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The Routledge Handbook of and

Colleen Cotter, Daniel Perrin

Discourse approaches

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315673134.ch3 Colleen Cotter, Diana ben-Aaron Published online on: 14 Aug 2017

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The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The publisher shall not be liable for an loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:28 04 Oct 2021; For: 9781315673134, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315673134.ch3 tics, ). examines the linguistic units of sound,form,and in termsofsound(phonetics, phonology), form(,morphology),andmeaning (seman acquisition dynamics of humanlanguage on multiple levels. These levels can besummarized traditionally has encompassed the study ofthe rules, patterns, origins, and 3.1 44 generic meaning can suffice in the short term as workingdefinitions: “style” refers onmany become relevant to our discussionofthe frameworks in subsequent sections, although their for reference to linguistic “style” seeSection 3.3.) Thuswewill define specific terms as they example; subsection 3.4.2 belowforaframework-specific understanding of “function”; and this volume,Chapter4forthe theoretical distinction between “discourse/Discourse,” asone because the terms themselves are theoretically determined. (See Krzyżanowski and Machin, definitions of keyterms such as“style,” “function,” or “discourse”varying as well – usually Sociolinguistic and discourseanalytic approaches to the study of media are quite varied, with 3.2 (3.5), andconcludeswithreflectiononfuturedirectionsfor productivepursuit(3.6). as well as topics that have more recently come to bear with the evolution of digital media relation to foundational linguistic approaches to language in society (Sections 3.3and 3.4), as constructinga“medialinguistics”(seePerrin,thisvolume, Chapter1). tion, and interaction in society. In their application to media, these approaches can be seen insights, thesearetheprimary linguistic frameworks that deal with language, communica Together, buttressed byethnographic, functional, critical, cognitive, and multidisciplinary we assignjudgmentsandvaluesthat language as itisusedbyhuman beings then encodes. language is usedincontext, how weget things donewithit, how westructure it, and how domains. Discourseanalysis,lookingatlongerstretchesoftalkandtext,alsoexamines how study of language in society, in interaction, in social settings, and in use – in multiple social to understandtheirprovenanceandorganization in socialcontexts, thusencompassingthe This chapterdescribesthedevelopment of researchintomedialanguageanddiscoursein Introduction: text,context,andmedialinguistics Definitions: keytermsacrossframeworks Discourse approaches multidisciplinary advantage Colleen CotterandDianaben-Aaron Language inuseandthe 3 - -

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:28 04 Oct 2021; For: 9781315673134, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315673134.ch3 ume, Chapter2andAndroutsopoulos,thisvolume,25forresearchoncommunity responses toit (e.g., language prescription and standardization; see Stuart-Smith, this vol language alongsidesociallymotivated processes thatimpactlanguageformandsocial “discourse analytic,”and“ethnographic”deserveparticularmention. shape different questions about the material. Among these approaches, the “sociolinguistic,” plines orapproaches,eachwithitsowntheoretical assumptions andmethodologies that for thisrelation canarisefromanyof a numberoflinguistic and socialscientific disci social world orbearer of ideology, asthis and subsequentsectionswill describe. The models linguistic function. Thesecanberelated to theimpact of media as arepresentation of the or structure discourse of perspective the from data news or media consider linguists Most 3.3 and writtendiscourse,areusedinashorthandwaytorefertypesofprimarydata. written language andhow what people communicate. “Talk” and “text” refer to spoken of language and how weget things done using it; “discourse” refers to stretches of spokenor linguistic levels to different ways people talk or write; “function” refers to the actual utility studiesperspective.) and Cotter(2015)foranoverview ofmediadiscourseframeworksinasociolinguistics and look at news production and linguistic approaches to media data and genres; detailed a of languagechangeinandthrough themedia;ben-Aaron,thisvolume,Chapter16 for this volume,Chapter2,and Androutsopoulos,thisvolume,Chapter25foradiscussion analytic traditionsandhowthey havebeenappliedinmediacontexts.(SeeStuart-Smith, multidisciplinary approach,itisimportanttounderstand howtheyderivefromdifferent long blendedtheseframeworksinthestudyofmedialanguage, providingaproductive Peterson 2003). (see Cotter 2015; vanHout2009;Vandendaele et al. 2015;Perrin2013;ben-Aaron2005a; the underlying routines and valuesystemstoenhance the validity of analytical claims the practitioner’s point ofview,whichcanvaryfromthe linguist’s, to better understand those oflinguists (Cotter 2010, 2014).Ethnographic approaches querylanguage use from perspective that brings into focus the values of newspractitioners and how they differ from well as interaction with participants who producemedia language. This involves an “emic” and directobservation (for example, in anewsroomoveranextended period of time) as a term pertains to fieldwork-based methodologies and assumptions that prioritize context journalists consider in their practice (Cotter 2010; ben-Aaron 2005a).“Ethnographic” as tive and conveyitsmeaning is partofthediscourseanalytic remit, asisunderstanding what story orbroadcastinterview and itscomponent parts combine to structurethenewsnarra display, visualcommunication, and soforth(asdiscussedinCotter 2015). Howthenews include reported , , register, positioning and framing, stance, graphic of participant, topic, and discoursestructure; as well as media discoursephenomena that or sentencelevel,takingintoaccountthefactors to stretchesoflanguagebeyondtheword news vs.the light-hearted tone of entertainment). “Discourse analytic” approaches relate such asgenre(e.g.,newsstoryvs.interview) and register(e.g.,theserioustoneof“hard” methods). Sociolinguistic insights arealsousedtoinformworkondiscourse-level aspects norms, media effects, and language change using variationist and critical sociolinguistic While linguists trained in sociolinguistic methodologies or have “Sociolinguistic” refers toworkthat involves closeanalysisofvariation and stylein Disciplinary perspectives:contrastingfocus Discourse approaches 45 - - -

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:28 04 Oct 2021; For: 9781315673134, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315673134.ch3 multiple interactions between practitioners, participants, and audience that comprisetheir inference, relevance, politeness, structure, and deixisinnewstexts and in the broadcast contexts. At the discourse level, pragmatics has evolved to look at aspects of in printmedia texts, andhowinstitution and participant structure constraininteractions in to lookathowlanguagecan“work”oroperateintermsofsocialandpolitical meaning Verschueren 1998) and conversation analysis (Clayman 1991; Clayman and Heritage 2002) and addressees. how newstextsareintrinsicallyconnectedtocomplexbutstructuredlinkagesofaddressors [1967]) andproductivelyincorporatingGoffman’sparticipantframework(1981)toshow duced, chartingtheirdigressionfromLabov’snarrativeschema(LabovandWaletzky1997 was onthediscourseside, detailing thenarrativereframingofnews stories asthey arepro which he wasfamiliarwithasaformermedia practitioner. Another primarycontribution strategies areasignificantindicatorofthedynamicmedia–audiencerelationship, party, referencegroupormodel”outsideofit(Bell1991a:127),demonstratingthatstyle media waseitherresponsivetoanaudience’slinguisticnormsorreferredinsteada“third “audience design”framework(1984,1991a,1991b)showedhowlanguagestyleinthe indexing overtprestigewhilelocalradioindexescovertprestige,inBell1983).Bell’s ing with the socioeconomic status of newspapers inthe UK, in Bell1991a;nationalradio was madeclearinthemediacontextshestudied(e.g.,determinerdeletionprintcorrelat and registervariationinradioprint.Thatlinguisticindexessocial analysis andsociolinguisticvariablespertainingtosocioeconomicclassexaminestyle sociolinguistics andnarrativeanalysis.Hefocusedonphonologicalsyntacticunitsof Colleen CotterandDianaben-Aaron 46 sociocultural frameworks. newsroom observation,and workvariouslywithethnolinguistic,anthropological, and which relyonethnographicmethods, interactionalsociolinguistics(Gumperz1982), and media languagealsotend to cohere, as dopractice-focusedandinteractionalapproaches, often worktogether.Thenarrative, pragmatic,andstylisticapproachestotheanalysis of linguistics, socialsemiotics, andsystemic-functionalmultimodaldiscourseanalysis as muchtheyoperateindependently.Forexample,critical discourseanalysis,corpus discourse-based disciplinaryperspectivestendtocluster bymethodandtheoreticalfocus media anthropologyandstudies. , corpus linguistics, and corpus-assisted discourseanalytic approaches, aswell Chapter 18; and Jaworska,this volume, Chapter 6) andisaligned with multimodality, social course analysis (see Krzyżanowski and Machin, this volume, Chapter 4; Lyons, this volume, readers andmobilizing them for social responsibility, is still alive andwellincritical dis 1994). Thecritical examination of media, which alsoaimed at raisingtheconsciousness of associated with theUKandAustralian research schools(see GraddolandBoyd-Barrett multidisciplinary range ofresearchcharacterized by thefunctionalist-oriented frameworks Bell’s workandthedevelopment of systemic-functional linguistics, thisledtoahighly what werecharacterized as ideological biases embedded in newstexts.Simultaneously with already looked critically at content,lexical choice, and positioning ofinformation to uncover frameworks have also evolved to take these into account (see Cotter 2015 foranoverview). ditional forms, asdiscussedbelow.Otherdiscourseanalytic and ethnographically informed production – nowincluding and itscommunicative permutations as well as tra Concurrently, otherlinguistsusedpragmatics (Verschueren 1985;Blommaert and To startwith,AllanBell’s(1991a)seminalworkonmedialanguagewasrootedinboth The multidisciplinaryfocusthatisahallmarkofmedia language researchmeansthat Work on media discourse by the Glasgow Media Group beginning in 1976 had - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:28 04 Oct 2021; For: 9781315673134, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315673134.ch3 The most important are the by whichwejudgethe sincerity andstraightforwardnessofconversational contributions. 1962), suchasquestions,requests,andapologies; and maxims or principles of news actors.Topicsgenerally agreed tobelongpragmatics begin withs functions ofnewslanguage, as welltheconstruction of credibility by newsauthorsand Austin (1962)putit.Thisapproach is significant for the study ofthesocial and persuasive particularly the accomplishment ofinterpersonal work: “howtodothingswithwords,” as Pragmatics 3.4.1 Pragmatics (media) linguisticanthropology. conversation analysis, interactional sociolinguistics, ethnography of communication, and linguistics (3.4.2),anddiscourseanalysis(3.4.3),thelastofwhichincludesmethodsfrom language that incorporatesparadigmsfrompragmatics (Section 3.4.1),systemic-functional current work,asnotedabove.Thissectionspotlightsresearchintotheanalysisofmedia Existing frameworks fortheanalysisoflanguage in usehaveprovided the foundation for 3.4 the approachby itsfounderappearsinHalliday (1970), ahighlyelaborated version inhis speaker choices and the social meanings made from them. A condensed description of functional linguistic Research on newsoften makes explicit or tacit reference to the framework of 3.4.2 ently whentryingtobe“fair”coveringdivisiveorhot-button topics. maxims areobviouslyflouted.Journalistsmaycreate implicatures deliberately or inadvert in awaythatisnotobviously(ornot)straightforward, forexamplewhenGrice’s presentation offacts.Anotheris may beencodedininsiderlexisor wordchoiceaswellselective it knows,whichinnews information in termsofjournalistic practice is open-ended andmultiplyinterpretable One importantkindofimplicit as wefindwithnews. unraveling the ways in which even apparently straightforward recitations of facts remain pragmatics using theconceptsof Östman (1989), using Verschueren (1999),usingkeyconceptsof approach tolanguage.Attemptsstructureandapplyabroad-basedpragmatics include Verschueren (1999). also treated within pragmatics; Thomas (1995)providessomemassmedia examples, as does 1997), andthe ordering considerationsknownas references known as and mitigation of face-threatening requests (Brown and Levinson 1987), the in-situation and thesubsequentconduct of theconversation. lates thesemaxims,andthemostcommonevidenceofviolationarereactionsothers or textthat is seentobetoo wordy, too terse, untrue, irrelevant, orpoorlystructured vio Leech 1993), applied to news reporting and by, for example, Cotter (2010). Talk Since all language is usedpurposefully, pragmatics can also be considered as a general Current contributions: languageinuse Systemic-functional linguistics was the earliest approach to broadlyencompass the study oflanguage in useand s (SFL),whichseekstobuild atheoryoflanguage with reference to deixis coherence, politeness, that position aspeakerinrelation to time and space(Fillmore maxims of quantity, quality, relevance and manner implicatures implicitness variability, negotiability, , orinferencesmadewheninformationisgiven presuppositions and and Politeness involvement. information structure deniability phenomena such asdeference abouttheaudience and what , whichcanproveusefulin Östman further specifies and Discourse approaches peech acts (Chafe1994)are adaptability; (Grice 1975; cooperation systemic- (Austin and 47 - -

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:28 04 Oct 2021; For: 9781315673134, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315673134.ch3 participants, thekillerandvictim,while the generalquestionofparticipantsandrolesinclause.Forexample, [by thepoliticians]”).SFLusestermsomewhatdifferently,expandingitsattentionto active voice(“thepoliticiansproposedthe ”) orpassivevoice (“the law was proposed out referencetoSFL.Transitivityinitsordinarysenseconcernswhethertheverbis metaphor it takesamoreholisticapproach. for phenomenatraditionally categorized assyntax,morphology, semantics,andphonology, and the ethnography of communication model). Further, while SFL accounts social analysis oflanguage (see GumperzandHymes1972forasimilar counter-claim from but at the time it was radical, for the ascent of Chomskyan linguistics had marginalized and reproducesthem. The symbiosisoflanguage and the social might seem obviousnow, ist approach, holding that language doesnotmerely reflect social structures but instantiates instead of meaning to power”(HodgeandKress1980:2–3).SFLisalsoasocial constructiv the social inrelationtosemiotics that isnewinthisterm: “it attributes power tomeaning, element, treating language as a “social semiotic” (Halliday 1978). It is the enlarged role of often usedinplaceof textual meaning world), message intodimensionsof versions inthird-partytreatments such asThompson(2014).SFLdividesthelinguistic Introduction toFunctionalGrammar Colleen CotterandDianaben-Aaron 48 tions” is seen to bea message about Britain and this organization makesiteasy to distinguish rest ofthemessage( structure underpragmatics.The firstelementofanutteranceiscalledthe and Hommerberg(2011). media in Martin and Rose (2003), Martin and White (2005), ben-Aaron (2005a and 2005b), The framework waspartially developed on newsdata (White 1998a, 1998b) and applied to instantiated); these canbeinstantiated explicitly or implicitly, and upgradedordowngraded. Appreciation basic The dimensions of attitudinal meaning are 2005). White and Martin 1998a; (White evaluations categorizing for system a One ofthemost interesting systems within relational meaning is ing possibility,desirability, and obligation, as well communicative dynamics. Itincludes context-based linguistic approaches also utilize and relate to themeanings that emerge in stance the grammarofdifferentlanguages. examining semanticclassesofnewsverbs,anddifferencesinlanguagearisingfrom own requirementsforotherelementsoftheclause.Thistypeanalysisisalsofruitful six classes: 2010). Processes(includingfiniteverbalforms,butnotlimitedtothem)canbedividedinto as simplisticoccasionallysuggested(seeFowleret al.1982;Toolan2001:206ff.;Cotter the constraintsofconnectedwritingandnewsstorystructuremeanthatrelationisnot Ideational meaningincludessuchusefulsystemsfornewsanalysisas Thinkers withintheSFLtradition arguestronglyforanethnographic oratleast contextual Textual meaning bears on the order of elements in the clause, mentioned as information Textual meaningbearsonthe orderofelementsintheclause,mentionedasinformation Relational meaning is perhapsthemostinteresting as itencompasses matters of , status relational meaning , bothofwhichhavealsobeenexaminedinotherareaslinguisticswith material (referring to aesthetic qualities), and , alignment (how the message is organized). The mostly congruent term rheme , mental ideational , ) ispredicated.Forexample,the headline“Britainpreparesforelec affiliation (howthemessageproducesandreproducessocialrelations), and , verbal ideational meaning for thefirstmetafunction. , behavioral , and Judgment modality (Halliday and Matthiessen 2013), and intermediate and 2013), Matthiessen and (Halliday evaluation died ormoodelements, such asverbsexpress , (referring to standardsofhuman behavior), (roughly,howthemessagerepresents relational requires onlyone,thedeceased.Obviously Affect , all concepts that other functional or stance adverbials (referring to emotions evoked or ,

and existential Appraisal theme killed like“normally.” , eachbearingits transitivity , whichoffers experiential on which the onwhichthe requires two voice and is - - - - ,

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:28 04 Oct 2021; For: 9781315673134, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315673134.ch3 might bequite detachedfromtheinterlocutors and contexts ofdelivery,andinteractional frameworks, suchasconversation analysis (CA), that examine the text itself in afashionthat approach aims to better understand the media and how it operates in society. There are other umbrella of “discourseanalysis” whichcoversagreatdealofmedialanguageanalysis;each Methods and theoretical orientations from pragmatics, SFL, and CDA all fit under the broad 3.4.3 tional discourses(seealsoJohnstone1998). attention to the “colonization” of public discourses suchasnewsby bothprivate and promo individual treatment or friendshipininstitutional interactions (1989: 62),andhascalled the CDAparadigm, Faircloughalsocoined (2010) foraninteractional sociolinguistic account ofthesediscursivedynamics).Under These two imperatives can often be seen in opposition in the newsroom (see also Cotter nacular, talk-based features in domains previously characterized by formal written registers. and expert knowledgethatcanbecodified,taught,andmonitored (Fairclough1992;1993:141), technologization of discourse textual terminology, and havealsocoinedusefultermstodo withtext production, notably working in English mostly draw ona combination of SFLand schoolroom grammar for their Krzyżanowski and Machin, this volume, Chapter 4 for a discussion of CDA.) CDA analysts through boththediscourseandlargerpolitical, economic, andculturalformations.(See sion of SFL. CDA is consciously socially critical and seeks to relate the text to its context analysis (CDA), with the theoretical reach of CDA complementing the grammatical preci and thematicinformationstructures”(Webster2009:7). systems, whichrelate to the overall texture of thetext, including choices involving cohesion, “symbolic organization of thetext”whichis“involvedinselectionoptionstextual definition of et Matthiessen 33–34; 2013: Matthiessen and (Halliday ing such asmedium, channel, turn-taking, and rhetorical mode such asdidactic or entertain concept covering the“roleoflanguage and othersemiotic systems,” including aspects metafunctions, namely In SFL,theimmediate situational context isdescribedusingtermsanalogoustothethree ties. Thuswecanspeakofstandardizednewsregistersandgenres,broadornarrow. communities, and structure contributetothedistinctive actions withtext-external meanings), register,andregister-specificpatternsofinformation relations hold atexttogether(forexample, Another aspect of the textual metafunction is ring andongoingstories,see,respectively,ben-Aaron(2003,2005b),Cotter(2010)). of thisinpragmatics,seePrince(1981);forexampleshow“newness”isrealizedrecur is completelynew:relevantlyfornews,therearedifferenttypesofnewness(foradiscussion appended toit;orconsideritasa be fruitfultoconsiderthefirstelementas from similarlystructuredmessages about othercountriesandentities.Alternatively,itmight In practice, SFL isoftenjoined inasingletheoretical complex withcritical discourse SFL usestheterm conversationalization of discourse Discourse analysis ; see Halliday and Matthiessen 2013: 603ff.). These together with together These 603ff.). 2013: Matthiessen and Halliday see ; mode in SFL, closer to the usage in ben-Aaron, this volume, Chapter 16, isthe genre register field fortheformsthattextstakeinparticular uses bythosecommuni (topic or subject matter), foralanguage variant associated with particular situations and to signifytheformalization of communicative practices into conjunction topic texture (Fairclough 1993: 140) to refer to the entry of ver onwhichthereis given of atext(HallidayandHasan1976:23). synthetic personalization orknowntothereader,with oradjacency, cohesion tenor ,

the internal systemic relations that the internal systemic relations that comment (social roles), al. 2010: 144). An alternative An 144). 2010: al. reference . Not all new information . Notallnewinformation forthesimulation of , Discourse approaches ellipsis

and coherence new mode , and information information ,

a vague (inter lexical lexical 49 ------Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:28 04 Oct 2021; For: 9781315673134, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315673134.ch3 shown talktobeorderlyonmanylevelsincludingtiming, turn-taking, openingsandclosings and itcanseemdisorderly,particularly if morethantwoparticipants are involved.CAhas are prioritized. impacts ontheunderstandingofbroadcastmedia,wherestructuralaspectsinteraction notion of“intertextuality,”cf.Bakhtin1986[1979]).Thisresearchhashadsignificant elements areused,exchanged,filtered,andexpandedovertime(asseenthroughthebroad tion; how textual components are ordered, rule-governed, and contingent; and how textual all ofwhichaimtoenhanceourunderstandinghowtalkandtextarestructuredininterac Clayman, thisvolume,Chapter27),alongsideinteractionaldiscourseanalysisframeworks, branches oflinguisticsforpurposesdetailednewsanalysis. other with integrated extensively most the remains version Fairclough’s 2009). Meyer and social tofollowideas acrosspolitical and newstexts(e.g.,Wodak1996; (e.g., 1988a,1988b,and1996forauseful“toolbox”). Another strandusespsychologyand Dijk, who usedconcepts from to make sense oflinguistic macrostructures techniques. In thisdomain, a strandwithsignificant work onnewswaspioneered by van science and the term is employed byanumberoftheoristswiththeir own frameworksand CDA isbroadly interpreted to mean any discourse analysis with a social, even activist, con and SFLclustering atthemacrostructural and socialsemiotic side. Itshouldbenotedthat with pragmatics and CA (see below) tending toward the language-focused end, and CDA in theextenttowhichtheyemploycontextandextra-situational socialfactorsinanalysis, in analysis ofdata. The discourse analysis frameworks used to study media language vary and ethnographic approaches to discourseanalysisthat actively integrate these components Colleen CotterandDianaben-Aaron 50 Bell (1991a) describesin relation to news language. Some correspondence can beseenwith or sentiments (the tion inbroadcast:The an audience in thestudioandbeyond (1981:132ff.).Speakersmightalsoaddressthemselves to full partintheconversation and areaddressedmoreorlessdirectly, and the interview. In hisworkonradio talk, Goffman distinguished broadcast a in present be might audience one than More complex. is audience and speaker and Glenn(2003)onlaughter. by Atkinson(1984)onhowpolitical are designed to elicit a responsefromhearers, and see Weizman 2008: 4). Audience reaction has also been studied using CA,forexample shaped orconstrained,withparticular attention to interviews(Clayman and Heritage2002; has specialized institutional major strandofCA on theways speech is to mediaanalysis.A 729ff.; Hutchby2006:1–35).LikeLabov’s(1972)narrative framework, CAcan beadapted nies whereturn-takingismaximally constrained by expectations of order(Sackset al.1974: informal interpersonal conversation, whereturnsarenormally the freest,topublic ceremo may continue. On a more functional level, they proposed a spectrum of situations from reached, the nextspeakermayself-select, be selected by thefirstspeaker,orspeaker and Jefferson(1974)setforththeroottheoryofturn-taking as follows:whenaTRPis vide theoretical entry pointsforanalyzing interviews andothernewstalk.Sacks,Schegloff preferred transition relevance points (that is, the beginnings and ends ofconversational exchanges). Some of its concepts such as At themostgeneral level, broadcasttalkmaybe On themoreempirical,“micro”-focusedendwehaveinsightsfromCA(seeLoeband Particularly suchasradioandtelevision, therelationship between in talk-basednews imagined and recipient (p. 138)oraudience.Goffmanfurtherproblematized the speakerposi dispreferred responses author physical speaker ) on behalf of yet another person’s position (the (TRPs), whereturnsmaybepassedtootherinterlocutors, and , wherearesponseexpectation comes intoplay,pro oranimator may bevoicingsomeone else’swords monologic ratified participants (Goffman1981)or principal overhearing whotake dialogic ), which - - - - - ; Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:28 04 Oct 2021; For: 9781315673134, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315673134.ch3 with thelinetakenbyanother. (Weizman 2008).Alignmenttendstobeusedinformallysignifyagreementoraffiliation and positioningistwo-faced,relatingthelinetakeninaninteractiontoongoingrole while stanceisusedtomean“subjectiveattitudetowardsomething” relations discussedabove,suchasanimatorandoverhearingaudience(Goffman1981), ment the metaphorofphysicalpositioning;theseinclude such asinterviewsandonlineexchanges,anumberoftermsarecommonlyusedbasedon general tendencyofspeakerstomatchoneanother(Bell1991b).Indiscussingdialogictalk outputs. Similarphenomenahave also been studied with reference to employing thesamenewsreaderstoaddressdifferentdemographicswithlinguistic design media, measurablefeedback.Styleshiftingfordifferentaudienceswastermed media producerstailortheirlanguagetoelicitcontinuedattention,and,especiallyinonline and re-contextualizedfordifferentpurposes. intertextual chains events as more immediate. Reflective letters and verbatim transcripts in the early days of From thebeginning, the trend innewslanguage production has been toward presenting bureaus andfinancialmarkets. Theinstantexperience all thewaytoreaders. now extends telegraph in the nineteenth century, although only to connected elites such as other news Within the news trade, instant transmission has been available to some extent since the 3.5.1 and researchersofbothjournalismlinguistics. our ownperspectivesasformerjournalists,throughtraining aslinguists,andteachers cuss in Section 3.6. We identified these components as meaningful for future research from touchpoints for the enough toremain identifiable through different technological eras andthusremain relevant channel andform and viewers; the transmission the media–thatareofcriticalinterestnow. emerging socialmediaformsaswellthechangesineconomicandbusinessmodelsof been developingslowly,butsteadily, and itistheseapproaches – andaconcentration on texts. Inthisregard,ethnographicandpractice-based studies ofnews/media language have the audienceandimportance ofunderstandingwhatgoesintotheproductionmedia of role the of nature the on light shed also data Media visible. more point that make to help in the social world are not necessarily straightforward – and shown howlinguistic tools can the multifunctionality of discourse–that the correspondences of talk and text to meanings and register,comparative historical work. Evidence from media data has demonstrated is notlimited to thedynamicsoftext, audience considerations, narrative structure, style Sociolinguistic and discourse-level analyses coveragreatdeal ofgroundthatincludesbut 3.5 Audience reactionhasbothafeedbackandfeed-forwardeffectonthenews;thatis, This listofcritical areas isbynomeans exhaustive and includes asstartingpointsthe Critical issuesandtopics: highlightingpracticechange (see DaviesandHarré1990).Footingrelatestothecomplexspeakeraudience News transmission by Bell(1984,1991a,2004),basedonstudiesoftwoNewZealandradiostations ofnews(Section 3.5.1) fromorigin through production all the waytoreaders form , forexample what happenstothestory online(3.5.3).Thesearegeneral inprint(Fairclough1995;Solin2004)whereinformation is re-authored blogs ofthe news story(3.5.2); and the remediation, or the , microblogs , live-text commentary footing , and “digital textuality” we dis , stance , positioning

accommodation Discourse approaches (Haddington 2004), interaction of and audience align , the 51 - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:28 04 Oct 2021; For: 9781315673134, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315673134.ch3 more chronological narrative style, a“radical clarity” style thatwasmoreexplanatory and editions ofaFloridanewspaper.Thefourversionswerethetraditional inverted pyramid,a tested readerstylepreferencesbypublishingsomestoriesinfourparallel versions inlocal below will show. Inthe early 1990s the American Society of Newspaper Editors (ASNE) volume, Chapter 16;Cotter 2010), butit is notimmune to furtherchange, as ourexamples The inverted pyramid newsstylehasprovendurableoveracentury(seeben-Aaron,this 3.5.2 and citizenreporters,news-generatinginstitutionsactorsthemselves. able from participants and observersofall kinds, including professional reporters, amateur the sametime, portable information technology has multiplied the amount of material avail and newsfrommorecentral locations is routinely narrated or transmitted in realtime. At on radiothe same day (Bell 2000). With satellite links, expeditions can now be reported live, explorers diedonthereturnjourney),whereasin1958arrivalatPolewasreported tion’s achievement in reachingtheSouthPoletookayeartobreak(delayedbyfact of newsgathering hasbeenconstantlyaccelerating; a centuryago,newsoftheScottexpedi ference between speechandwritingatthecommunicative level. As Bell points out,thepace electronic media have producedstillfasterupdatespeedswhichcouldbesaidtoblurthedif thing realizable now withsmartphones,cameras, and social media platforms. Broadcast and the eventanditstelling, with thegoalofdisplaying events in‘realtime’” (1996: 3–4),some continue to impel news coveragetowards‘present-ation’ – thatis,closingthegapbetween promptly ifneeded.AsBellnotes,“[t]echnological developments in thepursuitoftimeliness print weresupersededbycrispreportsthatcouldbereadquicklyandacted on Colleen CotterandDianaben-Aaron 52 stories, rather than to outside evidence. Despite the possibility of writing hypertexts that Hyperlinks canalsobeusedto keep readers onthe site bypointing them to related and past attribution and direct evidence, permitting more backgroundtobepresented inthespace. hyperlinks to give readers direct access to source materials; these links function as both textually little changed intheironlineguise.Themost widespreaddifference is theuseof possibilities for changes in format. Interestingly, most traditional news storiesstill appear online sincethe1980stosteadily wideningaudiencesandwithsteadily increasing technical Print media have been 3.5.3 Advocacy styleisusedinpoliticalparty-affiliatednewspapers aroundtheworld. which was launched in 1982 to compete with the more conversational style of . politicians prepare for television debates. It isalsoastapleofthenewspaper “explainer” stories giving consumer advice or details of recurring processes, suchashow other two styles also have their place. “Radical clarity” style can be seen, for example, in the growth of podcasts, particularly those that “tell stories” such as ture formula described in Blundell (1988). The appeal of narrative formsisalsoreflected in the news and“longform”features;apopularmodelforthesewas with television documentaries, contributed to arevived awareness ofthe power ofnarrative stories lowestonquality (ASNE 1993).The study, along with consciousnessofcompetition narrative stories, felt the inverted pyramid did not work well, and rated the point-of-view story andclearly underlineditsintended point.Readersinthistestgenerallypreferredthe sometimes addressed the reader directly, and anadvocacy style that favored one sideofthe News storyform News remediated remediated (Bolter and Grusin1999;Bolter 2001) orredisplayed Wall StreetJournal This American Life USA Today . The fea - - - - - ,

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:28 04 Oct 2021; For: 9781315673134, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315673134.ch3 otherwise forbidden featuressuchas“superlatives, first person,contractions, questions with “j-blogs” asawaytowritein alessinstitutional voice. Intheirblogs, reportersgavereinto are regularlyfoundonblogs(cf. Bruns2006). news cycles. In particular, hyperlocal news, eyewitness news, and alternative perspectives way for aspiring journalists to build a portfolio, as well as a way to update outside of print write substantial reportsandessaysonnewstopics;blogginghasthusbecomeanaccepted Memex (Bush 1945); this is known as “filter-style” blogging (Blood 2000). Second, bloggers bloggers collect and comment on newslinks, creating trails reminiscent of Vannevar Bush’s et al. 2005).Theybecame entwined with journalism in several important ways. First,many tury, and soon recognized as a general purpose medium or “socio-technical format” (Herring were firstusedas“onlinejournals”forindividualsjustbefore theturnoftwenty-firstcen page with [timestamped and] dated entries, new onesplaced at the top” (Blood 2000).Blogs The first significantly new online media genre was the weblog, “a frequently updated web 3.6.1 Blogs consideration ofthis. short orderwithotherformsof (3.6.3). These genres or media – their status is ambiguous – may themselves be replaced in in newsgathering. Through searches and hyperlinks, readers can find out more about who is in newsgathering.Throughsearchesandhyperlinks,readerscanfindoutmoreaboutwhois the latestday’snews. ment on newsand submit their own contributions, explore the entire archive rather than just enabling readers to aggregate news information on amap and performactions with it, com encyclopedic textuality capabilities enable news sites to use the and theemergence ofnewgenres.Whenfullyexploited, not justusedasadd-ons,digital standalone “stories” on some news sites, opening the way fora deeper level of remediation boards andlive feeds from journalists and social media. Such features are also presented as slideshows, raworprocessedaudiovideo,interactive maps andothergraphics,comment and mobility. Online storiesareincreasingly packaged with multimodal features suchas bases, userprofiles,social networking, direct communication with theaudience, embedding, affordances 2015; Tyrkkö2007).Thisconcept referstothenewtextualshapesmadepossiblebydigital “Snow Fall”(Branch2012). still mainly written in linear format (Steensen 2009); see for example the branch intomultiple paths orloopbackonthemselves, the textsofonline features arealso tion. Hereweexamine starting with “borndigital” textual forms andtheir role in the evolution of newscircula In addition to tracing the evolution of traditional media online, there is a second thread 3.6 such asnegotiationswithsourcesandeditors,remainforthemostpartinvisible. consult, whaterrorstheymake,andhowthesearecorrected.Someotherpartsoftheprocess, writing thenews,whatelsetheyhavewritten,howcanbecontacted,sources Third, professional journalists, loath to cede ground to new entrants, soon began to use This isnottosaythatonlinenewshastakenadvantage of Further, it could be argued that a major impact of online news has been greater Further, itcouldbearguedthatamajorimpactofonlinenewshasbeengreatertransparency Future directions:digitaltextuality suchashyperlinks,multimodality, real-time updating, synchronoustalk,data properties that emerge in digital environments (Murray 1997); for example, for 1997); (Murray environments digital in emerge that properties blogs (Section 3.6.1), digital textuality microblogs (3.6.4), andthesection concludes with a procedural (3.6.2), and , participatory digital textuality live-text commentary Discourse approaches New York Times New York , spatial (Trimarco ,

and 53 ’s - - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:28 04 Oct 2021; For: 9781315673134, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315673134.ch3 of Twitterhadtheeffectmakingnewstalkresemblewireserviceheadlinesorblow-by- is tabooinconventionalreportervoice.The140-characterlimitforpoststhefirstyears tweets couldexpressuncertainty(e.g.,“notsurehowtheywillbreakthrough,”40),which mation orconfirmation,announceplans,expressopinions,andthankpeople.Reporter (2013) foundthattheyalsousedthechanneltoreportobstaclesreporting,requestinfor study ofTwitterusebytwoprofessionaljournalistscoveringtheLondonriots2011,Vis to broadcastnewsdirectlyintheformofheadlinesorepisodicallyas“livetweets.”Ina news storiesinothermediaviahyperlinks;tocommentonandrespondstories; largest ofwhichisTwitter.Sinceitslaunchin2006,Twitterhasbeenusedtopointout The apotheosis(sofar)ofincreasingspeedandinteractivityisfoundinmicroblogs,the 3.6.2 Microblogs de-spatialization ofnewscomparedtolocallybasedanddeliveredproduction. (or claimtosee)everywhereatonce”andhyperlinksextendtheirreach,contributing to a “see blogs 50), (2010: notes Myers As news. online of elements naturalized become have blogs, andtimestamps andhyperlinks(inthestoryoratleast in thesurrounding“frame”) systems are commonly built on the same database-backed website systems as 2013 onTwitter andjournalistic re-norming). It shouldbenotedthat newsroom content being tailored to institutional news standards(Singer2005;Lasorsaet al. 2012; Hermida “tick-tocks” (Robinson 2006:78).Anearly study foundsomeevidence that j-blogs were traditional inverted pyramid,aswell“reporter’snotebook”piecesandminute-by-minute links to other versions and points of view, making them more open-ended than even the no answers,answerswithquestions”; they publishedreflections on storieswithhyper Colleen CotterandDianaben-Aaron 54 on a separate “live blog” platform (Thurman and Walters 2013) or through social media (Chovanec 2009).LTCmay be postedasasecondarynewschannelonthemain website, tary” (LTC),inwhichcoverage is postedachunkattime online asthenewsevent evolves Another genrethroughwhich newsisbecomingconversationalized is “live-text commen 3.6.3 appointments in2013. cabinet announce to service the used Harper Stephen Minister Prime Canadian example, tion innewspapers).SometimesTwitteristhefirstoronly sourceforimportantnews; on thegenre(SquiresandIorio2014;Clayman1990provides abaselinestudyofquota by distinctivewordings,andvernacularlanguageinthem isvariablypreserveddepending sources onaparwithdocumentsandinterviews;quoted tweetsinparticularareframed blogs bynewsactorsandvoxpopsarenowroutinelyembedded ineverydayreporting,as 2012; Barton2015).Theintertextualchainrunstheother wayaswell:blogsandmicro used forsignalingalignmentorcreating“folksonomies” forlatersearching(Zappavigna index ofresponsetoprevioustweets.Tweetsfrequently includehashtagswhichcanbe editing orframingwithacomment)andmarkingpostsasfavorites,whichprovidesan dances ofmicroblogsincludeusepicturesandvideo,retweeting(whichmightinvolve available inspeechsuchasdelayedrepliesandmultimodalelements.Prominentaffor joking), andtheyarealsoconversationalontheirownterms,throughmeansthatnot lexis, fragmentation,involvement(Chafe1994),andrapidframeshifts(forexample,to blow eyewitnesscommentary. Microblogs embody traditional conversational behavior such as turn-taking, vernacular turn-taking, as such behavior conversational traditional embody Microblogs Live-text commentary ------Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:28 04 Oct 2021; For: 9781315673134, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315673134.ch3 enter anewsprovider’ssitethroughthehomepage or otherpredictable path (LaFrance 2012; clippings. Detachability has become even more important online, as readers are unlikely to should be easily transferable to new contexts – and long have been, as in anthologies of press colonies” (Hoey 2001)inwhichthe stories are detachable from each other, individual stories eral trendinonlinegenres.LTCalsosupportstheidealoftransparencynewsgathering. less contextual knowledge canbepresupposed,andthislackofcontext can beseen asagen than traditional news products.Atthesametime, there isincreased pressure forclarity, since genres such aslive text and microblogs are posted faster and with less editorial intervention common (Chovanec2009:124;Jucker2006). wordings, direct address,questions, inserts, and other typically conversational features are text (Chovanec 2009: 111). Aswith other synchronous genres such asonline chat, colloquial subjective elements inthemain voice, create threads ofcommentary weavingthroughthe spawning threads ofdelayed reaction; these extra-chronological additions, together with any long been the norm. LTC often incorporates reader feedback and can even be interactive, scripts whicharepostedlater. LTC isoftenusedinsports,wherelive comment by voice has story where the chronology is reconstructed, as well as withbroadcast commentary tran such asTwitter. The liveness of LTC both echoes and contrasts with the “tick-tock” feature a clearly independent “Fourth Estate” in Western countries, capable of critical comment, to write in ways that will be read as critical. During much of the twentieth century there was tary. Sofar,thecenterisholding. organizations, are still widely held to becredible and formthebasisofmuchothercommen the norm.Thereportervoice is still distinctive. Reports inthat voice, by thelargest news archival “version ofrecord” and fornon-breaking stories, slowerasynchronousnewsisstill sional andamateur newsgatherers andtheir audiences on social media. However, forthe that breakingandimportant news cannow beexperienced as aconversationamongprofes with the professional role of thereporter. These predictions have come to passinthe sense personalization is theidea that blogs woulderodethe neutralistic “reporter voice,” along increasing of corollary A 2011). (Thurman Me” “Daily commercialized today’s to (1996) disappear in favoroffragmented, diversified versions –fromexperiments by Benderet text and talk to beginwith.Ithasalsolong beenproposedthat mass markets for newswould 2004: 11),whichechoestheclaim by Zelizer (1995) thatquotationsmakenewsahybridof would erase the distinction between synchronous and asynchronous modes (Herring et A numberofprovocative forecasts have been made about digital texts. One isthat blogs 3.6.4 granular extensionoftheremixingconcept( paragraphs from different providers’ newsstoriestogive a composite picture, was amore and Grusin 1999; Bolter 2001). Circa, a short-lived news service that displayed a collage of textuality theorists that online remediation entails a larger role for visual modes (Bolter Apple Inc.’s iPad. Its useoffull-screen photographs supported the proposition of digital into a“magazine” which initsfirstincarnation and socialmediaflows integrated for news News can also be repackaged and remixed in mobile device applications, such as Flipboard, gation sites suchasGoogleNews,orpersonalized alerts and newsfeeds(Thurman 2011). New York Times It also remains to be seen whether future journalists will be less willing than predecessors Atomization facilitates remediation. Because newspapers aredesignedandedited as “text LTC isclearly a genre wherespeechandwritingconvergeinnewmedia. Written talk Future textuality 2014: 24). Instead they might enter through social media, automated aggre New YorkTimes 2014:19). Discourse approaches 55 al. al. - - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 08:28 04 Oct 2021; For: 9781315673134, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315673134.ch3 across themanyresearchparadigmswehavementionedhere. Aaron 2005a,2005b).Thesekindsofpromotionalandconsumernewsdeservemorestudy appropriateness, pers werefoundtoconsistentlyevaluatetheeventsinidiosyncratictermsof study ofstoriesaboutcelebrationsnationalismsuchasU.S.IndependenceDay,newspa a restricted,mainlypositiverangeofevaluationsthatcovereddifferentdiscourseroles.In and intermsofthe qualities evaluated.Hommerberg(2011)foundthatwinereviewsused dampened negativecriticisminsomeareas(asBrayfield(2008)suggestsforartsreviews), remains arichareaforresearch,bothintermsofwhethertherevisednewseconomyhas example. Giventhespreadofmedialanguage,evaluationinsystemic-functionalsense including mediabusiness,isanotherthreattotheproductionofcriticalnews. business, and government between boundaries of erosion The 2010). Magilchrist and Hout ent reporting, as supportedbyvanHout’sethnography of businessreporting (2009; van dependence offinancial on thesesourcesandtheirdifficultyindoingindepend reporters examine businessnewsastheoutputofofficialsourcesisrealistically motivated by the 2011), andfinancial disclosures (Camiciottoli conferences (Jacobs 2013). Thedecisionto press 2013), Jong de and Maat Pander 1999; (Jacobs releases news included have chains of routineintertextual chains ratherthanideological news elements. Entry pointstothese has almost disappeared. Yet businessnewsgenreshavebeenanalyzed mainly as elements coverage labor while grown has coverage consumption and finance generally, More way. vice contracts.Butitisnotaccountabletothepublicoropenreportinginsamedirect business isnowreplacing government in many functions as governments sell assets and ser if not of its biggest advertisers, at least of governments and others. To take one example, Colleen CotterandDianaben-Aaron 56 . Discourse structure,representation, ideology,pragmaticand socialsemiotic fields suchasculturalstudies, criticaltheory,politicalscience,,anthropology, and analytic andsociolinguisticapproaches, informedbytheinsightsofworkincomplementary Media language analysis will continue to be dominated by multidisciplinary blends of discourse 3.7 and variesaccordingly. models. Newsisalwaysaproductofitstimeandplace,including theavailabletechnology, linguistic modeisrecognizedasnews,testedforcredibility, andintegratedintoourmental into existingwaysofstudyingnews.Itremainstobediscovered preciselyhownewsinits on familyresemblanceinlinguisticstructuresisdistinctive anddeservestobeintegrated a retoolingofexistingworkintheareasdescribedthroughout thischapter,theemphasis categories suchassyntaxandsemantics,orphraseclause. WhileCxGisinmanyways which considersutterancesascomplexesoffeatureswithout beinglimitedbytraditional elements. Thisissomeofthefirstworkonnewswithin ConstructionGrammar(CxG), schema thatbridgesgenreandtexttype,carriescertain expectationsofconstituent Östman (2005)suggestedtheexistenceofa ally taughttoshapestoriesbasedonchecklistsandpriorstorytemplates(Cotter2010). media hasbeenrecognized,whichmakessensegiventhewayjournalistsweretradition direction). FromvanDijkonward,theexistenceofhigh-leveldiscourseschematainmass tion conditionsandsocialfunctions(TannenTrester’s(2013)volumeprovidessome of language use, including its variationand change, whichare related to media produc Future directions and new vistas are also visible for research paradigms, SFL being one Future directionsandnewvistasarealsovisibleforresearchparadigms,SFLbeingone No matterthechangeinmedia,challengeisstilltofindunderlyingpatterns Conclusion: the multidisciplinary advantage andpopular enthusiasm, whichoverlappedtheAppraisalcategories(ben- discourse pattern , anintuitivelyrecognized impressiveness, impressiveness, - - - - -

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