VMUN 2018

Asia Cooperation Dialogue

BACKGROUND GUIDE

Vancouver Model United Nations The 17th Annual Session | January 19 - 21, 2018

Dear Delegates, Ken Hong Secretary-General It is with great honour that I welcome you to Vancouver Model United Nations 2018. My name is Nick Young, and I have the absolute pleasure of serving as your Director of the Asia Cooperation Dialogue (ACD) at this iteration of VMUN.

Callum Shepard Over the years, I’ve amassed a huge respect and passion for international affairs and debate Chief of Staff that has shaped who I am. From my first speech ever, I knew that this was the place for me. It is my honour to recreate the amazing experiences I have had for you. I’m in the eleventh grade Jerry Jiao at St. George’s School, involved in student council, Model UN club, and various academic Director-General pursuits. Outside of school, I play badminton, browse Facebook, and drink bubble tea.

Andrew Wei Your Chair will be Megan Munson, a senior at Inglemoor High School, and your Assistant Director of Logistics Director will be Cindy Zhao, a senior at Crofton House School. I can say with full certainty that this team will make your delegate experience extraordinary.

The two topics for this years VMUN are Human Trafficking and Energy Security, topics of Jadine Ngan pressing humanitarian, socioeconomic, and political importance. Human Trafficking has USG General Assemblies transformed the global labour market, providing employers with unethical cheap slave labour. Energy Security is concerned with the future of the energy market and the economic Eric Zhang implications of refusing to act. Both of these topics have greatly affected the way Asia is run, USG Specialized Agencies for better or for worse.

Dillon Ramlochun Providing you with an educational, enjoyable, and unforgettable experience at VMUN is the USG Conference responsibility and honour of the dais. All of us have gone through the same trials of raising placards, writing position papers, and going to delegate socials; we especially know the effort Angelina Zhang that goes into attending a conference. At VMUN, I encourage you to pour your effort into the USG Delegate Affairs research, debate, and writing that comes with MUN. I challenge you to learn new skills and meet new people that will stand by you for years to come. I implore you to make the most of Jerry Xu this conference. Create something worth remembering. USG Delegate Affairs I look forward to seeing you in January. Good luck with your research. Alan Chen USG Finance Graciously yours,

Meghna Lohia Nick Young USG IT ACD Director

Position Paper Policy

What is a Position Paper? A position paper is a brief overview of a country’s stance on the topics being discussed by a particular committee. Though there is no specific format the position paper must follow, it should include a description of your positions your country holds on the issues on the agenda, relevant actions that your country has taken, and potential solutions that your country would support.

At Vancouver Model United Nations, delegates should write a position paper for each of the committee’s topics. Each position paper should not exceed one page, and should all be combined into a single document per delegate.

Formatting Position papers should: — Include the name of the delegate, his/her country, and the committee — Be in a standard font (e.g. Times New Roman) with a 12-point font size and 1-inch document margins — Not include illustrations, diagrams, decorations, national symbols, watermarks, or page borders — Include citations and a bibliography, in any format, giving due credit to the sources used in research (not included in the 1-page limit)

Due Dates and Submission Procedure

Position papers for this committee are highly recommended. To be eligible for an award, you must submit a position paper. The submission deadline is January 7th, 2018.

Once your position paper is complete, please save the file as your last name, your first name and send it as an attachment in an email, to your committee’s email address, with the subject heading as your last name, your first name — Position Paper. Please do not add any other attachments to the email or write anything else in the body.

Both your position papers should be combined into a single PDF or Word document file; position papers submitted in another format will not be accepted.

The email address for this committee is [email protected].

Countering Human Trafficking ...... 6 Overview ...... 6 Timeline ...... 6 Historical Analysis ...... 8

Origins ...... 8

Structural Development and Clauses ...... 8 Past UN and International Involvement ...... 10

Early Action ...... 10 The United Nations ...... 10 The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) ...... 11 Current Situation ...... 12

Definition ...... 12 Forms ...... 13 Organ Trafficking ...... 14 Consequences ...... 15 Possible Solutions and Controversies ...... 16

Better Screening and Raids ...... 16 International Cooperation ...... 17 Local Development ...... 17 Education ...... 18 Better Organ Donations ...... 19 Bloc Positions ...... 19

Destination Countries ...... 19 Dependent and Complacent Nations ...... 20 Origin States ...... 20 Small Nations ...... 21 Discussion Questions ...... 21 Bibliography ...... 23

Vancouver Model United Nations 2018 4 Energy Security in Asia ...... 26 Overview ...... 26 Timeline ...... 27 Historical Analysis ...... 27

Depleting Reserves ...... 28

Globalisation and Demand Growth ...... 29 South China Sea ...... 29 Past UN and International Involvement ...... 30

International Energy Agency (IEA) ...... 30 United Nations (UN) ...... 31 Current Situation ...... 31

Foreign Energy Reliance ...... 32 Unilateral Action and Market Liberalisation ...... 32 Climate Change ...... 33 Possible Solutions and Controversies ...... 33

Energy Diversification ...... 33 Nuclear Energy ...... 34 Economic Efficiency and Energy Conservation ...... 34 South China Sea ...... 35 Bloc Positions ...... 36

Rapidly Developing States ...... 36 Non-Producing States ...... 36

Lower Economically Developed Nations ...... 36 South China Sea Actors ...... 37 Discussion Questions ...... 37 Bibliography ...... 38

Vancouver Model United Nations 2018 5 Countering Human Trafficking

Overview

According to the 2014 Global Slavery Index, around 23.5 million of the 36 million victims of human trafficking worldwide come from Asia.1 Human trafficking, in essence, is the act of trading or keeping human beings through coercion for exploit. With the illicit global profit of forced labour estimated to be $150 billion per year,2 human trafficking continues to expand, particularly in Asia. Growing demands for cheap labour and a large supply of desperate, impoverished people seeking employment feeds the trafficking industry in Asia. The system victimises those in vulnerable situations and garners huge profits for criminal organisations.

Human trafficking comes in a myriad of forms, varying in mechanism and severity. It fuels numerous industries from every sector, from manufacturing and domestic service to prostitution and begging. A variety of practices used to coerce and trap victims in their work, such as debt bondage or threat of violence, damage and debilitate captives. The effects that these abusive tactics have on trafficking victims are huge concerns of human rights organisations and movements across the world. Organised crime and smuggling syndicates operate in a network to exploit and profit off of the defenceless, and their effects permeate all levels of society and all nations, regardless of wealth or status. The business has become so widespread that it has embedded itself into local economies, making it increasingly difficult to expel. Interestingly, traffickers often exploit those already “on the move,” and is often bred off of willful movement, which then transforms into coercion and entrapment. Without access to resources, education, regulation, or protection, victims will not see a better end. Furthermore, those that are marginalised or stigmatised suffer worse conditions, with little support or help available to them during and after their ordeal.

Despite efforts to combat the issue, poor national enforcement and regulation make action difficult. Many international and non-governmental organisations have made huge strides against human trafficking; however, a lack of practical local, national, and international cooperation has precluded any substantive movement towards tangible improvement. Furthermore, the systemic issues that perpetuate the demand and market for trafficking need to be addressed in order to reach a tangible solution.

There is no shortage of jobs in Asia. A huge demand for labour and a huge potential for financial development exist; however, human trafficking continues to stifle legal, ethical economic progression. The thousands of trafficking victims are potential workers — contributing members of society. The snare of trafficking dashes any hope of a bright future for these people, subjugating them to the vices of greed and cruelty.

Timeline

1807 — Britain passes the first law banning slavery in response to the African slave trade, marking the first legislative action against slavery.

1 L. (n.d.). United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Retrieved July 15, 2017, from http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/human- trafficking/what-is-human-trafficking.html 2 Human trafficking and smuggling in Asia. (2016, April 24). Retrieved July 15, 2017, from http://asiancenturyinstitute.com/society/1120-human-trafficking-and-smuggling-in-asia

Vancouver Model United Nations 2018 6 March 1927 — Slavery Convention adopted in Geneva following a meeting of the League of Nations. The international community begins to tend against slavery.

September 1956 — The Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery is adopted.

December 1990 — The United Nations General Assembly adopts the United Nations International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families. It extended slavery coverage to countless more people.

November 2000 — The United Nations General Assembly adopts the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children (also referred to as the Trafficking Protocol or UN TIP Protocol). This Protocol brought the world’s attention to the effects of trafficking on women and children.

December 2000 — The United Nations General Assembly adopts the Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea, and Air.

December 2001 — Second World Congress against Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children in Yokohama occurs.

January 2002 — South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) Convention on Preventing and Combating Trafficking in Women and Children for Prostitution (the SAARC Trafficking Convention) is signed. Marks Asian progress towards slavery prevention.

January 2002 — Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution, and Child Pornography is adopted.

December 2003 — The United Nations Protocol against Trafficking in Persons is instituted.3

2008 — A container full of migrants smuggled into Thailand was discovered, in which 57 suffocated to death. The question of trafficking was brought to centre stage.

March 2009 — United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) launches the Blue Heart Campaign to fight human trafficking and to inspire greater action to raise awareness among the common people.4

2011-13 — UNODC issues the Thematic Programme Against Transnational Organized Crime And Illicit Trafficking to combat human trafficking.5

November 2015 — ASEAN Convention against Trafficking in Persons Especially Women and Children is signed by all Heads of States at the 27th ASEAN Summit.

June 2016 — Trafficking in Persons Report is released, providing extensive information and statistics about trafficking perpetrators and victims. Provides widespread data and information about trafficking, better equipping nations and organisations.

3 R. (n.d.). United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Retrieved July 18, 2017, from http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/human- trafficking/global-report-on-trafficking-in-persons.html 4 L. (n.d.). United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Retrieved July 15, 2017, from http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/human- trafficking/what-is-human-trafficking.html 5 Ibid.

Vancouver Model United Nations 2018 7 June 2016 — TraffickCam, an innovative phone app, is released to help identify hotel rooms in which traffickers are held.6

Historical Analysis

Origins The term “human trafficking” was coined in 2000;7 however, the concept has been integral to civilisations for years. Human trafficking victims are essentially modern-day slaves, kept against their will to perform actions or duties for their owners. Evidence of slavery predates all written records and has been uncovered in many societies. When a society develops to the point where it can have an economic surplus and relative abundance as well as a caste system, those at the bottom are going to be exploited and used by those at the top. Many investigations into ancient societies uncover proof of slavery and exploitation for labour or sex, not much different than today. For example, slavery was an intrinsic feature of the Roman and Egyptian cultures, driving development and expansion.

The earliest account of international human trafficking is the African slave trade, where American and European buyers held dominion over African men and women. Led by the British in 1562, the slave trade developed through the proliferation of plantation colonies. Within the next few centuries, Spain, the US, Holland, France, Sweden, and Denmark would join the industry. However, the trade was legal and supported only up until 1807, when Britain passed the first law against slavery. Even though slavery was banned in Britain, many other nations took years to catch up in legislation: the US outlawed slavery in 1865 with the 13th Amendment,8 two years after the Emancipation Proclamation.

Japan presents a harrowing account of modern day slavery during the Second World War: comfort women. During the war, women from occupied countries such as Korea, China, and the Philippines were used for military “comfort stations” around the Asian peninsula.9 After being coerced or abducted out of their homes, women were bound to a comfort station, where they would service the military. The government hoped that the stations would help limit rape and disease between soldiers and provide comfort in times of great distress; however, it was clear that the stations achieved neither of these goals, instead aggravating the problems. It is unclear how many comfort women there were, but estimates range from 20,000 to 50,000. However, it is clear that three-quarters of them did not survive the physical and sexual abuse they underwent through their time as a sex slave. Those who did survive live through crippling mental illness and trauma.

Structural Development and Clauses Within the next half-century, several structural factors continued to grow in favour of the human trafficking industry, feeding it and leading to its expansion. Globalisation, or the increasing importance of international markets and trade, made labour migration more viable and favourable for those that wanted to earn more for their families.10 People living in developing countries often saw overseas work as great bastions of opportunity

6 About TraffickCam. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://traffickcam.com/about 7 Oster, G. (2016, April 29). The History of Human Trafficking. Retrieved from http://hankeringforhistory.com/the-history-of- human-trafficking/ 8 A Short History of Trafficking in Persons. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://f3magazine.unicri.it/?p=281 9 Women made to become comfort women - South Korea. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.awf.or.jp/e1/korea.html 10 Czaika, M., & Haas, H. (2014, May 20). The Globalization of Migration: Has the World Become More Migratory? Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/imre.12095/full

Vancouver Model United Nations 2018 8 and were very eager to work abroad to support their families. The promise of riches in other countries contrasted severely with the lack of economic opportunity in home countries, and this prompted a large influx of migrant workers into more economically developed countries. What this meant was that more people were moving around in search of work, and therefore more people were vulnerable to becoming trafficking victims. Traffickers would seek out those already looking to work or travel abroad, coerce them into joining their group or program, and then bind or enslave them through a variety of means. Once enslaved, the victims would be traded and sold to do various jobs, ranging from manufacturing to prostitution.

As countries grew, so did the severity and scale of poverty, which made many people desperate and vulnerable.11 The most likely victims of human trafficking are the impoverished, as they lack education, often travel to work, and are easier to coerce. Traffickers often target these people because they are easy to deceive. Poorer countries feature a lack of opportunity, meaning more people will migrate elsewhere to work in order to support their families. These countries also lack proper education, so people are less equipped to protect themselves from traffickers or an abusive work environment. In addition, the desperate circumstances that many impoverished people are in can force them to make very rash decisions. A large portion of human trafficking deals with the trade of children, whether for prostitution, labour, or adoption. Traffickers often buy children off of impoverished parent(s), promising that their children will have a good life and that the money they receive will help them start anew. Of course, the children do not face bright futures in the hands of these human traffickers.

The dawn of the information age and the rapid proliferation of consumer media and connectivity has revolutionised the way every industry works, including human trafficking. The wide reach of social networking gives traffickers another platform to appeal to and recruit trafficking victims, luring them into their grasp with the prospect of riches and a better life.12 Furthermore, it allows traffickers to reach a wider customer market, making more matches with prostitutes, more deals with employers, and more money per day.

Increasing globalisation, poverty, and interconnectivity have placed more people in positions for traffickers to exploit them. Developers looking to finish a project will try to cut costs where they can to maximise profits and efficiency. A worker that doesn’t require breaks, support, or safe working conditions is extremely favourable for unethical employers. Projects fuelled by slave labour are inherently more profitable but very inhumane; however, the drive of productivity and profit drives the demand for human trafficking and slave labour. Need for trafficked human capital does not necessarily need to stem from greed; as medical technologies have evolved, wealthier countries’ waitlists for organ donors have grown, and many patients die waiting for the treatment they need to survive. Trafficked victims are often stripped of their organs, which are then sold to high bidders.

Human trafficking continues to grow as organisations take advantage of more and more people, especially in Asia. In 2008, several migrants were discovered to be smuggled into Thailand, of which 57 suffocated to death in the seafood container where they were being transported in. The 67 survivors, although promised work in Thailand, were abandoned in a foreign nation when the traffickers realised that many individuals had died on the journey.13 This incident, among many others, brought trafficking to the forefront of discussion between Asian governments.

11 Brunswick, C. G. (2010, November 25). What is poverty? - Economic and Social Inclusion Corporation. Retrieved from http://www2.gnb.ca/content/gnb/en/departments/esic/overview/content/what_is_poverty.html 12 How traffickers use social media to lure vulnerable teenagers into sex work. (2015, November 15). Retrieved from https://venturebeat.com/2015/11/15/how-traffickers-use-social-media-to-lure-vulnerable-teenagers-into-sex-work/ 13 Brown, S. (2014, June 21). Tackling Thailand's human trafficking problem. Retrieved from http://www.cnn.com/2014/06/20/world/asia/thailand-trafficking-report/index.html

Vancouver Model United Nations 2018 9 When slavery was abolished, human trafficking was born. Dozens of treaties and protocols have been signed, hundreds of ratifiers and organisations have pledged to see the end of human trafficking, and yet nothing seems to be effective. The practice is only spreading, and all efforts to date have been unable to prevent its proliferation. Continuing to implement national and transnational programs and plans, cooperating and collaborating with states and organisations, and widening our perspective and understanding of the issue is the only way towards success. As an intergovernmental organisation, it is the ACD’s obligation to work towards a solution to human trafficking for the millions of people who face uncertain futures.

Past UN and International Involvement

Early Action The earliest account of international action against slavery was that of the movement against White Slavery. Defined as the “procurement - by use of force, deceit, or drugs - of a white woman or girl against her will for prostitution,” white slavery brought governments together. They hosted international conferences in Paris, London, and Budapest to discuss multilateral action,14 leading up to the signing of the International Agreement for the Suppression of “White Slave Traffic” in 1904 as the first international agreement on human trafficking. Historians have criticised this agreement as a measure to limit female labour migration; however, it was still a moral step towards limiting slave trade.

The rise and fall of the First World War took attention away from white slavery led to the instatement of the League of Nations, an international forum for which agreements could be made. Attention was brought to the international trafficking of all women, regardless of race, and children of both genders. 34 League of Nations member states met in Geneva in 1921 and signed the International Convention for the Suppression of Traffic in Women and Children.15 This convention expanded the scope of trafficking to women regardless of race, and children regardless of gender. It called for the protection of migrants during the migration process and emphasised the importance of raising awareness to trafficking. With this, further field research and analysis into the issue of trafficking was carried out by various organisations and governments. Institutions began equipping themselves with the knowledge they needed to address this issue on a global scale.

The United Nations The Second World War proved the ineffectiveness of the League of Nations and set the grounds for the United Nations, another world forum for discussion and diplomacy. Member states met and adopted the United Nations Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others in 1949, along with a document on human rights.16 This convention was the first legally binding global agreement on human trafficking. Shortly after, India began the Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, persecuting parties

14 Oster, G. (2016, April 29). The History of Human Trafficking. Retrieved from http://hankeringforhistory.com/the-history-of- human-trafficking/ 15 EU. (2017, November 10). 1921 International Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women and Children - Together Against Trafficking in Human Beings - European Commission. Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/anti-trafficking/legislation- and-case-law-international-legislation-united-nations/1921-international-convention 16 Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/TrafficInPersons.aspx

Vancouver Model United Nations 2018 10 involved in trafficking. Despite its good intent, the Act led to the prosecution of many sex workers, causing them to lose everything.

The United Nations and its agencies, along with national and regional bodies of governments, have taken huge measures against human trafficking in an attempt to curb the practice and mitigate its effects. As trafficking continued to grow, the UN deemed it necessary to address in 2000, adopting the United Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress, and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children.17 The Protocol criminalised and gave a new, broad definition of human trafficking, expanding it to include organ harvesting, slavery, and forced labour. It introduced the three P’s approach to human trafficking, indicating the need to prevent, protect, and prosecute in curbing human trafficking. A regional follow-up to the Protocol shifted the focus of human trafficking to the rights of the victims and the myriad forms of coercion and services that victims are put through.

The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) The UNODC has done extensive legislative work to further the battle against trafficking.18 The UNODC helps governments draft laws and strategies against traffickers and provides resources to help implement national programs. In the status quo, many criminals are not convicted of their crimes. This not only means that many traffickers that have violated human rights are free people, but also that many more traffickers are joining the trade due to low prosecution rates. The UNODC works to enact the 3 P’s of human trafficking and provides governments with the means to do so. Furthermore, the UNODC has done valuable research on the state of human trafficking. In 2012, the UNODC Report on Human Trafficking was published with data from all around Asia; the report exposed more than 10,000 cases of trafficking in South Asia, East Asia, and the Pacific between 2007-2010 and provided ample information for governments to adapt their policies.19 With better knowledge on the issue, organisations have a much easier time crafting plans and protocols to manage the situation.

Building awareness to help protect potential victims of trafficking is a major focus of the UNODC. By coordinating with many governments, it ensures that potential migrant workers have access to information on how to protect themselves from traffickers. In February of 2013, India formally criminalised human trafficking and began measures to protect its citizens from the practice. As the nation with the most trafficking victims, this was an important step towards solving the problem. A government web portal was launched on February 20, 2014 that tracks cases of human trafficking, provides vital information on laws and legal protection, shows important data and statistics on trafficking victims, showcases previous court judgements, outlines UN conventions, exposes details of the trafficker and the trafficker victim, and houses success stories.20 It also provides a link to “Trackchild,” the national webpage that tracks missing children. The aim of the website was to provide free, accessible information about trafficking to the general public to limit slavery cases. Many other nations have put similar programs and resources in place to help educate the public; however, many nations continue to withhold support and keep possible trafficking victims in the dark.

17 UN, United Nations, UN Treaties, Treaties. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=IND&mtdsg_no=XVIII-12-a&chapter=18&lang=en 18 UNODC. (n.d.). United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Retrieved from http://www.unodc.org/unodc/index.html 19 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/human-trafficking/global- report-on-trafficking-in-persons.html 20 Anti-human trafficking portal launched by Home Ministry. (2014, February 20). Retrieved from http://zeenews.india.com/news/nation/anti-human-trafficking-portal-launched-by-home-ministry_912947.html

Vancouver Model United Nations 2018 11 By partnering with other inter-governmental and non-governmental bodies, the UNODC works multilaterally to address trafficking. The Inter-agency Coordination Group against Trafficking in Persons (ICAT), the United National Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking (UN.GIFT), the Global Migration Group (GMG), and the United Nations Voluntary Trust Fund for Victims of Human Trafficking all work alongside the UNODC to discuss and fight human trafficking. One distinguished initiative set forth by the UNODC is the Blue Heart Campaign Against Human Trafficking, which was initiated in March 2009. The Campaign works to raise funding and awareness for human trafficking and trafficking efforts. It helps encourage involvement in the issue. “The Blue Heart represents the sadness of those who are trafficked while reminding us of the cold-heartedness of those who buy and sell fellow human beings.”21 The problem encourages involvement and awareness around human trafficking and provides a way for the common public to get involved.

Intensive UN action through its several bodies, including the UNODC, has provided hope for millions of trafficking victims around the world. However, systematic barriers still stand in the way of a comprehensive solution that will effectively eliminate trafficking. Future action must address inefficiencies in implementation and execution, and it must work to eliminate both the effects and roots of human trafficking.

Current Situation

Definition Human trafficking is defined as the trade of people through coercive means for labour, sex, or exploitation. The UN Protocol to Prevent, Suppress, and Punish Trafficking in Persons provides a comprehensive definition of trafficking in persons as:

“The recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs.”

To clarify the term, trafficking may encompass forced marriage or any blatant restriction of freedom. Although the term implies movement, no inter-border movement is necessary for trafficking to occur; in fact, most trafficking occurs within countries.

Smuggling, or the illegal practice of sneaking willing people past borders for a fee, is not the same as trafficking. Human trafficking entails a lack of free will, while smuggling is a paid service. Smuggling affects most countries, costing thousands of lives per year, and undermining national sovereignty. As well, smuggling is highly profitable for criminals, as undertakers are rarely prosecuted, meaning criminal organisations have an incentive to proliferate their services. To stay under the radar, smugglers change their routes very often at the expense of their clients’ safety. Furthermore, they often use risky and dangerous methods to hide their customers from border control. Although smuggling is not human trafficking, it is still an important topic to discuss since smuggling cases often turn into trafficking cases.

21 N. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.unodc.org/blueheart/

Vancouver Model United Nations 2018 12 The International Labor organisation’s statistics show that profits from forced labour are at 150 billion USD, affecting 21 million people.22 It is the fastest growing practice of criminal syndicates worldwide. Huge profits are made by traffickers selling and exploiting people; each unit can cost up to a few thousand dollars, and employers aren’t required to provide any support or benefits to their employees, saving money and boosting profits. However, by historic standards, the average human trafficking victim is still grossly undervalued at $9,000USD. In 19th century America, a slave was the modern equivalent of 40,000USD. The UNODC report on human trafficking, published in 2014,23 exposes some important numbers on trafficking: in East Asia and South Asia, sexual exploitation makes up 26% of the victims, while forced labour makes up 64%. 33% of all victims worldwide are children, and 49% are adult women.

Currently, many causes, forms, means, and effects of trafficking exist, perpetrating harm and deception. Systemic issues from corruption to poverty plague the entire system, providing passages and motivations for trafficking to continue. Traffickers have a variety of purposes for trafficking humans and a multitude of coercion methods to fulfill demands. Lastly, victims and survivors both experience profound physical and mental trauma, the effects of which are everlasting.

Forms Several forms of human trafficking exist to feed several markets and industries. Each one targets distinct demographics and utilises different methods for recruitment and coercion to keep their businesses running. To summarise, there are five main forms of human trafficking: child trafficking, the sex trade, forced marriage, forced labour, and organ trafficking.

As vulnerable members of society, children are often trafficked for unique purposes. Traffickers victimise children for prostitution and pornography because of the niched market they can serve. Buyers that have particular interests seek out these markets to fulfill their sick needs. Furthermore, these unconventional individuals seek out child prostitutes over of-age sex workers because they have a lower chance of carrying sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Child prostitution usually takes form in sex trafficking, where children are kidnapped, tricked, or bought into the sex trade, or survival sex, where children provide sexual services for basic needs. Up to 1.2 million children are trafficked per year worldwide.24 Children are also trafficked for labour and services, as their servitude doesn’t require any compensation or support, and they are much easier to force into submission. Begging, manual labour, domestic servitude, and manufacturing are some of the tasks a child labourer would partake in. Child labour often interferes with a child’s ability to attend school, and it leaves harmful mental, physical, social, and moral effects on survivors. While it is not ideal, a paradigm shift in child labour would destabilise the economy, and therefore it must be treated with sensitivity. Children are trafficked for adoption or forced marriage to those that can afford it and cannot otherwise obtain children. These children are often bought off of their birth parents in the promise of a better life, or in the promise of a few extra dollars. In particular, Thailand has dismal records when it comes to child trafficking - they’ve been found to have the worst child trafficking rates and practices.

22 ILO. (2012, June 01). Retrieved from http://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/newsroom/news/WCMS_181961/lang-- en/index.htm 23 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/human-trafficking/global- report-on-trafficking-in-persons.html 24 Child trafficking. (2011, March 22). Retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/protection/57929_58005.html

Vancouver Model United Nations 2018 13 The sex trade is a huge benefactor of human trafficking, and in part is fuelled by it. A UN report from 2012 shows that up to 80% of all trafficking victims are being exploited for sex trafficking, providing 32 billion USD to the industry, annually.25 Sex trafficking can be split into pimp-controlled trafficking or gang-controlled trafficking, the former controlled by an individual and the latter controlled by a group. Both forms use similar techniques in their work. Traffickers find women and girls that are alone or separated and target those that seem depressed, unconfident, unstable, or rebellious. At this point, the trafficker would either kidnap her or recruit her. Offers of marriage, lavish gifts, love, and extravagant fame are often used to gain trust and interest from the girl. The group or pimp will then try to make the girl dependent on them, providing love and affection as well as further promises of a good life. As the process goes on, the trafficker may use more forceful tactics to secure and maintain control, such as force, drugs, and emotional or financial entrapment. Gangs often form sex circles and develop partnerships to share women. This reduces the risk of getting caught and boosts profits, while also solidifying and complicating the trade.

Within families, women and girls are sexually exploited either by another family member or in exchange for drugs and money. Familial trafficking is much harder to detect. Victims often have much more personal freedom and rarely reach out. As well, these women and girls are often dependent on their families for survival, meaning speaking out would mean losing their livelihood. Furthermore, forced marriage is considered a type of trafficking since one or more parties do not have a say in the matter. Furthermore, it can qualify as another type of trafficking depending on the relationship: if sex is forced, it can be considered sex trafficking, if domestic service is involved, it can be considered labour trafficking. Forced marriage continues to be a part of Indian society that is deeply concerning. It is a huge part of their culture, sometimes the autonomy of the married individuals is not taken into account.26

Forced labour puts millions of people at risk of abuse and feeds numerous industries and economies. Some countries rely on it solely for development, such as North Korea,27 putting their civilians in detrimental situations. In forced labour, victims are forced to work through a variety of coercive means in domestic servitude, agriculture, construction, manufacturing, and entertainment, among other sectors. Traffickers exploit those that are greatly impoverished and unemployed, looking for economies that are riddled with weak rule of law, corruption, and cheap labour. They target the most vulnerable in societies, such as women, children, migrants, and marginalised groups. In Asia and the Pacific alone, 11.7 million people are suspected to be victims of forced labour.

Organ Trafficking Organ trafficking is defined as a situation where someone isn’t properly compensated for the sale of an organ, where an organ is removed without knowledge or consent, or any illicit activity involving the illegal trade of organs. The organ trade is driven by a global demand for transplant resources: thousands of people die waiting for the organ they need to survive and many spend years waiting for treatment. Thousands are targeted for their organs and trafficked into giving them up, stripping them of their body parts.28

25 Human Trafficking by the Numbers. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.humanrightsfirst.org/resource/human-trafficking- numbers 26 India. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/countries/2016/258784.htm 27 Borowiec, S. (2016, October 06). North Koreans perform $975 million worth of forced labor each year. Retrieved from http://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-north-korea-forced-labor-20161006-snap-story.html 28 Perry, P. (2016, April 24). What You Need to Know About Human Organ Trafficking. Retrieved from http://bigthink.com/philip-perry/what-you-need-to-know-about-human-organ-trafficking

Vancouver Model United Nations 2018 14 The huge, growing demand for organs coupled with the shortage of supply makes organ prices very high on the black market. As a result, trafficking organs is very profitable: people are willing to pay huge sums to save their lives. The disparity between supply and demand is what makes the organ trafficking industry so successful. However, many governments prohibit the trade of organs because it increases the risk of organ trafficking. Instead, many have opted in favour of organ pairing programs. Often, a loved one or family member is willing to donate an organ but isn’t the correct fit. By pairing up two couples of patient and donor where the other donor matches the other patient, both can receive their organ. However, these programs aren’t fully effective, and waiting lists are still extremely long. Furthermore, many cannot wait for their treatment to arrive. By trading on the black market, traffickers can set extremely high prices and avoid government regulation on sales.

Traffickers use a variety of coercion tactics to recruit and secure victims in their trade. These tactics vary in effectiveness and destructiveness and are often considered blatant violations of human rights. Debt bondage locks workers into a contract that isn’t properly defined. The labour supposedly pays back the debt, although this is not always the case. Debt bondage can be inherited, enslaving whole familial lines into forced servitude. South Asia is the largest practitioner of debt bondage, with about 84-88% of all bonded workers in the world. Traffickers also use various threats of violence, punishment, entrapment, or further debt to keep workers compliant. They keep personal freedoms to a minimum, restricting their actions and movement.

Consequences The coercion tactics and abuse that victims of trafficking endure for years in captivity leave lasting psychological and physical damage that can cripple survivors’ ability to live a normal life. The constant state of restlessness, stress, and fear that traffickers and pimps impose on their subjects is debilitating.

During their work, trafficking victims undergo constant threats of violence or punishment from customers, employers, traffickers, corrupt officials, or pimps. Furthermore, the fear of a police raid on their workplace lowers trust in the police force and puts victims on edge. Although police raids are meant to lower sex trafficking rates, they usually end up harming victims both through abuse and fear. This places them in a constant state of fear and stress beyond what any human is capable of healthily processing. After the experience is over, the fear and stress have been implanted into the survivor’s mind, manifesting itself in a variety of mental disorders and illnesses. Survivors very often must deal with trauma alongside social exclusion, making reintegration efforts very difficult.

Traffickers use psychological stress to control and manipulate their workers. Coercion in trafficking occurs in 3 phases: recruitment, initiation, and indoctrination.29 Following the recruitment stage explained above involving temptation and promises of fame and fortune, victims are held captive and exposed to a variety of stimuli to keep them acquiescent. Sometimes living in very tight quarters, trafficking victims are isolated and kept for long periods of time without food, water, or sleep. Drugs and substances are often used as an incentive or to control them. Sex trafficking is characterised by repeated rape and sex, as well as violence, torture, brainwashing, constant intimidation, and assault. Labour trafficking often comes with the trauma of living as a slave, enduring long, arduous hours without respite and going for days without food. Victims fall into learned helplessness, a

29 Phases of Sex Trafficking. (2011, August 05). Retrieved from https://humantraffickingstudy.wordpress.com/2011/08/05/phases- of-sex-trafficking/

Vancouver Model United Nations 2018 15 state where the victim, after being repeatedly subjected to damaging situations, fully understands that they have no control and stops trying to resist adversity.30

These extreme circumstances and mental maltreatment incite a variety of mental disorders including depression, guilt, self-blame, anger, insomnia, PTSD, numbing, and extreme stress, ailments that have short-term implications but lifelong effects. Complex trauma, a condition involving multifaceted conditions of many different mental deficiencies, may form as a response to abuse.31 Furthermore, social stigma surrounding trafficking victims makes it extremely difficult for survivors to return to normalcy. In addition to the long-term psychological implications of human trafficking, many sustain numerous physical injuries and marks. Abuse and malnutrition under the hands of traffickers can leave lasting damage to the health of a survivor. Furthermore, chronic stress can affect the immune system, suppressing cell and hormone responses. Paired with widespread proliferation of HIV/AIDS, many trafficking victims live in very poor health. Especially in brothels, prostitutes are often branded by their traffickers or pimps, leaving a painful reminder of their past on their body.

The young age of children makes them especially vulnerable to the effects of trafficking. The sustained abuse destroys the physical and mental health of the child in order to fully subjugate them to the trafficker. On a daily basis, the child would experience severe trauma against their development of self. Children who grow up like this are often anti-social, overly-sexual, self-destructive, aggressive, untrusting, and victims of substance abuse, complex trauma, and a host of mental disorders.32 The mental damage that victims endure makes a recovery extremely difficult, especially for girls. Furthermore, the bodies of trafficked children are seldom respected and are subjected to repeated rape and malnutrition, which have destructive effects on the child’s well-being. Both children and adults suffer through absolutely depraved suffering which has profound effects on the psychological and physical health of the victims.

Possible Solutions and Controversies

Despite strong efforts from the UN and its various organs to address human trafficking, the international community is still failing to decrease trafficking rates. In moving forward, it’s important to understand the reasons that current solutions aren’t working, delve deep into the systemic causes and drives for human trafficking, the various forms of and networks in the trade, and the profound effects it has on governments, economies, and victims. Once a baseline is established, fitting solutions can be drafted and implemented to solve this extremely multifaceted problem. The solutions below are possible ideas, and many other solutions exist. Try and implement a resolution that considers all viewpoints and works to promote progress and humanity.

Better Screening and Raids Currently, police raids do little to limit trafficking. Raids target hubs of trafficking activity, such as brothels or workplaces, and forcibly detain anyone involved. The hope is that the threat of police intervention is enough to deter criminal activity and therefore limit trafficking. However, raids fail to do this. Police mistakenly detain legal workers instead of trafficked victims very often and don’t target enough centres to be effective.33

30 Cherry | Reviewed by a board-certified physician, K. (2017, June 24). What Causes Learned Helplessness? Retrieved from https://www.verywell.com/what-is-learned-helplessness-2795326 31 Complex Trauma. (2010, May 13). Retrieved from http://www.nctsn.org/trauma-types/complex-trauma 32 Ibid. 33 The Untold Side of Raids and Rescues: Rethinking Anti-Trafficking Efforts Home • HTC Blog • The Untold Side of Raids and Rescues: Rethinking Anti-Trafficking Efforts. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://humantraffickingcenter.org/the-untold-side-of-raids- and-rescues-re-thinking-anti-trafficking-efforts/

Vancouver Model United Nations 2018 16 Furthermore, the police sometimes strike up deals with traffickers, becoming complicit in the trade. Police rarely receive the funding they need to act properly anyways, so they never have the resources they need to perform a fully successful raid. As well, crime organisations work in trafficking networks, making them harder to track and harder to address. Smarter raid systems and screening protocols should be put in place to better address trafficking hubs. Increasing funding for raids will help policemen be better equipped to confront traffickers. Looking to expel corrupt policemen and officials that hamper the system should be a priority. As well, better screening of businesses and employers to ensure that they are complying with workplace and human rights standards will help identify traffickers.

Fighting corruption in the government is integral to the solution of this problem. If officials are involved in the trafficking process, letting traffickers through borders and endorsing their activities to grow GDP, criminal organisations spread and integrate themselves into communities and countries. Making sure that acting officials are legitimate and non-corrupt and removing those that aren’t will help to eliminate corruption in all levels of government. Furthermore, establishing a stronger rule of law and improving government systems as a whole will surely add to the solution.

International Cooperation As it stands, certain countries and certain groups are especially vehement violators of human trafficking international law. North Korea, for example, publicly uses and sells forced labourers as part of a national program.34 As a result, nations need to band together in agreement against these violators to ensure that enough pressure is applied to influence positive change. Powerful national legislation paired with cogent international duress should strain non-compliant nations and groups to fix their actions. Sanctions, set on a certain country to pressure them into changing, are often extremely effective in getting countries to adjust. However, with crime syndicates, things can get more complicated. Finding ways to stress criminal organisations and implementing them will be a main focus in the committee.

Trans-national cooperation must extend beyond aggressive remedial action: it must also encourage better integration and immigration between countries. Many people feel the need to enlist a smuggler because of stringent border policies, while others are simply unaware of the processes and their rights. Encouraging safe, legal migration through improving visa policies and facilitating good media will ensure that people can travel with ease. Furthermore, people need to be aware of the risk of being trafficked. Making information about safe workplace habits, good, trusted employers, migration standards, and trafficking risks free to view and accessible will help prospective migrant workers do so in a safe and protected way. By ensuring that people are migrating through safe, legal means and finding work at trusted locations, trafficking will diminish.

Local Development The main cause of human trafficking is poverty, and by addressing it, we can help alleviate some of the factors that contribute to this heinous trade. Poverty drives human trafficking in more ways than one. First, it lowers the standard of education people receive, meaning they are less equipped to find safer jobs and they are less informed about trafficking risks. Second, it drives people to find better employment outside of their towns or countries, contributing to migrant working. With an increase in migrant working, more people are vulnerable to being trafficked. Third, it creates slums where criminal activity can flourish, and provides routes where

34 Borowiec, S. (2016, October 06). North Koreans perform $975 million worth of forced labor each year. Retrieved from http://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-north-korea-forced-labor-20161006-snap-story.html

Vancouver Model United Nations 2018 17 ordinary citizens can become complicit in trafficking. As a result, finding ways of alleviating poverty and its effects will greatly diminish the prevalence of human trafficking.

Migrant working is increasingly important in a globalising labour market, and ensuring that people are finding work through legitimate means at trustworthy workplaces is extremely important in curbing human trafficking. Routine checks on employers as well as government tracking of migrant workers will help us better understand migrant working trends. Furthermore, encouraging all workers to inform the government of their labour will help document more workers, making it easier for governments to account for and provide for them. By addressing the problems that arise with migrant labour, we can limit exploitation in the workplace.

Human trafficking can implement itself into the economy, making forceful removal detrimental to those that rely on it for income. Not all benefactors of human trafficking are necessarily traffickers: legitimate sex workers often benefit from having a brothel to work in, and many economies have grown around the illegal trade. This means that governments cannot just crack down on trafficking without great repercussions: the profound effects on the economy that a huge shift in human trafficking would have makes it a sensitive subject. Easing legal economies into the spaces that illegal economies leave will ensure a smooth transition into humane practices. Making sure that beneficiaries of the old system are accounted for will prevent a recession back into trafficking and encourage legal economic development.

Current integration systems for human trafficking survivors don’t do enough to address mental, physical, and social concerns. As it stands, many damaged victims are finding it extremely hard to reintegrate into society.35 If the crippling mental stress wasn’t enough to mar their efforts to recover, social stigmatisation alienates them and makes it even harder to progress. As a result, many live extremely miserable lives, without any hope of alleviation. Improving integration systems with better support and resources will help survivors rejoin society as functioning members. Targeting social stigma and ostracisation will remove the barriers that prevent trafficking victims from becoming members of the community. By ensuring that surviving victims are arranged for, healing can begin.

Education Governments must look to increase standards of basic education, workplace education, and education on the risks of trafficking. Each of these will equip the common citizen with tools they need to survive in the workplace, to prevent themselves from being exploited, and to avoid being trafficked. Implementing education into schools, workplaces, and public centres will ensure that those looking to work in the future are well equipped.

Making standard education better in developing countries should be a priority regardless of trafficking. Building a generation of educated, skilled workers is integral to any economy. As well, skilled workers are less likely to turn to traffickers for work - trafficking victims are often coerced to do hard, unskilled labour, something unlikely for a skilled worker to do. Furthermore, workplace education should be improved to help potential workers better identify workplace risks and protect themselves against traffickers. By teaching them their rights in the workplace and identifying common hazards, workers can be more mindful of their workplace environments and choose better employers to work with.

Increasing awareness about trafficking will also help people stay away from potential trafficking traps. Making people aware of common trafficking coercion techniques and showing them safe, legitimate workplaces will help them judge which employers are trustworthy and which are traffickers. As well, awareness helps bring support and funding to the issue, which can better equip governments to implement policies and programs to address

35 Ending the Stigma Surrounding Human Trafficking. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.seethetriumph.org/blog/ending-the- stigma-surrounding-human-trafficking-series-introduction

Vancouver Model United Nations 2018 18 the problem at its root. Looking into furthering education, workplace standards, and awareness will help fight trafficking, equipping the common citizen with the tools she needs to protect herself from trafficking.

Better Organ Donations Currently, many countries have huge waiting lists for organ recipients and some wait years for treatment. Many die before they are able to receive a transplant. Understandably, there is a huge global demand for organs, especially vital organs such as a heart that can’t be donated easily, like a kidney or a lung. However, many countries facilitate donations without financial compensation, causing an organ shortage which could drive criminals to steal and sell organs. The shortage driven by these policies encourages human traffickers to harvest and sell organs on the black market, costing lives in the process. Iran’s donor system, in opposition to ideals set forth by the WHO and other international bodies, allows payment for kidney transplants.36 In order to increase donor count, shorten waiting lists, and eliminate the black market for kidneys, this policy changed the way organ donations worked in Iran. The government would pay for the surgery and reimburse the donor with money and a health insurance discount. It provides for those that desperately need money and for those that desperately need a kidney: it is compensated goodwill. While more people get kidneys in Iran’s system, the risk of governmentally funded organ trafficking rises. Furthermore, it subjugates poorer people to donor status, and makes it difficult for them to get donations themselves.

Bloc Positions

Destination Countries Countries where trafficking victims end up, or destination countries, have a special responsibility to uphold. Often times, the origin country is the same nation as the destination country, in which case they hold a double responsibility. For example, India sees widespread intergenerational forced labour, sex trafficking, and forced marriage, mostly occurring within borders. Traffickers target the lowest and most vulnerable in society such as minorities and migrants feeding industries such as brick working, carpet weaving, agriculture, and mining. Some of the trafficked are sent to beg for their employers. North Korea has national labour camps employing anywhere from 80 thousand to 120 thousand in prison camps. Some are sold to Russia and China to profit the regime.37

These countries vary in their approaches to trafficking. Some, such as North Korea and Thailand, readily accept or neglect trafficking that is happening in their own countries. They recognise that it contributes a large portion of GDP, and as a result embraces it for their nation’s prosperity. Other nations, however, have taken strong legislative advances against trafficking. By initiating and enforcing laws against trafficking, funding raids and education programs, and contributing to the solution, many of these countries are actively working against trafficking. However, they sometimes do not have the funds necessary to carry out every operation to its fullest.

Countries with trafficking happening within their borders have a responsibility to counter it with proper policy and support. Governments that look to find better ways of providing for migrant workers and tracking traffickers will affect positive change. Countries should not be actively promoting or utilising slave labour, nor should they be complicit in the trade for GDP growth or corrupt purposes. Thailand, a corrupt country, is an example where politicians and public workers exploit their power for personal gain. Allowing traffickers through, granting

36 Press, A. (2017, February 17). In Iran, unique system allows payments for kidney donors. Retrieved from https://www.statnews.com/2016/08/25/organ-donation-kidneys-iran/ 37 Borowiec, S. (2016, October 06). North Koreans perform $975 million worth of forced labor each year. Retrieved from http://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-north-korea-forced-labor-20161006-snap-story.html

Vancouver Model United Nations 2018 19 illegitimate visas, and sabotaging police raids are just a few of the ways corruption stands in the way of justice in Thailand. Destination countries need to work actively against human trafficking and implement policies that will find illicit activity within their borders and deal with it accordingly, providing support to the victim when needed.

Dependent and Complacent Nations Certain nations and economies have become extremely reliant on trafficking, creating dependent states. When economies grow around trafficking, with policemen and other civilians involved, the forceful removal creates an economic gap which can devastate local economies. As a result, countries need to find ways to ease new protocols and economies into the gaps that old illegal sites will leave. Dependent nations often feature deeply ingrained attitudes and practices of human trafficking, meaning it will be an especially difficult challenge to address. Understanding that change is gradual and implementing plans for the long-term will be important when ensuring a smooth transition into a new, human economy.

Nations with trafficking strongly ingrained in their economy will have a harder time moving away from it. Furthermore, these countries often embrace the prospect of slave labour, and either actively perpetuate it or allow it to happen. The complacency that these countries have developed will prove to be a challenge in addressing the issue as a whole. However, efforts are being made to reintegrate legal economies in place of trafficking-fuelled economies. Look to further ease these nations out of the throes of trafficking and implement holistic programs that account for every party.

When a country is established, developed, and wealthy, the thought of human trafficking seems much less plausible. However, in some very developed nations, trafficking continues to be an issue that needs to be addressed. Japan, for example, has a proliferate underground sex trafficking network that works in bars, clubs, brothels, and massage parlors. Many of the workers are controlled via debt bondage, threats, blackmail, and violence.38 Furthermore, Japanese men frequently practice sex tourism, the practice of hiring foreign prostitutes illegally, in nearby Asian nations. Even worse, the country has an “Industrial Trainee and Technical Internship Program” meant to address labour shortages which actually binds workers by contract and forces them to work. Many other nations are like Japan in that their complacency has barred efforts to improve. Complacent nations should look to fix problems that aren’t as apparent, looking to clean themselves of trafficking. They should work actively against trafficking instead of promoting it.

Origin States Thoughtful, effective governments that work to ease poverty, promote local development, educate their populace, and protect their people will limit trafficking and contribute to the cause. As mentioned above, origin countries are sometimes destination countries. An origin country should look to find ways of protecting its most vulnerable citizens, particularly those looking to move for work or those most marginalised. Providing education and information about workplace rights and trafficking risks should be a huge priority; look to follow the example of India’s “Anti-Trafficking Web Portal.”39

38 Sex trade a shaky safety net for Japan's working-poor women. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2016/08/17/national/social-issues/sex-trade-shaky-safety-net-japans-working-poor- women/#.Wch6u1tSxoi 39 Anti-human trafficking portal launched by Home Ministry. (2014, February 20). Retrieved from http://zeenews.india.com/news/nation/anti-human-trafficking-portal-launched-by-home-ministry_912947.html

Vancouver Model United Nations 2018 20 Countries such as Indonesia, Bangladesh, the Philippines, Nepal, and Myanmar often have migrants leaving to find work elsewhere but end up being subject to forced labour via debt bondage. Specifically, the Rohingya of Myanmar lack formal status in any nation, ostracised by their government for holding non-Buddhist beliefs. Attacks have been raging on between Rohingya militants and the Burmese government, putting the common Rohingya people at risk. As the world’s largest stateless peoples, the Rohingya are extremely vulnerable.40

Small Nations Extremely small nations, especially island nations, tend to have fewer economic opportunities than larger, more developed countries. As a result, unskilled workers need to find better work elsewhere, but more importantly, skilled workers and scholars often leave in search of greater opportunity. This results in a phenomenon known as “brain drain,” where the skilled and educated leave a gap in expertise within a nation.41 This has hugely detrimental effects on the economy and society of an affected nation. Without professionals or an upper class, the economy begins to suffer as a whole: certain roles are in demand without anyone to supply it. Tax revenue is lost, entrepreneurship and business begin to deteriorate, and eventually critical public programs will deteriorate. Small nations with many people leaving to find work need to protect their local economies while also protecting their citizens. If people are finding work domestically instead of overseas where they contribute to other economies, the risk of trafficking is greatly reduced.

These nations have been working to keep workers home, reducing the risk of trafficking and bolstering domestic economies. Finding incentives for people to stay in their countries to fill skilled positions will be paramount to solving the issue of trafficking in small nations. Furthering education and local development ensures that more skilled workers have more opportunities to practice and work in their home country. Making these nations competitive and relevant to the global dialogue is paramount for their success in addressing trafficking.

Discussion Questions

1. How should different forms of human trafficking be considered in order to seek a comprehensive, detailed resolution?

2. What are the fundamental reasons for the continuous expansion of human trafficking within your nation?

3. What national and international measures can be taken to strengthen the implementation of anti- human trafficking policies?

4. How can non-governmental organisations and other independent groups play a role in countering human trafficking?

5. Who are the specific players involved in the criminal organisation of human trafficking? How can they be tackled respectively?

6. Human trafficking is integrated into many local and national economies. How do we address this humanitarian issue and still preserve financial stability?

40 Opinion | Horrors of Human Trafficking in South Asia. (2015, May 29). Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/29/opinion/horrors-of-human-trafficking-in-south-asia.html 41 What is brain drain in economics? (n.d.). Retrieved from http://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-brain-drain-in-economics- definition-causes-effects-examples.html

Vancouver Model United Nations 2018 21 7. Should marginalised and stigmatised groups be accommodated for? How?

8. How can the ACD encourage legal integration of migrants?

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United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/human- trafficking/global-report-on-trafficking-in-persons.html

UNODC. (n.d.). Human Trafficking. Retrieved from http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/human-trafficking/what- is-human-trafficking.html

UNODC. (n.d.). Migrant Smuggling. Retrieved from http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/human- trafficking/smuggling-of-migrants.html?ref=menuside

UNODC. (n.d.). United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Retrieved from http://www.unodc.org/unodc/index.html

The Untold Side of Raids and Rescues: Rethinking Anti-Trafficking Efforts Home • HTC Blog • The Untold Side of Raids and Rescues: Rethinking Anti-Trafficking Efforts. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://humantraffickingcenter.org/the-untold-side-of-raids-and-rescues-re-thinking-anti-trafficking- efforts/

What is brain drain in economics? (n.d.). Retrieved from http://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-brain-drain- in-economics-definition-causes-effects-examples.html

Women made to become comfort women - South Korea. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.awf.or.jp/e1/korea.html

Vancouver Model United Nations 2018 25 Energy Security in Asia

Overview

The world relies on energy to power its vehicles, factories, cities, and houses. Energy security is “the uninterrupted availability of energy sources at an affordable price,”42 and governments have a responsibility to ensure it for their people. As well, it is in the best interest of the government to secure a stable energy source, as it ensures a healthy economy and strong national security. However, not everyone has equal energy access. Numerous issues and challenges preclude nations from building a secure energy framework, and some are merely reluctant to change. Furthermore, the unique situation East Asia finds itself in, with their collective dependence on the Middle East for oil and their common use of sea lanes, makes movement towards market liberalisation and independence very difficult. Billions of people rely on energy in Asia, and stable energy is a huge priority for these people. Society cannot function properly with sporadic, unreliable energy sources; ACD countries will have to find creative, effective ways of collaborating to ensure energy security for the billions of people in Asia.

The discussion on energy security is marked with a few main concerns. With oil and fossil fuels depleting, the world needs to look to alternatives soon- especially a continent as diverse and energy-reliant as Asia. However, demand for the commodity is only growing as nations continue to industrialise and grow. Poor countries and developing countries feature populations that are expanding at unprecedented speeds, and rapid development in the years past has fuelled this population growth. As oil consumption rises, Asian nations find themselves becoming net importers of oil, especially from the Middle East. Reliance on foreign sources of energy is potentially risky; instability in the source could cause huge supply shocks and wreak havoc on Asia.43

The UN and similar organisations have met and discussed energy security, hoping to bring to light a tangible and realistic resolution that would help secure stable energy in the global community. There is a strong need for international organisations in Asia to promote energy and policy cooperation. Non-governmental influence can help governments better respond to crisis situation: the International Energy Agency (IEA) works to do precisely this. In times when oil supply is disrupted, the IEA helps officials respond quickly and effectively, minimizing damages.44 International efforts have provided some answers, but more still needs to be done.

Over the short and long term, governments and regional bodies need to identify and implement solutions to address the current and prospective issues of energy security. The ACD should look to reduce dependence on foreign energy by diversifying energy suppliers and energy sources. By finding domestic reserves or utilising renewables, countries can develop independence and interdependence that will provide a much larger safety net for Asian nations. Seeking to conserve what energy Asia has, using it more efficiently and wasting less, will maximise the reserves they can already draw from. Looking to address possible instabilities with trade routes and sea lanes will provide unfettered trading routes for oil distributors.45

Energy security in Asia affects billions of people. The obstacles that stand in the way of unobstructed energy stability need to be addressed and solved through proper discussion and cooperative implementation. As global

42 IEA. (n.d.). Energy security. Retrieved from https://www.iea.org/topics/energysecurity/subtopics/whatisenergysecurity/ 43 Shah, A. (n.d.). Energy Security. Retrieved from http://www.globalissues.org/article/595/energy-security 44 IEA. (n.d.). International Energy Agency. Retrieved from https://www.iea.org/ 45 Why is the South China Sea contentious? (2016, July 12). Retrieved from http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific- 13748349

Vancouver Model United Nations 2018 26 energy sources become increasingly strained from demand increases and supply decreases, the need for action is apparent. With the help of international organisations and the implementation of smart solutions, the ACD can tackle this global problem. The ACD should look to address short and long term solutions and implement them accordingly. Through the deliberation and debate that will proceed in this conference, a step towards Asian energy security can be made.

Timeline

1859 — The world’s first oil well is drilled in Pennsylvania.

1865 — British economist William Stanley Jevons publishes “The Coal Question,” highlighting the first instance of resource depletion concern.46

1945 — Hiroshima and Nagasaki are targeted with atomic bombs, prompting worldwide discussion on nuclear use.

1960 — OPEC is formed by major energy exporting nations.

1973 — Yom Kippur War in Israel prompts OPEC to refuse oil to the US, Western Europe, and Japan. Oil prices quadruple in what is coined the 1973 Oil Crisis.

1974 — IEA is established as the heart of global discussion on energy use.

1997 — Asian Financial Crisis hits, causing widespread bank runs and devaluations across Asia.

2002 — ACD is formed in Thailand.

2002 — Trans-ASEAN gas pipeline is proposed and construction begins.47

2008 — Oil prices peak at $148USD a barrel during the 2008 financial crisis. Nations worldwide begin addressing the need to develop energy independence.

2009 — China becomes a net importer of oil.

2010 — China hashes out an ambitious plan to reduce reliance on oil.

2014 — A study shows the amount of vehicles in Asia over time. In 1980 there were 2 million vehicles, and in 2014 there are 150 million. By 2030, Asia is projected to house 300 million vehicles.48

Historical Analysis

People have always sought energy to power their lives. Prehistoric and ancient civilisations grew around energy, using fire, manpower, and animal labour to carry out menial tasks. As energy developed and evolved through the years, man has become increasingly reliant on it, allowing it to pervade through all levels of society. It powers

46 An Inquiry Concerning the Progress of the Nation, and the Probable Exhaustion of Our Coal-Mines. (1866). The Coal Question. Retrieved from http://www.econlib.org/library/YPDBooks/Jevons/jvnCQ.html 47 Trans-ASEAN Gas Pipeline. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.aseanenergy.org/programme-area/tagp/ 48 Hart, M. (2016, July 23). East Asia's State-Led Search for Energy Security. Retrieved from https://thediplomat.com/2016/07/east- asias-state-led-search-for-energy-security/

Vancouver Model United Nations 2018 27 every portion of modern life, from transportation to agriculture. Without energy, humanity wouldn’t have succeeded in building such a universal empire.

The question of resource scarcity was brought up after the Industrial Revolution, a period where nations began to rapidly industrialise, urbanise, and globalise. From about 1760 to 1830, normal artisan production methods, which were slow and inefficient, were replaced with mass production and factory systems.49 The revolution started in Britain because of a number of technological innovations that allowed for much more efficient production. Britain began to establish a trading empire, and many other nations began to follow suit. The standard of living consistently increased as the world started to tend towards capitalism. The use of coal and fossil fuels was brought about by this revolution, and in 1865, William Stanley Jevons published his piece, “The Coal Question,” addressing the depleting coal reserves. Since then, humankind has expanded into using countless other forms of energy: electricity, oil, natural gas, solar, wind, geothermal, nuclear, and biofuel. Despite this, perpetually depleting reserves will have a major effect on the economy and energy security. Up until now, oil and coal have been constant sources of energy. However, when these sources start becoming unreliable as reserves are depleted, the world will have to either find alternatives or face the storm.

Depleting Reserves The world is still extremely reliant on oil, shale, and natural gas, with 81% of the total energy supply drawing from these sources. The remaining 18% includes biofuels, hydroelectricity, nuclear energy, and other renewable sources. However, environmentalists and economist both agree that depleting energy reserves pose a huge risk to the global economy. As fossil fuels move towards becoming impossible to obtain, the world will have to consider other options as energy sources. China accounts for 28% of global coal consumption while the rest of Asia accounts for 19%. From 2000 to 2009, China’s coal use grew by 70% compared to the global average of 48% - although this is largely due to their large manufacturing and industrial sectors which rely on coal. However, China, Japan, South Korea, India, and Taiwan, all member states of the ACD, totalled 65% of global imports for coal.50 Asia uses a disproportionate amount of coal compared to the rest of the world, and coal reserves are projected to last for just 150 years at the current rate of depletion. However, the amount of environmental damage all of that coal would do by pumping carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere is enough to trigger a devastating global warming crisis.

While coal fuelled the Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries, oil became the dominant energy source in the 20th century due to increasing use of electricity, automobiles, and airplanes. Oil growth was encouraged even further by falling prices from 1920 until 1973- when oil shocks caused oil prices to rise nine-fold.51 The shock prompted a global shift away from oil towards other forms of energy. Coal, natural gas, and nuclear energy became the primary sources for electricity generation. Furthermore, countries became more careful about their usage of energy and increased their energy efficiency. With smart policies and implementation, Japan became the world’s most energy efficient nation after it suffered profoundly through the oil shocks.52 Despite this, China, Japan, and India remain in the top five consumers of oil, according to the US Energy Information Administration. Oil use has continued to grow, and it remains the fastest-growing energy source. As oil

49 Encyclopædia Britannica. (2017, May 02). Industrial Revolution. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/event/Industrial- Revolution 50 Key world energy statistics. (2016). International Energy Agency. Member and key partner country emergency policies. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.iea.org/topics/energysecurity/memberandkeypartneremergencypolicies/#d.en.164951 51 Oil Embargo, 1973-1974. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://history.state.gov/milestones/1969-1976/oil-embargo 52 Zumbrun, J. (2008, July 07). The Most Energy-Efficient Countries. Retrieved from https://www.forbes.com/2008/07/03/energy- efficiency-japan-biz-energy_cx_jz_0707efficiency_countries.html

Vancouver Model United Nations 2018 28 consumption continues to rise, oil reserves continue to fall. The world needs to be careful in fostering a global economy that is dependent on fossil fuels: it won’t sustain itself forever.

Globalisation and Demand Growth After the Industrial Revolution, the world underwent profound globalisation, connecting regional and national economies to each other like never before. As technological advances continued to push forward, the global economy was becoming ever more prevalent, and as a result, the global energy economy became incredibly intricate. Globalisation drove an advent of international trade, fuelled primarily by evolving energy sources. Furthermore, with quality of life improving everywhere at once, per capita consumption of energy was bound to increase.

In Asia, globalisation has led to a rapid period of industrialisation in the last 20 years. In this timeframe, many Asian nations urbanised and developed extremely quickly while also improving the quality of living. Population growth and increasing productivity led to a boom in the demand for energy in Asia. China’s population grew at an unprecedented rate and is projected to grow even more. The number of vehicles in China is now 75 times that in 1980, and economists expect it to double by 2020.53 As the industrial, commercial, transport, and manufacturing sectors continue to grow and use more energy, Asian countries will have to find new ways of meeting their energy demands.

East Asia, especially China, was once a net exporter of oil, but it now imports much more than it exports. As demand grows exponentially due to industrialisation and population growth, Asian nations will have to rely on each other to coordinate a solution that can ensure energy security for all. As these nations import more and more oil and coal, the integrity of their sea lanes will have to be reviewed, particularly that of the South China Sea.

South China Sea Asia imports fossil fuels from around the world, especially from the Middle East, sub-Saharan Africa, and Latin America. As most of the fuel is transported by sea, the lanes which boats pass through are extremely important to ensuring that energy reaches its destination. A blockade or natural obstacle could devastate economies that don’t have proper reaction systems in place, driving prices sky high leaving millions without energy. The South China Sea is an important sea lane that funnels most imports into one of four main choke points: the Malacca Strait, the Sunda Strait, the Philippine Sea, and Lombok Strait.54 70% of all oil headed for China passes through these narrow corridors. Needless to say, it is vital to international trade in Asia.

Six nations are vying for control of the sea: China, Vietnam, Taiwan, the Philippines, Malaysia, and Brunei all desperately want the territory for themselves. $11.3B USD passes through the area annually, featuring billions of barrels of oil and trillions of cubic feet of natural gas. Furthermore, the Paracels and the Spratlys, two groups of islands in the South China Sea, are expected to have huge reserves of oil and shale. Whoever controls the lanes controls Asia. Clearly, it is a subject of contention between the six claiming nations. However, as China, who claims over 80% of the sea, begins militarising and constructing on islands in the South China Sea, the issue becomes more of a risk.55 Proper diplomacy and diffusion of the issue are needed to ensure the integrity of the

53 Hart, M. (2016, July 23). East Asia's State-Led Search for Energy Security. Retrieved from https://thediplomat.com/2016/07/east- asias-state-led-search-for-energy-security/ 54 Ibid. 55 Asia, O. O. (2017, September 11). Making Sense Of The South China Sea Dispute. Retrieved from https://www.forbes.com/sites/outofasia/2017/08/22/making-sense-of-the-south-china-sea-dispute/#75eb871f1c3b

Vancouver Model United Nations 2018 29 sea lanes. As long as this conflict continues, energy security in Asia is not guaranteed, international involvement and cooperation should be a part of the solution.

Past UN and International Involvement

International Energy Agency (IEA) The International Energy Agency (IEA) was founded in the aftermath of the 1973-1974 oil crisis to prevent similar crises from occurring again.56 Although the organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) already had a similar framework in place, it couldn’t respond to the crisis as well as it should have, despite having procedures for implementation. The IEA was founded with a similar framework to the OECD, and it deals with all energy related issues. In its history, it has intervened in the oil market by releasing supply to offset supply shocks due to environmental and political disasters. As well, it collaborates with APEC, EUROSTAT, OLADE, OPEC, and UNSD in the Joint Oil Data Exercise, renamed the Joint organisations Data Initiative (JODI) in 2005.

Under energy security, the IEA works in six main areas: emergency response, oil security, natural gas security, electrical security, emergency policies, and resilience. Every two years, the IEA tests member states’ ability to respond to crisis situations by sending them a hypothetical crisis which they must respond to within 24 hours. As well, a two day conference, preceded by a one day training session, helps train decision makers to react to energy emergencies better.57 By having smarter officials that can make better decisions, countries are well- equipped to deal with energy crises as they occur. In the case of an actual emergency, the IEA releases emergency oil reserves to offset supply shocks. These emergency reserves are held by all member states to varying degrees and are monitored carefully. Apart from releasing stock, the IEA employs many other strategies in emergency situations. Demand restraint measures work to reduce the demand for oil in the case of falling supply. By moving the public to use less energy over a certain period of time, it can help weather the storm of an energy crisis. Fuel switching is used in cases where either oil or natural gas is inaccessible. Using the other to fulfil energy demands is a possible route for many. Surge production is the quick activation of rapid oil production to increase supply. When oil supplies are low, providing more of it can help offset the shortage. An emergency reserve released in times of supply shock can slightly alleviate the effects of the shock by allowing economies to function just a little bit longer. Sometimes, the IEA lowers environmental or quality standards to protect the economy and increase supply flexibility, thus allowing more supply to flow.

The IEA also runs a large project on Bioenergy system: IEA Bioenergy. Set up in 1978, it hopes to facilitate and improve discussion and collaboration in bioenergy research, development, and usage. Japan and Korea are both members of this program. The project is split up into 10 tasks, each of which has defined goals and durations. As of now, notable tasks are: Biomass feedstocks for energy markets, energy from biogas, and pyrolysis of biomass. The IEA Photovoltaic Power Systems Program works to promote development of solar powered electricity. A report published in 2001 titled “Deploying Renewables” justified the problems and needs associated with renewable energies. The technology is becoming increasingly cost-competitive and a huge amount of it is needed to build a sustainable future. It asserts the long term benefits of renewable development, such as sustainability, pollution reduction, and independence.

56 IEA. (n.d.). International Energy Agency. Retrieved from https://www.iea.org/ 57 IEA. (n.d.). Emergency Response. Retrieved from https://www.iea.org/topics/energysecurity/emergencyresponse/

Vancouver Model United Nations 2018 30 In other projects, the IEA promotes better energy storage through seasonal thermal energy storage. As well, it encourages reduction of CO2 emissions through its publishing, cap and trade program, and mechanisms. The IEA is a prime example of international efforts to ensure energy security. Like the UN, it facilitates discussion and implementation on a large scale.

United Nations (UN) The UN Sustainable Development Goals were introduced in 2015 at a UN summit to fight poverty, inequality, and climate change. Goal number 7 is to “ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all,” the basis of energy security.58 By 2030, it seeks to have provided universal access to energy services, proliferated renewables in the global economy, doubled global energy efficiency, enhanced cooperation, and expanded infrastructure, especially in developing states.

Through its multiple organisations, the UN works tirelessly to see this goal through. By encouraging cooperation and coordination at General Assemblies and committee sessions, progress is being made. In 2011, the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP) met to discuss energy security and sustainable energy in Asia. Resolution 67/2 was passed, calling for regional cooperation between member states to address energy security concerns.59 It called for contributions to an emergency fund which is drawn from in times of crisis, and encouraged investment in sustainable energy.

Through the IEA’s numerous arms and projects, and the UN’s sustainable development goals, the international community has taken great strides to fortify energy security. Facilitated dialogue and cooperation is proving to be effective as the world becomes more equipped to deal with energy crises. As well, by becoming increasingly open to other, more sustainable energy sources, the global community is setting itself up for success. However, these solutions do not come without hardships. Geopolitical issues alongside increasing demand complicate energy security issues. And with the advent of climate change, Asia may have to switch gears faster than they’re prepared to.

Current Situation

Energy demand in Asia is driven primarily by massive GDP and population growth. With rapid urbanisation and industrialisation, Asia is projected to demand 2.5% more energy annually between now and 2030,60 and unprecedented levels of growth. As billions of people move into higher standards of living, the demand for energy will rise further. As more industries and companies appear and expand, energy will become scarce, again emphasising the need to find a stable, reliable energy source. As it stands, current energy patterns are only acceptable for the moment. However, when demand begins to grow out of control, countries either need to supply more energy for their people or minimise demand in order to protect society as it functions today.

Our dependence on energy means that protecting it is one of our utmost priorities. If the world were to cease producing energy, it would be thrown into chaos. Reliable energy systems protect infrastructure, transportation, national security, rule of law, the economy, and politics from crumbling. Public infrastructure such as transit, power, and buildings would not run without energy to power it. Private transportation that relies on gasoline or

58 Energy - United Nations Sustainable Development. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/energy/ 59 UNESCAP. (n.d.). 2011/14 Promoting regional cooperation for enhanced energy security and the sustainable use of energy in Asia and the Pacific. 60 Hart, M. (2016, July 23). East Asia's State-Led Search for Energy Security. Retrieved from https://thediplomat.com/2016/07/east- asias-state-led-search-for-energy-security/

Vancouver Model United Nations 2018 31 diesel would cease once oil is unattainable. Governments wouldn’t be able to defend themselves against attack or natural disaster because they wouldn’t be able to power any vital systems. Society would break down as people desperately search for basic necessities. The government would be in shambles, as would the economy. An extreme example, it still illustrates how important energy is to the current functioning of society, and how if countries wish to continue functioning as they do, they are going to have to put measures in place to protect themselves.

Foreign Energy Reliance Many Asian nations are non-producers of coal and oil. Japan and South Korea, two of the largest importers of energy in the world, rely on external reserves for their energy.61 Without them, their economies would crumble. Even China, who produces large amounts of coal, is a net importer from the Middle East, Africa, and Latin America. All oil and coal coming into Asia by sea has to travel through the narrow chokepoints in the South China Sea. However, these sea lanes are not secure enough. A brief obstruction could paralyse whole economies. The South China Sea is under a lot of international tension: six nations are fighting over it and the islands in it. To make matters worse, China has mobilised military into the region and begun construction on one of the islands, claiming the natural resources that lie beneath. The area is being destabilised, which is extremely dangerous for all Asian economies. Furthermore, piracy wreaks havoc in the South China Sea, causing corporations to lose billions of dollars to criminal organisation. Without a safety net, pirates pose a huge risk to both the tankers carrying energy, and to the economies that rely on it. Similarly, terrorism stands as a pertinent threat in the region. If Asian countries are going to continue to be reliant on foreign oil supplies, they need to find a secure sea lane that is free of possibly destabilising risks.

The Middle East controls a vast reserve of oil that the world draws from. However, relying on oil from such an unstable region can be detrimental. First, supporting terrorist groups and authoritarian regimes by buying their oil may contribute to instability. It works directly against organisations and people fighting for democracy and increases the risk of catastrophic events. Second, relying on oil from one source is risky. If that one source shuts down or undergoes a loss of service, their beneficiaries are left without any energy. Asia is a region too heavily reliant on the Middle East for oil. It needs to look to diversify its energy portfolio.

Unilateral Action and Market Liberalisation Despite increasing efforts to initiate and facilitate discussion and cooperation on energy security, many countries are still acting independently. This behaviour is somewhat understandable: energy security is undeniably linked to national security.62 Energy powers the services and resources needed to keep cities and defences running. As a result, governments have huge incentives to secure stable energy for themselves to ensure healthy economic development, social stability, and regime legitimacy. Market forces are deemed too simple for the complexities of the energy market, and governments feel they have to take action in order to secure a safe and working economy. Furthermore, collaboration with other nations is daunting, as issues pertaining to national security have always been dealt with on a national level. China is one of many countries that have adopted this approach. By mainly focusing on unilateral and bilateral decisions and diplomacy, China rejects cooperation on a continental level.

61 U.S. Energy Information Administration - EIA - Independent Statistics and Analysis. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.eia.gov/beta/international/data/browser/#/?pa=0000001&c=ruvvvvvfvtvnvv1urvvvvfvvvvvvfvvvou20evvvvvvvvvnvv uvo&ct=0&tl_id=5-A&vs=INTL.5-2-AFG-TBPD.A&cy=2015&vo=0&v=H&end=2016 62 Shah, A. (n.d.). Energy Security. Retrieved from http://www.globalissues.org/article/595/energy-security

Vancouver Model United Nations 2018 32 Climate Change As the vast majority of energy is produced through fossil fuels, the question of climate change needs to be addressed. The devastating effects that huge amounts of carbon dioxide can have on the environment will spill over and affect the economy, politics, and energy security as a whole. Asia is becoming increasingly reliant on oil, coal, and natural gas. This increasing reliance will make it harder to transition towards greener alternatives which don’t contribute to climate change. As infrastructure and economies continue to fashion their resources for fossil fuels, solidifying its imprint on the world, changing infrastructure to fit new sources of energy will be an increasingly difficult task as time goes on. If growing energy usage isn’t addressed properly with the environment in mind, the world runs the risk of putting itself in grave danger. Climate change will have unprecedented effects on the economy that small changes can entirely avert.

The main effect of climate change is intensifying weather. Storms, floods, and hurricanes will grow in severity and frequency, and the extreme climates of the world will become unlivable. As temperatures rise, the atmosphere can hold more moisture, leading to larger downpours and harsher rains. This will have an adverse effect on the humanitarian state of many developing and developed nations, as seen in the recent hurricanes and floods in Texas, Florida, and India.63 As well, it places agricultural land at risk, making it harder to farm and feed the world. Furthermore, rising sea levels puts port cities in jeopardy, meaning exports and imports by sea will become even riskier. All of these devastating effects will cause the world to demand more energy to remedy these effects, perpetuating a brutal cycle. Ultimately, it is in the best interest of the energy industry to diversify and move towards green alternatives. It prevents a disastrous future from occurring and sets up existing economies for greater stability and security.

Providing secure, reliable energy to everyone in Asia is a daunting task. As a society that is both extremely dependent on foreign fossil fuels and possibly adverse to cooperation, movement towards energy security seems all but impossible. However, solutions exist. By pushing aggressively towards sustainable energy development, maximising existing energy resources, developing a network of energy reliance, and cooperating strategically, the ACD can greatly influence the trajectory of Asian states.

Possible Solutions and Controversies

When addressing solutions to energy security, Asian nations need to take into account each structural cause and effect of the problem. By coordinating and cooperating, Asia can possibly turn its over reliance on energy into a positive: it can flip its weaknesses into strengths and emerge from this test a more unified, influential group. Consider and brainstorm solutions that are beneficial to all, and look past the short term into the long term.

Energy Diversification One of the best ways nations can protect themselves from supply-side crises is to diversify energy suppliers and types.64 By drawing from a wider range of sellers, countries minimise the risk associated with each particular seller and leave themselves much less prone to a supply shock. Asian nations are extremely dependent on the Middle East for fossil fuels. If they were to tap into more local reserves and import from more than one area,

63 Siddique, H. (2017, August 30). South Asia floods kill 1,200 and shut 1.8 million children out of school. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/aug/30/mumbai-paralysed-by-floods-as-india-and-region-hit-by-worst-monsoon- rains-in-years 64 Anderson, R. (2011, July 31). When oil and gas are depleted. Retrieved from http://www.resilience.org/stories/2011-08- 01/when-oil-and-gas-are-depleted/

Vancouver Model United Nations 2018 33 their energy portfolio would be much more secure. Finding more suppliers and drawing from them will help ensure energy security. It would decrease Asia’s reliance on an incredibly unstable region and provide a much wider safety net for local economies.

Furthermore, Asia should look to push towards green energy sources.65 As the continent trends towards fossil fuel reliance and as incredible demand growth proliferates that trend, steps need to be taken before the continent finds itself too reliant on fossil fuels. Countries have a list of possible alternative energy sources they could draw from, but it is important that existing fixtures and industries be re equipped to utilise these other forms of energy. Alternative energy can have huge paybacks. Solar power is quickly becoming cheaper than nuclear power as production costs lower, a prospect that might prompt corporations to begin producing solar panels en masse. Furthermore, many US states and nations are developing offshore wind farms to power coastal cities. As well, biomass continues to be an innovative and sustainable form of energy that many are considering. Countries should seek out replacements for fossil fuels that fit their portfolio and adjust to the new setting as quickly as possible.

Nuclear Energy Nuclear energy is one of the more controversial sources of energy; the environmental risks associated with the waste and a possible meltdown are often too daunting to make it worth consideration. Japan’s experience with a nuclear meltdown in 201166 greatly illustrates the arguments against nuclear proliferation. By allowing and encouraging countries to develop nuclear programs, the international community runs the risk of causing another devastating environmental and biological crisis. As well, nuclear waste is extremely hard to store; currently, countries are burying it far below the ground where it will hopefully not be a problem, but this is only a temporary solution. Lastly, the risk of a meltdown, which can contaminate an entire area, is not worth the energy nuclear energy brings. The Philippines has outwardly spoken against nuclear energy usage. The drawbacks of the commodity are large.

However, it is undeniable that nuclear energy is a clean, viable option for future development.67 It emits no greenhouse gases, and nuclear power plants have become much safer and more efficient in recent years. Uranium is mined in rich, stable countries, so purchasing it is clean and without guilt. Furthermore, unlike solar power, wind power, and other forms of renewable energy, nuclear power is invariable: it will always produce energy. The benefits of nuclear energy are extremely commendable. Many countries have pursued this form of energy already, with certain Asian nations leading the charge while others follow with caution. Particularly, Vietnam, Thailand, and Indonesia are carefully expanding their power plants. Nuclear energy could be a very viable option for some countries. However, perhaps the answer doesn’t lie in new fancy technology and innovative energy sources. Maybe it lies in using the energy we have now to its fullest potential.

Economic Efficiency and Energy Conservation Resources are scarce. One of the fundamental principles of economics states that because resources are scarce, people must make choices. The efficacy of these choices determines how well these resources are handled. Countries need to evaluate the economic decisions that they are making with energy resources. Certain choices promote resource depletion and demand spikes, and some lead to wasteful use of oil, natural gas, or coal. When a country such as China, who imports and uses immense amounts of fossil fuels, is wasteful, huge amount of

65 Ibid. 66 Fukushima Accident. (2017, September). Retrieved from http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and- security/safety-of-plants/fukushima-accident.aspx 67 EIA. (n.d.). Nuclear Explained. Retrieved from https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/index.cfm?page=nuclear_home

Vancouver Model United Nations 2018 34 energy are squandered. Large amounts of energy are used wastefully every year, contributing to global warming and resource depletion. Governments should look to review their economic choices and decide what is efficient and what isn’t. They should be encouraged to develop plans for improving efficacy and resource use within their borders. As well, they should be looking to reduce demand for energy through energy conservation efforts, which can greatly increase energy productivity.

Energy conservation is very effective for lowering energy demands and increasing energy efficiency. By educating the public about their energy usage and suggesting a few quick lifestyle changes, governments can greatly affect the amount of energy that the common person uses. As well, countries can develop public transport systems, renewable energy programs, and alternative fuel projects. A grassroots movement towards greener energy usage could have major impacts on the economy and politics of energy. Japan is incredibly dependent on foreign energy: it is one of the top importers of oil and coal worldwide. However, to offset their dependence on oil, Japan started employing huge energy conservation measures to utilise what oil they had as efficiently as possible.68 Alongside other programs, Japan witnessed huge success, becoming the most energy efficient nation in the world. The ability of each individual state to affect change is formidable. Each nation should be working to better their own policies and decisions as best they can. But when states band together and cooperate on a multi- national level, great solutions can be passed and enacted.

South China Sea Many nations are still averse to cooperation. By taking unilateral and bilateral action, they reject the prospect of acting on a larger scale, ignoring the possibilities of international dialogue. However, this approach is detrimental to the success of a solution. Encouraging collaboration should be one of the primary goals of the ACD. Through proper discussion, countries can identify common strengths and weaknesses and workaround them. They can create a culture of interdependence, where Asian nations depend on one another for energy or energy related information or capital. Only through diplomacy can a truly joint solution be passed.

The dispute over the South China Sea needs to be addressed properly and with sensitivity. As the six nations vie for control, it is important that key sea lanes be kept operable at all times. Countries need to recognise that an obstruction of the sea lanes would bring untold detriment to millions of people that depend on the energy that passes through. They should seek to maintain peace in the area and diffuse the situation to ensure the safety of the economy.

Each of the aforementioned solutions addresses a problem with the global energy market and attempts to solve it. It is by no means an exhaustive list of solutions that exist – try to find new and innovative ideas that will change the status quo. However, despite the universality of energy security, many countries do not stand on the same side of the fence when it comes to certain solutions. The country blocs that will form during committee session will be partly reliant on the stances of certain countries on sensitive topics.

68 Zumbrun, J. (2008, July 07). The Most Energy-Efficient Countries. Retrieved from https://www.forbes.com/2008/07/03/energy- efficiency-japan-biz-energy_cx_jz_0707efficiency_countries.html

Vancouver Model United Nations 2018 35 Bloc Positions

Rapidly Developing States Nations with booming populations and industries, and economies that are expanding at exponential rates are rapidly developing states. Coined by their quick growth, these states are often moving too fast to switch very easily to renewable technologies. Notable examples are China and India.69 These states have an incentive to tend towards fossil fuels and to use them as efficiently as possible. They want to maximise what energy they have to support their growth. Furthermore, they should be interested in clearing and securing sea lanes for proper, safe use. These countries would support resolutions that call for economic cooperation and efficiency and the resolution of the South China Sea conflict.

However, these nations run the risk of becoming too dependent on foreign oil imports to consider diversifying their portfolio. The sheer rate of growth can somewhat preclude them from making substantial movement towards green energy, but these countries should still attempt to develop their renewable energies sectors. China, for example, is one of the leading investors of renewable energy, despite having the fastest growing demand for coal and oil. Their actions have been a paradigm for long term success that other countries should draw from. Countries in this bloc would find it difficult to follow into green energy programs, but nonetheless would benefit from it.

Non-Producing States Nations that fall into this bloc are characterised by their reliance on energy imports. They do not have oil or coal reserves to readily draw from, and as a result need to import their energy from overseas reserves. Countries that fall in this bloc are Japan and South Korea, among others. These countries are interested in the safe shipping of oil and coal around the world, and as a result would want free and secure sea lanes for their energy. If a disruption occurred, these states would be the first to feel it.70 As a result, supporting sea lane liberalisation and security alongside solving the South China Sea dispute would be among the top priorities for this bloc. As well, this bloc would benefit greatly from renewable energies programs and economic efficiency programs. By providing more independence from overseas oil, these projects would allow countries in this bloc to save money and ensure greater security in their regions. As a result, they should look to adopt these programs.

Heavy reliance on overseas oil may mean heavy reliance on the Middle East, a notoriously unstable region. China and Korea are both huge importers of oil from the Middle East. Ideally, countries either diversify energy types as mentioned above or increase the number of energy suppliers. Doing so would increase independence of energy, which in turn provides more energy security. Countries in this bloc should support resolutions calling for more varied energy portfolios and increased interdependence in Asia.

Lower Economically Developed Nations Poorer countries are often most vulnerable to economic, political, and environmental crises. They should take measures to protect themselves against these threats while continuing to develop at a pace comfortable for them. These countries should look to collaborate with intergovernmental agencies and regional bodies to secure an emergency oil supply, or stockpile for times of great duress. By providing themselves a safety net, these countries

69 Hart, M. (2016, July 23). East Asia's State-Led Search for Energy Security. Retrieved from https://thediplomat.com/2016/07/east- asias-state-led-search-for-energy-security/ 70 Shah, A. (n.d.). Energy Security. Retrieved from http://www.globalissues.org/article/595/energy-security

Vancouver Model United Nations 2018 36 can rest assured in times of energy shortage. Furthermore, since these countries aren’t developing as fast as China or India, they have a lot more breathing room when it comes to proliferating their renewable energies sector.

These countries often do not fare especially well in environmental crises. Surviving with little infrastructure in harsher parts of the world makes development difficult in the face of worsening storms and intensifying weather. Climate change will prove to be a real test for these countries. These countries especially should support resolutions that focus on greenhouse gas emission reduction to stop or slow the progress of climate change. Supporting the development of greener technology, such as nuclear or solar power, in place of fossil fuels should be a priority for these nations.

South China Sea Actors The six nations fighting for control over the South China Sea have huge incentive to continue fighting for control over at least a part of the rich land.71 However, as the region destabilises, countries need to be careful in how they approach the situation. These states should attempt to facilitate discussion and negotiation on who owns which areas in the South China Sea. By solving this dispute peacefully, the integrity and security of vital sea lanes are preserved; ensuring that a solution is reached smoothly should be a huge priority for countries in this bloc.

Regardless of the bloc these countries are in, Asian countries all share a common goal of improving energy security for themselves and each other. Try to find ways to overcome difference and conflict through discussion. Identify commonalities and work off of those to produce a resolution that makes everyone better off. Find central themes of conflict and work to compromise.

Discussion Questions

1. What are the main sources of energy insecurity?

2. How does energy security affect people, governments, and economies?

3. What should be done in the face of rapid resource depletion?

4. Why is dependence on foreign oil sources harmful? What should happen?

5. Do countries want to prioritise securing oil or discouraging dictators?

6. Are economic resources being used as efficiently as possible?

7. What environmental issues does energy security raise?

8. Is nuclear energy a viable option for green sustainable development?

71 Why is the South China Sea contentious? (2016, July 12). Retrieved from http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific- 13748349

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