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Home , Discourse analysis, Media studies

Critical : Mass

Deti Anitasari Department of English , Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Universitas Lancang Kuning [email protected]

ABSTRACT: In this paper, the researcher aims are to review some key problems of approaches to on text from point of view discourse analytical and to present an , as well as a Critical (CDA) structures for analysis of mass media discourse. The researcher regards a number of areas of critical research interest in mass media discourse locally and elsewhere. An instance of actual CDA on mass media discourse is reviewed in terms of topics of obviously popular interest among society, before listing methodological, as well as the topical plan by a main support in the field for further work. This paper concludes that CDA’s multidisciplinary approach helps to understand and aware of the hidden socio-political issues and agenda in all kinds of areas of language as a social practice to empower the individual and social groups. Keywords: Critical Discourse Analysis, Critical Discourse studies, Mass Media Discourse, Media text Analysis

INTRODUCTION human talks to one another via verbal and non-verbal means, but which Discourse has been explained as concerns messages that are essentially structures and practices that reflect transmitted through a medium (channel) human thought and social realities to reach a large number of people through particular collections of (Wimmer & Dominick, 2012, Devito, and that simultaneously construct 2011). From the beginning, for a clear in the world (Fairclough, 2003). point of view on the problems relating to Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) mass media effects, it is helpful to proposes a research for clarify what constitutes mass media in deconstructing and fixed current studies, i.e. “any power relationship. From communication channel used to epistemological standpoint, it simultaneously reach a large number of presupposes the multiple possibilities of people, including , TV, newspapers, knowing and interpreting the world magazines, billboards, , recordings, (Yanow, 2000. Through mass media we books, and the as well as the could know about the world as well, new category smart mass media, which is a tools include Smartphone, smart TVs, and communication between human, how tablets” (Wimmer & Dominick, 2012). In this journal, the researcher “could not be considered a dominant aims to review some key problems in paradigm in the research field” in approaches to research on mass media question. Possibly, as van Dijk (1996) texts from point of view discourse has noted, instead of focusing on the analytical and to present an argument, as effects of mass media from a well as a Critical Discourse Analysis point of view, (CDA) structure for analysis of mass discourse-oriented research could media discourse. The researcher regard a consider “properties of the social power number of areas of critical research of the media, not restricted to the interest in mass media discourse locally influence of the media on their and elsewhere. audiences, but which also involves the Regardless of mass role of the media within the broader communication progress and associated framework of the social, cultural, smart media technologies and related political, or economic power structures media product over the years, it seems of society”. that mass media research began to merge In another place in the literature, with discourse. Therefore, van Dijk has proponents of mass media analysis, also used a mixture of though with a clear focus on political and discourse analytical categories or theory such as Carpentier and de Cleen structures and also deal with social (2007), progress bringing discourse issues in mass media discourse and their theory into . They concern correlated socio-cultural and cognitive Laclau and Mouffe’s theories of aspect. discourse, also hegemony and socialist Therefore, refocused their strategy (Laclau & Mouffe, 1987, 2001) interest on the “(social, cultural, and to fluent Discourse-Theoretical Analysis political) and the ‘localization’ (DTA), at that time they compare to of meaning” (Wodak & Busch, 2004) CDA but only to give in that “a and also their well-known that more than significant number of valuable 40% of the papers published in the contributions of DTA to media studies leading journal Discourse & Society are can be found within CDA the standard based on media texts. framework for analyzing media texts” Furthermore, it had been argued (Carpentier & De Cleen, 2007). before that approaching mass media studies from a paradigm-based vantage RESULTS AND DISCUSSION was filled with speculations, more than Critical Media Analysis: An Overview 60% in the paradigm compared with about 34% in the Discourse is language as a interpretive paradigm and less than 6% and relates to expressing in the critical one) So, Potter et al. ourselves through words in ways of (1993) concluded that even if the social knowing the world. As theory and science paradigm can come out as the research in functional have majority paradigm in normal shown, linguistic forms can be communication research journals, it systematically associated with social and ideological functions (Halliday & knowing. As research and theory in Matthiessen, 1994). Perhaps, more general have importantly, discourses can also be used shown, linguistic forms can be to resist and critique such assertions of systematically associated with social and power. CDA is the multidisciplinary ideological functions (Halliday & field of inquiry traditional approaches Matthiessen, 1994). such as analysis, Van Dijk (1997) choose the term of communication and CDS (Critical Discourse Studies), “a interactional . new cross-discipline that comprises the The term “discourse” is a theory and analysis of text and talk in complex and like mammoth’s virtually all disciplines of the interpretation. Many earlier studies and social science” CDA describes, mention the term discourse as very interprets, analyses, and critiques social ambiguous since its introduction to life (Luke, 1997) by studying “the modern discipline and many broad discursive practices of a community its interpretations of discourse, it refers to normal ways of using language”. the patterns and how language, Structure of discourse is distinguished by , and acceptable statements are three levels of meaning namely Text, used in a particular community. Interaction and Context. Discourse as a subject of study looks at Text: The first aspect ‘discourse discourse among people who share the as text’ purposes to learning the textual same speech conventions. Moreover, features of discourses, that is ‘how is the discourse refers to the linguistics of text designed, why it is designed in this language use as a way of understanding way, and how else could it have been interactions in a social context, designed?’ (Fairclough,1995, p. 207). In specifically the analysis of occurring this level, the focus exploration more on connected speech or written discourse, the formal features of the text such as Dakowska (2001) in Hamuddin (2012). vocabulary, or specific Even though discourse also has , phrase, , figures, images, resources besides language that is chart or a combination all of these instantiated together as in mass media (multimedia). texts such as multimedia texts, streaming video, and related multimodal discursive Interaction: Richard practices on the Internet (Kress & van Buchanan shares Davis’s broad analysis Leeuwen, 2001), language is the most of interaction. Interaction is a mode of complex in the process of situated framing the relationship between people meaning-making (“semiosis”) in the and objects considered for them and thus social context of discourse production a way of framing the action of design. and interpretation (Fairclough, 1989, Which is concerns the process of text 1995; Halliday & Matthiessen, 1994). production and text interpretation. Basically, discourse is language in Context: H.G. Widdowson, context and relate to valuing, expressing while learning on language meaning, ourselves through words in ways of thought “context” as “those aspects of analyzing text to national identity or the circumstance of actual language use nationhood, discursive approach may be which are taken as relevant to meaning.” based on four key questions: He added pointed out, “in other words, context is a schematic construct...the 1) From what perspective or points achievement of pragmatic meaning is a of view are these naming, matter of matching up the linguistic attributions and elements of the code with the schematic expressed? (perspective elements of the context.” (H.G. strategies) Widdowson, 2000, p.126). In discourse, 2) What qualities, characteristics this deals with the broader social and and features are attributed to cultural conditions of discourse them? (predicational strategies) production and interpretation. 3) How are persons named and referred to linguistically? Linguistic analysis of a text cover (referential strategies) up the traditional outline of linguistic 4) By means of what arguments do analysis such as , vocabulary, specific persons or social groups grammar, system analyses and try to justify and legitimate the but includes textual discrimination and exploitation organization above the sentence such as of others? (argumentation turn taking, generic structure and strategies) cohesion. Mediating between the text and social practice, the interpretation By attention to the illustration of of analysis involves the process of groups and the social relations between text comprehension and is concerned them, van Dijk’s approach is helpful for with the cognitive processes of analysis of news discourses to study the members. To conclude, the stage of socio-ideological illustration of “Us vs. explanation covers the analysis of the They”. Van Dijk (2001) begins his relationship between interaction and the analytical approach with topics or social context of production and “semantic macrostructures”, which he interpretation (Fairclough, 2001). It is argues, provide an initial overall idea of related to dissimilar levels of abstraction what a discourse or corpus of texts is all of an event: the immediate, situational about, and controls many other aspects context, and institutional practices the of discourse and its analysis (p.102) after event is embedded in (Fairclough, 1995, that, he analyses local or 2001). “microstructures” for the meaning of From the centrality of discursive words (lexical), the structures of strategies in Wodak’s DHA, there are , and coherence and other four macro strategies of discourse for the relations between propositions (p.103). analysis of national identities that is Then, at the “meso” level like mediating destructive strategies, transformational between global and local meanings, he strategies, constructive strategies and classifies an overall strategy of ‘positive perpetuating strategies. Added, in self-presentation and negative other presentation’, in which our good things the network society (Castells, 2000, and their bad things are emphasized, and 2011). our bad things and their good things are Wodak and Busch (2004) have de-emphasized (p.103). noted, in CDA, media are images of public space and may be studied as sites As can be seen, the general of social power and struggle, mainly in values of CDA, which are agreed terms of the language of the mass media: between the socio cognitive and the “Language is often only apparently socio critical approaches, as follow: transparent. Media often 1) Discourse constitutes society and purport to be neutral, in that they provide culture in a dialectical relationship space for public discourse, reflect states 2) CDA addresses social problems of affairs disinterestedly, and give the 3) The link between text and society perceptions and arguments of the is mediated through discourse newsmakers” (p.110), while they often 4) Discourse is a form of social action have hidden sociopolitical agenda that lie at the heart of the matter (e.g. From above values reflect the Gamson, Croteau, Hoynes, & Sasson, varied ways in which discourse works 1992; Herman & Chomsky, 2008; and when appropriated by the power- Miller, 2004). Main problems that are holders in society, principally the state appropriated in the outline include and/or those who control the mass capitalism, , nationalism, identity media, it serves to pass unequal power politics, antisemitism and war reporting. relations and representations of social Some areas of CDA research in relation groups, appearing to be ordinary sense, to the mass media and related examples usual, and normal when in fact there is are outlined below. intrinsic prejudice, injustice and social discrimination. News of War

Bridging CDA And The Media Critical discourse analysis (CDA) brings the critical tradition in social In current years, with the discuss analysis into language studies, and on globalization as “the principal frame contributes to critical social analysis a of reference when we try to explain particular focus on discourse, and economic, new political and cultural relations between discourse and other phenomena and the spread of the social elements. Internet, media and communication are In the mass media has war ascribed a significant part in the reporting to analyzed using the CDA processes of change” (Hjarvard, 2003). approach. Davies (2007) analyzed a Even a brief expression on how the array Sunday Mirror news report of the of mass media channels listed at the February 2003 demonstration in London beginning of this paper impacts people’s against the Iraq war as branch of a larger lives will bear testimony to our mass- study of the textual generation of mediated world and the emergence of oppositional pairs in news reports in the UK national press. He find out much (2004) analysis of footage on quoted response by George Bush to the of the September 11th attacks in New attack on the World Trade Centre in York. Further, while the general focus of 2001, “Either you are with us or with the critical analysis is based on the study of terrorist’ combine rhetorically to linguistic features of media texts, and construct groups of protesters as images are treated as “visual language” acceptable and unacceptable’ ” (pp.71- (Fairclough, 2001), i.e. often analyzed as 73). Davies disagree that even though if they were linguistic text (Jørgensen & Bush had used “either”, he employed “us Phillips, 2002, p.61), Kress and van and terrorist” unusually rather than “us Leeuwen’s (Kress & van Leeuwen, and them” in seeking to unite America 2001, 2006) work in critical social and the rest of the world “against a has served to elucidate visual common enemy” leaving no possibility features via multimodal discourse of a middle way” (Davies,2007) analysis (see also Lemke, 2004; Machin In another hand, patterns of press & Mayr, 2012). discourse in the after effects of the Persian Gulf War (1990- 1991) appeared News of Capitalism to give broad insights into “America’s `master narrative’ of war, a narrative An additional area of research on which had been threatened by the mass media discourse is as well as major Vietnam experience” (Hackett & Zhao, in CDA and “which illustrates the 1994). To show how the state apply the mediating and constructing role of the media to promote its own media” (Wodak & Meyer, 2009) in neo- interests, Kellner (1992) look into “a capitalist, neoliberal discourses have classic case of ” that been found by Fairclough. In this showed that the Bush administration had reasonably new area of critical work, the secretly released to the “language of the new capitalism” press “to legitimate sending U.S. troops (Wodak & Busch, 2004) submitted to and to mobilize public support for this both the dominant global position of the action”. In the consequent period of the English language also to the language as war, the media became a tool for U.S. discourse of the globalization project policy, “privileging those voices seeking (Fairclough, 2001a). In both senses, neo- a military solution to the conflict” (p.57). capitalist language is linked to Generally, other than working discourses of modernization, with online news reports that might be democratization, etc., in a found on their editorial pages (see for sequence of similarity to the digitally- e.g., Sani, Abdullah, Ali, & Abdullah, networked k-economy characterized by 2012a; Sani, Abdullah, Ali, & Abdullah, “time-space distanciation” as “an 2012b), CDA work has dealt with social extension in the spate-temporal reach of media and networking sites such as power” in language use (Chouliaraki & Facebook (Eisenlauer, 2013), radio and Fairclough, 1999). television, as well as their associated genres. Look, for example, Chouliaraki’s Advertisement Language tips for bikini body performance” (Machin & Mayr, 2012). The study Advertisements are generally shows that the image does not depict “a connected with the mass media of real woman at work”, however rather magazine, newspaper, television, etc., “one that symbolizes a particular kind of the public also encounters them on lifestyle” to sell space, and billboards, posters and in direct mail the magazine, while distracting “the (Rotzoll, 1985), not to talk about in reader from the absurdity of many of the recent times on the ubiquitous Internet tips provided” (pp.9-10). web page. Bhatia (2004) statements that advertisements as the “primary and most Language on Racism dominant form of promotional discourse” (p.89) are readily Racist is a stigmatizing headword appropriated via the mixing of genres. and political fighting that seem to For example, the South China Morning be on almost everyone’s lips today, there Post carries a special weekly creation or is talk of a genetic, cultural, biological, service evaluate called “Classified Plus”, institutional and ethno pluralist. The which in the mixed kind form such as starting point of a discourse analytical “an advertorial or a blurb has been approach to the phenomenon of racism is deceptively used as a recommendation or to realize that racism, as both social a review, whereas in fact it is no practice and ideology, obvious itself different from an advertisement” (p.91). discursive. Van dijk reminders that In the case of advertisements that empirical research in many countries utilize multiple semiotic modalities have shown that “the media play an including linguistics text to make a important role in expressing and composite image of a preferred spreading ethnic prejudice which is one representation, Machin and Mayr (2012) of the conditions of racist practices that promoter a social semiotics approach define racism as the social system of based on the pioneering work of Kress ethnic power abuse”. and van Leeuwen (2001). Even as Machin and Mayr (2012) reminder that Definitely, Wodak and Busch “how much images can be described as (2004) have underlined, the (written) working like language the multimodal news kind has been most important in discourse analysts’ claim has been CDA research on media including challenged”, they show how Kress and journal editing and right-wing editorial van Leeuwen’s analytical toolkit utilized prejudice in newspapers and Wodak’s together with CDA “does enhance our own studies of nationalism, anti- ability to describe more systematically Semitism and neo-racism (Wodak, De what it is that we see” (p.8), taking the Cillia, Reisigl, & Liebhart, 2009). typical text plus image “Easy-at-work Studies on the local scene that have fitness tips!” advertisement in delved into racism, nationalist ideologies Cosmopolitan magazine targeting young and related practices in female office workers who need “fitness include those by Abdullah (2004). Outline of Current or Future could be an early roadmap to further Research Areas exploration of the language of the mass There are some list areas of media, as it happened, and its role in interest in CDA that constitue current hegemonic social practices and critical research according Wodak and legitimating unequal power relations. In Meyer (2009) that perhaps linked to the the previous sections of this article, I challenges and to socio political issues in have tried to make a representation of the media such as racism, globalization CDA as a multidisciplinary approach to and . Some of the areas essentially the critical analysis of mass media cover up methodological issues even as discourse with special reference to oft impinging to a lesser point on topical hidden socio-political issues such as interest, as follows: capitalism, nationalism, identity politics, 1) Effects of and changed racism and war reporting. Enlightenment concepts of space and time of social issues and problems in this way 2) New phenomena in our political can only empower disenfranchised, systems arising from local as well oppressed individuals and marginalized. global developments 3) Relationship between complex CDA “tries to illuminate ways in historical processes ,hegemonic which the dominant forces in a society narrative and CDA approaches construct versions of reality that favor especially in the context of their interests”, also to reveal such identity politics practices “to support the victims of such 4) Effect of knowledge based oppression and encourage them to resist economy (KBE) on society and its and transform their lives”, as McGregor re-contextualization (2003) remarks. That is what importance in understanding the pervasive function CONCLUSIONS of the mass media in societies lived realities. Furthermore, using CDA The review here of real research framework can direct society to be more conducted using the approach, of course critical and aware with the control of incomplete but the researcher assume it power, ideology of media.

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