS FOR ZONES IN KOMODO NATIONAL PARK...... 45 5.4.1 Core Zone (Zona Inti) ...... 45 5.4.2 Wilderness Zone (Zona Rimba)...... 45 5.4.3 Tourism Use Zone (Zona Pemanfaatan Wisata)...... 46 5.4.4 Traditional Use Zone (Zona Pemanfaatan Tradisional) ...... 46 5.4.5 Pelagic Use Zone (Zona Pemanfaatan Pelagis) ...... 47 5.4.6 Special Research and Training Zone (Zona khusus Penelitian dan Latihan) ...... 50 5.4.7 Traditional Settlement Zone (Zona Pemukiman Tradisional) ...... 50 5.4.8 Proposed Regulations for KNP Buffer Zones ...... 51 5.5 IMPLEMENTATION OF REGULATIONS ...... 51 6 LEGAL ISSUES AND LAW ENFORCEMENT ...... 52 6.1 LEGAL BASIS FOR NATIONAL PARKS...... 52 6.2 NATIONAL AND REGIONAL POLICIES...... 52 6.3 KOMODO NATIONAL PARK MANAGEMENT POLICY ...... 53 6.4 CO-MANAGEMENT AND LAW ENFORCEMENT...... 54 6.5 LEGAL ISSUES ...... 54 6.5.1 Relevancy, Overlapping Jurisdictions and Loopholes...... 54 6.5.2 Special Regulations...... 55 6.5.3 Exclusive Use Rights...... 55 6.5.4 Park Boundaries and Extensions ...... 55 6.5.5 Immigration...... 55 3

6.5.6 Privatization and Self-Financing (Swadana)...... 56 6.6 LONG TERM ENFORCEMENT STRATEGY ...... 56 7 TOURISM...... 57 7.1 POTENTIAL FOR TOURISM IN AND AROUND KNP ...... 57 7.2 ECOTOURISM DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY ...... 57 7.2.1 Accessibility ...... 58 7.3 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES...... 58 7.4 MOORING BUOY PROGRAM...... 60 7.5 FACILITIES AND DEVELOPMENT...... 60 8. CONSTITUENCY BUILDING AND PARTICIPATORY PLANNING...... 63 8.1 CONSTITUENCY BUILDING ...... 63 8.2 PARTICIPATORY PLANNING...... 63 8.3 PARTICIPATORY RAPID APPRAISAL...... 63 8.4 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND AWARENESS PROGRAM ...... 63 8.4.1 Future Program Activities ...... 64 9. COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT AND ALTERNATIVE LIVELIHOODS ...... 65 9.1 PELAGIC FISHERIES ...... 65 9.2 MARICULTURE...... 66 9.2.1 Culture of High Quality Food Fish...... 66 9.2.2 Seaweed Culture ...... 68 9.3 ECOTOURISM...... 68 9.4 DEVELOPMENT OF SURROUNDING AREAS...... 69 10 CAPACITY STRENGTHENING AND TRAINING ...... 70 10.1 INSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT ...... 70 10.2 EDUCATION AND TRAINING...... 70 11 PARK ADMINISTRATION AND INFRASTRUCTURE MANAGEMENT...... 71 11.1 PARK ADMINISTRATION...... 71 11.1.1 Organizational Structure ...... 71 11.1.2 Responsibilities, Management and Structural Issues ...... 71 11.2. PERSONNEL STAFFING REQUIREMENTS...... 72 11.3 RESTRUCTURING MANAGEMENT...... 74 11.4 COORDINATION ...... 75 11.4.1 Co-management...... 76 11.5 FACILITIES AND INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT ...... 77 12 PARK FINANCE ...... 78

13. SOME PRINCIPLES ON STRUCTURING THE PLAN...... 79

INDEX...... 80

1. INTRODUCTION TO THE MANAGEMENT PLAN

1.1 BACKGROUND

Komodo National Park (Fig. 1) was established in 1980 and declared a World Heritage Site and a Man and Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO in 1986. KNP was initially established to conserve the unique Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis), and its habitat. Other terrestrial species of note (Fig. 2) include the orange-footed scrubfowl (Megapodius reinwardt), an endemic rat (Rattus rintjanus), and Timor deer (Cervus timorensis). Approximately 70% of the terrestrial area is open grass-woodland savanna (Fig. 3). Tropical deciduous (monsoon) forest and quasi cloud-forest above 500 m on ridges and pinnacles are the other terrestrial habitat types.

Komodo National Park (KNP) includes one of the world’s richest marine environments (Fig. 4). The Park encompasses 1,214 square kilometers of highly diverse marine habitats, including coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass beds, seamounts, and semi-enclosed bays. These habitats harbor more than 1,000 species of fish, some 260 species of reef-building coral, and 70 species of sponges. Dugong (Dugong dugon), dolphins (10 species), whales (6 species), and hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) and green (Chelonia mydas) turtles are all occurring within the Park. KNP lies in the Wallacea Region of Indonesia, identified by WWF and Conservation International as a global conservation priority area. KNP is located between the islands of Sumbawa and Flores, at the border of the NTT and NTB provinces (Fig. 5). KNP includes three major islands, Komodo, Rinca and Padar, and numerous smaller islands together totaling 603 km2 of land.

The total size of KNP is presently 1,817 km2. Proposed extensions of 25 km2 land (Banta island) and 479 km2 marine waters will bring the total surface area up to 2,321 km2. There were approximately 3,267 inhabitants living within the Park in 1999, spread out over four settlements (Komodo, Papagaran, Rinca and Kerora). An estimated 16,816 people were living in fishing villages directly surrounding the Park in 1998. Park inhabitants mainly derive their income from a pelagic lift net ('bagan') fishery that targets squid and small schooling pelagic fish.

Destructive fishing practices such as dynamite-, cyanide-, and compressor fishing severely threaten the Park's demersal (bottom dwelling) and sedentary marine resources by destroying both the habitat (coral reefs) and the resource itself (fish and invertebrate stocks). The present situation in KNP is characterized by reduced but continuing destructive fishing practices, primarily by non-Park inhabitants, and high pressure on demersal stocks like lobsters, shellfish, groupers and napoleon wrasse. Terrestrial threats include the increasing pressure on forest cover for fuelwood and water resources as the local human population has increased 800% over the past 60 years. In addition, the Timor deer population, the preferred prey source for the endangered Komodo dragon, is still being poached. Pollution inputs, ranging from raw sewage to chemicals, are increasing and may pose a major threat in the future.

1.2 PURPOSES AND OBJECTIVES OF THE KOMODO NATIONAL PARK

The goals for KNP are to protect its biodiversity (particularly the Komodo dragon) and the breeding stocks of commercial fishes for replenishment of surrounding fishing grounds. The main challenge is to reduce both threats to the resources and conflicts between incompatible activities.

5 Borders Komodo National Park (Nov. 1998)

Coordinates Latitude Longitude (S) (E) 1 8.25.95 119.24.15 2 8.24.35 119.27.35 3 8.25.75 119.35.15 4 8.31.50 119.41.45 5 8.35.15 119.47.80 6 8.37.30 119.48.65 7 8.43.00 119.47.30 8 8.48.60 119.44.05 9 8.49.90 119.40.00 10 8.46.00 119.21.05 11 8.35.60 119.20.95 12 8.46.50 119.46.90 13 8.48.00 119.49.20 14 8.50.25 119.48.05 15 8.48.65 119.45.60

Figure 1. Borders of Komodo National Park, according to the revision of November 1998. 6

Spatial Distribution of Terrestrial Fauna

Figure 2. Spatial distribution of the Komodo dragon, two bird species and five mammal species in Komodo National Park. Based on reports from Park rangers. 7 Vegetation Cover in Komodo National Park

sea grass mangrove forest savanna

Figure 3. Vegetation cover in Komodo National Park. Forest cover is based on visual interpretation of Landsat images taken on October 19 1992 and May 3 1992. Cover of mangrove and sea grass is based on interviews with Park rangers and staff of the TNC Komodo Field Office.

8 Cetaceans, Swiftlets, Mantas, and Turtles

Cetacean migration route Swiftlet nesting site Manta aggregation site Turtle nesting beach Shallow (< 20 m depth) Reef flat

Figure 4. Cetacean migration routes, swiftlet nesting sites, sites where manta rays aggregate, and turtle nesting beaches. Sketch map based on interviews with Park rangers and staff of the TNC Komodo Field Office, and on the cetacean surveys held in May and October 1999.

Komodo Area – Map 295

provincial border

NTB

NTT

Figure 5. Komodo area, situated between Nusa Tenggara Timur and Nusa Tenggara Barat, as charted by Dinas Hidro- Oseanografi of the Indonesian Navy.

1.2.1 General Objectives

• Establish a terrestrial and marine reserve in Komodo National Park, which fully protects the natural communities, species, and the terrestrial, coastal and marine ecosystems. • Ensure the long-term survival of the Komodo dragon and maintain the quality of its habitat. • Use the Park’s resources in a sustainable way, for tourism, education, tourism, and research. • Protect the stocks of exploited reef fish and invertebrates in the reserve, thereby creating a source of recruits to enhance fisheries on fishing grounds in and around KNP.

1.2.2 Detailed Management Objectives

• Establishment of a strong co-management structure which is more self reliant for the Park. • Stop all destructive fishing practices, including compressor fishing, reef gleaning, etc.. • Protect fish stocks by closing all known fish spawning aggregation sites to fisheries. • Protect fish stocks by prohibiting demersal fishing in most areas of the Park. • Promote a shift of fishing effort from demersal to pelagic fishing. • Implement traditional use zones with exclusive fishing rights for Park inhabitants. • Implement reforestation and other rehabilitation efforts where appropriate. • Develop feasible methods to increase the rate of coral reef rehabilitation. • Introduce licensing system for all activities inside Komodo National Park. • Support members of local communities to enter in compatible enterprises. • Implement sustainable system for tourism management and Park financing. • Limit human population growth through restricting immigration and land use. • Stabilize the human population size within the Park. • Limit extraction of firewood and water resources, and provide alternatives. • Establish waste disposal systems and eliminate pollution inputs. • Eliminate dogs and cats and prohibit the introduction of other alien species. • Monitor populations of important species such as the Komodo dragon, the megapode, and the sea turtles and make management interventions as appropriate. • Maintain sufficient grazing habitat for deer.

1.3 TARGETS

KNP must protect the fauna, flora, and ecosystems found in the area, and support sustainable development within the region. Co-ordination is required with government agencies in the region, as well as with local communities, research institutions and NGOs. Specific targets include:

1.3.1 Protection

• Legal confirmation of the External Boundary System of the terrestrial and marine areas. • An operational zonation system in place, protecting all areas with high biological value. • An effective surveillance system implemented by motivated Park staff, to enforce regulations. • Park regulations are clear, enforceable, and ensure the protection of the natural resources. • Spawning locations for fish and other marine biota are preserved and maintain their functions. • The Park’s fauna and flora are protected and conserved in their natural habitats. • Limited harvesting activities do not threaten the populations of any species in the Park.

1.3.2 Conservation

• The Park’s flora and fauna are preserved in their natural ecosystems. • Effective management interventions are taken when species or eco-systems are threatened. • Animal migration routes in the KNP area are maintained in good quality. • Monitoring and evaluation systems are developed and effectively implemented. • Environmentally degraded areas are rehabilitated or restored as necessary.

1.3.3 Resource Use

Fisheries • Pelagic resources in the Pelagic Use Zone and coastal resources in the Traditional Use Zones are used in a sustainable manner. • Coral reefs and spawning sites are preserved, both within and outside KNP. • Pelagic fishing methods are diversified, and post harvest methods are improved. • Mariculture is sustainably developed in the Traditional Use Zone and outside the KNP area.

Tourism • An overall tourism management plan is developed and implemented. • Effective co-management of natural resources in the Buffer Zones is implemted in cooperation with the appropriate agencies. • Park management facilities, and infrastructure are develop on the basis of an EIA. • Research is implemented on the impacts of tourism, and the needs of tourists. • A trial system is implemented for charging of a progressive entrance fee for KNP, with all revenues collected used to finance Park management.

Research • Agreements developed covering intellectual property rights. • A biological monitoring and inventory plan for all marine and terrestrial habitats implemented, with special attention given to fragile habitats and threatened species. • An overall research plan developed and implemented in collaboration with scientific partners and addressing key management issues for the Park.

1.3.4 Education

• Develop facilities and infrastructure for education and research on the conservation of natural resources in the Special Research and Training Zone based. • Improvement of awareness and responsibilities with respect to the Komodo National Park. • Increased skill levels providing more job opportunities for the local community.

1.3.5 Improved Management System

• A self-sustaining management system is developed and implemented for KNP. • Local on-site capacity in Park management is increased at KNP. • Participation by local stakeholders is positively contributing to the management of KNP. • Management personnel is trained and skilled in the use of self-financing systems.

2 SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND CULTURAL CONDITIONS

2.1 GENERAL POPULATION STATISTICS

2.1.1 Demographics

There are four villages located within the Park (Fig. 6). These are Komodo, Rinca, Kerora, and Papagaran. All villages existed prior to 1980 before the area was declared a national Park (Pagarang was included in the Park with the new borders of 1998, before that it was situated in the Buffer Zone of the Park). In 1928 there were only 30 people living in Komodo Village, and approximately 250 people on Rinca Island in 1930. The population increased rapidly, and by 1999, there were 281 families containing 1,169 people on Komodo, meaning that the local population had increased exponentially. Papagaran village is similar in size, with 258 families containing 1,078 people. As of 1999, Rinca’s population was 835, and Kerora contained 185 people. The total population currently living in the Park is approximately 3, 267 people. Approximately 16,816 people are living in the area immediately surrounding the Park.

KNP is located in Kecamatan Komodo, Kabupaten Manggarai NTT. An extension is planned into Kecamatan Sape, Kabupaten Bima, NTB. There are three desa inside the Park, desa Komodo, desa Pasir Panjang, and desa Papagaran. Before 1997, desa Papagaran was administratively under Desa Komodo and located in the buffer zone outside the Park. A revision of the Park boundaries in 1998 now includes Papagaran as a new desa within the boudaries. Komodo Village has had the highest population increase of the villages within KNP, mostly due to in-migration by people from Sape, Manggarai, Madura, and South Sulawesi. The number of buildings in Kampung Komodo has increased rapidly from 30 houses in 1958, to 194 houses in 1994, and 270 houses in 2000. In- migration in Rinca village has been primarily from Bima, Sape, Manggarai, Selayar and Ende. Kampung Kerora has the smallest population of the communities located within the Park.

There are several villages on the Park's east side in Kecamatan Komodo, on Flores Island, and on smaller islands. The villagers are mostly fishermen and are dependent on marine resources for their living. Desa Pasir Putih consists of two villages, Mesa Island and Seraya Besar Island. Labuan Bajo, Gorontalo, Warloka and Golomori are all located on Flores Island. Labuan Bajo and Gorontalo are part of the Labuan Bajo capital city of Kecamatan Komodo. In the last decade the population of Labuan Bajo has increased rapidly due to increased economic opportunities. Population growth was primarily caused by in-migration from South Sulawesi, Bima and Java. There are also a number of villages located on the west side of the Park in Kecamatan Sape, Kabupaten Bima, West Nusa Tenggara (Fig. 5). Bajau Pulau village is located on a small island and the other villages are located on the coast of Sumbawa. Communities in Bajau Pulau and Bugis are primarily composed of fisherman who use the Park's marine resources.

In 1993 the population size in Kecamatan Komodo was 29,077. This increased by 13.5% to 33,001 by the year 1997. The population size of Kecamatan Sape in 1993 was 71,355. As of 2000, the population had increased by 9.1% to 77,857. Many of the villages in and near the Park have shown greater increases in population size than the average increase observed within their Kecamatans. Kecamatan Komodo has shown a greater increase in population size than Kecamatan Sape. Labuan Bajo has the fastest growing population of the villages near the Park; and Komodo Village has the fastest growing population inside the Park area.

13 Villages in the Komodo Area

population numbers small/unknown (0 - 400) medium (400 -1150) large (1150 – 5580)

Figure 6. Villages in the Komodo area. Population numbers are based on a survey of population statistics by Komodo Field Office staff. The numbers pertain to 1999, or, if not available, to 1998 (Mesa, Labuan Bajo, Golomori, Warloka). For Gorontalo and Seraya Kecil, no separate statistics are collected (inhabitats are included in the statistic for Labuan Bajo). 14

2.1.2 Education

The average level of education in the villages of KNP is grade four of elementary school. There is an elementary school located in each of these villages, but new students are not recruited each year. On average, each village has four classes and four teachers. In Kecamatan Komodo there are three types of elementary school: Public Elementary (SD Negeri), Inpres Elementary, and Private Elementary (SD Swasta). Most of the children from the small islands in the Kecamatan Komodo (Komodo, Rinca, Kerora, Papagaran, Mesa) do not finish elementary school. Less than 10% of those which do graduate from elementary school will continue to high school. Children must be sent to Labuan Bajo to attend high school, but this is rarely done in fishermen’s families.

2.1.3 Health

Most of the villages located in and around the Park have few fresh water facilities available, if any, particularly during the dry season. Water quality declines during this time period and many people become ill. Malaria and diarrhea are rampant in the area. On Mesa island, with a population of around 1,500 people, there is no fresh water available. Fresh water is brought by boat in jerrycans from Labuan Bajo. Each family needs an average of Rp 100,000.- per month to buy fresh water (2000). Almost every village has a local medical facility with staff, and at least a paramedic. The quality of medical care facilities is low.

2.2 LOCAL ECONOMY

The majority of the people living within the Park and in the nearby adjacent areas rely on fishing as their main source of income (97%). The remainder are traders and civil servants. Some garden crops are planted near the villages, and woodland products such as tamarind are collected for sale. Agriculture is not an option for those living in the Park, as they have extemely limited access to land, the soils are poor and fresh water sources and rainfall are limited. In Sape, Sumbawa island, agriculture is used to supplement income from fishing. As educational levels are generally low, alternative economic opportunities are limited. Based on survey data gathered in the area by Sudibyo (Forestry Human Resources Development Agency) in 1995 and 2000, local fishing communities presently exhibit the following characteristics:

• Daily and seasonal incomes are highly variable. • The catch is perishable and has to be marketed quickly. • Large working capital is needed and high risks are involved. • Small share of profits for the fishers. • Traditional processing of marine products is of low quality.

2.2.1 Economically Important Species and Fishing Methods

The most valuable marine products harvested in the area are squid, live groupers, lobster, shrimp (terasi), sea cucumber, and nener (juvenile milky fish). The small pelagic lift net (‘bagan’) is the predominant gear type and the majority of the local fishing community derives its income from it. The bagan fishery primarily targets small schooling pelagic marine species, mainly squid. As catches of squid have been declining, scads and clupeid fishes, such as anchovies and sardines, have recently become more important in the bagan fishery.

At present more than 800 bagan fishing boats work in the area (Mesa: 100, Labuan Bajo: >150, Paparan: 150, Seraya: 10, Rinca: 5, Komodo: 200, Bajau Pulau: 100, plus others from Ende, and South Sulawesi). More diverse geartypes are used in the demersal fisheries (e.g., hookah compressor, hook and line, traps, gillnets). There are fewer of these geartypes present, but they are important economically. These geartypes are used in harvesting high value species such as lobsters and live reef fish (with hookah compressor, cyanide, hook and line and traps), and also allow large quantities of fish to be harvested in a short time span (with dynamite and gillnets).

2.2.2 Marine Productivity

Exploitation of the natural ecosystem in the Komodo National Park waters has increased and become more intensive over the past few decades. A cash economy has developed and the standard of living in the area has increased since 1980. This observation is based on the increasing number of people who have made the pilgrim’s journey to Mecca, and the growing number of boat owners, buildings, and televisions in the area. The use of destructive fishing practices, such as bombs and poisons, has increased with the increasing need for cash, and has had a negative impact on the Park’s quality as a source of replenishment.

Overfishing and fishing at spawning aggregation sites are severely straining the marine biota’s replacement capacity. Catch size has seriously declined for several species. Fishing activities need to be limited in order to sustain the ecosystem’s productivity. The Regency of Manggarai, in the Province of East Nusa Tenggara, and the Regency of Bima, in the Province of West Nusa Tenggara, have drawn up Space Utilization Plans for their respective areas of jurisdiction. These plans should be further develop with special attention for the marine areas.

2.3 SOCIO-CULTURAL AND ANTHROPOLOGIC CONDITIONS

2.3.1 Traditional Customs

Traditional communities in Komodo, Flores and Sumbawa have been subjected to outside influences and the influence of traditional customs is dwindling. Television, radio, and increased mobility have all played a part in accelerating the rate of change. There has been a steady influx of migrants into the area. At the moment nearly all villages consist of more than one ethnic group.

2.3.2 Institutions

Formal institutions of village administration include the Lembaga Musyawarah Desa (LMD) and the Lembaga Ketahanan Masyarakat Desa (LKMD). These institutions have not had a major influence on the dynamics of the village communities. In fishing villages the teachers usually come from outside, and many of the school-aged children do not attend school beyond the first few years. Government institutions provide technical support in the areas of agriculture, fisheries, health and family planning, but their programs have little impact on the dynamics of the fishing communities. Fishing cooperatives are rare. Economic institutions, such as banks and village unit cooperatives, are only present in a few locations and are not generally effective. Existing banks have primarily traders as their clients, and rarely advance credit to local fishermen. Investors and traders form influential informal institution in the dynamics of community development.

2.3.3 Religion

The majority of fishermen living in the villages in the vicinity of KNP are Muslims, and a strong, informal institution in this community is Koran recitation. Hajis have a strong influence in the dynamics of community development. Fishermen hailing from South Sulawesi (Bajau, Bugis) and Bima are mostly Moslems. The community from Manggarai are mostly Christians.

2.3.4 Anthropology and Language

There are several cultural sites within the Park, particularly on Komodo Island. These sites are not well documented, however, and there are many questions concerning the history of human inhabitance on the island, and the origins of stone megaliths. Outside the Park, in Warloka village on Flores, there is a Chinese trading post remnant of some interest. Archeological finds from this site have been looted in the recent past. Most communities in and around KNP can speak Bahasa Indonesia. Bajo language is the language used for daily communication in most communities.

2.4 IMPLICATIONS OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND SOCIO-CULTURAL ASPECTS

The human population within the Park is already over the carrying capacity of the area. The limited fresh water availability and the lack of appropriate soils for agriculture place limitations on population growth. Water is currently brought in from Flores and the local population has little access to fresh fruits and vegetables. Incentives (financial, social) need to be developed to attract people living in the Park to move to the adjacent larger islands (Flores, Sumbawa).

Education levels are still low, and there is little importance placed on higher education by members of the local communities. There are currently few incentives for education past elementary school, as the major economic opportunity (fishing) does not require extensive education. Given thee low educational levels, the perishability of the local fisheries produce, the relatively high levels of individual debt, and the control of the traders over setting purchase prices, it is difficult for fishermen and their families to improve their quality of life or increase the opportunities available to their children. Steps need to be taken to break the current cycle. An important first step would be to prevent traders from being both credit lenders and purchasers of marine products. The formation of fishing cooperatives, credit unions, and allowing fishermen to sell directly to the market would increase the profits obtained by the fishermen.

Cultural aspects are fluid and can change rapidly. New destructive fishing techniques have been adopted readily in the past, and have created major problems. Material expectations will rise exponentially in the next 25 years, as villagers are exposed to increased external inputs through tourists and television. The combination of increased material “wants” and the expansion of tie-ins into external markets will place a serious burden on Indonesia’s marine resources in the future. Extraction of marine resources will probably continue to be the main economic opportunity in the area over the next several decades. Careful management of these resources is necessary to maintain sufficient stock. Eco-tourism may provide some opportunities, but will probably not match the marine resource sector. Few of the revenues generated by tourism actually trickle down to the local villages. If education levels rise, there may be increased opportunities for economic diversification.

3. MAJOR THREATS TO THE NATURAL RESOURCES OF KNP

The Park is faced by numerous problems, both at land and on sea (Table 3.1), including:

• Human population pressure and increased demand on natural resources are leading to degradation of both the terrestrial and marine resources. • Destructive fishing practices in the area are the single largest threat to the marine resources. • Overharvesting of marine resources, particularly demersal species, is a major problem. • The introduction of non-native species, including dogs, cats, and goats, pose a risk to threatened endemic species through the introduction of disease, predation, or competition. • Pollution inputs are increasing due to lack of appropriate waste disposal methods for sewage and trash, oil/fuel spills in marine environment, and runoff from fertilizers and pesticides. • The current terrestrial habitat is heavily influenced by past anthropogenic activities. Fire, both deliberately lit by poachers, and accidental, is a major threat to forest habitat. • The poaching of deer, turtle eggs, fruit bats, nests of cave swiftlets, etc. is still rampant. • Global warming could pose a significant threat to the area in the future.

3.1 HUMAN POPULATION PRESSURE

The human population within the Park borders has increased approximately 1,000% since 1930. High birth rates and immigration rates have both contributed to the problem. The constantly rising population places increasing demands on the resources, including fresh water, fuelwood, and building materials. The pressure is leading to degradation of the terrestrial resource base. The collection of firewood from the mangroves and surrounding forests degrades them, and leads to the loss of breeding grounds and shelter for marine life and terrestrial species, the loss of windbreaks, increased erosion / siltation, and the loss of food sources for some species. Increased extraction / diversion of water leads to reduced water available for dependent fauna, changes in the water table, and will affect plant distribution patterns.

3.2 DESTRUCTIVE FISHERIES

3.2.1 Fishing with Explosives

Fish bombs are mostly made with artificial (chemical) fertilizers such as ammonium- and potassium nitrate (NH4NO3; KNO3), which is mixed with kerosene in a bottle. Blast fishers hunt specifically for schooling reef fish, so that only a few bombs will assure a relatively large catch. After the charge explodes, diving fishers enter the water to collect the fish, which have been killed or stunned by the shock-wave from the explosion. The size of the coral area destroyed by a single blast is dependent upon the size of the bomb and the position of the explosion relative to the coral reef. A beer bottle bomb will shatter an area of stony corals approximately 5 m in diameter. Many blast fishing operations use "hookah" compressors to collect their catch from the reef. Blast fishing is considered one of the most destructive anthropogenic threats to coral reef ecosystems. It destroys the reef structure, eliminating its ability to provide food and shelter to marine organisms, and protect coastlines. It directly and indiscriminately kills the fish and invertebrates that inhabit the reef. In addition, reef-related tourism, which holds great promise for alternative income generation, can not be developed in areas that are being blasted.

Table 3.1. Major threats to the natural resources of Komodo National Park. Threat Level of Major Impacts Management Options Threat Human Population Pressure Moderate degradation of resource base, species prohibit immigration into Park, extinction, increased erosion, restrict / regulate resource use, create interruption of hydrological cycle incentives for emigration Destructive Fisheries: a) Fishing with Explosives High degradation and depletion of resource prohibit explosives, prohibit the use of base, species extinction, loss of coral hookah, enforcement patrols, reef's functions, reduced productivity education, provide alternatives b) Fishing with Cyanide High degradation and depletion of resource prohibit the use of cyanide, prohibit base, species extinction, reduced hookah, enforcement patrols, productivity education, provide alternatives c) Reef Gleaning for High degradation and depletion of resource prohibit reef gleaning, prohibit the use Invertebrates (Meting) base, species extinction, loss of coral of hookah compressors, enforcement reef's protective functions, reduced patrols, education, provide economic productivity alternatives e) Fishing with Natural High degradation of resource base, species prohibit all poisons, enforcement Poisons, Herbicides and extinction, loss of ecosystem functions, patrols, education, provide economic Pesticides reduced productivity alternatives f) Fishing with Traps (Bubu), High degradation of resource base, species Prohibit gillnets and traps, limit the Hook and Line, and Gillnets extinction, reduced productivity other gear, enforcement patrols, education, provide alternatives Over Harvesting High local species extinction, changes in regulate catch type, amount, and community structure location, monitoring and evaluation, enforcement patrols, education, provide economic alternatives Poaching High local species extinction, changes in prohibit harvesting of specific species, community structure, increased disease, enforcement patrols, education, increased fires, vegetation changes provide alternatives Tourism Moderate degradation of resource base, disrupt limit within carrying capacity, reproductive activities and migration education, prohibit facilities routes of threatened or economically development within Park, privatize important species tourism management Exotics Moderate local species extinction, changes in prohibit species introductions, community structure regulate ballast dumping, remove exotics, education Pollution Low degradation of resource base, species regulate waste and trash disposal, treat extinction, reduced productivity polluted areas, education, monitoring and evaluation El Nino Low local species extinction, changes in education, species introductions and community structure, degraded reefs translocations Global Warming Low local species extinction, changes in education, species introductions and community structure, degrade reefs translocations Volcanic eruptions Low local species extinction, changes in education, species introductions and community structure translocations Earthquakes Low local species extinction, changes in education, species introductions and community structure translocations Tsunami Low local species extinction, changes in education, species introductions and community structure translocations

3.2.2 Fishing with Cyanide

Cyanide solutions are used extensively to catch live reef fish for consumption and ornamental purposes. The concentrations of dissolved poison are not meant to kill but only to tranquilize the target fish, which facilitates their capture. The live food-fish trade concentrates on the catch of groupers and Napoleon wrasse. The aquarium fish trade concentrates on a much wider variety of species of colorful reef fishes. Live spiny lobsters, are also caught with cyanide. Cyanide fishing is done by divers, using "hookah" compressors and hoses to supply air. A diver on a "hookah" compressor-hose descends 10-40 meters until he spots a target fish. He chases the fish into a crevice in the reef and then squirts cyanide from a plastic bottle into the hole. As the fish begins to weaken, the diver breaks away the coral around the hole, reaches in, grabs the fish, and slowly escorts it to the surface. The cyanide fishery for aquarium fish destroys large areas of corals, which are broken down after an area has been sprayed with cyanide and the target fishes have fled in between the corals. The use of hookah compressors is a key factor in cyanide fishing practices.

3.2.3 Reef Gleaning for Invertebrates by Breaking down Corals (‘Meting’)

The fishery for abalone (mata tuju) has destroyed large areas of coral reefs in recent years. While dynamite and cyanide fishing are becoming less of a threat to these reefs, many fishermen are digging through the reefs, using compressors and steel bar tools (the method is called 'meting'), in search of abalone and other marine invertebrates. The fishermen break down and turn over the corals (which are also trampled by them in the process) and leave behind them fields of near 100% dead coral rubble. Collecting invertebrates from reef flats is a traditional activity, which used to be focused on sea cucumber and carried out during very low tides. The high price for abalone and the availability of dive gear and 'hooka' compressors changed this into a more serious activity in the early nineties and initiated an increase in the total applied effort.

3.2.4 Fishing with Natural Poisons, Herbicides and Pesticides

A traditional fish poison which is used on the coral reefs of KNP is called 'tuba', which is a powder made from the seeds of trees. The powder of the grounded seeds is mixed with water, which is then spread out mainly over sea grass beds to catch rabbitfish (Siganidae). The fish are reportedly only stunned by the poison and do not die of it. Stunned fish are collected for local consumption and dried for sale on local markets. Reefs around northern Rinca and Papagaran are major target areas. This method is reportedly widespread and about 60% of all fishermen in the area use 'tuba' every now and then. Since natural poison is not always easy to obtain and less effective than artificial chemicals, fishermen from the area between Komodo and Labuan Bajo have started using herbicides and pesticides which they still call 'tuba'. Herbicides and pesticides are cheap and readily available, and therefore popular in catching a variety of small reef fish.

3.2.5 Fishing with Traps (Bubu), Hook and Line and Gillnets

The use of bamboo mesh traps (bubu) is widespread in Indonesian reef fisheries. The process of setting and retrieving the trap is responsible for extensive destruction on the reef. To hide the traps in the reef, divers break off live coral to cover them. Traps set by simply lowering the trap from boatside via a buoyed rope are responsible for even more serious reef damage. These traps are often heavily weighted, and can destroy entire stands of corals during their installation.

The main non-bagan yield category from KNP is fish (almost 95%). These fish are mostly caught by gillnets, and by trolling and bottom hook and lines. Demersal trolling lines or 'kedo kedo' are wiping out the coral trout stocks. Bottom hook and lines take all predators and bottom longlines are decimating the sharks and large groupers. Gillnets kill indiscriminately, including turtles, dugong, cetaceans, and all species of reef fish. The fish stocks of the Park are seriously threatened by the use of gillnets and bottom longlines.

3.3 OVER-HARVESTING

The target fish species in the live reef fish trade commonly aggregate at specific sites to spawn. Groupers and Napoleon wrasse migrate many miles each season to these spawning sites. Spawning aggregation sites are extremely vulnerable since experienced fishers are skilled in locating them. Wiping out the fish on one aggregation site equals the elimination of top predators from several square miles of reef. Grouper and Napoleon wrasse spawning aggregation sites therefore need to be protected wherever possible.

Mangroves, seagrass, lontar palms, and other species have been overharvested in the past. Seagrass is collected for use as a food source and as an ingredient for cosmetics. There is a large external market for these products. Mangrove tress are used for fire wood. The palm trees are used to make furniture and buildings locally. The decrease in the seagrass population may lead to increased coral mortality and decreases in species dependent upon them for shelter and food.

3.4 EXOTICS

A number of exotic species have been introduced in KNP. The introduction of non-native species, including dogs, cats, and goats, pose a risk to threatened endemic species through the introduction of disease, predation, or outcompeting local species for resources. Feral dogs (along with poaching) reportedly helped cause a local extinction of Timor deer in the mid-70’s on Padar Island. The introduction of alien exotics may lead to local extinctions of deer, dragons, Rattus rintjanus, megapodes, endemic plants and the collapse of food webs.

3.5 POLLUTION

Pollution inputs are increasing due to lack of appropriate waste disposal methods for sewage and trash by local communities, oil and fuel spills in the marine environment, and runoff from fertilizers and pesticides. Nutrient inputs from sewage and fertilizers can lead to algae blooms offshore causing large scale dieoffs of marine biota. Oil and fuel spills can kill off coral. Chemical spills and pesticides can rapidly decimate marine communities. Turtles and cetaceans are particularly vulnerable to plastic wastes, often ingesting them or getting entangled in them.

3.6 TOURISM

Tourism increased significantly until 1997. As of 1996, the Park was receiving 30,000 visitors per year, and this figure was growing at 11% per year. Although numbers fell during the economic crisis in 1997-1999, visitation is expected to rise again. This places additional demands on the natural resources, and increases sewage and trash inputs. Marine recreation can damage coral reefs (inappropriate contact or anchor damage) and disturb spawning and nesting sites.

3.7 POACHING

The poaching of deer, turtle eggs, fruit bats, nests of cave swiftlets, etc. has been an on-going problem for the area. Poaching may lead to local species extinctions, e.g., a decrease in the deer or other prey species population could lead to loss of the entire population of Komodo dragons. A decrease in the swiftlet or bat population could cause an increase in the insect population, and higher probability of disease transmission by mosquito vectors (e.g., malaria and dengue fever).

3.8 EL NINO – LA NINA WEATHER PATTERNS

El Nino- La Nina events appear to be occurring on a three to five year cycle at present. The severity of the event varies. Warming of oceanic waters causes coral bleaching and mortality, although due to the upwelling of cool water, the corals in the Park have not been strongly affected in the past. Long droughts lead to increased risk of fire and vegetation mortality.

3.9 GLOBAL WARMING

Global warming could pose a significant threat to the area in the future. Ocean levels are currently rising as the ice at the earth’s poles melt. Islands could become significantly smaller due to rising sea levels. Coral reefs in the Park are particularly vulnerable to rises in mean water temperature, and could suffer increased mortality through coral bleaching. Only the cold water upwelling along the Southern shores of the Park protected the corals against bleaching in 1998.

3.10 OTHER THREATS:

The islands are volcanic in origin and there are active volcanoes in the region. In addition, there is a lot of seismic activity throughout Indonesia. Volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, or tsunamis could cause damage to coral reefs and terrestrial habitats. This could lead to local population extinctions in the immediate area affected.

3.11 IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGEMENT

The conservation of the Komodo dragon and its habitat is the most important management consideration for KNP. The most important considerations for the marine component are the maintenance of diversity and marine productivity. Local communities are dependent upon the fisheries supported by the Park to make a living, but destructive fishing practices threaten their livelihoods. Preliminary data show that intensive patrolling is an effective measure to decrease dynamite fishing, but cyanide fishing has been difficult to ban. Profit margins in the cyanide fisheries are large enough to allow for very large bribes. Steps to improve enforcement and improve co-management should be undertaken immediately together with local government.

The Park's fish resources will soon be depleted if the area is not truely protected. The fishing pressure on the reefs is high and increasing and this needs to be reversed in order to achieve the objectives of the Park. Demersal fishing effort in the Park needs to be greatly reduced. Access to marine resources in the KNP and buffer zone should be limited. Preliminary data clearly show that it is communities from outside the Park that are having the most damaging impact. Exclusive use rights for local communities should be established in selected Traditional Use Zones, and spawning aggregation sites in the Park should be closed for all fishing activity.

4. MANAGING THE PARK’S NATURAL RESOURCES

4.1 MANAGEMENT OPTIONS

Management tools to deal with threats include biological and ecological tools, such as area rehabilitation, habitat improvement, translocation, culling of exotics, disease control, etc. Anthropogenic threats can be managed through zonation, regulations, law enforcement, education, and alternative economic development, among others. The decision as to which tools are appropriate should be based on a number of factors, including the ecological consequences, feasibility, probability of success, and cost. These decisions often can not be made alone, but require input from other sources, including experts, the District Government and local communities. Management options for KNP include:

• Strengthening cross-sectoral enforcement and coordination. • Implementation of a long-term biological monitoring program. • Implementation of a long-term monitoring program on resource use. • Implementation of zonation and clear regulations. • Improvement of tourism and tourism-revenue management. • A ban on hookah compressors and other destructive gear types. • Development of user-friendly loan systems for fishers to reduce dependence on middlemen. • Focused dialogue with specific problem groups or communities. • Implementation of exclusive use rights for Park inhabitants. • Complete protection of spawning aggregation sites within established no-take zones. • Development of compatible and profitable economic activities. • Implementation of comprehensive awareness and education campaigns.

4.1.1 Co-Management with the Provincial Government and Local Communities

The relationship between protected areas, government agencies and local communities is a key factor for the long-term conservation of natural habitats and resources in and around these areas. For the local government and communities to become effective partners in co-management of the Park, it will be necessary to provide them the information and skills needed to make appropriate decisions on environmental matters. Government and community members need to be fully informed and aware of the environmental impacts of the activities in which they and others engage. In order to implement a co-management approach, it will be necessary to create new structures. At a minimum, these structures include a Collaborative Management Board, a Collaborative Tourism Council, and a Community Stakeholder Board. Input from all stakeholders will be obtained through these Boards and Councils in a formalized manner.

Specific attention needs to be given to the two district governments (Manggarai and Bima) to make sure that all activities are coordinated. Co-management sytems have to be implemented with the local governments which are responsible for the management of surrounding towns, such as Labuan Bajo, Sape and Bima. These towns function as the nearest base of visitor flows to the Park. In themselves those towns may develop as tourism centers. The local governements should pay special attention to the development of their towns, which have to fit in the overall plan of Park development, especially if they want to derive optimum benefits from the Park’s visitors.

The Park authorities have numerous responsibilities and obligations. To ensure the effective and efficient running of the Park it may be necessary to privatize certain functions, such as tourism management. This will help provide sufficient resources to carry out all necessary management activities and ensure a high level of professionalism.

As the Park contains terrestrial, marine and coastal components, it necessitates the involvement of numerous ministries and government agencies. In addition, the coordination of all pertinent agencies allows for better integration of terrestrial and marine ecosystem management. The activities of the Ministry of Marine Exploration, the Ministry of Finance, the Ministry of Settlements, the State Ministry of Environment, the Ministry of Regional Planning, the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the Ministry of Transportation, the Ministry of Communication, the Navy, the Ministry of Agriculture, the Governor of NTT, the Governor of NTB, the District Heads of Manggarai and Bima, all need to be coordinated with the Ministry of Forestry and Estate Crops.

4.1.2 Adaptive Management

Maintaining ecological systems and ensuring the long-term sustainable use of economic and threatened species is dependent upon making appropriate responses. The ability to make appropriate responses is limited by the available information. Monitoring activities have been undertaken within KNP to supply the data necessary to evaluate the effectiveness of management measures and to make decisions on adjustments in regulations or in the management strategy. KNP should adopt an adaptive management strategy, modifying management regulations and interventions based on new information from the field. Effective management of the Park’s resources requires information on the distribution, size, composition and growth trends of terrestrial and marine species. In the following section, suggested data collection methods are described. Environmental variables have not previously been measured on a regular schedule and should be included in a regular data collection program. Although some terrestrial data have been collected, there is no standardized terrestrial data collection protocol yet.

4.2 BIOLOGICAL MONITORING AND EVALUATION

4.2.1 Terrestrial Animal Censuses

Line census transects should be established, with each transect measured using a meter tape, making slope adjustment corrections if necessary. Transects should be approximately 2 km in length. Separate censuses should be made for arboreal animals (small Komodo dragons) and terrestrial animals (Komodo dragon, deer, water buffalo, horses, pigs, turtles and scrubfowl). Trail order and census type should be randomized. Early morning censuses should begin after dawn and late afternoon censuses should begin at approximately 15:30 P.M.

Animal densities should be calculated based on total area censused. The total area censused is equal to the number of surveys per trail multiplied by the length of the trail and the detection strip width. The detection strip width varies across species, and should be calculated based on the average distance to detection (perpendicular distance from the trail to the animal) if the animal is heard or seen. Use indices have to be calculated for trace measures. Comparisons of data sets between years should be made in order to identify trends in population growth and composition. These data should be used in modifying Park management procedures.

4.2.2 Vegetation Monitoring

Permanent vegetation plots should be placed in different habitats (mangrove forest, savanna, monsoon forest, quasi-cloud forest). All trees over 10 cm DBH should be identified if possible and given unique identification numbers with permanent tags. Aluminum tags should be affixed using small aluminum nails. Plot size, shape, number, and location should be determined by a professional ecologist, based on the degree of diversity in an area and logistical and financial constraints. For statistical purposes, at least five plots should be made in each habitat type. These plots should be monitored once per year to obtain mortality, recruitment, and growth rates.

Overall distribution and size of the major vegetation types need to be monitored on a yearly basis. This can be done through the use of Landsat or aerial photographs, aerial transects, or on the ground walking along habitat edges with a GPS. All data collected should be entered into a GIS system to make comparisons across years. Succession of savanna to forest, in particular, needs to be monitored, as the Komodo dragon’s prey species are dependent upon the presence of savanna.

4.2.3 Environmental Monitoring

Environmental factors directly affect vegetation growth and animal activity levels, and play a major role in distribution and diversity patterns. Climate should be monitored daily. The minimum and maximum temperature and humidity levels should be recorded from weather stations placed in different habitats (mangrove forest, savanna, monsoon forest, quasi-cloud forest) on Komodo and Rinca. Total rainfall should be measured from rain gauges placed in open clearings. Water quality (marine and freshwater) should be assessed on a regular basis. Simple chemettes test kits can be obtained to use for monitoring gross trends.

Overall environmental quality can be assessed through the presence / absence (one-zero sampling) of simple indicators along transects. These include humidity indicators (moss or lichen, epiphytes, hanging or bole vines) and disturbance indicators (cut trees, machete marks, trash or other anthropogenic traces), as well as canopy and ground cover, tree sizes, tree density, etc. Quality is assessed relative to other areas of the same habitat type that are known to be of high quality, and comparisons can also be made across years for the same transects. A professional ecologist should set up protocols for environmental monitoring.

4.2.4 Coral Reef Monitoring

An on-going coral reef monitoring program provides information on spatial and temporal patterns in reef status and reef rehabilitation inside and outside the Park, with particular focus given to changes in the percentage of damaged coral. An intensive survey of the coral reefs (185 locations, see also Fig. 7) made every two years, enables mapping of damage by destructive fishing methods and other causes. This information provides feedback on the effects of management measures and on the rehabilitation of the reefs. All sampling sites have coral reefs and range in depth from 4 to 12 meters. All sites are surveyed by snorkeling (at 4 m deep) and by SCUBA diving (at 8 m and at 12 m deep). Five observations are made at each depth and each observation lasts four minutes. After each four minute swim, the observer records the estimated percentages (minimum step size 5%) of four habitat categories (totaling 100%):

25 Coral Monitoring Sites

shallow (< 20 m depth) reef flats

Figure 7. The 185 sites of the coral monitoring program. At each site, bottom coverage of 4 categories (live hard coral, dead hard coral, soft coral and others) is visually estimated at three depths (4, 8 and 12 m).

• hard coral live, • hard coral dead, • soft coral, • other (rock, sand, sponges, tunicates, algae, weeds, anemones, clams, etc.)

For each dive or snorkel-swim, the following information is recorded on the standard (UW) data sheets: date, site number, location (GPS), depth and name of observer. The current data collection schedule is 12 sites per week, two (or more) coral reef monitoring weeks each month, and at least 24 sites covered each month. The total survey takes approximately 8 to 9 months. For the 185 sites, approximately 2775 observations on reef status are made over each 2 year period. A hard coral mortality coefficient is calculated for each site.

The mean percentages of all habitat categories and the mean mortality coefficients are calculated larger areas, which are assumed to have different environmental conditions and different levels of impact from the fisheries. Means over areas are calculated using as input the means over complete swims that include 5 observations each. For statistical analysis these means are arcsine transformed (%), after which an analysis of variance is used to calculate the levels of statistical significance of differences over time.

Based on preliminary data, coral recovery was greater outside the Park than within the Park. Overall destruction of the coral reefs in and around KNP appears to have stopped as of 1996 and a slow recovery (2% increase in hard coral cover per year) has started. This is most likely the result of the enormous decline in dynamite fishing in the area since early 1996. Reef recovery is fastest near the center of protective activity, which is in the town of Labuan Bajo, outside Park boundaries. Recovery is generally slower inside the Park, where many remote areas are still difficult to control. Potential management responses to monitoring results include:

• Revision of KNP regulations and zonation designations as necessary to reflect the impact of use activities on the coral reef and eliminate or reduce damage (e.g., allocation of specific sites for dive-tourism, artisanal fisheries, full protection, or other purposes.), • adjustment of the enforcement program in terms of effort allocation in space and/or time (adjustment of surveillance routine) to protect areas at risk, and • identification of locations and implementation of activities at places where active management is needed for reef rehabilitation.

4.2.5 Grouper and Napoleon Wrasse Spawning Aggregation Sites

Grouper and Napoleon Wrasses spawning aggregation sites (Fig. 8) are being monitored to provide information on trends in the populations of economically important fish species, and to obtain feedback on the effects of management activities. The current fish monitoring program focuses on 12 key species out of two families: the Serranidae (groupers) and the Labridae (wrasses). These species have been heavily targeted by the commercial fisheries and can therefore serve as indicators for the impact of these fisheries. Data are collected to a) determine if and how fish populations are changing over time and in space and b) identify spawning locations and spawning seasons for key fish species. Potential management responses include adjustment of zoning and regulations for fisheries and other activities.

27 the nus at 6

on and new 28 . Monitoring of fish spawning aggregation sites: distribution of aggregation sites in the Park (top, left), montly variation in variation montly left), (top, the Park in sites of aggregation distribution sites: aggregation spawning of fish . Monitoring number of observed E. fuscoguttatus at Gillilawa Laut during full moon and new moon (top, right), average number of fish per ge (top, right), average number and new moon of observed E. fuscoguttatus at Gillilawa Laut during full moon number of observed P. areolatus at Gillilawa Darat during full mo variation in the number left), and monthly sites (bottom, monitoring right). (bottom, moon Figure 8

The 12 species in the fish monitoring program are: 1) Epinephelus tukula, 2) E. polyphekadion, 3) E. fuscoguttatus, 4) E. malabaricus, 5) E. chlorostigma, 6) Plectropomus leopardus, 7) P. laevis, 8) P. areolatus, 9) P. oligocanthus, 10) Variola louti, 11) Cromileptes altivelis and 12) Cheilinus undulatus. For these 12 target species, numbers and sizes are recorded in cm standard length at selected sampling sites. Spawning behavior is recorded as occurrence of one or more of seven "spawning signs" (types of behavior):

1. Grouping of fish in clusters more dense than normal. 2. Frequent male-male aggression and fighting. 3. Coloration not seen at other times or locations. 4. Female bellies becoming highly visibly swollen. 5. Unusual marks or behavior typical for spawning aggregations 6. Pronounced side to side waggling/quivering/shimmying by males. 7. Actual spawning.

The fish monitoring program is a continuous program with monitoring activities taking place twice every month. Spawning sites were chosen as sampling sites based on the following criteria: representative numbers of target species were likely to be observed, and recorded numbers and sizes could effectively be followed over time and in space. Since March 1998, six sites have been monitored twice a month, once during new moon and once during full moon. Each site is searched for target fish at a specific depth profile, which has been established for that site.

Preliminary results indicate that different species spawn at different lunar phases. Only two grouper aggregation sites, one with mainly E. fuscoguttatus and one with mainly P. areolatus, have been identified within the borders of Knp, although hundreds of sites have been surveyed. Spawning seasons and timing in the lunar phases have been identified for most important species in Komodo. The main spawning season for target species is from October to January (Fig. 8), with small differences between species. Different species use the spawning sites at different moon phases and many other reef species, including important food and ornamental fishes use the same spawning sites. All spawning sites have strong currents directed away from the reef.

Fishermen supplying the live reef fish trade all target the spawning sites in Komodo National Park. If fishermen identify the aggregation sites and the sites are not protected effectively, they will probably be fished out within 1 or 2 seasons. The few sites with spawning populations of the main target species in the live reef fish trade are of great importance to KNP’s function as a source of recruits for surrounding fishing grounds. The spawning sites in the Park need to be fully protected and therefore need to be embedded well within the borders of the no-take zones.

4.2.6 Diversity and Abundance of Cetaceans

A cetacean survey program should be an integral component of the marine resources management strategy in KNP. No detailed studies have been done in these waters on cetacean (whales and dolphins) species diversity, abundance and distribution. A preliminary review of cetaceans sighted in Indonesian waters lists 29 species. Data on cetaceans are especially important when considering the complex regional oceanography. Indonesia is uniquely located as the only equatorial region worldwide where inter-oceanic exchange of marine flora and fauna occurs. Cetacean movements between the Pacific and Indian Oceans occurs through the passages between the Lesser Sunda Islands which span over 900 km between the Sunda and Sahul shelves.

The ecological significance of these passages remains poorly understood, yet their importance as migration corridors is highly probable. Migratory cetaceans which include these passages in their local or long-range movements (Fig. 4) are vulnerable to numerous environmental impacts such as habitat destruction, subsurface noise disturbances, net entanglement, marine pollution and over fishing of marine resources. Most, if not all, of these impacts occur in the waters of KNP. These impacts would affect residential populations as well as transient species that include the passages in their migration. Cetacean surveys were carried out in and around KNP in the late 90’s, but it is important to continue periodic visual and acoustic monitoring in the Park and adjacent waters to:

• identify which cetacean species occur in these waters, • monitor seasonal patterns in KNP cetacean distribution and abundance, • examine effects of environmental impacts on cetaceans, • determine whether the waters of KNP include sensitive marine areas for cetaceans such as preferred feeding grounds, mating and calving locations, and migration corridors, • provide site-specific information on cetaceans for educational and awareness programs, and • Initiate a cetacean sighting program for tourism purposes.

4.2.7 Oceanography

Prevailing current patterns in and around KNP should be documented. If insufficient information is available from the literature, primary data collection should be initiated. These data are needed to predict the dispersal patterns of larvae of coral reef organisms to surrounding areas, and thus assess the effects of KNP management on recruitment processes in adjacent fishing grounds.

4.2.8 Seagrass Beds

Preliminary surveys on species distribution has been carried out in seagrass ecosystems in KNP (Fig. 3). Species diversity is high and several commercially important species are present. A series of underwater transects should be established for monitoring of seagrass beds. Transects should be marked using permanent markers (rebar stakes) or natural markers, if available. Equal numbers of transects should be randomly located within a) existing seagrass beds, b) adjacent areas without seagrass, and c) remote areas without seagrass. Exact transect numbers, locations, lengths and shapes should be determined, based on the degree of diversity in the area, and logistical and financial constraints. Cover, species abundance and diversity should be measured, using point sampling or fixed area sampling. These plots should be monitored every three months to obtain data on mortality, recruitment, growth rates, and changes in population size.

4.3 GENERAL MANAGEMENT ISSUES

4.3.1 Area Rehabilitation and Conservation

Several specific terrestrial and marine habitats within the Park have been severely degraded. Approximately 150 km2 or 25% of the terrestrial ecosystem of KNP has been severely degraded by fire and the poaching of lontar palms. All mangrove habitat present has been damaged in the search for fuelwood by local residents. Large parts of the coral reefs have been damaged by destructive fisheries practices, including bombing and cyanide fishing.

Research and monitoring should be undertaken to document the natural succession patterns in the savanna, mangrove, and coral reef eco-systems, before rehabilitation activities are carried out. The location, techniques, and species of interest should be identified based on the pilot studies. Rehabilitation can be undertaken in any zone if deemed necessary by Park management. This will require training in appropriate techniques, human resources, and financial inputs.

Reforestation Restoration efforts should only be undertaken in severely degraded areas, unlikely to return their original condition without intervention. Only native species should be planted, and efforts should be made to mimic naturally occurring succession patterns and species associations. If possible, seedlings should be obtained from adjacent areas, to ensure that the seedlings are adapted to the site. Planting regimes should be based on the best available data, and pilot studies should be undertaken prior to any large-scale efforts.

Coral Reef Restoration Restoration efforts should only be undertaken in severely degraded areas, unlikely to return to their original condition without intervention. These include areas where there is a strong current and no hard substrate. Preliminary data indicate that the provision of hard substrate in damaged areas greatly increases the rate of coral recovery. Restoration regimes should be based on the best available data, and pilot studies should be undertaken prior to any large-scale efforts. If possible, local people should be hired to do the work.

Soil Conservation The majority of the soils are quite fragile and subject to erosion when exposed. Ground cover should be maintained. Trail development should take into account the probability of erosion, and trails should not be placed near river or stream beds. Runoff to rivers and streams should be minimized. Development activities in the settlement zones should take erosion into account, and all efforts should be made to conserve soils.

Forest fire There is a high risk of fire on a regular basis on all the islands. This is due to the dominance of grasses (fire-adapted species) which dry out quickly and provide fuel, a long dry season, and high temperatures. The major threat from fires is not to the savanna, which is in fact dependent on fire to maintain it, but to the adjacent forest. If these forests are degraded, they are much more vulnerable to the invasion of fire. Fire plans should be drawn up containing information on the nearest water sources, usual wind patterns, topography and location of vegetation types. Maps should indicate the best places to install fire breaks. Rangers and villagers should be trained in fire fighting techniques. Fire fighting equipment should be kept ready (chainsaws, shovels, water backpacks, face masks) and regular patrols should be made.

4.3.2 Individual Species Management

Specific threatened or rare species of interest may require active management interventions on occasion to ensure their survival and well-being. Careful assessments should always be made in advance, and advice from experts should be solicited. These interventions include relocation or translocation, rehabilitation, and habitat changes.

Species relocation

Given the small population sizes of Komodo dragons and their primary prey species, Timor deer, local extinctions and inbreeding depression may occur. It may be necessary to actively manage these species through translocation or reintroduction of specific individuals. As translocation poses many risks to the remaining target population (e.g., disease), this should be only undertaken as a measure of last resort, as natural restocking may occur from adjacent islands. Reintroductions should only be undertaken if the probability of natural restocking is very low. Prior to any reintroduction or translocation, a population assessment should be made of both the source and target population. Individuals selected for translocation or re-introduction should be in good health, and their removal should not have a negative impact on the survival of the source population. The social structure of the source and target population should be kept in mind. In addition, there are genetic considerations. Rinca Komodo dragons are more closely related to the Flores population than the population on Komodo Island. As Padar Island is close to Rinca Island, any reintroductions would need to be from Rinca, not Komodo.

Disease The risk to individual plant species from plant diseases is low, given that agricultural activities are not common in the area. Areas degraded by pollution or logging, however, are less disease resistant. The mangrove forests are most at risk as they are the most degraded. Humans pose a threat to the long-tailed macaques, as they are susceptible to human diseases, such as respiratory infections and malaria. As they can also act as the vector for transmission of malaria, monkeys should not be kept as domestic pets. Domestic animals, particularly dogs, cats, and goats, can carry diseases and transmit them to the wild mammals (e.g., rabies, distemper).

4.4 RESOURCE USE PATTERNS

The determination of resource use patterns is essential to good Park management. Fishermen working in and around KNP use a variety of fishing techniques and equipment. Some methods and types of equipment are destructive and degrade the Park’s resources. The threat of illegal destructive fishing methods is a major problem, which needs to be addressed in order to protect the marine habitats of KNP. A patrolling program was started on 28 May 1996, with TNC and KNP staff trained to record data on resource use.

4.4.1 Monitoring of Marine Resource Utilization

The objective of this monitoring program is to determine which community groups are involved in which fishing activities, where they fish, and when they fish. Over time these data will also show any changes in the behavior of fishermen due to management measures and it will indicate which groups of fishermen or areas in the Park may need extra attention. Each non-bagan (non-lift net) fishing vessel or fishing group encountered during the routine patrols is investigated, except. bagans (the local pelagic lift-net), which are excluded since they operate only at night (with lights) and they form a separate type of pelagic fishery which is not currently considered threatening to the demersal and sedentary marine resources of KNP. Bagan is the most important geartype used in the Park and accounts for the major part of fishing revenues. Bagan boats are investigated whenever they engage in non-bagan activities during the day. All non-bagan activities are investigated since they are considered potentially threatening to the demersal and sedentary marine resources in KNP. Data collected from fishing vessels encountered during patrols include:

• date and position (using GPS coordinates), • type of boat and engine according to categories, 32

• number of fishermen on the boat or in the fishing group, • method or fishing gear according to categories, • species in the catch according to categories, • quantity and quality of the catch according to categories, and • origin of the fishing vessel or group according to categories.

4.4.2 Marine Resource Use – Management Implications

The routine patrolling program has led to a significant decline in destructive fishing practices, and should be maintained. The primary threat comes from outside communities in Sape, South Flores and Sulawesi (Fig. 9). Local communities pose less of a threat, since they generally use 'bagan' lift- nets that are not destructive to the coral reef ecosystem. The bagan fishery of local communities should also be monitored in the future, to avoid overfishing and collapse of stocks of small pelagics.

Important threats to the coral reef ecosystem include the use of hookah compressors in combination with dynamite and cyanide. Demersal trolling lines or 'kedo kedo' are wiping out the coral trout stocks. Bottom hook and lines take all predators, and bottom longlines are decimating the sharks and large groupers. Gillnets catch the largest volume of fish in the Park (Fig. 10) and are a threat to many species, including turtles and marine mammals. At minimum, management responses should include:

• Appropriate zoning and implementation of regulations that achieve management objectives with a minimum of conflict with local resource users (e.g., local exlusive use rights), • Targeting enforcement efforts and alternative livelihood programs on the fishing groups and communities that pose the greatest threats to the Park, • Prohibition of fishing activities threatening the Park’s coral reefs and demersal species, • A ban on hookah compressors and other destructive gear types, and • Complete protection of spawning aggregation sites within no-take zones of the Park.

4.5 RESEARCH

The KNP authorities should support applied research programs related to management of the Park. KNP should work with partners from research institutes and study subjects should include:

• reproductive biology of the Komodo dragon, • the economy of destructive fishing practices, • monitoring of coral reef degradation and rehabilitation in KNP, • rehabilitation of coral reefs through manipulation of coral reef substrate, • grouper and Napoleon wrasse spawning behavior and aggregations, • resource use of coral reefs and consequences for protected area management, • the function of marine protected areas in coral reef fisheries management, • environmental impact of alternative economic activities near protected areas, • the relationship between economic factors, resource use and quality of life, and • the relationship between sociocultural factors and environmental quality.

nd catch-per-unit- 34

Results of resource use monitoring program in Komodo National Park in 1997 and 1998, showing the differences in fishing fishing in the differences 1997 and 1998, showing in Park National Komodo in program use monitoring of resource Results characteristics between the villages: number of fishers (top, left), total yield (top, right), fishing effort (bottom, left), a of fishers (top, left), total yield right), fishing effort (bottom, characteristics between the villages: number Figure 9. effort (bottom, right). (bottom, effort

35 Results of resource use monitoring program in Komodo National Park in 1997 and 1998: total yield (top, left), yield per gear gear per yield left), (top, yield 1997 and 1998: total in Park National Komodo in program use monitoring of resource Results type (top, right), fishing effort per gear type (bottom, left) and catch per boat trip, per gear type (bottom, right). right). type (bottom, gear per boat trip, and catch per left) type (bottom, gear per effort fishing right), type (top, Figure 10.

5 BORDERS AND ZONATION FOR THE KOMODO NATIONAL PARK

5.1 LOCATION AND BORDERS

Komodo National Park (Fig. 1) is located in the area between 119º09’00” up to 119º55’00” E and between 8º20’00” up to 8º53’00” S (Table 5.1), in the Komodo Sub-District, Manggarai District, East Nusa Tenggara Province (Fig. 5). The total size of the Park is presently 1,817 km2, including 603 km2 (33%) of land and 1,214 km2 (67%) of marine waters. The coordinates for the existing borders of Komodo National Park (Table 5.2) are based on the work chart by PKA, which was signed by the Head of the Forestry and Plantation Planning Department Ir. Roedjat MSc on 20 November 1998. The sources for this work chart are SK Menteri Kehutanan RI No. 306/KPTS- II/92 dated 29-2-1991 and Marine Chart Indonesia No. 295. KNP includes the islands of Komodo (336 km2), Rinca (211 km2), Padar (16 km2), Gili Mota (10 km2) and Nusa Kode (7 km2). Small islands located between Selat Sape on the west side, Selat Sumba on the south side, Selat Molo on the east side, and Flores Sea to the north, are also included. A proposal to extend the borders of the Park to include Gili Banta (25 km2) to the West, and the Southern part of Selat Molo in the Southeast (Fig. 11), has received support from the regional government and Park authorities. The proposed new borders (Fig. 12) will increase the size of the KNP with 504 km2 (adding 25 km2 for Banta island and 479 km2 of marine waters), to a new total size of 2,321 km2, including 628 km2 (27%)of land and 1,693 km2 (73%) of marine waters.

5.2 BOUNDARIES

5.2.1 Rapid Ecological Assessment

A Rapid Ecological Assessment was conducted by TNC in 1995 and evaluated the marine species richness, diversity, abundance and distribution of the KNP. TNC also examined local resource use and economics. Terrestrial animal population evaluations have been conducted by KNP staff. Terrestrial resources are quite fragile. The combination of friable soils, limited water resources, regular threats from fire and poaching, plus small isolated populations with limited mobility, all lead to a high risk of losing one or several of the Park’s biotic components. Use of KNP terrestrial resources should be strictly limited and controlled. Limited eco-tourism and research are the only truly sustainable uses of the terrestrial portion of KNP.

Marine resources are quite rich and relatively abundant, though several species are at risk from overharvesting and destructive fishing practices. The majority of the coral reefs (Fig. 13) have been degraded, but given time and the elimination of environmentally degrading activities, these areas can recover. The marine portion of the Park should provide zones for limited harvesting of its resources in a sustainable manner.

The assessment lead to the conclusion that the National Park should be expanded to include the uninhabited island of Banta and the surrounding reefs. The basis for the proposed extension of KNP is that the Banta Island region contains: 1. high coral and fish diversity, 2. high coral abundance and 3. high aesthetic values. This area should be designated partly as a Wilderness Zone with Limited Tourism and partly as a Traditional Use Zone (see zonation below). Based on information on cetacean distribution and migration, the section of Gili Mota should be connected with the rest of the Park, including the open water of Selat Molo within the Park borders.

36 Borders (Nov. 1998), Proposed Extensions and Proposed Buffer Zones (Nov. 1999)

Coordinates

Latitude (S) Longitude (E) 1 8.22.00 119.14.30 2 8.25.75 119.35.15 3 8.31.50 119.41.45 4 8.35.15 119.47.80 5 8.37.30 119.48.65 6 8.46.50 119.46.90 7 8.48.00 119.49.20 8 8.50.25 119.48.05 9 8.49.90 119.40.00 10 8.46.00 119.21.05 11 8.27.95 119.13.55 B1 8.28.15 119.48.60 B2 8.44.00 119.11.45

Figure 11. Borders of Komodo National Park (Nov. 1998), proposed extensions, and proposed buffer zones (Nov. 1999). 37 Proposed Borders KNP and Proposed Buffer Zones

Coordinates

Figure 12. Proposed borders and buffer zones of Komodo National Park. 38 Coral Reefs

reef flats shallow (< 20 m depth)

Figure 13. The spatial distribution of the coral reefs in the Komodo area is not yet thoroughly surveyed, but the depth contours of nautical map 295, on which this map is based, can be used for an approximation. The coral reef area within Park boundaries was estimated at 17 km2, which is the surface area of a 50 m wide strip following the perimeter of the land (grey) and ‘reef flats’ (green) combined. 39

The proposed new borders of the Park contain an extension at Gili Banta and a connection of Gili Mota. These proposed new borders are based on the existing border coordinates from the endorsed chart of 20 November 1998. This chart does not contain a buffer zone, since the buffer zone from earlier systems has been incorporated in the ‘existing’ Park border in 1998. The proposed extensions will add 25 km2 of land area and 1,479 km2 of marine area to Komodo National Park.

5.2.2 Border Coordinates

For locating the existing and proposed borders and buffer zones of Komodo National Park (KNP) a map or marine chart is needed covering the following general area (Table 5.1):

Table 5.1. Coordinates of area including Komodo National Park and surroundings

Latitude (S) Longitude (E) Latitude (S) Longitude (E) NW. 8.20.00 119.09.00 NE. 8.20.00 119.55.00 SW. 8.53.00 119.09.00 SE. 8.53.00 119.55.00

The existing and proposed new borders of Komodo National Park are found by connecting the following coordinates on the border maps of the Park (Table 5.2):

Table 5.2. Coordinates of existing and proposed new borders for Komodo National Park

I: Existing Komodo / Padar / Rinca III. Proposed new complete border ID # Latitude (S) Longitude (E) Latitude (S) Longitude (E) 01. 8.25.95 119.24.15 8.22.00 119.14.30 (new coordinate) 02. 8.24.35 119.27.35 8.25.75 119.35.15 (was no. 03) 03. 8.25.75 119.35.15 8.31.50 119.41.45 (was no. 04) 04. 8.31.50 119.41.45 8.35.15 119.47.80 (was no. 05) 05. 8.35.15 119.47.80 8.37.30 119.48.65 (was no. 06) 06. 8.37.30 119.48.65 8.46.50 119.46.90 (was no. 12) 07. 8.43.00 119.47.30 8.48.00 119.49.20 (was no. 13) 08. 8.48.60 119.44.05 8.50.25 119.48.05 (was no. 14) 09. 8.49.90 119.40.00 8.49.90 119.40.00 (unchanged) 10. 8.46.00 119.21.05 8.46.00 119.21.05 (unchanged) 11. 8.35.60 119.20.95 8.27.95 119.13.55 (new coordinate) 01. 8.25.95 119.24.15 8.22.00 119.14.30 (new coordinate)

II: Existing Gili Mota IV. Existing Coordinates Abandoned ID # Latitude (S) Longitude (E) ID # Latitude (S) Longitude (E) 12. 8.46.50 119.46.90 01. 8.25.95 119.24.15 13. 8.48.00 119.49.20 02. 8.24.35 119.27.35 14. 8.50.25 119.48.05 07. 8.43.00 119.47.30 15. 8.48.65 119.45.60 08. 8.48.60 119.44.05 12. 8.46.50 119.46.90 11. 8.35.60 119.20.95 15. 8.48.65 119.45.60

5.2.3 Buffer Zone Coordinates

The Rapid Ecological Assessment in 1995 also lead to the conclusion that a buffer zone needs to be established off the Northeast border of the Park. Another important coastal marine area and proposed Buffer Zone is situated around the island of Pulau Kelapa off the Southwest border of the Park. Many of the coral reefs between Flores and Sumbawa are located just outside the present borders of KNP in the two proposed Buffer Zones.

The two proposed new Buffer Zones (B1 and B2,) for KNP are to be managed in a co-management system with the local government and local communities. The proposed Northeast Buffer Zone (B1) contains several islands and is inhabited. The proposed Southwest Buffer Zone (B2) contains one uninhabited island. Both Buffer Zones are designed as triangular areas protecting the Southwest and Northeast borders of the Park from nearby population centers (Figs. 11 and 12). Proposed borders for these buffer zones (Table 5.3) are to be discussed with the Provincial Governments and other stakeholders in the provinces of Nusa Tenggara Timur (B1) and Nusa Tenggara Barat (B2). The proposed buffer zone area totals 464 km2.

Table 5.3. Proposed Borders for Northeast and Southwest Buffer Zones NE: Latitude (S) Longitude (E) SW: Latitude (S) Longitude (E) B1. 8.28.15 119.48.60 B2. 8.44.00 119.11.45 02. 8.25.75 119.35.15 10. 8.46.00 119.21.05 03. 8.31.50 119.41.45 11. 8.27.95 119.13.55 04. 8.35.15 119.47.80 B2. 8.44.00 119.11.45 B1. 8.28.15 119.48.60

5.3 ZONATION

Zonation in KNP (Table 5.4) is based on decree number 74/Kpts/Dj-VI/1990 from the Director General of PHPA and is in accordance with Law No. 5 of the year 1990 concerning the Conservation of Biological Resources and Their Ecosystems. Area management within the Park is based on zonation. The zoning system for KNP (Figs. 14 and 15) includes and covers both terrestrial and marine areas. A single zoning system has been designed for the entire Park with a total of 7 types of zones. Zones covering both terrestrial and marine areas will have regulations for both types of environment. The following zone types are to be implemented in KNP:

• Core Zone (Zona Inti) • Wilderness Zone with Limited Tourism (Zona Rimba dengan Wisata Terbatas) • Tourism Use Zone (Zona Pemanfaatan Wisata) • Traditional Use Zone (Zona Pemanfaatan Tradisional) • Pelagic Use Zone (Zona Pemanfaatan Pelagis) • Special Research and Training Zone (Zona khusus Penelitian dan Latihan) • Traditional Settlement Zone (Zona Pemukiman Tradisional)

Zoning within the Park is based on available ecological data, current understanding of ecological and conservation principles, the socio-economic and cultural needs of the local communities, and feasibility. Regulations have been formulated for each zone to ensure the long-term survival of the Park’s flora and fauna, its ecosystems, and its local communities.

41 Proposed Zoning for Komodo National Park.

core wilderness, land wilderness, sea intensive tourism, land intensive tourism, sea traditional use, land traditional use, sea pelagic use research & training, land research & training, sea settlement Figure 14. Proposed zoning for Komodo National Park, within presently designated borders.

42 Proposed Zoning for Komodo National Park, within Proposed Borders

Figure 15. Proposed zoning for Komodo National Park, within borders as proposed on November 1999. 43

Table 5.4. Summary of Zoning System for Komodo National Park. Zone Permissible activities Prohibited activities

All Zones monitoring, research (with Anchoring except in designated permits), environmental areas, collecting legally protected restoration species, damaging marine or terrestrial habitat, keeping dogs or cats, trash/waste disposal except where designated, harvesting fuel wood, the use of cyanide, poisons, hookah, scuba, or explosives for fishing in the Park

1. Core Zone (Zona Inti) see All Zones all other activities prohibited

2. Wilderness Zone with Limited plus limited tourism with permits all other activities prohibited Tourism (Zona Rimba dengan Wisata Terbatas)

3. Tourism Use Zone (Zona plus tourism with permits all other activities prohibited Pemanfaatan Wisata) (temporary accommodations allowed dependent on outcome of EIA), facilities development for Park management (dependent on outcome of EIA)

4. Traditional Use Zone (Zona plus tourism (temporary all other activities prohibited Pemanfaatan Tradisional) accommodations), mariculture, captive breeding, fishing in designated sites using small-scale gear subject to certain restrictions (all subject to permits and dependent on outcome of EIA)

5. Pelagic Zone (Zona Pelagis) plus recreational, sustenance, plus capture of demersal species is and commercial pelagic fishing prohibited, capture of Nautilidae, subject to restrictions on gear Sepiidae, Octopodidae, and marine type, species harvested, and invertebrates apart from Loliginidae location (all subject to permits is prohibited, all other activities and dependent on outcome of prohibited an EIA)

6. Special Research and Training plus research and training (all all other activities prohibited Zone (Zona khusus Penelitian dan subject to permits and dependent Latihan) on outcome of EIA)

7. Traditional Settlement Zone plus rearing of domestic animals, plus immigration prohibited, all (Zona Pemukiman Tradisional) harvesting sand or limestone, the other activities prohibited use of pesticides within the home, limited agriculture (no pesticides or fertilizer), limited fresh water use, and other normal daily living activities

The Core Zone, Wilderness Zone with Limited Tourism, Tourism Use Zone and Special Research and Training Zone are all no-take zones where all harvesting and/or mining of live and dead natural resources is strictly prohibited. Harvesting of living marine resources is only permitted in the Traditional Use Zone and in the Pelagic Use Zone of the Park. Tourism is strictly prohibited only in the Core Zone of the Park. Special regulations and sub-zoning will be designed for tourism in the Wilderness Zone with Limited Tourism. The free passage of ships into and through the Park is only permitted in the Pelagic and Traditional Use Zones. Special licenses are needed for vessels aiming to enter the Wilderness Zone of the Park.

5.4 PROPOSED REGULATIONS FOR ZONES IN KOMODO NATIONAL PARK

Appropriate regulations have been developed specific to each zonation type within the Park and its buffer zone. Violations of regulations will result in sanctions. Licenses and permits will be revoked upon violation of regulations. The regulations for each zone are given below:

5.4.1 Core Zone (Zona Inti)

• The Core Zone of the Park is a no-take, no-visit area. • The only activities permitted in this zone are monitoring by Park management personnel, research (with appropriate permits), and environmental restoration in the event of a disaster. • Research permits will be granted by KNP authorities, dependent upon obtaining all necessary required governmental permits, including the approval of a written research proposal by the Head of the Komodo National Park or his representative. • It is prohibited to harvest, mine, disturb or move any of the natural resources (live or dead).

5.4.2 Wilderness Zone (Zona Rimba)

• The Wilderness Zone extends 500 meters outward into open sea from the 20-meter isodepth line around islands, reefs, rocks and sea-mounts in all areas except Traditional and Tourism Use Zones (Zona Pemanfaatan Tradisional / Wisata). • The Wilderness Zone of the Park is a no-take, limited-visit area. • All tourism activities in this zone need special permission in the form of a license or permit from the KNP authorities. • It is strictly prohibited to harvest or disturb any of the natural resources, including the mining of dead coral, stone and/or sand or fishing. • Mariculture or keeping of live fish or other live organisms in captivity is prohibited. • Special licenses may be obtained for rehabilitation and research purposes. • Research permits will be granted by KNP authorities, dependent upon obtaining all necessary required governmental permits, including the approval of a written research proposal by the Head of the Komodo National Park or his representative. • Anchoring is prohibited except on specially installed mooring buoys or in waters with a 100% sandy bottom or anywhere in waters deeper than 30 meters. • Tourist operators must obtain a license from KNP authorities to take tourists into the Park and only limited numbers of licenses will be available for the Wilderness Zone, based on estimates of carrying capacity. • Permanent accommodations for tourism are not permitted. Temporary accommodations (in the form of tents) may be allowed, dependent upon the favorable outcome of an EIA and with specific permission from the Park Director. 45

• Seasonal closures or minimization of tourism pressure will be implemented wherever necessary to prevent disruption of breeding or spawning of species. • A detailed Sub-Zoning system with specific regulations will be finalized in the year 2001.

5.4.3 Tourism Use Zone (Zona Pemanfaatan Wisata)

• The Tourism Use Zones of the Park are no-take, intensive tourism areas. • Fishing or any other harvesting activity is strictly prohibited. • Tourists must obtain entrance permits and pay applicable fees. The maximum allowable number of tourists at any given point in time will be determined through an Environmental Impact and Carrying Capacity Assessment. • It is strictly prohibited to harvest any of the living natural resources in the Tourism Use Zone of Komodo National Park. • Mariculture or keeping of live fish or other live organisms in captivity is prohibited in the Tourism Use Zone. • Special licenses may be obtained for rehabilitation and research purposes. • Research permits will be granted by KNP authorities, dependent upon obtaining all required governmental permits, including the approval of a research proposal by the Head of the Park. • Anchoring within the Tourism Use Zone is prohibited except on specially installed mooring buoys or in waters with a 100% sandy bottom or anywhere in waters deeper than 30 meters. • Permanent accommodations are only permitted for Park management purposes. Temporary accommodations (in the form of tents) may be allowed, dependent upon the favorable outcome of an EIA and with specific permission from the Park Director.

5.4.4 Traditional Use Zone (Zona Pemanfaatan Tradisional)

• The Traditional Use Zones of the Park are limited take and utilization areas. • All tourism activities of the Park fall under the same regulations as specified for the Tourism Use Zone, including the prohibition of fishing. • In addition, tourism operators and independent tourists must obtain and pay for entrance permits from the representatives of the community in the villages. • Permanent accommodations are not permitted. Temporary accommodations (in the form of tents) may be allowed, dependent upon the favorable outcome of an EIA and with specific permission from the Park Director. • Limited permits will be issued for traditional fisheries, tourism, research, monitoring and environmental rehabilitation by the Head of Komodo National Park and local village leaders. • Fuel wood harvesting is prohibited. Alternatives to the use of fuel wood, such as solar cooking, solar and wind energy, should be actively encouraged and supported. • Damaging of terrestrial or marine habitats is prohibited, including the mining of dead coral, stone and/or sand, or the harvesting of mangroves. • It is prohibited to capture, collect, keep or disturb any legally protected species. • It is prohibited to capture, collect, keep or disturb any snakes, turtles (or turtle eggs), birds (or bird eggs or nests), or mammals like dolphins, whales, horses, deer, or water buffalo. • Mariculture or keeping of live fish may be allowed for inhabitants of the Traditional Settlement Zones of the Park, dependent upon the favorable outcome of an environmental impact and carrying capacity assessment and approval from the Head of the Park. • Fishing with small-scale fishing gear like hook and line, and free passage of vessels is allowed for local inhabitants of the Traditional Settlement Zone. 46

• A limited number of fishing licenses will be issued for combinations of boat owners and their boats, based on consensus between the Park authorities and the leaders of local communities on the sustainable number of such licenses. • Licenses will only be given for traditional gear types such as floating lift nets (bagan perahu), bottom hook & line (pancing dasar), trolling lines (pancing tonda), seine nets and nets for catching bandeng larvae and small shrimp (pukat nener and pukat udang halus). The Park management aims to gradually ban (prohibit) the use of gillnets (pukat, pukat insang or jaring insang) from all areas of Komodo National Park. • The number and allocation of licenses will be based on an analysis of the present status of the fisheries, a frame survey of the existing fishing fleet and consensus with local village leaders. • It is prohibited to fish with explosives or chemicals (natural or synthetic). • It is prohibited to carry any explosives or chemicals (natural or synthetic) used for fishing within the borders of KNP, either over land or by sea (by boat). • Prohibited fishing gear types include all SCUBA, hookah compressor and other dive gear. • Commercial fishing in the Traditional Use Zone is only allowed for licensed traditional operations originating from local communities. • Licenses will be withdrawn if Park regulations are violated. • A closed season from September 1 to March 1 is implemented during the spawning season of groupers (Epinephelis spp, ‘Kerapu’) coral trout (Plectropomus spp, ‘Sunu’) and Napoleon wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus). Capture of groupers and Napoleon wrasse is strictly prohibited within the National Park borders during the closed season. • Exclusive use rights will be established for inhabitants of KNP (Komodo, Rinca, Kerora and Papagaran), the Buffer Zone (Mesa) and dependent villages directly surrounding the Park (Labuan Bajo, Warloka, Golohmori, Sape). The allocation of use rights will be established in close cooperation with local village leaders.

5.4.5 Pelagic Use Zone (Zona Pemanfaatan Pelagis)

• The Pelagic Use Zone of the Park is a limited take and utilization area. • All tourism activities in the Pelagic Use Zone fall under the same regulations as specified for the Tourism Use Zone, except fishing. • Recreational fishing will be allowed in the Pelagic Use Zone of the Park, based on environmental impact and carrying capacity assessments. • Recreational fishermen must buy a license (issued by the Head of the Komodo Park) and keep themselves to catch-and-release fishing above bag-limits. They must follow regulations on bait- and gear-types, and are only allowed to catch specified pelagic species. • Recreational fishing (sport fishing) for pelagic species in the Pelagic Use Zone of the Park takes place at distances of minimum 500 meters from the 20 meter isodepth line around islands reefs and rocks. • Limited permits will be issued for traditional pelagic fisheries (mainly bagan and trolling hook and line), tourism and research, by the Head of Komodo National Park in cooperation with local village leaders. • Damaging of marine habitats is prohibited, including the mining of dead coral, stone or sand. • It is prohibited to capture, collect, keep or disturb any legally protected species. • It is prohibited to capture, collect, keep or disturb any sea snakes, turtles, sea birds, or any marine mammals (e.g, seals, cetaceans). • Fishing with traditional types of pelagic fishing gear and free passage of vessels is allowed in the Pelagic Use Zone of Komodo National Park. 47

• It is prohibited to fish with explosives or chemicals, natural or synthetic. • It is prohibited to carry any explosives or chemicals (natural or synthetic) used for fishing within the borders of KNP, either over land or by sea (by boat). • Bottom fishing is prohibited. • Prohibited fishing gear types include all SCUBA, hookah and other dive gear, bottom hook and line (pancing dasar, rawai), gillnets (pukat, jaring insang, jaring gondrong), traps (bubu, sero, jermal), bottom seines (lampara, dogol), muroami and crab nets (jaring kepiting). • Commercial fishing in the Pelagic Use Zone is only allowed for licensed traditional operations originating from local communities. • A limited number of commercial licenses will be issued for combinations of boat owners and their boats, based on consensus between the Park authorities and the leaders of local communities on the sustainable number of such licenses. • The number and allocation of licenses will be based on an analysis of the present status of the fisheries, a frame survey of the existing fishing fleet and consensus with local village leaders. • Licenses will be withdrawn if Park regulations are violated. • Licenses will be given for traditional pelagic gear types such as floating lift nets (bagan perahu), trolling lines (pancing tonda), skipjack pole and line (huhate), purse seine (pukat cincin) and other pelagic boat seines (payang). • Exclusive use rights will be established for inhabitants of KNP (Komodo, Rinca, Kerora and Papagaran), the Buffer Zone (Mesa) and dependent villages directly surrounding the Park (Labuan Bajo, Warloka, Golohmori, Sape). The allocation of use rights will be established in close cooperation with local village leaders. • Commercial fishing licenses for the Pelagic Use Zone of KNP include only the following species of pelagic fish and pelagic invertebrates (allowed to catch, keep and sell):

Family Common name Indonesian Spyraenidae barracudas alu-alu Carangidae scads layang, selar Carangidae jacks & trevallies kuweh, bengkoloh Carangidae rainbow runners & queenfishes sunglir, daun bambu Clupeidae sardines, sprats & herrings lemuru, tembang, japuh Coryphaenidae dolphin fishes lemadang Cypseluridae flying fish ikan terbang Engraulidae anchovies teri Loliginidae squid cumi cumi Scombridae tunas & skipjacks cakalang, tongkol, tuna Scombridae mackerels & wahoo tenggiri Scombridae billfish layaran, marlin Scombridae Indian mackerels kembung

• In the Pelagic Use Zone of the Park it will be prohibited to capture any specimen of the following categories of commercial fish species:

Family Common name Indonesian

Acanthuridae surgeonfishes, unicorn fishes butana, baronang Ariidaemarine catfishes manyung Balistidae triggerfishes pakol 48

Belonidae garfishes katjangan, cendro Caesionidae fuseliers ekor kuning Carcharinidae sharks hiu, cucut Chaetonidae butterfly fishes kepe-kepe Dasyatididae rays pari Diodontidae porcupinefishes buntel Ephippidae batfishes gebel Gerreidae silverbiddies kapas Haemulidae sweetlips gerot-gerot Harpodontidae bombay ducks ikan nomei Holocentridae squirrel- & soldierfishes suangi Kyphosidae rudderfishes kakap lodi Labridae wrasses lamboso, lankoi Leiognathidae ponyfishes peperek Lethrinidae emperors lencam Lutjanidae snappers kakap merah, bambangan Monacanthidae filefishes buntel Mullidae goatfishes biji nangka Muraenidae moray eels kerondong Nemipteridae threadfin breams kurisi Ostraciidae boxfishes buntel Pleuronectidae flatfishes sebelah, lidah Polynaemidae threadfins kuro Pomacanthidae angelfishes ikan kambing Pomacentridae damselfishes gemutu Priacanthidae bulls- & bigeyes swanggi Scaridae parrotfishes kakatua Sciaenidae jewfishes & croakers gulama, tigawaja Scorpaenidae stone- & scorpionfishes lepu Serranidae groupers & coral trout kerapu, sunu Siganidae rabbitfishes baronang Silaginidae whiting besot Stomateidae white pomfrets bawal putih Synodonthidae lizardfishes beloso Tetraodontidae pufferfishes buntel Teraponidae grunters kerong-kerong Zanclidae moorish idols kepe-kepe

The list of prohibited species will be assessed and revised on a regular basis.

• It is prohibited to capture or keep, transport, sell or trade, dead or alive, any marine invertebrates other than cephalopods of the family Loliginidae (pelagic squid, cumi cumi) in the Pelagic Use Zone of the Park. • Cephalopods of the families Nautilidae (nautilus), Sepiidae (cuttlefish) and Octopodidae (octopus) may not be harvested or disturbed in the Pelagic Use Zone, nor may any other invertebrates like jellyfish, hydrozoans, sea anemones, corals, worms, crustaceans (barnacles, shrimp, crabs, lobsters), sea shells, clams, nudibranchs, sea snails, bryozoans, sea stars, sea urchins, holothurians (sea cucumber or 'teripang') or ascidians.

5.4.6 Special Research and Training Zone (Zona khusus Penelitian dan Latihan)

• The Special Research and Training Zone of the Park is a no-take, limited-use area. • Fishing or any other harvesting activity is strictly prohibited. • The maximum allowable number of persons in this Zone at any given point in time will be established through an Environmental Impact and Carrying Capacity Assessment. • Mariculture or keeping of live fish or other live organisms in captivity is allowed only as a Research and Training activity in this Zone. • Special licenses may be obtained for research, training and rehabilitation purposes. Research permits will be granted by KNP authorities, only after approval by the Head of Komodo National Park of a written research proposal. • Anchoring within the Special Research and Training zone is prohibited except on specially installed mooring buoys or in waters with a 100% sandy bottom or anywhere in waters deeper than 30 meters.

5.4.7 Traditional Settlement Zone (Zona Pemukiman Tradisional)

• Immigration is prohibited into KNP. Marriage to a Park resident does not confer settlement or use rights within KNP to the non-resident spouse or that person’s family members. • Accommodations for tourism are not permitted. • Water use will be strictly limited. Diversion of water from streams and rivers, and extraction of water from wells at rates greater than replacement will be prohibited. Rain collection systems (gutters, storage tanks, etc.) will be set up within the Traditional Settlement Zone. • The use of pesticides are restricted to appropriate use within the home only. • Burning will be prohibited (except for prescribed burns as a management tool). • The use of fertilizer will be prohibited within KNP. • Sewage disposal will be strictly regulated. If possible, public toilets should be placed a minimum of 150 meters from bodies of water. • Fuel wood harvesting is prohibited. Alternatives to the use of fuel wood, such as solar cooking, solar and wind energy, will be actively encouraged and supported. • The harvesting of limestone or sand outside the Traditional Settlement Zone is strictly prohibited. • Trash disposal will be strictly regulated. Trash should be separated into food scraps for composting, recyclables, and hazardous and non-hazardous waste. Hazardous waste will be collected and taken to the mainland for disposal. Non-hazardous waste will be collected and buried within the Traditional Settlement Zone. • Dogs and cats will be prohibited within KNP. Goats will be restricted to the confines of the Traditional settlement Zone. • Domestic food animals, such as goats and chickens will be restricted to the confines of the Traditional Settlement Zone. Only healthy domestic animals will be allowed importation. • Wild fauna, apart from approved marine species, will be prohibited from being captured for domestic use. This includes being kept as pets (e.g., the keeping of monkeys).

5.4.8 Proposed Regulations for KNP Buffer Zones

• The Buffer Zone of the Park will be a limited take and utilization area. • It will be prohibited to capture, collect, keep or disturb any legally protected species. • It will be prohibited to capture, collect, keep or disturb any sea snakes, turtles (or turtle eggs), sea birds (or sea bird eggs or nests), or mammals like dolphins and whales. • Fishing with legal traditional types of fishing gear on any legal species of fish will be allowed for those holding valid fishing licenses. • It will be prohibited to fish with explosives or chemicals, natural or synthetic. • It will be prohibited to carry any explosives or chemicals (natural or synthetic) used for fishing within the buffer zone, either over land or by sea (by boat). • Prohibited gear includes all SCUBA, hookah and other dive gear (only for recreation). • Exclusive fishing rights in the Buffer Zones will be established for the communities of Komodo, Kerora, Rinca, Papagaran, Misa, Labuan Bajo, Seraya, Golohmori, Warloka, Sape. • A closed season will be implemented during the spawning season for capture of groupers (Epinephelis spp, ‘Kerapu’) coral trout (Plectropomus spp, ‘Sunu’) and Napoleon wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus) from September 1 to March 1. Capture of groupers and Napoleon wrasse will be prohibited during the closed season. • Establishment and review of regulations and implementation of enforcement will be done in cooperation between the government and the communities in the Buffer Zones. • Anchoring on coral reefs in the Buffer Zones is limited to mooring buoys, anywhere in waters with a 100% sandy bottom or waters deeper than 30 meters. • Mariculture and the keeping of live fish or other live organisms in captivity are only allowed with a mariculture license to be issued by the Provincial or District Government.

5.5 IMPLEMENTATION OF REGULATIONS

The proposed Zoning (Figs. 14 and 15) and regulations for KNP have been, and will continue to be socialized and discussed with all local stakeholders, particularly communities inside the Park and immediately adjacent. Awareness materials such as flip charts, natural history guides, posters, charts and maps have been designed to present ideas on Park management to the local communities and to initiate discussion. Group discussions will be organized to elicit input from Park inhabitants. Group input from Park inhabitants will be considered in any adjustments made to the management plan. After decisions on management measures are made, extension materials will be prepared ensuring that the information on regulations is clear and well understood by the target audience. Park regulations will be disseminated to all the users of the Park. Illustrated guides and posters will be distributed in villages in and around KNP, explaining the zoning system and regulations. Guides and posters will be handed out in community meetings where the setup of the Park is explained. During such meetings the enforcement program will also be discussed, including the responsibility of local communities, the importance of co-management and the sanctions for violation of Park regulations.

6 LEGAL ISSUES AND LAW ENFORCEMENT

6.1 LEGAL BASIS FOR NATIONAL PARKS

In accordance with the 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia, the purpose of forestry development in Indonesia is to obtain the maximum benefit for the welfare of the people by conserving and sustaining the function of the forests. To accomplish this purpose, activities are conducted, emphasizing conservation of natural resources and the preservation of environmental functions, including protection of the water system.

Development of the forestry sector is also directed toward increasing the welfare of the community by enlarging the opportunity for business and employment, increasing the sources of income of the state and sources of foreign exchange, and promoting regional development. To ensure that natural resources are used sustainably, efforts are undertaken to conserve natural resources and their ecosystems. National and regional laws and regulations, Special KNP regulations, as well as Forestry Policies and Policies on Nature Conservation, Policies on National Parks and Regional Development Policies are discussed in Book 2 of this master plan. Several acts and regulations which directly pertain to the National Park system are:

• Laws and Basic Stipulations on Environmental Management, Fisheries, Conservation of Biological Resources and Their Ecosystems, Tourism and Sailing. • Government Regulations on Decentralization in the Forestry Sector, Environmental Impact Assassment (AMDAL) Regulations, Vertical Coordination of Regional Institutions, Nature Tourism in the Use Zones of National Parks, Community Forest Parks and Nature Parks,Use of Non-tax Government Revenue Originating from Program Activities, Preservation of Flora and Fauna and Utilization of Wild Flora and Fauna Business Permits for Utilization Zones, Appointment and Determination of the Komodo National Park Area, and Entrance Fees Into National Parks, Forestry Tourism Parks and Marine Parks.

Meanwhile there are at least six main statutes that stipulate measures for protection of the Komodo dragon issued by various authorities at National, Provincial and District levels between the period of 1915 to 1968. There are also laws and regulations pertaining specifically to the establishment and continuation of the Komodo National Park, starting from the Statute of Autonomous Administration of Manggarai September 1938 up to the announcement of the Minister of Agriculture of 6 March 1980 on the Establishment of the Komodo National Park.

6.2 NATIONAL AND REGIONAL POLICIES

Policies on National Park management are related to various national policies on forestry, the natural living environment, tourism and marine affairs. Important policies are on habitat inventory, forests and critical area rehabilitation, communities in and around forests, sustainable development, ecotourism and marine and coastal management. Various programs are developed to support the implementation of those policies including national forest and biodiversity inventories, consolidation of forest areas to strengthen their integrity, forest protection, environmental impact assessment, rehabilitation of critical areas, extension and awareness programs, science and technology, training, information management, coastal and marine programs, and ecotourism development.

The Development of National Parks is the strategic part of the DG of Nature Protection and Conservation’s policy. Among others, major efforts are focused on the revaluation of park properties and extension of parks areas, the development of appropriate professional management systems toward a more self reliant and efficient park management, strengthening of local community participation, partnerships, co-management, optimizing local benefits, and the development of science and technology.

In connection with the regional development scheme of NTT Province and Manggarai District, the development of Komodo NP is highly prioritized, especially to support tourism development in the region. The development of infrastructure in the region is directed to support various tourism sites, especially Komodo National Park.

6.3 KOMODO NATIONAL PARK MANAGEMENT POLICY

The management of the Komodo National Park is primarily based on the national policy of developing National Parks as outlined in Book 2 of this management plan, however, the Forestry Department has granted permission to this Park to try new innovative approaches in Park financing. Current management policies for the Komodo National Park are as follows:

• Determination of the legal status of KNP and finalization of the external boundaries. The boundaries should be acknowledged by the community and the related agencies (Directorate General of Marine Transportation, Fishery Service). Additionally, the zonation boundaries, particularly the boundaries of the Traditional Use and Settlement zones, need to be finalized. • Expansion of the Park area to include Gili Banta island and the surrounding waters in the Regencies of Bima, Nusa Tenggara Barat and connection of Gili Mota to the rest of the Park. • Intensify efforts in the use of the National Park for research and education, as well as tourism. Planning will be required for construction of facilities and supporting infrastructure. • Increase ability, knowledge, and skills of competent, quality managers for the National Park. • Increase effectiveness of protection efforts, particularly the elimination of destructive fishing practices that destroy coral reefs. • The formation of a forum or task force with partners to improve Park management, and increase input on management and development issues, such as research, education, conservation, development of tourism, and area security. • The construction of multi-functional facilities for management based on an Environmental Impact Assessment, and more efficient, results-oriented use of these facilities. • Formation of a communication forum (a consortium or work group) with members of various commercial user interest groups. These include owners of cruise ships, owners of boats leased out to tourists visiting the Komodo National Park, travel bureaus, accommodation and hotel operators, tourist guides, souvenir sellers, diving tourism businessmen, etc. The consortium will allow tourism activities to be better planned and coordinated. • Improvement of community welfare in the vicinity of the national Park area through increased community participation in tourism activities, as well as the introduction of new sustainable techniques in fishing and marine technology. • Implementation of regulations for visitors, researchers and local communities towards improvement of National Park security and in accordance with the determined zoning. • Design and implement monitoring and inventory techniques for the Park’s natural resources. • Improve cooperation with independent community institutions and other non-governmental institutions (local, national, and international).

• Formation of an international research consortium with universities, zoos, and scientists. • Supply data and information on the Park to the local community, the government, and researchers, for educational, research, and management purposes. • Construction of facilities based on Environmental Impact Assessments to support management efforts, increase awareness, and provide information on Park regulations. • Generate revenues for Park management through increased tourism in the Park.

6.4 CO-MANAGEMENT AND LAW ENFORCEMENT

The enforcement of regulations in and around KNP must be a cross-sectoral effort, involving Park authorities, police, fisheries services, the army, the navy, legislative bodies and local communities. NGO's and other institutes are assisting in the planning and supply of infrastructure. The combined enforcement team currently meets at regular intervals, and develops a strict plan of actions, which states clearly each party's tasks and responsibilities. The available infrastructure and operational budgets are inventoried and shortcomings are reported to higher levels of government. The current enforcement of marine regulations is implemented through a pro-active and preventive surveillance routine, using speedboat patrols. Terrestrial patrols are implemented on foot. Local communities should be involved in the enforcement network as they are the most efficient eyes and ears of the enforcement team. The marine enforcement activities should also include patrols with local boats, serving as mobile ranger stations in the Park’s waters.

6.5 LEGAL ISSUES

6.5.1 Relevancy, Overlapping Jurisdictions and Loopholes

Existing regulations and statutes should be evaluated to ensure their relevancy, given the current threats and socio-political situation. Efforts should be made to ensure that regulations are clear, understandable, and are appropriate to the conservation of diversity and ecosystem processes and sustainable use of natural resources. KNP should provide technical advice to the provincial and national legislators on regulations that impact the protected area system. Outdated regulations and statutes should be revised or eliminated. New regulations and statutes should be formulated on an as needed basis.

There are at least two sets of laws regulating the management of the Park and the use of its resources, the fishery and the conservation laws. There has not been a serious analysis of how to implement these two sets of laws and reconcile differences in interpretation. Evaluation of existing regulations should be completed within the first five year period, and should be redone within each 5 year block. Both national and regional regulations and policies need evaluation.

Following evaluation and clarification of the laws and regulations, it should be clear which sanctions result from each type of violation, and this information should be disseminated in a comprehensive extension program. Court cases dealing with the prosecution of fishermen caught in and around the Park using destructive fishing practices should be examined in detail. Constraints to prosecution need to be identified and communicated to the appropriate government agencies. Legal loopholes in the enforcement and prosecution of illegal activities, particularly destructive fishing methods, need to be addressed immediately.

6.5.2 Special Regulations

KNP authorities should implement special regulations for the ban of hookah compressors and other destructive gear types. The legal basis for these special regulations for specific Zones in the Park needs to be firmly established. The overlap with fisheries laws and licenses is a key legal issue. Only when fishing licenses, issued by the Provincial or District Fisheries Services for the local districts specifically exclude Komodo National Park, will confusion and legal loopholes be prevented. Close cooperation with the Fisheries Service is needed to make sure that protected areas are excluded from general fishing licenses.

The new Ministry of Marine Exploration may have a significant impact on the Park, given its large marine component. Regulations and activities outside the Park borders may have significant impacts on the Park, given that marine fauna, flora and pollutants travel long distances. Efforts will be made to coordinate with the new Ministry to ensure that appropriate measures are undertaken to minimize large-scale impacts of of extraction of marine resources.

6.5.3 Exclusive Use Rights

The legal premise for designating exclusive fishing rights in marine national Parks needs to be evaluated and the Park’s authority will conduct workshops with community leaders, NGOs, and government officials to explore ways to strengthen marine tenure in KNP. Exclusive use rights need to be implemented as soon as possible for the Traditional Use Zones and Pelagic Use Zones of the Park. The Park management will present the findings from court cases and experiences with exclusive use rights at provincial and national workshops with policy workers and key legislative and enforcement groups, and will assist in drafting new model legislation.

6.5.4 Park Boundaries and Extensions

The Komodo National Park is located in the province of Nusa Tenggara Timor. Proposed extensions of the Park will cross into Nusa Tenggara Barat. Recent announcements by the government following the 1999 elections indicate that the government will decentralize much of the control of natural resources to the provincial level. National Parks will still be administered at the national level, but the details have not been clarified. For example, buffer zones are not controlled by the KNP authority, however their management is essential to the long term survival of the Park. Every attempt should be made to finalize Park borders prior to proposed decentralization. The exact impacts of decentralization are not clear, but it seems a reasonable assumption that it may be more difficult to finalize borders administratively. Financing and revenue sharing plans should also take this into account; it may be necessary to negotiate separate agreements with the two provincial governments.

6.5.5 Immigration

An agreement was made between KNP and the local village heads within KNP in 1986 concerning immigration within KNP. The agreement stated that no in-migration was allowed to the Park. Individuals that married outsiders were required to move outside the Park. This original agreement should be reviewed, and a strategy for enforcement should be developed.

6.5.6 Privatization and Self-Financing (Swadana)

Privatization of common property is advocated by numerous NGOs, but this needs the imbedding of definitions of property rights in a legal framework, which is a tedious process. Traditional communal property rights are usually not written down, and have eroded during the last decades. It is the role of the Government to specify, legitimize and enforce the security of property rights to local resources. In addition, the Park may wish to privatize specific functions, such as eco-tourism management and enforcement of regulations. This already has a preliminary legal basis, however it may be necessary to establish further regulations. Regulation No. 73 of the Year 1999 stipulates that Park entrance fees collected may be retained by the Park authorities. This regulation has not yet been implemented and may require clarification with respect to privatization of management functions within the Park. The income of the local government needs to be maintained at least at the present level.

6.6 LONG TERM ENFORCEMENT STRATEGY

A long term enforcement strategy should deal effectively with both terrestrial and marine infractions. Immediate steps need to be taken on land to prevent further degradation of the mangrove habitat and to halt poaching. A systematic patrol system similar to that developed for the marine sector should be developed. Rangers should be given proper and adequate equipment (including communication methods, security devices [handcuffs, guns], and transport, etc.).

While patrols have successfully decreased the incidence of large-scale dynamite and cyanide fishing, considerable further protection is needed. The demersal fish stocks and coral reefs, already damaged, continue to be threatened by a variety of destructive methods, including the use of hookah compressors, reef gleaning, fish traps, gillnets, and bottom hook and lines. Banning the use of hookah compressors, used in both dynamite and cyanide fishing, is strongly recommended. Park authorities and other enforcement agencies need to become aware of the destructive impact of commonly practiced fishing methods like compressor fishing, reef gleaning, 'bubu' trap fishing, gillnetting and hook & line fishing. The high frequency of boat patrols in the Park, including a monitoring program recording patterns in resource utilization, should be continued long-term. Between 1996 and 1999 the Park patrols have been mostly focusing on the combat of dynamite fishing in the Park, but this is not sufficient to protect the Park's marine resources. The following phases of increasingly strict law enforcement need to be implemented:

• Remove large-scale blast- and cyanide fisheries from within the Park’s borders. • Remove large-scale blast- and cyanide fisheries from the Buffer Zones and adjacent areas. • Remove medium-scale blast- and cyanide fisheries from within the Park's borders. • Remove medium-scale blast- and cyanide fisheries from the Buffer Zones and adjacent areas. • Prohibit key destructive gear types within the Park's borders. The most urgent need here is to ban the hookah compressor, the reef gleaning and the 'bubu' traps. • Establish Traditional Use Zones for demersal fisheries in coastal areas, and a Pelagic Use Zone for pelagic fisheries in the open waters of the Park. Establish exclusive use rights. • Close major parts of the Park for demersal gear types like gillnets, bubu traps and bottom hook and line. Allow certain demersal gear types such as bottom hook and line only in Traditional Use Zones, but eventually close also these zones for traps and gillnets.

7 TOURISM

Perhaps the most obvious sustainable use of the Park’s resources is eco-tourism. Eco-tourism is defined as visiting natural areas to view and enjoy the plant and animal life with minimal or no impact on the environment. Through partnerships with the private sector, local dive operators and tourist guides, Komodo National Park will develop high quality eco-tourism enterprises, building on the existing foundation of tourism in the Komodo area. Facilities development (apart from mooring buoys) will be restricted to outside the Park boundaries. Apart from its terrestrial attractions, the Park offers the spectacular scenery and marine biodiversity.

7.1 POTENTIAL FOR TOURISM IN AND AROUND KNP

• The Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis) and Savanna Wildlife. On Rinca island, several species of interest live in the savanna habitat, including wild horses, wild buffalo, and birds. • Hiking and Camping. Dependent upon the outcome of an EIA. • Horseback Riding would need to be restricted to Rinca Island and would depend on EIA. • Cross-cultural interactions. The majority of visitors are interested in how the traditional communities of Komodo, Rinca and Kerora live. • Recreational diving and snorkeling. Sea kayaking, surfing and sailing. • Marine safaris and Turtle watching including guided bird-, dolphin-, whale- and turtle- watching should be incorporated in an active protection program for turtle nesting beaches. • Sport fishing in the KNP Pelagic Use Zone should be permitted, with certain limitations.

The total number of tourists in KNP was close to 30,000 in 1996. They were mostly from international destinations. The growth was around 10-20% per year around that time. Around 15% of the tourists visit Rinca, the majority visit only the Komodo Islands. Tourists are reported to enter KNP via Flores, Sumbawa, Lombok and Bali. The number of visitors to KNP decreased during the political and economic crisis in Indonesia in the late nineties. The Komodo area has a large potential for both terrestrial and marine-oriented activities.

7.2 ECOTOURISM DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY

The strategy for development of eco-tourism in KNP from the year 2000 onwards will focus on: • high-quality eco-tourism experiences, • proper planning through environmental impact assessment, • encouraging preparation of marketing plans, • strict compliance to carrying capacity limits, • low impact of tourism on the environment, • active participation in coastal zone development planning in the region, • high revenues from entrance fees, • direct flow-back of Park revenues to management, and • involvement of local people and benefits to the local economy.

The expansion of tourism needs careful planning and management, including clear regulations, to assure sustainable tourism, and protect the health of the natural resources upon which tourism is built. Major issues associated with tourism development in and around KNP include:

Resource degradation: • coral reef: boat anchoring, coral trampling • beaches: shoreline construction, improper waste disposal • nearshore water: domestic wastes from tourist facilities, sediments from construction Socio-economic and cultural concerns: • inequitable distribution of tourism benefits • increasing cost of living • erosion of cultural values Legal, institutional and administrative concerns: • no control over tourism development • lack of planning at the local and regional level • lack of cooperation among government bodies • poor enforcement of laws Education and public awareness: • little public appreciation or resources supporting tourism • poor management of tourism operations • poor local participation in tourism due to lack of skills, knowledge and capital

7.2.1 Accessibility

KNP can be entered from Labuan Bajo and from Sape by local wooden boat. Airplane flights are available from Denpasar, Bali to Labuan Bajo, or to Bima, Sumbawa. There are also flights from Bima to Labuan Bajo. There is a public ferry that travels back and forth between Sape, the Park, and Labuan Bajo. Apart from these options, there are cruise boats and “sea safaris” that leave directly from Denpasar, Lombok, Sape and Bima. The Park should be prepared for an increase in international tourism when the Bali -Flores air travel route is fully functional. Additional diving and snorkeling sites (Fig. 16) should be located and identified for further development based on Environmental Impact Assessments. Transportation is still a major problem in the area. Improvements need to be made in the areas of safety and level of comfort. As part of the KNP licensing procedure for tour boats operating in the area, life jackets, flares, radios, and fire extinguishers should be required. Providing regularly scheduled transport is another problem, efforts should be made to coordinate transport expansion plans between the two provinces. Efforts should be made to increase the reliability and safety of all modes of travel, as one of the largest constraints on tourism growth is the lack of safe reliable transport. Increased service (number of boats or planes per day) is also required. An airport built at Labuan Bajo allows Fokker 27 type aircraft to land. A tourist information desk is needed at the airport.

7.3 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

The rising number of tourists is increasing the chances of negative impacts. The damage to the marine environment has so far been limited due to the availability of mooring buoys at popular diving spots (see mooring buoy program below), but trampling of coral is still a potential problem contributing to reef degradation. The disposal of sewage and litter at sea is an issue, as is the lack of garbage facilities. The use of a large part of the limited water supply is a growing conflict between the residents of Komodo and the tourism facilities in Loh Liang. Proper environmental impact assessments and clear guidelines are required in the planning and implementation of tourism. These impact assessments and guidelines should deal with the protection and proper use of valuable ecosystems, the prevention of adverse alterations of air and water quality, the consideration of physical factors and the manipulations that can be ecologically beneficial.

58 Location of Dive Sites and Mooring Buoys

snorkeling site and/or mooring buoy dive site

Figure 16. Location of dive sites and mooring buoys in and around Komodo National Park. Moorings are situated near snorkeling sites.

The Park’s carrying capacity for visitors needs to be taken into account in any recreational planning. Detailed tourism plans should include guidelines for environmental management of sewage discharge, shoreline erosion, maintenance of beaches, coral reefs and other ecosystems and general zones appropriate for tourism. One important side effect of tourism development is the production of large amounts of waste, of which plastic is a major component. At present there is no proper garbage disposal system in or near the Park (nor in its gateways Labuan Bajo or Sape). The development of such a garbage disposal system should be actively supported by all stakeholders. All tourism activities should be subjected to withdrawable licensing.

7.4 MOORING BUOY PROGRAM

Most recreational areas in the Park lack permanent mooring buoys for boats to use in lieu of anchoring. Therefore, boat crews frequently throw anchors into the coral reefs, causing serious physical damage. Many dive tour agencies and their accompanying boat operators are aware of the problem but lack the skill and technology to alleviate it. KNP and TNC have installed a series of mooring buoys in Komodo National Park, using both the modern Halas mooring system and other more conventional mooring systems, depending on the physical structure of the location.

The Halas mooring buoy system works by embedding a stainless steel mooring pin into a hard substrate within a coral reef. This system causes very little disturbance to the surrounding habitats. Under normal circumstances, the 'anchor' itself does not move under water. This feature eliminates the dragging damage common with other buoy systems. It is one of the most environmentally friendly mooring systems available for small to medium sized boats. Buoy deployment is not too expensive and the installation technique is easy to master. One problem encountered with the Halas system is that smaller coral heads were pulled out of the reef by medium sized boats, in places where the installation crew had not been able to find coral heads large enough for mooring purposes.

To prevent the pulling out of coral heads in places where larger structures were lacking, KNP and TNC have successfully installed conventional mooring buoys (Fig. 16). In these places large drums filled with concrete and rocks were dropped to the bottom and presently function as permanent anchors. It is very important that these type of anchors are heavy enough (at least 2 drums of 200 liter each), have extra anchoring capacity from steel bars and are placed on sandy patches from where they cannot be moved by medium-sized boats. These type of moorings are easier to install and maintain with local tools and materials, are cheaper and prevent damage by pulling out coral heads in places where massive structures are lacking.

7.5 FACILITIES AND DEVELOPMENT

High quality tourism facilities are still lacking in the area (Fig. 17). A single resort is operating from outside the Park and the Park's Cooperative is running a dive shop at Loh Liang. The Park’s authority is currently working with TNC, partners from the private sector, and eco-tourism consultants, on the design of a high quality eco-tourism management concession for KNP. Once EIAs have been carried out, proper infrastructure can be built. Trail systems (Fig. 18), location of buildings, water and sewage facilities, etc. should all be based on recommendations from the EIA. The USDA-Alaska Forestry Service has provided detailed plans for construction of visitor centers. Activity types, intensity, and locations should be based on the EIA. A permitting system should be established to ensure that visitation levels do not exceed carrying capacity.

60 Tourism Facilities

Figure 17. Tourism facilities in the Komodo area: resorts / hotels, jetties, main harbors and airport. 61 Trails

Villages Ranger Stations Patrol Trail Tourism Trail

Figure 18. Trails for intensive tourism use (blue) and patrols (green) in the Komodo National Park. 62

8. CONSTITUENCY BUILDING AND PARTICIPATORY PLANNING

8.1 CONSTITUENCY BUILDING

Given the complexity of ecological processes and competing resource uses in Komodo National Park, dynamic and effective management can only be achieved by securing the commitment and involvement of all resource users. The success of Park management is very much dependent on the extent to which it provides all these stakeholders the right incentives and disincentives. Moreover, given limited government funding and personnel, the participation of resource users in the design and implementation of the management plan is crucial for KNP's sustainability. Key local, provincial and national government stakeholders must also be involved in order to solicit input and obtain consensus on the Park's management principles. Overall coordination of Park management can be achieved through a coordination forum or task force which could meet several times a year to review and coordinate the activities of all agencies which directly or indirectly affect the Park. Local motivators should be ready and trained to facilitate adequate input from the local villages into this task force in a coherent way.

8.2 PARTICIPATORY PLANNING

A coordination forum has been organized to discuss the management, development and enforcement approaches for Komodo National Park among the relevant provincial and local stakeholders. This forum should meet on a regular basis to discuss such relevant issues as: enforcement, Park boundaries and zoning, and alternative livelihood strategies.

8.3 PARTICIPATORY RAPID APPRAISAL

Participatory rapid appraisal is one of the many ways to learn and obtain information, in a limited period of time, about a community, area, activity or specific problem using co-management techniques. Rapid appraisals include a repertoire of rapid approaches to collect information, but not a single, fixed methodology. One of the essential features of the rapid appraisal approach is that it should allow local people to express their ideas and 'teach' outsiders about the way they live, their problems and their knowledge. Park managers should use PRA methods to increase community participation in planning and management.

8.4 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND AWARENESS PROGRAM

A comprehensive environmental awareness program started in 1996 and is currently on-going. Community motivators have been appointed to act as a liaison with the local communities. Key themes for the awareness programs include:

• the impact of destructive fishing practices on the coastal marine resources, • the Park's objectives emphasizing the importance of protecting all sedentary life forms, • the effects from fishing on the demersal and sedentary ecosystem and the expected benefits of a marine reserve for the fisheries in and around Komodo National Park, • the alternative livelihood program of KNP and TNC, which focuses on exclusive fishing rights, and the development of pelagic fisheries, mariculture and eco-tourism, • basic reef ecology, and the need for zoning.

8.4.1 Future Program Activities

• Meetings with fishing communities will be continued using strategies proven to be successful in the past, and additional strategies designed by expert consultants. While the content of the past messages has been the richness, beauty and threats to coral reefs, the content of the future program will be focusing on the management aspects of the Park, including the terrestrial components. The content of the program will include (a) the purpose of establishing a Protected Area (PA) with its zoning system, (b) the management of a PA, and (c) laws and regulations regarding the PA and regarding conservation in general.

• An awareness program for relevant Government Offices will also emphasize the management aspects of the Park (laws and regulations, zoning system, etc). Sources of conflicts and contradictions in the laws and regulations of different agencies will be identified and follow-up discussions should be able to reconcile the differences. Workshops on the management of PAs will be organized for the staff of the Park, Fisheries, Tourism and other local Government Offices.

• Joint programs will be established with universities in Kupang (UNDANA), Mataram (UNRAM), Denpasar (UDAYANA) and Ujung Pandang (UNHAS), and others. Students will be invited to participate in the implementation of the community awareness program and in marine monitoring programs. Seminars will be held at selected departments (e.g. marine and social science departments). KNP will provide support for groups of students implementing their community work (a requirement for students before engaging in thesis preparation).

• Joint programs will be established with selected NGOs. NGOs will be invited to seminars discussing policies and strategies for protecting the Park’s resources. NGOs will also be invited to participate in workshops and training for the management of protected areas. KNP will support local NGOs in their community awareness programs through sharing of awareness materials.

• KNP will work closely with local, National and International mass media. Media staff will be invited to participate in seminars and workshops organized by KNP. Support will be given to the media so that news features regarding the conservation program of KNP will appear on a regular basis in POS KUPANG (at least once a month) and in DIAN (four times a year).

• At present, there are few local NGO's operational in and around KNP. Those that are currently in existence are weak and ineffective. They need assistance (institutional strengthening) to increase their capacity to act. Park management should support increased development of local NGOs. Increased empowerment of local NGOs could leverage conservation activities within the Park by increasing community participation. A fully operational local environmental NGO could assist the Park Authority with many aspects of Park management in the near future, and fill the locally vacant niche of an effective community awareness facilitator.

9. COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT AND ALTERNATIVE LIVELIHOODS

9.1 PELAGIC FISHERIES

The pelagic fisheries in and around Komodo National Park are presently focused on Loliginidae or squid (cumi cumi), which are caught by floating lift nets (bagan perahu). This fishery also yields anchovies (Engraulidae, mainly Stolephorus spp.) and small clupeids (Clupeidae, mainly Sprateloides spp.). The continuation and protection of this traditional lift net fishery is essential as the major economic alternative for local fishing communities. Exclusive fishing rights for local fishers need to be established to prevent over-fishing by outsiders.

A variety of pelagic fish species, with high prices on remote markets, are promising for development. These include: Scomberomorus commerson or Spanish mackerel, yellowfin tuna and skipjack. Smaller species, such as anchovies (teri), sardines (lemuru, tembang), sprats, Indian mackerels (kembung) and scads (layang, selar), may become important either for direct consumption or as feed source for aquaculture enterprises. Diversification of fishing methods, gear types and target species is necessary. Several optional gear types are:

• Multiple feather trolling lines (pancing tonda) for small tuna. • Pole and line fisheries with jigs for skipjack and other small tuna. • Small lures and minnows on trolling lines for Spanish mackerel. • Surface handlines with live bait for Spanish mackerel and tuna. • Purse seines for small schooling pelagics, also in combination with free floating rafts which hold sets of lamps to concentrate schooling pelagics at night. • Other boat seines, like payang, for small schooling pelagics. • Traditional fixed fish aggregating devices or FADs ('rompon', made out of floating bamboo on a long rope with palm leaves) in combination with any of the above mentioned gear types and in combination with lamps to be fished at night.

Efficient infrastructure for preservation, transport and post-harvest processing needs to be developed in the area outside the Park. In addition, both fishermen and consumers need to be educated on the importance of maintaining product quality. Important components for the establishment of a pelagic fishery include:

• Local understanding of the post-harvest treatment required to preserve quality for different species of fish. Fishermen can be taught for example that tuna species have to be bled and chilled, or otherwise processed, very soon after capture. • Local knowledge on the different preservation techniques (chilling on ice, ‘ikan abon), which are suitable for a variety of fish species. • An ice factory at a central market and collection point (Labuan Bajo) with ice holding facilities (insulated ice boxes) in the fishing villages. • An ice distribution system in the form of small transport boats which can also transport chilled fish from fishing villages to Labuan Bajo. • Transport lines to export valuable fish from Labuan Bajo to more remote markets. • An effective marketing system to sell fisheries products on the most profitable markets.

The joint KNP and TNC pelagic fisheries development program is working together with local fish traders, fishermen and expert contractors, to enhance the establishment of the fisheries, and 65 improve post harvest practices, fish processing techniques and marketing of large pelagic fish. In order to increase the number of fishing locations, to hold migrating pelagics (mainly tuna) in the area, and to increase overall catch rates, several deep- (1,000 – 1,200 m) water FADs are being deployed in the area north of the Park. The program includes a training program for fishermen, sponsored by TNC. Participants in the training program and their moneylenders (local traders) have signed an agreement to refrain from destructive fishing practices in the future. Fishermen from different areas in Indonesia have been hired to teach a variety of skills.

The training program for fishing communities also contains a post-harvest component, covering a variety of techniques from fish handling on the boats to fish processing on shore. Although a large portion of the catch is destined for sale as a fresh chilled product, there is also considerable potential for the production of other products. The program has been training local fishing communities, including many women, to prepare these products. Post-harvest techniques that have been included in the training program include: pengasinan (dried salted fish), pindang (salt boiled fish), ikan kayu (katsuobushi), dendeng (spiced dried fish), and ikan abon (a fish-based product that is used as a spice). A variety of basic processing tools were supplied. By introducing these 'new' high-quality products, fishing communities now have a better chance of increasing their income in the pelagic fishery.

9.2 MARICULTURE

Mariculture requires a great deal of technical training, especially when including reproduction and rearing of larvae. The expertise for on-farm reproduction of marine animals is presently not available in the KNP area, except perhaps at a single pearl oyster company, which is operating near Labuan Bajo. Environmental impact assessments (EIA) should be carried out before the establishment of any mariculture operation. Any type of mariculture should be developed slowly and the effects on the environment should be monitored carefully. Any licenses for mariculture should be withdrawn if the effects of the culture system prove to be harmful to the environment.

The grow-out of wild-caught juvenile fish should not be allowed in Komodo National Park or its buffer-zone since this will lead to increased pressure on the sedentary resources. Only the grow-out of hatchery reared juvenile animals should be permitted in the Traditional Use Zones and Buffer Zones of the Park. Brackish water pond culture ('tambak') for prawns and milkfish should not be allowed in KNP, or in its buffer zone. This type of culture is notorious for its destructive effects on shallow marine habitats like mangroves and seagrass beds. The tambak culture areas in South East Asia are also sources of pollution (organic and chemical) and fish diseases.

9.2.1 Culture of High Quality Food Fish

The development of full circle aquaculture of high quality food fish will provide an alternative to wild capture with cyanide for the Live Reef Fish Trade. A partnership has been established between KNP and The Nature Conservancy to begin implementation. Additional partnerships with relevant NGOs and the business community may be needed in order to fully implement this alternative livelihood activity.

Local hatcheries outside the Park can supply fingerlings for grow-out to community-based grow-out enterprises, which are low-tech and low-investment activities and are therefore ideal alternative livelihoods for local communities (which mostly already have the experience of raising wild-caught fish in sea cages). The hatcheries themselves are moderate- to high-tech and relatively high 66 investment activities, and modern companies need to be attracted to this industry. A few good examples need to be established, and this will need some investments before this practice can take off on a larger scale. In the long term a considerable part of the market could be supplied with high quality food fish from full-circle aquaculture. The Komodo area is ideal for grow-out in terms of production costs, environmental factors and space.

Phase I of the fish culture development program should be to develop a business plan for a hatchery outside but near Komodo National Park, for the production of grouper, sea bass and other fish fingerlings for later grow-out in cages by local communities. In phase II a hatchery should be developed, and in Phase III fish grow-out enterprises should be developed in local communities, with participation of all stakeholders, and taking into consideration the Park zonation plans and regulations. A thriving mariculture industry will sustainably increase the standard of living for the villagers in the vicinity.

The program should support the establishment of a small hatchery for the production of fingerlings to be used as 'seed' supply for local grow-out enterprises. A three year pilot project is needed to assess whether steady production of fingerlings is feasible and to train local staff in hatchery practices. Fingerlings should be supplied to local community-based grow-out enterprises that can sell the full-grown product back to the aquaculture enterprise. The enterprise should collect larger quantities of grown-out fish to sell to fish trading companies (these are already visiting the area with live fish transport vessels).

The program should focus on sea-bass (Lates calcarifer) to start, a highly prized food fish for which economic feasibility of aquaculture has already been proven throughout south-east Asia and Australia. This species can be a feasibility insurance, while grouper culture is being developed. The culture of sea bass will at least serve to achieve the goal of developing an alternative livelihood for local fishers. The Queensland Department of Primary Industry is currently the prime partner for developing the culture of this species. A second estuarine species to be cultured in this program is the mangrove jack (Lutjanus argentimaculatus).

The program will also work with several species of grouper, such as the estuary grouper (Epinephelus coioides) and the tiger grouper (E. fuscoguttatus), which are successfully cultured in Taiwan and in a few other countries. Try-outs will also be done with mouse grouper (Cromileptes altivelis) which is the most highly prized grouper in the live reef fish trade, and which has been successfully reproduced and raised by the Gondol Research Center for Coastal Fisheries in Bali. All the above species occur naturally in the Komodo area and brood-stock has already been secured.

The program plans to contract Indonesian experts from the Gondol Research Station of Coastal Fisheries (RSCF), and will be aided by experts from the Queensland Department of Primary Industries (DPI). With the expertise and practical experience of partners, the hatchery should be well managed and show the feasibility of fingerling production for one or more species within three years. The hatchery should also serve as a training ground for local staff.

Grow-out of fingerlings in the Komodo area is expected to be much cheaper than in many other areas due to ideal environmental circumstances, low cost of labor, and the large and cheap supply of small clupeid fishes which are ideal as feed for the cultured species. A pilot survey was conducted in areas surrounding Komodo National Parks by mariculture experts in November 1996. The pilot study revealed that the area is extremely suitable for mariculture development. Constraints are mainly expected in the field of logistics. 67

9.2.2 Seaweed Culture

Seaweed production is a potentially rewarding activity for fishermen in the Komodo area. Many potential participants have already indicated their interest in seaweed culture when they were interviewed in 1997. Some communities have already requested permits for seaweed culture from KNP authorities and are already engaged in rudimentary operations.

The seaweed-based activities and their socio-economics need to be analyzed thoroughly and an Environmental Impact Assessment should be made. In partnership with The Nature Conservancy and others, the program plans to cooperate with Indonesian universities like the Udayana University in Bali and the University of Mataram to analyze existing practices. Expertise will also be available from partners at the Pattimura University and the Research and Development Center for Oceanology, at the Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) in Ambon.

A pilot study and assessment on the seaweed- and seagrass-resources in the Komodo area carried out by The Nature Conservancy in May 1988 identified 8 seagrass species and 43 seaweeds. In general, the plant habitats were relatively healthy and showed very high diversities. This pilot study revealed that some use of seaweed resources was already taking place, but not in an efficient sustainable manner. The pilot study concluded that there is a high potential for the development of seaweed- and seagrass-based economic activities, based on:

• the abundance of the natural stocks of the carageenophytes Eucheuma and Kappaphycus, and of the seaweed salad Caulerpa lentillifera, and • the technology for optimized utilization and commercialization of these species is readily available from neighboring countries in Asia, especially the Philippines.

The program should conduct a feasibility study and develop a business plan together with consultants from Indonesia and the Philippines. Operational realities and the marketing of seaweed will be studied at successful seaweed enterprises in Bali, Lombok and the Philippines. As a first step, a comprehensive inventory of all available resources needs to be made. The inventory should include species- and habitat-distributions, seasonal changes in abundance, and existing patterns in resource utilization. A database on seaweed and seagrass should be developed and a regular monitoring program should be designed and implemented to keep track of developments in the resource and in resource use patterns. Socio-economic monitoring programs will also be implemented in cooperation with Indonesian universities.

A training program will be given to local fishermen, teaching them the basic skills of sustainable seaweed farming. Expert fishermen and seaweed farmers (e.g., from Bali and Lombok) will be hired to teach local villagers a variety of skills, and expert consultants (e.g., from the Philippines) will be contracted to manage the program.

9.3 ECOTOURISM

Perhaps the most obvious opportunity for the development of compatible enterprises lies in the field of eco-tourism. Eco-tourism is defined as visiting natural areas to view and enjoy the plant and animal life with minimal or no impact on the environment. Through partnerships with the private sector, local dive operators and tourist guides, KNP should develop high quality eco-tourism micro- enterprises, building on the existing foundation of tourism in the Komodo area. 68

The spectacular scenery and marine biodiversity of the Park offers absolute world-class diving, snorkeling, sea kayaking, sailing, (sea-)bird watching and blue water catch-and-release fishing. The expansion of tourism needs careful planning and management, including clear regulations, to assure sustainable tourism, protecting the health of the natural resources upon which tourism is built. The quality of available personnel also needs to be upgraded in order to improve eco-tourism development opportunities. Ecotourism opportunities include providing accommodation (home- stays) outside the Park, transportation (local boats from Labuan Bajo to Loh Liang), visitor guiding, and handicraft.

In a study on alternative livelihood preferences conducted by TNC, villagers from Kampung Komodo expressed an interest in tourism activities. Villagers have requested assistance in training to become Park staff, handicraft development, and tourism business skills. The villagers would also like to see the quality of their environment improved in order to increase their chances of attracting tourists. Working with Dinas Parawisata and TNC, KNP authorities have supported the implementation of training programs for local villagers to enhance their chances of finding work in eco-tourism. These training programs have been successful, not only in preparing the participants for jobs in tourism, but also in raising awareness among the younger generation and in building a constituency for the protection of KNP. These training programs have also increased the quality, quantity, and environmental responsibility of tourism operators in Labuan Bajo and KNP. Visitor revenues captured by the local economy will increase the motivation, political will, and commitment to protect the Park. Park management should continue to support training activities for the local villagers. Eco-tourism activities and training programs will be expanded into surrounding towns such as Labuan Bajo, Sape and Bima, so that cultural and economic opportunities and benefits will be enjoyed by communities surrounding the Park.

9.4 DEVELOPMENT OF SURROUNDING AREAS

Recommendations to incorporate park management in the development of the surrounding areas:

• Redesign the spatial allocation of surrounding towns to optimize benefits from ecotourism and sustainable fisheries, and to defuse population pressures away from the park. Spatial planning for Labuan Bajo should express the town’s function as the main entrance to KNP. • In order to defuse population pressures away from the park, multidisciplinary and cross-sectoral approaches should be implemented to explore the possibility of a voluntary resettlement scheme on the coastal mainland of Flores. • Develop sustainable fisheries by creating alternative harvest centers outside the park for pelagic fisheries, actively supporting mariculture initiatives when recommended by proper EIA, and establishing community training programs on fisheries post harvest techniques. • Explore the possibility to develop a center for marine biodiversity research, education and training in Labuan Bajo.

10 CAPACITY STRENGTHENING AND TRAINING

10.1 INSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Effective management of a national Park requires numerous skills. In addition, the skills required to address specific problems or issues are constantly changing. The capacity to implement the various functions necessary to achieve the Park’s objectives is often insufficient. High level technical, managerial, and legal skills required are often lacking. These management challenges can be met through flexibility, responsiveness, and additional training. Current steps necessary to improve management include:

• Improving the system of communication and information flow • Increasing the quality and skill levels of human staff • Increasing development and supervision

10.2 EDUCATION AND TRAINING

Staff skill levels at KNP are currently relatively low. In particular, knowledge of fisheries and Marine Park issues is deficient. KNP authorities, in collaboration with partners, should develop and implement a rigorous training program to provide skills in the areas mentioned above, not only for their staff, but for the local fisheries staff. At the very least, several staff members of KNP and Dinas Perikanan should study the basics of tropical coastal marine fisheries management. Special (short) courses may be the most feasible in the short term, but MSc and/or PhD programs should be considered. Staff sent for training should be assigned to the KNP for a specified period of time following training.

Staff may be sent for technical training to such institutions as the Kupang Forestry Training Hall, BLK Bogor, or another appropriate institution, in addition to on-site training. KNP staff should participate in training opportunities at marine sites managed by COREMAP, MACONAR, WWF and others. The KNP management should also help design and conduct training programs and curricula for a variety of target groups. Target groups should include Park managers and rangers, elected officials, NGOs, community groups, journalists, TV producers, and the marine tourism industry. Training topics per target group should include: • Park managers: conservation site planning and evaluation, enforcement strategies • Park rangers: monitoring and inventory, mooring buoy installation & maintenance • Fisheries managers: the role of marine reserves in fisheries management, the economic importance of conservation • NGOs and community extension workers: marine conservation concepts, alternative livelihood development • Policy-and decision-makers: the economic importance of conservation, marine conservation concepts, landscape ecology concepts important to regional spatial planning • Marine tourism operators and developers: marine conservation concepts • Journalists and TV producers (environmental journalists): marine conservation concepts

As a Natural World Heritage Site the Park may continue to closely cooperate with UNESCO in supporting the above mentioned trainings as well as in promotion.

11 PARK ADMINISTRATION AND INFRASTRUCTURE MANAGEMENT

11.1 PARK ADMINISTRATION

The enactment of Act No.22 of 1999 concerning Autonomy at District Levels provides local governments with authority over various sectors previously controlled by the central government. This Act, however, stipulates that conservation policies are among one of the few sectors still controlled by the central government. The details concerning the implementation of conservation policies in the field are still being negotiated between central and local governments. Assuming that the management of National Parks is still under the central government, various adjustments to the new dynamic political power sharing system will have to be made. Such drastic changes will directly and indirectly affect the management of National Parks. Park managers will have to deal more intensively with local governments. This creates new challenges and new professional demands for Park managers. Restructuring, co-management, delegation of authority, subcontracting, and privatization are among the new management options.

11.1.1 Organizational Structure

The organizational structure of the Komodo National Park is based on the Decree of the Forestry Minister No. 096/Kpts-II/1984 dated 12 May 1984. In this Decree the Komodo National Park was designated as a Technical Implementation Unit of the PHPA (now PKA) Directorate General led by a Head (of the same level as echelon III). The organizational structure of the National Park is based upon the primary functions it must fulfill. The Park must protect the diversity of fauna and flora, and their ecosystems. In addition, it must use these natural resources in a sustainable manner for tourism, research, and to help benefit local communities. The current organizational structure of the Komodo National Park should be re-evaluated in the light of co-management options and impoved effectiveness.

11.1.2 Responsibilities, Management and Structural Issues

The Head of the Komodo National Park should base management activities on the general conservation principles and objectives outlined in the 25 year Master Plan. Detailed management objectives and targets should be used to guide the implementation of management activities. Five year and one year detailed management implementation plans based on the 25 year plan should be developed to: 1) protect, preserve, and conserve the Park’s flora, fauna ,and ecosystems, 2) develop tourism, research, education, and sustainable livelihoods for local communities, and 3) conduct administrative duties. The Head of the Komodo National Park shall be assisted in these duties by 1) the Sub Administration Department, 2) the Program Development Section, 3) the Natural Resource Section, and 4 ) the Conservation Management Staff Group.

The existing management structure, based on the previous Ministerial Decrees and then revised through the Forestry Ministerial Decree No.138/Kpts-II/1999 concerning the organization and the working structure Ministry of Forestry and Estate Crops, fails to address the main shortages embedded in the whole management structure. This, combined with the overall poor performance of Park management within Indonesia, has been attracting many critical reviews. Several of the main structural deficiencies that have been identified are:

• The existing Park management primarily consists of rangers whose assignment and education skills are focused on protecting Park integrity. Meanwhile, the challenges in and surrounding Park areas are of socioeconomic origin. These types of skills are lacking among Park rangers. • One of the functions of the National Park system is to provide visitor services. Such services require professionalism and demand creativity, which is lacking in the existing structure. Such deficiencies lead to a poor image of the services provided by Indonesian National Parks. • Research is the other area in which special management skills are heavily needed and can not be properly performed by the existing system. • Park managers lack the the authority to implement proper personnel management systems, including the authority to hire and fire professionals (as required), create flexible incentive programs, and to impose merit based career systems. • The existing fixed salary system is too low to meet the cost-of-living needs of personnel, and does not create performance incentives. Further, it forces personnel at all management levels to find alternative ways and means to meet ends, thus making them prone to corruption.

Solutions to the above problems should be based on a comprehension of individual Park circumstances and should explore all available possibilities. Individual factors such as internal resources available, nature tourism potential, levels of threats to Park resources, characteristics of surrounding communities, local government perception, potential stakeholders, enterprises and entrepreneurship, availability of expertise, outstanding committments, legal aspects, socioeconomics, culture and Park accessibility all have to be taken into account. Any positive solutions supportive to the conservation of biodiversity should not be ruled out.

11.2. PERSONNEL STAFFING REQUIREMENTS

As of 1995, there were 85 permanent staff (civil servant status) and 3 people hired as day labor, for a total of 88 staff. The work force was composed of: 55 rangers, 30 office staff and 3 alternates that could be assigned as needed. The majority (75%) of the staff had a secondary school education (SLTA). Only 7 staff had any university training (1 S2, 4 S1, and 2 B.A.). Qualifications should be raised over time to increase the level of professionalism and ensure that all Park objectives are met in an effective, efficient manner. The goal should be to obtain the best staff possible. Every effort should be made in the recruitment of new staff to obtain the highest quality possible. Incentives are required in the recruitment phase of personnel management. Compensation levels are currently too low. It is difficult to attract highly qualified individuals, as they often choose other career options. Compensation levels, therefore should be evaluated, and plans should be drawn up to raise salaries of Park employees.

The Decree of the Minister of Forestry Number: 185/Kpts-II-1997, stipulates the number of personnel required at the Komodo National Park. There is 1 Head of the Komodo National Park and 2 Sub-Section Heads (Head of the Komodo Sub-Section and Head of the Rinca Sub-Section). These staff are assisted by the Head of the Finance and Administration Department. The two Section Heads supervise 4 Resort Heads (Resorts North Komodo, South Komodo, North Rinca, South Rinca). Eleven Ranger Station Heads (Fig. 19), supervised by the Head of the respective Resort, are proposed for: Rinca, Loh Buaya, Kerora, Loh Kima, Loh Tongker, Kampung Komodo, Loh Liang, Sabita, Loh Wenci, Loh Wau, and Sape. It is suggested that the Head of the National Park should be assisted by a Consortium comprised of representatives of local stakeholders and several other Institutions (e.g., NGO’s, Universities).

Ranger Stations

Head Office Ranger Station

Figure 19. Ranger stations and head office (Labuan Bajo) in the Komodo area. 73

Once high quality staff are obtained, it is important to retain them. The expenditure of training and recruitment should not be wasted. Current rotation policies should be evaluated with respect to its impact on quality Park management. There are pros and cons to both continuation (pro: experience, con: boredom) and rotation (pro: influx of new ideas, con: lack of experience) of employees, and these must be carefully balanced.

11.3 RESTRUCTURING MANAGEMENT

Effective management of the Park requires that the management body be given the authority to manage the Park. This includes:

• authority to hire and fire professional personnel, • authority and flexibility in determining salaries, incentives and benefits for employees, • equipped by a proper structure responsive to the field needs, • authority in setting up strategies to accomplish the objectives as set by the management plan, • a set of code of ethics and conduct, • authority to execute plans, • authority to enforce regulations, and • authority to issue certain internal regulations.

The existing management of National Parks is most deficient in the elements mentioned in point 1, 2, and 3. To remedy the situation a diagnostic review should be conducted, focusing on the main mission of the Park and the challenges faced in the field. The review should be based on site specific understanding, including the natural resource base, the needs of surrounding communities, and the socioeconomic situation. Park Management at KNP has several main duties that should be organized and embedded into separate divisions (each headed by a manager), i.e.

• The Protection Division deals mainly with maintaining the integrity of Park resources. Rangers are responsible for this duty. • The Visitor Services Division deals with visitor facilities, interpretation, guiding, and visitor education. • The Research and Development Division is responsible for provision of plans, mapping, resource monitoring, research cooperation, research projects, and impact assessment, etc. Specific officers should be appointed for the marine and the terrestrial environments. • The Communities Affairs Division deals with outreach programs, and community based development in and around the Park.

The managers of these functional Divisions are responsible to the Park Director. Several cross cutting Divisions are also required as a support system for the organization of the National Park:

• Legal affairs • Public Relations (responsible for public relations, and handling complaints) • General Affairs (responsible for administration, personnel, human resources development, finance, logistics, and technical support) • Marketing and promotion

Priority for recruitment must be based on the existing personnel. Retraining of the existing staff is needed to optimize and to adjust to the restructuring scheme, especially in the fields of: 74

• Visitor management • Interpretation • Financial management • Research management • Field Post management • Community outreach • Protection • Enterprising and marketing

Retraining sessions will be conducted over approximately a one year period, in a series of workshop and training courses contracted to several professional training institutes. Both the existing capacity of the existing personnel, and their ability to be retrained should be considered. Repositioning of staff should be immediately carried out. Those who can not fit and meet the new requirements of the restructuring scheme should be offered the opportunity to move to other forestry offices (if available) or to take voluntary early retirement program with proper compensation. In case the existing human resources still can not meet restructuring needs, professionals have to be sought elsewhere.

11.4 COORDINATION

The current structure (as of 2000) requires both vertical coordination (based on the chain of command within the DG PKA) and horizontal coordination (with KANWIL and the SekJen of the Ministry). The DG PKA is responsible for the technical aspects of Park management, while KANWIL is responsible for administration, including budget recommendations. The Park Director is responsible to both the Director of the National Parks (Echelon 2) and to the Head of KANWIL (Echelon 2). Coordination between the technical and administrative aspects is required. Decentralization of the Ministry is expected to lead to the dissolving of KANWIL. Management of administrative matters is expected to be taken over at the provincial level by DINAS under the local District Head and Governor.

Coordination with the Regional Government is very important, particularly given the current trend towards decentralization. Coordination for the development and management of the Komodo National Park involves two provinces, the Bima Regency, West Nusa Tenggara, and the Manggarai Regency, East Nusa Tenggara. Many of the destructive fishing problems in the Komodo National Park are caused by residents of these two provinces. A major problem at the present is the failure of fishing licenses issued by the District Fisheries office to exclude the KNP. This problem could easily be eliminated through better coordination. Enforcement of regulations requires coordination, with several agencies and departments including the police. Navy personnel are already actively involved in enforcement patrols in and around the Park, and this cooperative arrangement should be continued. Tourism management is dependent upon coordination and cooperation with government agencies at the local, regional and national level. The development surrounding towns and their tourist accommodations should be matched with the Park’s capacity and development theme.

NGOs can provide support for the management of the KNP. Research, conservation education, integrated enforcement, eco-tourism promotion, are all areas which would benefit from NGO participation. A consortium should be established to help manage the Park. This will help

75 coordinate activities of NGOs and reduce overlap. Community participation will also be incorporated through this mechanism. Partnerships with local, regional, and international research institutions, will be actively sought out. Applied research conducted in partnership with these research institutions will improve the quality of Park management.

11.4.1 Co-management.

The concept is a response to the current situation faced by protected area managers in the field and to the enactment of Act No. 22 year 1999 on Autonomy at District Levels. The ultimate objective of co-management is to substantially improve the performance and effectiveness of Park administration in executing biodiversity conservation programs. It has to be perceived and understood that co-management implies co-responsibility, in which both the Park authorities and other stakeholders will be accountable for the conservation of the Park resources. Several areas that can be considered under the scheme in Komodo NP are:

In the Park • Nature tourism. Park authorities, local communities, and tourism enterprises. • Protection and enforcement. Park authorities, local communities and police. • Awareness & population management. Park authorities, local government and communities. • Research and Monitoring. Park authorities may cooperate with universities, NGOs and research institutes on biodiversity monitoring activities, Park planning and evaluation. • Resource management. Park Authorities and local communities have to set agreements on limited Park resource uses and settlements.

Around the Park • Fisheries. Park authorities, fisheries agencies, and communities have to formally agree to cooperate to achieve sustainable fishery management (agreements, MOUs, rules, perda, etc). • Outreach. Park authorities , Local Governments, and NGOs. • Protection. Park authorities, Navy, Police, Fisheries, and communities have to agree on rules and regulations, areas of protection, enforcement cooperation, communication, etc. • Tourism. Park authorities, local government, industries, airlines, port authorities, and communities may develop cooperation or consensus on the development of nature tourism programs supporting Park management. • Population. Park authorities, local government and communities need consensus and agreement on various issues related to buffer zone management, demography, pollution control, and the movement of boats.

A consortium may be the most appropriate format to organize co-management. Input from various stakeholders can be facilitated, while retaining a proper level of flexibility and effectiveness. Under the guidance and consultation of the consortium board, various special bilateral, and multilateral agreements can be developed and endorsed as necessary. Park administration should take a lead and initiate the set up and the execution of the overall program of the consortium. The consortium should be administered through a board comprised of major stakeholders. Local government representatives should be among the leading figures in the board. As a Natural World Heritage Site the Park has some obligations to The World Heritage Convention including to evaluate and to submit periodic reports on the state of its World Heritage property in cooperation with the country focal point institution.

To prevent any incompatibility, both legally and during its execution, effective open communication mechanisms should be established during the process of developing a cooperation/ agreement. All agreements should be properly documented and the stakeholders should be informed of the content in advance. Periodic reviews of the process and progress of the implementation of the co-management programs should be undertaken by the consortium board. Such an arrangement needs management support from the Park administration and may require financial resources. It is necessary to set priorities and to restrict Park financial support only for in-Park activities. Exemptions may apply for projects outside the Park supported by committed external funding sources and bearing no administration consequences.

11.5 FACILITIES AND INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT

Facilities and infrastructure development should support the implementation of activities carried out by the management (e.g., administrative, security, research, education, and tourism activities). The type of facilities and total number of facilities built must be in accordance with the management plan. Facilities within the Park will only be constructed in the Tourism Use Zone and the Special Research and Training Zone, and will be dependent upon the outcome of an Environmental Impact Assessment. Modern equipment and administrative support systems should be put in place to support efficient and effective implementation of management plans. Equipment needs include computers, computer software, printers, fax machines, photocopy machines, telephones, short wave radios, field survey and ecological monitoring tools, a technical support library, boats, etc. As of 1999, the Park had 3 boats at Labuan Bajo (in varying state of maintenance and general seaworthiness) and two small boats (80 hp and 40 hp engines) at Loh Liang. Additional speedboats (2) are currently available from TNC for use in patrols. The current communication system is insufficient to meet the needs of the Park. Existing facilities and infrastructure at the Komodo National Park are described in the Site Plan, in Book 3 of this Master Plan. Any additional infrastructure or facilities development should be based upon the outcome of an Environmental Impact Assessment. Development and construction of facilities and infrastructures should also be based on the following principles:

• There is no change in the existing landscape. • The material and architectural form of construction accommodate cultural and aesthetic values that exist within the community. • Construction of facilities and infrastructures outside the area of the Komodo National Park must adhere to the standard costs of construction and civil techniques from the Department of Public Utilities. • Regular maintenance of equipment and facilities will help avoid breakdowns and costly repairs. Facilities and equipment maintenance schedules should be determined and implemented. Normal replacement parts and tools should be kept in stock. Repairs should be made in a timely fashion.

12 PARK FINANCE

Basic funding for the Komodo National Park is provided through the Government of Indonesia. This provides an operating budget and covers salaries for government employees assigned to the UPT. These funds, however, are insufficient to meet all the management needs for the Park. Therefore, the Komodo National Park management will conduct an assessment of options for restructuring tourist gate fees and reforming the gate fee distribution system within PKA, so that a significant portion of these fees can be channeled directly to Park management support. Following this assessment, the Park will work with partners to implement the most promising approach to gate fee reform as an approach to funding future conservation activities in the Park. The most likely form of financial management system may be a Concession for Tourism Management. Komodo National Park has been selected by the Ministry of Finance as a pilot site to test new Park financing mechanisms and privatization of tourism management.

The Park is located in two separate provinces, Nusa Tenggara Timur and Nusa Tenggara Barat. New plans to decentralize control of natural resources need to be taken into account in establishing a Tourism Concession. An agreement should be made as soon as possible with the two regional governments, in order to avoid confusion or conflict later.

In cooperation with NGO partners and the private sector, the Park will attempt to privatize tourism management functions at KNP by supporting the development of a Tourism Concession for the Park. The Tourism Concession will be responsible for financial management, investments in Park infrastructure and marketing. It will require an initial outside infusion of funds to make the necessary Park improvements to justify later increases in user fees. After several years, the Park should be financially self-sustaining. The Tourism Concession will collect user fees and distribute the funds to the Park management. The priorities and objectives of the 25 year master plan for KNP management will guide decision making regarding allocation of revenues.

The Tourism Concession should have the authority to set and collect gate fees, set entry capacity limits, arrange and facilitate enforcement, set environmental standards, select and deselect seconded Park staff, set staff performance and expertise differentials, and implement a licensing system for tourism operations. The Tourism Concession’s performance should be regularly reviewed by an evaluation team consisting of PKA, public financial auditors, and international organizations (IUCN/UNESCO) to ensure compliance with the terms of the concession agreement and management plan and with biodiversity conservation benchmarks.

If successful, the concession could lay the foundation for expanding management activities to include additional aspects of Park management such as enforcement and sustainable community development projects. Economic success in the tourism sector will depend heavily on the maintenance of environmental quality. To sustain projected increases in tourism, any development must be compatible with the environmental surroundings. A detailed environmental impact assessment, including assessment of tourism carrying capacity, must be completed before any infrastructure or facilities development can begin. Tourism development must be limited by, and in accordance with, the EIA report.

13. SOME PRINCIPLES ON STRUCTURING THE PLAN

A large portion of the plan deals with the marine component of the Park, as a result of the intensive collection of information on marine resources generated during the last six years since 1994. The activities are still continued and embedded into the data collection, monitoring and evaluation program of the plan and its implementing regulations.

Ecological assessment on the terrestrial components is prioritized. This includes intensive and regular monitoring on rare and endangered species, critical ecosystems, prey species, exotic species, and other physical components of the environment. The plan is designed to facilitate a direct analysis between the identification on main problems, analysis, management implications and their management alternatives/options. This is also an attempt to avoid unnecessary repetitions in its presentation. This is an effort to revise the Guidelines on the Development of National Parks Management Plan as of the Decree of the Director General of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation No. 49/KPTS/DJ-VI/1993 of year 1993 concerning the guidelines on National Park Management plan, in order to make it more flexible and give more room to site specific essences without omitting any essential details.

It was identified that a thorough environmental assessment on all the existing Park’ facilities and infrastructures have to be carried out before any further development or construction can be undertaken. Those include EIA and carrying capacity assessment (CCA) on the Park zones that will allow certain uses. The EIA and CCA will be conducted in the first two year of the plan. The first Five Year Management Plan will address the details of the activities and their time framing. Experiences in executing the existing various National Parks Management Plans show that major changes have to be made during its implementation due to various uncertainties in funding, regulations, social, political and economic circumstances. The plan, then, intentionally presents indicatives and management alternatives.

INDEX

adaptive management, 24 entrance fee, 12 alien species, 11 Epinephelus, 29, 67 anchor, 21, 60 Eretmochelys imbricata, 5 and alternative livelihood, 33, 63 exclusive fishing rights, 11, 55, 63 Anthropology, 17 External Boundary System, 11 aquaculture, 65, 66, 67 fertilizers, 18, 21 awareness, 12, 23, 30, 52, 54, 58, 63, 64, 69 fire, 21, 22, 30, 31, 36, 58, 72, 74 Bima, 13, 16, 17, 23, 24, 53, 58, 69, 75 General Objectives, 11 Board, 23 goats, 18, 21, 32, 51 bomb, 18 Golomori, 13 bubu, 20, 48, 56 Gondol, 67 Buffer, 12, 13, 41, 47, 48, 51, 56, 66 Gorontalo, 13 cats, 11, 18, 21, 32, 44, 50 Halas, 60 censuses, 24 hatchery, 66, 67 Cervus timorensis, 5 Health, 15 cetacean, 29, 30, 36 Herbicides, 19, 20 Cheilinus, 29, 47, 51 hook and line, 16, 47, 48, 56 Chelonia mydas, 5 hookah, 16, 18, 19, 20, 23, 33, 44, 47, 48, Collaborative, 23 51, 55, 56 co-management, 11, 12, 22, 23, 41, 51, 53, hookah compressor, 16, 47, 56 63, 71, 76, 77 intellectual property rights, 12 compressor fishing, 5, 11, 56 Kabupaten Bima, 13 concession, 60, 78 Kabupaten Manggarai, 13 Concession, 78 Kampung, 13, 69, 72 consortium, 53, 54, 76, 77 Kecamatan Komodo, 13, 15 CONSTITUENCY, 63 Kecamatan Sape, 13 coordination, 23, 24, 63, 75 Kerora, 5, 13, 15, 47, 48, 51, 57, 72 coral reef monitoring, 25, 27 Komodo Village, 13 coral reef rehabilitation, 11 Labridae, 27, 49 Core Zone, 41, 44, 45 Live Reef Fish Trade, 66 COREMAP, 70 LKMD, 16 co-responsibility, 76 LMD, 16 Council, 23 Loh Liang, 58, 60, 69, 72, 77 Cromileptes, 29, 67 Lutjanus argentimaculatus, 67 cyanide, 5, 16, 19, 20, 22, 30, 33, 44, 56, 66 Man and Biosphere Reserve, 5 deer, 5, 11, 18, 21, 22, 24, 32, 46 Management Plan, 79 demersal, 5, 11, 16, 18, 32, 33, 44, 56, 63 Manggarai, 13, 16, 17, 23, 24, 36, 52, 53, 75 Detailed Management Objectives, 11 mangrove jack, 67 dogs, 11, 18, 21, 32, 44 mariculture, 44, 51, 63, 66, 67, 68, 69 Dugong dugon, 5 Megapodius reinwardt, 5 dynamite, 5, 16, 20, 22, 27, 33, 56 migration routes, 12, 19 earthquakes, 22 mooring buoy, 58, 60, 70 eco-tourism, 36, 56, 57, 60, 63, 69, 76 mooring buoys, 45, 46, 50, 51, 57, 58, 60 Education, 12, 15, 17, 58 mortality EIA, 12, 44, 46, 57, 60, 66, 69, 78, 79 coral, 21, 22, 25, 27, 30 enforcement, 19, 22, 23, 27, 33, 51, 54, 55, nener, 15, 47 56, 58, 63, 70, 75, 76, 78 organizational structure, 71 80

Papagaran, 5, 13, 15, 20, 47, 48, 51 soils, 15, 17, 31, 36 pelagic, 5, 11, 15, 32, 44, 47, 48, 50, 56, 63, Space Utilization Plans, 16 65, 66, 69 Spatial planning, 69 Pelagic Use Zone, 12, 41, 45, 47, 48, 49, 50, spawning, 11, 12, 16, 21, 22, 23, 27, 29, 33, 56, 57 46, 47, 51 pesticides, 18, 20, 21, 44, 50 spawning aggregation sites, 11, 16, 21, 22, Pesticides, 19, 20 23, 27, 33 Plectropomus, 29, 47, 51 Special Research and Training Zone, 12, 41, pollution, 11, 30, 32, 66, 76 44, 45, 50, 77 professionalism, 24, 72 stakeholders, 12, 23, 41, 51, 60, 63, 67, 72, Rattus rintjanus, 5, 21 76, 77 reef gleaning, 11, 19, 56 surrounding towns, 23, 69, 75 reforestation, 11 Tourism Use Zone, 41, 44, 45, 46, 47, 77 Religion, 17 Traditional Settlement Zone, 41, 44, 47, 50, research, 11, 12, 33, 36, 44, 45, 46, 47, 50, 51 53, 54, 69, 71, 74, 76, 77 Traditional Use, 12, 22, 36, 41, 44, 45, 46, Restoration, 31 47, 53, 55, 56, 66 restructuring, 75, 78 Traditional Use Zones, 22, 45, 46, 55, 56, RESTRUCTURING, 74 66 Rinca, 5, 13, 15, 16, 20, 25, 32, 36, 40, 47, traps, 16, 19, 20, 48, 56 48, 51, 57, 72 trolling lines, 21, 33, 47, 48, 65 Sape, 13, 15, 23, 33, 36, 47, 48, 51, 58, 60, tsunamis, 22 69, 72 UNESCO, 5, 70, 78 Scomberomorus commerson, 65 Varanus komodoensis, 5, 57 sea cucumber, 15, 20, 50 Variola, 29 seagrass, 5, 21, 30, 66, 68 vegetation, 19, 22, 25, 31 seaweed, 68 Warloka, 13, 17, 47, 48, 51 self reliant, 11, 53 waste disposal systems, 11 Seraya, 13, 16, 51 Wilderness Zone, 36, 41, 44, 45 Serranidae, 27, 49 World Heritage Site, 5, 70, 77 sewage, 5, 18, 21, 58, 60