The Economics of Peace and Security Journal, ISSN 1749-852X Yildirim and Erdinç, Conscription in Turkey p. 16 © www.epsjournal.org.uk – Vol. 2, No. 1 (2007) was Janissaries’ resistance to reform Conscription in Turkey which prevented restoration of their In our samples, over fifty percent of fading military effectiveness. For Turkish conscripts expressed a desire Jülide Yildirim and Bülent Erdinç example, few of the men whose to remain in military service beyond names were on its muster rolls the conscription period. The primary urkey’s armed forces enjoy strong public support. The military’s lasting showed up on the battlefield. A reason given is that they “like” the presence in Turkish society and politics dates back to the country’s early great number of Janissary corps military. Thistory. “In the Ottoman-Turkish policy, the military had always occupied a were concentrating on commercial privileged place and played a crucial role in the political system. Not only was the activities and therefore were unable Ottoman state organized as a warrior state, but the military was also both an object and unwilling to provide adequate service during campaign. Similarly, Kapikulu and and (especially in the nineteenth century) a primary agent of the modernization 1 Timarli cavalry, sent to the provinces to suppress Anatolian rebellions, emerged – process.” Conscription was introduced in the late nineteenth century, during the with the support of local merchants and guild members – as provincial war lords by Ottoman Empire, and, despite its gradual disappearance elsewhere, continues to be acquiring control of state-owned lands and various tax-farms. Thus the various important to Turkey today. Following a brief historical account of Turkey’s armed branches of the Ottoman army lost their professionalism, discipline, and proper forces and its structure, we describe suvery-based demographics of Turkish conscripts military training.3 as well as their perceptions of military service. The great majority of the conscripts Meanwhile, European armies had gradually changed from a model in which in our sample are in their 20s, stem from middle-income families, and have earned a officers were drawn solely from the nobility to supervise and direct armies cobbled high school degree. When asked if they would like to pursue a military career, over together for the occasion from other (supposedly “lower”) classes of men to a model 50 percent of them expressed their wish to remain in the army beyond the conscription of the mass army from which officers could arise by merit and which used period. In addition to pecuniary and non-pecuniary benefits, the main reason for the conscription of a state’s male citizens, a model that became and remained the standard expected decision of continued service is an expressed “liking” of the military which for military mobilization until well after the end of the second world war.4 may support the view that Turkey’s armed force is a highly esteemed organization in Introduction of conscription in the Ottoman empire followed the European example, Turkish society. although it does not strictly coincide with it. The census of 1844 was specifically designed to ensure efficient conscription within the Ottoman empire. Based on it, Historical background conscription by lottery was instituted on Muslim male subjects as from 1846. Recruitment age varied between 15 and 30, and the minimum term of service was The roots of full-time professional Turkish armed forces can be traced back more than twelve years, after which soldiers could opt for civilian life. But to qualify for a five centuries. Traditionally, the Ottoman army consisted of a medieval cavalry unit, military pension, recruits would have to serve until overtaken by old age. Conscription the Timarli Sipahis, and permanent salaried troops, the Kapikulus. Feudal lords or of children, the physically weak, and those who lacked limbs or were suffering from tribal chiefs were exempt from taxes in exchange for training a certain number of disease was forbidden by law. The system was altered by new army regulations cavalrymen (the Timarli Sipahis), the number depending on the income the landlord proclaimed in 1869, dividing the army into three categories: the regulars, the reserve, received. Sipahis fought under their own commanders, took care of their own armor, and the guards. The new conscription law of 1870 reviewed and codified the whole and were stationed locally to maintain order and to collect taxes for the central system of conscription and served as the basic set of regulations until after the treasury. Raising Sipahis was one of the main recruitment instruments in the central constitutional revolution of 1908.5 The service period in areas with particularly provinces until the seventeenth century. In contrast, Kapikulus were stationed in the unhealthy climate, such as Iraq and Yemen, was reduced to two years in 1909. Then, capital and provincial garrisons and included infantry regiments (the famous Janissary in 1914, the service period was reduced to two years for all conscripts. army), cavalry, cannoneers, grenadiers, and other supporting groups. Kapikulu corps Many of the Ottoman officers came from the lower middle class. They regarded were not as numerous as the Timarli Sipahis, but they obtained the best military 6 2 conscripts as mere peasant soldiers. Even though there is no reliable data, it is training and equipment. The Janissary army was the core of the Ottoman military generally agreed that the literacy rate in the Ottoman empire was around five to seven organization. Its members were conscripted as youths from among the empire’s percent in the nineteenth century. Thus almost all of the peasant soldiers surely were non-Muslim subjects, converted to Islam, and given military training. illiterate. Conscripts with any sort of education were promoted to corporal or sergeant. By the early nineteenth century, this arrangement had lost its military value and Many Ottoman officers regarded military service as an educational opportunity and led to the abolition of the Janissary system in 1826. One of the main reasons for this The Economics of Peace and Security Journal, ISSN 1749-852X Yildirim and Erdinç, Conscription in Turkey p. 17 © www.epsjournal.org.uk – Vol. 2, No. 1 (2007) experience, bringing conscripts into contact with a world beyond their villages. military academies and from military students in civilian universities. Outstanding “While the number of peasant soldiers who actually became literate during their NCOs may also be drawn upon. The remainder are contract officers. NCOs come normal military service must have been minuscule, the lectures and readings given by from the NCO branch schools and serve as the intermediate command level between the officers went a long way in instilling a common culture and knowledge of ethics, officers and the enlisted. Specialists are re-enlisted conscripts who have previously morals, history, religion, and patriotism.”7 Military service contributed to awareness- shown outstanding qualifications and are employed at critical positions requiring building through which it was possible for conscripts to identify themselves with the continuity such as Squad Leader, Tank Driver, Tank Gunner, Repairer, and Artillery Turkish state. This tradition of educating conscripts continued in the Republican era Sergeant. Finally, civilians employed by Turkish Ministry of Defense are composed of the Turkish army as well. of state officials and workers who are employed according to educational proficiency. The structure of the Turkish army A profile of Turkish conscripts Turkey’s armed forces, with a combined troop strength of nearly 800,000 soldiers or To profile Turkish conscripts, we carried out two separate surveys among recruits at around 1.1 percent of the population (according to 2005 Ministry of Defense figures), the Ankara Armored Divisions School, to our knowledge the first time that the taking form the second largest standing force in NATO after the United States. Each year 0.1 of such surveys has been permitted by the armed forces. At the time of the surveys, percent of the population reaches military age. In addition to a strong national defense all subjects were undergoing the initial three months military training period before system, the armed forces contributed in recent years to U.N. peacekeeping operations being posted to their bases. The first survey was carried out on 4 August 2003 with in Kosovo, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Afghanistan. Additionally, the armed forces 682 participants, the second on 27 December 2003 with 595 participants, for a total perform disaster relief operations, for example in the 1999 Marmara earthquake in of 1,277.10 Table 1 presents some of the basic descriptive findings. For example, most Turkey. They also conduct peace-support operations anywhere in the world with a conscripts are in their 20s and have earned a high school degree. Those who hold a four battalion task force. Conscript soldiers make up nearly 70 percent of Turkey’s university degree or higher constitute only 10.7 percent of the sample. The majority forces, and the remaining 30 percent is constituted by career officers and officials. of the conscripts stem from the Marmara region. Even though the remaining regions’ Traditionally, the Turkish military service system has been a mix of a large core share in conscripts are close to each other, southeast Anatolia constitutes only 5.1 of professionals and a main body of conscripts.8 Every male citizen between twenty percent of the conscripts, quite low considering the region’s population share in to forty-one years of age is required to complete compulsory military service, a Turkey’s overall population. One reason for this could be the high number of draft requirement stipulated in the constitution of the Turkish Republic. Even though evasion for that region or migration to wealthy cities.11 women are not required to serve, they are allowed to become officers.