Agroforestry Trajectories Among Smallholders in the Brazilian Amazon: Innovation and Resiliency in Pioneer and Older Settled Areas

ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS

ELSEVIER Ecological Economics 18 (1996) 15-27

Analysis Agroforestry trajectories among smallholders in the Brazilian Amazon: innovation and resiliency in pioneer and older settled areas

Nigel J.H. Smith a,., Italo C. Falesi b, Paulo de T. Alvim c, Emmanuel Adilson S. Serrao d Department of Geography, Unicersi O, of Florida, P.O. Box 117315, Gainescille. FL 32611-7315. USA b CPATU-EMBRAPA, C.P. 48, 66240 Bel~m, Pard, Brazil c Funda~'go Pau Brasil, Rua Jorge Armado, 242, Jardim Boa Vista, 45660-000 llheus, Bahia, Brazil d CPATU-EMBRAPA, C.P. 48, 66240 Bel~m, Pard, Brazil Received 1 June 1994; accepted 12 May 1995

Abstract

Concern is mounting that swidden agriculture is increasingly "unsustainable" because of the onrush of settlers into tropical forests and other development pressures. One way to curtail rampant deforestation is to find alternatives to the practice of shifting fields every few years, such as by planting perennial crops instead of allowing the land to revert to second growth. A trend towards tree farming in the Brazilian Amazon is being propelled primarily by smallholders taking advantage of market opportunities. In a survey of 136 polycultural fields with perennials in widely scattered locations in the Brazilian Amazon, 108 agroforestry configurations were noted involving 72 crops. Small-scale entrepreneurs are clearly experimenting with a wide array of perennial crops, mostly on their own initiative. Cropping patterns and agroforestry dynamics are analyzed and major constraints on further development of agroforestry, such as insufficient agro-industries and high-quality planting material, are discussed.

Keywords." Agroforestry; Amazonia; Land use dynamics

1. Introduction sity and future options for development as well as possibly contributing to global warming (see Serrao Global concerns about tropical deforestation and et al., 1996). Slash-and-burn farming in particular is alleged global warming have focused attention on increasingly viewed as less viable as development land use practices in the humid tropics, particularly pressures mount in rainforest areas. Agricultural in- agriculture, logging and ranching. Rampant defor- tensification is essential if substantial areas of tropi- estation in the Amazon Basin is reducing biodiver- cal forest are to remain in the next century, and one of the most promising ways to prolong the useful life of cleared areas is to plant perennials. Agroforestry * Corresponding author. Fax: (1-352) 392-8855. systems are deemed particularly appropriate for the

0921-8009/96/$15.00 © 1996 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved SSD10921-8009(95)00057-7 16 N.J.H. Smith et al. / Ecological Economics 18 (1996) 15-27 humid tropics because they partially replicate the the case of black pepper (Piper nigrum), little or any forest and support greater biodiversity than monocul- fertilizer is used in agroforestry plots, nor are herbi- tures. cides or pesticides generally used. Agroforestry in Agroforestry systems explored here embrace a the Brazilian Amazon is for the most part a low-in- mix of perennials grown on the same plot, with or put undertaking. without annual food crops. In some definitions of agroforestry, annual food crops are considered an essential part of such systems. In the Brazilian Ama- 3. Diversity in space zon, however, annual food crops are only occasion- ally planted alongside perennials. Farmers in the Seventy-two plant species were observed in 136 Brazilian Amazon are planting a diverse array of polycultural fields involving perennials in widely perennials to generate cash, rather than provide food scattered upland parts of the Brazilian Amazon. Crops for domestic consumption. in agroforestry plots are grown for a wide variety of Polycultural systems under development by small purposes, ranging from fruit production to timber farmers could serve as a foundation for agricultural harvests (Table 1). Several species are cultivated for research and extension efforts in the region. A "bot- more than one use, such as fruit and timber in the tom-up" approach to agricultural development that case of piquifi (Caryocar villosum). A similar pattern builds on the empirical knowledge of farmers, while of deploying a large range of plant species in agro- incorporating the fruits of scientific research, is likely forestry plots prevails in the Upper Amazon, where to accelerate the adoption of profitable and environ- some 60 species are intercropped in agroforestry mentally-sound agricultural practices. fields cultivated by farmers in the vicinity of Tamshiyacu, 35 kilometers upstream from Iquitos in Peru (Hiraoka, 1986). 2. Innovation among small farmers Agroforestry configurations vary considerably throughout the Amazon, with much variation often A total of 108 agroforestry configurations were noted within a single community. Almost all of the observed in 136 polycultural fields in the states of polycultural patterns have been planted on the Parfi, Amazonas, Rond6nia and Acre between 1988 farmer's own initiative (Fig. 1), rather than as a and 1993. The sampled agroforestry plots were along technology package adopted with the assistance of upland pioneer highways and associated side-roads, extension agents and credit. For the most part, small- and in older settled areas, such as the Bragantina to medium-sized operators are the vanguards in agro- Zone near Belrm. The pioneer routes surveyed here forestry experimentation in Amazonia; larger land- were opened in the 1970s, particularly the Transama- holders tend to concentrate on monocultures, such as zon and BR 364 highways. cattle pasture or plantation crops. A noticeable ex- Most agroforestry plots are modest, covering some ception was a medium-sized ranch, Fazenda Ricote, 1-5 hectares. Although they occupy relatively small near Machadinho in Rond6nia, which had the most areas compared to annual food crops or pasture, their diverse polycultural field encountered with 17 inter- importance is growing both spatially and in terms of cropped perennials. This field was an extension of a farm income. Agroforestry plots discussed here are home garden on to degraded pasture and was under- distinct from home gardens, another form of agro- taken at the initiative of the rancher's wife. forestry. Polycultural fields involving perennials may Agroforestry systems in the Brazilian Amazon are be adjacent to home gardens or located some dis- diverse along several dimensions: the number of tance from the house. species intercropped; genetic variation of the species Agroforestry systems explored here have been deployed; and differences in vertical and horizontal developed by small farmers, many of them without spatial arrangements. Some fields contain 10 or more access to credit or technical assistance. Although all perennials, but most farmers cultivate from 2 to 4 the surveyed farmers are linked to markets, they can crops at a time in their agroforestry plots. Market be classified as "resource-poor" farmers. Except in forces clearly streamline agroforestry configurations N.J.H. Smith et al. / Ecological Economics 18 (1996) 15-27 17

Table 1 Table 1 (continued) Seventy-two plant species and their principal uses observed in 136 Local name(s) Scientific name Amazon native polycultural fields involving perennials in upland areas of the Brazilian Amazon, 1988-1993 Spice Canela ? Pimento do reino Piper nigrum Local name(s) Scientific name Amazon native

Fruits Pasture Abacate Persea americana Brachiar~o Brachiaria brizantha Abacaxi Ananas cosmosus Brachiaria Brachiaria decumbens Abric6 Mammea americana Coloui~o Panicum maximum A~a~ Euterpe oleracea Yes Quicuio Brachiaria humidicola Acerola Malpighia glabra Ameixa Eugenia cumini Yes Nut Ara~a-boi Eugenia stipitata Yes Caju Anacardium occidentale Ata, pinha Annona squamosa Castanheira Bertholletia excelsa Yes Azeitona Roucheriapunctata? Bacuri Platonia insignis Yes Banana Musa sp. Confectionary trade Cacao Theobroma cacao Yes Biribfi Rollinia deliciosa Yes Cajfi, taperebfi Spondiasmombim Yes Caju Anacardium occidentale Timber C6co Cocos nucifera Cedro Cedrela odorata Yes Cupuaqu Theobromagrandiflorum Yes Cerejeira ? Goiaba Psidium guajava Faveira ? Yes Graviola Annona muricata Yes Freij6 Cordia goeldiana and Yes Grosela Eugenia uniflora? C alliodora Inajfi Attalea maripa Yes Ip~ Tabebuia sp. Yes Ingfi lnga sp. Jarana Holopyxidiumjarana Yes Pinheiro Ingfi-cipd hlga edulis Pinus caribaea Jaca Artocarpus heterophyllus Macacafiba Platymiseium ulei Yes Mogno Yes Laranja Citrus sinensis Swietenia macrophylla Palhateira Yes Limbo Citrus auranti¢blia Clitoria racemosa Pinho cuiabano, Yes Manga Mangifera indica Schizolobiumamazonicum paricfi MamS.o Carica papaya Yes Piquifi Yes Marac ujfi Passiflora edulis Ca~ocar villosum Melancia Citrulus lanatus Sumafima Ceiba pentandra Yes Piquifi Cao'ocar eillosum Yes Pitinga Eugenia uniflora ? Staple food Pupunha Bactris gasipaes Yes Batata doce lpomoea batatas Tangerina Citrus reticulata Feijao Phaseolus vulgaris Tucumfi Astrocary'umt~ulgare Yes Gandu Cajanus cajan Uxi Endopleura uchi Yes Mandhioca, macaxeira Manihot esculenta Milho Zea mays Oil Taro Colocasia esculenta Andiroba Carapa guianensis Yes Dend~ Elaeis guineensis Fiber/cordage Algod~,o Gossypium sp. Food colorant Tutaruba "~ Yes Urucu Bixa orellana Yes Living stake Beverage Erytrina E~thrina sp. Caf~ Coffea arabica Caf6 robusta Coffeacanephora Latex Guaranfi Prancea cupana Yes Seringa Hecea brasiliensis Yes 18 N.J.H. Smith et al. / Ecological Economics 18 (1996) 15-27

in many fields. The most commonly observed associ- In the sample of 108 agroforestry configurations, ations were: black pepper/orange (5 times), fol- even the most popular crop combination occurred lowed by cacao/rubber; coconut/orange; only 5 times, suggesting that considerable experi- manioc/banana; and manioc/orange, each noted on mentation is still underway. Many farmers are trying four different occasions. different crop combinations in separate fields on

Fig. 1. An agroforesty field of approximately 2 hectares involving 9 planted crops (guaran~i, lime, mango, coconut, cashew, avocado, jackfruit, guava and peach palm) and two economic plants spared when the forest was cut down: Brazil nut (large tree in center) and tucuma palm (not shown). This rich assemblage was put together by a small farmer without any technical assistance or credit. Km 4 Itacoatiara-Manaus highway, Amazonas, November 1991. N.J.H. Smith et al. / Ecological Economics 18 (1996) 15-27 19 their land. Farmers are thus not placing all their eggs cao). Cupuaqu pulp is much in demand to make in one basket. The diversity of agroforestry systems juice, and to flavor ice cream, puddings, cakes and ensures some resiliency from market and ecological candies. An export market has recently opened for shocks. cupua~u pulp to make exotic tropical fruit drinks. In Sweet orange is one of the most important cash the United States, for example, the R.W. Knudsen crops in the Brazilian Amazon and is featured in family of Chico, California, markets Cupuassu juice one-quarter of the 136 sampled agroforestry fields with a label declaring "a delicious mixed beverage (Fig. 2). Farmers in the vicinity of Capitao Po§o of rain forest and tropical fruits." Native to the launched sweet orange as a major cash crop in the forests of eastern Amazonia, cupua~u has long lin- Brazilian Amazon in the mid-1970s (Smith et al., gered as a backyard tree. As demand quickened for 1995). Sweet orange is also commonly grown in cupua~u pulp, farmers have incorporated the shade- separate orchards by small farmers, but some ranch- tolerant tree in their agroforestry systems. Cupuaqu ers, such as near Ariquemes in Rond6nia, have also is better adapted to agroforestry systems than mono- been attracted to the prospects of growing oranges. cultures because witches' broom, a serious disease of Most of the oranges are destined for urban markets, cupua~u and cacao caused by various races of the where they are sold mainly to make juice in homes, fungus Crinipellis perniciosa, spreads more easily restaurants and snack bars. when the crop is planted in pure stands. The emer- Another popular component of polycultural fields gence of cupua~u as a significant cash crop for many in the Brazilian Amazon is cupua~u (Theobroma farmers underscores the importance of home gardens grando7orum), a relative of cacao (Theobroma ca- as centers of crop domestication and selection.

Fig. 2. Sweet orange and rubber planled in a manioc field. The manioc is being harvested in stages. Km 80 Manaus-ltacoatiara Highway, Amazonas, 1992. 20 N.J.H. Smith et al. / Ecological Economics 18 (1996) 15-27

A similar process is underway with a~a~ palm thin porridge, sometimes thickened with manioc flour (Euterpe oleracea). A~af grows wild along streams or tapioca. Purple a~a~ gruel is typically taken in the and on the lower Amazon floodplain where it is late afternoon and may serve as the evening meal. harvested for its fruits and heart-of-palm, particularly A~a~ also grows well on upland sites and is increas- in the environs of Bel6m. A~a~ has also long been ingly found in agroforestry systems. planted in backyards (Fig. 3) to make fruit juice or a Although indigenous species play an important

Fig. 3. A young a~a~ (Euterpe oleracea) palm planted in a backyard. Another common tree of home gardens, cupua~u (Theobroma grandiflorum), is in the background. Dooryard gardens are important centers of plant domestication and "reservoirs" of genetic resources for agroforestry. Casa 10, Estrada 6, Belterra, Pardi, September 1992. N.J.H. Smith et al. / Ecological Economics 18 (1996) 15-27 21

role in many agroforestry formations in the Brazilian The most popular combination observed--black Amazon, exotics also figure prominently. Of the 72 pepper/orange--involves crops that originated in species found in polycultural fields involving peren- tropical Asia. The other most common intercrops-- nials, only about 30 are native to Amazonia (Table coconut/orange, manioc/banana, manioc/orange 1). More than half of the crops in agroforestry and cacao/rubber--mostly entail species from the systems in the Brazilian Amazon were domesticated Old World or combinations of New World and Asian in other parts of tropical America or the Old World. species. The only exception is cacao intercropped

Fig. 4. A black pepper plantation in transition to a diverse agroforestry system with andiroba (Carapa guianensis), coconut (Cocos nucifera) and freij6 (Cordia goeldiana). An essential oil is extracted from andiroba seeds, while freij6 provides a valuable wood. Farm belonging to a native of ParL Travessa Bragantina near Vila Forquilha, Quatro Bocas area, ParL August 1992. 22 N.J.H. Smith et al. / Ecological Economics 18 (1996) 15-27 with rubber, both native to Amazonia. Progress in branca, casca verde, cascuda, casada, costela de vaca, agriculture clearly hinges on the continued exchange ma~L najL nanica, perua, peruara, prata and roxa) of plants between regions. Many native plant species were found in the surveyed plots. Diversity within in the Amazon have untapped potential for agricul- cultivated species also helps reduce disease and pest ture and industrial uses, but reliance on indigenous pressure because of the possibility of differential species alone to promote agricultural development is resistance to pathogens and insect predators between unwarranted. varieties. The infraspecific diversity is also marked with some crops. For example, one farmer who lives in the community of Sao Jo~o Batista near Itupiranga, 4. Diversity in time Par~i, has intercropped five mango (Mangifera indica) varieties (anana, bacuri, comum, mangita and Four main crops have served as major "launching comum) in one of his agroforestry plots. A farmer pads" for commercial agroforestry in the Brazilian along a side-road at km 35 of the Marab~i-Xinguara Amazon: black pepper, cacao, coffee (especially ro- highway in Par~ planted three bitter cultivars (carema, busta coffee) and manioc (Manihot esculenta). These jaibara, cacao) and one sweet variety (uruim) of crops have served as springboards for diversifying manioc in an agroforestry assemblage that included a farming operations for different reasons. Black pep- total of 10 intercropped species. Several farmers in per has become one avenue for polyculture after the sample had three intercropped banana varieties, disease struck; cacao and coffee have served a simi- and a total of 13 banana and plantain cultivars (bai~, lar function as a result of a sharp drop in prices for

Fig. 5. African oil palm poised to take over from a black pepper plantation near Igarapr-A~u, Bragantina zone, Par~,, August 1988. N.J.H. Smith et al. / Ecological Economics 18 (1996) 15-27 23 these commodities; while in some fields, manioc has as cupua~u, orange, banana, or Brazil nut (Berthol- become a transitional crop towards diverse agro- letia excelsa) alongside manioc so that the field will forestry systems, rather than the last swidden crop remain productive after the last tubers are harvested. before a field is abandoned to second growth. Manioc was present in 27 of the 136 polycultural Some enterprising farmers are planting such crops fields seen, suggesting that this process of substitut-

Fig. 6. A 12-year-old pinho cuiabano (Schizolobium amazonicum) tree in a cacao grove. The specimen of pinho cuiabano may have grown relatively quickly because of the rich alfisol (terra roxa) combined with favorable light and moisture conditions. This cacao gro'm contains numerous pinho cuiabano trees because the farmer left a mature tree nearby and has protected the spontaneous seedlings. Linha 66, Gleba 5a, lote 1, near Ouro Preto, Rond6nia, September 1993. 24 N.J.H. Smith et al. / Ecological Economics 18 (1996) 15-27 ing second growth for agroforestry has become well who invested in coffee and cacao plantings. Some entrenched. The tendency to interplant longer-lived have neglected their coffee and cacao plots until perennials with manioc is particularly noticeable in prices improve. As prices for cacao have rebounded the Santar6m area. slightly in the early 1990s, some farmers along the Black pepper has reigned as Parfi's principal agri- Transamazon Highway and in Rondrnia are once cultural export for several decades, but other peren- again tending their groves, mainly by pruning nials are closing in on its lead because of disease branches infected by witches' broom. Coffee prices problems. Black pepper began to be attacked by a have also recovered slightly, thereby justifying ex- root fungus, Fusarium wilt, in the late 1950s. penditures on weeding and pruning. A second option Japanese-Brazilian farmers at Tomr-A~u have been has been to replace entire cacao and coffee groves at the forefront in diversifying black pepper planta- with other crops, such as cotton or pasture. A third tions and their example is now widely emulated (Fig. course has been intercropping cacao or coffee with 4). In 1968, black pepper accounted for virtually all other perennials. crop sales in the vicinity of Tomd-A~u, but by 1978, Fruit or timber species are favored when diversi- other crops represented 14% of sales. By 1988, the fying cacao and coffee groves in the Brazilian Ama- co-op at Tomr-A~u was marketing over 25 crops, zon. Fruit trees interplanted with cacao include a~af mostly grown in agroforestry plots (Barros, 1990, palm, biribfi (Rollinia deliciosa) and mango. Ing~ pp. 59, 67). Farmers know that black pepper will (Inga sp.), biribfi, pineapple and tangerine are among eventually succumb to Fusarium wilt so they often the fruits sometimes intercropped with coffee. The interplant other perennials, such as passionfruit or oil experience of cacao and coffee growers attempting palm (Fig. 5), before the black pepper dies. In this to diversify their fields is echoed by many other manner, the land still produces income while the farmers. In the sample of 108 agroforestry configura- black pepper is phased out. tions, more species of fruit (35) and timber trees (13) Black pepper has been especially helpful in paving were deployed than for any other purpose (Table 1). the way for other crops because fertilizers have Timber trees are a longer-term investment for enriched the soil and rice husks, often placed around cacao and coffee growers. Mahogany (Swietenia the base of black pepper plants, have added organic macrophylla), cedar (Cedrela odorata), freij6 matter to the soil. The rice husks also help conserve ( Cordia goeldiana in eastern Amazonia; C. alliodora soil moisture while suppressing weeds. Furthermore, in Rondrnia), ip~ (Tabebuia sp.) and pinho cuiabano black pepper still generates significant income even (Schizolobium amazonicum) are the main timber though a typical plantation may last only 8-10 years. species intercropped with cacao and coffee. Ma- The relatively steady income from black pepper has hogany, cedar and ip~ are premium hardwoods with allowed farmers the "luxury" of experimenting with major domestic and export markets. Pinho cuiabano other perennials. (or paricfi as the species is called in Parfi) is also a In the 1970s and early 1980s, Brazil's cacao valuable tree planted or encouraged by some cacao research and extension agency (CEPLAC-Comissao growers, particularly in Rondrnia (Fig. 6). Executiva do Piano da Lavoura Cacaueira) and the Most of the timber trees in cacao and coffee national agricultural research system (EMBRAPA- groves in the Brazilian Amazon are less than 15 Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecufiria) pro- years old. A similar pattern of intercropping timber moted cacao and coffee in upland Amazonia, particu- trees with coffee, especially Cordia alliodora, is larly along pioneer highways. At that time, prices for underway along some pioneer roads in the Ecuado- the commodities were relatively high, and cacao and rian Amazon (Uquillas et al., 1992). In both the coffee offered promise as a source of long-term Brazilian and Ecuadorian Amazon, the timber trees income for farmers. In addition, cacao and coffee in coffee or cacao groves are often spontaneous or groves help protect the soil better than annual crops. left from the forest, rather than deliberately planted. But in the late 1980s, many farmers became disillu- Natural regeneration accounts for about two-thirds of sioned when coffee and cacao prices plummeted. the stock of timber trees in agroforestry fields in- Three main options are being pursued by farmers volving coffee or pasture in a two-decade-old colo- N,J.H. Smith et al. / Ecological Economics 18 (1996) 15 27 25 nized area of the Ecuadorian Amazon (Ramfrez et 5. Constraints to further intensification al., 1992). Farmers near Ouro Preto deliberately spare valuable timber trees when clearing so that Major constraints to expanding agroforestry in they will produce spontaneous seedlings. Amazonia include inadequate development of agro-

Fig. 7. Peach palm (Bactris gasipaes) fruits in a street market, Alenquer, Panl, March 1993. Known as pupunha in Brazil, fast-growing peach palm produces carotene-rich fruits as well as heart-of-palm and is well adapted to agroforestry systems on well-drained sites in the humid tropics. 26 N.J.H. Smith et al. / Ecological Economics 18 (1996) 15-27 industries, the virtual absence of credit, the lack of productive agriculture, such as agroforestry. In the inexpensive irrigation systems and insufficient plant- Peruvian Amazon, the Banco Agrario has provided ing material of commercially-desirable varieties. credit to smallholders for the purpose of promoting Agroforestry would be fostered in the Amazon if agroforestry (O. Coomes, personal communication) more agroindustries were established in both urban and such efforts warrant monitoring for lessons and rural areas. Markets are growing for tropical learned. fruits, juices and nuts, but much produce is lost A major stumbling block for small farmers at- because it cannot be processed. More small- and tempting to obtain credit is that they often lack title large-scale factories are needed to freeze pulp, select to their lands. Without such documents, banks will and pack high-quality fruits for distant markets, and not lend to farmers. Re-doubled efforts to provide to bottle or can certain products, such as heart-of- titles to legitimate land-owners would thus be an palm. essential precursor to more widespread adoption of Few plants have been established in the Brazilian intensive land use practices, including agroforestry. Amazon to process fruits for market. Exceptions Inexpensive irrigation systems are needed to keep include the well-run CAMTA co-op at Tomfi-A~u; seedlings alive after the rains. Moisture stress during the large AMAFRUTAS factory in the Bragantina the often intense dry season in many parts of Ama- zone, owned by Ceiba-Geigy; and several small zonia is one of the principal reasons that farmers do agroindustries in the Altamira region that prepare not plant more perennial crops. One farmer from the frozen cacao pulp and manufacture guaranfi soda. newly-formed community of Lastancia east of Itupi- Most farmers in the Brazilian Amazon still do not ranga, Parfi, reported that he lost 1000 coffee have ready access to any industries that can process seedlings during the especially severe dry season in agroforestry products. At the moment, only a handful 1992. Irrigation and more drought-tolerant of crops, such as passionfruit, cacao and cupua~u, germplasm would help further agroforestry. In some are benefiting from local agroindustries. Other com- situations, wind-vanes would be practical for pump- mercially-desirable species would benefit from pro- ing water and are used on some ranches. The initial cessing plants. investment might be easier for cooperatives or grow- Peach palm (Bactris gasipaes), for example, ers' associations. Solar-powered water pumps may would undoubtedly become a more important option soon become cheaper than diesel-operated ones, with for farmers if plants were established to can heart- lower life-cycle costs. of-palm (palmito). At present, peach palm is grown Improved supplies of high-quality planting mate- mostly in backyards and in a few agroforestry or- rial are also essential to foster agroforestry in Ama- chards for its fruits (Fig. 7). Only a few "back-yard" zonia. At present, the main sources of seedlings or bottling operations near Manaus and a modest-sized cuttings for agroforestry are commercial dealers and plant near Rio Branco are currently preparing palmito individual farmers who produce extra planting mate- from peach palm in the Brazilian Amazon. In many rial for sale. Trucks come from as far afield as $5o cases, the technologies already exist for processing a Paulo to sell seedlings of sweet orange and other wide range of tropical fruits, nuts and heart-of-palm. crops, but such material is not always healthy and Unreliable or non-existent supplies of electricity and may not be adapted to the diverse soil and climatic insufficient credit appear to be the major constraints conditions of Amazonia. Some communal nurseries to expanding agroindustries in the Amazon. have been organized, mostly with the help of NGOs Greater accessibility to credit for small farmers and external donors; hopefully such operations will would also foster agroforestry. Credit is no panacea, soon become self-sustaining. Both private companies however, unless properly devised and efficiently ad- and communally or individually-owned nurseries ministered, credit can trigger considerable waste and need disease-free material of desirable varieties for environmental damage. Misguided credit policies and multiplication. The public and private sector can excessively subsidized agriculture can lead to abuse collaborate to meet this growing need. of resources, both natural and financial. But carefully Ultimately the public and private sector will de- crafted incentives could steer Amazonia into more pend on improved understanding of the genetic re- N.J.H. Smith et al. / Ecological Economics 18 (1996) 15-27 27 sources of numerous tropical trees that produce use- Lopes da Silva and Johan Zweede. Field work for ful fruits, nuts and other products (Smith et al., this paper was made possible by the Critical Envi- 1992). Gene pools of such crops will need to be ronmental Zones Project at Clark University, conserved, especially in their natural environments, Worcester, Massachusetts, which was funded by the so that breeders will have greater options to boost National Science Foundation and the United Nations yield, nutritional value and resistance to pests and University, Tokyo. Observations on agroforestry as- diseases. Genetic resistance to attack from pathogens sociations were also made during collaborative re- and insects will be especially important considering search assignments for the Brazilian agricultural re- the limited ability of small farmers to purchase pesti- search system (EMBRAPA) and CIAT (Centro Inter- cides and the inherent dangers of using such chemi- nacional de Agricultura Tropical), Cali, Colombia. cals, particularly in floodplain environments. Both The views and conclusions expressed in this paper wild material and traditional varieties need to be are those of the authors and do not necessarily better studied and evaluated for their potentially represent the position of any organization. valuable characteristics. Although agroforestry systems are boosting farm incomes in Amazonia while minimizing environmen- References tal damage, they can be carried too far. Cash crops can shoulder aside food production, thereby driving Barros, S.M., 1990. Sustainability and Social Adaptation in the Brazilian Amazon: The Japanese of Tom~-Aqu, 1929-89. up the costs of basic staples. And many annual food M.A. Thesis, University of Califomia, Berkeley, CA. crops, such as maize and rice, generally do better in Hiraoka, M., 1986. Zonation of mestizo riverine farming systems more open conditions. Nevertheless, many farmers in northeast Peru. Natl. Geogr. Res., 2(3): 354-371. are keen to expand tree crop plantings, and because Ramirez, A., Ser~, C. and Uquillas, J., 1992. An economic they are attuned to markets, have accumulated con- analysis of improved agroforestry practices in the Amazon lowlands of Ecuador, Agroforestry Syst., 17: 65-86. siderable experience that could have much wider Serr~o, E.A.S., Nepstad, D. and Walker, R., 1996. Upland agricul- applications. tural and forestry development in the Amazon: sustainability, criticality and resistance. Ecol. Econ., 18: 3-13. Smith, N.J.H., Williams, J.T., Plucknett, D.L. and Talbot, J.P., Acknowledgements 1992. Tropical Forests and Their Crops. Comstock Publishing Associates, Ithaca, NY. Smith, N.J.H., E.A.S. Serrao, P.T. Alvim and I.C. Falesi, 1995. The authors are grateful to Jorge Uquillas for Amazonia: Resiliency and Dynamism of the Land and its comments on an early version of the manuscript. People. United Nations University Press, Tokyo. Michael Balick, Bradley Bennett and Oliver Coomes, Uquillas, J., Ram~rez, A. and Ser& C., 1992. Are modern agro- all referees for the paper, made many helpful sugges- forestry practices economically viable? A case study in the Ecuadorian Amazon. In: G. Sullivan, S. Huke and J. Fox tions. During field work, the senior author benefited (Editors), Financial and Economic Analysis of Agroforestry from discussion on agroforestry with Edson Barce- Systems, NFTA-FSP, East-West Center, Honolulu, pp. 273- los, Erick Femandes, Jan Salick, Sebasti~o Eudes 292.