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The Economics of Peace and Security Journal, ISSN 1749-852X Yildirim and Erdinç, in p. 16 © www.epsjournal.org.uk – Vol. 2, No. 1 (2007)

was ’ resistance to reform Conscription in Turkey which prevented restoration of their In our samples, over fifty percent of fading effectiveness. For Turkish conscripts expressed a desire Jülide Yildirim and Bülent Erdinç example, few of the men whose to remain in beyond names were on its muster rolls the conscription period. The primary urkey’s armed forces enjoy strong public support. The military’s lasting showed up on the battlefield. A reason given is that they “like” the presence in Turkish society and politics dates back to the country’s early great number of corps military. Thistory. “In the Ottoman-Turkish policy, the military had always occupied a were concentrating on commercial privileged place and played a crucial role in the political system. Not only was the activities and therefore were unable Ottoman state organized as a state, but the military was also both an object and unwilling to provide adequate service during campaign. Similarly, Kapikulu and and (especially in the nineteenth century) a primary agent of the modernization 1 Timarli , sent to the provinces to suppress Anatolian rebellions, emerged – process.” Conscription was introduced in the late nineteenth century, during the with the support of local merchants and guild members – as provincial lords by , and, despite its gradual disappearance elsewhere, continues to be acquiring control of state-owned lands and various tax-farms. Thus the various important to Turkey today. Following a brief historical account of Turkey’s armed branches of the Ottoman lost their professionalism, discipline, and proper forces and its structure, we describe suvery-based demographics of Turkish conscripts military training.3 as well as their perceptions of military service. The great majority of the conscripts Meanwhile, European had gradually changed from a model in which in our sample are in their 20s, stem from middle-income families, and have earned a officers were drawn solely from the to supervise and direct armies cobbled high school degree. When asked if they would like to pursue a military , over together for the occasion from other (supposedly “lower”) classes of men to a model 50 percent of them expressed their wish to remain in the army beyond the conscription of the mass army from which officers could arise by merit and which used period. In addition to pecuniary and non-pecuniary benefits, the main reason for the conscription of a state’s male citizens, a model that became and remained the standard expected decision of continued service is an expressed “liking” of the military which for military until well after the end of the second .4 may support the view that Turkey’s armed force is a highly esteemed organization in Introduction of conscription in the Ottoman empire followed the European example, Turkish society. although it does not strictly coincide with it. The census of 1844 was specifically designed to ensure efficient conscription within the Ottoman empire. Based on it, Historical background conscription by lottery was instituted on Muslim male subjects as from 1846. age varied between 15 and 30, and the minimum term of service was The of full-time professional can be traced back more than twelve years, after which soldiers could opt for civilian life. But to qualify for a five centuries. Traditionally, the Ottoman army consisted of a medieval cavalry unit, military pension, recruits would have to serve until overtaken by old age. Conscription the Timarli Sipahis, and permanent salaried troops, the Kapikulus. Feudal lords or of children, the physically weak, and those who lacked limbs or were suffering from tribal chiefs were exempt from taxes in exchange for training a certain number of disease was forbidden by law. The system was altered by new army regulations cavalrymen (the Timarli Sipahis), the number depending on the income the landlord proclaimed in 1869, dividing the army into three categories: the regulars, the reserve, received. Sipahis fought under their own commanders, took care of their own armor, and the guards. The new conscription law of 1870 reviewed and codified the whole and were stationed locally to maintain order and to collect taxes for the central system of conscription and served as the basic set of regulations until after the treasury. Raising Sipahis was one of the main recruitment instruments in the central constitutional revolution of 1908.5 The service period in areas with particularly provinces until the seventeenth century. In contrast, Kapikulus were stationed in the unhealthy climate, such as and Yemen, was reduced to two years in 1909. Then, capital and provincial garrisons and included (the famous Janissary in 1914, the service period was reduced to two years for all conscripts. army), cavalry, cannoneers, , and other supporting groups. Kapikulu corps Many of the Ottoman officers came from the lower middle class. They regarded were not as numerous as the Timarli Sipahis, but they obtained the best military 6 2 conscripts as mere soldiers. Even though there is no reliable data, it is training and equipment. The Janissary army was the core of the Ottoman military generally agreed that the literacy rate in the Ottoman empire was around five to seven organization. Its members were conscripted as from among the empire’s percent in the nineteenth century. Thus almost all of the peasant soldiers surely were non-Muslim subjects, converted to , and given military training. illiterate. Conscripts with any sort of education were promoted to corporal or sergeant. By the early nineteenth century, this arrangement had lost its military value and Many Ottoman officers regarded military service as an educational opportunity and led to the abolition of the Janissary system in 1826. One of the main reasons for this The Economics of Peace and Security Journal, ISSN 1749-852X Yildirim and Erdinç, Conscription in Turkey p. 17 © www.epsjournal.org.uk – Vol. 2, No. 1 (2007) experience, bringing conscripts into contact with a world beyond their villages. military academies and from military students in civilian universities. Outstanding “While the number of peasant soldiers who actually became literate during their NCOs may also be drawn upon. The remainder are contract officers. NCOs come normal military service must have been minuscule, the lectures and readings given by from the NCO branch schools and serve as the intermediate command level between the officers went a long way in instilling a common culture and knowledge of ethics, officers and the enlisted. Specialists are re-enlisted conscripts who have previously morals, history, religion, and .”7 Military service contributed to awareness- shown outstanding qualifications and are employed at critical positions requiring building through which it was possible for conscripts to identify themselves with the continuity such as Squad Leader, Driver, Tank Gunner, Repairer, and Turkish state. This tradition of educating conscripts continued in the Republican era Sergeant. Finally, civilians employed by Turkish Ministry of Defense are composed of the Turkish army as well. of state officials and workers who are employed according to educational proficiency.

The structure of the Turkish army A profile of Turkish conscripts

Turkey’s armed forces, with a combined troop strength of nearly 800,000 soldiers or To profile Turkish conscripts, we carried out two separate surveys among recruits at around 1.1 percent of the population (according to 2005 Ministry of Defense figures), the Armored Divisions School, to our knowledge the first time that the taking form the second largest standing force in NATO after the . Each year 0.1 of such surveys has been permitted by the armed forces. At the time of the surveys, percent of the population reaches military age. In addition to a strong national defense all subjects were undergoing the initial three months military training period before system, the armed forces contributed in recent years to U.N. operations being posted to their bases. The first survey was carried out on 4 August 2003 with in , Bosnia-Herzegovina, and . Additionally, the armed forces 682 participants, the second on 27 December 2003 with 595 participants, for a total perform disaster relief operations, for example in the 1999 Marmara earthquake in of 1,277.10 Table 1 presents some of the basic descriptive findings. For example, most Turkey. They also conduct peace-support operations anywhere in the world with a conscripts are in their 20s and have earned a high school degree. Those who hold a four battalion task force. Conscript soldiers make up nearly 70 percent of Turkey’s university degree or higher constitute only 10.7 percent of the sample. The majority forces, and the remaining 30 percent is constituted by career officers and officials. of the conscripts stem from the . Even though the remaining regions’ Traditionally, the Turkish military service system has been a mix of a large core share in conscripts are close to each other, southeast constitutes only 5.1 of professionals and a main body of conscripts.8 Every male citizen between twenty percent of the conscripts, quite low considering the region’s population share in to forty-one years of age is required to complete compulsory military service, a Turkey’s overall population. One reason for this could be the high number of draft requirement stipulated in the of the Turkish Republic. Even though evasion for that region or migration to wealthy cities.11 women are not required to serve, they are allowed to become officers. The onset, A great majority of conscripts are from the middle class. Monthly total incomes duration, and the service category are determined by the education level of the range from $200 to $700. More than half of the conscripts are eligible for some sort recruits. Those who pursue higher education may postpone service until they have of social security.12 However, many already have experienced extended bouts of completed the program of study or reach a certain age (29 for a university degree; 33 in their (young) lives, and 13.1 percent have been unemployed for for a master’s level degree; 37 for a doctorate). The duration of the basic military more than three years. Around 70 percent report that they possess specific skills, and service, as of July 2003, is twelve months for high school graduates serving as about 45 percent plan to acquire . Almost one third have dependants privates (previously sixteen months); university graduates fulfill their military to provide for. obligation as reserve officers with a fifteen-months period (previously eighteen One of the questions in the survey asked whether the recruits would like to join months) of active service. University graduates not enlisted as reserve officers are the army as Specialist for at least 36 months. In Turkey’s recruitment system, only expected to serve six months (previously eight months) as short-term privates.9 After conscripts can enlist for further service after completion of the initial service period an initial thee months of basic training, conscripts are posted to assigned bases. Those (“re-enlistment”). It is not possible for civilians to join the armed forces unless they physically unfit to serve are exempt from military service. are graduates of military academies or schools where commissioned officers and The army, navy, air force, and gendarmerie form the four branches of the armed NCOs are educated and trained. In our surveys, more than half of the conscripts forces. The two main personnel categories are professionals (commissioned officers, expressed a wish to reenlist for continued service. When asked about the reasons, non-commissioned officers, specialists, and civilian officials and workers) and nearly 38 percent indicated that they like the military and enjoy military life.13 Around conscripts (non-professional reserve officers, short-term conscripts, and long-term 33 percent saw military service as providing a secure with stable pay. 18.2 conscripts). Officers make up the core command structure and come mainly from percent gave non-pecuniary benefits as a reason to join the military. Only 2.1 percent The Economics of Peace and Security Journal, ISSN 1749-852X Yildirim and Erdinç, Conscription in Turkey p. 18 © www.epsjournal.org.uk – Vol. 2, No. 1 (2007)

Table 1: Descriptive statistics for Turkish conscripts events in a young ’s life, even to such extent that in rural areas young men are frequently not allowed to marry unless and until they have completed military service. Variable Percentage Variable Percentage Moreover, anytime a man or a group of youngsters are conscripted, they are sent from their hometowns with celebrations and festivities. Indeed, the imprint of the military Age Duration of unemployment is lifelong: in rural areas people are given nicknames derived from their rank in the - Less than 20 7.8 - Less than 6 months 41.8 military such as Sergeant Ahmet or Corporal Berke.14 - Between 20-25 83.6 - Less than a year 22.4 - Between 25-30 8.4 - Less than 3 years 22.7 Conclusion - More than 3 years 13.1 Region The traditionally westward-looking Turkish armed forces have generally maintained - 14.2 Desiring further education an image of being one of the state’s most reliable institutions. Indeed, even in spite - Aegean 12.6 - Yes 44.8 of repeated interventions in civilian politics, the armed forces have maintained an - Marmara 33.4 - No 55.2 unusually positive and strong relationship with Turkish society. High support for the - East Anatolia 8.5 armed forces may explain the general perception of conscription as a duty rather than - Southeast Anatolia 5.1 Dependents as an obligation. - Mediterranean 12.8 - Yes 34.6 Following a brief account of the history and structure of Turkey’s armed forces, - Central Anatolia 13.4 - No 65.4 we reported on an effort to profile current conscripts using survey data. The samples suggest that over 50 percent of the conscripts believe that they would like to enlist Education Skill beyond the conscription period, and 38 percent of those simply because they “like” - High school degree 89.3 - Yes 70.1 the military, the highest percentage for any of the given reasons. It is, however, not -University degree 10.7 - No 29.9 known how many of the conscripts who say that they wish to reenlist will in fact reenlist once their term of conscription is fulfilled. Monthly income Expected re-enlistment - Less than US$200 15.4 - Yes 53.1 Notes - Between US$200-400 42.6 - No 46.8 - Between US$400-700 31.3 Jülide Yildirim is a professor at , Department of Econometrics, - More than US$700 10.4 Reason for expected re-enlistment Ankara, Turkey. Bülent Erdinç is with the in Bayburt, Turkey. - Secure job 33.3 Professor Yildirim may be reached at [email protected]. Social Security - Like military 38.2 - Yes 39.0 - 8.2 1. Varo—lu and Biçaksiz (2005, p. 583). - No 61.0 - Non-pecuniary benefits 18.2 - Possibility to see places 2.1 2. For a brief account of the Ottoman military system, see ÔimÕek (2005). Ever unemployed - Yes 45.3 3. ÔimÕek (2005, p. 14). - No 54.7 4. Olivetta (2005). indicated that possibility of seeing new places as a appealing reason to join the military. The relatively high percentage of conscripts who “like” the military and thus 5. Zürcher (1999). would like to reenlist surprised us. This finding may reflect the generally positive perceptions of the military in Turkish society. Rather than regarding conscription as 6. Yanikdag (2004). somehow “odious” compulsory service, the majority of the Turkish public refers to military service as a duty for the motherland. Military service is one of the main 7. Yanikdag (2002, p. 100). The Economics of Peace and Security Journal, ISSN 1749-852X Yildirim and Erdinç, Conscription in Turkey p. 19 © www.epsjournal.org.uk – Vol. 2, No. 1 (2007)

8. For a brief account of the Turkish military service and a debate on the military in Uniform.” Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 40, No.6, pp. 92-108. service system, see Varo—lu and Biçaksiz (2003). Zürcher, E.J. 1999. “The Ottoman Conscription System in Theory and Practice, 1844-1918.” In Erik J. Zürcher, ed. Arming the State: Military Conscription in the 9. University graduates who like to serve a longer term as officers are paid and and Central Asia, 1775-1925. : I.B. Tauris. are entitled to privileges such as social security benefits. Others do not so benefit, and hence serve shorter terms.

10. To ensure that these are representative samples, were compared the survey data to the 2002 population data, where male population between 20-29 years of age is grouped according to region and education level. The comparison indicates that our samples match male population characteristics in Turkey and thus may be taken as representative samples.

11. The exact number of draft evaders is known to the Turkish National Conscription Board but has never been disclosed publicly. The main reason for is economic in nature.

12. All employees must belong to a social security plan that includes insurance for work-related accidents and illness, sickness, pregnancy, old age, and death. Contributions as a percentage of gross salary are payable by individual employees and employers.

13. Ninety percent of those wishing to reenlist are high-school graduats. Among university graduates the rate is only ten percent. This may reflect the fact that the latter have better post-military service opportunities.

14. For a brief survey of the social embeddedness of military service in Turkish culture, see Varo—lu and Biçaksiz (2005).

References

Olivetta, E. 2005. “The Military Representation in the in the Turn from Conscription to Professional Format.” Conflict Management, Peace Economics and Development, Vol. 2, pp. 519-525. ÔimÕek, V. 2005. “Ottoman and the Recruit: 1826-1853.” MA thesis. Ankara: . Varo—lu, K. and Biçaksiz, A. 2003. “Semi Voluntary Soldiers as a Prospect: Does Heightened Casualty Risk Pose a Recruitment Problem for the Turkish Armed Forces?” Mimeo. Ankara: Turkish . Varo—lu, K. and Biçaksiz, A. 2005. “ for Risk: The Culture of the Turkish Armed Forces.” Armed Forces and Society, Vol. 31, No. 4, pp. 583-598. Yanikdag, Y. 2004. “Educating the : The Ottoman Army and Enlisted Men