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Defence and Security Policy of the Turkish Republic

NATIONAL SECURITY AND DEFENCE POLICY case for . Turkey’s security concerns turned into “inter- Turkey’s national security policies are determined by the Na- nal threats” rather than the “external threats” (, 2004, p. tional Security Council which is composed of the President 108). In 1992, separatism and terrorism were Turkey’s main of the Republic, the Government and the commanders of the security worries while in the National Security Policy Document . This composition reveals the role of the of 1997, the internal threats were clearly identified as “re- in politics and policy-making in Turkey. However, the gressive and Kurdish separatism” (Bilgin, 2005). military is involved not only in policy-making related to security Another important element of Turkish security and defence and defence issues but also the country’s politics in . policy is related to the increasing numbers of asylum seekers This is due to the fact that military has always played a key role and refugees in the world. Turkey functions as a transit country in Turkish politics, from the very foundation of the Republic, be- for many refugees and asylum seekers. Thus, they constitute cause its founding cadre was the military elite (Bilgin, 2005). a security concern for Turkey as the country bordering the EU. Later in Turkish history, the military governed the country on To ensure the security of the country and of the asylum seek- two occasions following the 1960 and 1980 military coups. ers and refugees, Turkey cooperates with non-governmental This interventionist role of the military is closely related to its organisations and international agencies such as the UNHCR definition of national security and its national security policy. (Kirişçi 2001, 2002, cited in Bilgin 2005, p. 179). Bilgin defines the elements of national security in the Republi- In Turkey’s process of accession into the , can era as “fear of abandonment and fear of loss of territory” the role of the military in Turkish society and politics has been and “geographical determinism” (2005, p. 183). The Turkish criticised in the EU reports (Cizre, 2004). It was argued that Ministry of Foreign Affairs identifies security as a concept con- the military’s extensive role and intervention in Turkish politics nected with “ensuring the survival of the population; protecting are challenges to democratisation in the country. In re- territorial integrity and preserving the basic identity of a na- sponse to the EU reports, some progress has been achieved tion”. Furthermore, the Ministry points out Turkey’s geopoliti- by decreasing the military’s power to a certain extent. For cal location at the junction of the world’s complex and unstable example, the State Security Courts were abolished and the regions, namely the Middle East, the , the , emergency rule in the south-eastern region of Turkey was abol- the Mediterranean and the region. This geographi- ished. Moreover, defence expenditures in Turkey as a percent- cal position is the main determinant of the national security age of GDP decreased from 3.2 in the 1995-1999 period to and defence policy of the country. 1.8 in the year 2009 (NATO Press Release, 2010). However, Turkish security and defence policy has historically been one there are still measures that need to be taken according to of regional cooperation, contribution to peace and security in the EU analysis of the Turkish political and military system. its region, alliance with international and regional organisa- tions, and being an element of power and stabilisation in its TURKEY AND NATO region (Turkish General Staff). The regional cooperation initia- Turkey joined NATO in 1952, two years after Turkey sent sol- tives include the Balkan Entente of 1934 with , Yugo- diers to the to fight together with the US and slavia and , the Saadabad Pact with , and . Thenceforth, NATO has been the cornerstone in 1937, the Balkan Pact of 1954 with Greece of Turkish defence and security policy. Moreover, Turkey has a and Yugoslavia, and the Baghdad Pact with Britain, Iran, Iraq crucial place in NATO as the country with the second largest and in 1955. army in the organisation after the US and because Turkey has During the Cold War, NATO membership determined the a strategically vital location between the Balkans, the Middle security and defence policy of Turkey. In this period, Turkey East, Eurasia and the Caucasus. guarded the southern part of the Alliance against the Warsaw During the Cold War, Turkey, as a NATO ally, protected the Pact and took part in NATO missions and operations, which southern flank of the Alliance. After the Cold War, Turkey, like are outlined below. all the other countries, had to restructure its defence and The end of the Cold War was a turning point in terms of security policy. Yet, NATO continues to be an important actor security discourse in the world as a whole. This is also the under the new security conditions. 241 GRAPH 1: DEFENCE EXPENDITURE AS PERCENTAGE TABLE I. TURKEY'S PARTICIPATION OF GDP IN TURKEY (%) IN PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS 2010

3.5 Mission Organisation Total troops

ISAF (Afghanistan) NATO 1,799

KFOR () NATO 479 3.0 UNIFIL () UN 472

EUFOR-Althea (Bosnia-Herzegovina) EU 246

2.5 Eulex Kosovo EU 63 MINUSTAH (Haiti) UN 41

Country Profile: Turkey Profile: Country UNMIS (Sudan) UN 26 2.0 UNMIL (Liberia) UN 25

UNMIT (Timor-Leste) UN 23

1.5 MONUSCO (Dem. Rep. of the Congo) UN 16 Source: NATO Press Release June 2010 UNOCI (Côte d'Ivoire) UN 14 Produced by: CIDOB UNAMID (Sudan-Darfur) UN 11

1.0 OMIK (Kosovo) OSCE 7

EUPM-BiH (Bosnia-Herzegovina) EU 2

UNAMA (Afghanistan) UN 1 0.5 UNMIK (Kosovo) UN 1

TOTAL TROOPS 3,226 0.0 Sources: www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/www.nato.int/ www.consilium.europa. eu/showpage.aspx?id=268&lang=EN /www.operationspaix.net Produced by: CIDOB 1985- 1989 1990- 1994 1995- 1999 2000- 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Turkey has been taking active part in peacekeeping missions Turkey supports NATO not only in operations and missions of both the and NATO. According to data from but also in terms of policy, which is to say that Turkey sup- the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, more than ten thousand per- ports NATO’s partnerships with the UN and the EU, its en- sonnel, observers, and advisors have served in peace-keeping largement process and open-door policy, the NATO- operations in various regions of the world. Turkey took part in Council, and NATO- cooperation (Turkish Ministry of UN missions in Iran, Iraq and Kuwait as an observer. Addition- Foreign Affairs). ally, a Turkish force of 300 personnel participated in a UN mis- sion in Somalia. Moreover, Turkey has participated in NATO, TURKEY AND THE US UN and EU missions in the Balkans since 1995. Turkey was After the Second World War, with its rise as a global power active in IFOR, SFOR and KFOR operations in the Balkans. the US became Turkey’s number one military and strategic At present, Turkey is part of the KFOR operation, which is partner. After Turkey’s joining NATO in 1952, Turkish-Amer- a NATO intervention in the conflicts in Kosovo. 504 Turkish ican military relations have always been intertwined with personnel serve in this operation. Another operation in which NATO operations and missions. Turkey has taken part is ISAF (International Security Assistance The beginning of the partnership can be dated back to the Force) in Afghanistan which was initiated with a UN Security military and economic aid that Turkey received with Truman Council decision in 2001 and whose leadership which passed Doctrine in 1947, and NATO membership extended and to NATO in 2003. The objective of the operation is to ensure se- deepened the military bonds. Turkish military bases were curity and peace in the country by assisting the Afghan Govern- particularly used in monitoring and surveillance of the former ment. Turkey commanded the operation between June 2002 Soviet Union, while today they are used as an arsenal and and February 2003 before NATO assumed the ISAF leadership, departure point for responding to emergency situations and and again between February and August 2005. Furthermore, crises in the Middle East. Until 1960 U2 spy planes were tak- Turkey contributed to ISAF by heading many other important po- ing off from the Adana İncirlik Airbase, which is 56 km from sitions, by providing personnel and giving financial support. One the Mediterranean Sea. is still a very impor- last important mission Turkey undertakes within NATO is the tant support point for the operations in Northern Iraq and in Training Mission in Iraq, which aimed at assisting the security the Middle East region. Pirinçlik Airbase in Diyarbakır, which forces of Iraq through training. As of January 2011, around is located in the southeast of Turkey, was also NATO’s fron- 2,350 personnel are taking part in NATO-led operations and tier post for monitoring the Soviet Union until it was closed CIDOB International Yearbook 2011 Yearbook CIDOB International training missions (Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs). down in 1997.

242 Military relations were smooth and intensive except for the in the EU Security and Defence Policy, there is opposition from four-year American embargo in 1975, after the opium cri- within the EU, mainly from and Greece, against Turkey’s ses and Turkey’s intervention in Cyprus. After 9/11, a new cooperation with the European Defence Agency and Turkey’s “struggle against terrorism” dimension was added to Turkish- presence in EU Security and Defence Policy in general. In re- American military relations. Turkey had an important strategic sponse to this opposition, the NATO Summit in Lisbon in 2010 partnership role in the Bush Administration’s “Greater Middle openly declared that the participation of non-EU NATO member East Initiative” as both a Muslim country and democratic role countries such as Turkey in the EU Common Security and De- model for the other countries in the region. fence Policy is inevitable. In 2003, Turkish-American relations were shaken because of the Turkish refusal to permit American troops to cross into TURKEY AND REGIONAL SECURITY COOPE- northern Iraq through its territory. In 2006, a “Strategic Vision RATION INITIATIVES Document” was signed between the US and Turkey, underlining In addition to NATO, UN and EU operations and missions, the importance of the military partnership in the fight against Turkey also participates in regional cooperation mechanisms. terrorism, weapons of mass destruction and nuclear weapons, There are three important regional security initiatives of which problem-solving, peacekeeping and energy security (Turkish Turkey is a member: the South-Eastern Europe Defence Min- Ministry of Foreign Affairs). isterial Process (SDEM), the Multinational Peace Force South- East Europe (MPFSEE) and the Black Sea Naval Cooperation TURKEY AND THE EU COMMON SECURITY Task Force (BLACKSEAFOR). AND DEFENCE POLICY SDEM was founded in 1996. The members of the initiative A Common Foreign and Security Policy was set as an objective are Turkey, the USA, , Greece, , Romania, Slov- for the European Union in the Maastricht Treaty in 1993. A enia, , Macedonia, , Ukraine, Bosnia-Herzegovi- significant element of this policy was the European Security and na, Serbia and . Moldova and Georgia participate Defence Policy, which was revised in the Treaty of Amsterdam, as observers. The activities of the initiative include border se- in the Treaty of Nice and most recently in the Treaty of Lisbon curity, the fight against terrorism, cooperation in the defence (2009). With these actions, the EU displayed its aim to be not industry and the South-eastern Europe simulation net. Turkey Defence and Security Policy of the Turkish Republic Turkish the of and Security Policy Defence only an economic and political power but also a military power was the head of the SDEM Coordination Committee between (Çayhan, 2003). However, this aim is still compatible with NATO, 2003 and 2005. which has always been the main defence and security organisa- One of the most significant initiatives of the SDEM is the Mul- tion in Europe. The EU Security and Defence Policy refers to EU- tinational Peace Force South-East Europe (MPFSEE) which was led crisis management operations, both military and civilian. established in 1998. The aim of this initiative is to contribute Turkey is pivotal for EU Security and Defence Policy because to the security of the Europe-Atlantic area and to build peace- of its geostrategic location; it has the second largest army ful relations with the neighbours in south-eastern Europe. The within NATO, and the Turkish army has considerable experi- members are Turkey, Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, Italy, Macedo- ence in peacekeeping operations and missions in various parts nia, Romania and Ukraine. of the world. Similarly, taking part in EU Security and Defence The Black Sea Naval Cooperation Task Force (BLACKSEAFOR) Policy is important for Turkey, which has been an active mem- is a mechanism of cooperation established in 2001 by the ber of NATO and a country in the process of acceding to EU countries which share the Black Sea coast. It was brought into membership. being to maintain peace and order in the region and with a view Turkey’s relations with the EU in military, defence and security to regional cooperation activities. terms date back to 1992 when Turkey became an associate member of the Western European Union, which is the defence ORGANISATION OF NATIONAL DEFENCE IN component of the EU. The Western European Union could use TURKEY NATO assets and to this end, membership of non-EU NATO The President of the Republic of Turkey is the Supreme Com- members was seen as useful for obtaining approval for the use mander of the Turkish Army. The Council of Ministers is an- of NATO assets. Conditions of participation of the non-EU allies swerable to the Turkish Grand National Assembly on matters in the European Security and Defence Policy were defined in of National Security. However, authority rests with the National the Document which was endorsed by the EU in 2002 Assembly for the declarations of war, sending troops abroad, at the Brussels Summit. This paved the way for a NATO-EU or allowing foreign troops to be stationed in Turkey. The Min- strategic partnership, which was reconfirmed during the NATO istry of National Defence is authorised to implement security Summit in 2004. Crisis management, the fight against policies as decided by the Council of Ministers. The Chief of the terrorism and weapons of mass destruction, and cooperation General Staff is appointed by the President and is responsible in the Middle East, the Balkans and the Caucasus are some of to the Prime Minister. The Chief of the General Staff is respon- the areas where this partnership could work. Another outcome sible for the overall command of the Armed Forces, prepara- of the NATO Summit in Istanbul was the EU-led operation in tion of the Army for war, and conducting military operations. Bosnia-Herzegovina (EUFOR-ALTHEA), to which Turkish troops In addition, there is the National Security Council consisting of have been contributing. Moreover, Turkey has participated in the President, the Prime Minister, various Ministers and the EU operations and missions in Macedonia and the Congo (Turk- commanding officers. The council meets every two months in ish Ministry of Foreign Affairs). Despite Turkey’s participation order to discuss national security issues.

243 Moreover, it is the responsibility of the Minister of the Inte- 1 Army Aviation Brigade, 2 Brigades, 5 Training Bri- rior to secure public peace. The police in urban areas, the gen- gades and Humanitarian Aid Brigade. These units are organ- darmerie in rural areas, and the coastguard at sea are tasked ised as four Field Armies, a Logistics Command and a Training for policing and public security by the Minister of the Interior. and Doctrine Command.2

The National Security Council Gendarmerie The National Security Council was founded in 1983 in accord- The Gendarmerie General Command is responsible for the ance with Article 118 of the 1982 Constitution. It consists of maintenance of safety and public order. It is subordinated to the President of the Republic, the Prime Minister, the Chief the General Staff in matters related to training and education of the General Staff, Deputy Prime Ministers, the Minister of in connection with the Armed Forces, and to the Ministry of Justice, the Minister of National Defence, the Minister of the Interior in matters related to the performance of the safety and

Country Profile: Turkey Profile: Country Interior, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, the Commanders of public order duties. However, the General Commander of Gen- Land, Naval and Air Forces, and the General Commander of darmerie is responsible to the Ministry of Interior.3 The area of the Gendarmerie. The President is the head of the Council. duty and responsibility of the Gendarmerie covers mostly rural The National Security Council delivers advisory opinions to the zones outside the Police duty zone. These zones comprise 92% Council of Ministers on the designation, establishment and of the total area of Turkey. The Gendarmerie is responsible for implementation of the national security policy and providing maintaining safety and public order in these zones. the necessary coordination. According to Article 117 of the 1982 Constitution, the Council of Ministers is responsible be- Naval Forces fore the Turkish Grand National Assembly for ensuring security In 2008, the naval forces had 48,600 active personnel (FRD, and training and preparing the Turkish Armed Forces to the 2008). The Navy consists of 13 , 18 Frigates, 6 protect the country. Corvettes, 20 Mine Sweepers/Hunters and 24 Assault Boats. The National Security Council meets every two months. These come under the Fleet Command, the Northern Sea Area When necessary, it can meet on the proposal of the Prime Command, the Southern Sea Area Command and the Naval Minister or with a call from the President of the Republic. The Training and Education Command. Moreover, an Amphibious Ma- General Secretary of the Council can attend the meetings but rines Brigade, several commando detachments and two special cannot vote. operations forces, the Underwater Attack and Underwater De- fence, are maintained as Marines and Special Operations Units. The Turkish Armed Forces Turkey has the second largest army in NATO after the US. As one of the eight member countries in which the mandatory The Turkish Coast Guard Command is responsible for enforcing military service exists, the greater part of the army consists national and international laws and ensuring the safety of life of conscripts. Turkey’s military manpower was estimated at and property within its area of maritime jurisdiction.4 Like the 514,000 by 2008.1 All males between the ages of 19 and Gendarmerie, it is responsible to Ministry of the Interior during 41 are obliged to do 15 months of military service. University times of peace. graduates do their military service for 12 months as reserve officers or for 6 months as privates. Air Forces Turkey announced a motivated military modernisation pro- The Air Force consisted of 60,100 active personnel by 2008 gramme in 1996. It aimed at acquiring high-technology (FRD, 2008). In terms of its force structure, the Turkish Air equipment; upgrading older systems; producing home-grown Force consists of 17 Combat Squadrons, 1 Reconnaissance military equipment and becoming increasingly self-sufficient in Squadron, 1 Tanker Squadron, 5 Transportation Squadrons, terms of military technologies (Hen-Toy, 2004). 3 Search and Rescue Squadrons and 10 Training Squadrons. The Turkish army is comprised of Land Forces, Naval Forces These units are organised as two Air Force Commands: the and Air Forces. As part of the internal security forces the Air Training Command and the Air Logistics Command. By April General Command of Gendarmerie and the Coast Guard Com- 2011, the Turkish Air Forces had 1,049 aircrafts. This fleet mand are affiliated with the Ministry of Interior Affairs in times size ranks second in NATO after the US Air Force. The Turkish of peace; whereas in times of war, the Gendarmerie comes Air Force also has the highest number of F-16 jet fighters after under the Land Forces Command and the Coast Guard falls the USA. The fighter jets can participate in under the Naval Forces Command. international operations and exercises on all continents of the world and have long-range in-flight refuelling capability. Land Forces The land forces had 402,000 active personnel by 2008 (FRD, Ministry of the Interior and the Police 2008). It is the second largest army in NATO and the fifth larg- The Ministry of the Interior is responsible for internal security, est in the world. The structure of the land forces consists of 4 public peace and the organisation of civil protection. The Nation- Field Armies, 9 Army Corps, 1 Infantry Division, 2 Mechanised al Police, the General Directorate of Civil Defence, the General Infantry Divisions, 1 Armoured Division, 1 Training Division, 11 Command of the Gendarmerie and the Coast Guard are under Infantry/Motorised Infantry Brigades, 16 Mechanised Infan- the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Interior in times of peace. The CIDOB International Yearbook 2011 Yearbook CIDOB International try Brigades, 9 Armoured Brigades, 5 Commando Brigades, National Police force is organised as a Central Directorate and

244 81 Local Directorates, one in every province. The total number PKK cut down its attacks and tried to gain legitimisation in the of personnel of the Turkish National Police was 229,965 by international arena. Armed clashes started again in 2004 and 2010. Only two years previously it had been under 210,000 are still continuing. and it is expected to reach 250,000 in a few years.5 During this time the PKK changed its policy from the aim of establishing a separate Kurdish state to achieving confed- INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL SECURITY ISSUES eration within Turkish borders with recognition of the Kurdish Turkey’s main security concerns, which have remained unre- identity through social and civil reforms. The Republic of Tur- solved for decades, can be identified as the armed conflict with key has also changed its policy towards the Kurdish people. the PKK as an internal security issue, and disputes over Cyprus Turkey denied the existence of a Kurdish population in 1980s and the as external security issues. and 1990s. However, in 2000s various cultural rights were guaranteed. Armed Conflict with the PKK (Kurdistan Workers’ Party) Currently, the PKK has been in a state of inaction for one Although there were several Kurdish rebellions since the first year. Although Turkey has never directly and legally contacted years of the Republic (Ergil, 2000), the armed conflict with PKK, the National Intelligence Organisation of Turkey is known PKK (Kurdistan Workers’ Party) is the most recent and longest to be in contact with Öcalan and PKK commanders, and a lasting. In the heated political climate of the 1970s there were democratic solution is being sought for the Kurdish issue and several Kurdish political organisations, most of which were un- the disarmament of the PKK. armed. However, with the iron-fist policy following the 1980 coup d’état almost all were abolished. The The establishment of the PKK was declared in 1978 by Ab- Until 1960 Cyprus belonged to the and was dullah Öcalan and some members of his circle. In the period not an issue for Turkey, which was waiting the appearance of after the coup d’état, in particular, the group became stronger. the possibility that the UK would surrender the island. Towards Many members of former Kurdish groups who were subjected the end of the 1950s Greeks in the island declared their will to to harsh torture in the prisons during the years of the military unite with the Greek motherland, while Turkish people wanted regime joined PKK after they were released. the island to be divided into Greek and Turkish parts. After Defence and Security Policy of the Turkish Republic Turkish the of and Security Policy Defence The PKK made its first attacks on Turkey in 1984. After the conferences between the United Kingdom, Turkey, Greece and first attacks, the President Turgut Özal called them “a bunch the representatives of the Turkish and Greek communities in of marauders” (Akyol, 1998). However, in the following decade Cyprus, the Republic of Cyprus was declared in 1960. the conflict burgeoned into a civil war between the security Shortly after the new establishment of the new Republic, forces of Turkey and armed PKK militants. During this war Tur- there was an outbreak of violence between the two communi- key entered Iraqi territory on several occasions, the joint death ties in the island. In 1964, Turkey attempted to intervene in toll rose to over 40,000,6 most of the eastern and south-east- the island and was stopped by a harshly worded letter from the ern Anatolian cities were placed under state-of-emergency law, US President Lyndon B. Johnson. However, the intercommunal thousands of people were deported from their home towns, violence on the island continued and after a coup d’état in the and there were countless human rights violations. The conflict island supported by the Greek junta, Turkey launched a military went into a new phase after the capture of Abdullah Öcalan invasion of the island in 1974. Following this operation, The US in Kenya by the CIA. In the first five years of the 2000s, the declared an embargo on Turkey.

GRAPH 2: ORGANISATION OF THE TURKISH ARMED FORCES

Prime Minister

The Chief of Minister of the General National Staff Security

Land Naval Air Forces Forces Forces

Gendarmerie Coast Guard Forces

Source: Turkish General Staff. http://www.tsk.tr/1_TSK_HAKKINDA/1_5_Savunma_Organizasyonu/savunma_organizasyonu.htm Produced by: CIDOB

245 Although the Greek military junta collapsed shortly after the Airspace jurisdiction invasion, nothing was achieved in the negotiations between In 1952 the International Civil Aviation Organisation gave the Greece and Turkey from 1974 to 1980 and the possibility of war authority over the Aegean Sea to Greece up to Turkish National between two countries increased after more than 50 years of Airspace. However, during the Cyprus crisis in 1974 Turkey peace (Coufoudakis 1985). In 1980, the coup d’état ushered in issued a Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) stating that all aircraft ap- a military regime in Turkey. In 1983, unilaterally proaching Turkish airspace should report their route and flight declared independence. However, the Turkish Republic of North- plan to Turkey. Greece then declared Aegean airspace to be ern Cyprus was not recognised by the international community. unsafe (Pratt and Schofield 1996). In 1980, both Turkey and After 1983, several series of meetings were held between Greece withdrew their NOTAMs. Nevertheless, the flights of sides. Nevertheless, no progress could be achieved. Finally, Turkish military aircraft over the 10nm airspace and outside on 24 April 2004 a plan drafted by the UN Secretary General of 6nm are still a problem (anadolu.eu). Dog fights between

Country Profile: Turkey Profile: Country Kofi Annan with a view to resolving the conflict was put to the the jets continue and there have been several air crashes over vote by a referendum held in both parts of the island. The Turk- the years. ish community accepted the plan with 65% ‘Yes’ votes, while the Greek community rejected it with 75% ‘No’ votes. Militarisation of the islands On 1 May 2004 Cyprus joined the European Union without Many of the islands in the Aegean Sea are demilitarised in having resolved the dispute in the island. Negotiations between accordance to the Lausanne Treaty of 1923. However, during Greek and Turkish leaders in the island have been continuing the 1974 Cyprus crisis Greece remilitarised some of these but nothing has been achieved yet. Moreover, since 2006 islands referring to its right to self-defence under the terms of eight chapters of the negotiations between Turkey and the EU the UN Charter (Pratt and Schofield 1996). Subsequently, in for Turkey’s joining the EU have been frozen because Turkey 1975, Turkey established the Aegean Army against the pos- has not opened its ports to ships from Cyprus. sible attacks from the Greek islands. The Aegean Army is the only army of Turkey that is not assigned to NATO. Aegean Dispute with Greece Although the problems in the Aegean Sea between Turkey The Aegean Dispute between Turkey and Greece has four di- and Greece have not yet been resolved, in recent years, espe- mensions which are all interrelated (Pratt and Schofield 1996). cially with the acceleration of Turkey’s EU accession process These are the disputes over territorial waters, the continental relations between the two countries have strengthened and shelf, air space jurisdiction and militarisation of the islands. the problems have shelved with a view to their being resolved in the EU. Territorial waters Currently, territorial waters in the Aegean Sea extend six nautical miles (nm) for both Turkey and Greece. However, in accordance with the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, Greece claims its right to extend its territorial waters to 12 nm. Turkey is not a party to the convention and claims that the convention is not binding for itself and, furthermore, 12nm is the maximum to which territorial sea can be extended any- where, and that this is unsuitable in the Aegean Sea which is a semi-enclosed sea. On 9 June 1995, Turkey declared that unilateral action by Greece would constitute a casus belli.

The continental shelf When Greece discovered oil off the coast of Thasos Island in the Northern Aegean Sea in 1973, Turkey declared explora- tion rights in the eastern Aegean and published a map indi- cating the borders of Turkey’s continental shelf rights (Pratt and Schofield 1996). The continental shelf has been a major cause of dispute between Greece and Turkey ever since. Tur- key argues that the Aegean seabed is a prolongation of the Anatolian land mass (Moustakis 1999). On the other hand, Greece claims that the Greek islands should be taken into con- sideration and the Greek continental shelf should be extended to the median line between the Greek islands and Turkey in such a way that the Greek continental shelf would occupy most of the Aegean. In 1976, the dispute brought two countries to the brink of armed conflict and Greece appealed to the UN Security Council and International Court of Justice. However, CIDOB International Yearbook 2011 Yearbook CIDOB International the dispute could not be resolved.

246 Notes Pratt, M., and Clive Schofield. (1996) “The Imia/Kardak Rocks Dispute in the Aegean Sea”. IBRU Boundary and Secu- 1. http://www.globalfirepower.com/active-military-manpow- rity Bulletin, pp. 62-69. er.asp, retrieved on 6 May 2011

2. http://www.tsk.tr/, retrieved on 6 May 2011 Web sites and other sources

3. http://www.jandarma.tsk.tr/, retrieved on 7 May 2011 “Active Military Manpower”, http://www.globalfirepower. com/active-military-manpower.asp 4. http://www.sgk.tsk.tr/, retrieved on 7 May 2011 Anadolu. Anadolu. http://www.anadolu.eu/ege/egedosyasi. 5. http://www.egm.gov.tr/, retrieved on 7 May 2011 html (accessed 10 May 2011)

6. http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/9914612. “Financial and Economic Data Relating to NATO Defence”. asp?gid=0&srid=0&oid=0&l=1, retrieved on 9 May 2011 NATO Press Release, June 2010

Turkish General Staff www.tsk.tr

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