Reading/Language Arts Framework for California Public Schools Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve

Developed by the Curriculum Development and Supplemental Materials Commission

Adopted by the California State Board of Education

Published by the California Department of Education ii

OF T E EN D M U T C R A A T I P O

E N

S T IA A N TE R FO OF CALI Publishing Information

When the Reading/Language Arts Framework for California Public Schools, Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve was adopted by the California State Board of Education on December 10, 1998, the members of the State Board were the following: Yvonne W. Larsen, President; Robert L. Trigg, Vice-President; Timothy Draper; Kathryn Dronenburg; Marion Joseph; Marion McDowell; Janet G. Nicholas; Gerti B. Thomas; Marina Tse; and Richard Weston.

The framework was developed by the Curriculum Development and Supplemental Materials Commission. (See pages x–xii for the names of the members of the commission and the names of the principal writers and others who made significant contributions to the framework.)

This publication was edited by Edward O’Malley, working in cooperation with Nancy Brynelson, Consultant, Elementary Education Division, Curriculum and Instructional Leadership Branch, California Department of Education. It was prepared for printing by the staff of CDE Press. The cover and interior design were created and prepared by Cheryl McDonald. Typesetting was done by Jamie Contreras. The framework was published by the California Department of Education, 721 Capitol Mall, Sacramento, California (mailing address: P.O. Box 944272, Sacramento, CA 94244-2720). It was distributed under the provisions of the Library Distribution Act and Government Code Section 11096.

ISBN 0-8011-1462-4 Photo Credits Photographs were provided by Glen Korengold, working in cooperation with Mark Hopkins Elementary School, Sacramento City Unified School District, and the following schools in the Washington Unified School District: Bryte Elementary, Elkhorn Village Elementary, Golden State Middle, River City High, and Southport Elementary. Ordering Information Copies of this publication are available for $17.50 each, plus shipping and handling charges. California residents are charged sales tax. Orders may be sent to CDE Press, Sales Office, California Department of Education, P.O. Box 271, Sacramento, CA 95812-0271; FAX (916) 323-0823. See page 292 for complete information on payment, including credit-card purchases, and a partial list of other educational resources available from the Department.

In addition, an illustrated Educational Resources Catalog describing publications, videos, and other instructional media available from the Department can be obtained without charge by writing to the address given above or by calling the Sales Office at (916) 445-1260. Prices for all publications are subject to change. Prepared for publication by CSEA members iii Contents

Foreword vii Assessment of Preface viii 6 Proficiency in the Acknowledgments x Language Arts 215

Introduction to the Universal Access Framework 1 7 to the Language Arts 1 Curriculum 225 Goal and Key Components 2 of Effective Language Arts Responsibilities Instruction 10 8 and Support for Proficiency in the Content Standards Language Arts 237 3 and Instructional Practices, Kindergarten Through Development Grade Three 22 9 and Evaluation of Instructional Kindergarten 30 Materials 248 First Grade 44

Second Grade 64 APPENDIX A Third Grade 80 Matrix for the English– Content Standards Language Arts Content 4 and Instructional Practices, Standards, by Grade 259 Grades Four Through APPENDIX B Eight 96 Representative Content Fourth Grade 101 Standards and Instructional Fifth Grade 118 Connections for the Sixth Grade 133 Language Arts 262 Seventh Grade 151 Glossary of Selected Terms 276 Eighth Grade 165 Content Standards Works Cited 281 and Instructional Practices, 5 Additional References 286 Grades Nine Through Twelve 181 Ninth Grade and Tenth Grade 183 Eleventh Grade and Twelfth Grade 199

Note: The corresponding text from the English–Language Arts Content Standards can be found at the end of each grade-level section. iv Foreword

hen parents bring their comprehension and enthusiasm, to listen children to the classroom with understanding and compassion, to W door, they are entrusting our speak with conviction and effect, and to schools with this nation’s most precious write with clarity and persuasion cannot be resource. No more important public overstated. service exists than to ensure that when To accomplish that ambitious task, we children leave our schools as young adults, are providing a framework that offers a they are empowered with the language blueprint for implementation of the skills they need to be successful, contribut- language arts content standards adopted by ing members of an information society the California State Board of Education in that relies increasingly on the power and 1997. Those world-class standards, com- richness of language for effective commu- prehensive and balanced, may require nication. We take this responsibility changes in instructional programs, instruc- seriously and invite you to participate with tional materials, staff development, and us as we implement a system that will assessment strategies. A standards-based ensure that every student will be reading system of curricular and instructional at least by the third grade and will gradu- programs that accelerates and sustains the ate with a full range of abilities in the early and continued achievement in language arts. reading and the language arts by all Reading has been described as emanci- students in California’s public education pation because it allows the mind access to system, kindergarten through grade twelve, all previously recorded human thought. Its is described in this framework. That system corollary, writing, allows us to communi- cannot and will not be implemented, cate with the future. And listening and however, without the participation and speaking, tools of the present, allow us to contributions of teachers, administrators, connect with people throughout the parents, students, and all other stakeholders world. Without the ability to read, write, in a literate society. Teaching our children listen, and speak well, our students will to use and enjoy the power of language is a find themselves lost in a world where even shared responsibility. We look forward to basic transactions assume facility with working with you to ensure that all stu- language. The importance of our responsi- dents attain the highest possible levels of bility to teach students to read with language and literacy.

DELAINE EASTIN YVONNE LARSEN State Superintendent of Public Instruction President, California State Board of Education v Preface

esponsibility for ensuring that all This framework is based on the rigor- students develop proficiency in ous English–language arts content stan- Rthe language arts is not new. The dards adopted by the State Board in increasing social, economic, and techno- November of 1997. Those standards form logical demands for students to be profi- the basis of curriculum development at cient in reading, writing, listening, and every grade level and a statewide assess- speaking are urgent and unforgiving. For ment and accountability system. Education high school graduates in California to Code Section 60605(f) requires that this proceed to institutions of higher education framework be aligned with the standards. or to be employable and meet the unprec- The Reading/Language Arts Framework edented civic, economic, and technologi- replaces the 1987 English–Language Arts cal challenges of the twenty-first century, Framework and relies heavily on the they must be more than merely literate. converging research base in beginning They must be able to read all forms of text reading. It responds to the charge of the fluently and independently, communicate State Superintendent of Public Instruction effectively and creatively in oral and and the State Board of Education to written form, and comprehend and deliver ensure that all students can read at grade complex forms of discourse. In addition to level at least by the end of the third grade. those pragmatic and economic purposes of The framework observes the commitment language arts proficiency, the role of to a balanced and comprehensive language California educators is to instill in stu- arts program, defining balance as the dents (1) a lifelong love of reading; (2) a differential instructional emphasis on facility and joy of communicating through specific skills and strategies at strategic language; and (3) a deep appreciation of points in a learner’s instruction to ensure literary and informational text and the proficiency according to all language arts ways in which print expands our universe standards. and our understanding of history and This framework addresses reading, humanity. writing, speaking, listening, and written Our students will require higher levels and oral English-language conventions for of literacy skills than ever before. Califor- the full range of learners and across the nia has put in place a system of support to full kindergarten through grade twelve respond to that reality and to achieve the educational span. The standards and the goal that all students who graduate are framework give special emphasis to proficient in the language arts. An integral continuity and progression in the language component of that system is the Reading/ arts curriculum and to the reality that Language Arts Framework for California standards in the earlier grades are building Public Schools, Kindergarten Through blocks for proficiency in the later grades. Grade Twelve. Content standards, well- Educators must make a commitment to designed materials, skilled teachers, and a provide the necessary support to ensure comprehensive program of assessment that all students reach proficiency. The complete the system. framework further recognizes and ad- vi

dresses the critical linkages among curricu- frameworks of the past. Most important, lum, instruction, and assessment to this framework focuses on developing the enhance student learning. Effective, well- highest levels of language arts proficiency trained teachers and quality instructional to enable students to participate fully in materials that select and sequence infor- society and the world of work and to mation to optimize learning and the unlock the power and pleasure of retention of information are at the core of communicating effectively in the English effective programs. The framework language. emphasizes the important content and instructional connections that can and LESLIE FAUSSET should be made across domains and Chief Deputy Superintendent standards to provide a coherent, effective, Educational Policy, Curriculum, and and efficient program of language arts Department Management instruction. SONIA HERNANDEZ The standards describe the content Deputy Superintendent students should master by the end of each Curriculum and Instructional Leadership Branch

grade level. The framework elaborates on WENDY HARRIS those standards and describes the curricu- Assistant Superintendent and Director lum and instruction necessary to help Elementary Division students achieve the levels of mastery. It CATHERINE BARKETT also focuses on specific grade-level, Administrator standards-based instruction and, as such, Curriculum Frameworks and Instructional has a purpose much different from Resources Office vii Acknowledgments

ifteen California educators selected required that the preliminary draft of the from 200 applicants were appoint- framework be revised to reflect a new F ed in 1996 by the Curriculum focus on the implementation of the Development and Supplemental Materials standards and the instruction students Commission (Curriculum Commission) must receive to meet those standards and confirmed by the California State successfully. Board of Education to serve on the An invitation to bid was issued to Curriculum Framework and Criteria obtain assistance in reshaping the prelimi- Committee for English–Language Arts nary draft to meet the new criteria. The and English as a Second Language. More draft was submitted to new writers, who than half of the diverse group taught then created a draft for field review that students in kindergarten through grade was aligned with the English–language twelve. Other members were school arts content standards and contained an principals, a coordinating field librarian, instructional context for those standards. a reading specialist, county office curricu- More than 2,000 copies of the draft lum coordinators, and university framework were distributed to educators educators. and other experts across the state and After more than a year of intensive nation during the field review process in meetings and writing focused on creating June and July 1998. The Curriculum a comprehensive and balanced document, Commission held two public hearings to the committee produced a preliminary receive feedback on the draft in July and draft. During the summer of 1997, that August 1998 and directed the writers and draft underwent an in-depth review and Department of Education staff to make evaluation by a prominent California necessary revisions. The State Board reading researcher to ensure that it was conducted two public hearings on the grounded in relevant research and prac- framework in fall 1998 and adopted the tice. Simultaneously, the newly developed Reading/Language Arts Framework for English–language arts content standards California Public Schools, Kindergarten were being finalized by the Commission Through Grade Twelve in December 1998. for the Establishment of Academic The principal writers of the framework Content and Performance Standards. In were: addition, new legislation was enacted that Edward J. Kame’enui, University of called for all frameworks to be fully Oregon, Eugene aligned with the corresponding content Deborah C. Simmons, University of standards. Adoption of the standards by Oregon, Eugene the State Board and the new legislation viii

The following members of the Subject- Barbara Smith, San Rafael City Elemen- Matter Committee for English–Language tary and High School Districts Arts and English as a Second Language Sheri Willebrand, Ventura Unified were responsible for overseeing the School District development of the framework: The Curriculum Commission benefited Chair from the work of the Curriculum Frame- Lillian Vega Castaneda, California State work and Criteria Committee for University, San Marcos English–Language Arts and English Vice-Chair as a Second Language. The committee Marilyn Astore, Sacramento County members were: Office of Education Kathy Allen, Palos Verdes Peninsula Members Unified School District Patrice Abarca, Los Angeles Unified Gladys Frantz, San Francisco Unified School District School District Eleanor Brown, San Juan Unified School Magdalena Ruz Gonzalez, Pacific Oaks District College Ken Dotson, Turlock Joint Elementary Dewey Hall, Rowland Unified School School District District Lisa Jeffery, Los Angeles Unified School Carol Jago, Santa Monica-Malibu Unified District School District Susan Stickel, Elk Grove Unified School Nancy Kotowski, Monterey County District Office of Education Jean Williams (Retired), Fresno Unified Kathy Marin, Whittier City School School District District Jo Anne Polite, Los Angeles Unified The work of the Subject-Matter School District Committee was greatly supported by the Marilyn Robertson, Los Angeles Unified State Board of Education liaisons: School District Kathryn Dronenburg John Shefelbine, California State Univer- Marion Joseph sity, Sacramento George Sheridan, Black Oak Mine The other members of the Curriculum Unified School District Commission were: Takako Suzuki, Los Angeles Unified Kirk Ankeney (Chair, 1998), San Diego School District City Unified School District Jerry Treadway, San Diego State Univer- Roy Anthony, Grossmont Union High sity, Framework Committee Chair School District Sharon Ulanoff, California State Univer- Michele Garside, Laguna Salada Union sity, San Marcos Elementary School District Kami Winding, New Haven Unified Viken Hovsepian, Glendale Unified School District School District The writer for the committee was Joseph Nation, San Rafael Lisa Ray Kelly, Ukiah. Richard Schwartz, Torrance Unified School District ix

California Department of Education Special appreciation is extended to: staff members who contributed to devel- Karen Buxton, Curriculum Specialist for oping the framework were: Language Arts, Grades 7–12, San Juan Sonia Hernandez, Deputy Superinten- Unified School District, for her assis- dent, Curriculum and Instructional tance in revising the final version of the Leadership Branch framework for grades seven through Catherine Barkett, Administrator, twelve Curriculum Frameworks and Instruc- Marjorie DeBuse, University of Oregon, tional Resources Office for her assistance in writing sections of Christine Bridges, Analyst, Curriculum the framework related to advanced Frameworks and Instructional Re- learners sources Office Claude Goldenberg, California State Nancy Brynelson, Consultant, Reading University, Long Beach, for his and Mathematics Policy and Leader- assistance in revising sections of the ship Office framework related to beginning Wendy Harris, Assistant Superintendent reading and Director, Elementary Division Robin Scarcella, University of California, Diane Levin, Language Arts Consultant, Irvine, for her assistance in writing Curriculum Frameworks and Instruc- sections of the framework related to tional Resources Office English learners Christine Rodrigues, Consultant, Cur- riculum Frameworks and Instructional Resources Office Nancy Sullivan, Administrator, Education Technology Office Introduction to the Framework 1

The framework uses the English– language arts content standards as its curricular platform and aligns curriculum, assessment, instruction, and organization to provide a comprehensive, coherent structure for language arts teaching and learning.

he purpose of the California Reading/Language Arts Framework T is to provide a blueprint for organizing instruction so that every child meets or exceeds the language arts content standards. It will guide the implementation of the standards by specifying the design of instructional materials, curriculum, instruction, and professional development. The standards designate what to teach at specific grade levels, and this framework provides guidelines and selected research-based approaches for implementing instruction to ensure optimal benefits for all students, including those with special learning needs (e.g., English learners, students with learning disabilities and reading difficulties, and advanced learners).

1 2

Chapter 1 an urban school in another part of the Introduction Audiences for the to the state. She labors over each of the words in Framework Framework a history passage on the California Gold The framework has two primary Rush and has extreme difficulty in writing audiences: (1) teachers and other educa- basic sentences to summarize the major tors involved in English–language arts points in the text. Teachers should instruction; and (2) developers and Michael, an eighth-grade student in a not be expected rural school, reads and comprehends Guy to be the publishers of language arts programs and composers materials. Parents, members of the de Maupassant’s short story “The Neck- of the music as community, and policymakers can be lace” with ease, carefully comparing and well as the guided by the framework as they review contrasting the theme with that of other conductors of short stories and communicating his ideas the orchestra. language arts programs at the local and fluently and eloquently in writing. In a Kathi Cooper, state levels. Educators will use this frame- Sacramento City work and the content standards as a road suburban high school on the coast, the Unified School District map for curriculum and instruction. instructional diversity of an eleventh-grade Publishers must attend to the content and classroom poses particular challenges as pedagogical requirements specified in the students with reading abilities that span content standards and the framework to more than six grade levels read Of Mice ensure that all California students have and Men by John Steinbeck and orally access to research-based instructional and support their viewpoints and positions practice materials. Carefully articulated with details from the text. curricular sequences and quality instruc- The individual differences of the tional materials enable teachers to invest students just mentioned are as varied as more energy in delivering instruction and their educational performances. Many assessing the effectiveness of instruction plausible factors can explain why Michael for the full range of learners in their excels and Judith struggles. Previous classrooms. instructional experiences, prior knowledge of concepts and content, the socioeco- The Context of the nomic level of the family, and motivation are all part of the complex equation of Language Arts factors that can determine children’s In a suburban elementary school, literacy success. The common denomina- seven-year-old Joshua enters the second tor of the students is the need to develop grade reading two correct words in a competence in the language arts to ensure minute and scoring at the ninth percentile that they will be able to access information on a standardized measure of receptive with ease, apply language skills at levels vocabulary. He cannot read the words demanded in the twenty-first century, mom or can or identify pictures that appreciate literature, and obtain the liberty represent the meanings of group or pair. society offers to those who can use the In the same second-grade classroom, English language with facility. The seven-year-old Ricardo reads third-grade mission of all public schools must be to material fluently and provides a detailed ensure that students acquire that profi- and vivid recall of the story depicting the ciency to enhance their civic participation race between a tortoise and a hare. Judith, and their academic, social, personal, and an eleven-year-old student with a reading economic success in today’s society and disability, is repeating the fourth grade in tomorrow’s world. 3

reap the advantages of early literacy but Chapter 1 The Challenge in the Introduction also accumulate experiences with print to the Language Arts that continue to differentiate good readers Framework Facility in the language arts is the from poor readers throughout their enabling skill that traverses academic academic careers. Unfortunately, the rich- disciplines and translates into meaningful get-richer phenomenon known as the personal, social, and economic outcomes Matthew Effect (see glossary) has been verified in both the academic and the Students who for individuals. Literacy is the key to read early and becoming an independent learner in all the economic domains. Individuals who test successfully not other disciplines. Society has long recog- at the least-proficient levels of literacy are only reap the advantages of nized the importance of successful reading. often unemployable because even low-skill jobs today demand adequate ability in early literacy but But only recently have we begun to under- also accumulate stand the profound, enduring consequences reading (Whitman and Gest 1995). experiences with of not learning to read well and the newly In 1993 Peter Drucker described the print that continue to found evidence of the critical abbreviated advent of the knowledge society in which knowledge workers will replace blue-collar differentiate good period in which to alter patterns of reading readers from failure (California Department of Educa- workers as the dominant class in the poor readers tion 1995; Juel 1988; Lyon and Chhabra twenty-first century. According to throughout their academic careers. 1996). Most important, we recognize the Drucker society will demand more convergence of evidence to guide instruc- sophisticated print-oriented skills than are tion in the language arts (National currently required of the American Research Council 1998). workforce. America will be greatly chal- One need not look beyond school lenged in general to develop competitive dropout data, prison rosters, or public knowledge workers. In 1996 Simmons assistance rolls to find that the problem and Kame’enui remarked that those of illiteracy is pervasive and is especially referred to as vulnerable learners would be common to many who are not succeeding especially challenged; that is, students in a society whose literacy demands who, because of their instructional, continue to exacerbate the divisions socioeconomic, experiential, physiological, between the haves and the have-nots. and neurological characteristics, bring Studies of individuals who are resilient in different and often additional require- facing personal and social adversity indicate ments to instruction and curriculum. that the ability to read and write well renders powerful, far-reaching positive The Charge effects. Literacy levels are positively associated with both higher annual income and to Educators lower unemployment. On the other hand, Reading/language arts and related the absence of proficient reading and disciplines are the beneficiaries of an writing skills is associated not only with abundance of converging research that academic failure and dropping out of produces a professional knowledge base school but also with unemployment and related to fostering and sustaining compe- involvement with the judicial system tence in the language arts, particularly (Cornwall and Bawden 1992; Werner beginning reading. Noteworthy advances 1993). have identified the features of curricular Stanovich (1986) observes that students and instructional interventions to offset who read early and successfully not only negative factors that can accompany 4

Chapter 1 children when they enter school (Hanson that students meet or exceed those Introduction to the and Farrell 1995; Lipson and Wixson standards, and comprehensive is Framework 1986). As educational leaders it is our defined as the inclusion of all content charge to use that knowledge base responsi- standards. Although more or less bly and strategically to ensure that all emphasis is placed on particular children educated in California public strands, depending on students’ schools will graduate with the knowledge needs at a given time, all strands are and skills that allow them to access and to be developed simultaneously. employ the power of the printed word. —Balanced does not mean that all Toward that end this framework is skills and standards receive equal designed to provide a blueprint for emphasis at a given point in time. curriculum and instruction to enhance all Rather, it implies that the overall students’ potential as producers and users emphasis accorded to a skill or of language. standard is determined by its priority or importance relative to Guiding Principles students’ language and literacy levels and needs. For example, in In an effort to accelerate and sustain all kindergarten and the first grade, learners’ proficiency in the language arts, students first learn to apply and ten principles are used to guide this practice decoding and word-attack framework and address the complexity of skills in carefully controlled, the content and context of language arts decodable texts. Later in the first instruction. The principles direct the grade and in subsequent grades the purpose, design, delivery, and evaluation of emphasis on decodable texts shifts instruction. Accordingly, the framework: to less-controlled passages and • Uses the English–language arts content literature as students develop standards as its curricular platform and proficiency in the skills needed for aligns curriculum, assessment, instruc- reading in an alphabetic writing tion, and organization to provide a system. comprehensive, coherent structure for —A comprehensive program ensures language arts teaching and learning. that students learn to read and The standards serve as curricular write, comprehend and compose, guideposts for teachers and provide appreciate and analyze, and clear-cut curricular goals for all perform and enjoy the language learners. Genuine alignment of arts. They should spend time curriculum, assessment, instruction, immersed in high-quality litera- and organization rests at the school ture and work with expository level. There the components must be text, learn foundational skills in identified, implemented, and ad- the alphabetic writing system, and justed to fit the conditions and study real books. A comprehensive contexts of the school and the needs program ensures that students of the learners. master foundational skills as a • Stresses the importance of a balanced, gateway to using all forms of comprehensive program. Balanced is language as tools for thinking, defined as the strategic selection and learning, and communicating (Bay scheduling of instruction to ensure Area Reading Task Force 1997). 5

• Emphasizes that students must be recognizes that not all learners will Chapter 1 Introduction fluent readers at least by the end of the acquire skills and knowledge at the to the third grade and that third-grade same rate. Intervention strategies Framework competence depends on the specific must be in place to identify students and cumulative mastery of skills in who are not progressing adequately kindergarten through grade three and to intervene at all levels as early together with the development of and as long as necessary to support positive attitudes toward reading and their acquisition of learning in the writing. Consistent with the content language arts. standards, the framework recognizes • Addresses the full range of learners in that the advanced skills of compre- classrooms, with specific attention hending narrative and informational being given to language arts instruc- text and literary response and tion and the learning needs of analysis and the creation of eloquent English learners, special education prose all depend on solid vocabulary, students, students with learning decoding, and word-recognition difficulties, and advanced learners. skills fostered in the early grades and The framework addresses students sustained throughout the school with special needs at both ends of the years. academic continuum; that is, those • Describes the important skills, con- who enter with less-than-adequate cepts, and strategies that students must skills and struggle to develop funda- be able to use after the third grade and mental competence and those who attends specifically to those advanced enter with advanced skills that higher-order skills from grades four require curriculum modifications to through twelve that require explicit foster optimal achievement. and systematic instruction. • Assumes that virtually all students can • Provides guidance to ensure that all learn to read and that older struggling educators and learners understand that readers will benefit from refocusing (1) specific skills in reading, writing, instruction on building the skills, speaking, and listening must be strategies, and knowledge that are the taught and learned; (2) the language foundation for subsequent success in arts are related, reciprocal processes reading/language arts. that build on and strengthen one • Is designed to be useful to a wide range another; and (3) the language arts of consumers, including professional can be learned across all academic developers, reading specialists, library disciplines. media teachers, principals, district • Promotes a preventive rather than and county leaders of curriculum and remedial approach. The most effec- instruction, college and university tive instructional approach is to teacher educators, teachers, parents, prevent reading/language arts community members, and publish- problems before they begin. The key ers. However, the framework is first to success is to make the first and foremost a tool for teachers and a instruction students receive their guide for publishers and developers best instruction. of educational materials. • Assumes that all learners will work toward the same standards yet 6

Chapter 1 instruction for each grade; (3) classroom Introduction Organization of the to the connections indicating sample integration Framework Framework points (K–8); and (4) curricular and The organization of this framework is instructional profiles illustrating a selected based on the content of the English– standard for each grade. Note: The corre- Language Arts Content Standards sponding text from the English–Language (California Department of Education Arts Content Standards can be found at the 1998a). Accordingly, the framework: end of each grade-level section. Essential to the organization of this • Presents the goals and key compo- framework is the structure of the standards nents of an effective language arts themselves. They are categorized by do- program (Chapter 2) main: reading, writing, written and oral • Describes the curriculum content English-language conventions, and listening and instructional practices needed for and speaking. Within each domain, strands students to master the English– and substrands are also used to categorize Language Arts Content Standards the standards. The structure of the content (Chapter 3 for K–3, Chapter 4 for standards is illustrated on the following grades 4–8, and Chapter 5 for grades page in the sample table for the first grade. 9–12) Appendix A provides an overview of the • Guides the development of appropri- domain strands and substrands by grade. ate assessment tools and methods to The standards (e.g., 1.1–1.3) within ensure that each student’s progress substrands and strands serve as benchmarks toward achieving specific knowledge, by which to gauge what students should skills, and understanding in language learn at designated points in time and over arts is measured (Chapter 6) time. The strands are not intended to • Suggests specific strategies to pro- suggest that each standard is to be given mote access to appropriately chal- equal weight in a given year. Instead, the lenging curriculum for students with weight and emphasis of a particular strand special needs (Chapter 7) must be determined by (1) the role of the • Describes the systems of support, standards within the strand to developing including professional development, competence within a specific domain, such that should be in place for effective as reading or writing; and (2) the perfor- implementation of a rigorous and mance of the learners. The English– coherent language arts curriculum language arts content standards illustrate the The standards are (Chapter 8) complexity of teaching the language arts, mastery standards, • Specifies requirements for instruc- meaning that the multiple components that must be tional resources, including print and students should examined and integrated to create a com- master or be electronic learning resources prehensive program, and the critical and proficient in the (Chapter 9) knowledge, skills, integral relation of earlier and later skills. and strategies Chapters 3, 4, and 5, which detail The standards are mastery standards, specified in a standards-based curriculum content and meaning that students should master or be particular standard, instructional practices for the major grade- at least by the end proficient in the knowledge, skills, and of the designated level clusters (K–3, 4–8, and 9–12), are strategies specified in a particular standard, grade. further organized according to (1) curricu- at least by the end of the designated grade. lum content overview for each grade-level Instruction to develop such proficiency is cluster; (2) overview of standards and not, however, restricted to a specific grade. 7

Structure of the Content Standards Chapter 1 Introduction DOMAIN STRAND SUBSTRAND STANDARD to the Framework Reading 1.0 Word analysis, Concepts about 1.1 Match oral words fluency, and print to printed words. systematic 1.2 Identify the title and author vocabulary of a reading selection. development 1.3 Identify letters, words, and sentences. Essential to the organization of this framework is Publishers and teachers should consider the grade are highlighted and discussed. Stan- the structure of the standards prerequisite skills and sequence of instruc- dards may be paraphrased or restated to themselves. tion students will need to master a standard illustrate the descriptions. The full text of by the end of the grade and introduce and the English–Language Arts Content Stan- sequence instruction within and between dards is included in the corresponding grades to ensure mastery at least by the grade-level sections. Similarly, the connec- grade in which the standard is identified. tions between standards are not thoroughly For example, Reading Standard 1.9 speci- explored in the descriptions of grade-level fies that students will be able to divide standards. Instead, they are addressed in single-syllable words into their components (1) the samples of integration points in the (e.g., /c/ /a/ /t/ = cat). This standard does grade-level sections; and (2) the representa- not propose that students wait until the tive content standards and instructional first grade to begin sequential segmentation connections in Appendix B. but that they master the skill at least by the Curricular and instructional profiles end of the first grade. serve as a starting point for curriculum In recognition that a substantial portion planning and instruction for a selected of the instructional day must be devoted to standard at each grade level. Profiles language arts instruction, educators and include critical dimensions that should be publishers of instructional materials should components of effective language arts address the history–social science and lessons. Ideally, the components would be science content standards simultaneously incorporated into published commercial with the language arts standards, particu- materials. But if the components are not larly for kindergarten through grade three. fully developed in existing materials, the Two considerations regarding the profiles offer a model for teachers to use in treatment of standards are that (1) the modifying and strengthening instruction complexity of the language arts and the for the full range of learners. It is not number of content standards preclude a suggested, however, that profiles be comprehensive, detailed analysis of each developed for all standards. Instead, standard in the framework; and (2) the designers will want to consider the interre- discussion of the standards in the frame- lationship of standards across domains and work parallels their organization by do- strands in curriculum planning and mains, strands, and substrands, whereas in instruction and in the development of practice those features are interwoven. No instructional resources. (See the following attempt is made to address every standard “Key to Curricular and Instructional within the grade-level discussions; rather, Profiles” for details on the elements of the standards important to understanding the curricular and instructional profiles.) domains or standards new to a particular 8

Chapter 1 Introduction to the Framework Key to Curricular and Instructional Profiles

Domain, Strand, Substrand, and Standard

Prerequisite or corequisite standards (or both) are listed at the beginning of the profile for each grade.

Curricular and Instructional Decisions

Instructional Definitions of what is to be taught and learned. Objectives

Instructional Strategic selection and sequencing of information to be taught. Design Features of instructional design include what to teach, when to introduce skills and concepts, how to select examples, how to integrate standards, and how to teach for transference and generalization.

Instructional Procedures and strategies teachers use to develop students’ skills and Delivery knowledge. Materials should provide clear steps of how to introduce the skill or strategy. This dimension includes what teachers and students do. Modeling, pacing, reinforcement, questioning, corrections, and feedback are also included. It further involves the structure of delivery, including teacher demonstration or modeling, guided practice, peer-mediated instruction, and independent practice and application.

Assessment Three critical purposes are addressed: 1. Entry-level assessment for instructional planning: how to determine the skill level of students through the use of meaningful indicators of reading and language arts proficiency prior to instruction 2. Monitoring student progress toward the instructional objective: how to determine whether students are making adequate progress on skills and concepts taught directly 3. Post-test assessment toward the standard: how to determine the effectiveness of instruction and students’ proficiency after instruction 9

Universal Although all learners work toward mastery of the same standards, Chapter 1 Access Introduction curriculum and instruction are differentiated to meet students’ to the needs. Some students may meet more than one of the following Framework descriptions: 1. Students with reading difficulties or disabilities. Are the standard and objective appropriate for the learner in content and number of objectives? Can students use the same materials? Or will materials need to be modified to accommodate the speaking, listening, reading, or writing competence of the learners? 2. Students who are advanced learners. Determine whether the content has been mastered by the student. Do the content and activities need to be accelerated or enriched? Are the content and objectives appropriate for the learners? If not, how can the materials and requirements of the task be modified? 3. Students who are English learners. Is more extensive instruction of vocabulary or other English-language features necessary to achieve the standard? Is the rate of introduction of new information manageable for learners? Is there sufficient oral and written modeling of new skills and concepts and reinforcement of previously taught information? Have linguistic elements in the lesson or materials been modified as appropriate for the proficiency level of the students?

Instructional Criteria to consider include the following: Materials 1. Introduction of content, skills, and strategies is carefully sequenced. 2. Number and range of examples are adequate. 3. Prerequisite skills are addressed, and materials provide sufficient review of previously taught skills and strategies. 4. Assessment tasks parallel the requirements of the standard. 10

Chapter 2 Goal and Key Components Goal and Key of Effective Language Arts 2Instruction Components of Effective Language Arts Instruction

The child’s first instruction must employ the most valid and effective methods available to ensure mastery of the skills that lay the foundation for further reading achievement.

he Reading/Language Arts Frame- work specifies the strategic and Tsystematic reading and language skills and knowledge that students should learn and teachers should teach to achieve competence in the language arts. A primary assumption is that students master particular skills and knowledge at designated points in time and that earlier skills are foundational and requisite for later, more complex higher-order skills and knowledge. Those skills and knowledge are carefully mapped out in the English–Language Arts Content Standards. A critical feature of the standards and this framework is that gaps, delays, and deficits in skills and knowledge experienced in previous grades must still be addressed responsively and responsibly.

10 11

Chapter 2 Goal of Effective Key Components Goal and Key Components Language Arts of Effective Language of Effective Language Arts Instruction Arts Instruction Instruction

The knowledge and skills that enable Assumption: The effectiveness of eleventh- and twelfth-grade students to instruction is measured verify facts from public documents and by student performance critique their truthfulness, write carefully according to valid, reliable constructed persuasive essays, and develop assessment aligned with and present a research question and the language arts content supporting evidence with multimedia do standards. not begin in the eleventh grade but Knowledge gained over the past three originate in the early grades through decades reveals the multiple contexts that careful development of language arts shape the quantity and quality of learning competence in specific and integrated skills (Carroll 1963, 1989; Mosenthal 1984, and knowledge. The task of California 1985). Effective language arts programs schools, then, is to develop and deliver a are dynamic and involve professionals, language arts curriculum that is systematic policies, instructional materials, and and carefully articulated and establishes practices that interact in complex ways. specific, continuing standards leading to The best practices of any profession are competence and alignment with the not gained in a vacuum but are imple- English–Language Arts Content Standards. mented and sustained in environments The goal of developing lifelong readers that support, enhance, and reinforce those The goal of developing lifelong and writers begins early in students’ lives practices and include several dimensions and represents a unique balance of compe- readers and (Smith, Simmons, and Kame’enui 1998). writers begins tence, motivation, accessibility, and In 1995 the California Reading Task early in students’ experiences with print. When students Force identified four components that a lives and develop competence in the fundamentals represents a balanced, comprehensive approach to unique balance of of reading and writing, they increase their reading must contain: (1) a strong litera- competence, motivation to achieve. Educators should be ture, language, and comprehension motivation, accessibility, and keenly aware of the inherent difficulty of program that includes a balance of oral learning to read and write in English and experiences and written language; (2) an organized, with print. of the integral linkage between proficiency explicit skills program that includes and motivation. Difficulties in mastering phonemic awareness (sounds in words), the elements of reading, writing, listening, phonics, and decoding skills to address the and speaking can easily and directly “stifle needs of the emergent reader; (3) ongoing motivation... [and] in turn hamper diagnosis that informs teaching and instructional efforts” (National Research assessment that ensures accountability; Council 1998, 316). The child’s first and (4) a powerful early intervention instruction must employ the most valid program that provides individual tutoring and effective methods available to ensure for students at risk of failure in reading. mastery of the skills that lay the founda- The key components of an effective tion for further reading achievement. language arts program (an expansion of 12

Chapter 2 the four elements contained in Every Child • Teachers receive training and Goal and Key Components a Reader [California Department of support to manage assessment. of Effective Education 1995]) are assessment, instruc- Teachers or trained paraprofessionals Language Arts tion, instructional time, instructional can make quick, focused checks of Instruction programs and materials, instructional an individual student’s progress grouping and scheduling, differentiated while the remaining students are instruction, classroom instructional and engaged in meaningful work. management practices, professional • Formal and informal as well as development, administrative practices, formative and summative measures parent and community involvement, are used to document student motivation, effort, and academic language. performance. Each of the components is described in • Summative assessment assists sites, the following sections. Note: Both the districts, and the state in monitoring strength of the components and their the effectiveness of established strategic integration are required for programs. effective instruction in the language arts. Instruction in the Language Arts Assessment in the Language Arts High-quality instruction is at the heart Assessment anchored to important of all good language arts programs. A learning objectives should provide the comprehensive, balanced language arts basis for instruction. Different types of program in which curriculum and instruc- assessment used at strategic points (before, tion are differentiated according to during, and after instruction) provide assessed needs should be provided to all information critical to determining what students. Characteristics of the instruction to teach, how much the students are component in an effective language arts learning, and whether the students have program are as follows: achieved mastery. Characteristics of the • The curriculum for reading and the assessment component in an effective language arts in kindergarten language arts program are as follows: through grade three provides explicit Assessment • Assessment of student performance and systematic instruction and of student is used to determine what students diagnostic support in: performance is used to determine need to learn and what teachers need —Phonemic awareness what students to teach. It is also used to determine —Phonics need to learn and what students have already learned —Decoding what teachers well and what teachers do not have —Word-attack skills need to teach. to teach. —Spelling • Indicators of critical skills and —Vocabulary strategies are used to identify —Comprehension skills students at risk of difficulty and in —Writing skills and strategies and need of specialized instruction. their application • Ongoing assessment of student —Listening and speaking skills and performance is linked closely to strategies instruction and curriculum activities • The curriculum for reading and the as well as school-site goals, district language arts in grades four through and state standards, and state assessments. 13

twelve provides explicit and system- Instructional Time Chapter 2 Goal and Key atic instruction and diagnostic Opportunities for students to learn are Components support in: determined in part by the amount and use of Effective Language Arts —Word-attack skills (e.g., decoding of time allocated for instruction. For Instruction and structural as applied to proficiency in the language arts to be multisyllabic words) achieved, an adequate amount of time —Spelling must be allocated to instruction, and that An adequate —Vocabulary time must be protected from interruptions. amount of time —Comprehension skills, including Characteristics of the instructional time must be allocated contextual skills component in an effective language arts to [language arts] program are as follows: instruction, and —Text-handling and strategic that time must be reading skills • At the primary level a minimum of protected from —Writing skills and strategies and two and one-half hours of instruc- interruptions. their application tional time is allocated to language —Listening and speaking skills and arts instruction daily. This time is their application given priority and is protected from • For students in grades four through interruption. twelve who do not demonstrate • In grades four through eight, two competence in the skills and knowl- hours of instructional time are edge required in kindergarten allocated to language arts instruction through grade three, assessments are daily through core instructional conducted and systematic instruc- periods or within a self-contained tion is provided in the necessary classroom. prerequisite skills, such as: • In grades nine through twelve, all —Phonemic awareness students participate in a minimum of —Specific instruction in decoding one course per semester of language and phonics arts instruction. —Fluency • Engaged academic time (the time —Vocabulary and language develop- students actively participate in ment appropriately challenging tasks) is —Comprehension strategies maximized. • Classroom and school time are • Teachers adapt learning contexts to allocated to activities and content challenge and extend the skills of highly correlated with essential advanced learners. Opportunities for reading and literacy skills. acceleration and enrichment are • Students with special learning needs provided. are provided additional instructional • Even with the highest-quality time and support. Additional time is classroom instruction, some students allocated within the school day, have difficulty progressing according before school, after school, and to grade-level expectations. For those during vacation periods as necessary. students assessment tools to diagnose At the secondary level additional specific instructional needs, together courses and opportunities outside the with instructional support and age- school day and year are provided for appropriate materials, are essential to students having difficulties with address foundational skill deficits. reading. 14

Chapter 2 • The school extends learning time for • Curricular programs and instruc- Goal and Key Components all students by promoting indepen- tional materials provide specific of Effective dent reading outside school in daily suggestions for special-needs stu- Language Arts at-home reading assignments and dents. Instruction expectations, use of summer reading • Instructional materials for students lists, and family and community in grades four through twelve who literacy activities. have reading difficulties align with age-appropriate interests and offer Instructional Programs systematic practice of needed skills. and Materials Materials are available on topics that Effective Effective instructional programs and motivate learners to read. instructional materials based on the English–language • Instructional materials for English programs and learners address the same curricular materials can arts content standards and current and greatly influence confirmed research can greatly influence content described in this framework the amount and the amount and rate of learning in for English speakers and give rate of learning classrooms. Characteristics of the instruc- additional emphasis to the structures in classrooms. tional programs and materials component and systems of English, including in an effective language arts program are phonology, morphology, syntax, and as follows: semantics. • Instructional materials incorporate • A validated process is used to select specific strategies, teaching/instruc- both print and electronic instructional activities, procedures, ex- tional materials to promote high amples, and opportunities for review levels of achievement for the full and application consistent with array of learners. current and confirmed research. Instructional Grouping • Instructional materials prioritize and and Scheduling sequence essential skills and strategies in a logical, coherent manner The purpose of instructional grouping and demonstrate the relationship and scheduling is to maximize opportuni- between fundamental skills ties to learn. First of all, content must (e.g., decoding, vocabulary, and govern instruction. Then instructional comprehension). grouping and scheduling are used to • Instructional materials address or enhance learning opportunities. Charac- reinforce content-area standards in teristics of the instructional grouping and mathematics, science, and history– scheduling component in an effective social science whenever feasible. language arts program are as follows: • Instructional materials include • Instruction is provided in flexible activities that relate directly to the groupings to maximize student learning objectives. Extraneous performance. Whole-group instruc- material is kept to a minimum. tion or heterogeneous grouping may • In support of practice and motiva- be used when the objectives are tion, students at every grade level appropriate for the range of learners have access to and are encouraged to in the classroom. Homogeneous use a collection of interesting and grouping may be used to customize suitable library books in addition to specific instruction for assessed their required texts. student needs. 15

• Group size and composition are tunities for more intensive, system- Chapter 2 Goal and Key adjusted to accommodate and reflect atic teaching and practice to learn Components student progress and instructional the skills and strategies needed for of Effective objectives (flexible and dynamic meeting the standards. Those Language Arts Instruction grouping). students with more intensive needs • Tutoring (peer or adult or both) is requiring special education services used judiciously to supplement (not may need outside assistance and supplant) explicit teacher-delivered further instructional differentiation instruction. It aligns with classroom based on their individualized objectives and instruction. education programs. • Cross-class or cross-grade grouping is • Teachers adapt learning contexts to used when appropriate to maximize stimulate and extend the proficiency opportunities to tailor instruction to of students who are advanced students’ performance levels. Such learners. Opportunities for accelera- grouping is appropriate when it tion and enrichment are provided. facilitates teaching students within a • English learners develop proficiency similar age span and achievement in English and in the concepts and range. As a general rule, differences skills contained in the English– should be within one year in kinder- Language Arts Content Standards. garten through grade three, two years Emphasis is placed on (1) instruc- in grades four through eight, and tion in reading and writing; and three years in grades nine through (2) simultaneous instruction in the twelve. acquisition of academic vocabulary • Centers and independent activities and the phonological, morphologi- are used judiciously and are aligned cal, and syntactical structures of with instructional goals and objec- English already understood by tives focused on achieving grade-level English speakers. standards. • Teachers adapt instruction for students with multiple needs Differentiated Instruction (e.g., gifted English learners or All students are expected to meet or students identified as gifted and All students are exceed the grade-level expectations set forth eligible for special education ser- expected to meet or exceed the in the English–Language Arts Content vices). grade-level Standards. Differentiated instruction aims expectations set to optimize learning opportunities and Classroom Instructional and forth in the outcomes for all students by tailoring Management Practices English–Language Arts Content instruction to meet their current level of Classroom and instructional manage- Standards. knowledge and prerequisite skills. Students ment practices promote student engage- with a wide range of learning needs can be ment and maximize instructional time and expected in almost any classroom, and effectiveness. Characteristics of the their needs are addressed more fully in classroom instructional and management Chapter 7. Characteristics of the differenti- practices component in an effective ated instruction component in an effective language arts program are as follows: language arts program are as follows: • Classrooms are highly interactive • Students with reading difficulties or and provide instruction, constructive disabilities are provided with oppor- feedback, and high levels of engage- 16

Chapter 2 ment together with appropriate • Educators participate in the plan- Goal and Key Components activities and resources. ning of their own professional of Effective • Academic and social expectations are learning. Language Arts well established and are explicitly • Activities are designed to be ongoing Instruction taught at the school and classroom and in-depth and include a variety of levels. Classroom and schoolwide strategies to help educators apply discipline plans and procedures are what they have learned and sustain implemented consistently by all improved instruction. staff. • Time is allocated for educators to • The links between instruction, reflect, discuss, analyze, and refine behavior, and the curriculum are so their own professional practices and clear and strong that tasks and to plan and refine instruction instruction are assigned at appropri- accordingly. ate levels, students have a high • The administration makes a com- probability of being successful, mitment to ensure support, ongoing lessons are well paced, and the follow-up, and evaluation of profes- classroom/school environment is sional development. supportive. • Teachers plan and manage whole- Administrative Practices class and small-group lessons, Administrative support of language arts independent student work, assess- instruction reminds all those involved in ment tasks, and instructional education that reform efforts are not materials efficiently and effectively considered effective unless they contribute so that the students are actively to increased student achievement. Strong engaged, instructional time is instructional leadership characterizes maximized, and lesson objectives are effective schools and can help maintain a achieved. focus on high-quality instruction. Charac- teristics of the administrative practices Professional Development component in an effective language arts The preparation The preparation of teachers and program are that administrators: of teachers and ongoing support for their continuing ongoing support • Are knowledgeable about the for their professional development are critical to English–language arts content continuing the quality of schools and increases in standards and effective language arts professional student achievement. Characteristics of development are programs. They work with teachers critical to the the professional development component to create a coherent plan in the quality of schools in an effective language arts program are school for language arts instruction and increases as follows: that is based on assessment and in student achievement. • Professional development for provides access to such programs for teachers focuses on student learning, all students. with attention given to tailoring • Maximize and protect instructional curriculum and instruction to time for language arts and organize students’ needs, all of which is the resources and personnel needed compatible with current research to support classroom assessment and and the English–language arts instruction. content standards. 17

• Support the development of explicit their children’s learning in reading Chapter 2 Goal and Key schoolwide, grade-level, and indi- and the language arts. Components vidual performance goals, are aware • Materials and programs are orga- of Effective of school and classroom language nized so that parents, siblings, and Language Arts Instruction arts performance, institute practices community members can provide to provide school-level performance extended learning experiences. information in a timely manner, and • College and university partners act to ensure that learning is ad- collaborate with schools and districts equate and is sustained over time. in designing and providing profes- • Ensure that all teachers are well sional development, tutoring, and trained in reading and the language other programs to support increased arts and support teachers in their student proficiency in language arts. implementation of effective pro- • The community is used as a class- grams. room abundant in examples of how • Allocate resources, time, and staff in and why the language arts are all grades for students who have not important in our lives, our work, demonstrated competence on and our thinking. reading and writing standards. A commitment and plan of action are established to ensure that all students Other Considerations read and write at or above grade All stakeholders in the promotion of level. literacy should understand that the inclusion of the key instructional compo- Parent and Community Involvement nents described previously is the goal for Ensuring that California’s students are all schools. Additional factors that are Ensuring that proficient in the language arts is California’s important in a successful language arts students are everyone’s concern. As stakeholders in that program are students’ personal attributes, proficient in the goal, parents, community members, such as motivation and effort, and devel- language arts is everyone’s college and university partners, and opment of academic language. business and industry can all make concern. significant contributions toward expand- Motivation ing student learning opportunities and Successful teachers help students designing and implementing exemplary develop fundamental skills in reading that language arts programs. Characteristics of provide the foundation for all later work the parent and community involvement in the language arts. As students begin to component in an effective language arts develop those skills, effective teachers program are as follows: nurture the students’ desire or motivation • Parents are well informed about the to learn for a number of reasons, including English–language arts content recognition of the critical link between the standards, the district’s curriculum amount of reading students do and their and assessment program, and the vocabulary development. In language arts progress of their children in learning instruction motivation not only enhances to read, write, speak, and listen. the learning process but is also a necessary • Parents are encouraged to involve precursor for students choosing to read on themselves in education and are their own. Motivation to read is especially supported in their efforts to improve important in light of the English–language 18

Chapter 2 arts content standards, which call for social interactions about books (Gambrell Goal and Key Components students to do a significant amount of et al. 1996). of Effective reading in addition to their regular school Reading programs should reflect a Language Arts reading: by the fourth grade, one-half desire for students to “compose lives in Instruction million words annually; by the eighth which reading matters” (Calkins 1996, grade, one million words annually; and by 32–33). Encouraging the habit of inde- the twelfth grade, two million words pendent reading is crucial in helping In language arts annually. students understand and appreciate the instruction motivation not The important dimensions of motiva- value of reading. Independent classroom only enhances tion to read are an individual’s self- reading, particularly in kindergarten the learning concept as a reader and the value placed through grade six, can serve as a practical process but is way of linking vocabulary and compre- also a necessary on reading (Gambrell et al. 1996). Self- precursor for concept derives in large part from the hension and complementing other students choosing individual’s skill in reading; that is, by instructional approaches while expanding to read on mastering standards in reading, the word knowledge in a realistic setting. The their own. student becomes motivated. The value of teacher should schedule time for indepen- reading can be promoted by teachers in dent reading daily and should serve as a many ways, such as by: model of how to read well as students • Displaying their own enthusiasm for engage in silent reading with books reading and appreciation of its value selected by themselves or by the teacher. • Providing appropriate reading A balance of encouraging wide and varied materials (readable and interesting) reading as much as possible and of using • Creating a stimulating learning modeling at appropriate times in clear, environment demonstrative, and motivational ways is • Modeling positive reading behaviors very beneficial (Sanacore 1988). (Ediger 1988) Effort • Encouraging students to take home books that are appropriate to their Together with motivation, student reading levels effort is an essential element for successful • Encouraging parents to read to their learning. Research on high achievers— children and to model the value of whether in mathematics, athletics, the reading at home for pleasure and arts, science, or business—reveals that information successful people exert enormous effort (Gardner 1983; Bloom 1985). Of all the Motivation and reading for pleasure are variables affecting success, effort is the one mutually reinforcing. Reading for pleasure most within the control of the students. should be promoted in every classroom, They must learn that in the language arts and the school should supply a wide a direct relationship exists between effort variety of interesting reading materials at and achievement, just as in sports, music, the students’ independent reading levels, and every other discipline. Effective allow time to read (Shefelbine 1991), and teachers teach that principle explicitly and assign reading as homework. Motivation is create opportunities for students to also linked to four key features of literacy demonstrate it (Hunter and Barker 1987). learning: providing access to books, Holding students to high standards offering a choice of texts, establishing conveys respect for them as learners. familiarity with a topic, and promoting 19

Feedback to students about failure on a proficiency and its subcomponents are Chapter 2 Goal and Key task that could have been accomplished related to achievement in reading and Components with more effort communicates to stu- writing as early as the third grade. Vo- of Effective dents that they have the abilities necessary cabulary is a critical element of academic Language Arts Instruction to succeed and need to exert them. language. In a study in which achievement Conversely, a teacher’s acceptance of less trends of low-income students beginning than standard work from students while in the second grade through the seventh knowing that they are capable of more grade were observed, a decline in word- serves only to convince students that they meaning scores was identified after the do not have to try or that the teacher does third grade and in oral and silent reading not believe that the students can succeed comprehension in the sixth and seventh (Hunter and Barker 1987). grades. Difficulties with comprehension Successful classrooms are places of were attributed to the challenging texts expectation and responsibility. Young that “use more difficult, abstract, special- people are expected to work hard, think ized, and technical words; the concepts things through, and produce their best used in textbooks also become more work. Teachers support students with a abstract, and understanding them requires range of guides and structures, organizing more sophisticated levels of background the curriculum to stimulate learning and knowledge and cognition” (Chall, Jacobs, thinking, inviting and answering ques- and Baldwin 1990, 46). tions, providing positive and corrective Some researchers view academic feedback, encouraging peer support and language as different enough from conver- assistance, and creating a trusting class- sational speech to be considered a second room atmosphere. In successful classrooms language (Maylath 1994, cited in Corson students contribute to the flow of events 1995). Shefelbine (1998) identifies several and help shape the direction of discussion. interrelated characteristics of academic language that differ from conversational Proficiency in Academic speech. Some of those aspects include Language language function, vocabulary, back- Proficiency in decoding and encoding skills is ground knowledge, text structure, syntac- necessary but not sufficient for comprehend- tic complexity, and abstract thinking. ing and writing about academic subject Academic language is learned by being matter. Students also have to understand, repeated and extended while learning use, and ultimately live the academic subject matter, including literature, language of books and schooling. science, and history–social science. It is (Shefelbine 1998) difficult to learn quickly because of its peculiar characteristics, especially its Academic language refers to the lan- Academic language requirement for extensive knowledge of guage of literacy and books, tests, and refers to the vocabulary and background. Key compo- language of formal writing. Shefelbine proposes a nents of developing academic language are literacy and framework of reading that includes reading, writing, and talking about books books, tests, and academic language as a key component of formal writing. and school subject matter. Hearing reading comprehension (see the chart on language is not enough for students to the following page). A number of studies and researchers Note: The content of this section on proficiency in have shown that academic language academic language has been provided by John Shefelbine, California State University, Sacramento. 20

Chapter 2 Goal and Key Decoding Comprehension Components of Effective Word recognition Academic Comprehension Language Arts strategies Fluency language strategies Instruction text print Syntax - Phonics Phonemic awareness monitoring Knowledge Vocabulary Sight words Background Automaticity Text structure (Re)organizing Comprehension Concepts about

learn academic language. They must 2. Instructional discussions. Opportuni- produce it by speaking and writing it. ties for students to initiate and Talking about text is necessary for them participate in discussions on instruc- to develop their active vocabulary (Corson tional topics build academic lan- 1995). They must use words rather than guage. Suggested strategies for just receive them passively in order to structuring those discussions include retain new vocabulary. Four strategies instructional conversations suggested for developing academic (Goldenberg 1992-93) and question- language are the following: ing the author (Beck et al. 1997). 1. Reading aloud to students. Reading Both strategies employ open-ended aloud to students is a powerful way questions that require students to to build language and vocabulary interpret a text or topic. Students (Chall, Jacobs, and Baldwin 1990; respond to one another and to the Dickinson and Smith 1994; Wells teacher. In questioning the author, 1986). In doing so it is important to the teacher and students pose queries select narrative and informational that facilitate group discussion about books with content linguistically and an author’s ideas and prompt conceptually challenging but still student-to-student interactions. The central engaging and understandable (Chall, 3. Reading by students. One of the importance of Jacobs, and Baldwin 1990). Focus strongest predictors of reading students reading should be placed on building lan- widely at comprehension in general and of increasingly more guage, vocabulary, and knowledge of vocabulary development in particular challenging levels content rather than on developing is the amount of time students spend cannot be knowledge of print or decoding reading (Anderson, Wilson, and overemphasized. strategies. Larger proportions of Fielding 1988; Corson 1995; analysis, prediction, and vocabulary- Cunningham and Stanovich 1998). related talk by teachers and children Although reading aloud to students is are associated with higher gains in helpful in developing academic vocabulary and comprehension language, the central importance of (Dickinson and Smith 1994). students reading widely at increas- Teachers should focus briefly on the ingly more challenging levels cannot meanings of certain words during be overemphasized. High-interest, reading and ask questions that low-vocabulary texts, although often require increased amounts of lan- appropriate for building fluency, are guage and thinking from students. not as likely to produce growth in 21

academic language. To obtain such language in their writing as they Chapter 2 Goal and Key growth, students must read a great respond to and analyze literature and Components deal at school and at home. Class- compose essays and reports on a of Effective room and schoolwide strategies to variety of topics. Incorporating Language Arts Instruction encourage and inspire student advanced vocabulary and complex independent reading are essential. language structures appropriately into Students should master skills in their own writing is the eventual goal reading early and well so that they of development in academic lan- will be able to read independently. guage, and frequent opportunities to Those who are not fluent readers and write for a variety of purposes are do not have the foundation skills to essential to consolidating gains. understand a variety of types of print Teachers should analyze and use do not engage willingly and joyfully student writing to guide further in reading. instruction and application of academic language features and 4. Writing by students. Students also conventions. practice and develop academic 22

Chapter 3 Content Standards Content Standards and Instructional Practices— and Instructional Kindergarten Through Grade Practices 3Three Kindergarten Through Grade Three

Although all the skills within strands are important, no greater responsibility exists for educators of students in kindergarten through grade three than to ensure that each student in their care leaves the third grade able to read fluently, effortlessly, independently, and enthusiastically.

he period spanning kindergarten through grade three is the most T critical for instruction in the language arts. During that time students acquire the foundational skills needed for later academic, social, and economic success. By the end of the third grade, students should be able to (1) read complex word forms accurately and fluently in connected texts and decode multisyllabic words independently; (2) read grade-level narrative and expository texts and recall sequence, main ideas, and supporting details; and (3) write compositions that describe familiar events

22 23 and experiences and construct complete, primarily on the letters in a word rather Chapter 3 Content Standards correct sentences to communicate their than context or pictures to identify and Instructional ideas. In addition, they should be able not familiar and unfamiliar words (Ehri Practices— only to respond to questions but also to 1994). The fluency good readers have Kindergarten Through Grade make well-organized oral presentations with word recognition makes us think Three centered on major points of information. they read whole words at a time. In fact, As a result of their new skills, they are fluent readers process virtually every letter beginning to enjoy the richness of ideas in a word (Adams 1990). The speed and expressed in books. Achievement of those facility with which they recognize words skills by the end of the third grade is the differentiate good readers from less goal for all students. Students achieve successful readers. those skills by building on a progression Automaticity is the ability to recognize a of carefully specified and strategically word (or series of words in text) effortlessly sequenced content standards and instruc- and rapidly. The foundations of automatic tion that begins in kindergarten. word recognition begin in kindergarten Proficiency is based on critical building through developing phonemic awareness blocks in each grade. Some of the building and learning the sounds associated with blocks (e.g., vocabulary development, letters as well as concepts about print. analysis of narrative text) span kindergar- Phonemic awareness, the ability to hear ten through grade three, and others and manipulate the sounds of language, is (e.g., phonemic awareness, concepts about a key indicator for students who learn to print) are mastered in specific grades. The read easily versus children who continue building blocks and their importance to to have difficulty. Instruction in phonemic overall language arts success in kindergar- awareness begins in kindergarten and ten through grade three are profiled in this concludes with more complex activities by chapter. An overview is followed by grade- the middle of the first grade. By the specific summaries and instructional middle of kindergarten, students should analyses for kindergarten through grade be tested on phonemic awareness. Begin- three. ning in kindergarten and continuing into the first grade, children should be explicitly taught the process of blending indi- Reading Word Analysis, vidual sounds into words. For example, Fluency, and the printed word man is converted into its Systematic Vocabulary component letters (m a n), then into its Development corresponding sounds, each sound being The standards for word analysis, held as readers progress to the next sound Research has fluency, and systematic vocabulary (mmmmmaaaaannnn). This explicit found that decoding, or the development are a key part of develop- blending process is temporary yet critical ability to apply ment in kindergarten through grade three. as children advance in the word-recogni- knowledge of Although readers access words in many tion process. letter-sound ways (whole words, decoding, word parts, In the late first grade and continuing correspondences to identify words, and context), research has found that through the second and third grades, is fundamental to decoding, or the ability to apply knowl- students focus on two dimensions of word independent word edge of letter-sound correspondences to recognition—advanced word recognition recognition. identify words, is fundamental to indepen- skills and automaticity. In the first grade dent word recognition. Good readers rely they progress from vowel-consonant and 24

Chapter 3 consonant-vowel-consonant word types letter-sound correspondences and a few Content Standards and Instructional to consonant blends, vowel digraphs, and previously taught sight words. Practices— r-controlled letter-sound associations. An important feature of language arts Kindergarten instruction in kindergarten through grade Through Grade Inflected endings and word roots are Three added to extend word-recognition abili- three is vocabulary development, begin- ties. In the second grade decoding and ning in kindergarten with direct instruc- word-recognition skills take on greater tion in specific categories of words and sophistication with the addition of progressing to understanding the relations multisyllabic words and more complex of such words as synonyms and antonyms spelling patterns. In both the second grade and the importance of structural features and the third grade, more advanced of words (affixes) to word meaning. Wide decoding strategies focus on how to break reading is essential to learning vocabulary up multisyllabic words and employ and must be an integral component of morphemic analysis (analyzing affixes and instruction. At first the teacher should word roots). The second-grade and third- read literary and expository texts to grade curriculum also focuses on ortho- students, exposing them to vocabulary graphic knowledge; that is, recognizing they are not yet able to read. As students larger, more complex chunks of letters develop proficiency in word recognition, (e.g., ight, ierce) to enhance fluency. they are taught independent word- Proficient readers, writers, and speakers learning strategies, such as learning develop fluency with the fundamental meanings from context and using dictio- skills and strategies. Fluency is defined as naries and glossaries as instructional the accuracy and rate with which students resources. The primary perform reading tasks. In oral reading it The primary means by which students means by which includes additional dimensions that learn new words is through independent students learn involve the quality of such reading (e.g., reading. The volume of that reading is new words is through expression and intonation). To be consid- crucial (Cunningham and Stanovich independent ered fluent readers, students must perform 1998). The authors acknowledge the reading. a task or demonstrate a skill or strategy strong relationship between decoding and accurately, quickly, and effortlessly. vocabulary, noting that decoding skill Fluency in kindergarten through grade mediates reading volume and thus vocabu- three involves a wide range of skills and lary size. Therefore, one of the most strategies (e.g., identifying letter names, effective strategic strikes educators can producing sounds associated with letters, make in helping students develop vocabu- blending letter-sounds into words, reading lary growth is to teach them to become connected text, spelling words, and fluent readers and encourage them to read writing sentences). Instruction in develop- extensively. In a study of independent ing fluency must focus first on explicit reading, Anderson, Wilson, and Fielding opportunities for the student to learn the (1988) found that the difference between skill or strategy. Once a skill is learned, children scoring at the ninetieth percentile fluency develops as a result of multiple in the amount of out-of-school indepen- opportunities to practice the skill or dent reading and those scoring at the strategy with a high rate of success. For second percentile was approximately 21 early decoding in the first grade, students minutes of independent reading per day. read stories in which there is a high By the fourth grade students should read percentage of words composed of taught one-half million words of running text 25 independently (see Chapter 4, page 114). about upcoming text that are based on Chapter 3 Content Standards Therefore, the process and benefits of titles and pictures. While the students are and Instructional independent reading must begin in the reading, the teacher should introduce Practices— earlier grades. questions strategically to focus attention Kindergarten Through Grade on critical information and encourage the Three students to monitor comprehension by Reading Reading self-questioning and returning to the text Comprehension to fill in gaps in comprehension. When An important building block in the students have finished reading, they kindergarten through grade three is should engage in analysis and synthesis, instruction in strategies related to reading retelling, summarizing, and acting on comprehension, including how to predict information, such as placing events in what will happen in a text, how to com- sequential order. Recommended Readings in pare information between sources, and Literature, Kindergarten Through Grade how to answer essential questions. The Eight (California Department of Educa- foundation for this proficiency begins in tion 1996a) lists high-quality, complex kindergarten, when students receive materials to be read by students. explicit instruction and opportunities to answer simple questions about who and Reading Literary Response what. More abstract why and what if and Analysis questions are mastered in the first and second grades. Although kindergarten In kindergarten through grade three, nonreaders use the strategies orally in students develop their ability to analyze response to the teacher reading the text, literature and distinguish between the more proficient readers also apply the structural features of narrative text strategies to the text they themselves read. (e.g., characters, theme, plot, setting) and Direct teaching and modeling of the the various forms of narrative (e.g., myths, strategies and readers’ application of the legends, fables). They learn the common- strategies to the text they hear and read alities in narrative text and develop a increase the ability of students to develop schema or map for stories. Again, the literal and inferential understanding, standards progress from kindergarten, increase vocabulary, and make connec- where analysis focuses on the characters, tions between parts of a text, between settings, and important events, to more separate texts, and between text and sophisticated story elements (e.g., plot in personal experience. the first grade, comparison of elements in Most students require explicit instruc- the second grade, and theme in the third Most students tion in strategies related to reading grade). Although kindergartners and early require explicit instruction in comprehension, just as they do for first graders also develop the strategies strategies related decoding. Before the students listen to or orally in response to text that has been to reading read a story or informational passage, the read aloud, older students increasingly comprehension, just as they do teacher must bring to bear relevant develop comprehension strategies through for decoding. student experiences and prior knowledge, text they read and in conjunction with develop knowledge of the topic, and teach direct teaching and modeling of strategies. critical, unfamiliar vocabulary. And the students should engage in predictions 26

Chapter 3 handwriting are introduced and extended Content Standards Writing Writing Strategies progressively. and Instructional and Applications Practices— With its emphasis on planning and Kindergarten revising for clarity, the writing process Through Grade Students in kindergarten through grade Three three develop foundational writing helps students understand that writing is strategies, applications, and conventions. not the same as speech written down. They begin by forming uppercase and Direct instruction in more specific writing lowercase letters and using their knowl- strategies also helps students understand edge of letters and sounds to write words. how to go beyond writing down conversa- That knowledge of the alphabetic prin- tion. Of particular interest here are ideas, ciple continues in the first grade as organization, voice, word choice, sentence students write sentences. By the second fluency, and conventions. The first five grade writing extends to paragraphs, and involve content (rather than spelling and by the third grade students write para- mechanics) and directly address aspects of graphs with topic sentences. In penman- decontexualized communication that ship students progress from legible many students find challenging. They are printing in the first grade to the use of discussed fully in Spandel (1998). cursive or jointed italic in the third grade. The systematic The systematic progression of instruc- Written and Oral English- progression of tion and application from kindergarten instruction and Language Conventions application from through grade three prepares students to kindergarten write clear and coherent sentences and In kindergarten through grade three, through grade paragraphs that develop a central idea. written and oral English-language conven- three prepares Their writing shows clear purpose and tions are integrated with the respective students to write strands (writing applications, speaking clear and coherent awareness of audience as they refine their sentences and ability to use writing to describe and applications) where they are most directly paragraphs that explain objects, events, and experiences applied. Over the course of the four-year develop a (see page 93 in this chapter). span, students learn to write and punctu- central idea. In the first grade another essential ate declarative, interrogative, imperative, building block is introduced; that is, and exclamatory sentences. writing as a process. The act of writing is Spelling instruction and proficiency made up of a set of thinking and compos- progress in the first grade from phonetic ing processes used selectively by a writer. stages, during which children learn to Students learn that writing consists of represent all of the prominent phonemes several iterative phases (i.e., prewriting, in simple words, to more advanced drafting, revising, editing, and phonetic, rule-governed, and predictable postwriting) that vary depending on the patterns of spelling in the second and purpose and audience for writing. Stu- third grades (Moats 1995). Kindergarten dents are also taught, however, that they and first-grade students will progress from are not limited to using the various phases prephonetic to phonetic stages of spelling all the time or in any fixed order. Instruc- as they begin to write. The National tion continues in the second and third Research Council (1998, 8) states that grades and beyond. Throughout those temporary spellings, specifically those used grades the dimensions of organization, in the phonetic stage, can be “helpful for grammar, sentence structure, spelling, developing understanding of the identity basic punctuation and capitalization, and and segmentation of speech sounds and 27 sound-spelling relationships. Convention- practice writing sentences with correct Chapter 3 Content Standards ally correct spelling should be developed punctuation and capitalization but never and Instructional through focused instruction and practice. apply those skills in larger contexts or for Practices— Primary children should be expected to authentic purposes, instruction is frag- Kindergarten Through Grade spell previously studied words and spelling mented and the skills without purpose. Three patterns correctly in their final writing The goal in language arts instruction products.” Fundamental skills in sentence must, therefore, be to ensure that compo- structure, grammar, punctuation, capitali- nent parts (skills, strategies, structures) are zation, and spelling become building identified; are carefully sequenced accord- blocks for more advanced applications. ing to their complexity and use in more advanced writing applications; are developed to mastery; and are progressively and Listening and Speaking purposefully connected and then incorpo- Listening and Speaking rated with authentic learning exercises, Strategies and Speaking including those presented in the study of Applications history–social science, mathematics, and In kindergarten through grade three, science. students develop listening and speaking A transformation takes place in learners strategies and speaking applications that between kindergarten and the third grade. parallel and reinforce instruction in the A typical kindergartner enters school with other language arts. For example, as little formal knowledge of academic students learn to identify the major requirements and uses of language. Exiting Exiting third elements in stories, they practice retelling third graders who have mastered the code graders who have mastered the stories and include characters, settings, are able to access, comprehend, compose, code are able to and major events. When speaking, they discuss, and enjoy a wide range of litera- access, compre- need systematic opportunities to use the ture and informational text. Their trans- hend, compose, formation comes from the systematic and discuss, and enjoy vocabulary introduced in reading and a wide range of writing. Students are taught to listen and strategic design and delivery of instruction literature and follow instructions that begin as one-step anchored to the English–language arts informational directions in kindergarten and progress to content standards. Students who acquire text. three and four steps in the second and necessary skills and knowledge early have a third grades. high probability of continued academic success. But students who fail to learn the fundamental skills and knowledge of the Making Connections alphabetic writing system by the third for Students grade will find themselves in relentless pursuit of the standards and will need Instructional materials must help extra support to arrive at grade level. students make connections between Critical to the task are well-trained standards and between skills and strate- classroom teachers and teaching specialists gies. For example, students must learn not who plan and implement lessons and only to hear and manipulate the sounds in assessments based on standards and words but also to practice skills and current research and who are tireless in integrate them into beginning reading and their efforts to teach all children to read, spelling activities. However, if they write, speak, and listen well. 28

Chapter 3 search has made considerable progress in Content Standards Teaching Students and Instructional gaining an understanding of what the Practices— to Read: A Special components of reading instruction should Kindergarten be and how many more students can be Through Grade Priority Three helped to learn to read successfully. Our Although all the skills within strands knowledge is not yet absolute in some are important, no greater responsibility areas, and many important questions No greater exists for educators of students in kinder- remain to be answered. Nevertheless, we responsibility garten through grade three than to ensure exists for know that learning to read in an alphabetic educators of that each student in their care leaves the writing system requires that we attend students in third grade able to read fluently, effort- tenaciously to the features of that writing kindergarten lessly, independently, and enthusiastically. system and make explicit and conspicuous through grade Each student must understand the relation three than to the key features of the system. Otherwise, ensure that each of print to speech, the sound structure of large numbers of students will be at risk of student in their language, and the alphabetic principle and not learning to read well. care leaves the be able to apply those abilities to grade- Becoming a fluent and skillful reader third grade able to read fluently, level text. Effective instruction in reading requires extensive engagement with the effortlessly, nurtures both comprehension and fluency English language, including: independently, and in word recognition. Concentration on • Listening to words and to the sounds enthusiastically. the skills that build word recognition are inside of words critically important in the early primary • Hearing and talking about stories grades. • Gaining facility with the concepts of Learning to read is the most important print skill that students develop during their • Understanding the sounds that make early academic years. Moreover, converg- up our language ing evidence reveals that the kindergarten • Manipulating the sounds and through grade three span is the optimal relating the specific sounds to printed period of time for such learning. Students letters and words who fail to read fluently by the end of the • Connecting words with events, third grade have only a minimal chance of actions, things, and ideas and achieving literacy competence without expressing those ideas in writing specific interventions (Juel 1988; Felton • Learning about the connection and Pepper 1995). between sounds, letters, syllables, What is particularly intriguing and words, and concepts elusive about reading is that despite its • Gaining an understanding of the complexity, skillful reading looks like an structure of stories and informational easy and natural thing to do. On the text and relating events to personal contrary, reading requires deliberate and experiences systematic human intervention and context (Kame’enui 1996). The process of Reading as a process is more than it reading is learned. Although some stu- appears to be. Because it does not come dents become skillful readers without naturally to many students, the parts, systematic instruction, many others need especially the important parts, must be intense, systematic instruction in reading taught strategically and intentionally as an to succeed—a need that has not been fully absolute priority. To improve reading recognized or addressed. Scientific re- achievement, we must fully understand 29 and appreciate the complexity and ferred and applied, first with decodable Chapter 3 Content Standards primacy of early reading instruction. The text where students can apply and practice and Instructional dimensions of beginning reading are like the skills reliably and then with quality Practices— the strands of a strong rope. Like such a literature and informational texts as Kindergarten Through Grade rope, the strength of the reading process students demonstrate an ability to apply Three depends on the strength of the individual skills and strategies successfully. strands, the strategic integration of all the A second essential principle is that new strands, and the effective binding or skills must be integrated across strands to connecting of the strands (Chard, reinforce and extend learning. For ex- Simmons, and Kame’enui 1998). First, it ample, words learned in word-reading is critical that the strands, including exercises can be used in writing, and vocabulary acquisition, concepts about vocabulary from a story can be incorpo- print, phonemic awareness, decoding and rated with speaking. Systematically word recognition, knowledge of the establishing connections between new structure of stories, and listening compre- skills and authentic applications and hension are robust, stable, and reliable. between skills in one strand and applica- Next, the strength of the reading process tions in another is essential to retention depends on strategic integration of the and generalization. strands to produce readers who can apply The following sections profile and their skills in a variety of contexts and summarize the content of the language tasks. arts program for each grade level in An important principle in early reading kindergarten through grade three. Each instruction is that skills from all strands grade-level description includes a sum- must be part of the students’ reading mary of the content, relevant instructional programs from kindergarten on. Emphasis analyses, content connections across on particular skills will differ over time domains, and curricular and instructional and from student to student. For example, profiles. word-recognition skills should be trans- 30

Chapter 3 Content Standards Kindergarten and Instructional Practices— Kindergarten Through Grade Three Standards and Instruction

tudents enter kindergarten with a Reading wide range of individual differences S in prior opportunities to hear, see, 1.0 Word Analysis, Fluency, and learn the English language and and Systematic Vocabulary alphabetic writing system. Thus, the Development challenge for educators is to determine 2.0 Reading Comprehension the essential skills kindergartners must 3.0 Literary Response and Analysis master and the way to organize and deliver instruction of maximum effectiveness and Writing efficiency that addresses the range of 1.0 Writing Strategies (1) the skills and knowledge to be taught; and (2) the capacity of the learners. Instruction in kindergarten is focused on Written and Oral English- developing foundational skills that prepare Language Conventions students for later learning in the language 1.0 Written and Oral English-Language arts. The strands to be emphasized at the Conventions kindergarten level are listed in the adjacent column under the appropriate domains. Each of the strands is addressed Listening and Speaking separately in the following section with 1.0 Listening and Speaking Strategies the exception of the written and oral 2.0 Speaking Applications (Genres and English-language conventions strand, Their Characteristics) which is integrated into appropriate sections. 31

Phonemic Awareness Chapter 3 Reading Word Analysis, Content Standards Fluency, and The most essential element of language and Instructional arts instruction in kindergarten is the Practices— Systematic Vocabulary Kindergarten Development development of phonemic awareness; that Through Grade is, teaching students the sound structure Three of language. Seven content standards Concepts About Print (Reading Standards 1.7–1.13) progres- Kindergarten A primary focus of language arts sively address phonemic awareness and instruction in kindergarten is making Standards and its multiple dimensions. Phonemic Instruction sense of the alphabet and its role in awareness is: reading. Familiarity with the letters of the 1. The ability to hear and manipulate alphabet is a powerful predictor of early the sounds in spoken words and the reading success (Ehri and McCormick understanding that spoken words 1998). Moreover, letter-sound knowledge and syllables are made up of is not optional in an alphabetic writing sequences of speech sounds (Yopp system. By the end of kindergarten, 1988). Early phonemic awareness is students should be able to name all all auditory; it does not involve uppercase and lowercase letters and match print. all letters with their associated sounds. 2. Fundamental to later mapping Whether to teach letter names or letter- speech to print. If a child cannot sound relationships first remains un- hear that man and moon begin with settled. Some reading programs recom- the same sound or cannot blend the mend introducing letter names first sounds /rrrrruuuuunnnn/ to run, because they are typically easier and more that child typically has difficulty familiar to children. Others teach letter- connecting sounds with their sound relationships before letter names. written symbols. Likewise, the treatment of uppercase and 3. Essential to learning to read in an lowercase letters has varied. In some alphabetic writing system because programs both uppercase and lowercase letters represent sounds or pho- letters are introduced concurrently; in nemes. Without phonemic aware- others the introduction of capital letters ness, phonics makes little sense. dissimilar to their lowercase letters is 4. A strong predictor of early reading delayed. success. The kindergarten experience should also expose students to a range of print Instruction in phonemic awareness can forms and functions. Students learn to use span two years, kindergarten and first conventions of print not only to negotiate grade. But in this aspect of teaching as in print but also to aid comprehension others, the teacher must be guided by the (e.g., Reading Comprehension Standard students’ developing competencies. Some 2.1). A recommended sequence is to students require little training in phone- present (1) the particular concept of print mic awareness; others might require quite (e.g., books are read front to back, print a bit. Although early phonemic awareness moves from left to right), as would be is oral, the teacher must be careful not to done with any other basic concept; and delay in providing learning opportunities (2) a learning activity in which books with print. Learning phonics and learning are used. to decode and write words all help 32

Chapter 3 students continue to develop phonemic 6. Focusing on segmentation or the Content Standards and Instructional awareness. In addition, students who have combination of blending and Practices— developed or are successfully developing segmenting Kindergarten 7. Starting with larger linguistic units Through Grade phonemic awareness should not have to Three spend an unnecessary amount of time (words and syllables) and proceed- being instructed in such awareness. ing to smaller linguistic units Adequate, ongoing assessment of student (phonemes) Kindergarten progress is essential. Oral activities in 8. Focusing beginning instruction on Standards and kindergarten should focus on such simple the phonemic level of phonological Instruction tasks as rhyming, matching words with units with short words (two to beginning sounds, and blending sounds three phonemes; e.g., at, mud, run) into words. Midyear screening of all 9. Focusing first on the initial sound students to determine their phonemic (sat), then on the final sound (sat), awareness and need for further instruction and lastly on the medial sound (sat) is also important. in words In a review of phonemic awareness 10. Introducing several continuous interventions to enhance the early reading sounds first (e.g., /m/, /r/, /s/) achievement of students with and without before introducing stop sounds disabilities, the following instructional (e.g., /t/, /b/, /k/) because stop strategies were found effective (Smith, sounds are more difficult to isolate Simmons, and Kame’enui 1998): 11. Providing brief instructional 1. Modeling phonemic awareness sessions (Significant gains in tasks and responses orally and phonemic awareness are often following with students’ produc- made in 15 to 20 minutes of daily tion of the task instruction and practice over a 2. Making students’ cognitive ma- period of 9 to 12 weeks.) nipulations of sounds overt by Decoding and Word Recognition using concrete representations (e.g., markers, pictures, and In kindergarten students begin to work Elkonin boxes) or auditory cues with words in three important ways: that signal the movement of one decoding, spelling, and writing. Decoding sound to the next (e.g., claps) is of primary importance. The students 3. Teaching skills explicitly and learn the prerequisites (phonemic aware- systematically ness, letter-sound correspondences) and 4. Adding letter-sound correspon- requisites (blending individual letter- dence instruction to phonological sound correspondences to read whole awareness interventions after words) of decoding. The ability to associ- students demonstrate early phone- ate consonant and vowel sounds with mic awareness appropriate letters is fundamental to 5. Progressing from the easier phone- reliable decoding and will be the focus of mic awareness activities to the the curricular and instructional profile more difficult—from rhyming presented later in this section. and sound matching to blending, The selection, sequencing, review, and segmentation, and manipulation practice of letter-sound correspondences require careful analysis to optimize 33 successful early reading. Selected guide- words; (2) selecting and teaching words Chapter 3 Content Standards lines include: that are important to understanding a and Instructional • Scheduling high-utility letter sounds story or are high-utility words; (3) having Practices— students process words deeply and in Kindergarten early in the sequence (e.g., /m/, /s/, Through Grade /a/, /r/, /t/) multiple contexts; and (4) providing Three • Including a few short vowels early in definitional and contextual support. the sequence so that students can use Kindergarten letter-sound knowledge to form and Reading Reading Standards and read words Comprehension Instruction • Sequencing instruction, separating the introduction of letter sounds Most students are not able to read that are easily confused (e.g., /p/, sophisticated stories in kindergarten on /b/, /v/; /e/, /i/) their own but learn to identify and use • Using student knowledge of letter- strategies to comprehend the stories that sounds to help them read and spell are read to them daily. In the kindergarten words (The difficulty of the words curriculum important strategies for students spell should parallel the teaching comprehension as students listen difficulty of the word patterns they to stories are (1) using pictures and context read. Further specifications for the to make predictions; (2) retelling familiar procedures for teaching word stories; and (3) answering and asking reading are found in the first-grade questions about essential elements. presentation.) Factors to be considered when introducing comprehension strategies are: Vocabulary and Concept Development 1. Easing into instruction, beginning Curriculum and instruction in kinder- with stories containing obvious garten must also develop understanding of information and considering the concepts and vocabulary as building complexity of the text blocks of language: categories of color, 2. Controlling the difficulty of the shape, and words used in kindergarten task initially by introducing the instruction (e.g., group, pair, same). strategy first in sentences and Vocabulary is developed through direct paragraphs and then in stories instruction in specific concepts and 3. Modeling multiple examples and vocabulary and exposure to a broad and providing extensive guided practice diverse vocabulary while listening to in listening-comprehension strate- stories. For students who enter kindergar- gies ten with limited knowledge of vocabulary, 4. Inserting questions at strategic special instruction in concept and lan- intervals to reduce the memory load guage development should be provided to for learners when introducing help close the widening vocabulary gap strategies in stories. (For example, between them and their peers. have students retell the important Teachers should identify vocabulary events after each page rather than words critical to listening comprehension wait for the end of the story.) and teach those words directly. Factors 5. Using both narrative and expository that influence the learning of vocabulary text are (1) providing multiple exposures to 34

Chapter 3 meanings of the text. As students Content Standards Reading Literary Response retell stories or answer questions and Instructional and Analysis Practices— about stories, they are provided with Kindergarten models of oral English-language Through Grade One of the most powerful structures Three students learn in kindergarten is the conventions together with opportuni- schema or map of stories. The elements of ties to produce complete, coherent story grammar (see glossary) can be applied sentences. Kindergarten to most stories and provide students with Standards and Instruction an important anchor when listening to Writing Writing stories, recalling them, and eventually Strategies writing their own. Story grammar can be used as a framework for beginning to teach Kindergarten students learn not only to higher-level comprehension skills. Students recognize, identify, and comprehend but who have learned story grammar can begin also to write letters, words, and beginning to summarize by using the elements to narratives. The connections in content retell the story. In kindergarten three between reading and writing are important elements are introduced: setting, charac- in reinforcing essential skills. As students ters, and important events. The remaining study the sound structure of language and elements are gradually introduced in learn how to read phonetically regular successive grades. Suggested strategies for words and to write letters, they begin to use teaching story elements are to: that knowledge to document their ideas in words. The National Research Council • Introduce stories where elements are (1998, 187) states that “at the earliest explicit (e.g., setting is described stages, writing may consist of scribbling or specifically). strings of letter-like forms. If opportunities • Focus on only a few important to write are ample and well complemented elements and introduce additional by other literacy activities and alphabetic elements when the students can instruction, kindergartners should be using reliably identify those previously real letters to spell out words phonetically taught. before the school year is out. The practice • Model and guide the students of encouraging children to write and spell through stories, thinking out loud as words as they sound (sometimes called the elements are being identified. temporary spelling) has been shown to • Have students discuss the elements hasten refinement of children’s phonemic orally and compare with other stories. awareness and to accelerate their acquisi- • Use elements of story grammar as a tion of conventional spelling when it is structure for recalling and retelling taught in first grade and up.” the story. Model retelling, using the setting, characters, and important events as recall anchors. Provide Listening and Speaking picture cues to help students learn the Listening and Speaking essential elements. Strategies; Speaking • Provide plentiful opportunities to Applications listen to and explore a variety of text forms and to engage in interactive Kindergarten instruction focuses on the discussion of the messages and development of receptive and expressive 35 language. Initially, preschool students Chapter 3 Content and Instructional Content Standards learn to process and retain sentence-level and Instructional instructions. Eventually, they begin to use Connections Practices— their knowledge of sentence structure to Kindergarten The following activities integrate Through Grade produce their own clear, coherent sen- standards across domains, strands, and Three tences. To do so, the students must have academic disciplines. Teachers may wish to: models of such sentences and opportunities to produce them. For some, instruc- 1. Read aloud and discuss quality Kindergarten tion begins first with statement repetition literature to extend students’ oral Standards and Instruction and progresses to statement production. vocabulary, concepts about print, Instruction in this focus area must be and understanding of characters, carefully organized to include: settings, and important events. 2. Begin letter-sound instruction when 1. Explicit modeling of standard students demonstrate some phone- English mic awareness. Then incorporate 2. Carefully constructed linguistic instruction in letter sounds and units that progress from short simple decoding to help phonemic sentences to longer sentences awareness develop further. 3. Frequent opportunities to repeat 3. Use only previously taught letters sentences and letter-sound associations to spell 4. Additional, gentle modeling words. emphasizing specific elements of 4. Use words students can read in sentences omitted or pronounced writing activities. incorrectly 5. Incorporate words from vocabulary 5. Strategically designed instruction instruction throughout the day and that shifts from statement repeti- across subject disciplines. tion to statement production 6. Provide multiple opportunities for 6. Structured statement production students to hear and practice new whereby students first generate vocabulary. responses to questions from 7. Provide opportunities for students pictures or prompts and then to retell stories and model retelling generate questions or responses familiar stories, emphasizing without prompts English-language conventions. Kindergarten students expand their 8. Read aloud and discuss expository speaking skills by reciting poems, rhymes, text consistent with the kindergarten and songs. They make brief oral presenta- science, mathematics, and history– tions about familiar experiences or social science standards. interests and learn to describe people, places, things, location, size, color, shape, Please see Appendix B for examples of and action. standards that span domains and strands. 36

Chapter 3 Content Standards Kindergarten and Instructional Practices— Kindergarten Through Grade Three Curricular and Instructional Profile

Reading Standard 1.14

DOMAIN STRAND SUBSTRAND STANDARD

Reading 1.0 Word analysis, Decoding and 1.14 Match all consonant fluency, and word recognition and short-vowel systematic sounds to appropriate vocabulary letters. development

Prerequisite or corequisite standards. Kindergarten Word Analysis, Fluency, and Systematic Vocabulary Development Standards 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9. Standard 1.6: Recognize and name all uppercase and lowercase letters. Standard 1.7: Track and represent the number, sameness or difference, and order of two and three isolated phonemes. Standard 1.8: Track and represent changes in simple syllables and words with two and three sounds. Standard 1.9: Blend vowel-consonant sounds orally to make words or syllables.

Curricular and Instructional Decisions

Instructional 1. Determine whether letters and letter sounds will be introduced Objectives simultaneously or separately. This consideration is extremely critical for students who have difficulty acquiring and retaining information. 2. Define the task for learners. Match implies that students produce the sound in response to a letter. 3. Determine when each letter-sound correspondence will be learned. To enable students to accomplish Reading Standard 1.15 (Read simple one-syllable and high-frequency words; i.e., sight words), the teacher must introduce more than just one letter-sound per week. 37

Chapter 3 Instructional 1. Schedule the introduction of letter sounds to optimize learning. Content Standards Design and Instructional 2. Separate easily confused letters and sounds. Practices— Kindergarten 3. Introduce early in the sequence those letter sounds that occur Through Grade in a large number of words. Three 4. Introduce early those letter sounds that relate to letter names

(e.g., /s/, /r/, /m/) to facilitate learning. Kindergarten 5. Include a few short vowels early to allow students to build Curricular and words easily. Instructional Profile 6. Use several continuous sounds early that can be stretched (e.g., /m/, /n/, /s/) rather than stop or abrupt sounds (e.g., /t/, /b/, /d/) because continuous sounds facilitate blending. 7. Review letter sounds cumulatively to promote retention. 8. Determine whether students can handle uppercase and lowercase letters simultaneously. If so, introduce those letters in which uppercase and lowercase are similar (e.g., S s, P p, C c) before ones that are different (e.g., D d). For dissimilar letters withhold introducing the uppercase letter until later in the sequence. 9. Teach students to use letter sounds in simple word reading as soon as they have a group of letter sounds (four to six) from which to build words. 10. Include a phonemic awareness objective and parallel instruction focused on the phoneme level (e.g., Reading Standards 1.7, 1.8, 1.9). 11. Introduce simple word reading (e.g., vowel-consonant, as in an, or consonant-vowel-consonant, as in sat) once students have mastered a small number of letter-sound correspondences contained in those words.

Instructional 1. Model the process of producing the sound and matching it Delivery with the letter. Ensure that sounds are correctly pronounced and not turned into nonexistent syllables (not muh but mmm). 2. Use and allow students to use a variety of media (chalkboard, magnetic letters, magic slates, and sounds written on chart paper) to reinforce letter-sound practice. 3. Divide instruction into (a) new letter-sound instruction; and (b) discrimination practice in which previously introduced letter-sounds are reviewed and distinguished from the newly introduced sound. If students do not know the sound, model the sound, provide an opportunity for them to identify or match the sound, and return to the letter sound later in the lesson to reinforce and review. 38

Chapter 3 Instructional 4. Teach letter sounds explicitly, using a teacher model, guided Content Standards and Instructional Delivery practice, and independent practice sequence. Practices— (Continued) Kindergarten 5. Provide frequent, short periods of instruction and practice Through Grade during the day. Three 6. Relate letter-sound instruction to the standard of hearing sounds in words (phonemic awareness). Discuss the connection

Kindergarten of hearing sounds (aural) and mapping those sounds to print

Curricular and (alphabetic). Instructional Profile Assessment 1. Entry-Level Assessment for Instructional Planning a. Before instruction assess student knowledge by showing an Entry-Level Assessment array of all the letters ordered randomly on a page. An alternative is to order the letter sounds in the sequence to be introduced in the instruction. The font should be large enough that the letters can be easily distinguished. Model the task on a couple of letter sounds. Show a row or column of letters and ask the child to tell you the sound of the letter. If the child tells you the name, say, “That’s the name of the letter. Can you tell me the sound it makes?” Continue until the student has completed the task or you have sufficient information about the student’s knowledge of letter sounds. If the student misses five consecutive sounds, stop testing. b. This stage of assessment is important because it provides direct information for instruction. Examine the letter- sound profiles of students in the class to determine whether consistent errors on specific letter-sound correspondences are evident. c. Determine whether you are assessing for accuracy or for fluency. Accuracy measures simply document whether letter sounds are identified correctly or incorrectly. An alternative measurement procedure is to assess for fluency of letter-sound knowledge. Provide the student a page of letter-sound correspondences arranged in rows in random order on the page. Ask the student to say the sound for each letter on the page. Allow one minute for the exercise. Record the letter-sound correspondences correctly identified and those in error. Subtract the errors from the total. The resulting score will be the number of letter sounds per minute. This method allows you to monitor student growth over time by periodically administering one-minute assessments of letter-sound fluency. 39

Assessment d. Knowledge of letter-sound correspondence is an important Chapter 3 Content Standards (Continued) indicator for establishing flexible skill-based instructional and Instructional groups. Review the class profile to determine which Practices— students have considerable knowledge, moderate knowl- Kindergarten Through Grade edge, or limited knowledge. Design flexible groupings to Three accommodate instruction to the learners’ entry performance level. Kindergarten Monitoring 2. Monitoring Student Progress Toward the Instructional Objective. Curricular and Student This assessment phase is designed to determine students’ Instructional Progress progress and mastery of letter-sound knowledge. The options Profile available are: a. Maintaining a set of letter sounds that have been taught and assessing student performance at least biweekly to evaluate progress on those sounds. Document letter sounds students can and cannot identify. b. Monitoring progress toward the long-term goal of knowledge of all letter-sound correspondences. Use a format similar to the entry-level assessment and monitor progress at least once every two weeks. Document performance (numbers of correct letter sounds and those in need of further instruction). Again, if a student makes five consecutive errors, discontinue the assessment. Post-test 3. Post-test Assessment Toward the Standard. On completion of Assessment letter-sound instruction, assess student performance according to the procedures used to assess entry-level performance. The focus at this point should be on letter-sound fluency, and the goal of instruction is that students identify letter sounds accurately and automatically, enabling the students to apply letter sounds to read simple vowel-consonant (VC) or consonant-vowel-consonant (CVC) words. A target for achievement is for students to read letter-sound correspondences at a rate of one per second. Post-test assessment should include a fluency rate if it was not part of entry-level assessment. Note: Instruction in word reading can begin once students have learned a small number of consonants and vowels that enable them to read words.

Universal 1. Students with Reading Difficulties or Disabilities Access a. Determine whether the rate of introduction is acceptable Reading for students with special needs. If the pace is too rapid, Difficulties provide additional instruction, such as an extra or Disabilities preteaching period (before the lesson). If students are grouped heterogeneously, the entire group is given extra scaffolded instruction. Homogeneous groups will allow 40

Chapter 3 Universal the teacher to preteach only those students who need the Content Standards and Instructional Access extra help. Practices— (Continued) Kindergarten b. For students having difficulty in retaining letter-sound Through Grade knowledge, schedule a booster session sometime during the Three day. Review troublesome letter sounds or newly introduced information for one to two minutes.

Kindergarten Advanced 2. Students Who Are Advanced Learners. Assess students for both

Curricular and Learners accuracy and fluency. Keep in mind that when many advanced Instructional learners enter kindergarten, they may be reading at three to Profile four or more grade levels above their age peers and may not need instruction in this skill area. Suggested procedures to follow are to: a. Provide explicit instruction if many letter sounds are unfamiliar to students. Keep in mind that some students may acquire letter-sound knowledge very quickly. Acceler- ate movement through instructional materials if appropriate. b. Design an instructional schedule to address any unknown skills if students have mastered the majority of letter-sound correspondences. c. Assess higher-level reading skills if students are proficient in all letter sounds (i.e., can produce the sounds accurately and fluently). On the basis of a thorough assessment, they should be placed at an appropriate instructional level that provides academic challenge. For advanced students who have already mastered the language arts standards for kindergarten, grouping those students with first graders for language arts instruction is a simple and inexpensive way to provide the appropriate level of instruction. Their rate of learning should be subject to ongoing monitoring to ensure that they are learning at a rate commensurate with their ability. English Learners 3. Students Who Are English Learners. The following suggestions assume that students will begin language arts instruction in English and that literacy instruction will be augmented by concurrent formal linguistic instruction in English (English- language development). If language arts instruction is provided in part in a primary language, instruction in the primary language should be designed according to the same standards and principles indicated for language arts instruction in this framework. Suggested procedures to follow are to: a. Ensure that students have had sufficient opportunities through prior activities in phonemic awareness to hear, distinguish, and produce sounds being introduced. 41

Universal Teachers should be aware of phonological differences Chapter 3 Content Standards Access between English and the students’ primary language and and Instructional (Continued) provide additional exposure to and practice with the Practices— difficult sounds. Kindergarten Through Grade b. Provide students with additional systematic guidance and Three practice if they are unable to match all consonant and short-vowel sounds to appropriate letters. Kindergarten

c. Schedule additional brief practice sessions for English Curricular and learners who have difficulty in learning letter-sound Instructional Profile correspondences. They should benefit from additional review and practice of particularly difficult letter sounds. d. Ensure that (1) students receive instruction or have had experiences (or both) with the words to be used in simple word reading; and (2) they understand the meaning of the words. e. Encourage English learners to take home age-appropriate materials (e.g., flash cards, decodable text, handouts) related to the teaching objective.

Instructional 1. Sequence the introduction of letter-sound correspondences, Materials strategically separating easily confused sounds (e.g., /p/, /b/, /v/ and vowel sounds, especially /e/ and /i/) and introducing high- utility sounds first. 2. Scan the introduction of letter sounds for potential problems. The goal of letter-sound instruction is to provide the tools needed for word reading. Instructional texts should first introduce letter sounds in isolation. Then sounds that have been taught should be incorporated into words. 3. Include entry-level and progress-monitoring measures as well as assessments that allow teachers to identify advanced learners. 4. Ensure that similar skills (e.g., phonemic awareness and word reading) are correlated and that connections are made in instructional materials and instruction. 5. Proceed to simple instruction in word reading once students develop a set of letter sounds that allow them to read vowel- consonant or consonant-vowel-consonant words (not necessarily all sounds). 42

Chapter 3 Content Standards and Instructional Kindergarten Practices— Kindergarten Through Grade Three English–Language Arts Content Standards

1.10 Identify and produce rhyming words in Reading response to an oral prompt. 1.0 Word Analysis, Fluency, 1.11 Distinguish orally stated one-syllable and Systematic Vocabulary words and separate into beginning or Development ending sounds. Students know about letters, words, and 1.12 Track auditorily each word in a sentence sounds. They apply this knowledge to read and each syllable in a word. simple sentences. 1.13 Count the number of sounds in syllables and syllables in words. Concepts About Print Decoding and Word Recognition 1.1 Identify the front cover, back cover, and title page of a book. 1.14 Match all consonant and short-vowel 1.2 Follow words from left to right and from sounds to appropriate letters. top to bottom on the printed page. 1.15 Read simple one-syllable and high- 1.3 Understand that printed materials frequency words (i.e., sight words). provide information. 1.16 Understand that as letters of words 1.4 Recognize that sentences in print are change, so do the sounds (i.e., the made up of separate words. alphabetic principle). 1.5 Distinguish letters from words. Vocabulary and Concept Development 1.6 Recognize and name all uppercase and 1.17 Identify and sort common words in basic lowercase letters of the alphabet. categories (e.g., colors, shapes, foods). Phonemic Awareness 1.18 Describe common objects and events in 1.7 Track (move sequentially from sound to both general and specific language. sound) and represent the number, sameness/difference, and order of two 2.0 Reading Comprehension and three isolated phonemes (e.g., /f, s, Students identify the basic facts and ideas in th/, /j, d, j/). what they have read, heard, or viewed. They use 1.8 Track (move sequentially from sound to comprehension strategies (e.g., generating and sound) and represent changes in simple responding to questions, comparing new syllables and words with two and three information to what is already known). The sounds as one sound is added, substi- selections in Recommended Readings in Litera- tuted, omitted, shifted, or repeated ture, Kindergarten Through Grade Eight (Califor- (e.g., vowel-consonant, consonant- nia Department of Education, 1996) illustrate vowel, or consonant-vowel-consonant). the quality and complexity of the materials to be 1.9 Blend vowel-consonant sounds orally to read by students. make words or syllables. 43

Structural Features of Informational Chapter 3 Materials Written and Oral English Content Standards Language Conventions and Instructional 2.1 Locate the title, table of contents, name Practices— of author, and name of illustrator. The standards for written and oral English Kindergarten Through Grade Comprehension and Analysis of language conventions have been placed between Three Grade-Level-Appropriate Text those for writing and for listening and speaking 2.2 Use pictures and context to make because these conventions are essential to both predictions about story content. sets of skills. Kindergarten 2.3 Connect to life experiences the English–Language 1.0 Written and Oral English information and events in texts. Arts Content Language Conventions Standards 2.4 Retell familiar stories. 2.5 Ask and answer questions about Students write and speak with a command essential elements of a text. of standard English conventions. 3.0 Literary Response and Analysis Sentence Structure 1.1 Recognize and use complete, coherent Students listen and respond to stories based on sentences when speaking. well-known characters, themes, plots, and Spelling settings. The selections in Recommended Readings in Literature, Kindergarten Through 1.2 Spell independently by using pre- Grade Eight illustrate the quality and complex- phonetic knowledge, sounds of the ity of the materials to be read by students. alphabet, and knowledge of letter names. Narrative Analysis of Grade-Level- Appropriate Text Listening and Speaking 3.1 Distinguish fantasy from realistic text. 1.0. Listening and Speaking 3.2 Identify types of everyday print Strategies materials (e.g., storybooks, poems, Students listen and respond to oral communica- newspapers, signs, labels). tion. They speak in clear and coherent sentences. 3.3 Identify characters, settings, and important events. Comprehension 1.1 Understand and follow one- and two-step Writing oral directions. 1.2 Share information and ideas, speaking 1.0 Writing Strategies audibly in complete, coherent sentences. Students write words and brief sentences that 2.0. Speaking Applications (Genres are legible. and Their Characteristics) Organization and Focus Students deliver brief recitations and oral 1.1 Use letters and phonetically spelled presentations about familiar experiences or words to write about experiences, interests, demonstrating command of the stories, people, objects, or events. organization and delivery strategies outlined in 1.2 Write consonant-vowel-consonant Listening and Speaking Standard 1.0. words (i.e., demonstrate the alphabetic principle). Using the listening and speaking strategies of 1.3 Write by moving from left to right and kindergarten outlined in Listening and Speaking from top to bottom. Standard 1.0, students: Penmanship 2.1 Describe people, places, things (e.g., size, 1.4 Write uppercase and lowercase letters of color, shape), locations, and actions. the alphabet independently, attending 2.2 Recite short poems, rhymes, and songs. to the form and proper spacing of the 2.3 Relate an experience or creative story in a letters. logical sequence. 44

Chapter 3 Content Standards and Instructional First Grade Practices— Kindergarten Through Grade Three Standards and Instruction

irst-grade students extend their will allow students to achieve and apply knowledge of language arts in different standards in the first grade. F significant and exciting ways as they Specifically, students will need decodable learn skills that enable them to read and texts with which to practice the decoding write more independently. Instruction skills they are learning. In addition, they should be focused on helping students will need a broad array of high-quality improve the skills they had begun to literature and informational texts for the develop in kindergarten. An instructional teacher to read to them as they develop priority must be that the students learn to listening comprehension skills prerequisite read and exit the grade with the ability to for reading comprehension. The separate decode and recognize increasingly complex forms of text are necessary because neither words accurately and automatically. by itself is suitable or adequate to develop Moreover, they should be able to write and the full range of skills expected of first spell those words and use them to commu- graders. Each type of text has a distinct nicate ideas and experiences. Concurrently, and significant role in beginning reading students must have broad and rich experi- instruction. ences to expand their knowledge of The strands to be emphasized at the vocabulary and concepts and extend their first-grade level are listed on the following exposure and understanding of literary page under the appropriate domains. forms. As they write and speak, they should Each of the strands is addressed sepa- be able to apply the conventions and rately in the following section, with the structures of sentences. exception of the written and oral English- Of foremost importance is the availabil- language conventions strand, which is ity of quality instructional materials that integrated into appropriate sections. 45

about print is focused on teaching students Chapter 3 Reading Content Standards to (1) match oral words with printed words; and Instructional 1.0 Word Analysis, Fluency, (2) learn the conventions of stories, books, Practices— and Systematic Vocabulary and other forms of literature (titles, au- Kindergarten Through Grade Development thors); and (3) discriminate letters, words, Three 2.0 Reading Comprehension and sentences. A recommended instruc- 3.0 Literary Response and Analysis tional method is to teach a particular convention of print (e.g., title) as any other First Grade Writing basic concept, using a wide range of Standards and Instruction 1.0 Writing Strategies examples. Once students learn the basic 2.0 Writing Applications (Genres and concept, it should be incorporated into a Their Characteristics) wide array of text forms and be reviewed systematically. Written and Oral English- Phonemic Awareness Language Conventions The first-grade curriculum and instruc- 1.0 Written and Oral English-Language tion in phonemic awareness prepare learners Conventions by making explicit the relationship between the words they hear and the phonemic Listening and Speaking structure of the language. Students must 1.0 Listening and Speaking Strategies possess phonemic awareness if they are to 2.0 Speaking Applications (Genres and understand the relationship between speech Their Characteristics) and print and therefore develop proficiency in reading and writing increasingly complex words and word types. Instruction in Reading Word Analysis, language at the phoneme level and student Fluency, and proficiency in that area are the hallmarks of Systematic Vocabulary the curriculum standards for the first grade. Development Through systematic instructional sequences, students should become not only phone- Concepts About Print mically aware but also phonemically First-grade students refine their under- proficient in identifying and producing a standing of the relationship between print range of phonemic awareness skills. and language and extend that understand- (Note: For a more complete discussion of ing to more specific applications. Specifi- phonemic awareness and its relation to early cally, they should be able not only to reading and spelling success, see the kinder- discriminate letters from words and words garten section in this chapter.) from sentences but also to match a spoken First-grade students should be provided word (e.g., cat) with a printed word. This with systematic and extensive instruction awareness of words and their relation to and practice in: speech is reinforced by instruction and • Learning to analyze words at the practice in phonemic awareness. phoneme level (i.e., working with First graders further their understand- individual sounds within words) ing of books and stories by learning the • Working with phonemes in all standard conventions of print, including positions in words (initial, final, titles and authors. Instruction in concepts medial) 46

Chapter 3 • Progressing from identifying or students combine the two skills intuitively Content Standards and Instructional distinguishing the positions of through alphabetic insight; that is, the Practices— sounds in words to producing the process of hearing sounds in words and Kindergarten sound and adding, deleting, and using the sequence of letters in words and Through Grade Three changing selected sounds their associated sounds to read words. A • Allocating a significant amount of priority of the first-grade curriculum must time to blending, segmenting, and be to ensure that all students develop First Grade manipulating tasks alphabetic insight and extend their ability Standards and • Working with increasingly longer to decode words independently and read Instruction words (three to four phonemes) words automatically. Automaticity comes • Expanding beyond consonant- from reading many decodable texts in vowel-consonant words (e.g., sun) to which most words are composed of taught more complex phonemic structures letter-sound correspondences and some (consonant blends) words are taught directly as sight words. • Incorporating letters into phonemic Decodable text should be used as an awareness activities intervening step between explicit skill • Aligning the words used in phone- acquisition and the student’s ability to mic awareness activities with those read quality trade books. It should contain used in reading the phonic elements with which students Instruction in phonemic awareness can are familiar. However, the text should be span two years, kindergarten and first unfamiliar to the student so that they are grade. But in this aspect of teaching as in required to apply word-analysis skills and others, the teacher must be guided by the not reconstruct text they have memorized. students’ developing competencies. Some A review of the content standards students require little training in phone- indicates that in the first grade students mic awareness; others might require quite progress from being able to generate the a bit. Although early phonemic awareness sounds for all consonants and vowels to is oral, the teacher must be careful not to reading compound words, words with delay in providing learning opportunities inflectional endings, and common word with print. Learning phonics and learning families. Decoding plays an essential role to decode and write words all help in this evolution from a time when students continue to develop phonemic students enter with limited knowledge of awareness. In addition, students who have how to recognize words to a time when developed or are successfully developing they leave fully able to recognize unfamil- phonemic awareness should not have to iar words. Beginning decoding (or more spend an unnecessary amount of time technically, phonological recoding) is the being instructed in such awareness. ability to (1) read from left to right Adequate, ongoing assessment of student simple, new regular words; (2) generate progress is essential. sounds from all the letters; and (3) blend those sounds into a recognizable word. Decoding is Decoding and Word Recognition Explicit instruction and attention to the key students Students who enter the first grade specific letters in words and repeated use to unlock opportunities to practice words success- unfamiliar words. should possess two critical skills: fully result in automaticity—the ability to Marion Joseph (1) fundamental understanding of the phonemic structure of words; and recognize a word effortlessly and rapidly. (2) association of letters and sounds. Some Decoding is essential to reading unfamiliar 47 words and reading words independently • Use decodable text based on specific Chapter 3 Content Standards and is a critical benchmark in a student’s phonics lessons in the early part of and Instructional reading development. the first grade as an intervening step Practices— Because the English language is alpha- between explicit skill acquisition and Kindergarten Through Grade betic, decoding is an essential and primary the students’ ability to read quality Three means of recognizing words. English has trade books. Decodable text should too many words for the user to rely on contain the phonics elements and memorization as a primary strategy for sight words that students have been First Grade identifying words (Bay Area Reading Task taught. However, the text should be Standards and Instruction Force 1997). In the first grade the skills unfamiliar to students so that they and strategies learned in decoding and are required to apply word-analysis word recognition are extended in the skills and not simply reconstruct text standards for writing conventions. For they have memorized. example, as students learn to read com- • Teach necessary sight words to make pound words and contractions, economy more interesting stories accessible. in instruction can be gained by having the First-grade instruction in word analysis students write the words and use them in should teach students high-frequency speaking. Similarly, as students learn to irregular words systematically. Words with read three- and four-letter short-vowel high utility should be selected and used words and sight words, they should be judiciously in early reading. Teachers given instruction and opportunities to should point out irregularities while practice spelling those words. focusing student attention on all letters in Decoding instruction in the first grade the word and should provide repeated should: practice. The number of irregular words • Progress systematically from simple introduced should be controlled so that word types (e.g., consonant-vowel- the students will not be overwhelmed. consonant) and word lengths High-frequency words (e.g., was, saw; (e.g., number of phonemes) and them, they, there), often confused by word complexity (e.g., phonemes in students, should be strategically separated the word, position of blends, stop for initial instruction as well. sounds) to more complex words. Instruction in word families and word • Model instruction at each of the patterns (i.e., reading orthographic units of fundamental stages (e.g., letter- text, such as at, sat, fat, rat) should begin sound correspondences, blending, after students have learned the letter-sound reading whole words). correspondences in the unit (Ehri and • Sequence words strategically to McCormick 1998). Teaching students to incorporate known letters or letter- process larger, highly represented patterns sound combinations. will increase fluency in word recognition. • Provide initial practice in controlled However, the instruction should be connected text in which students can carefully coordinated and should build on apply their newly learned skills knowledge gained from instruction in successfully. letter-sound correspondence. • Include repeated opportunities to The benchmark for facile word readers read words in contexts in which in the first grade is their ability to read students can apply their knowledge aloud fluently in a manner that resembles of letter-sound correspondences. natural speech. Although important in its 48

Chapter 3 own right, fluency has significant implica- descriptive vocabulary in their speaking Content Standards and Instructional tions for comprehension. A primary and writing. Practices— reason for its importance is that if students Kindergarten are not fluent, automatic decoders, they will Through Grade Three spend so much mental energy decoding words Reading Reading that they will have too little energy left for Comprehension comprehension (Stanovich 1994). Compre- First Grade hension clearly involves more than fluent Reading comprehension can be devel- Standards and word recognition but is dependent on oped through listening and reading. For Instruction fluent word recognition. On average, first kindergarten students and all other stu- graders increase their reading fluency dents whose decoding and word-recogni- approximately 2.10 correct words per tion skills do not yet allow them access to minute per week (Fuchs et al. 1993). After story-level passages, systematic opportuni- an estimated 30 weeks of instruction, ties must be provided to listen to stories students should leave the first grade and answer comprehension questions reading approximately 60 words per orally. The oral readings should have more minute correctly. Practice in fluency is complex vocabulary, syntactic structures, most appropriate when students are and story lines than are found in the text accurate word readers. One technique that used for decoding and word recognition. has been used to increase fluency is Key comprehension strategies for first repeated readings of the same text to graders include: develop familiarity and automaticity • Identifying text that uses sequence or (Samuels 1979). other logical order • Following one-step written instruc- Vocabulary and Concept Development tions The curriculum and instruction offered • Responding to or posing who, what, in the first grade extend the understanding when, where, and how questions of concepts and vocabulary in English. • Recognizing the commonalities that Instruction should focus on two types of occur across stories and narrative text vocabulary development, basic categoriza- • Using context to resolve ambiguities tion of grade-appropriate concepts about the meaning of words and (e.g., animals, foods) and the words sentences students hear and read in stories and • Confirming predictions by identify- informational text that are instrumental to ing supporting text comprehension. Vocabulary development • Relating prior knowledge to textual occurs through both direct instruction in information specific concepts and words and through • Retelling the central ideas of simple exposure to a broad and diverse range of expository or narrative passages words in stories and informational text Instruction in comprehension is that have been read. designed with the same precision as In addition to learning specific vocabu- instruction in word recognition. For lary, first-grade students also learn to use comprehension to occur, the words in the context and surrounding text to under- text, along with their meanings, must first stand the meaning of unknown words. be accessible to the learner. Initial reading They are provided instruction and oppor- comprehension is practiced with texts tunities that prepare them to use new and students can read at their level. When 49 appropriate, the complexity of compre- be necessary. These examples would be Chapter 3 Content Standards hension instruction may be simplified by presented orally because the wording may and Instructional allowing students to learn and practice the be too difficult for first graders to decode: Practices— strategy from information presented in Kindergarten After the baseball game tells when. Through Grade speech or in pictures. If the forms of Three presentation are not appropriate, initial On Saturday tells when. instruction in comprehension can begin On the table tells where. with manageable textual units (e.g., sen- First Grade tences, short paragraphs before longer In San Francisco tells where. Standards and Instruction passages, and complete stories). When students can correctly identify Additional instruction in comprehen- and discriminate between when and sion may include: where, they learn to answer questions • Modeling multiple examples and from sentences. Example: providing extensive guided practice Text: “Nick went home after the in comprehension strategies baseball game.” • Helping students recognize the Question: “When did Nick go home?” features of text that facilitate com- (After the baseball game) prehension A simple instructional design would • Brainstorming central ideas from the teach each type of question separately. text (e.g., What do we know about After one type is clearly understood and what frogs eat? What do we know applied (e.g., who), a second type about where they live? What do we (e.g., what) would be introduced. After know about their appearance? What both types are understood, who and what else would we like to know about questions can be combined in an instruc- frogs?) tional session. The text for initial instruction in At the very beginning of instruction, comprehension should (1) begin with first-grade students should be given a linguistic units appropriate for the learner; linguistic structure they can comprehend. (2) use familiar vocabulary; (3) be based Sentences are, therefore, a plausible on a topic with which the learner is starting point because they provide a familiar; and (4) use simple syntactical manageable unit of language that conveys structures. Instruction in comprehension information. Once students can answer should also require students to determine questions at the sentence level, the teacher which strategy to use and why and provide can proceed to multiple sentences and extensive opportunities for students to eventually to paragraphs. Students who read and apply the strategies throughout are more advanced can be prompted to the year. For example, instruction de- ask and answer the questions. signed to teach children to answer who, what, when, where, and how questions (Reading Comprehension Standard 2.2) Reading Literary Response would consist of determining which type and Analysis of question to ask first. Who and what questions are typically easier to answer First-grade students should extend their than when and where questions. For when schema or structure of stories to the and where questions, instruction in how to organizational structure that narrative text identify the when and where in text may has a beginning, a middle, and an end. In 50

Chapter 3 addition, they should learn the sequence • Beginning with short passages to Content Standards and Instructional or logical order of informational text. reduce the memory load for learners Practices— They use those structures to comprehend • Focusing on only one component at Kindergarten text as well as retell stories. The elements a time (e.g., beginning) Through Grade Three of plot are added to the previously taught • Introducing an additional compo- setting, characters, and important events. nent when students can reliably For a description of instructional design identify those previously taught First Grade for elements of story grammar, see the • Guiding students through sample Standards and kindergarten section in this chapter. text in which teachers think out loud Instruction The importance of understanding the as they identify the components structures of text is reflected in the • Having students discuss the elements number of related standards. For Literary orally and make comparisons with Response and Analysis Standard 3.1, for other stories example, students read about and learn • Using the beginning, middle, and the elements of stories. They also learn end as a structure for recalling and that stories have a beginning, middle, and retelling the story or information end. These structures are directly connected to Writing Application Stan- Writing Writing Strategies dard 2.1, for which students write brief and Writing narratives describing an experience. Applications Further related is Speaking Application Standard 2.2, the objective of which is for First-grade writing combines the students to retell stories, using basic story important skills of idea formation and grammar elements. documentation, penmanship, and spell- Content standards in mathematics, ing. Spelling assumes increased impor- history–social science, and science can be tance as students are responsible for addressed simultaneously as students read communicating their ideas through (or have read to them) stories or exposi- recognized conventions. At this stage tory text that develop concepts and spelling instruction takes three forms. vocabulary in those academic areas. Students should be taught explicitly how Economic, effective curricular programs to use their knowledge of the phonemic and instruction will draw upon those structure of words and letter-sound relationships to expedite and reinforce correspondences to spell the words they do language arts learning across the curri- not know. As students begin to read words, culum. they should be taught to spell the words Strategies recommended in teaching they can read. In addition, students need organizational sequences of text (informa- to learn to spell high-frequency words tional or narrative) are: correctly. The ability to use phonetic • Ensuring that students have a spelling, although temporary, indicates conceptual understanding of begin- that children “have achieved an essential ning, middle, and end milestone toward mastery of decoding in • Introducing text where the compo- reading” (Moats 1995). nents of text are explicit (beginning, Moats reports that although some middle, and end being obvious) students easily learn to spell correctly, many others do not. Guidelines for 51 instruction in spelling for students who do and then introducing a second Chapter 3 Content Standards not easily learn to spell correctly include: form and Instructional 1. Systematic, teacher-directed 3. Sequencing student writing Practices— activities so that they first see good Kindergarten instruction and practice with Through Grade controlled amounts of new infor- models, edit other writing, and Three mation then generate their own sentences 2. Regulation of the amount of or text First Grade information presented at one time As students learn the various stages of Standards and (Introduce smaller sets of words as writing as a process (prewriting, drafting, Instruction opposed to entire lists at one time.) revising, editing, and publishing), they 3. Plentiful opportunities to practice should have a structure for incorporating newly introduced spellings varying combinations of the stages into 4. Presentation of only one spelling their writing that is based on the purpose rule or generalization at a time of a specific piece of writing. Using a story 5. Provision of immediate corrective grammar structure or a simple structure feedback for descriptive text helps students apply 6. Organized, sequential instruction the stages of writing. that builds on phonological awareness and letter-sound corre- Listening and Speaking spondences and regular one-syllable Listening and Speaking patterns. Strategies and Speaking Students in the first grade are intro- Applications duced to writing as a means of communicating. They begin to understand that First-grade students are increasingly writing is a process and learn to apply the responsible for comprehending informa- process appropriately to write brief tion presented orally, communicating narratives and brief descriptions of objects, their ideas through speaking and writing, persons, places, or events. As students recalling important information from learn to apply process writing to narrative narratives and informational text, and and descriptive structures, they also learn answering questions. Their responses the different types of sentences along with should incorporate greater diversity into the conventions for recording their ideas the words they use and greater mastery of (e.g., capitalization, punctuation). They grammatical structures. To respond to or learn to apply writing conventions, with produce complete, coherent sentences that particular emphasis being placed on the use descriptive words or correct singular fundamentals of grammar, punctuation, and plural nouns, students need models of and capitalization. those structures along with many opportu- General guidelines for writing instruc- nities to produce their own sentences. tion include: Instructional considerations to improve sentence production include: 1. Selecting and emphasizing those sentence types most useful for 1. Providing explicit models communicating ideas 2. Eliciting student responses that 2. Focusing on one form of punctua- progress from identification to tion until learners achieve mastery production 52

Chapter 3 3. Carefully selecting, sequencing, and 2. Reinforce the connections between Content Standards and Instructional scheduling instructional targets that phonemic awareness, translating a Practices— allow learners to master one form printed word into its letter-sound Kindergarten (e.g., my) before progressing to the correspondences, reading the whole Through Grade Three next (e.g., his/her or your/yours) word, and spelling. Use words that 4. Providing frequent opportunities to students can read in spelling and repeat sentences writing activities. First Grade 5. Strategically integrating instruction 3. Introduce words from stories in Standards and requiring students to discern the various instructional activities. Instruction correct usage (e.g., his/her, your/ Provide frequent opportunities for yours) students to hear and practice new In addition to learning sentence-level vocabulary. standards for listening and speaking, 4. Provide ample opportunities for students should learn to comprehend and students to hear stories read aloud reconstruct sequences of information, and then discuss those stories. including multiple-step directions, poems, 5. Provide opportunities for students songs, and stories. Incremental instruction to retell stories based on their in which students are taught to recall knowledge of story elements. increasingly longer units should build on Model how to retell familiar the sentence-level guidelines previously stories, emphasizing coherent outlined. English-language conventions. 6. Use the story grammar structure to Content and Instructional comprehend, retell, and compose stories. Connections 7. Have students read (and read to them) stories and informational The following activities integrate text that address the first-grade standards across domains, strands, and content standards in mathematics, academic disciplines. Teachers may wish to: science, and history–social science. 1. Use known letters, phonemic Please see Appendix B for examples of awareness, letter-sound associations, standards that span domains and strands. and encoding skills to read, write, and spell words. 53

Chapter 3 Content Standards First Grade and Instructional Practices— Kindergarten Through Grade Curricular and Three Instructional Profile

Reading Standard 1.10

DOMAIN STRAND SUBSTRAND STANDARD

Reading 1.0 Word analysis, Decoding 1.10 Generate the sounds fluency, and and word from all the letters and systematic recognition letter patterns, including vocabulary consonant blends and long- development and short-vowel patterns (i.e., phonograms), and blend those sounds into recognizable words.

Prerequisite standard. Kindergarten Word Analysis, Fluency, and Systematic Vocabulary Development Standard 1.14: Match all consonant and short-vowel sounds to appropriate letters. Prerequisite or corequisite standards. First-Grade Word Analysis, Fluency, and Systematic Vocabulary Development Standards 1.8, 1.9. Standard 1.8: Blend two to four phonemes into recognizable words. Standard 1.9: Segment single-syllable words into their components. Corequisite standard. First-Grade Written and Oral English-Language Conventions Standard 1.8: Spell three- and four-letter short-vowel words and grade-level-appropriate sight words correctly.

Curricular and Instructional Decisions

Instructional 1. The standard addressing the year-end goal of being able to Objectives blend all letters and letter patterns into words involves a minimum of three skills: a. Knowledge of some letter-sound correspondences b. Ability orally to blend and segment words of three to four phonemes 54

Chapter 3 Instructional c. Ability to blend letter-sound correspondences taken from Content Standards and Instructional Objectives written words Practices— (Continued) Assessment, instruction, and practice should address each of Kindergarten Through Grade the components. Three 2. Before teaching students to recognize the sounds associated with each letter and blend those sounds into a word, determine whether students have the prerequisite skills (see 1a and First Grade 1b). Students do not have to know all the letter sounds before Curricular and Instructional initiating blending and word reading. However, to satisfy the Profile prerequisite for this standard, they must know some letter sounds and be able to blend and segment words auditorily. 3. Blending is a focused and distributed instructional priority. That is, during initial instruction there is an intense focus on this strategy. Teachers provide extensive instruction (delivered in short increments) and practice in learning to blend easy word types. Instruction and practice in blending must be reintroduced when new word types are introduced. Although this instructional period may be brief, students must understand that blending is used not only with short words (e.g., sun) but with longer words as well (e.g., splash).

Instructional Successful word reading depends largely on: Design 1. Systematic selection and sequencing of letters in the words to maximize students’ ability to blend 2. Progression of word difficulty based on length and configuration of consonants and vowels within the word 3. Explicit instruction and modeling in how to blend letter sounds into words 4. Sufficient practice in transitioning from reading each letter sound at a time to reading the whole word 5. Explicit instruction in how to “sound out words in your head”

Systematic Selection and Sequencing of Letters in Words Letter sounds in words have properties that can enhance or impede blending and word reading. For initial instruction in blending, the letters in words should be: • Continuous sounds because they can be prolonged or stretched (e.g., /m/, /s/) • Letters students know • Used in a large number of words for high utility • Lowercase unless the uppercase and lowercase letters have highly similar shapes (e.g., S s; V v) Note: Visually and auditorily similar (e.g., /b/ and /d/) letter sounds should not be in the same initial blending activities. 55

Instructional Progression of Word Difficulty Based on Length Chapter 3 Design Content Standards and Configuration of Consonants and Vowels and Instructional (Continued) Within the Word Practices— Kindergarten Words used in blending instruction and practice should: Through Grade Three • Progress from the short vowel-consonant and consonant- vowel-consonant (two- or three-letter words in which letters

represent their most common sounds) to longer words (four- First Grade

or five-phoneme words in which letters represent their most Curricular and common sounds). Instructional • Reserve consonant blends (e.g., /st/, /tr/, /pl/) until the stu- Profile dents are proficient in working with consonant-vowel-consonant configurations. • Begin with continuous sounds in early exercises to facilitate blending. Stop sounds (sounds that cannot be prolonged in the breath stream, such as /t/, /p/, and /ck/) may be used in the final positions of words. • Represent vocabulary and concepts with which students are familiar. Progression from Oral Blending to Oral Whole-Word Reading to “Sounding It Out in Your Head” • Orally blending the letter-sound associations of a word is a first step in word reading. In this process students produce each sound orally and sustain that sound as they progress to the next. This process focuses student attention on the individual letters in the word and on their importance. • Once proficient in blending the individual sounds orally, students are taught to put those sounds together into a whole word. This important step must be modeled and practiced. • The final step in this sequence involves students sounding out the letter-sound correspondences “in their head” or silently producing the whole word. This systematic progression is important because it makes public the necessary steps involved in reading a whole word.

Instructional Orally Blending Individual Letter Sounds Delivery 1. Model the process of blending the sounds in the word (“I’ll read this word, blending the sounds mmmmmmmmaaaaaaannnnnn”). Do not stop between the sounds. Make certain that the sounds are not distorted as you stretch them out. You may want to use language that helps make the process more vivid (stretching out the sounds, keeping the sounds going). 2. Use your finger or hand to track under each letter as you say each individual sound. 56

Chapter 3 Instructional 3. Hold each sound long enough for the students to hear it Content Standards and Instructional Delivery individually. Stop sounds cannot be prolonged without Practices— (Continued) distortion. When introducing words that begin with stop Kindergarten sounds (such as t, k, and p), teach the students that those Through Grade Three sounds should be pronounced quickly and should not be stretched out. 4. Use an explicit teaching sequence in which you model ex- First Grade amples first and then have the students blend the words with Curricular and you. Finally, the students should blend the words on their Instructional Profile own. 5. Include a sufficient number of examples to assess students’ proficiency. This instructional segment should be relatively brief (five to ten minutes) in the daily language arts lesson. Producing the Whole Word 1. Introduce the whole-word step in which students say the word at a regular pace once they can blend the sounds in the word. 2. Provide sufficient time for students to put the sounds together. The sequence involves orally blending the individual letter sounds in the word and then saying the whole word. Internalizing the Blending Process 1. In the final step of the blending process, students sound out the word to themselves and then produce the whole word. 2. Two important dimensions of this phase are: a. Showing students how to internalize b. Providing sufficient time for all students to blend the word in their head and say the word 3. On average, students should be able to blend sounds and retrieve a word at a rate of a maximum of one second per letter sound in the word. If they require more time, they may not have mastered the prerequisite skills. Because blending is now an overt process, teachers must use strategies to show students the transition steps. Teachers might wish to model how to trace a finger under each sound, subvocalizing the sounds of the word. General Design 1. Provide frequent, short periods of instruction and practice on blending. Examples should include newly introduced letter sounds and newly introduced word types—consonant-vowel- consonant-consonant (e.g., rest). 2. Relate blending instruction to spelling when students master blending and reading words at a regular rate. Teaching students the relationship between reading and spelling strengthens alphabetic understanding and the connections between reading and writing. 57

Chapter 3 Assessment 1. Entry-Level Assessment for Instructional Planning Content Standards and Instructional a. Assess student knowledge of letter sounds to identify letter Practices— Entry-Level Kindergarten Assessment sounds to use in initial blending and word-reading instruc- Through Grade tion. Students should be fluent in some letter-sound corre- Three spondences prior to beginning word-reading instruction. b. Assess students’ phonemic blending ability (e.g., the ability to blend three to four phonemes into a word). First Grade c. Determine whether students can read words in lists of word Curricular and Instructional types or in passages containing high percentages of words Profile that are phonetically regular. Identify word types (length and consonant-vowel configuration) that students can read and begin instruction at that point. d. Use nonsense words or pseudo words as measures to assess blending ability. Nonsense words are phonetically regular but have no commonly recognized meaning (e.g., rin, sep, tist). With nonsense words you can determine students’ knowledge of individual letter-sound correspondences and blending ability. e. Most first graders will have a limited repertoire of words they can read depending on the kindergarten instruction they have received. Many students may have a core of sight words they can identify and may look like readers. However, they may not have adequate decoding skills.

Monitoring 2. Monitoring Student Progress Toward the Instructional Objective Student a. This assessment phase is designed to determine students’ Progress progress and mastery of letter-sound knowledge. The options available are: • Maintaining a set of taught letter sounds and word types. To evaluate progress, assess student performance at least once every two weeks on words containing familiar letter sounds. Record performance and document particular letter sounds or blending patterns with which they have difficulty (e.g., stopping between sounds; not being able to read whole words). • Monitoring progress toward the long-term goal with a list of words selected randomly from the first-grade curriculum. Although all word types will have been introduced during the early months of the academic year, this measure provides a common measure by which to evaluate students’ change in word-reading ability over time. b. Once students are reading individual words at a rate of one word per three seconds or less, introduce connected text as an assessment tool. 58

Chapter 3 Assessment 3. Post-test Assessment Toward the Standard Content Standards (Continued) and Instructional a. Blending is a temporary and distributed instructional Practices— priority. Students may be able to blend some word types Kindergarten Post-test Through Grade Assessment but not others. Therefore, there may be ongoing post-tests Three depending on the word type being studied. b. Post-tests should be distributed throughout the year. To assess overall growth, administer a test that measures First Grade fluency through the use of a nonsense-word measure to Curricular and Instructional determine entry-level skills. Or have the students read a Profile passage that represents the range of word types and blending requirements for the year.

Universal 1. Students with Reading Difficulties or Disabilities Access a. These students need a firm understanding of prerequisite skills before beginning blending. If they cannot blend Reading Difficulties sounds auditorily or know only a few letter-sound corre- or Disabilities spondences, provide appropriate instruction before introducing blending. b. Some first graders will continue to stop between the sounds in a word. Provide extra models of not stopping between the sounds and provide sufficient waiting time for students to process the sounds into the whole word. c. Assess whether the rate of introduction of new letter sounds into blending or new word types is manageable for students with special needs. If the pace is too rapid, provide additional instruction. d. If students have difficulty in retaining the blending strategy, schedule a booster session sometime during the day for one to two minutes. Advanced 2. Students Who Are Advanced Learners Learners a. Use entry-level assessment to determine the need for instruction in blending. Keep in mind that some students may have memorized a large repertoire of words but still lack blending strategies. Use the nonsense words measure to assess their ability. b. Determine the word type(s) for which students need instruction. They may learn the blending strategy and immediately generalize to more complex word types, making further or extensive instruction in blending unnecessary. c. If isolated word types are unfamiliar to students, design an instructional schedule to address the missing skills. If the students are proficient in decoding phonetically regular words, proceed to introductory passage-reading standards. 59

Universal d. Provide explicit instruction in targeted skill areas, keeping Chapter 3 Content Standards Access in mind that the students may acquire the blending strategy and Instructional (Continued) very quickly. Accelerate movement through instructional Practices— objectives. Kindergarten Through Grade e. If the students can demonstrate mastery of the grade-level Three standards, consider grouping the students within or across grade levels to work on the second-grade standards. First Grade Because many advanced learners enter the first grade reading well Curricular and above grade level, the teacher should determine their overall reading Instructional ability in addition to their performance in specific skill areas. On the Profile basis of a comprehensive assessment, give students challenging instructional materials and monitor their progress carefully to ensure they are learning at a rate commensurate with their abilities. Note: Unnecessary drill and practice in areas of high performance can be very discouraging for advanced learners because they are being asked to learn something they already know.

English Learners 3. Students Who Are English Learners The following suggestions assume that students will begin language arts instruction in English and that literacy instruction is augmented by concurrent formal linguistic instruction in English (English- language development). If instruction is provided in part in the primary language and that language is alphabetic, the instruction in the primary language should be designed according to the same standards and principles established for language arts instruction in this framework. It is suggested, therefore, that the teacher: a. Reassess the students’ knowledge of letter-sound correspondences and phonological awareness of the sounds included in the lesson before teaching English learners to blend sounds. Additional phonological and letter-sound instruction should be provided as needed. Teachers should be aware of phonological differences between English and the students’ primary languages and provide additional exposure to and practice with the difficult sounds. b. Provide additional modeling and practice for those English learners who need further assistance. Appropriate modeling can be provided by the teacher or by native English- speaking peers. Be sure to provide sufficient waiting time to process and produce sounds. c. Assess whether the rate of introduction of new letter sounds into blending or of new word types is manageable. If not manageable for some students, determine a way to provide additional systematic, guided instruction so that they will be able to catch up with their classmates and accomplish the lesson objective. 60

Chapter 3 Universal d. Ensure that students have had previous instruction or Content Standards Access and Instructional experiences (or both) with the words included in the Practices— (Continued) instruction and that they understand their meaning. Kindergarten e. Assess what knowledge is assumed before each unit of Through Grade Three instruction. That is, determine what knowledge the typical English speaker already brings to the classroom and provide preteaching of key concepts. First Grade f. Have English learners who have acquired literacy skills in Curricular and their first language draw on those skills in English. Teach- Instructional Profile ers can build on the knowledge of reading skills that students have acquired in their first languages when teaching English letter-sound correspondences. g. Provide English learners with explicit models of the letter- sound correspondences that students are expected to know and correct errors as would be done for other learners. Correction of errors should always be conducted in a way that encourages students to keep trying and helps them see the progress they are making.

Instructional 1. Texts should contain explicit instruction in the blending Materials process as well as in the transition from blending to the reading of whole words. 2. The letter-sound correspondences included in the words and the word types should be carefully selected. 3. Measures for assessing entry level and progress throughout instruction should be included in curricular materials. 4. Related skills (e.g., phonemic awareness, spelling) should be correlated, and connections should be made in instructional materials and instruction. 5. Decodable texts should be provided as an intervening step between explicit skill acquisition and the student’s ability to read quality trade books. Decodable texts should contain the phonics elements with which students are familiar. However, the text should be unfamiliar to the student because the student should apply word-analysis skills, not reconstruct text already memorized. 61

Chapter 3 Content Standards First Grade andand InstructionalInstructional Practices—Practices— KindergartenKindergarten ThroughThrough GradeGrade ThreeThree English–Language Arts Content Standards

Decoding and Word Recognition Reading 1.0 Word Analysis, Fluency, 1.10 Generate the sounds from all the letters and Systematic Vocabulary and letter patterns, including consonant Development blends and long- and short-vowel patterns (i.e., phonograms), and blend Students understand the basic features of those sounds into recognizable words. reading. They select letter patterns and know 1.11 Read common, irregular sight words how to translate them into spoken language by (e.g., the, have, said, come, give, of). using phonics, syllabication, and word parts. 1.12 Use knowledge of vowel digraphs and They apply this knowledge to achieve fluent r-controlled letter-sound associations to oral and silent reading. read words. Concepts About Print 1.13 Read compound words and contrac- 1.1 Match oral words to printed words. tions. 1.2 Identify the title and author of a 1.14 Read inflectional forms (e.g., -s, -ed, reading selection. -ing) and root words (e.g., look, looked, 1.3 Identify letters, words, and sentences. looking). 1.15 Read common word families (e.g., -ite, Phonemic Awareness -ate). 1.4 Distinguish initial, medial, and final 1.16 Read aloud with fluency in a manner sounds in single-syllable words. that sounds like natural speech. 1.5 Distinguish long- and short-vowel sounds in orally stated single-syllable Vocabulary and Concept Development words (e.g., bit/bite). 1.17 Classify grade-appropriate categories of 1.6 Create and state a series of rhyming words (e.g., concrete collections of words, including consonant blends. animals, foods, toys). 1.7 Add, delete, or change target sounds to change words (e.g., change cow to how; 2.0 Reading Comprehension pan to an). Students read and understand grade-level- 1.8 Blend two to four phonemes into appropriate material. They draw upon a recognizable words (e.g., /c/a/t/ = cat; /f/ variety of comprehension strategies as needed l/a/t/ = flat). (e.g., generating and responding to essential 1.9 Segment single syllable words into their questions, making predictions, comparing components (e.g., /c/a/t/ = cat; /s/p/l/a/t/ information from several sources). The =splat; /r/i/ch/ = rich). selections in Recommended Readings in Literature, Kindergarten Through Grade Eight 62

Chapter 3 illustrate the quality and complexity of the 3.2 Describe the roles of authors and Content Standards materials to be read by students. In addition to illustrators and their contributions to andand InstructionalInstructional Practices—Practices— their regular school reading, by grade four, print materials. KindergartenKindergarten students read one-half million words annually, 3.3 Recollect, talk, and write about books ThroughThrough GradeGrade including a good representation of grade-level- read during the school year. ThreeThree appropriate narrative and expository text (e.g., classic and contemporary literature, Writing magazines, newspapers, online information). First Grade 1.0 Writing Strategies English–Language In grade one, students begin to make progress Arts Content toward this goal. Students write clear and coherent sentences Standards and paragraphs that develop a central idea. Structural Features of Informational Their writing shows they consider the Materials audience and purpose. Students progress 2.1 Identify text that uses sequence or other through the stages of the writing process logical order. (e.g., prewriting, drafting, revising, editing Comprehension and Analysis of Grade- successive versions). Level-Appropriate Text Organization and Focus 2.2 Respond to who, what, when, where, 1.1 Select a focus when writing. and how questions. 1.2 Use descriptive words when writing. 2.3 Follow one-step written instructions. 2.4 Use context to resolve ambiguities Penmanship about word and sentence meanings. 1.3 Print legibly and space letters, words, 2.5 Confirm predictions about what will and sentences appropriately. happen next in a text by identifying key words (i.e., signpost words). 2.0 Writing Applications (Genres 2.6 Relate prior knowledge to textual and Their Characteristics) information. Students write compositions that describe and 2.7 Retell the central ideas of simple explain familiar objects, events, and experi- expository or narrative passages. ences. Student writing demonstrates a command of standard American English and 3.0 Literary Response and Analysis the drafting, research, and organizational Students read and respond to a wide variety of strategies outlined in Writing Standard 1.0. significant works of children’s literature. They Using the writing strategies of grade one distinguish between the structural features of outlined in Writing Standard 1.0, students: the text and the literary terms or elements 2.1 Write brief narratives (e.g., fictional, (e.g., theme, plot, setting, characters). The autobiographical) describing an selections in Recommended Readings in experience. Literature, Kindergarten Through Grade Eight 2.2 Write brief expository descriptions of a illustrate the quality and complexity of the real object, person, place, or event, materials to be read by students. using sensory details. Narrative Analysis of Grade-Level- Appropriate Text 3.1 Identify and describe the elements of plot, setting, and character(s) in a story, as well as the story’s beginning, middle, and ending. 63

Chapter 3 Written and Oral English Listening and Speaking Content Standards Language Conventions 1.0 Listening and Speaking and Instructional Practices— The standards for written and oral English Strategies Practices— Kindergarten language conventions have been placed Students listen critically and respond appropri- Through Grade between those for writing and for listening and ately to oral communication. They speak in a Three speaking because these conventions are manner that guides the listener to understand essential to both sets of skills. important ideas by using proper phrasing, First Grade pitch, and modulation. 1.0 Written and Oral English English–Language Language Conventions Comprehension Arts Content Standards Students write and speak with a command of 1.1 Listen attentively. standard English conventions appropriate to 1.2 Ask questions for clarification and this grade level. understanding. 1.3 Give, restate, and follow simple Sentence Structure two-step directions. 1.1 Write and speak in complete, coherent sentences. Organization and Delivery of Oral Communication Grammar 1.4 Stay on the topic when speaking. 1.2 Identify and correctly use singular and 1.5 Use descriptive words when speaking plural nouns. about people, places, things, and events. 1.3 Identify and correctly use contractions (e.g., isn’t, aren’t, can’t, won’t) and 2.0 Speaking Applications (Genres singular possessive pronouns (e.g., my/ and Their Characteristics) mine, his/her, hers, your/s) in writing Students deliver brief recitations and oral and speaking. presentations about familiar experiences or Punctuation interests that are organized around a coherent 1.4 Distinguish between declarative, thesis statement. Student speaking demon- exclamatory, and interrogative strates a command of standard American sentences. English and the organizational and delivery 1.5 Use a period, exclamation point, or strategies outlined in Listening and Speaking question mark at the end of sentences. Standard 1.0. 1.6 Use knowledge of the basic rules of Using the speaking strategies of grade one punctuation and capitalization when outlined in Listening and Speaking Standard writing. 1.0, students: Capitalization 2.1 Recite poems, rhymes, songs, and 1.7 Capitalize the first word of a sentence, stories. names of people, and the pronoun I. 2.2 Retell stories using basic story grammar and relating the sequence of story Spelling events by answering who, what, when, 1.8 Spell three- and four-letter short-vowel where, why, and how questions. words and grade-level-appropriate sight 2.3 Relate an important life event or words correctly. personal experience in a simple sequence. 2.4 Provide descriptions with careful attention to sensory detail. 64

Chapter 3 Content Standards and Instructional Second Grade Practices— Kindergarten Through Grade Three Standards and Instruction

efore they enter the second grade, initial reading instruction requires that most students have already learned students use reading to obtain meaning B the foundational skills of word from print and have frequent opportuni- analysis and have a rudimentary under- ties to read. standing of the elements of narrative text. They should extend their repertoire of They are able to spell three- and four- reading-comprehension strategies for both letter short vowel words and some com- narrative and informational text with mon sight words (e.g., the, have, said, instructional adjuncts (e.g., graphs, come, give, of). In addition, they possess diagrams) and more sophisticated tech- basic skills in penmanship and in the use niques for analyzing text (e.g., comparison of writing to communicate knowledge and and contrast). Initial skill in editing and ideas. In the second grade the language revising text must be developed at this arts curriculum and instruction are grade level, and increased emphasis should focused on enhancing word-recognition be placed on legible and coherent writing. fluency, extending understanding of Students should continue to work on dimensions of narrative and informational written and oral English-language conven- text, and increasing proficiency in written tions as they develop their awareness of and oral communication. the parts of speech and the correct spelling The second-grade curriculum and of more complex word types. Listening instruction should emphasize increasing comprehension and speaking expectations students’ facility with the alphabetic increase as second graders learn to para- writing system and with larger and more phrase, clarify, explain, and report on complex units of text and on applying information they hear, experience, and knowledge of letter-sound correspon- read. dences to decode unfamiliar words. The strands to be emphasized in the Further efforts should be made to help second grade are listed on the following students link phonemic awareness of page under the appropriate domains. words and knowledge of letter-sounds to Each of the strands is addressed build lexicons of familiar words; use separately with the exception of the knowledge of spelling patterns, prefixes, written and oral English-language conven- and suffixes; and increase sight vocabulary tions strand, which is integrated within through extensive practice. Adequate appropriate sections. 65

skills must be taught before more advanced Chapter 3 Reading Content Standards word structures are presented. and Instructional 1.0 Word Analysis, Fluency, and Early in the second grade, decoding Practices— Systematic Vocabulary Development operations are mechanical and not auto- Kindergarten 2.0 Reading Comprehension Through Grade matic for many learners. During this year Three 3.0 Literary Response and Analysis students typically make great strides in decoding fluency (Ehri and McCormick Writing 1998). Over the course of the year, they Second Grade develop fluency through instruction in Standards and 1.0 Writing Strategies Instruction 2.0 Writing Applications (Genres and advanced phonics units (e.g., vowel diph- Their Characteristics) thongs) and in the use of larger orthographic units of text, such as onset and Written and Oral English- rime. (Onset is the consonant or conso- Language Conventions nants that come before the first vowel; rime is the remainder of the word beginning 1.0 Written and Oral English-Language with the first vowel [e.g., h-ill, p-ill] to read Conventions words.) Redundancy in letter sounds and orthographic units in words allows students Listening and Speaking to process words more efficiently. They 1.0 Listening and Speaking Strategies learn to read phonetically regular words 2.0 Speaking Applications (Genres and more fluently as they become familiar and Their Characteristics) facile with chunks of text. Note: Students have not merely memorized the larger units but, when necessary, can apply their Reading Word Analysis, Fluency, knowledge of letter-sound correspondences and Systematic to work their way through the words. Vocabulary Students in the second grade should also Development continue instruction and practice in learning reliable rules to assist in decoding. Decoding and Word Recognition For example, learning that an e at the end At the beginning of the second grade, of a word usually causes the medial vowel students should be able to (1) generate the to be long (or say its name) is a rule that sounds for all consonants, consonant advances word-analysis skills. A primary blends, and long and short vowels; goal of second-grade word-analysis instruc- (2) recognize common sight words; and tion is to increase systematically students’ (3) process word families and inflectional ability to read words because of their endings of words. knowledge of more complex spelling Development of word-analysis and patterns. word-recognition skills in the second grade Another essential component of fluency proceeds systematically, building on first- development is the opportunity for stu- grade skills and extending those funda- dents to practice unfamiliar words many mental understandings purposefully and times in text, allowing them to use their interdependently. Instruction should decoding skills with a high degree of carefully sequence the introduction of new success. Text that students practice should skills and strategies. If students lack be at their instructional level, with no more proficiency in prerequisite skills, those than one in ten words read inaccurately. 66

Chapter 3 Advanced instruction in decoding is • Incorporate spelling to reinforce Content Standards and Instructional more effective if it relies on the following word analysis. After students can Practices— principles of design and delivery. Sug- read words, provide explicit instruc- Kindergarten gested procedures to follow are to: tion in spelling, showing students Through Grade Three • Teach the advanced phonic-analysis how to map the sounds of letters skills as explicitly as was done for the onto print. earlier letter-sound correspondences: • Make clear the connections between Second Grade first in isolation, then in words and decoding (symbol to sound) and Standards and spelling (sound to symbol). At this Instruction connected text, and, when the students become proficient, in trade point students have three powerful books. tools to facilitate word learning: • Avoid assuming that learners will ability to hear sounds in words, automatically transfer skills from one knowledge of the individual letter word type to another. When intro- sounds or letter-sound combina- ducing a new letter combination, tions, and knowledge of the letters. prefix, or word ending, model Teach and remind students to rely each of the fundamental stages on those skills and strategies when (e.g., letter-combination, prefixes), they encounter unfamiliar words or blending the word and then reading need to spell a word. However, the whole word. ensure that students understand that • Separate auditorily and visually some words are not spelled as they similar letter combinations in the sound. The spelling of those words instructional sequence (e.g., do not must be memorized at this stage. introduce both sounds for oo • Teach decoding strategies initially, simultaneously; separate ai, au). using words with meanings familiar • Sequence words and sentences to students. strategically to incorporate known Multisyllabic word reading. As students phonics units (e.g., letter combina- progress in word-analysis skills, they tions, inflectional endings). encounter more complex words, particu- • Ensure that students know the larly words with more than one syllable. sounds of the individual letters prior In the second grade students learn the to introducing larger orthographic rules of syllabication. Two strategies aid units (e.g., ill, ap, ing). multisyllabic word recognition—breaking • Provide initial practice in controlled the word into syllables and learning contexts in which students can apply prefixes and suffixes. newly learned skills successfully. Sight-word reading. Second-grade word- • Offer repeated opportunities for analysis instruction must systematically students to read words in contexts teach children sight-word recognition of where they can apply their advanced high-frequency words. When sight words phonics skills with a high level of (high-frequency irregular words) are being success. taught, it is important for the teacher to: • Use decodable text, if needed, as an 1. Select words that have high utility; intervening step between explicit that is, words that are used fre- skill acquisition and the student’s quently in grade-appropriate ability to read quality trade books. literature and informational text. 67

2. Sequence high-frequency irregular carry through into the second grade: Chapter 3 Content Standards words to avoid potential confusion. (1) direct instruction of specific concepts and Instructional For example, high-frequency words and vocabulary essential to understanding Practices— that are often confused by students text; and (2) exposure to a broad and Kindergarten Through Grade should be strategically separated for diverse vocabulary through listening to and Three initial instruction. reading stories and informational texts. 3. Limit the number of sight words Of the new vocabulary skills introduced introduced at one time (five to in the second grade, the use of prefixes and Second Grade seven new words). suffixes to aid in word meaning is a skill Standards and Instruction 4. Preteach the sight words prior to that students may use frequently as they reading connected text. read more complex and challenging texts. 5. Provide a cumulative review of When teaching prefixes and suffixes to important high-frequency sight assist in word meaning, teachers should words as part of daily reading emphasize those that occur with the instruction (two to three minutes). greatest frequency in second-grade Fluency. The benchmark of fluent material. Prefixes and suffixes that are most readers in the second grade is the ability to useful in understanding word meaning read grade-level material aloud and should be introduced before less useful accurately in a manner that sounds like ones. natural speech. The essential questions to In presenting instruction in prefixes and be asked: What should second-grade suffixes, the teacher should: speech sound like? How do we define 1. Introduce the prefix or suffix in fluency for second graders? Research isolation, indicating its meaning and studies indicate that students reading at then connecting it in words. the fiftieth percentile in spring in the 2. Illustrate the prefix or suffix with second grade read 90 to 100 words per multiple examples. minute correct orally (Hasbrouck and 3. Use examples when the roots are Tindal 1992) and that, on average, they familiar to students (e.g., remake increase their reading fluency approxi- and replay as opposed to record and mately 1.46 correct words per minute per recode) (Cunningham 1998). week (Fuchs et al. 1993). 4. Integrate words into sentences and ask students to tell the meaning of Vocabulary and Concept Development the word in the sentence. In the second grade curriculum and 5. Review previously introduced words instruction extend the understanding of cumulatively. concepts and vocabulary in four primary 6. Separate prefixes that appear similar ways: in initial instructional sequences • Knowledge and use of antonyms and (e.g., pre, pro). synonyms • Use of individual words in com- Reading Reading pounds to predict the meaning Comprehension • Use of prefixes and suffixes to assist in word meaning In the second grade informational text • Learning multiple-meaning words gains greater prominence than before as Two emphases in vocabulary develop- students learn to (1) use conventions of ment initiated in kindergarten should informational text (e.g., titles, chapter 68

Chapter 3 headings) to locate important informa- teachers foster interest and motivation to Content Standards and Instructional tion; (2) ask clarifying questions; and read and assist students in developing an Practices— (3) interpret information from graphs, appreciation of the rewards and joys of Kindergarten reading. Through Grade diagrams, and charts. Concurrently, Three students learn the importance of reading in locating facts and details in narrative Reading Literary Response and informational text and recognizing and Analysis Second Grade cause-and-effect relationships. Standards and Instruction Given the great number of comprehen- In the second grade students work sion skills and strategies to be learned, extensively in analyzing the elements of instruction should be organized in a narrative text and comparing and contrast- coherent structure. A question that might ing elements within and among texts. be asked here is, Which skills and strate- Building on their prior schemata of gies should be used during prereading, stories, students read versions of stories reading, and postreading? written by different authors to gain an Instruction in reading comprehension understanding of the influence of the is the intentional teaching of information writer and the culture. They use the or strategies to increase a student’s under- narrative text structure to write brief standing of what is read. When the narratives (Writing Applications Standard second-grade standards are considered in 2.1) and retell stories (Listening and conjunction with the big picture of Speaking Standard 2.1). Emphasis on instruction in reading comprehension, it is comprehension is centered on teaching important to recognize that such instruc- students to analyze narratives, compare tion consists of three phases. In the and contrast, and generate alternative acquisition phase the skill or strategy is endings. The connections with the taught explicitly with the aid of carefully listening, speaking, and writing domains designed examples and practice. This are clear in this strand. Instructional phase may consist of one or more days effectiveness and efficiency can be gained depending on the skill or strategy being by employing inherent connections in taught. The focused application phase content. should continue across several instruc- As students learn to compare and tional sessions to illustrate the applicability contrast, many will benefit from a struc- and utility of the skill or strategy. The ture specifying the dimensions that will be strategic integration phase, occurring over compared and contrasted. The story the course of the year, is designed to grammar structure works elegantly in this connect previously taught skills and instance as a tool for prompting informa- strategies with new content and text. tion to compare and contrast, organizing Curriculum and instruction should information, and grouping related ideas to cumulatively build a repertoire of skills maintain a consistent focus (Writing and strategies that are introduced, applied, Strategies Standard 1.1). This feature will and integrated with appropriate texts and be the focus of the instructional and for authentic purposes over the course of curricular profile that appears at the end the year. As students begin to develop of the second-grade section. reading-comprehension skills, effective 69

be conceived as discrete skills that learners Chapter 3 Writing Writing Strategies and Content Standards apply. Alternatively, and more effectively, Writing Applications and Instructional the individual skills can be conceptualized Practices— in strands. Within a single writing lesson, Kindergarten Students become more comfortable and Through Grade familiar with writing when it is a regular instruction might occur along each of the Three and frequent activity. In the second grade major strands in writing strategies writing progresses to narratives in which (e.g., organization, penmanship, revision) Second Grade students move through a logical sequence and written and oral English conventions (e.g., sentence structure, grammar, Standards and of events. They learn to write about an Instruction experience in the first grade and to write punctuation, capitalization, spelling). for different audiences and purposes in the Instruction in each strand can address the second grade. The narrative structure and specific dimensions of grammar and requirements expand in the second grade punctuation appropriate to the individual to multiple paragraphs that integrate student. knowledge of setting, characters, objec- In instruction according to strands, tives, and events to develop more complex incremental and progressive skills and and complete narratives. In addition, strategies within and across a range of second graders learn an additional text strands related to a larger domain are structure, the friendly letter, as a form of introduced and learned to provide a written communication. precise, coherent course of study. Such Applications of narrative and letter instruction, both specific and related, writing depend on well-developed writing which focuses on specific skills and strategies, including grouping of related strategies and incorporates them into ideas, facility with various stages of exercises once learners are proficient with writing, and legible handwriting. In the individual skills, is especially appropriate second grade students focus on learning to for writing. Features of this instruction are revise text to improve sequence and as follows: increase descriptive detail. Concurrently, 1. Dimensions of a complex task are they require instruction in distinguishing analyzed, and the strands are between complete and incomplete sen- identified (e.g., organization, tences, extending grammatical proficiency grammar, sentence structure, and with parts of speech, applying correct stages of writing). capitalization and punctuation, and 2. Specific objectives within a strand expanding their repertoire of correctly are identified and sequenced spelled words. Spelling instruction individually. progresses to include inflected endings and 3. Cross-strand skills are integrated irregular or exception words (e.g., said, once learners are proficient in who, what, why). The instructional individual strand skills and strate- guidelines for systematic instruction gies. introduced in the first grade are equally 4. Previously taught skills and important in the second grade. They strategies are reviewed cumula- consist of small sets of words that are tively. introduced explicitly, reviewed frequently, 5. The instructional analysis of the and integrated into writing exercises. content and proficiency of the The standards on which writing learner will prescribe the length of strategies and applications are based may the instructional sequence. 70

Chapter 3 standing chronological organization, Content Standards Listening and Speaking students can build on the who, what, when, and Instructional Listening and Speaking Practices— where, and how strategy learned in the first Strategies; Speaking Kindergarten grade as another way of organizing oral and Through Grade Applications Three written communication. In the second grade the students’ proficiency in speaking and listening expands Second Grade Content and Instructional quantitatively and qualitatively. The Standards and Instruction students are responsible for comprehending Connections larger amounts of information presented The following activities integrate stan- orally (e.g., three- to four-step instructions) dards across domains, strands, and aca- and for communicating their ideas with demic disciplines. Teachers may wish to: increased attention to detail and substance (e.g., reporting on a topic with supportive 1. Reinforce the connections between facts and details). Speaking strategies are phonemic awareness (hearing the applied in two primary formats—recount- sounds in words), phonological ing experiences or stories and reporting on recoding (translating a printed word a topic with facts and details. into its letter-sound correspon- Narrative experiences or stories and dences), and translating sounds into reports, which are the focus of second- print (spelling). grade instruction, have identifiable and 2. Extend the words that students can generalizable structures taught in reading read (e.g., special vowel spellings, and writing and can be used to communi- plurals) into their spelling and cate ideas orally. Although students may be writing. quite facile in identifying the common 3. Incorporate words taken from elements of stories by the second grade, vocabulary instruction (e.g., syn- identifying or recognizing is a simpler task onyms, words with prefixes) into in most cases than generating and produc- exercises providing systematic ing the elements of text in oral reports. opportunities to use words in Instruction to prepare students to recall sentences throughout the day. stories or experiences or to report on a topic 4. Incorporate comprehension strate- should proceed from (1) the reading of text gies into other content areas for which students know the elements (e.g., reading a science textbook (e.g., characters, setting, problem, impor- when appropriate) and practice tant events, resolution to the problem, those strategies. conclusion); to (2) the identification of 5. Use story grammar elements as a those elements in stories and topics; and common structure for comprehend- (3) the production or generation of the ing, retelling, and composing stories. elements. 6. Select appropriate content standards Students should be introduced to the in science, mathematics, and simple strategy of organizing both narrative history–social science to address and expository texts chronologically. That within the instructional time allotted type of organization is particularly appli- for instruction in the language arts. cable to language arts activities that rein- Please see Appendix B for examples of force the history–social science standards standards that span domains and strands. for this grade level. In addition to under- 71

Chapter 3 Content Standards Second Grade and Instructional Practices— Kindergarten Through Grade Curricular and Three Instructional Profile

Reading Standard 3.1

DOMAIN STRAND SUBSTRAND STANDARD

Reading 3.0 Literacy Narrative analysis 3.1 Compare and contrast response of grade-level- plots, settings, and and analysis appropriate text characters presented by different authors.

Prerequisite standards. Kindergarten Literary Response and Analysis Standard 3.3: Identify characters, settings, and important events. First-Grade Literary Response and Analysis Standard 3.1: Identify and describe the elements of plot, setting, and characters in a story as well as the story’s beginning, middle, and ending.

Curricular and Instructional Decisions

Instructional 1. Identify the major events (plot), settings, and characters of Objectives stories. 2. Compare and contrast those elements. Successful comparison and contrast of story elements depend on the ability to identify the major elements of individual stories. In this standard second graders use the literary elements of stories to identify similarities and differences between and among a wide, varied sampling of children’s literature.

Instructional Comparing and contrasting textual elements involve a host of Design factors that make this task either manageable or extraordinarily difficult. Initial instruction is likely to be most effective and efficient if it adheres to the following guidelines. Teachers may wish to: 1. Begin with a review and practice of identifying story grammar elements (e.g., setting, characters, problems, attempts to solve 72

Chapter 3 Instructional the problem or sequence of events, and resolution of the Content Standards and Instructional Design problem or conclusion). Practices— (Continued) 2. Support readers’ identification of story grammar elements with Kindergarten a think sheet or story note sheet that outlines the elements Through Grade Three students should identify. 3. Select stories with parallel structures that adhere to conventional story lines. Second Grade 4. Use stories in which elements are explicit and clearly identifi- Curricular and able. Instructional Profile 5. Do not proceed to a comparison and contrast analysis until students can identify elements of individual stories reliably. (Provide additional practice if necessary.) 6. Model how to compare and contrast explicitly, focusing on specific elements. 7. Begin with an oral comparison and contrast analysis. Have the students read the same story as a group and use a comparison and contrast version of the story grammar elements to indicate whether elements are the same or different. 8. Include stories in which some elements are comparable and some are different. 9. Begin with shorter stories and proceed to longer ones. 10. Use stories with largely familiar vocabulary. Stories that are not presented orally should be within the readability level of students. 11. Support learners in initial analyses by providing a concrete, overt strategy for comparing and contrasting elements that designates similarities and differences. 12. Provide sufficient practice in both components of instruction: (a) identifying elements; and (b) comparing and contrasting elements between and among stories. Progression of Examples for Comparison and Contrast Analysis • First teaching sequence: two stories, relatively brief, with explicit story grammar elements. Some elements in both stories should be comparable and some should differ (e.g., Peter Rabbit and Curious George are both “curious, mischievous”). • Second teaching sequence: two stories of moderate length, with explicit story grammar elements. Some elements in both stories should be comparable, and some should differ. • Third teaching sequence: two or three stories that parallel the reading requirements of second graders. Elements are explicit. Note: Each teaching sequence may require several days of instruction and practice for students to become proficient. This sequence is not intended to connote that this range of proficiency can be mastered in three days. 73

1. Begin the instructional sequence with a review of the elements Chapter 3 Instructional Content Standards of an individual story in which the students identify setting, Delivery and Instructional characters, problems, attempts to solve the problem or se- Practices— quence of events, and resolution of the problem or conclusion. Kindergarten Through Grade One of the stories should be included in the subsequent Three comparison and contrast analysis. 2. Identify explicitly for the students the critical elements; that is, read a section of the story and talk students through the Second Grade process of identifying individual elements (see the previous Curricular and Instructional description). If the students have difficulty with specific Profile elements, provide further practice with additional stories. 3. Follow up teacher-directed identification of the elements with guided practice during which the students (as a whole class or in respective reading groups) identify the elements with the teacher’s assistance. 4. Conclude this segment of instruction with independent practice. Students should use story note sheets or summary sheets to identify the elements of a story. 5. Model the process of comparing and contrasting story elements by using a structured tool. Walk students through the comparison and contrast process, thinking out loud as you model. (For example, “In Peter Rabbit the story takes place in a small garden in the country. In Curious George the story takes place in a busy city. The settings of these stories are different.”) Continue modeling through all the elements in the story. 6. Explain the steps in the strategy: “When you read stories, they often have the same parts or elements. We are going to look at those parts to see how the stories are the same and how they are different.” 7. Model multiple examples. 8. Guide students through the process of using the story elements to compare and contrast stories, using questions: “Where do these stories take place? Who are the characters? How are they the same? How are they different?” Provide corrective feedback. In this phase decrease prompts and assign greater responsibility to students. 9. Test students, using the same text format as in the teaching sequences. Do so immediately after the last teaching example to determine whether the students have acquired the strategy. 10. If students cannot use the strategy to compare and contrast story elements, analyze their responses to determine (1) whether the difficulties are specific to certain elements or are more generic; or (2) whether the difficulties are specific to certain students. Provide appropriate instruction and practice. 11. Present additional examples to assess student understanding. 74

Chapter 3 1. Entry-Level Assessment for Instructional Planning Content Standards Assessment and Instructional a. The most important entry-level assessment information for Practices— Entry-Level this standard is the extent to which students are already Kindergarten Assessment Through Grade familiar with the elements of stories. The most direct Three assessment is for students to read a story and identify the elements either in response to a list of elements or on their own. Second Grade b. Determine whether further instruction is needed in the Curricular and Instructional identification of the basic elements of story grammar. Profile Monitoring 2. Monitoring Student Progress Toward the Instructional Objective. Student This assessment phase is designed to determine the effective- Progress ness of instruction and students’ mastery of what has been taught. By designing tasks that align with the sequence of instruction, student performance can be used to determine whether to proceed to the next phase of instruction or to conduct further instruction and practice at the current phase.

Post-test 3. Post-test Assessment Toward the Standard. Analyzing stories by Assessment comparing and contrasting critical elements is a strategy that begins in the second grade and continues for many grades. This strategy should not be seen as a discrete skill that is taught and assessed at one time of the year. Narrative analysis should be distributed throughout the second grade to assess students’ retention of the skill and to demonstrate the broad utility of the strategy. Published materials should emphasize this strategy and distribute its use across literature read in the second grade. For a summative analysis a grid may be used that compares and contrasts story elements. Or students can be assigned to write a composition comparing and contrasting stories.

Universal 1. Students with Reading Difficulties or Disabilities Access a. Students reading below grade level will require reading Reading selections taken from below-grade-level literature. At this Difficulties stage the goal is for students to learn the elements of story or Disabilities grammar and the comparison and contrast analysis strategy. This strategy can be introduced, discussed, and applied to stories that are read aloud to students. They can then use the analysis strategies with texts they read on their own. b. Students with disabilities or learning difficulties may need more extensive instruction in comparison and contrast. Materials should include examples of elements easily identifiable for basic comparison and contrast exercises. 75

Universal c. Students may need scaffolded story sheets that not only Chapter 3 Content Standards Access identify the story grammar elements, such as setting or and Instructional (Continued) resolution, but also define setting—where and when the Practices— story takes place; and resolution—how the problem was Kindergarten Through Grade solved. Three d. Instructional materials should provide a range of examples to allow more extensive practice. Second Grade

Advanced 2. Students Who Are Advanced Learners Curricular and Learners Instructional a. Advanced learners who have demonstrated above-grade- Profile level comprehension skills and who have extensive reading experience may be grouped and given higher-level materials and a more sophisticated analysis of story elements. Regard- less of how they are grouped, the teacher should substitute an advanced assignment for the regular lesson. b. Advanced students might develop their own stories, orally or in writing, that compare and contrast a given story provided in class. They might compare and contrast two versions of the same story by different authors. Or they might rewrite a portion of a story to illustrate differences. These students may make connections that vary from the expected, given their ability to think creatively and ab- stractly and to generalize at an age earlier than that of their chronological peers.

English Learners 3. Students Who Are English Learners a. Through carefully designed instruction students should learn the process of identifying elements of stories and comparing and contrasting those elements. For students whose primary language is not English (English learners), a foremost problem can be the vocabulary used in the stories. The concepts and vocabulary may require more extensive development than is necessary for other students. English learners can be helped to develop vocabulary through preteaching; providing vocabulary instruction; modeling the pronunciation of words; scaffolding (e.g., through summary sheets, visuals, realia, and compare and contrast sheets); and encouraging the students to use the vocabulary from the stories in class discussions and writing assignments. These students should learn more than the meaning of words. To accomplish grade-level objectives, they need to know how to use in their writing the words they have learned. To do so, they must learn the grammatical rules governing the use of words. When teaching words, the teacher should make sure to provide students with numerous examples of sentences containing 76

Chapter 3 Universal the words, encourage them to use words in their speech and Content Standards Access and Instructional writing, and provide corrective feedback when appropriate. Practices— (Continued) b. English learners may require more extensive instruction in Kindergarten comparison and contrast. Resources should include explicit Through Grade Three instruction in words and expressions used to compare and contrast (“In comparison with..., X is different from Y because...; both X and Y have a similar setting”). Second Grade c. English learners benefit from extensive exposure to narrative Curricular and models, comparison and contrast analyses, and multiple Instructional Profile opportunities to use story elements to compare and contrast stories. d. The teacher should select some texts that children of diverse cultures can relate to easily. Whenever possible, the texts should be authentic. Simplified texts should be used only with students with weak proficiency in English. Students who use the simplified texts need intensive English- language instruction to enable them to catch up with their peers.

Instructional 1. Instructional materials should contain explicit instruction in Materials strategies for comparing and contrasting stories. Enough selections should be made available at each level of instruction to ensure student mastery of the strategy. 2. Texts should be carefully selected and should contain critical features, including explicitness of the elements, length, familiarity of vocabulary, and readability. 3. Materials should include a range of selections and a corresponding set of assessment tasks to evaluate student performance at each stage of learning. 4. Materials should further include reproducible scaffolds or supports for students, including summary sheets that outline the story grammar elements and grids that use story grammar elements for comparison and contrast. 77

Chapter 3 Content Standards Second Grade and Instructional Practices— Kindergarten Through Grade Three English–Language Arts Content Standards

Reading 1.9 Know the meaning of simple prefixes and suffixes (e.g., over-, un-, - ing, -ly). 1.0 Word Analysis, Fluency, 1.10 Identify simple multiple-meaning and Systematic Vocabulary words. Development Students understand the basic features of 2.0 Reading Comprehension reading. They select letter patterns and know Students read and understand grade-level- how to translate them into spoken language by appropriate material. They draw upon a using phonics, syllabication, and word parts. variety of comprehension strategies as needed They apply this knowledge to achieve fluent (e.g., generating and responding to essential oral and silent reading. questions, making predictions, comparing information from several sources). The Decoding and Word Recognition selections in Recommended Readings in 1.1 Recognize and use knowledge of Literature, Kindergarten Through Grade Eight spelling patterns (e.g., diphthongs, illustrate the quality and complexity of the special vowel spellings) when reading. materials to be read by students. In addition to 1.2 Apply knowledge of basic syllabication their regular school reading, by grade four, rules when reading (e.g., vowel- students read one-half million words annually, consonant-vowel = su/per; vowel- including a good representation of grade-level- consonant/consonant-vowel = sup/per). appropriate narrative and expository text 1.3 Decode two-syllable nonsense words (e.g., classic and contemporary literature, and regular multisyllable words. magazines, newspapers, online information). 1.4 Recognize common abbreviations In grade two, students continue to make (e.g., Jan., Sun., Mr., St.). progress toward this goal. 1.5 Identify and correctly use regular plurals (e.g., -s, -es, -ies) and irregular Structural Features of Informational plurals (e.g., fly/flies, wife/wives). Materials 1.6 Read aloud fluently and accurately and 2.1 Use titles, tables of contents, and with appropriate intonation and chapter headings to locate information expression. in expository text. Vocabulary and Concept Development Comprehension and Analysis of Grade- 1.7 Understand and explain common Level-Appropriate Text antonyms and synonyms. 2.2 State the purpose in reading (i.e., tell 1.8 Use knowledge of individual words in what information is sought). unknown compound words to predict their meaning. 78

Chapter 3 2.3 Use knowledge of the author’s Organization and Focus Content Standards purpose(s) to comprehend informa- and Instructional 1.1 Group related ideas and maintain a Practices— tional text. consistent focus. Kindergarten 2.4 Ask clarifying questions about Through Grade essential textual elements of exposition Penmanship Three (e.g., why, what if, how). 1.2 Create readable documents with legible 2.5 Restate facts and details in the text to handwriting. Second Grade clarify and organize ideas. Research 2.6 Recognize cause-and-effect relation- English–Language 1.3 Understand the purposes of various Arts Content ships in a text. reference materials (e.g., dictionary, Standards 2.7 Interpret information from diagrams, thesaurus, atlas). charts, and graphs. 2.8 Follow two-step written instructions. Evaluation and Revision 1.4 Revise original drafts to improve 3.0. Literary Response and Analysis sequence and provide more descriptive Students read and respond to a wide variety of detail. significant works of children’s literature. They distinguish between the structural features of 2.0 Writing Applications (Genres the text and the literary terms or elements and Their Characteristics) (e.g., theme, plot, setting, characters). The Students write compositions that describe and selections in Recommended Readings in explain familiar objects, events, and experi- Literature, Kindergarten Through Grade Eight ences. Student writing demonstrates a illustrate the quality and complexity of the command of standard American English and materials to be read by students. the drafting, research, and organizational strategies outlined in Writing Standard 1.0. Narrative Analysis of Grade-Level- Appropriate Text Using the writing strategies of grade two 3.1 Compare and contrast plots, settings, outlined in Writing Standard 1.0, students: and characters presented by different 2.1 Write brief narratives based on their authors. experiences: 3.2 Generate alternative endings to plots a. Move through a logical sequence of and identify the reason or reasons for, events. and the impact of, the alternatives. b. Describe the setting, characters, 3.3 Compare and contrast different objects, and events in detail. versions of the same stories that reflect 2.2 Write a friendly letter complete with different cultures. the date, salutation, body, closing, and 3.4 Identify the use of rhythm, rhyme, and signature. alliteration in poetry.

Written and Oral English Writing Language Conventions 1.0 Writing Strategies The standards for written and oral English Students write clear and coherent sentences language conventions have been placed and paragraphs that develop a central idea. between those for writing and for listening and Their writing shows they consider the speaking because these conventions are audience and purpose. Students progress essential to both sets of skills. through the stages of the writing process (e.g., prewriting, drafting, revising, editing successive versions). 79

1.0 Written and Oral English 1.2 Ask for clarification and explanation of Chapter 3 Language Conventions stories and ideas. Content Standards andand InstructionalInstructional Students write and speak with a command of 1.3 Paraphrase information that has been Practices—Practices— standard English conventions appropriate to shared orally by others. Kindergarten 1.4 Give and follow three- and four-step Through Grade this grade level. Three oral directions. Sentence Structure Organization and Delivery of Oral 1.1 Distinguish between complete and Communication Second Grade incomplete sentences. 1.5 Organize presentations to maintain a English–Language 1.2 Recognize and use the correct word Arts Content order in written sentences. clear focus. Standards 1.6 Speak clearly and at an appropriate Grammar pace for the type of communication 1.3 Identify and correctly use various parts (e.g., informal discussion, report to of speech, including nouns and verbs, class). in writing and speaking. 1.7 Recount experiences in a logical Punctuation sequence. 1.8 Retell stories, including characters, 1.4 Use commas in the greeting and closure setting, and plot. of a letter and with dates and items in a 1.9 Report on a topic with supportive facts series. and details. 1.5 Use quotation marks correctly. Capitalization 2.0 Speaking Applications (Genres 1.6 Capitalize all proper nouns, words at and Their Characteristics) the beginning of sentences and Students deliver brief recitations and oral greetings, months and days of the week, presentations about familiar experiences or and titles and initials of people. interests that are organized around a coherent thesis statement. Student speaking demon- Spelling strates a command of standard American 1.7 Spell frequently used, irregular words English and the organizational and delivery correctly (e.g., was, were, says, said, who, strategies outlined in Listening and Speaking what, why). Standard 1.0. 1.8 Spell basic short-vowel, long-vowel, r- controlled, and consonant-blend Using the speaking strategies of grade two patterns correctly. outlined in Listening and Speaking Standard 1.0, students: Listening and Speaking 2.1 Recount experiences or present stories: a. Move through a logical sequence 1.0 Listening and Speaking of events. Strategies b. Describe story elements Students listen critically and respond appropri- (e.g., characters, plot, setting). ately to oral communication. They speak in a 2.2 Report on a topic with facts and details, manner that guides the listener to understand drawing from several sources of important ideas by using proper phrasing, information. pitch, and modulation. Comprehension 1.1 Determine the purpose or purposes of listening (e.g., to obtain information, to solve problems, for enjoyment). 80

Chapter 3 Content Standards and Instructional Third Grade Practices— Kindergarten Through Grade Three Standards and Instruction

he curriculum and instruction analysis, and writing. Students are also offered in the third grade should taught to use context as an independent T enable students to (1) read grade- vocabulary strategy. level fiction and nonfiction materials Instruction in identifying the main independently with literal and inferential idea, prior-knowledge connections, and comprehension; (2) develop a knowledge literal and inferential comprehension of common spelling patterns, roots, and assumes greater prominence, as does affixes; (3) use conventions of spelling and increased variety in the narratives selected conventions of print (e.g., paragraphs, for reading (e.g., fairy tales, fables, text- end-sentence punctuation); (4) clarify new books). Building strategies for writing words, make predictions, and summarize sentences and paragraphs is also empha- reading passages; (5) answer questions that sized. Students learn formal sentence require analysis, synthesis, and evaluation structure, the four basic types of sentences, of grade-level narrative and informational and the use of the sentences in written text; and (6) support answers to questions paragraphs. Finally, students take a big about what they have read by drawing on step forward, learning how to use speaking background knowledge and specific details strategies and applications and how to from the text. deliver prose, poetry, and personal narra- The third grade is often considered the tives and experiences with fluency, last period of formal instruction in intonation, and expression. The strands to decoding for students who still need it, be emphasized at the third-grade level are although they continue to recognize new listed on the following page under the words beyond this grade level. At the end appropriate domains. of this pivotal year, instruction in phonics Each of the strands is addressed is phased out from the formal curriculum separately with the exception of the as a focal point for students who have written and oral English-language conven- learned to decode. Increased and extended tions strand, which is integrated within emphasis is placed on vocabulary acquisi- appropriate sections. tion, comprehension strategies, text 81

The word-recognition substrand in the Chapter 3 Reading Content Standards third grade emphasizes reading harder and and Instructional 1.0 Word Analysis, Fluency, and bigger words (i.e., multisyllabic words) Practices— Systematic Vocabulary Development and reading all words more fluently. Kindergarten 2.0 Reading Comprehension Through Grade Students further their word-analysis and Three 3.0 Literary Response and Analysis fluency skills through instruction centered on orthographically larger and more Writing complex units (e.g., ight, aught, own). Third Grade They may learn to apply the orthographic Standards and 1.0 Writing Strategies Instruction 2.0 Writing Applications (Genres and unit ight first in such simple words as Their Characteristics) (pl)ight, (m)ight, and (sl)ight. When students are successful in reading simpler Written and Oral English- words with ight, word analysis should be Language Conventions extended to more complex words in which ight occurs in different positions (e.g., 1.0 Written and Oral English-Language lightning, overnight, brightness, forthright, Conventions delight, and knight). In the third grade students will also Listening and Speaking need to learn strategies to decode 1.0 Listening and Speaking Strategies multisyllabic words. They can be taught to 2.0 Speaking Applications (Genres and use the structural features of such word Their Characteristics) parts as affixes (e.g., pre-, mis-, -tion) to aid in word recognition. Economy can be achieved by teaching both the word part Reading Word Analysis, Fluency, (e.g., un) and its meaning (not), then and Vocabulary applying the strategy to words that follow Development the rules. In this structural analysis of the word, students are taught to look for the Decoding and Word Recognition affix(es) and then find the root or base Specific decoding instruction in the word. earlier grades and redundancy of exposure Guidelines for reading big or through repeated practice have developed multisyllabic words (Nagy et al. 1992, a stable and reliable strategy for analyzing cited in Cunningham 1998) call for: words. As with earlier instruction in 1. Providing explicit explanations, decoding and word recognition, students including modeling, “think- will need explicit instruction for word alouds,” guided practice, and the families (phonograms). Many of the same gradual transfer of responsibility to principles for selecting and sequencing students instruction in the early grades apply here: 2. Relying on examples more than (1) separating word parts that are highly abstract rules (Begin with familiar similar (e.g., ight and aight); (2) introduc- words. Show “nonexamples.” Use ing word parts that occur with high word parts rather than have frequency over those that occur in only a students search for little words few words; and (3) teaching the word within a word. Examples: depart, parts first and then incorporating the report.) words into sentences and connected text. 82

Chapter 3 3. Teaching what is most useful that a minimum threshold for acceptable Content Standards and Instructional 4. Making clear the limitations of comprehension was an ability to read Practices— structural analysis correctly 90 words per minute. That is, Kindergarten 5. Using extended text in opportuni- students who read 90 or more words per Through Grade Three ties for application minute correctly scored 80 percent or Cunningham provides a model for above on a measure of comprehension. reading big words that combines reading, On average a third grader’s weekly reading Third Grade meaning, and spelling and extends the fluency increases approximately 1.08 Standards and words per minute (Fuchs et al. 1993). As Instruction steps by teaching (1) prefixes that are useful from a meaning standpoint students learn to recognize words auto- (e.g., re-); (2) suffixes that are most useful matically, they should have opportunities (e.g., -ly, -er, -ful); and (3) a few useful to hear and practice reading text aloud, roots (e.g., play, work, agree). Students are emphasizing pacing, intonation, and also taught to spell words that have high expression. Fluency or facility with print utility for meaning, spelling, and decod- frees up cognitive resources for compre- ing. hension. In addition to being taught structural Vocabulary and Concept Development analysis, students should be taught strategies to confirm the fit of the word in In the early grades students learn context. Although contextual analysis has approximately 3,000 new words per year limited usefulness as a single word- if they read one-half million to one recognition strategy, it expands students’ million words of running text per year. capacity for word analysis and recognition Obviously, it is educationally impossible when used to confirm the accuracy of for students to learn even a sizable portion words identified by decoding and struc- of the 3,000 words through direct instruc- tural analysis. Words identified through tional approaches alone. Students in the the decoding of letter sounds or letter third grade further their knowledge of combinations are followed by recognition vocabulary in significant ways, primarily of larger units of words, including onsets through independent reading but also and rimes and common word parts, such through independent vocabulary-learning as prefixes and suffixes. After decoding strategies. In addition to direct instruction and structural analysis have occurred, in synonyms, antonyms, and so on contextual analysis can be used to verify and explicit strategies for teaching the the accuracy and fit of the word in the hierarchical relationship among words sentence. (e.g., living things/animal/mammal/dog), Extended word-analysis skills and students are introduced to two strategies ample opportunities to practice skills in for independent learning of vocabulary. connected text should enable third-grade The first strategy is to learn to use the students to read grade-appropriate text dictionary to understand the meaning of accurately and fluently. A study addressing unknown words—a complex task with target rates found that in third-grade special constraints for third graders. The classrooms students typically read 79 words in the dictionary definition are correct words per minute in the fall and often more difficult than the target word 114 in the spring (Hasbrouck and Tindal itself. Dictionary usage should be taught 1992). Markell and Deno (1997) found explicitly with grade-appropriate dictio- 83 naries that allow students to access and Chapter 3 Reading Reading Content Standards understand the meaning of an unknown Comprehension and Instructional word. Moreover, understanding the Practices— definition of words alone has limited Kindergarten In the third grade emphasis is placed on Through Grade staying power unless the words are used in narrative and expository texts and literal Three context and are encountered frequently. and inferential comprehension. Third- A second independent vocabulary grade students expand comprehension Third Grade strategy introduced in the third grade is skills and strategies by: using context to gain the meaning of an Standards and • Using conventions of informational Instruction unfamiliar word. Context includes the text (e.g., titles, chapter headings, words surrounding the unfamiliar word glossaries) to locate important that provide information to its meaning. information Because not all contexts are created equal, • Using prior knowledge to ask however, initial instruction must be questions, make connections, and designed carefully to enable learners to support answers acquire this important vocabulary strategy. • Recalling major points in text and Students should learn to use context modifying predictions effectively because most word meanings • Recalling main ideas from expository are learned from context. The third-grade text curricular and instructional profile focuses • Demonstrating comprehension by on that strategy. In addition to the identifying answers in the text independent word-learning strategies, the • Extracting information from text third-grade curricula and instruction • Following simple, multiple-step extend the understanding of concepts and instructions vocabulary of the English language through (1) learning and using antonyms A major advancement in comprehen- and synonyms; (2) using individual words sion for the third grade focuses on identi- in compound words to predict the fying and recalling the main idea and meaning; (3) using prefixes and suffixes to supporting details of expository texts. In assist in word meaning; and (4) learning writing there is a related standard (Writ- simple multiple-meaning words. ing Standard 1.1) according to which Two vocabulary emphases initiated in students write paragraphs that include kindergarten should carry through in the topic sentences (i.e., main ideas) and third grade; that is, direct instruction in supporting facts and details. Expository specific concepts and vocabulary essential text is typically more difficult to compre- to understanding text and exposure to a hend than narrative text. The ability to broad and diverse vocabulary through comprehend expository text is essential for listening to and reading stories. Of the achievement in school, especially in the new vocabulary skills introduced in the later elementary grades and in the middle third grade, using prefixes and suffixes to school years. aid in word meaning is one that students Successful instruction in complex will use frequently as they read more comprehension strategies, such as finding complex and challenging text. (See the the main idea, depends largely on the earlier discussion for guidance in teaching design of the information taught. Well- prefixes and suffixes.) designed text enables readers to identify relevant information, including main ideas 84

Chapter 3 and the relations between ideas (fairy tales, legends). They should also Content Standards and Instructional (Seidenberg 1989). In a review of text- begin to examine the commonalities Practices— processing research, Seidenberg (1989) (e.g., plots, characters, settings) in story Kindergarten found that general education students structure, particularly the plots in different Through Grade Three from elementary school through college types of stories and the uniqueness of each demonstrated difficulty in analyzing the story. The structural element of theme is main ideas in textbooks, especially if the added to the story elements to extend the Third Grade main ideas were implied rather than stated schema for the comprehension of stories. Standards and clearly. Students should begin to identify the Instruction For initial instruction in the acquisition speaker and articulate the purpose. of main ideas, the teacher should consider: Particular emphasis should be placed • Beginning with linguistic units on extending the understanding of appropriate to the learner; for character development by studying what example, using pictures and a set of characters say and do. The actions, individual sentences before present- motives, attributes, and feelings of charac- ing paragraph or passage-level text to ters may be abstract concepts for many help students learn the concept of third graders. Just as students need a main idea framework such as basic story grammar to • Using text in which the main idea is aid in the comprehension of the basic explicitly stated and is clear and in elements of stories, they may also need which the ideas follow a logical order prompts or structures to assist in the • Using familiar vocabulary and identification and analysis of character. passages at appropriate readability This framework or map may be a simple levels for learners structure that makes visible and obvious • Using familiar topics the features of characters to which stu- • Using familiar, simple syntactical dents should attend. For example, in the structures and sentence types chart on the following page, the main • Progressing to more complex characters from Charlotte’s Web (White structures in which main ideas are 1952) are identified, and critical character not explicit and passages are longer features are specified. The sections in the chart serve to allow students to trace changes in characters over the course of Reading Literary Response the text. and Analysis As in all well-designed instruction in The third-grade curriculum and comprehension, a carefully designed instruction are focused on (1) broadening sequence of examples should be provided the type of narrative texts students read when students are in the acquisition phase and study (e.g., fairy tales, fables); of learning to extend their understanding (2) distinguishing literary forms (poetry, and facility with character development. prose, fiction, and nonfiction); and The sequence should first be modeled and (3) deepening students’ understanding then guided by the teacher and, finally, of elements in narrative text. practiced by the students. Opportunities In the third grade students read a wide for corrective feedback should also be variety of literature (poems, fiction, provided. nonfiction) and narrative text structures 85

Chapter 3 Character Section Section Section Content Standards and Instructional Charlotte How she feels: Changes: Changes: Practices— How she acts: Changes: Changes: Kindergarten Through Grade How she looks: Changes: Changes: Three

Wilbur How he feels: Changes: Changes: How he acts: Changes: Changes: Third Grade How he looks: Changes: Changes: Standards and Instruction

phones should be introduced a few at a Writing Writing Strategies and time. It is recommended that a single Writing Applications homophone be introduced first. After In the third grade students extend their mastery of that homophone, another may writing strategies by (1) creating a single be presented. Once both homophones are paragraph with a topic sentence and mastered, they may be used in discrimina- supporting details; (2) refining the tion exercises in which meaning and legibility of their writing; (3) learning to context are emphasized. access information from a range of In practice students apply those reference materials (e.g., thesaurus, strategies and conventions as they learn encyclopedia); (4) revising drafts to and extend proficiency in writing narra- improve coherence and progression of tives, descriptions, and personal and ideas; and (5) progressing through the formal correspondence. This strategic stages of the writing process. integration of skills, strategies, and Using these strategies, students con- structures requires (1) explicit instruction tinue to advance skills in written conven- in each of the individual components tions as they learn to use declarative, (e.g., sentence types, writing of para- interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory graphs, use of tense); and (2) systematic sentences. Advanced grammatical conven- connections of components to demon- tions, particularly subject-verb agreement strate the utility of the individual parts and use of the tense, are the focus of third- and communicate to students the big grade instruction, along with continued picture of writing. A common flaw in development in capitalization, punctua- instructional materials is that they often tion, and spelling. fail to make the important connections for As students learn to read words with students. For example, students may learn double consonants, inflected endings, to write declarative sentences but do not y-derivatives (e.g., baby/ies), and so forth, practice them or integrate them into other they are ready to learn to spell the words. writing activities. Similarly, if students Guidelines outlined in the first grade for practice writing sentences with correct spelling instruction are applicable in this punctuation and capitalization but never grade. Homophones (i.e., words that sound apply the skills in larger contexts or for alike but have different spellings and authentic purposes, instruction is frag- meanings: their, there, and they’re) pose mented. The skills are seemingly without particular spelling problems. Homo- purpose. 86

Chapter 3 The goal in writing instruction must, designed instruction. The benefits of Content Standards and Instructional therefore, be to ensure that component earlier teaching should be readily apparent Practices— parts (skills, strategies, structures) are because students already know the Kindergarten (1) identified; (2) carefully sequenced elements of stories, descriptions, and Through Grade Three according to their complexity and use in sequences of events from previous instruc- more advanced writing applications; tion in reading and writing. (3) developed to mastery; and (4) progres- It is typically easier to retell than to Third Grade sively and purposefully connected within create and easier to comprehend than to Standards and and across content standards in the four compose. Therefore, instructional materials Instruction academic areas and then incorporated into and instruction should honor those authentic writing exercises. inherent complexities and ensure that students first have opportunities to listen to and read narratives, descriptives, and Listening and Speaking sequences of events before being asked to Listening and Speaking write and orally present narratives, Strategies; Speaking descriptives, and sequences of events. Applications Instructional design must address further In the third grade emphasis is placed on (1) the length of the information to be listening and speaking strategies and on listened to or spoken; (2) familiarity with speaking applications. Fourteen standards the topic; (3) familiarity with the vocabu- signify the importance of students’ lary; and (4) syntactical complexity of the speaking and listening development, the information. amount and type of information they Initial listening and speaking applica- should comprehend, and the formats and tions should be shorter in length, should be methods they should use to communicate centered on more familiar topics, and their knowledge and ideas. should be less complex syntactically. The connections across the language arts domains (reading, writing, listening, Content and Instructional and speaking) have been stressed in other sections of this framework but bear Connections repeating because they have particular The following activities integrate significance for developing students’ standards across domains, strands, and speaking and listening skills. Just as academic disciplines. Teachers may wish students need structures, maps, or anchors to: to facilitate their understanding of narrative or expository text, they will require 1. Reinforce the connections between the same types of supporting structures decoding, word recognition, when learning what to listen for and what spelling, and writing. Word fami- to speak about. Simplistic as it may seem, lies, multisyllabic words, and students may not know what to include structural units (e.g., prefixes) that when summarizing (e.g., organizing students learn to read should be descriptions or sequencing events). The incorporated into spelling and parallels of the structures students learn in writing instruction and practice. reading and writing apply directly to the 2. Incorporate words or word parts goals of listening and speaking, and those from vocabulary instruction connections require explicit, carefully (e.g., prefixes, synonyms) in 87

systematic opportunities that use context to help learn the meanings Chapter 3 Content Standards those words in sentences. Practice of words you do not know). and Instructional throughout the day and over a 5. Make connections by incorporating Practices— period of time. and reinforcing specific skills and Kindergarten Through Grade 3. Make connections between struc- conventions (e.g., grammar, main Three tures used for comprehension and idea, sentence types) across all composition. Demonstrate how writing assignments and exercises. text structures can be used across 6. Select appropriate content stan- Third Grade domains to enhance recall and dards for science, mathematics, and Standards and Instruction composition. history–social science to address 4. Teach rules that generalize across within language arts instructional reading materials and make explicit time. the connections of their use in a Please see Appendix B for examples of variety of subject areas (e.g., use standards that span domains and strands. 88

Chapter 3 Content Standards and Instructional Third Grade Practices— Kindergarten Through Grade Three Curricular and Instructional Profile

Reading Standard 1.6

DOMAIN STRAND SUBSTRAND STANDARD

Reading 1.0 Word analysis, Vocabulary 1.6 Use sentence and word fluency, and and concept context to find the meaning systematic development of unknown words. vocabulary development

Prerequisite standards. First-Grade Reading Comprehension Standards 2.4, 2.5. Standard 2.4: Use context to resolve ambiguities about word and sentence meanings. Standard 2.5: Confirm predictions about what will happen next in a text by identifying key words.

Curricular and Instructional Decisions

Instructional When given a text (sentence or sentences) with unfamiliar vocabu- Objective lary used in close proximity, students should first decode the word and then use the context to determine the word meaning. Learning words from context involves a range of variables that enhance or impede the success of the strategy, including the student’s previous knowledge about the subject matter, the proximity of other words in the passage that may serve as clues, and the difficulty of the reading selection.

Instructional Successful learning from context depends largely on practice. Design Teachers can teach this strategy through: 1. Systematic selection and sequencing of examples (contexts) 2. Progression of context difficulty from shorter passages (e.g., 40 to 60 words with two or three unfamiliar words) to longer ones (e.g., 80 to 100 words with five or six unfamiliar words) 89

Instructional 3. Explicit instruction and modeling in how to use context to Chapter 3 Design Content Standards learn word meaning and Instructional (Continued) Practices— Contexts for Initial Instruction: Kindergarten Through Grade 1. Unfamiliar words are limited to a manageable number (one Three every two to three sentences). 2. Unfamiliar words are kept within the students’ readability level. Third Grade 3. Contexts focus on a familiar topic. Curricular and Instructional 4. Contexts include a range of examples in which new vocabulary Profile is accessible through surrounding context and a few examples in which a dictionary must be used. 5. Contexts focus on vocabulary of high utility.

Instructional 1. Model the process of using context to learn new word mean- Delivery ings. Think out loud as you model: “I don’t know the meaning of this word. I’ll read the words around it to see if they help me.” Show the conventions used to define new words (e.g., appositives). 2. Model multiple positive and negative examples (i.e., vocabulary for which the context does or does not provide meaning). Show students how to use a dictionary in the latter case. 3. Invite students to suggest which other words or passages provide clues to the meaning of the unfamiliar word. 4. Ask students to suggest synonyms for the unknown word and substitute the synonyms to see whether the meaning of the sentence changes or remains the same. 5. Guide students through the process of using the context to learn new word meanings. Provide corrective feedback.

Assessment 1. Entry-Level Assessment for Instructional Planning. At the entry Entry-Level level assess student knowledge of the strategy to determine Assessment whether students need instruction in the strategy.

Monitoring 2. Monitoring Student Progress Toward the Instructional Objective. Student Determine whether students can use context to understand Progress unfamiliar word meanings. Use a range of examples, including shorter and longer passages as well as simple and complex contexts in which defining information is in close or far proximity to the unfamiliar word.

Post-test 3. Post-test Assessment Toward the Standard. Use post-tests Assessment throughout the year to measure whether students are able to use context to understand unfamiliar word meanings and whether they are retaining the meaning of the unfamiliar words over time. 90

Chapter 3 Content Standards Universal 1. Students with Reading Difficulties or Disabilities and Instructional Access Practices— a. Students with reading difficulties or disabilities must be Kindergarten very firm in prerequisite skills to benefit from context. Through Grade Reading The prerequisite skills include: Three Difficulties or Disabilities • Decoding and word-recognition skills that enable students to read the text with 90 to 95 percent accuracy Third Grade (If students cannot read the grade-level text, identify Curricular and Instructional materials that are appropriate and teach the same Profile strategy.) • Knowledge of words in context that define or explain the unfamiliar word b. Students with reading difficulties or disabilities may need more controlled examples with shorter length, fewer unknown words, and so forth. Advanced 2. Students Who Are Advanced Learners Learners a. Entry-level assessment should be used to determine the necessity of teaching students to determine the meaning of unfamiliar words from context. Advanced learners are often characterized by their extensive vocabulary, making necessary the use of materials beyond their grade level to assess their skills. b. The level and type of instruction needed should be established. Students may progress rapidly to learning word meanings if context is separated from the target vocabulary once the basic strategy is known. c. Students with a high level of proficiency in this skill may benefit from exposure to more sophisticated alternate activities for vocabulary development instead of this instruction.

English Learners 3. Students Who Are English Learners a. For English learners to benefit from context, they must know the grammatical features, idioms, and vocabulary words used to define or explain the unfamiliar word. They should also understand the concepts presented in the text. English learners may need additional prereading activities that explain cultural references and develop their grammatical competence and knowledge of English vocabulary. Entry-level assessment should also be used to determine the appropriateness of texts for English learners. Whenever possible, authentic texts not simplified for English learners should be used. However, simplified texts may be needed if students have difficulty in learning and if initial entry-level 91

Universal assessment shows that students are unable to use context to Chapter 3 Content Standards Access determine word meanings and Instructional (Continued) b. Entry-level assessment should also be used to determine the Practices— appropriateness of this objective. English learners do not Kindergarten Through Grade rely on the strategy of learning the meanings of words from Three context without also learning the necessity of attending to the specific ways in which words are used in writing. Teachers should not assume that English learners will Third Grade acquire the grammatical rules governing the use of words at Curricular and Instructional the same time they are acquiring the meaning of the words. Profile To teach students the rules, teachers need to provide students with explicit instruction, model the words in speech and writing, encourage students to use words in sentences and in longer text, and provide students with corrective feedback on their use of words. c. Curricular materials should provide English learners with additional opportunities to read texts that contain similar vocabulary words and grammatical structures so that students are repeatedly exposed to new words and structures. Some texts should be relevant to the interests and needs of English learners from diverse cultures.

Instructional 1. Texts should contain explicit instruction strategies for identify- Materials ing words from near-proximity contexts and far-proximity contexts. Sufficient examples of each type should be provided to ensure student mastery of the strategy. 2. Texts should be carefully selected and designed according to critical features, including proximity of the defining context, number of unfamiliar word meanings, richness of the context, readability of the text, text length, and syntactical complexity. 3. Measures for conducting assessment at the entry level and throughout the period of instruction must be included in the curricular materials. 92

Chapter 3 Content Standards and Instructional Third Grade Practices— Kindergarten Through Grade Three English–Language Arts Content Standards

Reading 1.8 Use knowledge of prefixes (e.g., un-, re-, pre-, bi-, mis-, dis-) and suffixes 1.0 Word Analysis, Fluency, (e.g., -er, -est, -ful) to determine the and Systematic Vocabulary meaning of words. Development Students understand the basic features of 2.0 Reading Comprehension reading. They select letter patterns and know Students read and understand grade-level- how to translate them into spoken language by appropriate material. They draw upon a using phonics, syllabication, and word parts. variety of comprehension strategies as needed They apply this knowledge to achieve fluent (e.g., generating and responding to essential oral and silent reading. questions, making predictions, comparing Decoding and Word Recognition information from several sources). The 1.1 Know and use complex word families selections in Recommended Readings in when reading (e.g., -ight) to decode Literature, Kindergarten Through Grade Eight unfamiliar words. illustrate the quality and complexity of the 1.2 Decode regular multisyllabic words. materials to be read by students. In addition to 1.3 Read aloud narrative and expository their regular school reading, by grade four, text fluently and accurately and with students read one-half million words annually, appropriate pacing, intonation, and including a good representation of grade-level- expression. appropriate narrative and expository text (e.g., classic and contemporary literature, Vocabulary and Concept Development magazines, newspapers, online information). 1.4 Use knowledge of antonyms, syn- In grade three, students make substantial onyms, homophones, and homographs progress toward this goal. to determine the meanings of words. Structural Features of Informational 1.5 Demonstrate knowledge of levels of Materials specificity among grade-appropriate words and explain the importance of 2.1 Use titles, tables of contents, chapter these relations (e.g., dog/mammal/ headings, glossaries, and indexes to animal/living things). locate information in text. 1.6 Use sentence and word context to find Comprehension and Analysis of Grade- the meaning of unknown words. Level-Appropriate Text 1.7 Use a dictionary to learn the meaning 2.2 Ask questions and support answers by and other features of unknown words. connecting prior knowledge with literal 93

Chapter 3 information found in, and inferred Writing from, the text. Content Standards and Instructional 2.3 Demonstrate comprehension by 1.0 Writing Strategies Practices— identifying answers in the text. Students write clear and coherent sentences Kindergarten 2.4 Recall major points in the text and Through Grade and paragraphs that develop a central idea. Three make and modify predictions about Their writing shows they consider the forthcoming information. audience and purpose. Students progress 2.5 Distinguish the main idea and support- through the stages of the writing process Third Grade ing details in expository text. (e.g., prewriting, drafting, revising, editing English–Language 2.6 Extract appropriate and significant successive versions). Arts Content information from the text, including Standards problems and solutions. Organization and Focus 2.7 Follow simple multiple-step written 1.1 Create a single paragraph: instructions (e.g., how to assemble a a. Develop a topic sentence. product or play a board game). b. Include simple supporting facts and details. 3.0 Literary Response and Analysis Penmanship Students read and respond to a wide variety of significant works of children’s literature. They 1.2 Write legibly in cursive or joined italic, distinguish between the structural features of allowing margins and correct spacing the text and literary terms or elements between letters in a word and words in (e.g., theme, plot, setting, characters). The a sentence. selections in Recommended Readings in Research Literature, Kindergarten Through Grade Eight 1.3 Understand the structure and organiza- illustrate the quality and complexity of the tion of various reference materials materials to be read by students. (e.g., dictionary, thesaurus, atlas, Structural Features of Literature encyclopedia). 3.1 Distinguish common forms of literature Evaluation and Revision (e.g., poetry, drama, fiction, nonfic- 1.4 Revise drafts to improve the coherence tion). and logical progression of ideas by Narrative Analysis of Grade-Level- using an established rubric. Appropriate Text 3.2 Comprehend basic plots of classic fairy 2.0 Writing Applications (Genres tales, myths, folktales, legends, and and Their Characteristics) fables from around the world. Students write compositions that describe and 3.3 Determine what characters are like by explain familiar objects, events, and experi- what they say or do and by how the ences. Student writing demonstrates a author or illustrator portrays them. command of standard American English and 3.4 Determine the underlying theme or the drafting, research, and organizational author’s message in fiction and strategies outlined in Writing Standard 1.0. nonfiction text. Using the writing strategies of grade three 3.5 Recognize the similarities of sounds outlined in Writing Standard 1.0, students: in words and rhythmic patterns (e.g., alliteration, onomatopoeia) in 2.1 Write narratives: a selection. a. Provide a context within which an 3.6 Identify the speaker or narrator in a action takes place. selection. 94

Chapter 3 b. Include well-chosen details to Punctuation Content Standards develop the plot. and Instructional 1.5 Punctuate dates, city and state, and Practices— c. Provide insight into why the selected titles of books correctly. Kindergarten incident is memorable. 1.6 Use commas in dates, locations, and Through Grade Three 2.2 Write descriptions that use concrete addresses and for items in a series. sensory details to present and support Capitalization unified impressions of people, places, Third Grade things, or experiences. 1.7 Capitalize geographical names, English–Language 2.3 Write personal and formal letters, holidays, historical periods, and special Arts Content thank-you notes, and invitations: events correctly. Standards a. Show awareness of the knowledge Spelling and interests of the audience and 1.8 Spell correctly one-syllable words that establish a purpose and context. have blends, contractions, compounds, b. Include the date, proper salutation, orthographic patterns (e.g., qu, body, closing, and signature. consonant doubling, changing the ending of a word from -y to -ies when Written and Oral English forming the plural), and common Language Conventions homophones (e.g., hair-hare). 1.9 Arrange words in alphabetic order. The standards for written and oral English language conventions have been placed between those for writing and for listening Listening and Speaking and speaking because these conventions are 1.0 Listening and Speaking essential to both sets of skills. Strategies 1.0 Written and Oral English Students listen critically and respond appropri- Language Conventions ately to oral communication. They speak in a Students write and speak with a command of manner that guides the listener to understand standard English conventions appropriate to important ideas by using proper phrasing, this grade level. pitch, and modulation. Comprehension Sentence Structure 1.1 Retell, paraphrase, and explain what has 1.1 Understand and be able to use com- been said by a speaker. plete and correct declarative, interroga- 1.2 Connect and relate prior experiences, tive, imperative, and exclamatory insights, and ideas to those of a speaker. sentences in writing and speaking. 1.3 Respond to questions with appropriate Grammar elaboration. 1.4 Identify the musical elements of literary 1.2 Identify subjects and verbs that are in language (e.g., rhymes, repeated agreement and identify and use sounds, instances of onomatopoeia). pronouns, adjectives, compound words, and articles correctly in writing and Organization and Delivery of Oral speaking. Communication 1.3 Identify and use past, present, and 1.5 Organize ideas chronologically or future verb tenses properly in writing around major points of information. and speaking. 1.6 Provide a beginning, a middle, and an 1.4 Identify and use subjects and verbs end, including concrete details that correctly in speaking and writing simple develop a central idea. sentences. 95

1.7 Use clear and specific vocabulary to strates a command of standard American Chapter 3 communicate ideas and establish the English and the organizational and delivery Content Standards and Instructional tone. strategies outlined in Listening and Speaking Practices— 1.8 Clarify and enhance oral presentations Standard 1.0. Kindergarten through the use of appropriate props Through Grade Using the speaking strategies of grade three Three (e.g., objects, pictures, charts). outlined in Listening and Speaking 1.9 Read prose and poetry aloud with Standard 1.0, students: fluency, rhythm, and pace, using Third Grade 2.1 Make brief narrative presentations: appropriate intonation and vocal English–Language patterns to emphasize important a. Provide a context for an incident Arts Content passages of the text being read. that is the subject of the presenta- Standards tion. Analysis and Evaluation of Oral and Media b. Provide insight into why the selected Communications incident is memorable. 1.10 Compare ideas and points of view c. Include well-chosen details to expressed in broadcast and print media. develop character, setting, and plot. 1.11 Distinguish between the speaker’s 2.2 Plan and present dramatic interpreta- opinions and verifiable facts. tions of experiences, stories, poems, or plays with clear diction, pitch, tempo, 2.0 Speaking Applications (Genres and tone. and Their Characteristics) 2.3 Make descriptive presentations that use Students deliver brief recitations and oral concrete sensory details to set forth and presentations about familiar experiences or support unified impressions of people, interests that are organized around a coherent places, things, or experiences. thesis statement. Student speaking demon- 96

Chapter 4 Content Standards Content Standards and Instructional Practices— and Instructional Grades Four 4Through Eight Practices Grades Four Through Eight

The stages of learning to read and reading to learn help establish a further stage that extends through grade eight. That stage is perhaps best characterized as reading and learning for life, during which students begin to grapple with the full and complex range of lifelong language and literacy skills.

he standards for grades four through eight are expansive, T revealing the important and weighty transitions in knowledge and skills expected of all students after the primary grades. The first significant transition for students occurs when they move from the stage popularly referred to as learning to read in kindergarten through grade three to that of reading to learn in grade four (National Center to Improve the Tools of Educators 1997). Emphasis on subject-matter reading begins to exert its full force on all students at this stage as they begin to study history–social science and science. The stages of learning to read and reading to learn help establish a further stage that extends through grade eight. That stage is perhaps best characterized as reading and learning

96 97 for life, during which students begin to phrases and understanding historical Chapter 4 Content Standards grapple with the full and complex range of influences on the meanings of English and Instructional lifelong language and literacy skills. words. Students must also learn to write Practices— For example, students are expected by clear, coherent, and focused essays and Grades Four Through Eight the end of the eighth grade to demonstrate conduct multiple-step information command of the following standards: searches as part of the research process, (1) evaluating the unity, coherence, logic, using the learning resources and technol- internal consistency, and structural pat- ogy in the library media center and the terns of text; (2) achieving an effective classroom. In grades five through eight, balance between researched information students extend their writing applications and original ideas; (3) evaluating the as they compose narrative, expository, credibility of a speaker; (4) presenting persuasive, and descriptive texts of at least detailed evidence, examples, and reasoning 500 to 700 words each. They are expected to support arguments, differentiating to use correct conventions in writing as between facts and opinion; and (5) identi- they express their newly found knowledge fying the sequence of activities needed to and understanding and to exhibit increas- design a system, operate a tool, or explain ing sophistication in sentence structure, the bylaws of an organization. Clearly, the grammar, punctuation, capitalization, expectations reach far beyond the stages of and spelling. learning to read and reading to learn to The strands for grades four through knowing what is important and why. eight are the same as those for kindergar- Students will not be able to grasp those ten through grade three except for a important advanced skills and experiences change of emphasis. The introduction of if they are still struggling to decipher the new emphases, however, does not dimin- alphabetic writing system. Therefore, the ish the importance of some well-estab- important transitions to engagement with lished strands, such as word analysis, more complex informational text in print fluency, and systematic vocabulary and electronic form should not detract development, which continues to be a from the continuing importance of ensur- central strand in grades four through six. ing that all students are competent and This focus recognizes the fundamental fluent readers in grades four through eight. importance to reading comprehension of A priority in the reading domain for skillful and fluent decoding. If students in each of the grades in the four through eight grades four through eight are unable to cluster is ensuring that students are able to comprehend the complexities of narrative read aloud narrative and expository text and expository text, a highly probable source fluently and accurately. To do so, students of the problem is inability to decode words must continue to recognize increasingly accurately and fluently. Therefore, word- complex words accurately and automati- recognition activities and fluency practice cally in grade-level-appropriate narrative for students who continue to struggle with and expository text ranging from classical the alphabetic writing system continue to literature to on-line information. In be critical in this grade span. addition, they must continue to develop A primary focus in grades four through their vocabulary knowledge and skills in eight is having students learn words and more sophisticated ways, such as analyzing concepts. Students study the origins, idioms, analogies, metaphors, and similes derivations, and use of words over time to infer literal and figurative meanings of and in different types of text. Although 98

Chapter 4 extensive independent reading is the classrooms, the community, and the Content Standards and Instructional primary means of increasing vocabulary home as tools and strategies for Practices— knowledge, many children need direct preparing various types of docu- Grades Four instruction in word-learning strategies to ments, reports, and presentations Through Eight develop their vocabularies and enhance • Writing applications in a full range their ability to learn new words while of text structures, including narra- reading. Because vocabulary knowledge is tives, biographies, autobiographies, not acquired genetically or without short stories, responses to literature, extensive and sustained engagement with research reports, persuasive com- print, the classroom environment, instruc- positions, technical documents, tion, and extensive opportunities to read and documents related to career are essential. development Vocabulary knowledge, which typically • Speaking applications that require doubles during grades four through eight, students to deliver well-organized is a direct result of how much a student formal presentations employing reads. The more a student reads, the more traditional rhetorical strategies the vocabulary knowledge increases. For • Literary forms and devices that help example, students who read one-half to define and clarify an author’s million to one million words of running ideas, purpose, tone, point of view, text generally learn approximately 3,000 and intentions Students who new words per year. Voracious readers— Students who have not become fluent have not become those who read five million or more words readers by the end of the third grade can fluent readers by of running text per year—in the middle the end of the and must still be taught to become third grade can school years will obviously learn more successful readers. However, the evidence and must still be than 3,000 new words. The goal by the and message are clear: without systematic taught to become eighth grade is that students indepen- and explicit instruction in the alphabetic successful readers. dently read one million words of running code, little chance exists of their ever text annually (see page 176 in this chap- catching up (Felton and Pepper 1995). ter). Therefore, the process and benefits of Reasons for students failing to learn to independent reading must be instilled and read in the upper elementary school, reinforced from the fourth grade forward middle school, and high school grades if students are to attain that goal. Ours is include the following (Greene 1998): an age in which teachers can encourage • Instructional materials in grades four independent reading through a variety of and above contain too many unfa- strategies. Access to outstanding age- miliar words, making the text appropriate multicultural literature as well unmanageable for struggling readers. as a variety of print and electronic infor- • Text in grades four and above mational materials in school and in public contains complex word types and libraries is important for all students, phonic elements that exceed learners’ particularly for those who do not have current skills. reading material at home. • Word-recognition efforts drain Other standards extended and empha- cognitive resources, leaving little for sized in grades four through eight include: comprehension. • Use of the research process and a • The sentence and text structures variety of learning resources and are complex (e.g., parenthetical technologies in the school library, 99

elements, passive voice), making 3. Design and schedule special instruc- Chapter 4 Content Standards comprehension more difficult. tion to maximize resources. One-on- and Instructional • Teachers of middle school and high one instruction by a qualified Practices— school students have often not been teacher, although desirable, is often Grades Four Through Eight taught how to teach students to read. not affordable. Identify small groups The problems experienced by students of students who are at similar levels in grades four and above who continue to of ability and schedule instruction struggle with the alphabetic code are for those groups. difficult if not impossible to overcome with 4. Schedule a sufficient amount of time the traditional curriculum. What is known for reading instruction and protect about students who do not learn to read that time. Struggling readers in easily is that they need explicit, carefully grades four through eight should designed instruction in the alphabetic code. receive at least two hours of language What differs from the traditional curricu- arts instruction each day. lum is that these students no longer have 5. Monitor student progress and adjust three or four years to learn to read, making the instruction and time allocations the curricular requirements all the more accordingly. important. Some strategic interventions The proficiency of all students in the that must be made to alter the learning fundamental areas of reading, including patterns of students who have not yet word recognition, fluency, academic learned to read are to: language, and comprehension strategies, 1. Adopt a program of documented must be determined. Once students have effectiveness that teaches students the mastered the code, they may need addi- fundamentals of systematic decoding tional assistance in a number of areas. and sequentially extends their abilities Some who have reading difficulties at to read and write more complicated these grade levels may have rudimentary word types and text structures. The skills in word recognition but need early curriculum should include practice in developing fluency. Others research-based components: phone- may be reasonably proficient in word mic awareness, alphabetic under- recognition and fluency but need support standing (e.g., letter-sound corre- to develop the vocabulary and background spondences); phonological recoding information they need to understand (decoding and encoding); reading more advanced expository and narrative accuracy and fluency; vocabulary; and text. Still others may need explicit instruc- comprehension (Greene 1998). The tion in comprehension strategies to help curriculum should progress to more them in their understanding and analysis complex word-recognition skills that of text. Many students need encourage- parallel those described in the ment and structures to read independently English–Language Arts Content outside class so that they can strengthen Standards. all aspects of their reading development. 2. Administer measures of assessment Students with diagnosed needs in word and assign to students the materials recognition and fluency will require the and programs that will enable them most intensive interventions in grades four to read successfully (with 90 to through eight. However, teachers in self- 95 percent accuracy). contained classrooms and content areas 100

Chapter 4 can assist in a number of ways those students’ instructional levels; (2) providing Content Standards and Instructional readers who may not require the most vocabulary and information needed to Practices— intensive interventions but still need to understand literary readings and textbook Grades Four chapters; (3) teaching strategies directly Through Eight improve their reading ability substantially. They can assist those readers by for comprehending different forms of text; (1) scheduling opportunities for practice and (4) organizing opportunities for in developing fluency, providing age- independent reading both in class and at appropriate materials that match the home. 101

Chapter 4 Content Standards Fourth Grade and Instructional Practices— Grades Four Through Eight Standards and Instruction

he fourth-grade content standards Reading collectively represent an impor- T tant transformation for students. 1.0 Word Analysis, Fluency, When students advance from the third and Systematic Vocabulary grade to the fourth grade, they make a Development critical transition from learning to read to 2.0 Reading Comprehension reading to learn in subject-matter content. 3.0 Literary Response and Analysis This changeover requires students to be fluent and automatic readers by the end of Writing the third grade so that they are prepared 1.0 Writing Strategies to read and comprehend complex narra- 2.0 Writing Applications (Genres and tive and expository texts in such content Their Characteristics) areas as history–social science and science. An instructional priority for grades four through six is a continuing focus on Written and Oral English- ensuring that all students are able to read Language Conventions fluently and accurately. In addition, 1.0 Written and Oral English-Language students are beginning a technological Conventions adventure of acquiring a new set of skills, such as basic keyboarding and familiarity Listening and Speaking with computer terminology. The strands to be emphasized at the 1.0 Listening and Speaking Strategies fourth-grade level are listed in the adjacent 2.0 Speaking Applications (Genres and column under the appropriate domain. Their Characteristics) The following sections profile focus areas within each of the strands and identify content and instructional connections that span domains, strands, and standards. 102

Chapter 4 size the use of external context cues at Content Standards Reading Word Analysis, earlier grade levels, emphasis shifts and Instructional Fluency, and Practices— strategically in the fourth grade (and Grades Four Systematic Vocabulary continues through the tenth grade) to the Through Eight Development use of internal, morphological, etymologi- Word Recognition cal, and historical word cues. Knowledge of affixes and roots—their meanings and The continuing focus on decoding Fourth Grade origins—should be limited to the most words fluently and accurately is both Standards and common (and useful) morphological Instruction appropriate and necessary for the fourth components; that is, those immediately grade. Students unable to decode words applicable to the students’ current level of automatically will not be able to compre- vocabulary acquisition. hend grade-appropriate narrative or In addition, the standards at this level expository text. Those who are not reading target synonyms, antonyms, idioms, and at grade level should receive continued words with multiple meanings (the vast systematic and explicit instruction in majority of nontechnical words in En- decoding, with particular attention being glish). Students should be required to use paid to the study of multisyllabic words a dictionary and a thesaurus to determine and unfamiliar technical terminology as related words and concepts. Instruction in well as to systematic practice in reading new conceptual knowledge should include fluency. Every effort should be made to clear examples in addition to verbal ensure that students who are not reading definitions of words. at grade level will: Extensive independent reading is the • Receive intensive decoding instruc- primary means for increasing vocabulary tion. knowledge (Nagy 1998). Students who • Be placed in small homogeneous read more learn more about words and groups for language arts instruction. their meanings. Although direct, explicit • Be given ample opportunities to teaching of word meanings is effective and practice reading in text designed to important, it cannot produce the needed reinforce instruction and written at growth in students’ vocabulary knowledge each student’s level. that should occur in the fourth grade. • Receive an additional period of Students should be given ample opportu- reading instruction. nities to read in school and outside school. • Be offered a research-based reading The teacher should (Baker, Simmons, and curriculum. Kame’enui 1998): • Be systematically monitored in • Specify for students a clear purpose reading progress throughout the for reading. school year. • Establish objectives for each reading • Be held to a high level of reading activity. performance. • Assess students’ independent reading Vocabulary and Concept Development to determine what material they can read. Vocabulary and concept development • Target specific vocabulary words to has broad applications across the domains be learned and clarify why they are of reading, writing, and listening and important. speaking. Although the standards empha- 103

• Hold students accountable for the identify a variable, including a text structure Chapter 4 Content Standards content of what they read and the variable, that looks like it might make a and Instructional unfamiliar but important vocabulary difference in comprehension, we ought to Practices— words they read. adopt a frontal assault strategy when Grades Four Through Eight • Ensure multiple exposure to unfamil- considering its instructional power—teach iar vocabulary words. about it systematically and make certain • Teach students vocabulary-learning students have a chance to practice it. strategies for use during independent (Pearson and Camperell 1985, 339) Fourth Grade reading. Standards and Text Appropriate to Grade Level Instruction The features of reading comprehension Reading Reading in grade-level-appropriate text introduced Comprehension in the fourth grade are extensions of comprehension instruction at earlier Structural Features of Informational grade levels and include, for example: Materials (1) identifying main idea and significant The standards focus primarily on the important details; (2) reading for different structural features of informational (exposi- purposes; (3) making predictions; tory) text. The features of informational (4) distinguishing between fact and discourse emphasized at this level are opinion and cause and effect; (5) compar- fundamental: patterns such as compare and ing and contrasting information on the contrast; central focus or theme; and use of same topic; and (6) reading multiple-step facts, details, and examples. Many of the directions in technical manuals. In the fundamentals are incorporated across other later grades students are required to apply text structures and genres at later grade those skills in more complex tasks and levels. Similarly, narratives that form the contexts (e.g., using information from a focus of literary reading at this level are the variety of consumer, workplace, or public object of writing standards as well. The documents). fundamentals of narratives are also emphasized: elements of plot, character traits and Reading Literary Response motivations, setting, and the interactions and Analysis between the fundamentals. Because some of the text forms will be Students in the fourth grade will new to students in the fourth grade, the continue to learn about fundamental structural features of text should be elements of literature that will allow them introduced systematically (i.e., from easy to appreciate the rich quality and com- text structures to more complex) and plexity of materials they read. The ele- judiciously (i.e., a text structure is taught ments include describing the structural for a substantial amount of time initially to differences between fables, myths, fanta- foster understanding rather than for a day sies, legends, and fairy tales as well as here or there). Once taught, text structures defining and identifying simile, metaphor, should be reviewed cumulatively. hyperbole, and personification in literary We finally seem to be getting the message that works. To ensure that students are not kids learn what they are taught and get to overwhelmed or confused by the introduc- practice. . . . The point is simple: When we tion of the complex range of literary 104

Chapter 4 elements specified in the standards, Such a standard assumes that students are Content Standards and Instructional teachers should concentrate on: able to create multiple-paragraph compo- Practices— • Identifying and introducing the least sitions and use traditional structures Grades Four (e.g., chronological order, cause and effect, Through Eight complex element of literature before the more complex elements similarity and difference) for conveying • Providing ample opportunities for information. It also assumes that students students to understand, study, and can select a focus, organizational structure, Fourth Grade apply the individual elements before and point of view based on purpose, Standards and audience, and format. Fundamental to Instruction testing them on a combination of elements students progressing through the stages of • Ensuring that the literature is not writing as a process is their being able to overly complex for the fourth-grade write clear, coherent sentences and level (e.g., unfamiliar text structure, construct paragraphs that develop a high density of unfamiliar vocabu- central idea, focus on a particular audi- lary, complex syntactical structure) ence, and reveal a clear purpose. Students • Using literature (e.g., fable, myth, plan their writing by creating outlines and legend) that is of manageable length using other organizational techniques. The to allow students to comprehend conventions of written discourse, such as and understand the target element penmanship (i.e., writing fluidly and • Providing explicit and guided legibly in cursive or joined italic), con- instruction during the initial phases tinue to be emphasized. of learning and ensure that students A new substrand is research and are provided with the appropriate technology. Research introduces students instructional supports (e.g., a think to a variety of print and electronic refer- sheet or note sheet for the particular ence materials and other sources of type of text) during initial opportu- information, such as almanacs, newspa- nities for independent reading. pers, and periodicals. Students are also expected to demonstrate basic keyboard- The elements of story grammar ing skills and familiarity with the basics of (e.g., plot, setting, characters, motivation) computer usage (e.g., cursor, software, continue to be a priority. memory, disk drive, hard drive).

Writing Writing Strategies Writing Writing Applications

Although students continue to use all Students are expected to demonstrate a stages of writing (i.e., prewriting, drafting, command of standard English by writing revising, editing, postwriting) at this level, narratives, responses to literature, informa- the standards specifically address revising tion reports, and summaries. In doing so, and editing. (See the discussion on writing they are required to illustrate a range of as a process at the beginning of Chapter skills, such as using concrete sensory 3.) They particularly emphasize the details, supporting judgments, drawing importance of revising and editing for from multiple sources of information, and coherence and progression by adding, framing a central question about an issue deleting, consolidating, and rearranging or situation. text (see the fourth-grade curricular and Teachers should clarify the linkages instructional profile in a later section). between the students’ reading and com- 105 prehending different types of text struc- • Grammar—identifying and using Chapter 4 Content Standards tures and composing the same types of regular and irregular verbs, adverbs, and Instructional texts. During the initial stages of instruc- prepositions, and coordinating Practices— tion for the fourth grade in which students conjunctions in writing and speaking Grades Four Through Eight are learning to write narratives, informa- • Punctuation and capitalization— tion reports, summaries, or responses to using parentheses, commas in direct literature, teachers should concentrate on: quotations, apostrophes in the Fourth Grade • Presenting to students clear, simple, possessive case, underlining, quotation marks, and italics; capitalizing Standards and uncluttered models of narratives, Instruction information reports, summaries, and titles of magazines, newspapers, responses to literature works of art, musical compositions, • Introducing one form of writing at a and the first word in quotations time • Spelling—spelling roots, inflections, • Using prompts, such as a note sheet prefixes, suffixes, and syllable con- (i.e., an outline that students use to structions take notes) when appropriate that Note: The fifth-grade instructional identifies the essential elements of the guidelines for written and oral conventions text structure and allows students to should also apply to the fourth grade. And record the essential elements of a the guidelines for spelling instruction particular writing form (e.g., narra- presented in Chapter 3 for the first grade tive) before they generate a written will be useful in the fourth grade and above example on their own for students who still have considerable • Introducing simpler forms of writing difficulty in spelling correctly. (e.g., narratives) before introducing more complex forms (e.g., responses Listening and Speaking to literature) Listening and Speaking • Presenting a range of examples of a Strategies particular form of writing before introducing a new form In the fourth grade students should • Devoting extensive time and present- continue to listen critically and respond ing multiple opportunities for appropriately to oral communications. The students to develop proficiency with content standards require students to ask each form of writing thoughtful questions, summarize major ideas, use supporting evidence to substanti- ate conclusions, identify how language Written and Oral English- usages reflect regional and cultural differ- Language Conventions ences, and give precise directions and The correct use of mechanics and the instructions. conventions of oral and written discourse During their delivery of oral communi- continues to be emphasized at this level cations, students are expected to present and include: effective introductions and conclusions; use • Sentence structure—using simple traditional structures for conveying infor- and compound sentences and mation; emphasize points that make clear combining short sentences with to listeners or viewers the important ideas appositives, participial phrases, and and concepts; and employ details, anec- prepositional phrases dotes, examples, volume, pitch, phrasing, 106

Chapter 4 pace, modulation, and gestures to explain, strands, and academic disciplines by Content Standards and Instructional clarify, or enhance meaning. Finally, having students: Practices— students are expected to evaluate the role 1. Read narrative and expository text Grades Four of the news media in focusing attention on Through Eight aloud with grade-appropriate events and in forming opinions on issues. fluency and accuracy and with appropriate pacing, intonation, and expression. Fourth Grade Listening and Speaking 2. Use knowledge of root words to Standards and Speaking Applications Instruction determine the meaning of unknown Fourth graders are expected to use words within a passage and provide speaking strategies to make narrative and opportunities for students to use informational presentations. In doing so, the words in written compositions. students should demonstrate their ability 3. Use appropriate strategies when to relate ideas, frame a key question, reading for different purposes provide a context for listeners to imagine (e.g., full comprehension, location an event or experience, provide insight of information, personal enjoy- into why a selection is memorable, and ment) and in a range of contexts. incorporate more than one source of 4. Make connections between the information. They are also expected to main events of the plot, their deliver oral summaries of articles and causes, and the influence of each books and to recite brief poems, solilo- event on future actions. quies, or dramatic dialogues, using clear 5. Answer questions about their diction, tempo, volume, and phrasing. knowledge of the situation and Teachers should emphasize the linkages setting and of a character’s traits between the students’ experiences in and motivations to determine the reading and composing different types of causes of the character’s actions. text structures and making oral presenta- 6. Make connections between the tions from those texts. For example, focus of a composition, its organiza- compositions that students have written tional structure, and its point of can be used to create outlines they will view according to purpose, audi- work from in their oral presentations. Also ence, length, and format. needed will be an ample number of model 7. Create multiple-paragraph compo- presentations in which specific elements sitions. (e.g., volume, pace, gestures) are demon- 8. Complete writing and oral assign- strated. The models should focus on a few ments in the language arts that elements at a time rather than introduce all provide opportunities to attain elements at once. content standards simultaneously in history–social science, science, and Content and Instructional mathematics. Connections Please see Appendix B for examples of standards that span domains and strands. The teacher can help students integrate mastery of standards across domains, 107

Chapter 4 Content Standards Fourth Grade and Instructional Practices— Grades Four Curricular and Through Eight Instructional Profile

Writing Standard 1.10

DOMAIN STRAND SUBSTRAND STANDARD

Writing 1.0 Writing Evaluation 1.10 Edit and revise selected strategies and revision drafts to improve coherence and progression by adding, deleting, consolidating, and rearranging text

Note: Keep in mind the two related objectives in this standard—revising and editing. Students will need explicit instruction in both.

Prerequisite standards. Third-Grade Writing Strategies Standard 1.4: Revise drafts to improve the coherence and logical progression of ideas by using an established rubric. Corequisite standards. Fourth-Grade Writing Strategies Standards 1.1, 1.2, 1.3. Standard 1.1: Select a focus, an organizational structure, and a point of view. Standard 1.2: Create multiple-paragraph compositions. Standard 1.3: Use traditional structures for conveying information.

Curricular and Instructional Decisions

Instructional 1. Introduce a dimension for revision (e.g., adding). No pre- Objectives scribed sequence exists for introducing the dimensions. However, the earlier dimensions should be easier to introduce and are commonly represented in students’ writing. 2. Introduce a second dimension for revision (e.g., deleting) once students are successful with the first. Add other revision components as students develop competence. 3. Integrate new and previously taught revision components through instruction and examples that require students to discriminate and apply all taught components. 108

Chapter 4 Content Standards Instructional Decisions must be made about three critical design features in the and Instructional Design deletion objective: Practices— Grades Four 1. What sequence of instruction will allow students to revise? For Through Eight example, when in the sequence will students identify information that is missing in the composition? 2. What amount of information should students revise? Fourth Grade 3. What strategy will students use to rewrite or edit text on the Curricular and basis of the revision phase? Instructional Profile Objective: Textual Unit Size and Sequence Identifying Text The sequence of writing models is critical. Carefully selected models That Needs allow students first to learn the strategies for revising and then to Revising apply those strategies to their own writing. Initial text models should control the difficulty of the task by beginning with focused revising tasks. Later texts should progress to increasingly complex compositions. Each phase of revising requires multiple models. A possible design sequence for adding follows.

Adding Information to a Text The first models should contain obvious places for addition to and expansion of the text, including statements that require supporting details and development. Adding information may range from providing a specific illustration to support a claim or adding a word or a short phrase to clarify a concept. Example: Josh’s dog Rex was overweight and lazy. He weighed too much and sat around all day. He didn’t get much exercise. He only got excited when it was time to eat. Josh was at school during the day. Dinner was Rex’s favorite time. Dinner was the time he liked the best. At dinner time Rex moved quickly, jumping and hopping and dashing and running around until Josh put the food in his dish. Josh did his homework in the evening.

Providing Strategies for Students This strategy involves reading the model with the students while adding information to the text. The teacher reads the text first. Subsequent readings are done by student volunteers. Then the teacher provides the students with questioning strategies aimed at identifying segments of the text that need development, addition, and expansion. After the students have had enough experience with the text to make appropriate comments, the teacher asks the students to identify the first segment of the text that requires additional information (supporting details). Example: The writer’s topic sentence or claim is the following: “Josh’s dog was overweight and lazy.” The teacher asks, “How can 109

Instructional we provide the reader with proof that Josh’s dog was overweight and Chapter 4 Design Content Standards lazy?” Students add appropriate details that develop the writer’s and Instructional (Continued) claim. The teacher records the students’ suggestions for additions. Practices— They should include appropriate words, phrases, and supporting Grades Four Through Eight details. When the first paragraph is complete, the teacher asks the students

to identify the next idea that requires additional information. The Fourth Grade

teacher asks, “Does Josh ever get excited? If so, how can the writer Curricular and prove it?” The teacher records appropriate additions to this section Instructional of the text. Then the teacher says, “We have two pictures of Rex. Profile What proof do we have that he is overweight and lazy?” The students identify the supporting details. “What proof do we have that he is sometimes active and excited?” The students identify the supporting details, and the teacher records the additions. The teacher asks, “On the basis of the information that we have gathered, what can we conclude about Josh’s dog, Rex?” The teacher records the conclusion. Deletion (Extending the Lesson) Once the students have identified the areas that require additions and have composed and placed the additions, they eliminate information no longer germane to the text. The teacher asks the students, “What information remains in this story that does not fit with the writer’s topic?” The students are then asked to: 1. Eliminate complete sentences or phrases that do not tell more about the topic. 2. Delete individual words that do not tell more about the topic. 3. Rewrite sentences by combining sentences or sentence parts that tell the same thing about the topic and deleting unnecessary words. 4. Proceed from paragraph to paragraph. 5. Edit the revised text to ensure that the written-language conventions (e.g., grammar, capitalization, punctuation, spelling) are correct. The teacher records the deletions. Internalizing and Applying Writing Strategies The teacher asks the students to rewrite the completed composition. When the rewriting is complete, the teacher asks the students to identify the strategies used to revise the original model. They should include the following: • Identifying topic sentences • Providing additional information for each topic identified 110

Chapter 4 Instructional • Drafting an appropriate conclusion Content Standards Design and Instructional • Deleting information not pertinent to the topic Practices— (Continued) Grades Four Next Steps Through Eight The teacher types up the strategies identified by the students, and the students keep the list of strategies in a writing folder. The strategies should also be posted in the classroom in poster form. Fourth Grade Students should have multiple opportunities for teacher-directed Curricular and revision. Progress should proceed from explicit teacher-directed Instructional Profile instruction to guided practice to independent practice.

Objective: When students can edit models provided by the teacher, they are Revising ready to practice revising their own work by systematically applying the Student- the strategies for revision to their own prose. They are asked to: Generated Text 1. Identify topic sentences that need further development. 2. Add clearer words, phrases, and supporting details. 3. Create appropriate paragraphs determined by the topics identified for addition. 4. Delete information that does not fit the composition, using steps for deletion. 5. Edit while using appropriate language conventions.

Instructional 1. Define revising and tell why it is important to know when to Delivery add and delete information in a text. 2. Establish rules for adding and deleting. 3. Present the steps in adding and deleting information to revise text effectively. 4. Model multiple paragraphs containing information that needs to be revised. The text should include vocabulary familiar to the students, and the information to be revised should represent various parts of speech. 5. Encourage students to think out loud as they read the paragraph and (a) locate the sentences that need expansion; (b) locate the sentences or phrases that do not tell more about the topic; and (c) use the proofreader’s deletion mark to eliminate segments that need to be deleted. 6. Repeat the lesson, using appropriate materials. 7. Begin the editing phase once revising and rewriting are complete. Students should edit text to ensure that the written language conventions are correct. 8. Do not underestimate the amount of time and practice needed to develop proficiency in revising and editing. 111

Chapter 4 Assessment 1. Entry-Level Assessment for Instructional Planning. Conduct an Content Standards entry-level assessment of the students’ overall proficiency on the and Instructional Entry-Level Practices— standard. Revise and edit selected drafts to improve coherence and Grades Four Assessment progression by adding, deleting, consolidating, rearranging text, Through Eight and correcting. On the basis of that assessment, identify the dimensions of revision and editing that need to be taught and

the level of instruction necessary. Use the entry-level assessment Fourth Grade

as your guide for instructional planning. With the assessment Curricular and you can identify students who are proficient in revising and Instructional editing and those who need systematic instruction. Profile

Monitoring 2. Monitoring Student Progress Toward the Instructional Objective Student a. The assessment phase is designed to determine students’ Progress progress and mastery of skills that have been taught as well as the retention of those skills. The assessment measures progress toward components (i.e., specific objectives) of the standard rather than the entire standard. b. A series of tasks should be constructed to assess students’ mastery in revising at several levels (paragraph, multiple paragraph, self-composition). Assessment tasks should parallel the objectives and requirements of instruction. The sequence of tasks should progress toward the goal of the instructional unit, beginning with simpler units and requirements and progressing to more complex applications. These measures are administered on the completion of a particular unit of instruction. For example, the paragraph assessment should be made on the completion of revising and editing at the paragraph level. c. On completion of instruction in revising through adding or deleting, a measure is administered to assess progress toward the objective. The integration of addition and deletion is assessed on completion of the specific instruction unit. d. This assessment sequence continues through the remaining components of instruction necessary to achieve the standard.

Post-test 3. Post-test Assessment Toward the Standard. On completion of all Assessment instructional units, assess student performance according to the procedures used to assess entry-level performance. Give students a multiple-paragraph composition to revise and edit. You may also want to have students write their compositions on a standard topic to assess their ability to revise and edit their own writing. During the year systematically assess the students’ retention of editing and revising skills and proficiency in meeting other writing standards. 112

Chapter 4 Content Standards Universal 1. Students with Reading Difficulties or Disabilities and Instructional Access Practices— a. Passages should be appropriate to the instructional reading Grades Four levels of students. If not, students may work with peers or Through Eight Reading Difficulties an aide for assistance with word recognition. In addition, or Disabilities teachers may need to use supplementary examples from the instructional resources designed for universal access. The Fourth Grade examples control more carefully the amount and type of Curricular and information to be added or deleted. At first, exercises might Instructional Profile focus only on missing or redundant information; later, more subtle forms would be introduced, such as colorless descriptions or irrelevant information. b. Expository text may be used that provides information related to grade-level content standards in the other disciplines (history–social science, science, and mathematics).

Advanced 2. Students Who Are Advanced Learners. Use the entry-level Learners assessment to determine whether students are proficient according to the standard or need instruction. If found proficient in the grade-level assessment, consider assessing performance according to the parallel standards for succes- sively higher grades until the appropriate instructional level is determined. Instruction at that level should be provided to ensure that students are challenged. The students’ rates of learning should be subject to ongoing monitoring to ensure that they are progressing at rates commensurate with their abilities. If students are not proficient according to the standard, the teacher may wish to: a. Adjust the pace of instruction because the students may not require the same number of examples or amount of practice as their peers do. b. Introduce more than one revising or editing dimension at a time. c. Use supplementary examples from the instructional materials designed for universal access that increase the complexity of the passages students edit for independent work.

English Learners 3. Students Who Are English Learners a. English learners can learn to add and delete text well without developing knowledge of the rhetorical devices that enable them to write cohesive, coherent text. To help English learners achieve Writing Standard 1.10, provide them with specific, explicit instruction concerning transition phrases (e.g., first, second, third, next, in conclusion) and pronoun reference (e.g., he, she, it, they). Cohesive devices (such as transition phrases and pronouns), which are often used differently in the students’ first languages, are useful in 113

Universal establishing cohesive, coherent texts. Note: Many Asian Chapter 4 Access Content Standards students use full noun phrases to establish cohesion instead and Instructional (Continued) of the pronouns used by native English speakers. Practices— b. English learners benefit greatly from sentence-combining Grades Four Through Eight exercises. They need extensive guidance and practice in using such grammatical structures as relative clauses (e.g., I like the man who lives on the corner); conditional statements (e.g., If I were you, I would not do that); and subordinate clauses Fourth Grade (e.g., She received good grades because she worked hard). Curricular and Instructional c. Because English learners are still developing proficiency in Profile English, care should be taken in organizing peer revision and peer editing. Individual students should receive feedback from the teacher on their writing and any grammatical or other errors they have made. Errors in grammar or other mistakes common to many students in the class should be the subject of additional classroom instruction and practice. d. In an English-language mainstream classroom, it is important to group English learners with students proficient in English. When to do so is impossible, the teacher will need to provide additional models of input for students as well as opportunities to use the models. e. Consider using expository text that provides information related to grade-level content standards in the other disciplines (history–social science, science, and mathematics).

Instructional Instructional materials should carefully sequence the introduction of Materials the dimensions of revising and editing. Focus first on the number of objectives introduced, then on the number and range of examples. Are the examples adequate? Or will you need to invest time creating your own examples? Are assessment passages and examples included? Assessment tasks should be available for each phase of assessment: entry-level assessment for instructional planning, monitoring of progress toward the instructional objective, and post-test assessment toward the standard. 114

Chapter 4 Content Standards and Instructional Fourth Grade Practices— Grades Four Through Eight English–Language Arts Content Standards

Reading 2.0 Reading Comprehension 1.0 Word Analysis, Fluency, Students read and understand grade-level- and Systematic Vocabulary appropriate material. They draw upon a Development variety of comprehension strategies as needed (e.g., generating and responding to essential Students understand the basic features of questions, making predictions, comparing reading. They select letter patterns and know information from several sources). The how to translate them into spoken language by selections in Recommended Readings in using phonics, syllabication, and word parts. Literature, Kindergarten Through Grade Eight They apply this knowledge to achieve fluent illustrate the quality and complexity of the oral and silent reading. materials to be read by students. In addition to Word Recognition their regular school reading, students read one- half million words annually, including a good 1.1 Read narrative and expository text representation of grade-level-appropriate aloud with grade-appropriate fluency narrative and expository text (e.g., classic and and accuracy and with appropriate contemporary literature, magazines, newspa- pacing, intonation, and expression. pers, online information). Vocabulary and Concept Development Structural Features of Informational 1.2 Apply knowledge of word origins, Materials derivations, synonyms, antonyms, and 2.1 Identify structural patterns found in idioms to determine the meaning of informational text (e.g., compare and words and phrases. contrast, cause and effect, sequential or 1.3 Use knowledge of root words to chronological order, proposition and determine the meaning of unknown support) to strengthen comprehension. words within a passage. 1.4 Know common roots and affixes Comprehension and Analysis of derived from Greek and Latin and use Grade-Level-Appropriate Text this knowledge to analyze the meaning 2.2 Use appropriate strategies when reading of complex words (e.g., international). for different purposes (e.g., full 1.5 Use a thesaurus to determine related comprehension, location of informa- words and concepts. tion, personal enjoyment). 1.6 Distinguish and interpret words with 2.3 Make and confirm predictions about multiple meanings. text by using prior knowledge and ideas presented in the text itself, including 115

Chapter 4 illustrations, titles, topic sentences, Writing important words, and foreshadowing Content Standards 1.0 Writing Strategies andand InstructionalInstructional clues. Practices—Practices— 2.4 Evaluate new information and hypoth- Students write clear, coherent sentences and Grades Four eses by testing them against known paragraphs that develop a central idea. Their ThroughThrough EightEight information and ideas. writing shows they consider the audience and 2.5 Compare and contrast information on purpose. Students progress through the stages

the same topic after reading several of the writing process (e.g., prewriting, Fourth Grade

passages or articles. drafting, revising, editing successive versions). English–Language 2.6 Distinguish between cause and effect Arts Content Organization and Focus and between fact and opinion in Standards expository text. 1.1 Select a focus, an organizational 2.7 Follow multiple-step instructions in a structure, and a point of view based basic technical manual (e.g., how to use upon purpose, audience, length, and computer commands or video games). format requirements. 1.2 Create multiple-paragraph composi- 3.0 Literary Response and Analysis tions: a. Provide an introductory paragraph. Students read and respond to a wide variety of significant works of children’s literature. They b. Establish and support a central idea with a topic sentence at or near the distinguish between the structural features of beginning of the first paragraph. the text and the literary terms or elements (e.g., theme, plot, setting, characters). The c. Include supporting paragraphs with simple facts, details, and explana- selections in Recommended Readings in tions. Literature, Kindergarten Through Grade Eight illustrate the quality and complexity of the d. Conclude with a paragraph that summarizes the points. materials to be read by students. e. Use correct indention. Structural Features of Literature 1.3 Use traditional structures for conveying 3.1 Describe the structural differences of information (e.g., chronological order, various imaginative forms of literature, cause and effect, similarity and differ- including fantasies, fables, myths, ence, and posing and answering a legends, and fairy tales. question). Narrative Analysis of Grade-Level- Penmanship Appropriate Text 1.4 Write fluidly and legibly in cursive or 3.2 Identify the main events of the plot, joined italic. their causes, and the influence of each Research and Technology event on future actions. 3.3 Use knowledge of the situation and 1.5 Quote or paraphrase information setting and of a character’s traits and sources, citing them appropriately. motivations to determine the causes for 1.6 Locate information in reference texts that character’s actions. by using organizational features 3.4 Compare and contrast tales from (e.g., prefaces, appendixes). different cultures by tracing the exploits 1.7 Use various reference materials of one character type and develop (e.g., dictionary, thesaurus, card theories to account for similar tales in catalog, encyclopedia, online informa- diverse cultures (e.g., trickster tales). tion) as an aid to writing. 3.5 Define figurative language (e.g., simile, 1.8 Understand the organization of metaphor, hyperbole, personification) almanacs, newspapers, and periodicals and identify its use in literary works. and how to use those print materials. 116

Chapter 4 1.9 Demonstrate basic keyboarding skills Written and Oral English Content Standards and familiarity with computer termi- and Instructional Language Conventions Practices— nology (e.g., cursor, software, memory, Grades Four disk drive, hard drive). The standards for written and oral English Through Eight language conventions have been placed Evaluation and Revision between those for writing and for listening and 1.10 Edit and revise selected drafts to speaking because these conventions are improve coherence and progression by Fourth Grade essential to both sets of skills. adding, deleting, consolidating, and English–Language 1.0 Written and Oral English rearranging text. Arts Content Language Conventions Standards 2.0 Writing Applications (Genres Students write and speak with a command of and Their Characteristics) standard English conventions appropriate to this grade level. Students write compositions that describe and explain familiar objects, events, and experi- Sentence Structure ences. Student writing demonstrates a 1.1 Use simple and compound sentences in command of standard American English and writing and speaking. the drafting, research, and organizational 1.2 Combine short, related sentences with strategies outlined in Writing Standard 1.0. appositives, participial phrases, Using the writing strategies of grade four adjectives, adverbs, and prepositional outlined in Writing Standard 1.0, students: phrases. 2.1 Write narratives: Grammar a. Relate ideas, observations, or 1.3 Identify and use regular and irregular recollections of an event or experi- verbs, adverbs, prepositions, and ence. coordinating conjunctions in writing b. Provide a context to enable the and speaking. reader to imagine the world of the Punctuation event or experience. c. Use concrete sensory details. 1.4 Use parentheses, commas in direct d. Provide insight into why the selected quotations, and apostrophes in the event or experience is memorable. possessive case of nouns and in contractions. 2.2 Write responses to literature: 1.5 Use underlining, quotation marks, or a. Demonstrate an understanding of italics to identify titles of documents. the literary work. b. Support judgments through Capitalization references to both the text and prior 1.6 Capitalize names of magazines, knowledge. newspapers, works of art, musical 2.3 Write information reports: compositions, organizations, and a. Frame a central question about an the first word in quotations when issue or situation. appropriate. b. Include facts and details for focus. Spelling c. Draw from more than one source of 1.7 Spell correctly roots, inflections, information (e.g., speakers, books, suffixes and prefixes, and syllable newspapers, other media sources). constructions. 2.4 Write summaries that contain the main ideas of the reading selection and the most significant details. 117

2.0 Speaking Applications (Genres Chapter 4 Listening and Speaking and Their Characteristics) Content Standards 1.0 Listening and Speaking andand InstructionalInstructional Practices—Practices— Strategies Students deliver brief recitations and oral presentations about familiar experiences or Grades Four ThroughThrough EightEight Students listen critically and respond appropri- interests that are organized around a coherent ately to oral communication. They speak in a thesis statement. Student speaking demon- manner that guides the listener to understand strates a command of standard American important ideas by using proper phrasing, English and the organizational and delivery Fourth Grade pitch, and modulation. strategies outlined in Listening and Speaking English–Language Comprehension Standard 1.0. Arts Content Standards 1.1 Ask thoughtful questions and respond Using the speaking strategies of grade four to relevant questions with appropriate outlined in Listening and Speaking Standard elaboration in oral settings. 1.0, students: 1.2 Summarize major ideas and supporting 2.1 Make narrative presentations: evidence presented in spoken messages a. Relate ideas, observations, or and formal presentations. recollections about an event or 1.3 Identify how language usages experience. (e.g., sayings, expressions) reflect b. Provide a context that enables the regions and cultures. listener to imagine the circumstances 1.4 Give precise directions and instruc- of the event or experience. tions. c. Provide insight into why the selected Organization and Delivery of Oral event or experience is memorable. Communication 2.2 Make informational presentations: 1.5 Present effective introductions and a. Frame a key question. conclusions that guide and inform the b. Include facts and details that help listener’s understanding of important listeners to focus. ideas and evidence. c. Incorporate more than one source of 1.6 Use traditional structures for conveying information (e.g., speakers, books, information (e.g., cause and effect, newspapers, television or radio similarity and difference, and posing reports). and answering a question). 2.3 Deliver oral summaries of articles and 1.7 Emphasize points in ways that help the books that contain the main ideas of listener or viewer to follow important the event or article and the most ideas and concepts. significant details. 1.8 Use details, examples, anecdotes, or 2.4 Recite brief poems (i.e., two or three experiences to explain or clarify stanzas), soliloquies, or dramatic information. dialogues, using clear diction, tempo, 1.9 Use volume, pitch, phrasing, pace, volume, and phrasing. modulation, and gestures appropriately to enhance meaning. Analysis and Evaluation of Oral Media Communication 1.10 Evaluate the role of the media in focusing attention on events and in forming opinions on issues. 118

Chapter 4 Content Standards and Instructional Fifth Grade Practices— Grades Four Through Eight Standards and Instruction

he fifth-grade standards and Reading instruction build on and extend T the foundational and transitional 1.0 Word Analysis, Fluency, skills begun in the fourth grade. The and Systematic Vocabulary instructional priority for both the fourth Development grade and the fifth grade is a continued 2.0 Reading Comprehension focus on ensuring that all students are able (Focus on Informational Materials) to read fluently and accurately and are 3.0 Literary Response and Analysis therefore prepared to read and comprehend complex narrative and expository Writing texts in the content areas. In addition, 1.0 Writing Strategies students in the fifth grade are introduced 2.0 Writing Applications (Genres and to new, advanced forms of evaluation, Their Characteristics) such as expository critique and literary criticism in the reading domain. Written and Oral English- The strands to be emphasized at the Language Conventions fifth-grade level are listed in the adjacent column under the appropriate domains. 1.0 Written and Oral English-Language The following sections profile focus Conventions areas within each of the strands and identify content and instructional connec- Listening and Speaking tions that span domains, strands, and standards. 1.0 Listening and Speaking Strategies 2.0 Speaking Applications (Genres and Their Characteristics) 119

Chapter 4 Reading Word Analysis, Reading Reading Content Standards Comprehension and Instructional Fluency, and Practices— Systematic Vocabulary (Focus on Informational Grades Four Development Materials) Through Eight

Word Recognition The fifth-grade standards focus primarily on the structural features of informational The fifth-grade standards continue to Fifth Grade materials, comprehension and analysis of focus on decoding words fluently and Standards and accurately. Students are required to read grade-level-appropriate text, and expository Instruction aloud narrative and expository text critique. Students are expected to under- fluently and accurately and use appropri- stand how text structures (e.g., formats, ate pacing, intonation, and expression. As graphics, sequences, diagrams, illustrations, in the fourth grade, students who are not charts, maps) make information accessible reading at grade level should receive and usable and analyze text organized continued systematic, explicit instruction in sequential or chronological order. in decoding or comprehension strategies In addition, students should use basic or both. (See the fourth-grade section comprehension strategies, such as (1) dis- earlier in this chapter for a discussion of cerning main ideas and concepts in texts; systematic, explicit instruction in reading.) (2) identifying and assessing evidence that supports ideas; (3) drawing inferences, Vocabulary and Concept Development conclusions, or generalizations about text; The vocabulary and concept develop- and (4) identifying textual evidence and ment standards at this level require prior knowledge to support those infer- students to understand and explain words, ences, conclusions, and generalizations. including using figurative and metaphori- The expository critique, introduced at this cal words in context and abstract roots level, requires students to distinguish facts, and affixes derived from Greek and Latin supported inferences, and opinions in text. to analyze the meaning of complex words. Instruction in reading comprehension in The standards continue to emphasize the the fifth grade should: use of internal, morphological, etymologi- • Use texts in which complex linguistic cal, and historical word cues. In addition, and syntactical features are appropri- students are expected to understand and ate for the fifth-grade level. Similarly, explain frequently used synonyms, the number of unfamiliar vocabulary antonyms, and homographs. words should be carefully controlled Students should continue to engage in to be manageable for students. extensive independent reading as the • Ensure that students have the prereq- primary means of increasing vocabulary uisite knowledge and skills to compre- knowledge (Nagy 1998). Students should hend the text. be given ample opportunities to read. In • Begin with teacher-directed instruc- addition, vocabulary instruction must tion, including modeling and guid- continue to be systematic (see the vocabu- ance, and gradually shift responsibility lary guidelines for the fourth grade). to the student. • Include repeated opportunities for students to answer comprehension questions during the reading of the text. 120

Chapter 4 • Require students to read some of the this extension requires students to be Content Standards and Instructional text aloud, at least initially. proficient in identifying character ele- Practices— • Provide sufficient practice for stu- ments before they are contrasted. Grades Four dents to reach a high level of perfor- Students are also required to evaluate Through Eight mance for one level of text complexity the meaning of archetypal patterns and before introducing the next level. symbols and the author’s use of various techniques (e.g., appeal of characters in a Fifth Grade picture or book, logic and credibility of Standards and Reading Literary Response plots and settings) to influence the Instruction and Analysis readers’ perspectives. As they did in the fourth grade, students in the fifth grade will continue to learn Writing Writing Strategies about the fundamental elements of literature, including identifying and analyzing Organization and Focus the characteristics of poetry, drama, fiction, As students in the fifth grade continue and nonfiction and explaining the appro- to progress through the stages of writing priateness of the literary forms chosen. In as a process, they are required to create addition, the elements of narrative texts are multiple-paragraph narrative and exposi- emphasized. Students are required to tory compositions. To do so, they must (1) identify the main problem or conflict establish and develop a topic or plot, of the plot and explain how it is resolved; describe the setting or details that link one (2) contrast the actions, motives, and paragraph to another, and present an appearances of characters; (3) understand ending or concluding paragraph that and recognize themes in sample works; and summarizes important ideas and details. (4) describe the function and effect of Important instructional considerations common literary devices (e.g., imagery, for the writing process include: metaphor, symbolism). • Ensuring that students understand An effective instructional strategy for the text structure before they begin teaching the elements of narrative text is to to employ that structure in their employ the structure of story grammar, writing which has been described in previous • Using that text structure as a tool for grade-level overviews. The strategy involves organizing a written composition (1) introducing and sequencing the ele- • Demonstrating that writing is ments of narrative text from easy to composed of several different stages: complex; (2) using a note sheet that allows prewriting, drafting, revising, students to record information about each editing, and postwriting story element (e.g., character information, • Providing examples or models of conflict or problem, theme) as they read a writing that make clear the impor- story or text; and (3) using a think-aloud tant features (e.g., main problem, strategy in conjunction with the note sheet conflict, character motives, theme, whereby the teacher summarizes and points imagery) of narrative and expository out how to anticipate elements of story compositions grammar in the text. This strategy can also • Using strategies that make conspicu- be extended and used with contrasting ous for students exactly how to information on character according to identify, comprehend, and record which students locate, record, and contrast the critical features of compositions the motives of two characters. However, on a note sheet (For example, the 121

teacher reads aloud a piece of writing Chapter 4 and explicitly identifies it.) Writing Writing Applications Content Standards (Genres and Their and Instructional • Demonstrating a range of examples Practices— of one particular feature at a time Characteristics) Grades Four Through Eight (e.g., conflict) in one type of text Students are expected to write narra- (e.g., narrative), then introducing tive, expository, persuasive, and descrip- new features (e.g., main problem or tive texts of at least 500 to 700 words for Fifth Grade conflict, plot) each text and continue to demonstrate a Standards and Research and Technology command of standard English. They are Instruction Students must learn to (1) use organiza- also required to write narratives; responses tional features of printed or electronic text to literature; research reports about to locate relevant information; important ideas, issues, or events; and (2) create simple documents, using elec- persuasive letters or compositions. tronic media and employing organizational General instructional guidelines for features (e.g., passwords, entry and pull- teaching the different types of text struc- down menus, word searchers, spell checks); tures include: and (3) use a thesaurus to identify alterna- 1. Providing students with ample tive word choices and meanings. opportunities to compose each text Instruction in the research and technol- structure and receive written, ogy standard of locating relevant informa- systematic, and instructive feed- tion should: back on their writing • Involve a topic that is familiar and 2. Using procedural facilitators such interesting to students. as think sheets or note sheets to • Begin with a clear and unambiguous help structure and organize infor- set of examples of information mation relevant to the topic. 3. Modeling each stage of the writing • Include examples of information process (prewriting, drafting, obviously irrelevant to the topic. revising, editing, postwriting) and • Consist of teacher-directed or guided providing ample opportunities for instruction that reveals to students students to become proficient at the requirements for locating relevant each stage. information. 4. Providing explicit, clear criteria • Progress from examples involving (e.g., use of an editor’s checklist) clearly relevant information to those for students to follow in editing that require more critical discrimina- written compositions tion of relevant and irrelevant information. Written and Oral English- Evaluation and Revision Language Conventions Students are expected to continue to Students are expected to have a com- revise and edit manuscripts to improve the mand of the English-language conven- meaning and focus of writing by adding, tions, including sentence structure, deleting, consolidating, clarifying, grammar, punctuation, capitalization, and rearranging words and sentences, and spelling. The conventions can be concep- making final corrections. (See the instruc- tualized as discrete skills and taught in tional profile of this standard for the fourth strands. Instruction by strand employs an grade.) 122

Chapter 4 incremental and progressive approach to ture, the teacher should include a range of Content Standards and Instructional teaching specific skills and strategies within positive examples and carefully selected Practices— and across a larger domain. For example, a and sequenced negative examples. The Grades Four writing lesson might include separate and negative examples serve to rule out likely Through Eight individual strands of instruction in punc- misinterpretations. tuation, grammar, and sentence structure. When introducing a new type of Each strand is specific to the particular sentence structure, the teacher should Fifth Grade written convention (e.g., conventions for provide adequate practice in writing Standards and grammar and punctuation) and is related sentences before requiring students to use Instruction to the larger domain of writing applica- the new sentence type in writing passages. tions (e.g., persuasive letter or composi- Those assignments should be structured to tion). prompt usage of the new sentence type. In The parts of speech can be confusing to addition, the teacher should provide students if instruction is not clear. Teach- adequate cumulative review to facilitate ing demonstrations should include an understanding and retention as well as adequate number of examples, both exercises requiring the students to revise positive and negative, of a part of speech existing passages by combining sentences that the student is able to identify. For and thereby create a new type of sentence example, students must learn that the structure. Students should be taught not words eat, ate, has eaten, and will eat are all only how to create new sentence types but verbs. Verbs in the present and past tenses when to use them. For example, some can be presented first and followed at a students will need careful instruction to later time by two-word verbs, such as has determine when words, phrases, or clauses eaten, will eat, and is eating. should be joined by and, or, or but. When teaching students to identify the When a new mark of punctuation is parts of speech, the teacher should se- introduced, exercises should be included quence the instruction so that the students that provide adequate practice first in how can learn that many words can serve as to use the new mark and then in when to different parts of speech according to how use it. For example, when students learn the word is used in a sentence. For ex- how to write sentences that begin with a ample, the word running may function as a clause that tells when (e.g., After the sun noun (e.g., Running is fun); as an adjective went down, the mosquitoes became (e.g., The running water in the stream unbearable), some students are likely to moved us along quickly); or as part of a begin using commas even when the clause verb (e.g., We were running). comes at the end of the sentence. Students Cumulative review is particularly need adequate practice to determine when important in teaching the parts of speech. not to use the new punctuation. Once students learn a new part of speech, they should be given exercises in which sentences include examples of the new part Listening and Speaking of speech along with previously introduced Listening and Speaking and taught parts of speech. Review and Strategies practice should be frequent enough to Like fourth-grade students, fifth-grade provide for understanding and retention. students are expected to continue to listen When showing students how to use a critically and respond appropriately to oral particular word or phrase or other struc- communications. However, they are also 123 expected to be more engaged as listeners with similar standards in reading and Chapter 4 Content Standards and speakers by asking questions that seek writing should be developed. Students will and Instructional information already discussed; interpret- require clear examples of each type of Practices— ing a speaker’s verbal and nonverbal presentation and adequate practice and Grades Four Through Eight messages, purposes, and perspectives; and feedback for each of the requirements of making inferences or drawing conclusions the presentations (e.g., establishing a based on an oral report. The standards for situation or plot; showing the listener what the organization and delivery of oral happens, framing questions to direct an Fifth Grade communication are the same as those for investigation, and establishing a controlling Standards and Instruction the fourth grade (i.e., select a focus, idea or topic). organizational structure, and point of view for an oral presentation). Students are also expected to identify, Content and Instructional analyze, and critique persuasive techniques Connections (e.g., promises, dares, flattery, glittering The teacher can help students integrate generalizations) and identify logical mastery of standards across domains, fallacies used in oral presentations and strands, and academic disciplines by having media messages. Finally, they are to take students: an active role in analyzing the media as sources of information, entertainment, 1. Read aloud narrative and expository persuasion, interpretation of events, and text fluently and accurately and transmission of culture. with appropriate pacing, intonation, and expression. 2. Use knowledge of word origins to Listening and Speaking determine the meaning of unknown Speaking Applications words. (Genres and Their 3. Demonstrate how print and Characteristics) electronic text features (e.g., format, Fifth graders are expected to use graphics, sequence, diagrams, speaking strategies to deliver narrative and illustrations, charts, maps) make informative presentations and oral re- information accessible and usable. sponses to literature. Specific skills to be 4. Create multiple-paragraph narrative integrated include establishing a situation compositions, using electronic or plot, showing the listener what hap- media and employing organiza- pens; framing questions to direct an tional features. investigation; establishing a controlling 5. Add, delete, consolidate, clarify, and idea or topic; developing a topic with rearrange words and sentences. simple facts, details, examples, and 6. Use topics and examples for speak- explanations; summarizing significant ing, writing, and editing assign- events and details; articulating an under- ments that relate to grade five standing of several ideas or images; and history–social science and science using examples or textual evidence from content standards. the work to support conclusions. Please see Appendix B for examples of A systematic schedule for introducing, standards that span domains and strands. teaching, and linking speaking strategies 124

Chapter 4 Content Standards and Instructional Fifth Grade Practices— Grades Four Through Eight Curricular and Instructional Profile

Reading Standard 3.2

DOMAIN STRAND SUBSTRAND STANDARD

Reading 3.0 Literacy Narrative analysis 3.2 Identify the main response and of grade-level- problem or conflict analysis appropriate text in the plot and explain how it is resolved.

Corequisite standards. Fifth-Grade Literary Response and Analysis Standard 3.3: Contrast the actions, motives, and appearances of characters in a work of fiction and discuss the importance of the contrasts to the plot or theme. Fifth-Grade Writing Strategies Standard 1.1: Create multiple-paragraph narrative compositions.

Curricular and Instructional Decisions

Instructional Identify the main problem or conflict of the plot, explain how it is Objective resolved, and employ that analysis in written and oral presentations.

Instructional The identification of conflict and resolution in the plots of novels Design and short stories is fundamental for more sophisticated aspects of literary analysis. In addition, those elements of plot are central to quality narrative compositions and oral presentations. Following the suggested sequence for systematic instruction, the teacher might: 1. Begin the sequence with Literary Response and Analysis Standard 3.2, analyzing and evaluating conflict and resolution in narratives. 2. Teach students explicitly, through direct instruction or guided discussion, the basic critical attributes of a good plot: a protagonist with a problem (conflict), an antagonist who 125

Instructional interferes with the protagonist’s attempts to solve the problem, Chapter 4 Design Content Standards some unsuccessful efforts (because of the antagonist’s interfer- and Instructional (Continued) ence) to solve the problem, and a final successful solution Practices— (conflict resolution). Grades Four Through Eight 3. Note that at this level the antagonist should be concrete (e.g., a “bad person”). Students will learn the elements better initially if they do not have to analyze abstract conflicts, such as mental conflict within the protagonist. Fifth Grade 4. Focus as much on unsuccessful attempts to resolve the conflict Curricular and Instructional as on the final resolution. Students should note the ways in Profile which the protagonist learns from the lack of success. 5. Emphasize the importance of a satisfying resolution for readers. One way to do so is through examples of unsatisfying resolu- tions. 6. Have the students apply the basic elements in their own writing once they have mastered them (Writing Strategies Standards 1.1a–c, 2.1a–b). 7. Provide students with an overt strategy for planning their narrative compositions (prewriting). For instance, you might have the students first identify the protagonist and antagonist and the conflict between them, then skip to planning a satisfying resolution, and finally go back to outline unsuccessful attempts to resolve the conflict. This strategy should be implemented flexibly to capture the reiterative process of planning narratives. 8. Require students to develop plots that are promising as they draft a piece of writing. Because drafting is a difficult task at this level, a good plan will help ensure a successful draft. 9. Incorporate other standards into the instruction (e.g., Writing Strategies Standard 1.6). 10. Once students have successfully written and revised a narrative with strong plot elements, have them modify their stories for oral presentation (Speaking Applications Standard 2.1). 11. Compare and contrast the written and oral presentations of the same story. Emphasize, for example, how plot elements are the same for both but that oral presentations allow for rhetorical devices that cannot be used in written documents. Students can show their audience some elements of a story that have to be told in written documents.

Instructional Some standards presented in the earlier grades address the basic Delivery elements of story grammar. Therefore, students should be assessed initially to determine the extent to which they might have already mastered the key elements of plot (see “Assessment” following). 126

Chapter 4 Instructional Assuming that most students will need more instruction or more in- Content Standards Delivery and Instructional depth instruction in the elements of plot, teachers should: (Continued) Practices— 1. Have students examine several short stories to learn the Grades Four Through Eight commonality of plot elements across stories. One or more stories should be weak, especially as to conflict resolution. 2. Walk through a few stories with students, beginning with very strong hints about the plot elements in each but gradually Fifth Grade reducing the hints to ensure that students can recognize the Curricular and Instructional elements on their own. Profile 3. Consider establishing cooperative work groups, especially during the planning phase of writing a narrative. Serving as an audience for one another, the students should tell their story to their peers in their group, working off their plot outline. In that way they are likely to learn whether the plot resolution they have in mind is satisfying before they commit themselves too much to their stories. Cooperative work is most appropriate either before students begin to write or between the drafting and revising stages of the writing process. 4. Present students with a strategy for developing a good plot outline and assist students liberally during the plot-planning phase of writing.

Assessment 1. Entry-Level Assessment for Instructional Planning. The most Entry-Level important pretest information for this standard is the extent to Assessment which students are already familiar with the fundamentals of narrative plots. Students might be asked to work from a good short story to identify the fundamentals present in that story. Monitoring 2. Monitoring Student Progress Toward the Instructional Objective. Student Assessing students’ achieving the objectives of narrative plots Progress will be facilitated greatly if instruction follows well-differentiated steps as outlined previously. Teachers can use the work produced at each step to evaluate whether to spend a little more time on that step or to move forward confidently. Post-test 3. Post-test Assessment Toward the Standard. Usual state- or Assessment district-required formal assessments contribute to part of the picture of student achievement toward standards. In addition, the types of assignments teachers routinely use in determining a major part of student grades serve an important role toward giving a complete picture of achievement. For example, a final written composition in published form should be part of the summative evaluation for students. However, a summative evaluation should assess individual accountability. Writing assignments that students complete on their own meet that requirement better than assignments in which students work cooperatively. 127

Chapter 4 Universal 1. Students with Reading Difficulties or Disabilities Content Standards Access and Instructional a. Some reading selections used to illustrate plot elements can Practices— be taken from below-grade-level discourse. At this stage the Grades Four Reading Through Eight Difficulties most important goal is for students to learn the fundamen- or Disabilities tal elements of plot (rather than demonstrate grade-level reading ability). b. Some lower-performing students might lack the ability to Fifth Grade create a good conflict and resolution on their own. To Curricular and Instructional facilitate the inclusion of such students in the regular Profile curriculum, teachers can provide those students with more prompting. c. Students who do have difficulty in making oral presentations should (1) be allowed to read their presentations; and (2) be given ample opportunities to practice the delivery of their presentations (with constructive feedback) before being required to make a final presentation to the entire group.

Advanced 2. Students Who Are Advanced Learners. Because these students Learners are more likely to have a good command of plot elements, they may be encouraged, after the teacher has determined the extent of their competence, to work with examples in which conflict and resolution are more subtle. Note that high- achieving students may be given opportunities to interact with each other in homogeneous cooperative groups. Advanced learners may also occasionally serve from time to time as mentors in mixed-ability groups. These students may read stories above their grade level that have more sophisticated plots (e.g., stories based upon a psychological conflict within a single character.) Note that creating a good plot can be challenging for any student at any level. (One form of professional writer’s block is the inability to come up with a satisfying plot resolution.) Although advanced learners should be challenged, the teacher should base expectations for achievement on observed performance and information gained from periodic teacher-student conferences regarding the difficulty of the material, the pacing, and the level of student motivation.

English Learners 3. Students Who Are English Learners. In classes with English learners, teachers should consider reading aloud from one or two of the models used to teach fundamental plot elements. The students may experience no difficulty in learning plot elements conceptually but may be limited in their ability to comprehend the written material and express their conceptual 128

Chapter 4 Universal knowledge in writing. To assist English learners in their work, Content Standards Access and Instructional teachers should: (Continued) Practices— a. Simplify the task for English learners by focusing more Grades Four Through Eight attention initially on the plot elements in a narrative composition and less on other aspects of writing. b. Note that although all students have difficulty in focusing on all aspects of written discourse at once, English learners Fifth Grade especially may need additional time to complete tasks and Curricular and Instructional additional practice. Profile c. Teach students how to switch between past and present tenses to develop narrative plots. (“This is a story about a girl who fell in love with a toad.”) d. Provide corrective feedback to students on their compositions to help them with standard English conventions. The feedback needs to be shaped to the specific needs of English learners and should always be presented gently and positively. e. Encourage English learners to practice their English- speaking skills. They should be allowed to practice their oral presentations before presenting them in class and should be allowed to use visual aids as prompts if necessary.

Instructional Instructional materials should supply teachers with instructional Materials strategies, procedural facilitators, and the types of model text described above. Relatively poor models—which are effective instructional tools—are not the types of discourse teachers can locate easily on their own. (However, teachers should consider using some anonymous examples of student writing from previous years.) Publishers should give special care to providing effective tools for teachers to help students with special needs. 129129

ChapterChapter 44 ContentContent StandardsStandards Fifth Grade andand InstructionalInstructional Practices—Practices— GradesGrades FourFour ThroughThrough EightEight English–Language Arts Content Standards

2.0 Reading Comprehension Reading (Focus on Informational 1.0 Word Analysis, Fluency, Materials) and Systematic Vocabulary Development Students read and understand grade-level- appropriate material. They describe and Students use their knowledge of word origins connect the essential ideas, arguments, and and word relationships, as well as historical perspectives of the text by using their knowl- and literary context clues, to determine the edge of text structure, organization, and meaning of specialized vocabulary and to purpose. The selections in Recommended understand the precise meaning of grade-level- Readings in Literature, Kindergarten Through appropriate words. Grade Eight illustrate the quality and complex- Word Recognition ity of the materials to be read by students. In addition, by grade eight, students read one 1.1 Read aloud narrative and expository million words annually on their own, includ- text fluently and accurately and with ing a good representation of grade-level- appropriate pacing, intonation, and appropriate narrative and expository text expression. (e.g., classic and contemporary literature, Vocabulary and Concept Development magazines, newspapers, online information). 1.2 Use word origins to determine the In grade five, students make progress toward meaning of unknown words. this goal. 1.3 Understand and explain frequently used Structural Features of Informational synonyms, antonyms, and homographs. Materials 1.4 Know abstract, derived roots and affixes 2.1 Understand how text features from Greek and Latin and use this (e.g., format, graphics, sequence, knowledge to analyze the meaning of diagrams, illustrations, charts, maps) complex words (e.g., controversial). make information accessible and usable. 1.5 Understand and explain the figurative 2.2 Analyze text that is organized in and metaphorical use of words in sequential or chronological order. context. Comprehension and Analysis of Grade-Level-Appropriate Text 2.3 Discern main ideas and concepts presented in texts, identifying and assessing evidence that supports those ideas. 130

Chapter 4 2.4 Draw inferences, conclusions, or 3.7 Evaluate the author’s use of various Content Standards generalizations about text and support techniques (e.g., appeal of characters in and Instructional Practices— them with textual evidence and prior a picture book, logic and credibility of Grades Four knowledge. plots and settings, use of figurative Through Eight language) to influence readers’ perspec- Expository Critique tives. 2.5 Distinguish facts, supported inferences, and opinions in text. Fifth Grade Writing English–Language 1.0 Writing Strategies Arts Content 3.0 Literary Response and Analysis Standards Students read and respond to historically or Students write clear, coherent, and focused culturally significant works of literature. They essays. The writing exhibits the students’ begin to find ways to clarify the ideas and awareness of the audience and purpose. Essays make connections between literary works. contain formal introductions, supporting The selections in Recommended Readings in evidence, and conclusions. Students progress Literature, Kindergarten Through Grade Eight through the stages of the writing process as illustrate the quality and complexity of the needed. materials to be read by students. Organization and Focus Structural Features of Literature 1.1 Create multiple-paragraph narrative 3.1 Identify and analyze the characteristics compositions: of poetry, drama, fiction, and nonfic- a. Establish and develop a situation or tion and explain the appropriateness of plot. the literary forms chosen by an author b. Describe the setting. for a specific purpose. c. Present an ending. Narrative Analysis of Grade-Level- 1.2 Create multiple-paragraph expository Appropriate Text compositions: 3.2 Identify the main problem or conflict a. Establish a topic, important ideas, or of the plot and explain how it is events in sequence or chronological resolved. order. 3.3 Contrast the actions, motives b. Provide details and transitional (e.g., loyalty, selfishness, conscientious- expressions that link one paragraph ness), and appearances of characters in a to another in a clear line of thought. work of fiction and discuss the impor- c. Offer a concluding paragraph that tance of the contrasts to the plot or summarizes important ideas and theme. details. 3.4 Understand that theme refers to the Research and Technology meaning or moral of a selection and 1.3 Use organizational features of printed recognize themes (whether implied or text (e.g., citations, end notes, biblio- stated directly) in sample works. graphic references) to locate relevant 3.5 Describe the function and effect of information. common literary devices (e.g., imagery, 1.4 Create simple documents by using metaphor, symbolism). electronic media and employing Literary Criticism organizational features (e.g., passwords, 3.6 Evaluate the meaning of archetypal entry and pull-down menus, word patterns and symbols that are found in searches, the thesaurus, spell checks). myth and tradition by using literature 1.5 Use a thesaurus to identify alternative from different eras and cultures. word choices and meanings. 131

Evaluation and Revision b. Support a position with relevant Chapter 4 evidence. Content Standards 1.6 Edit and revise manuscripts to improve and Instructional the meaning and focus of writing by c. Follow a simple organizational Practices— adding, deleting, consolidating, pattern. Grades Four Through Eight clarifying, and rearranging words and d. Address reader concerns. sentences. Written and Oral English 2.0 Writing Applications (Genres Language Conventions Fifth Grade and Their Characteristics) The standards for written and oral English English–Language Arts Content Students write narrative, expository, persua- language conventions have been placed Standards sive, and descriptive texts of at least 500 to between those for writing and for listening 700 words in each genre. Student writing and speaking because these conventions are demonstrates a command of standard Ameri- essential to both sets of skills. can English and the research, organizational, 1.0 Written and Oral English and drafting strategies outlined in Writing Language Conventions Standard 1.0. Students write and speak with a command of Using the writing strategies of grade five standard English conventions appropriate to outlined in Writing Standard 1.0, students: this grade level. 2.1 Write narratives: Sentence Structure a. Establish a plot, point of view, setting, and conflict. 1.1 Identify and correctly use prepositional b. Show, rather than tell, the events of phrases, appositives, and independent the story. and dependent clauses; use transitions and conjunctions to connect ideas. 2.2 Write responses to literature: a. Demonstrate an understanding of a Grammar literary work. 1.2 Identify and correctly use verbs that are a. Support judgments through often misused (e.g., lie/lay, sit/set, rise/ references to the text and to prior raise), modifiers, and pronouns. knowledge. Punctuation c. Develop interpretations that exhibit careful reading and understanding. 1.3 Use a colon to separate hours and minutes and to introduce a list; use 2.3 Write research reports about important quotation marks around the exact ideas, issues, or events by using the words of a speaker and titles of poems, following guidelines: songs, short stories, and so forth. a. Frame questions that direct the investigation. Capitalization b. Establish a controlling idea or topic. 1.4. Use correct capitalization. c. Develop the topic with simple facts, details, examples, and explanations. Spelling 1.5 Spell roots, suffixes, prefixes, contrac- 2.4 Write persuasive letters or compositions: tions, and syllable constructions correctly. a. State a clear position in support of a proposal. 132

Chapter 4 2.0 Speaking Applications (Genres Listening and Speaking Content Standards and Their Characteristics) andand InstructionalInstructional 1.0 Listening and Speaking Practices—Practices— Strategies Students deliver well-organized formal Grades Four presentations employing traditional rhetorical Through Eight Students deliver focused, coherent presenta- strategies (e.g., narration, exposition, persua- tions that convey ideas clearly and relate to the sion, description). Student speaking demon- background and interests of the audience. strates a command of standard American They evaluate the content of oral communica- Fifth Grade English and the organizational and delivery tion. English–Language strategies outlined in Listening and Speaking Arts Content Comprehension Standard 1.0. Standards 1.1 Ask questions that seek information not Using the speaking strategies of grade five already discussed. outlined in Listening and Speaking Standard 1.2 Interpret a speaker’s verbal and 1.0, students: nonverbal messages, purposes, 2.1 Deliver narrative presentations: and perspectives. a. Establish a situation, plot, point of 1.3 Make inferences or draw conclusions view, and setting with descriptive based on an oral report. words and phrases. Organization and Delivery of Oral b. Show, rather than tell, the listener Communication what happens. 1.4 Select a focus, organizational structure, 2.2 Deliver informative presentations about and point of view for an oral presenta- an important idea, issue, or event by tion. the following means: 1.5 Clarify and support spoken ideas with a. Frame questions to direct the evidence and examples. investigation. 1.6 Engage the audience with appropriate b. Establish a controlling idea or topic. verbal cues, facial expressions, and c. Develop the topic with simple facts, gestures. details, examples, and explanations. Analysis and Evaluation of Oral and Media 2.3 Deliver oral responses to literature: Communications a. Summarize significant events and 1.7 Identify, analyze, and critique persua- details. sive techniques (e.g., promises, dares, b. Articulate an understanding of flattery, glittering generalities); identify several ideas or images communi- logical fallacies used in oral presenta- cated by the literary work. tions and media messages. c. Use examples or textual evidence 1.8 Analyze media as sources for informa- from the work to support conclu- tion, entertainment, persuasion, sions. interpretation of events, and transmission of culture. 133

Chapter 4 Content Standards Sixth Grade and Instructional Practices— Grades Four Through Eight Standards and Instruction

n the sixth grade students focus on Reading active engagement with the text. I They are required to analyze, identify, 1.0 Word Analysis, Fluency, define, explain, and critique rather than and Systematic Vocabulary merely understand, describe, use, know, Development and distinguish as they were required to 2.0 Reading Comprehension do in the fifth grade. However, the (Focus on Informational Materials) standards still require students to read 3.0 Literary Response and Analysis aloud narrative and expository text fluently and accurately and with appropri- Writing ate pacing, intonation, and expression. 1.0 Writing Strategies As in the fifth grade, an instructional 2.0 Writing Applications (Genres and priority in the sixth grade is an increased Their Characteristics) focus on advanced forms of evaluation in expository critique and literary criticism and advanced presentations on problems Written and Oral English- and solutions. Language Conventions The strands to be emphasized at the 1.0 Written and Oral English-Language sixth-grade level are listed in the adjacent Conventions column under the appropriate domains. The following sections profile focus Listening and Speaking areas within each of the strands and identify content and instructional 1.0 Listening and Speaking Strategies connections across domains, strands, 2.0 Speaking Applications (Genres and and standards. Their Characteristics) 134

Chapter 4 instructional materials they read. In an Content Standards Reading Word Analysis, effort to increase the likelihood that and Instructional Fluency, and Practices— students will retain vocabulary, words that Grades Four Systematic Vocabulary have been studied previously should be Through Eight Development interspersed in instructional materials Word Recognition and lessons.

Sixth Grade The sixth-grade standards continue to

Standards and focus on decoding words fluently and Reading Reading Comprehension Instruction accurately. Students are required to read (Focus on Informational aloud narrative and expository text Materials) fluently and accurately, with appropriate The sixth-grade standards require pacing, intonation, and expression. As in students to (1) identify the structural the fourth and fifth grades, students not features of the popular media (e.g., news- reading at grade level should receive papers, magazines, on-line information) continued systematic and explicit instruc- and use those features to obtain information in decoding or comprehension tion; and (2) analyze instructional materi- strategies or both. (See the fourth-grade als that use a compare-and-contrast section on reading for a discussion of organizational pattern. In addition, systematic, explicit instruction in reading.) comprehension strategies include Vocabulary and Concept Development (1) connecting and clarifying main ideas The vocabulary and concept develop- and identifying their relationships to other ment standards for the sixth grade shift sources and related topics; (2) clarifying from a focus on word origins and roots the understanding of instructional materi- and affixes derived from Greek and Latin als by creating outlines, logical notes, to a focus on interpreting figurative summaries, or reports; and (3) following language and recognizing meanings of multiple-step instructions for preparing frequently used foreign words with applications (e.g., for a public library card, multiple meanings. In addition, students bank savings account, sports club or are required to understand and explain league membership). Expository critique shades of meaning in related words continues at this level and requires (e.g., softly and quietly). students, for example, to determine the As in the fourth and fifth grades, adequacy and appropriateness of evidence students should continue to engage in for an author’s conclusions and to note extensive independent reading as the instances of unsupported inferences, primary means for increasing vocabulary fallacious reasoning, unreasonable persua- knowledge. They must continue to be sion, and propaganda in instructional given ample opportunities and encourage- materials. ment to read. Vocabulary instruction must The advanced form of expository still be systematic (see the vocabulary critique at this level relies heavily on guidelines for the fourth grade). Instruc- students’ prerequisite skills in identifying tion in word derivation should be a adequate and appropriate evidence and common component of instruction across distinguishing conclusions substantiated the academic year, emphasizing and with ample and appropriate evidence from coordinating vocabulary analysis with those not substantiated. The teacher words students will encounter in the should initially model multiple examples 135 for which the students evaluate the • Explain the effects of common Chapter 4 Content Standards evidence to support conclusions. The literary devices (e.g., symbolism, and Instructional examples should contain evidence clearly imagery, metaphor) in a variety of Practices— appropriate or inappropriate and progress fictional and nonfictional texts. Grades Four Through Eight to evidence more subtle and complex. Students are also required to evaluate the After the teacher’s modeling has been meaning of archetypal patterns and completed, the students can work in pairs symbols and the author’s use of various or cooperative groups to evaluate the Sixth Grade techniques (e.g., appeal of characters in a Standards and validity of conclusions. Independent picture or book, logic and credibility of Instruction practice should be the culminating plots and settings) to influence the readers’ assignment. perspectives. The reading-comprehension strategy Although the element of theme has described previously (see the fifth-grade been an instructional focus for several Reading Comprehension Strand 2.0) may grades, it remains a difficult concept that be extended effectively to the sixth grade requires systematic instruction. Using with more complex narrative and informa- characters’ actions as evidence of a theme, tional texts. for example, will require explicit instruction and prompting initially (directing Reading Literary Response students to read for how the character’s and Analysis actions influence the story). Students will need to learn to document character Literary response and analysis in the actions by reading and analyzing several sixth grade should extend the strategies examples under teacher-guided condi- described in the fifth grade (see story tions. Once students become familiar with grammar strategies) to more complex the requirements of this analysis, they can narrative and informational text that conduct analyses independently. They allows students to: should also work with poetry, determining • Analyze the effect of qualities of how tone or meaning is conveyed through character (e.g., courage or cowardice, word choice, figurative language, sentence ambition or laziness) on plot and structure, line length, punctuation, resolution of conflict. rhythm, repetition, and rhyme. • Analyze the influence of setting on The general instructional guidelines the problem and its resolution. specified for the literary response and • Determine how tone or meaning is analysis strand in the fourth grade are also conveyed in poetry through word appropriate here (see the overview for the choice, figurative language, sentence fourth grade). structure, line length, punctuation, rhythm, repetition, and rhyme. Writing Writing Strategies • Identify the speaker and recognize the difference between first-person Organization and Focus and third-person narration When students advance to the sixth (e.g., autobiography compared with grade, they also advance their writing to biography). (1) selecting forms of writing that best • Identify and analyze features of suits the intended purpose; (2) creating themes conveyed through characters, multiple-paragraph expository composi- actions, and images. 136

Chapter 4 tions; and (3) using a variety of effective • Construct a review schedule that Content Standards and Instructional and coherent organizational patterns, provides students with ample Practices— including comparison and contrast; opportunities to revisit and reinforce Grades Four organization by categories; and arrange- the distinguishing features of each Through Eight ment by spatial order, order of impor- form. tance, or climactic order. Research and Technology Because the requirements of this strand Sixth Grade are complex, sixth-grade students should Research or information problem Standards and solving is an application of all of the Instruction be eased into this complexity of writing forms, purposes, and organizational language arts skills learned to date, patterns. To ensure that all students are especially reading comprehension successful as they advance in more com- (Eisenberg and Berkowitz 1990). Research plex writing, teachers should: is a recursive process in which the learner uses steps to access, evaluate, discard, • Select clear examples or models of select, and use information from multiple the different forms of writing sources. Many models for the research (e.g., autobiographical and persua- process exist. Users must eventually sive writing) so that students are able construct their own mental model of the to distinguish the features of each process as they use it (Loertscher 1998). form. The examples selected to Students prepare formal documents represent each form must not be (e.g., term papers or research reports) in overly complex or subtle or cluttered response to assignments and may also use in purpose or structure. research in formal debates or multimedia • Make explicit the specific purpose presentations. The skills students learn as and intended audience for each of they master standards in this strand relate the different forms of writing. directly to career preparation in a variety Provide ample opportunities for of fields. students to discern the specific Students must learn to use organiza- purpose and intended audience for tional features of electronic text each form before requiring them to (e.g., Internet searches, databases, generate examples of each form of keyword searches, E-mail addresses) to writing on their own. locate relevant information. They must • Use an adequate number of ex- learn to compose documents with appro- amples of each different form of priate formatting (e.g., margins, tabs, writing. The examples should reveal spacing, columns, page orientation), using a modest range of the distinguishing their word-processing skills. features of each form (It is not Teaching students the organizational essential initially to show students features of electronic text for locating the full range of distinguishing information and creating documents is features of each.) potentially a troublesome task for at least • Employ a teaching strategy two reasons. First, the software features (e.g., explicit modeling, think-aloud and requirements of electronic text vary strategy, facilitative questioning greatly—from a library database to Web strategy) that makes conspicuous for sites on the Internet to a word-processing students the distinguishing features document. Second, many features of an of each writing form. electronic text involve functions 137

(e.g., keyword searches using a find in the electronic text (e.g., auto- Chapter 4 Content Standards command) or other features (e.g., e-mail mated library catalog). and Instructional addresses) not technically part of an • Ensuring that students have the Practices— electronic text. The electronic text envi- prerequisite knowledge, skills, and Grades Four Through Eight ronment must be simplified significantly if experience with the computer students are to learn about the organiza- environment to benefit from tional features of electronic text. working tasks specific to the research Teachers should work with library and technology standards Sixth Grade Standards and media teachers to ease students into this Learning to use a word-processing Instruction complex computer-based, electronic text program to compose documents requires environment by: that students understand the basics of • Teaching students about different operating the computer system they will electronic sources available to them be using at school and, it is hoped, at in their classroom, school library, home as well. The instructional guidelines and community libraries or com- for teaching sixth-grade students to puter centers and labs (e.g., CD- compose documents with appropriate ROM encyclopedias and dictionar- formatting by using word-processing skills ies, library databases, other online and principles of design (e.g., margins, databases, newsgroups, web pages) tabs, spacing, columns, page orientation) • Teaching students the names, include, for example, teaching students to: purposes, methods, and limitations • Open existing files, save files, and of different electronic sources create new files in the word-process- (e.g., automated library catalog, ing program they will use most web sites, e-mail) frequently. • Teaching students the methods • Understand the basics of navigation, necessary for using electronic text manipulation, and editing sources, such as navigating within within the word processor, including one source and searching one source use of (1) the control to change the or a database for a specific topic location of the cursor, highlight text, before searching in multiple sources or access menus, commands, and and for multiple topics icons; (2) navigation keys, such as • Providing students ample opportuni- the page up, page down, and arrow ties to explore and learn in one type keys; (3) common commands on the of electronic text, such as the keyboard (e.g., typing control and automated library catalog or elec- the letter S to save a document); and tronic magazine indexing before (4) copy, cut, and paste command introducing another type of elec- functions for text manipulation and tronic text editing. Show students how to • Selecting and establishing access for manipulate, create, and edit docu- all students to one type of electronic ments before teaching them to text (e.g., automated library catalog) format documents. Easier formatting • Creating a clearly defined task with techniques include line and para- specific objectives and outcomes to graph spacing; bold, italics, and ensure that students will gain underlining; and different fonts and appropriate experience from working font sizes. Formatting techniques of 138

Chapter 4 midlevel difficulty include margins, solution). Students must (1) state their Content Standards and Instructional page numbers, tabs, and page breaks. thesis or purpose; (2) explain the situation; Practices— Advanced formatting techniques (3) follow an organizational pattern Grades Four include insertion of tables, embed- appropriate to the type of composition; Through Eight ded objects, borders and shading, and (4) offer persuasive evidence to and automatic bulleted lists. validate arguments and conclusions as • Use the spelling and grammar checks needed. Sixth Grade judiciously and wisely. For example, Instructional guidelines for writing Standards and students should learn not to depend expository compositions include: Instruction solely on the word-processing 1. Introducing and teaching one type functions. Examples of errors that of expository composition at a time would pass a spelling and grammar 2. Selecting clear and appropriate check but would be caught by a examples of each type of expository proofreader should be used to composition, including examples of demonstrate the limits of those students’ writing to use as models functions. 3. Using a think sheet or note sheet to Evaluation and Revision provide an outline for learning the essential structure of each type of Students are expected to continue to expository composition revise their writing to improve the organi- 4. Reading and summarizing the zation and consistency of ideas within and important information in one type between paragraphs. This instruction of expository text (e.g., a social should take place throughout the year as studies text involving a problem students progress from easy text to more and solution) by using a think complex forms of composition. In addi- sheet or note sheet before writing tion, a specific part of a period each day the specific type of expository should be devoted to revising and editing composition written compositions. 5. Establishing a process to provide students with sufficient comments Writing Writing Applications and feedback for their expository (Genres and Their compositions, such as a partner Characteristics) system for editing that uses an editing checklist on selected As in the fifth grade, students in the assignments and teacher comments sixth grade are expected to write narrative, on others expository, persuasive, and descriptive texts (e.g., responses to literature and research reports about important ideas, Written and Oral English- issues, or events) of at least 500 to 700 Language Conventions words in each genre and continue to Students are expected to have a com- demonstrate a command of standard mand of English-language conventions, English. including sentence structure (e.g., simple, A new requirement in the sixth-grade compound, complex, and compound- standards is writing expository composi- complex sentences); grammar (e.g., iden- tions (e.g., description, explanation, tifying and using indefinite pronouns and comparison and contrast, problem and 139 present perfect, past perfect, and future counter arguments to rebut alternative Chapter 4 Content Standards perfect tenses); punctuation (e.g., using positions on a topic) are used in written and Instructional colons, semicolons, and commas correctly and oral discourse. By addressing the Practices— in contexts); capitalization; and spelling. structural elements in writing and listening Grades Four Through Eight to persuasive arguments, the teacher can make instruction effective. Listening and Speaking Listening and Speaking Sixth Grade Strategies Listening and Speaking Standards and Speaking Applications Instruction As in the fourth and fifth grades, (Genres and Their students in the sixth grade listen critically Characteristics) and respond appropriately to oral communications. However, sixth graders are also Sixth-grade students are expected to expected to deliver focused, coherent deliver well-organized formal presentations presentations. They continue to be en- employing traditional rhetorical strategies. gaged as listeners and speakers and Specifically, they are required to deliver (1) relate the speaker’s verbal communica- narrative, informative, and persuasive tion to the nonverbal message; (2) identify presentations as well as oral responses to the tone, mood, and emotion conveyed in literature and presentations on problems the oral communication; and (3) restate and solutions. and execute multiple-step oral instructions Students are expected to demonstrate a and directions. range of speaking skills and strategies that The standards for the organization and include establishing a context, plot, and delivery of oral communication are both point of view; posing relevant questions similar to those for the fourth and fifth sufficiently limited in scope to be compe- grades (e.g., select a focus, an organiza- tently and thoroughly answered; develop- tional structure, and a point of view for ing an interpretation exhibiting careful an oral presentation) and different reading, understanding, and insight; (e.g., emphasize salient points to assist the engaging the listener and fostering accep- listener; support opinions with detailed tance of the proposition or proposal; and evidence; use effective rate, volume, pitch, theorizing on the causes and effects of a and tone; and align nonverbal elements to problem and establishing connections sustain audience interest and attention). between the defined problem and at least Students are also expected to analyze the one solution. use of rhetorical devices (e.g., cadence, repetitive patterns, onomatopoeia) for Content and Instructional intent and effect. Finally, they are to Connections identify persuasive and propaganda techniques used in television programs and The teacher can help students integrate identify false and misleading information. mastery of standards across domains, To identify techniques of persuasion strands, and academic disciplines by having and propaganda, students must learn their students: basic structure through observation of 1. Read aloud narrative and expository models and instruction by the teacher. text fluently and accurately, with The basic elements of persuasive argument appropriate pacing, intonation, and (thesis, support for argument or thesis, expression. 140

Chapter 4 2. Use opportunities for narrative 4. Select a form of writing (e.g., per- Content Standards and Instructional reading to identify and interpret sonal letter, letter to the editor, Practices— figurative language and words with review, poem, narrative, report on a Grades Four multiple meanings. historical figure or scientific phenom- Through Eight 3. Make connections between main enon) and demonstrate how it best ideas and their relationships to suits the intended purpose. other sources and related topics. 5. Use organizational features of elec- Sixth Grade They should be able to demon- tronic text (e.g., bulletin boards, Standards and strate that the connections and databases, keyword searches, e-mail Instruction relationships are found in different addresses) to locate information forms of fiction or expository text, related to history or science standards. such as students’ sixth-grade Please see Appendix B for examples of history–social science or science standards that span domains and strands. instructional materials. 141

Chapter 4 Content Standards Sixth Grade and Instructional Practices— Grades Four Curricular and Through Eight Instructional Profile

Writing Standard 2.3

DOMAIN STRAND SUBSTRAND STANDARD

Writing 2.0 Writing applications 2.3 Write research (genres and their reports. characteristics)

Corequisite standards. Sixth-Grade Writing Strategies Standards 1.2, 1.3, 1.4 1.5, 1.6. Standard 1.2: Create multiple-paragraph expository compositions. Standard 1.3: Use a variety of effective and coherent organizational patterns. Standard 1.4: Use organizational features of electronic text. Standard 1.5: Compare documents with appropriate formatting by using word-processing skills and principles of design. Standard 1.6: Revise writing to improve the organization and consistency of ideas within and between paragraphs.

Curricular and Instructional Decisions

Instructional Write research reports that: Objectives 1. Pose relevant questions and are sufficiently narrow in scope. 2. Offer support from several authoritative sources. 3. Include a bibliography.

Instructional The sixth grade is the first level at which the standards require Design students to read and create informational discourse supported by references. Students are required to do so—at increasing levels of sophistication—in grades seven through twelve, making the instruction they receive in the sixth grade the foundation for much of their language arts work throughout the rest of their school years. The transition to expository writing based on outside sources is often difficult for students. Although sixth-grade students may 142

Chapter 4 Instructional know how to use reference materials (e.g., encyclopedias, online Content Standards Design and Instructional resources), they may not know how to read and take notes from Practices— (Continued) those materials in a way that facilitates writing research reports. Grades Four (If students do not know how to use reference materials, they Through Eight should be given direct instruction so that they can satisfy this important prerequisite. The library media teacher should be a willing partner in this process.) The following guidelines can help Sixth Grade reduce that difficulty and make research writing successful for more Curricular and Instructional students: Profile 1. When reading reference materials, students should: a. Write all bibliographic information for a source on index cards. Make sure that all necessary information is noted. Then number the cards. The information does not have to be put in a particular style at this point. b. Make a separate index card for each important point in the source. Place direct quotations in quotation marks. Write on each card the bibliographic number of the source for the notes. c. Repeat this process for a number of sources. 2. Begin outlining as usual during this prewriting phase. Locate source cards that support each entry in the outline. Create piles of source cards according to the entries. 3. Elaborate on the outline by ordering source cards for each entry and indicating their order on the outline. Cards can now be coded by using a system, such as point I, card 1; point II, card 3; and so on. 4. During this prewriting phase, the students should make decisions about whether their topic is too broad or too narrow. They are likely to find that they do not need some of the sources for some points and need a few more sources for other points. 5. The key to writing a good research report lies in doing extensive preparation as shown. Once the teacher is convinced that the students are well prepared, the students should begin drafting and working reiteratively through the phases of the writing process. 6. Instruction on how to incorporate source material into text should be overt. The students need to know that they may state someone else’s point of view in their own words but must credit the source. 7. Once the students know which sources are to be used in their report, they should go back to their bibliographic cards and order the entries according to a formal style. (See, for example, the guidelines published by the Modern Language Association or the American Psychological Association. Or perhaps the 143

Instructional school has adopted a style to be used.) Bibliographic formats Chapter 4 Design Content Standards may often appear to be senseless to students. The teacher and Instructional (Continued) should instruct the students to use a style book and should Practices— demonstrate some of the major bibliographic formats and the Grades Four Through Eight rationale behind bibliographies. Discuss, for example, the difficulties the students would have in trying to find sources if bibliographic entries were incomplete. 8. Instruction should incorporate other related language arts Sixth Grade Curricular and standards into the instruction on research writing. (Writing Instructional Strategies Standards 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.6; Listening and Speaking Profile Standard 2.2; Reading Standards 2.4, 2.7. The content standards for history–social science, science, and mathematics are rich sources of topics for research reports.)

Instructional Many of the concepts and procedures used in research writing are Delivery new to sixth-grade students. Carefully delivered instruction over a long period of time is the key to teaching the concepts and procedures effectively, ensuring that students will have a strong foundation for coming school years. 1. The guidelines listed previously suggest a great deal more teacher-student interaction than do most traditional approaches to instruction in writing research reports. Teachers and library media teachers should model strategies such as those described and then closely monitor student progress through the application of each strategy, giving feedback and additional assistance when required. 2. A good scaffolding device to help students acquire mastery of research writing is initially to have groups work together in writing a single research report. To do so reduces considerably the need for students to develop a topic, find sources, record information on cards, organize, and create formal bibliographies. If this approach is used, however, students should also write individual research reports after the successful completion of a group report. (Students can still work cooperatively on some aspects of individual reports, such as revising or editing.)

Assessment 1. Entry-Level Assessment for Instructional Planning. Students must know how to find and use reference materials as a Entry-Level prerequisite to meaningful instruction in writing research Assessment reports. Before beginning such instruction, the teacher should work with the library media teacher to develop an assignment for assessing students’ proficiency in using source material. The students are asked to write a report that requires them to find answers to factual questions (e.g., finding three or four 144

Chapter 4 Assessment different sources telling how the American explorer Meriwether Content Standards (Continued) and Instructional Lewis died). Such sources might include an encyclopedia, a book Practices— on Lewis and Clark, an Internet search, and a query to the Lewis Grades Four and Clark Museum in St. Louis. Through Eight Monitoring 2. Monitoring Student Progress Toward the Instructional Objective. Student Adhering to the clear stages of instruction, such as those listed Progress Sixth Grade previously for developing index cards, provides an opportunity

Curricular and to assess incrementally students’ progress toward the research Instructional report standard. The teacher should adjust instruction according Profile to the results of assessment. For instance, if the students have not located and catalogued an adequate number of sources prior to prewriting, instruction should be postponed briefly while the teacher gives further assistance and guidance in using source material. Post-test 3. Post-test Assessment Toward the Standard. A final research report Assessment presented in manuscript form is the best and most direct assessment for this standard. The individually written report, rather than a group report, serves as the summative evaluation tool.

Universal 1. Students with Reading Difficulties or Disabilities. The recom- Access mended accommodation for these students is access to the regular language arts curriculum through careful, systematic Reading instruction in key concepts and strategies, such as those de- Difficulties scribed previously. In addition, these students may require or Disabilities additional teacher or peer support (or both) with difficult procedures, such as developing a well-organized outline and organizing index cards to fit the outline. In addition, topics for students may vary, allowing research on topics that are more familiar.

Advanced 2. Students Who Are Advanced Learners. Instruction can be differen- Learners tiated for these students by: a. Assisting them in their development of higher-level research questions based on key words from taxonomies of thinking skills b. Directing them to more sophisticated and specialized source material (through the library media teacher) c. Encouraging them to incorporate more advanced elements into their reports (such as those found in the standards for higher grade levels) Note: These students require knowledge of the fundamentals of writing research reports, as do other students, and sometimes need assistance in finding closure on a project because of propensity to explore topics in great depth. 145

Universal 3. Students Who Are English Learners. Although all writing Chapter 4 Content Standards Access assignments are likely to be challenging for English learners, and Instructional (Continued) research reports may be especially difficult, given the addi- Practices— tional requirements of reading source materials and catalogu- Grades Four Through Eight English Learners ing the results for planning purposes. Accordingly, the teacher may wish to: a. Direct English learners to source materials written at a level Sixth Grade they can manage. Curricular and b. Use clear, simple instructional language to teach the basic Instructional concepts and procedures of research report writing. During Profile any cooperative learning sessions, care should be taken to distribute English learners among the groups. c. Provide English learners with feedback at every stage of developing their research reports. They need guidance in organizing, finding reference materials, and revising and editing. d. Expose English learners to several models of the types of research reports they are expected to write. e. Provide additional instruction in how to incorporate quotations and citations into their reports appropriately. f. Assess English learners at every stage of the research report. Editing is an important stage that teachers often overlook, partly because of the grammar mistakes they make and partly because it is the last stage in the research report process. Teachers need to make sure that they save time to assess this stage along with the other important stages of the research report.

Instructional Instructional materials should include a liberal quantity of material Materials that teachers can use to teach concepts and procedures for research report writing. For instance, instructional materials should include detailed examples of developing index cards or another systematic approach to creating bibliographies. They should also include detailed guides to resources particularly useful for this standard (such as web sites or references written below grade level for English learners and students who have reading difficulties). 146

Chapter 4 Content Standards and Instructional Sixth Grade Practices— Grades Four Through Eight English–Language Arts Content Standards

Reading 2.0 Reading Comprehension (Focus on Informational 1.0 Word Analysis, Fluency, Materials) and Systematic Vocabulary Development Students read and understand grade-level- appropriate material. They describe and Students use their knowledge of word origins connect the essential ideas, arguments, and and word relationships, as well as historical perspectives of the text by using their knowl- and literary context clues, to determine the edge of text structure, organization, and meaning of specialized vocabulary and to purpose. The selections in Recommended understand the precise meaning of grade-level- Readings in Literature, Kindergarten Through appropriate words. Grade Eight illustrate the quality and complex- Word Recognition ity of the materials to be read by students. In 1.1 Read aloud narrative and expository addition, by grade eight, students read one text fluently and accurately and with million words annually on their own, includ- appropriate pacing, intonation, and ing a good representation of grade-level- expression. appropriate narrative and expository text (e.g., classic and contemporary literature, Vocabulary and Concept Development magazines, newspapers, online information). 1.2 Identify and interpret figurative In grade six, students continue to make language and words with multiple progress toward this goal. meanings. Structural Features of Informational 1.3 Recognize the origins and meanings of Materials frequently used foreign words in English and use these words accurately 2.1 Identify the structural features of in speaking and writing. popular media (e.g., newspapers, 1.4 Monitor expository text for unknown magazines, online information) and use words or words with novel meanings by the features to obtain information. using word, sentence, and paragraph 2.2 Analyze text that uses the compare-and- clues to determine meaning. contrast organizational pattern. 1.5 Understand and explain “shades of Comprehension and Analysis of Grade- meaning” in related words (e.g., softly Level-Appropriate Text and quietly). 2.3 Connect and clarify main ideas by identifying their relationships to other sources and related topics. 147

2.4 Clarify an understanding of texts by person narration (e.g., autobiography Chapter 4 creating outlines, logical notes, compared with biography). Content Standards and Instructional summaries, or reports. 3.6 Identify and analyze features of themes Practices— 2.5 Follow multiple-step instructions for conveyed through characters, actions, Grades Four preparing applications (e.g., for a public and images. Through Eight library card, bank savings account, 3.7 Explain the effects of common literary sports club, league membership). devices (e.g., symbolism, imagery, metaphor) in a variety of fictional and Expository Critique Sixth Grade nonfictional texts. English–Language 2.6 Determine the adequacy and appropri- Literary Criticism Arts Content ateness of the evidence for an author’s Standards conclusions. 3.8 Critique the credibility of characteriza- 2.7 Make reasonable assertions about a text tion and the degree to which a plot is through accurate, supporting citations. contrived or realistic (e.g., compare use 2.8 Note instances of unsupported of fact and fantasy in historical fiction). inferences, fallacious reasoning, persuasion, and propaganda in text. Writing

3.0 Literary Response and Analysis 1.0 Writing Strategies Students read and respond to historically or Students write clear, coherent, and focused culturally significant works of literature that essays. The writing exhibits students’ reflect and enhance their studies of history and awareness of the audience and purpose. Essays social science. They clarify the ideas and contain formal introductions, supporting connect them to other literary works. The evidence, and conclusions. Students progress selections in Recommended Readings in through the stages of the writing process as Literature, Kindergarten Through Grade Eight needed. illustrate the quality and complexity of the Organization and Focus materials to be read by students. 1.1 Choose the form of writing Structural Features of Literature (e.g., personal letter, letter to the editor, 3.1 Identify the forms of fiction and review, poem, report, narrative) that describe the major characteristics of best suits the intended purpose. each form. 1.2 Create multiple-paragraph expository compositions: Narrative Analysis of Grade-Level- a. Engage the interest of the reader and Appropriate Text state a clear purpose. 3.2 Analyze the effect of the qualities of the b. Develop the topic with supporting character (e.g., courage or cowardice, details and precise verbs, nouns, and ambition or laziness) on the plot and adjectives to paint a visual image in the resolution of the conflict. the mind of the reader. 3.3 Analyze the influence of setting on the c. Conclude with a detailed summary problem and its resolution. linked to the purpose of the 3.4 Define how tone or meaning is composition. conveyed in poetry through word 1.3 Use a variety of effective and coherent choice, figurative language, sentence organizational patterns, including structure, line length, punctuation, comparison and contrast; organization rhythm, repetition, and rhyme. by categories; and arrangement by 3.5 Identify the speaker and recognize the spatial order, order of importance, or difference between first- and third- climactic order. 148

Chapter 4 Research and Technology 2.3 Write research reports: Content Standards and Instructional 1.4 Use organizational features of electronic a. Pose relevant questions with a scope Practices— text (e.g., bulletin boards, databases, narrow enough to be thoroughly Grades Four Grades Four keyword searches, e-mail addresses) to covered. Through Eight locate information. b. Support the main idea or ideas with 1.5 Compose documents with appropriate facts, details, examples, and explana- formatting by using word-processing tions from multiple authoritative Sixth Grade skills and principles of design sources (e.g., speakers, periodicals, English–Language (e.g., margins, tabs, spacing, columns, online information searches). Arts Content page orientation). c. Include a bibliography. Standards Evaluation and Revision 2.4 Write responses to literature: a. Develop an interpretation exhibiting 1.6 Revise writing to improve the organiza- careful reading, understanding, and tion and consistency of ideas within insight. and between paragraphs. b. Organize the interpretation around several clear ideas, premises, or 2.0 Writing Applications (Genres images. and Their Characteristics) c. Develop and justify the interpreta- Students write narrative, expository, persua- tion through sustained use of sive, and descriptive texts of at least 500 to examples and textual evidence. 700 words in each genre. Student writing 2.5 Write persuasive compositions: demonstrates a command of standard Ameri- can English and the research, organizational, a. State a clear position on a proposi- and drafting strategies outlined in Writing tion or proposal. Standard 1.0. b. Support the position with organized and relevant evidence. Using the writing strategies of grade six out- c. Anticipate and address reader lined in Writing Standard 1.0, students: concerns and counterarguments. 2.1 Write narratives: a. Establish and develop a plot and Written and Oral English setting and present a point of view Language Conventions that is appropriate to the stories. The standards for written and oral English b. Include sensory details and concrete language conventions have been placed language to develop plot and between those for writing and for listening character. and speaking because these conventions are c. Use a range of narrative devices essential to both sets of skills. (e.g., dialogue, suspense). 2.2 Write expository compositions 1.0 Written and Oral English (e.g., description, explanation, com- Language Conventions parison and contrast, problem and Students write and speak with a command of solution): standard English conventions appropriate to a. State the thesis or purpose. this grade level. b. Explain the situation. Sentence Structure c. Follow an organizational pattern appropriate to the type of composi- 1.1 Use simple, compound, and com- tion. pound-complex sentences; use effective d. Offer persuasive evidence to validate coordination and subordination of arguments and conclusions as ideas to express complete thoughts. needed. 149

Grammar 1.6 Support opinions with detailed Chapter 4 evidence and with visual or media Content Standards 1.2 Identify and properly use indefinite and Instructional pronouns and present perfect, past displays that use appropriate technol- Practices— perfect, and future perfect verb tenses; ogy. Grades Four Through Eight ensure that verbs agree with compound 1.7 Use effective rate, volume, pitch, and subjects. tone and align nonverbal elements to sustain audience interest and attention. Punctuation Analysis and Evaluation of Oral Sixth Grade 1.3 Use colons after the salutation in and Media Communications English–Language business letters, semicolons to connect Arts Content independent clauses, and commas when 1.8 Analyze the use of rhetorical devices Standards linking two clauses with a conjunction (e.g., cadence, repetitive patterns, use of in compound sentences. onomatopoeia) for intent and effect. 1.9 Identify persuasive and propaganda Capitalization techniques used in television and 1.4 Use correct capitalization. identify false and misleading information. Spelling 1.5 Spell frequently misspelled words 2.0 Speaking Applications (Genres correctly (e.g., their, they’re, there). and Their Characteristics) Students deliver well-organized formal Listening and Speaking presentations employing traditional rhetorical 1.0 Listening and Speaking strategies (e.g., narration, exposition, persua- Strategies sion, description). Student speaking demonstrates a command of standard American Students deliver focused, coherent presenta- English and the organizational and delivery tions that convey ideas clearly and relate to the strategies outlined in Listening and Speaking background and interests of the audience. Standard 1.0. They evaluate the content of oral communication. Using the speaking strategies of grade six outlined in Listening and Speaking Comprehension Standard 1.0, students: 1.1 Relate the speaker’s verbal communica- 2.1 Deliver narrative presentations: tion (e.g., word choice, pitch, feeling, a. Establish a context, plot, and point tone) to the nonverbal message of view. (e.g., posture, gesture). b. Include sensory details and concrete 1.2 Identify the tone, mood, and emotion language to develop the plot and conveyed in the oral communication. character. 1.3 Restate and execute multiple-step oral c. Use a range of narrative devices instructions and directions. (e.g., dialogue, tension, or suspense). Organization and Delivery of Oral 2.2 Deliver informative presentations: Communication a. Pose relevant questions sufficiently 1.4 Select a focus, an organizational limited in scope to be completely structure, and a point of view, match- and thoroughly answered. ing the purpose, message, occasion, and b. Develop the topic with facts, details, vocal modulation to the audience. examples, and explanations from 1.5 Emphasize salient points to assist the multiple authoritative sources listener in following the main ideas and (e.g., speakers, periodicals, online concepts. information). 150

Chapter 4 2.3 Deliver oral responses to literature: c. Offer a logical sequence of informa- Content Standards and Instructional a. Develop an interpretation exhibiting tion. Practices— careful reading, understanding, and d. Engage the listener and foster Grades Four insight. acceptance of the proposition or Through Eight b. Organize the selected interpretation proposal. around several clear ideas, premises, 2.5 Deliver presentations on problems and or images. solutions: Sixth Grade c. Develop and justify the selected a. Theorize on the causes and effects of English–Language interpretation through sustained use each problem and establish connec- Arts Content of examples and textual evidence. Standards tions between the defined problem 2.4 Deliver persuasive presentations: and at least one solution. a. Provide a clear statement of the b. Offer persuasive evidence to validate position. the definition of the problem and b. Include relevant evidence. the proposed solutions. 151

Chapter 4 Content Standards Seventh Grade and Instructional Practices— Grades Four Through Eight Standards and Instruction

he content standards for the the requirement to articulate the expressed seventh grade mark a distinctive purposes and characteristics of different T transition from the sixth grade forms of prose, including the short story, and the earlier grades in at least two novel, novella, and essay. important ways. First, the transition from The strands to be emphasized at the learning to read to reading to learn is seventh-grade level are listed below under complete. By the time students enter the the appropriate domains. seventh grade, they should have mastered reading aloud narrative and expository text Reading fluently and accurately, with appropriate pacing, intonation, and expression. For 1.0 Word Analysis, Fluency, students who have not mastered the and Systematic Vocabulary previous standard, intensive and system- Development atic instruction in word recognition is 2.0 Reading Comprehension imperative. To be able to provide such (Focus on Informational Materials) remediation, teachers may need additional 3.0 Literary Response and Analysis training, for many seventh-grade teachers have not been trained to teach develop- Writing mental reading skills. 1.0 Writing Strategies The second reason seventh-grade 2.0 Writing Applications (Genres and standards are distinctive is that they are Their Characteristics) decidedly more sophisticated, subtle, and intricate than those for previous grades. Written and Oral English- For example, students are required to Language Conventions identify and trace the development of an author’s argument, write reports that use 1.0 Written and Oral English-Language the formal research process, deliver Conventions persuasive oral presentations that employ well-articulated evidence, and analyze Listening and Speaking characterization as suggested through a 1.0 Listening and Speaking Strategies character’s thoughts, words, speech 2.0 Speaking Applications (Genres and patterns, and actions. In some cases the Their Characteristics) standards are new and complex, such as 152

Chapter 4 The following sections profile focus Content Standards Reading Reading Comprehension areas within each of the strands and and Instructional (Focus on Informational Practices— identify content and instructional Materials) Grades Four connections across domains, strands, Through Eight and standards. Although teachers have always taught reading-comprehension skills in relation to informational texts, the standards focus Seventh Grade Reading Word Analysis, more attention on this aspect of the Standards and Fluency, and Instruction Systematic Vocabulary language arts curriculum, especially on Development expository rather than narrative reading. In the school setting informational texts Vocabulary and Concept are generally textbooks or reference works Development but can also include magazines, news- At this level the development of papers, online information, instructional vocabulary used in literary works or manuals, consumer workplace and public seventh-grade content areas is emphasized. documents, signs, and selections listed in Students must also identify idioms, Recommended Readings in Literature, analogies, metaphors, and similes in prose Kindergarten Through Grade Eight and poetry and continue to clarify word (California Department of Education meanings through definitions, examples, 1996a). Instructional strategies used to restatements, and contrasts. help students comprehend informational Extensive opportunities to read are materials are often different for literary essential to vocabulary development. A texts. In a departmentalized school, student’s vocabulary typically doubles responsibility for improving the reading between the fourth grade and the eighth comprehension of instructional materials grade as a direct result of how much a should be shared with teachers of all student reads. The more students read, the subjects, particularly teachers of history– more their vocabulary increases. Although social science and science. extensive independent reading is the Strategies for comprehending informa- primary means of increasing vocabulary, tional materials in the seventh grade are a need for teacher-directed vocabulary focused on (1) use and analysis of catego- instruction still exists. New and important ries of informational materials (e.g., con- vocabulary should be taught and reviewed sumer and workplace documents, text- cumulatively and periodically during the books, newspapers, instructional manu- school year. Without cumulative reviews als); and (2) assessment of an author’s and practice in context, vocabulary gains argument. Because both standards involve are likely to be temporary. Teachers a cluster of challenging skills, systematic should also provide students with oppor- instruction and ample practice are re- tunities to work with word derivations quired to become proficient. Instructional from Greek, Latin, and Anglo-Saxon roots guidelines for evaluating an author’s and affixes in reading assignments. argument include: • Selecting and using, during initial instruction, examples of an author’s arguments that are not complex and 153

sophisticated but simple and the narrator’s description; and the Chapter 4 Content Standards straightforward thoughts, words, and actions of and Instructional • Providing students with a procedural other characters. Practices— facilitator, such as a think sheet that • Identify and analyze recurring Grades Four Through Eight maps for students the basic structure themes across works (e.g., the value of an argument (e.g., the main of bravery, loyalty, and friendship; problem, the author’s position, the effects of loneliness). statements in support of the author’s • Contrast points of view (e.g., first Seventh Grade position, statements against the and third person, limited and Standards and Instruction author’s position) and allows them omniscient, subjective and objective) to record and map the author’s in narrative text and explain how argument they affect the overall theme of the • Scheduling ample opportunities work. throughout the year for students to The level of sophistication required by read increasingly more complex the standards calls for instruction that is arguments both deep and diligent and allows students • Providing systematic feedback to ample opportunity to scrutinize a particu- students on their analysis and lar work. Selection of literary works is evaluation of an author’s arguments important. Teachers should select works • Integrating the evaluation of an that are appropriate to the age and reading author’s arguments in reading- level of the students and are varied in comprehension activities with culture and themes. In addition, the works writing activities in which students must also lend themselves to exploring develop their own arguments about with the students how events advance the a particular topic of interest plot; how each event explains past or present actions or foreshadows future Reading Literary Response actions; and how a character’s thoughts, and Analysis words, speech patterns, and actions reveal characterization. Once the literary features The increased sophistication and and devices that are part of a particular intricacy of the standards are readily work become clear, the teacher may apparent in the literary response and introduce other more complex and varied analysis strand. For example, students are literary works in which such features and required to: devices are used. • Articulate the express purposes and Grade-level literary selections of various characteristics of different forms of genres and lengths representing a variety prose (e.g., short story, novel, of authors and cultures can be found in novella, essay). district-adopted anthologies. Recom- • Identify events that advance the plot mended Readings in Literature, Kinder- and determine how each event garten Through Grade Eight (California explains past or present actions or Department of Education 1996a) provides foreshadows future actions. extensive lists of such selections. • Analyze characterization as delin- Extensive independent reading, which eated through a character’s thoughts, in the seventh grade increasingly takes words, speech patterns, and actions; place outside the classroom, is an impor- 154

Chapter 4 tant element of the language arts curricu- Content Standards Writing Writing Strategies and Instructional lum. The standards require that by the Practices— end of middle school, students will have Seventh-grade students are expected to Grades Four read one million words annually on their Through Eight continue to develop strategies for organiz- own, including a good representation of ing and giving focus to their writing. narrative (classic and contemporary Increased emphasis is given to documenta- literature) and expository (magazines, tion of support (e.g., support for all Seventh Grade newspapers, online) instructional materi- statements and claims through the use of Standards and als. One million words translate to about Instruction anecdotes, descriptions, facts and statistics, 15 to 20 minutes of reading per day. specific examples) and the extension of Instructional formats and strategies strategies (e.g., note taking, outlining, used for outside reading have much in summarizing). common with those used in teaching core Students are expected to write research literature works but differ significantly. reports. They should be instructed in all Student choice is a more important phases of the research process, from element in outside reading and may result identifying topics to preparing bibliogra- in less-diverse selections because young phies, and should be expected to locate readers typically choose to focus on a relevant information in electronic as well single author, topic, or genre for a period as printed texts. Further, they should be of time. Their reading should not be able to produce documents with a word- limited to works of fiction or nonfiction processing program and organize informa- but should include magazines, especially tion gathered in the research process. those in areas of special interest to the (The guidelines for writing in the sixth students, newspapers, and online sources. grade are applicable in the seventh grade A variety of methods are available to assess as well.) reading done outside the classroom, including student-maintained reading logs and book reports in various formats. Writing Writing Applications According to the standard, the instruction (Genres and Their should be focused on the reading itself Characteristics) rather than on the final report on reading. Writing in the seventh grade focuses Independent reading significantly less on narrative writing (writing to tell a improves a student’s reading comprehen- story) and more on multiparagraph sion and vocabulary and increases famil- expository compositions. Specifically, iarity with models of good writing and students are expected to write texts of conventions of writing and spelling. It also between 500 and 700 words (two or three serves an important affective purpose; that typed, double-spaced pages) in these is, to develop a lifelong appreciation for categories: interpretations of literature, reading for pleasure and information. research reports, persuasive compositions, Recent research indicates that the volume and summaries. of reading also affects general cognitive development. 155

Chapter 4 Written and Oral English- Listening and Speaking Content Standards Language Conventions Listening and Speaking and Instructional Practices— Strategies Grades Four Seventh-grade students are expected to Through Eight have a general command of English- Listening Strategies language conventions when they speak Although listening and speaking are and write. Curriculum emphases at this frequently paired, they represent decidedly Seventh Grade grade level include sentence structure different skills. An accomplished speaker Standards and (e.g., proper placement of modifiers and may be a poor listener and vice versa. In Instruction use of the active voice); grammar the classroom, listening instruction is (e.g., proper use of infinitives and parti- often concerned as much with behavior ciples, clear pronouns and antecedents); management (“Eyes up front, please”) as punctuation (e.g., correct use of hyphens, with systematic skills in comprehending dashes, brackets, and semicolons); and and evaluating oral information. The spelling (e.g., applying the spelling of standards define specific listening skills to bases and affixes to derivatives). be taught in seventh grade. For example, Although most of the standards are also students are expected to ask appropriate included at earlier grade levels, many questions designed to elicit needed students in the seventh grade have not yet information and discern the speaker’s mastered the standards and will require point of view. As for electronic journal- continued support and guidance in the ism, students are expected to be able to form of remedial instruction that should: recognize techniques used to affect the • Involve teacher direction and viewer. guidance, with clear examples being offered in simplified contexts Speaking Strategies (e.g., use of pronouns with clear Language arts teachers have tradition- referents in abbreviated passages) ally provided a variety of speaking oppor- before students are required to tunities in informal settings (e.g., small- work in more complex contexts group discussions, cooperative learning (e.g., multiple paragraphs with activities) and more formal settings multiple pronouns and referents). (e.g., individual or group presentations • Provide extensive opportunities to to the class). In many cases, however, receive instruction and feedback instruction in speaking has been less from teachers or peers throughout structured and less detailed and has the year and as a frequent small part occupied less class time than instruction of lessons or class periods. in reading and writing. The standards • Emphasize the accurate use of provide a detailed outline for an appropri- conventions in student writing and ate instructional program in speaking. speaking. Seventh-grade students are expected to • Hold students to a high level of employ traditional rhetorical strategies to performance because the conven- deliver well-organized formal narrative, tions are fundamental to proficient research, and persuasive presentations as performance on other standards well as oral summaries of articles and (e.g., writing strategies, writing books. The standards identify for teachers applications). the speaking skills and strategies that 156

Chapter 4 accompany each type of oral presentation. Content Standards Content and Instructional and Instructional For example, students are expected to Practices— describe complex major and minor charac- Connections Grades Four ters in a narrative presentation. Students Through Eight The teacher can help students integrate making a research presentation are ex- mastery of standards across domains, pected to use their own words to convey strands, and academic disciplines by having their message. students: Seventh Grade Because the same genres appear in the Standards and writing applications at this grade level, 1. Analyze the differences in structure Instruction writing and speaking activities might be and purpose between various combined. For example, students might categories of informational materials write a persuasive composition and deliver (e.g., textbooks, newspapers, an oral persuasive presentation on the same instructional manuals, signs). topic. 2. Examine informational materials for an organizational structure that balances all aspects of the composi- Listening and Speaking tion and uses effective transitions Speaking Applications between sentences to unify impor- (Genres and Their tant ideas. Characteristics) 3. Identify informational materials in Like sixth-grade students, those in the which statements and claims are seventh grade are expected to deliver well- supported by anecdotes, descrip- organized formal presentations that employ tions, facts and statistics, and traditional rhetorical strategies. Specifi- specific examples. cally, students are required to deliver 4. Create materials in which credit for narrative, research, and persuasive presen- quoted and paraphrased informa- tations as well as oral summaries of articles tion in a bibliography is given and a and books. They are expected to demon- consistent and sanctioned format strate a range of speaking skills and and methodology are used for strategies that includes, for example, citations. describing complex major and minor 5. Revise writing to improve organiza- characters and a definite setting; using a tion and word choice after checking range of appropriate strategies, including the logic of ideas and precision of dialogue, suspense, and naming of specific vocabulary. narrative actions; using their own words, Please see Appendix B for examples of except for material quoted from the source, standards that span domains and strands. in an oral summary; and including evidence generated through the formal research process for a research presentation. 157

Chapter 4 Content Standards Seventh Grade and Instructional Practices— Grades Four Curricular and Through Eight Instructional Profile

Conventions Standard 1.3

DOMAIN STRAND SUBSTRAND STANDARD

Written 1.0 Written and oral 1.3 Identify all parts and Oral English-language of speech and types English- conventions and structure of Language sentences. Convention

Prerequisite standard. Sixth-Grade Written and Oral English-Language Conventions Standard 1.1: Use simple, compound, and compound-complex sentences. Corequisite standard. Seventh-Grade Writing Strategies Standard 1.7: Revise writing to improve organization and word choice.

Curricular and Instructional Decisions

Instructional Use sophisticated but appropriate sentence structures in oral and Objective written discourse.

Instructional At this level a challenge for students is to use sentence structures Design more sophisticated than simple kernel-sentence types but not excessively complex or convoluted. Instruction should, therefore, focus on options for combining kernel sentences in various ways and the rhetorical impact and appropriateness of those various combinations. To achieve a balance, instruction should address both sentence combining and decombining. A focus on sentence combining alone can easily, if inadvertently, create the impression that longer, more complex sentence structures are inherently or universally better than simpler sentence structures. 158

Chapter 4 Instructional Ultimately, students should be expected to develop a sense of Content Standards Design and Instructional appropriate sentence structures well enough to apply that sense to Practices— (Continued) revisions of their own drafts. Initially, however, students should Grades Four work on combining (and decombining and recombining) contrived Through Eight sentences, which can be selected judiciously to illustrate specific possibilities for improvement. (Sentences contrived for revision can be taken from student writing examples or created by decombining Seventh Grade sentences from texts students will read.) Curricular and Instructional The advantages to teaching sentence structure initially in this way Profile are as follows: • When all students are looking at and working with the same set of examples, teachers can conduct efficient whole-class instruction based on those examples. • Teachers can correct work or otherwise evaluate student work more easily and give feedback when all students work initially with the same set of examples. • Teachers can ensure that they cover several important classes or categories of sentence combining when examples are chosen specifically to illustrate those classes or categories. • The examples used during initial instruction give teachers and students a solid basis of reference as individual student work is being revised. Consider, for instance, the following example of student writing: Cowboys in Uruguay and Argentina are called gauchos. The gauchos are found in the country. They live and work in grass-covered prairies. Some gauchos herd cattle in the pampas. They do not make much money. Gauchos wear colorful outfits. They carry large knives and they drink a beverage called maté. It’s a type of tea. Initially, teachers should demonstrate possible improvements in the writing sample while discussing with students the relative advantages or effects of each possibility. For example, students might compare the differences in emphasis between Example 1 and Example 2: Example 1. Gauchos, who are the cowboys of Uruguay and Argentina, live throughout the countryside. Example 2. Across the countryside in the pampas of Uruguay and Argentina, you find cowboys called gauchos. Which choice is better suited to a paragraph about gauchos? Why? What other options for sentence combining are possible? Which options illustrate trying to put too much into a sentence? How would the sense of Example 1 change if the commas were removed? In short, instruction should address the strategies that good writers use—consciously or otherwise—by making such strategies overt and clear for students. Instruction should demonstrate the techniques by which secondary ideas are subordinated to primary, important ideas in strong, active sentences. Most critically, instruction should 159

Instructional emphasize the relationships among ideas in kernel and complex Chapter 4 Design Content Standards sentences to ensure that students appreciate that conventions and Instructional (Continued) (e.g., the use of commas in dependent clauses) support the com- Practices— munication of ideas. Grades Four Through Eight

Instructional Teachers should direct initial instruction in strategies for developing Delivery complex sentence structures and for evaluating competing struc- Seventh Grade tures. For such instruction to be meaningful, it must center on Curricular and active discourse between teachers and students. The challenge for Instructional Profile many students at this level is not so much to combine sentences as such but to do so judiciously in relation to specific purposes of communication. Teacher demonstrations and evaluations of thinking critically out loud are indispensable to effective instruction.

Assessment 1. Entry-Level Assessment for Instructional Planning. Brief in-class compositions on well-defined topics should give teachers a Entry-Level satisfactory overview of the relative sophistication with which Assessment students manipulate sentence structures.

Monitoring 2. Monitoring Student Progress Toward the Instructional Objective. Student All written and oral assignments provide opportunities for Progress ongoing assessment of this standard. Students should be prompted to focus on good sentence structures in all assignments that follow the initial instruction on this topic.

Post-test 3. Post-test Assessment Toward the Standard. The best type of Assessment summative evaluation comes from specifically evaluating sentence structures in conjunction with authentic assignments in writing and speaking that address the writing and speaking standards.

Universal 1. Students with Reading Difficulties or Disabilities. Students with Access reading difficulties or disabilities often use long strings of primitive kernel sentences in their writing. They may run a Reading number of these sentences together without punctuation, Difficulties splice them with commas, or join them with repeated use of or Disabilities conjunctions like and or but. In turn, many of the sentences are likely to overuse passive and intransitive verbs. When necessary, teachers should be prepared to begin instruction in sentence combining at the students’ level. In addition, these students will probably take longer to make the transition from predominantly simple sentences to the wider use of longer, more appropriate complex sentences. 160

Chapter 4 Universal 2. Students Who Are Advanced Learners. The highest-performing Content Standards Access and Instructional students are the ones most likely to be able to learn about Practices— (Continued) language for its own sake and benefit from that learning. For Grades Four instance, they can investigate in depth the relationships Through Eight Advanced between grammatical dependency and nuances in meaning Learners and be challenged, for example, to come up with contrasting sentence pairs, such as the following: Seventh Grade Teenagers, who don’t drive well, should pay higher insurance rates. Curricular and Instructional Teenagers who don’t drive well should pay higher insurance rates. Profile English Learners 3. Students Who Are English Learners Students with restricted proficiency in English will require intensive English-language instruction above and beyond that found in the regular language arts program. The type of explicit strategy instruction described previously for lower- performing students will help English learners as well. They might be exempted from some regular classroom work in sentence combining to provide more instructional time for intense work on well-formed grammatical kernel sentences.

Instructional Instructional materials should provide for a very wide range of Materials student achievement levels in the seventh grade. Publishers will always be safe in providing more resources for a given set of standards—such as those for sentence combining and related conventions—than one might think sufficient for average students. (It is far easier for teachers to elect to not use some resources than to create them from scratch or to find them.) For instance, teachers should have the option of drawing from a rich variety of sample writing— examples of good and poor writing—to use as the basis for instruction in sentence combining. 161

Chapter 4 Content Standards Seventh Grade and Instructional Practices— Grades Four Through Eight English–Language Arts Content Standards

Reading appropriate narrative and expository text (e.g., classic and contemporary literature, 1.0. Word Analysis, Fluency, magazines, newspapers, online information). and Systematic Vocabulary In grade seven, students make substantial Development progress toward this goal. Students use their knowledge of word origins Structural Features of Informational and word relationships, as well as historical Materials and literary context clues, to determine the 2.1 Understand and analyze the differences meaning of specialized vocabulary and to in structure and purpose between understand the precise meaning of grade-level- various categories of informational appropriate words. materials (e.g., textbooks, newspapers, Vocabulary and Concept Development instructional manuals, signs). 1.1 Identify idioms, analogies, metaphors, 2.2 Locate information by using a variety and similes in prose and poetry. of consumer, workplace, and public 1.2 Use knowledge of Greek, Latin, and documents. Anglo-Saxon roots and affixes to 2.3 Analyze text that uses the cause-and- understand content-area vocabulary. effect organizational pattern. 1.3 Clarify word meanings through the use Comprehension and Analysis of Grade- of definition, example, restatement, or Level-Appropriate Text contrast. 2.4 Identify and trace the development of 2.0 Reading Comprehension an author’s argument, point of view, or (Focus on Informational perspective in text. Materials) 2.5 Understand and explain the use of a Students read and understand grade-level- simple mechanical device by following appropriate material. They describe and technical directions. connect the essential ideas, arguments, and Expository Critique perspectives of the text by using their knowl- 2.6 Assess the adequacy, accuracy, and edge of text structure, organization, and appropriateness of the author’s evidence purpose. The selections in Recommended to support claims and assertions, noting Readings in Literature, Kindergarten Through instances of bias and stereotyping. Grade Eight illustrate the quality and complexity of the materials to be read by students. In 3.0 Literary Response and Analysis addition, by grade eight, students read one Students read and respond to historically or million words annually on their own, includ- culturally significant works of literature that ing a good representation of grade-level- 162

Chapter 4 reflect and enhance their studies of history Organization and Focus Content Standards and social science. They clarify the ideas and and Instructional 1.1 Create an organizational structure that Practices— connect them to other literary works. The balances all aspects of the composition Grades Four selections in Recommended Readings in Litera- and uses effective transitions between Through Eight Through Eight ture, Kindergarten Through Grade Eight sentences to unify important ideas. illustrate the quality and complexity of the 1.2 Support all statements and claims with materials to be read by students. anecdotes, descriptions, facts and Seventh Grade Structural Features of Literature statistics, and specific examples. 1.3 Use strategies of notetaking, outlining, English–Language 3.1 Articulate the expressed purposes and Arts Content and summarizing to impose structure characteristics of different forms of Standards on composition drafts. prose (e.g., short story, novel, novella, essay). Research and Technology Narrative Analysis of Grade-Level- 1.4 Identify topics; ask and evaluate Appropriate Text questions; and develop ideas leading to inquiry, investigation, and research. 3.2 Identify events that advance the plot 1.5 Give credit for both quoted and and determine how each event explains paraphrased information in a bibliogra- past or present action(s) or foreshadows phy by using a consistent and sanc- future action(s). tioned format and methodology for 3.3 Analyze characterization as delineated citations. through a character’s thoughts, words, 1.6 Create documents by using word- speech patterns, and actions; the processing skills and publishing narrator’s description; and the thoughts, programs; develop simple databases and words, and actions of other characters. spreadsheets to manage information 3.4 Identify and analyze recurring themes and prepare reports. across works (e.g., the value of bravery, loyalty, and friendship; the effects of Evaluation and Revision loneliness). 1.7 Revise writing to improve organization 3.5 Contrast points of view (e.g., first and and word choice after checking the third person, limited and omniscient, logic of the ideas and the precision of subjective and objective) in narrative the vocabulary. text and explain how they affect the overall theme of the work. 2.0 Writing Applications (Genres Literary Criticism and Their Characteristics) 3.6 Analyze a range of responses to a literary Students write narrative, expository, persua- work and determine the extent to which sive, and descriptive texts of at least 500 to the literary elements in the work shaped 700 words in each genre. The writing demon- those responses. strates a command of standard American English and the research, organizational, and drafting strategies outlined in Writing Writing Standard 1.0. 1.0. Writing Strategies Using the writing strategies of grade seven Students write clear, coherent, and focused outlined in Writing Standard 1.0, students: essays. The writing exhibits students’ awareness 2.1 Write fictional or autobiographical of the audience and purpose. Essays contain narratives: formal introductions, supporting evidence, and a. Develop a standard plot line (having conclusions. Students progress through the a beginning, conflict, rising action, stages of the writing process as needed. 163

climax, and denouement) and point b. Use the student’s own words, except Chapter 4 of view. for quotations. Content Standards and Instructional b. Develop complex major and minor c. Reflect underlying meaning, not just Practices— characters and a definite setting. the superficial details. Grades Four c. Use a range of appropriate strategies Through Eight (e.g., dialogue; suspense; naming of Written and Oral English specific narrative action, including Language Conventions movement, gestures, and expres- Seventh Grade

sions). The standards for written and oral English English–Language 2.2 Write responses to literature: language conventions have been placed Arts Content between those for writing and for listening and Standards a. Develop interpretations exhibiting speaking because these conventions are careful reading, understanding, and essential to both sets of skills. insight. b. Organize interpretations around 1.0 Written and Oral English several clear ideas, premises, or Language Conventions images from the literary work. Students write and speak with a command of c. Justify interpretations through standard English conventions appropriate to sustained use of examples and the grade level. textual evidence. Sentence Structure 2.3 Write research reports: 1.1 Place modifiers properly and use the a. Pose relevant and tightly drawn active voice. questions about the topic. b. Convey clear and accurate perspec- Grammar tives on the subject. 1.2 Identify and use infinitives and c. Include evidence compiled through participles and make clear references the formal research process (e.g., use between pronouns and antecedents. of a card catalog, Reader’s Guide to 1.3 Identify all parts of speech and types Periodical Literature, a computer and structure of sentences. catalog, magazines, newspapers, 1.4 Demonstrate the mechanics of writing dictionaries). (e.g., quotation marks, commas at end d. Document reference sources by of dependent clauses) and appropriate means of footnotes and a bibliogra- English usage (e.g., pronoun reference). phy. Punctuation 2.4 Write persuasive compositions: 1.5 Identify hyphens, dashes, brackets, and a. State a clear position or perspective semicolons and use them correctly. in support of a proposition or Capitalization proposal. b. Describe the points in support of the 1.6 Use correct capitalization. proposition, employing well- Spelling articulated evidence. 1.7 Spell derivatives correctly by applying c. Anticipate and address reader the spellings of bases and affixes. concerns and counterarguments. 2.5 Write summaries of reading materials: a. Include the main ideas and most significant details. 164

Chapter 4 Listening and Speaking sion, description). Student speaking demon- Content Standards strates a command of standard American and Instructional 1.0. Listening and Speaking Practices— English and the organizational and delivery Grades Four Strategies strategies outlined in Listening and Speaking Through Eight Deliver focused, coherent presentations that Standard 1.0. convey ideas clearly and relate to the back- Using the speaking strategies of grade seven ground and interests of the audience. Students outlined in Listening and Speaking evaluate the content of oral Seventh Grade Standard 1.0, students: communication. English–Language 2.1 Deliver narrative presentations: Arts Content Comprehension Standards a. Establish a context, standard plot line 1.1 Ask probing questions to elicit informa- (having a beginning, conflict, rising tion, including evidence to support the action, climax, and denouement), speaker’s claims and conclusions. and point of view. 1.2 Determine the speaker’s attitude b. Describe complex major and minor toward the subject. characters and a definite setting. 1.3 Respond to persuasive messages with c. Use a range of appropriate strategies, questions, challenges, or affirmations. including dialogue, suspense, and Organization and Delivery of Oral naming of specific narrative action Communication (e.g., movement, gestures, expressions). 1.4 Organize information to achieve particular purposes and to appeal to 2.2 Deliver oral summaries of articles and the background and interests of the books: audience. a. Include the main ideas of the event 1.5 Arrange supporting details, reasons, or article and the most significant descriptions, and examples effectively details. and persuasively in relation to the b. Use the student’s own words, except audience. for material quoted from sources. 1.6 Use speaking techniques, including c. Convey a comprehensive understand- voice modulation, inflection, tempo, ing of sources, not just superficial enunciation, and eye contact, for details. effective presentations. 2.3 Deliver research presentations: Analysis and Evaluation of Oral and Media a. Pose relevant and concise questions Communications about the topic. 1.7 Provide constructive feedback to b. Convey clear and accurate perspec- speakers concerning the coherence and tives on the subject. logic of a speech’s content and delivery c. Include evidence generated through and its overall impact upon the listener. the formal research process (e.g., use 1.8 Analyze the effect on the viewer of of a card catalog, Reader’s Guide to images, text, and sound in electronic Periodical Literature, computer journalism; identify the techniques used databases, magazines, newspapers, to achieve the effects in each instance dictionaries). studied. d. Cite reference sources appropriately. 2.4 Deliver persuasive presentations: 2.0 Speaking Applications (Genres and Their Characteristics) a. State a clear position or perspective in support of an argument or proposal. Students deliver well-organized formal b. Describe the points in support of the presentations employing traditional rhetorical argument and employ well-articulated strategies (e.g., narration, exposition, persua- evidence. 165

Chapter 4 Content Standards Eighth Grade and Instructional Practices— Grades Four Through Eight Standards and Instruction

ighth grade marks the beginning Reading of yet another significant transi- E tion for students—that of prepar- 1.0 Word Analysis, Fluency, ing for the high school years. The content and Systematic Vocabulary standards for this grade signify the Development readiness required of students preparing 2.0 Reading Comprehension for the secondary content in grades nine (Focus on Informational Materials) through twelve. Not surprisingly, the 3.0 Literary Response and Analysis eighth-grade standards represent an important culmination of curriculum Writing activities emphasized throughout grades 1.0 Writing Strategies four through eight. 2.0 Writing Applications (Genres and The strands to be emphasized at the Their Characteristics) eighth-grade level are listed in the adjacent column under the appropriate domains. Written and Oral English- The following sections profile focus Language Conventions areas within each of the strands and 1.0 Written and Oral English-Language identify content and instructional con- Conventions nections across domains, strands, and standards. Listening and Speaking 1.0 Listening and Speaking Strategies 2.0 Speaking Applications (Genres and Their Characteristics) 166

Chapter 4 students should be able to explain the use Content Standards Reading Word Analysis, of a complex mechanical device. and Instructional Fluency, and Practices— Students are expected to demonstrate Grades Four Systematic Vocabulary their ability to grapple with the treatment, Through Eight Development scope, and organization of ideas by finding Eighth-grade students apply the similarities and differences between texts. vocabulary skills developed in earlier They are also expected to compare an Eighth Grade grades in more sophisticated contexts. original text with a summary to determine Standards and whether it accurately captures the main Instruction The strategies for vocabulary instruction discussed in the seventh grade continue to ideas, includes critical details, and conveys apply in the eighth grade. the underlying meaning. Finally, students are expected to evaluate the unity, logic, internal consistency, and structural Reading Reading Comprehension patterns of text. (Focus on Informational This framework recommends a strategy Materials) of helping students master these relatively Although teachers have always taught sophisticated aspects of reading informa- reading-comprehension skills in relation tional discourse; that is, contrasting good to informational texts, the content examples of various concepts with poor standards at this level focus more attention examples. on that segment of the language arts curriculum. The term informational Reading Literary Response materials refers not just to nonfiction and Analysis works such as biographies but to a variety of reading that is expository rather than This strand of the reading domain is narrative. In the school setting informa- designed to ensure that eighth-grade tional texts are generally textbooks or students are thoroughly familiar with the reference works but may include a host of basic elements of story grammar. Specifi- print and nonprint materials. Instructional cally, students are required to (1) evaluate strategies used with information materials the structural elements of the plot; are often different from those used to (2) compare and contrast the motivations comprehend literary texts. In a depart- and reactions of literary characters; mentalized school, responsibility for (3) analyze the relevance of the setting; improving reading comprehension of (4) identify and analyze recurring themes; instructional materials should be shared by and (5) identify elements of the writer’s teachers of all subjects, particularly style. teachers of history–social science and As to the structural features of litera- science. ture, eighth-grade students are expected to Seventh-grade students study the understand the different kinds of prose. structural features of consumer materials They are also expected to understand the (warranties, contracts, product informa- purposes and characteristics of different tion, and instructional manuals). The kinds of poetry (e.g., ballad, lyric, couplet, seventh-grade focus on the cause-and- epic, sonnet). effect pattern in expository text is replaced Extensive independent reading, which in the eighth grade by the pattern of a in the eighth grade increasingly takes place proposal and its support. In addition, outside the classroom, is an important 167 element of the language arts curriculum. Chapter 4 Writing Writing Strategies Content Standards The standards require that by the end of and Instructional middle school, students will have read one Writing strategies called for in the Practices— million words annually on their own, Grades Four eighth grade differ in degree from those Through Eight including a good representation of used in the seventh grade. Students’ narrative (classic and contemporary writing should continue to be character- literature) and expository (magazines, ized by a controlling thesis well supported Eighth Grade newspapers, online) instructional materi- by details or evidence from the text but als. One million words translate to about Standards and should now begin to display more sophis- Instruction 15 to 20 minutes of reading per day. tication and polish, including such Instructional formats and strategies features as transitions, parallelism, and a used for outside reading have much in consistent point of view. common with those used in teaching core When conducting research with the aid literature works but differ significantly. of technology, students are expected to Student choice is a more important build on the foundation of research and element in outside reading and may result technological skills developed in the earlier in fewer diverse selections because young grades. Eighth-grade students should be readers typically choose to focus on a able to plan and conduct multiple-step single author, topic, or genre for a period information searches, using Internet-based of time. Their reading should not be resources. They should be taught how to limited to works of fiction or nonfiction achieve an effective balance between but should include magazines, especially researched information and original ideas those in areas of special interest to the in their written or oral presentations, a students, newspapers, and online sources. difficult issue for middle school students. A variety of methods are available to assess Teachers need to assist students in evaluat- reading done outside the classroom, ing data and evidence and matching them including student-maintained reading logs with thesis statements. Students need and book reports in various formats. frequent opportunities to grasp the idea of According to the standard, instruction preponderance of evidence versus isolated should be focused on the reading itself data. The importance of a thesis state- rather than on the final report on the ment—a single, generalized statement that reading. drives the entire work—cannot be over- Independent reading significantly emphasized. Students with weak language improves students’ reading comprehension arts skills may not recognize their need to and vocabulary and increases their famil- have something to say before they can iarity with models of good writing and write a composition. If so, they may be conventions of writing and spelling. It also helped by being encouraged to think of serves an important affective purpose; that speaking as writing out loud because they is, in helping to develop a lifelong appre- often find themselves able to articulate ciation for reading for pleasure and and organize thoughts more easily in information. Recent research indicates speech than in writing. Such oral state- that the volume of reading also affects ments can be bridges to the creation of a general cognitive development written thesis statement. (Cunningham and Stanovich 1998). All of these across-the-board standards for writing strategies can be taught initially 168

Chapter 4 in isolation. For instance, teachers can categories of writing are introduced: Content Standards and Instructional initially focus on a skill such as paraphras- (1) documents related to career develop- Practices— ing before requiring students to incorpo- ment, including simple business letters and Grades Four rate that skill into their written composi- job applications; and (2) technical docu- Through Eight tions. Doing so reduces the cognitive and ments that explain a complex operation or organizational burden on students to situation (e.g., design a system, operate a incorporate all aspects of writing into an tool, or develop the bylaws of an organiza- Eighth Grade assigned composition. The standards tion). Standards and warn, however, against teaching writing Instruction in the business-related Instruction concepts in isolation without immediately documents should go beyond the mechan- incorporating them into writing assign- ics and conventional forms for such writing ments. to include important rhetorical considerations, such as clear attention to the audience and purpose, clarity and succinct- Writing Writing Applications ness, consideration of all appropriate (Genres and Their variables, and coherence and logical Characteristics) sequencing. Eighth-grade students should continue to produce major texts of 500 to 700 Written and Oral English- words (two to three pages, typed and Language Conventions double-spaced) in these categories: fictional or autobiographical narratives, Eighth-grade students are expected to responses to literature, research reports, have mastered four of the five subsections and persuasive compositions. in this standard: grammar, punctuation, The eighth-grade standards describe the capitalization, and spelling. Only in the more sophisticated elements now expected fifth subsection, sentence structure, is new in student writing. For example, in learning introduced. In that area students writing narratives, students in the seventh are expected to vary sentence types and grade are expected to develop the standard sentence openings, use parallel structures elements of plot (e.g., beginning, conflict, appropriately, and indicate relationships rising action). But in the eighth grade between ideas by using such devices as students are expected to go beyond the subordination, coordination, and apposi- structural elements (e.g., to reveal the tion. writer’s attitude about the subject). Students’ strengths and deficits in using However, the depth and duration of the English-language conventions are likely to instruction provided should be adjusted to vary considerably in the eighth grade. An the achievement level of the students in a important skill to be learned in improving given classroom. Well-developed instruc- that use is to train the eye and ear to tional units have long been used in recognize errors in conventions found in California for many categories of writing, reading and writing. Extensive student although the titles may be slightly differ- experience in reading and writing helps to ent (e.g., autobiographical incident, report build those skills. Teachers should provide of information). models of both outstanding and poor use The seventh-grade requirement to write of written conventions and help students summaries of reading materials no longer develop editing skills. Explicit instruction appears in the eighth grade, and two new in the conventions is also needed. Indi- 169 vidualized instructional software can be ing a speaker’s content, delivery, and Chapter 4 Content Standards used to address efficiently the problem of purpose and evaluate the credibility of a and Instructional significant differences among students in speaker. Students are also expected to Practices— their ability to use conventions. continue to analyze and evaluate media Grades Four Through Eight Skills students possess in mechanics and presentations, noting various techniques conventions are most often described in used by graphic artists, advertisers, and relation to writing. But, as the title of this electronic journalists to influence the strand indicates, the skills also apply to viewer. Eighth Grade speaking. In addition to learning correct Standards and Instruction speech, students should recognize that the Listening and Speaking structures of spoken language are generally Speaking Applications more informal than the structures of (Genres and Their writing and depend on audience and Characteristics) purpose. They should be able to recognize instances in which formal standard The speaking applications discussed in English is required. the seventh grade reappear in the eighth grade: narrative, research, and persuasive presentations, which are areas of focus in Listening and Speaking writing as well. Students should, therefore, Listening and Speaking deliver some of their written compositions Strategies orally. Doing so is efficient in the use of instructional time and effective because it Many of the skills and strategies used in makes overt the differences and similarities speaking are the same as those for writing between written and oral presentations. (e.g., organizing information for audience Oral responses to reading shift from an and purpose; including an introduction, expository focus in the seventh grade, when transitions, a logically developed body, students deliver oral summaries of articles and an appropriate conclusion; using and books, to a literary focus in the eighth correct language and grammar). Some of grade, when students interpret their reading the rhetorical considerations, however, are orally and analyze it. Eighth-grade students unique to oral communications. In are also expected to recite, with expression, speaking, students should be able to poems of four to six stanzas, sections of match their voice modulation, tone, and speeches, or dramatic soliloquies. pacing to the purpose of the presentation. Explicit instruction in speaking skills must go well beyond the traditional three Content and Instructional elementary rules of speaking: speak audibly, speak clearly, and maintain eye Connections contact with your audience. The teacher can help students integrate Students are expected to use audience mastery of standards across domains, feedback in both speaking and listening. strands, and academic disciplines by having After listening to verbal cues and observ- students: ing nonverbal cues, students are expected 1. Use word meanings within the to be able to modify their original plan of appropriate context and show an organization to clarify meaning and ability to verify those meanings by counter potential opposition. They should definition, restatement, example, be able to ask relevant questions concern- comparison, or contrast. 170

Chapter 4 2. Use vocabulary, concepts, and 6. Revise writing for word choice, Content Standards and Instructional writing related to the science, appropriate organization, consis- Practices— history–social science, and math- tent point of view, and transitions Grades Four ematics standards in some activities Through Eight between paragraphs, passages, and and assignments. ideas. 3. Compare and contrast motivations 7. Write narratives, employing and reactions of literary characters narrative and descriptive strategies. Eighth Grade from different historical eras or 8. Use correct punctuation, capitali- Standards and cultures who confront similar Instruction zation, and spelling. situations or conflicts. 9. Organize information to match 4. Establish coherence within and the message, vocabulary, voice among paragraphs through effective modulation, expression, and tone transitions, parallel structures, and to the audience and purpose. similar writing techniques. 10. Deliver narrative presentations. 5. Achieve an effective balance be- Please see Appendix B for examples of tween researched information and standards that span domains and strands. original ideas. 171

Chapter 4 Content Standards Eighth Grade and Instructional Practices— Grades Four Curricular and Through Eight Instructional Profile

Writing Standard 2.4

DOMAIN STRAND SUBSTRAND STANDARD

Writing 2.0 Writing 2.4 Write persuasive applications compositions. (genres and their characteristics)

Prerequisite standards. Seventh-Grade Writing Strategies Standard 1.3: Use strategies of notetaking, outlining, and summarizing. Seventh-Grade Writing Applications Standard 2.4(a): State a clear position in support of a proposition. Seventh-Grade Written and Oral English-Language Conventions Standard 1.4: Demonstrate the mechanics of writing and appropriate English usage. Corequisite standards. Eighth-Grade Writing Strategies Standards 1.1, 1.3. Standard 1.1: Create compositions that establish a controlling impression, have a coherent thesis, and end with a clear and well-supported conclusion. Standard 1.3: Support conclusions with paraphrases, quotations, and opinions from authorities.

Curricular and Instructional Decisions

Instructional Write a well-structured persuasive composition, using rhetorical Objective devices, relevant evidence, and responses to readers’ counterclaims.

Instructional Initial instruction should begin with students reading examples of Design persuasive writing. The examples may be of professional writing or student writing and should vary in quality to enhance students’ ability to evaluate critically and understand fully the elements of persuasive discourse. An example of poor writing can demonstrate an obvious failure to anticipate and address a reader’s response to 172

Chapter 4 Instructional the arguments put forth. A strong example that powerfully illus- Content Standards Design and Instructional trates this concept should also be used. (Continued) Practices— The number of examples should vary according to student mastery Grades Four Through Eight of the persuasive text structures. Although students should be familiar with the elements of persuasive discourse by this time, the level of previous knowledge is likely to vary. Fewer examples should be used with students who already have a good mastery of the text Eighth Grade structure and more examples with students who do not. Curricular and Instructional After their critical reading of persuasive texts, students should have a Profile good command of the basic elements of text structure common to most similar texts. They can then apply that understanding to writing their own persuasive compositions. The instruction in writing persuasive compositions should follow the same steps in the writing process used for all written compositions: • Students should first plan their compositions and outline their arguments, possible reader objections to their arguments, and their own responses to those objections. • During the revision phase of writing, teachers should focus on the elements of revision emphasized in the standards for this level as well as the standards for grammar and usage and manuscript form. If teachers anticipate that students will have significant difficulty in writing a persuasive composition, they should consider having all students write on the same topic or have half of them take the pro position and half the con position on an issue. This approach offers more opportunities for students to help one another with the writing process and makes it easier for teachers to evaluate compositions, giving them more time to deliver additional instruction when needed. Once students have successfully completed a persuasive composition, teachers can turn their attention to having the students deliver the same composition orally. Doing so saves instructional time that would otherwise be required to start from scratch to develop an oral persuasive argument. Moreover, teachers can focus directly on the rhetorical elements unique to oral presentations (e.g., gestures, intonation). Note: Students will have an opportunity to develop an oral presentation from scratch elsewhere because the standards call for delivering an oral descriptive presentation but not for writing descriptive discourse. Initially, students may be allowed to read their oral presentations and then work gradually toward delivering presentations from notes. 173

Chapter 4 Instructional Teachers introduce new concepts, using models and detailed Content Standards Delivery strategies for acquiring new skills and knowledge. They should and Instructional Practices— explicitly identify the elements of good discourse in argument and Grades Four persuasion before the students analyze good and poor models. Through Eight The greatest number of students will experience success with the standards if teachers plan for scaffolded instruction, with varying levels of assistance being provided before students are expected to Eighth Grade apply their knowledge and skill independently. A simple scaffolding Curricular and Instructional device, for example, is a think sheet that students use during the Profile prewriting stage of writing. The think sheet shows the basic outline for argument or persuasion discourse, helping to ensure that students do not omit crucial elements during their planning and helping them prepare better drafts. Another scaffolding device particularly well suited to writing instruction is peer-mediated instruction or cooperative learning. This approach not only gives students additional instructional opportunities as they assist one another but helps establish the writer-reader relationship in a manner more realistic than having students write principally for the teacher. Note: Caution is in order regarding peer-mediated instruction. As with all scaffolded instruction, peer-mediated instruction should be gradually eliminated for each topic taught to ensure that each student learns to use skill and knowledge completely and independently. Ultimately, students should be held individually accountable for meeting standards.

Assessment 1. Entry-Level Assessment for Instructional Planning. The nature of the material at this level makes it impractical to pretest Entry-Level Assessment students formally for prerequisite knowledge or knowledge of upcoming instruction. Each time new instruction begins, teachers should assess students’ entry knowledge informally and briefly with questions or very short assignments (such as a short in-class writing assignment, which can indicate a great deal about student knowledge of several standards).

Monitoring 2. Monitoring Student Progress Toward the Instructional Objective. Student All assignments can serve to assess student progress. Teachers Progress must examine performance on such assignments and analyze the results to discover areas that require more explicit instruction, an alternative instructional strategy, or other supportive instructional methods.

Post-test 3. Post-test Assessment Toward the Standard. State-required or Assessment district-required formal assessments give part of the picture of how well students achieve the standards. In addition, the 174

Chapter 4 Assessment assignments that teachers use to grade students give a more Content Standards (Continued) and Instructional complete picture of achievement. For example, examination Practices— of a written composition in final form should be part of the Grades Four summative evaluation for students. That evaluation should Through Eight assess individual accountability on assignments that students complete on their own rather than those completed cooperatively. Eighth Grade

Curricular and Instructional Universal 1. Students with Reading Difficulties or Disabilities. Students are Profile Access likely to encounter two major obstacles to meeting the standards for persuasive discourse as well as many other standards Reading at this level. First, difficulties in reading can forestall critical Difficulties and analytical reading of appropriate grade-level examples of or Disabilities persuasive writing. Alternative reading material below grade level may be substituted. Although these students may not achieve the desired goals as to reading level, they should be able to reach other standards as their reading level improves. In addition, the use of aides or peer-mediated instruction can provide the students with additional assistance in their study of difficult vocabulary and syntax in their reading assignments. As much as possible, struggling readers should be encouraged to work on reading fluency itself as an ongoing activity outside the language arts classroom. They might be helped by being tutored or by receiving assistance in study hall or in classes designed to address more serious reading problems. Other obstacles for lower performers at this level are writing mechanics in general and handwriting and spelling in particular. Research shows that students identified as having learning disabilities are often preempted from success in writing because the cognitive requirements of writing mechanics are too demanding. General education teachers may be limited in accommodating major deficiencies they observe in their students’ use of writing mechanics. Such students can benefit from peer-mediated, scaffolded instruction and from any outside support that can be arranged. Ultimately, the most successful accommodation for students at this level may be word processing or typing. Additional strategies may include the use of oral presentations, dramas, models, or dictation.

Advanced 2. Students Who Are Advanced Learners. Higher-performing Learners students can follow the same curriculum as their normally achieving peers but should do so in greater depth and complexity and with more independence. Their persuasive arguments can be longer, more sophisticated, or better re- 175

Universal searched. Those who have mastered text structures can work Chapter 4 Access Content Standards on more complex writing involving a mixture of structures and and Instructional (Continued) can study the rhetorical devices and organizational patterns Practices— Grades Four commonly found in speeches that can be used to recast their Through Eight essays. Students can also be asked to argue both sides of an issue or be paired with another highly able student in a debate- style arrangement. Eighth Grade English Learners 3. Students Who Are English Learners Curricular and Instructional a. English learners benefit from specific instruction concerning Profile argumentation. b. English learners should be taught to avoid relying on such common slang words as guy, kid, by the way, and stuff as well as such general words as thing, nice, and kind in their writing. c. English learners will experience difficulty in paraphrasing because they lack depth of vocabulary. They should be taught how to incorporate quotations into their texts to support their arguments and to reference appropriately and correctly. d. Because students will present opposing views and explain why their view is better than that of others, they must be taught such grammatical structures as comparisons. Transitional devices (such as first, second, to conclude, and in summary) might also be taught. e. English learners should be encouraged to practice before giving an oral presentation and should be allowed to use a prop or visual that will aid them during their presentation. f. Teachers should provide corrective feedback consistently at the revising and editing stages to help English learners develop their English skills. g. Teachers must provide students with straightforward assessments of their proficiency in English at every stage of instruction so that students understand what they can do to improve.

Instructional Instructional materials should be provided in abundance for teachers Materials to use with students who possess a broad range of abilities. Instead of presenting ideas for working with special-needs students in a sentence or two, for example, the instructional materials should provide many ready-to-go items for additional practice and instructional opportunities for English learners and students with learning difficulties. Similarly, several substantial resources or alternate assignments should be provided for high-performing students. Teachers cannot realistically be expected to invest long hours in finding or developing those resources. 176

Chapter 4 Content Standards and Instructional Eighth Grade Practices— Grades Four Through Eight English–Language Arts Content Standards

Reading Readings in Literature, Kindergarten Through Grade Eight illustrate the quality and complex- 1.0 Word Analysis, Fluency, ity of the materials to be read by students. In and Systematic Vocabulary addition, students read one million words Development annually on their own, including a good Students use their knowledge of word origins representation of narrative and expository text and word relationships, as well as historical (e.g., classic and contemporary literature, and literary context clues, to determine the magazines, newspapers, online information). meaning of specialized vocabulary and to Structural Features of Informational understand the precise meaning of grade-level- Materials appropriate words. 2.1 Compare and contrast the features Vocabulary and Concept Development and elements of consumer materials 1.1 Analyze idioms, analogies, metaphors, to gain meaning from documents and similes to infer the literal and (e.g., warranties, contracts, product figurative meanings of phrases. information, instruction manuals). 1.2 Understand the most important points 2.2 Analyze text that uses proposition and in the history of English language and support patterns. use common word origins to determine Comprehension and Analysis of Grade- the historical influences on English Level-Appropriate Text word meanings. 1.3 Use word meanings within the appro- 2.3 Find similarities and differences priate context and show ability to verify between texts in the treatment, scope, those meanings by definition, restate- or organization of ideas. ment, example, comparison, or 2.4 Compare the original text to a sum- contrast. mary to determine whether the summary accurately captures the main 2.0 Reading Comprehension (Focus ideas, includes critical details, and on Informational Materials) conveys the underlying meaning. 2.5 Understand and explain the use of a Students read and understand grade-level- complex mechanical device by follow- appropriate material. They describe and ing technical directions. connect the essential ideas, arguments, and 2.6 Use information from a variety of perspectives of the text by using their knowl- consumer, workplace, and public edge of text structure, organization, and documents to explain a situation or purpose. The selections in Recommended decision and to solve a problem. 177

Expository Critique Chapter 4 Writing Content Standards 2.7 Evaluate the unity, coherence, logic, 1.0 Writing Strategies and Instructional internal consistency, and structural Practices— patterns of text. Students write clear, coherent, and focused Grades Four essays. The writing exhibits students’ Through Eight 3.0 Literary Response and Analysis awareness of audience and purpose. Essays Students read and respond to historically or contain formal introductions, supporting culturally significant works of literature that evidence, and conclusions. Students progress Eighth Grade reflect and enhance their studies of history through the stages of the writing process as English–Language and social science. They clarify the ideas and needed. Arts Content connect them to other literary works. The Standards Organization and Focus selections in Recommended Readings in Literature, Kindergarten Through Grade Eight 1.1 Create compositions that establish a illustrate the quality and complexity of the controlling impression, have a coherent materials to be read by students. thesis, and end with a clear and well- supported conclusion. Structural Features of Literature 1.2 Establish coherence within and among 3.1 Determine and articulate the relation- paragraphs through effective transi- ship between the purposes and charac- tions, parallel structures, and similar teristics of different forms of poetry writing techniques. (e.g., ballad, lyric, couplet, epic, elegy, 1.3 Support theses or conclusions with ode, sonnet). analogies, paraphrases, quotations, Narrative Analysis of Grade-Level- opinions from authorities, comparisons, Appropriate Text and similar devices. 3.2 Evaluate the structural elements of the Research and Technology plot (e.g., subplots, parallel episodes, climax), the plot’s development, and 1.4 Plan and conduct multiple-step the way in which conflicts are (or are information searches by using com- not) addressed and resolved. puter networks and modems. 3.3 Compare and contrast motivations and 1.5 Achieve an effective balance between reactions of literary characters from researched information and original different historical eras confronting ideas. similar situations or conflicts. Evaluation and Revision 3.4 Analyze the relevance of the setting 1.6 Revise writing for word choice; (e.g., place, time, customs) to the appropriate organization; consistent mood, tone, and meaning of the text. point of view; and transitions between 3.5 Identify and analyze recurring themes paragraphs, passages, and ideas. (e.g., good versus evil) across traditional and contemporary works. 2.0 Writing Applications (Genres 3.6 Identify significant literary devices and Their Characteristics) (e.g., metaphor, symbolism, dialect, irony) that define a writer’s style and Students write narrative, expository, persua- use those elements to interpret the sive, and descriptive essays of at least 500 to work. 700 words in each genre. Student writing demonstrates a command of standard Ameri- Literary Criticism can English and the research, organizational, 3.7 Analyze a work of literature, showing and drafting strategies outlined in Writing how it reflects the heritage, traditions, Standard 1.0. attitudes, and beliefs of its author. (Biographical approach) 178

Chapter 4 Using the writing strategies of grade eight c. Provide details, reasons, and Content Standards outlined in Writing Standard 1.0, students: examples, arranging them effectively and Instructional Practices— 2.1 Write biographies, autobiographies, by anticipating and answering reader Grades Four short stories, or narratives: concerns and counterarguments. Through Eight a. Relate a clear, coherent incident, 2.5 Write documents related to career event, or situation by using well- development, including simple business chosen details. letters and job applications: Eighth Grade b. Reveal the significance of, or the a. Present information purposefully English–Language writer’s attitude about, the subject. and succinctly and meet the needs Arts Content c. Employ narrative and descriptive of the intended audience. Standards strategies (e.g., relevant dialogue, b. Follow the conventional format for specific action, physical description, the type of document (e.g., letter of background description, comparison inquiry, memorandum). or contrast of characters). 2.6 Write technical documents: 2.2 Write responses to literature: a. Identify the sequence of activities a. Exhibit careful reading and insight needed to design a system, operate a in their interpretations. tool, or explain the bylaws of an b. Connect the student’s own re- organization. sponses to the writer’s techniques b. Include all the factors and variables and to specific textual references. that need to be considered. c. Draw supported inferences about c. Use formatting techniques the effects of a literary work on its (e.g., headings, differing fonts) audience. to aid comprehension. d. Support judgments through references to the text, other works, Written and Oral English other authors, or to personal Language Conventions knowledge. 2.3 Write research reports: The standards for written and oral English language conventions have been placed a. Define a thesis. between those for writing and for listening b. Record important ideas, concepts, and speaking because these conventions are and direct quotations from signifi- essential to both sets of skills. cant information sources and paraphrase and summarize all 1.0 Written and Oral English perspectives on the topic, as Language Conventions appropriate. Students write and speak with a command of c. Use a variety of primary and standard English conventions appropriate to secondary sources and distinguish this grade level. the nature and value of each. d. Organize and display information Sentence Structure on charts, maps, and graphs. 1.1 Use correct and varied sentence types 2.4 Write persuasive compositions: and sentence openings to present a lively and effective personal style. a. Include a well-defined thesis 1.2 Identify and use parallelism, including (i.e., one that makes a clear and similar grammatical forms, in all knowledgeable judgment). written discourse to present items in b. Present detailed evidence, examples, a series and items juxtaposed for and reasoning to support arguments, emphasis. differentiating between facts and opinion. 179

1.3 Use subordination, coordination, modifiers, and the active rather than Chapter 4 apposition, and other devices to the passive voice in ways that enliven Content Standards and Instructional indicate clearly the relationship oral presentations. Practices— between ideas. 1.6 Use appropriate grammar, word choice, Grades Four enunciation, and pace during formal Through Eight Grammar presentations. 1.4 Edit written manuscripts to ensure that 1.7 Use audience feedback (e.g., verbal and correct grammar is used. nonverbal cues): Eighth Grade Punctuation and Capitalization a. Reconsider and modify the organiza- English–Language Arts Content 1.5 Use correct punctuation and tional structure or plan. b. Rearrange words and sentences to Standards capitalization. clarify the meaning. Spelling Analysis and Evaluation of Oral 1.6 Use correct spelling conventions. and Media Communications 1.8 Evaluate the credibility of a speaker Listening and Speaking (e.g., hidden agendas, slanted or biased 1.0 Listening and Speaking material). Strategies 1.9 Interpret and evaluate the various ways in which visual image makers Students deliver focused, coherent presenta- (e.g., graphic artists, illustrators, news tions that convey ideas clearly and relate to the photographers) communicate informa- background and interests of the audience. tion and affect impressions and They evaluate the content of oral communica- opinions. tion.

Comprehension 2.0 Speaking Applications (Genres 1.1 Analyze oral interpretations of litera- and Their Characteristics) ture, including language choice and Students deliver well-organized formal delivery, and the effect of the interpre- presentations employing traditional rhetorical tations on the listener. strategies (e.g., narration, exposition, persua- 1.2 Paraphrase a speaker’s purpose and sion, description). Student speaking demon- point of view and ask relevant questions strates a command of standard American concerning the speaker’s content, English and the organizational and delivery delivery, and purpose. strategies outlined in Listening and Speaking Organization and Delivery of Oral Standard 1.0. Communication Using the speaking strategies of grade eight 1.3 Organize information to achieve outlined in Listening and Speaking particular purposes by matching the Standard 1.0, students: message, vocabulary, voice modulation, 2.1 Deliver narrative presentations expression, and tone to the audience (e.g., biographical, autobiographical): and purpose. a. Relate a clear, coherent incident, 1.4 Prepare a speech outline based upon a event, or situation by using well- chosen pattern of organization, which chosen details. generally includes an introduction; b. Reveal the significance of, and the transitions, previews, and summaries; subject’s attitude about, the a logically developed body; and an incident, event, or situation. effective conclusion. c. Employ narrative and descriptive 1.5 Use precise language, action verbs, strategies (e.g., relevant dialogue, sensory details, appropriate and colorful 180

Chapter 4 specific action, physical description, c. Use a variety of primary and Content Standards background description, comparison secondary sources and distinguish and Instructional Practices— or contrast of characters). the nature and value of each. Grades Four 2.2 Deliver oral responses to literature: d. Organize and record information Through Eight on charts, maps, and graphs. a. Interpret a reading and provide insight. 2.4 Deliver persuasive presentations: b. Connect the students’ own re- a. Include a well-defined thesis Eighth Grade sponses to the writer’s techniques (i.e., one that makes a clear and English–Language and to specific textual references. knowledgeable judgment). Arts Content c. Draw supported inferences about b. Differentiate fact from opinion and Standards the effects of a literary work on its support arguments with detailed audience. evidence, examples, and reasoning. d. Support judgments through c. Anticipate and answer listener references to the text, other works, concerns and counterarguments other authors, or personal knowl- effectively through the inclusion and edge. arrangement of details, reasons, 2.3 Deliver research presentations: examples, and other elements. d. Maintain a reasonable tone. a. Define a thesis. b. Record important ideas, concepts, 2.5 Recite poems (of four to six stanzas), and direct quotations from signifi- sections of speeches, or dramatic cant information sources and soliloquies, using voice modulation, paraphrase and summarize all tone, and gestures expressively to relevant perspectives on the topic, enhance the meaning. as appropriate. Content Standards and Instructional Practices 5 Grades Nine Through Twelve

By the twelfth grade students are expected each year to read independently two million words of running text. . . . For many students that amount of independent reading will not occur without strategic and systematic guidance in their selection of text and reinforcement of independent reading habits.

any of the general topics in the standards for grades nine M through twelve are similar to those for the earlier grades. For instance, the standards continue to emphasize reading informational and literary text critically, writing compositions according to major text structures and genres, and making oral presentations. By the twelfth grade students are expected each year to read independently two million words of running text (see page 209 in this chapter). That amount is twice that called for in earlier grades. The content of the reading should include a wide variety of

181 182

Chapter 5 classic and contemporary literature, twelve require that writers combine the Content Standards and Instructional magazines, newspapers, and online infor- individual text genres to produce texts of at Practices— mation. For many students that amount of least 1,500 words each (see pages 195 and Grades Nine 211 in this chapter). Concurrently, writers Through Twelve independent reading will not occur without strategic and systematic guidance apply and refine their command of the in their selection of text and reinforcement writing process and writing conventions. of independent reading habits. The goal of Many standards for grades nine through two million words of annual independent twelve are either unique to those grades or reading should be a logical extension of the receive far greater emphasis than in earlier eighth-grade goal of one million words. grades. Such standards include: Comprehension standards for informa- • Strong emphasis on research-based tional materials and literature require that discourse (writing and delivering students demonstrate more sophisticated research-based compositions and oral strategies as they analyze, evaluate, and presentations and reading research elaborate on what is read, critique the discourse critically) credibility of information, and compare • Incorporating technology into the works and provide evidence to support language arts as a tool for conducting ideas. A major difference between the research or creating finished manu- standards for grades nine through twelve scripts and multimedia presentations and those for earlier grade levels is that all • Focus on analytically critiquing a reading in the ninth through twelfth grades variety of media takes place in conjunction with grade- • Greater emphasis on the language appropriate materials, which become arts as applied to work and careers increasingly long and complex as students (e.g., conducting interviews, filling advance. out job applications, writing business Writing and oral Writing and oral presentations also letters, performing technical writing) presentations also become more sophisticated and complex in become more grades nine through twelve. By the ninth As in previous grades new comprehen- sophisticated and sion and writing strategies to assist readers complex in grades grade students have had plentiful opportu- nine through nities to read and compose narrative, in their understanding and use of written twelve. expository, persuasive, and descriptive text. language will require instruction. Students (See the discussion on writing as a process will need explicit instruction as they learn at the beginning of Chapter 3.) Composi- and apply more sophisticated and complex tion standards in grades nine through strategies. 183

Chapter 5 Content Standards Ninth Grade and Tenth Grade and Instructional Practices— Grades Nine Through Twelve Standards and Instruction

n the ninth and tenth grades, Reading students continue to apply the I knowledge and skills acquired in the 1.0 Word Analysis, Fluency, earlier grades but in more refined and and Systematic Vocabulary sophisticated ways. In some cases stan- Development dards address new goals, such as mastering 2.0 Reading Comprehension appropriate interviewing techniques. (Focus on Informational Materials) Regardless, emphasis continues to be 3.0 Literary Response and Analysis centered on analyzing literature in greater depth, analyzing career-related and other Writing informational discourse, completing more 1.0 Writing Strategies complex writing assignments, and giving 2.0 Writing Applications (Genres and more extensive oral presentations. The Their Characteristics) strands to be emphasized at the ninth- grade and tenth-grade levels are listed in the adjacent column under the appro- Written and Oral English- priate domains. Language Conventions The following sections profile focus 1.0 Written and Oral English-Language areas within each of the strands. Conventions

Listening and Speaking 1.0 Listening and Speaking Strategies 2.0 Speaking Applications (Genres and Their Characteristics) 184

Chapter 5 expository texts vary somewhat from the Content Standards Reading Word Analysis, strategies used for narrative texts (fiction and Instructional Fluency, and Practices— and biography). For example, students Systematic Vocabulary Grades Nine need to recognize the structural features Through Twelve Development and organization unique to nonnarrative Applying etymological and morphologi- texts, such as the use of headings and cal knowledge to word meanings continues subheadings. Much of the expository NInth Grade and reading done in high school is taken from Tenth Grade to be emphasized, particularly words textbooks and related academic readings Standards and derived from Greek, Roman, and Norse Instruction mythology. Students also distinguish assigned in classes other than English class. between the denotative and connotative Therefore, teachers in all disciplines should meanings of words and learn about the share responsibility for student achieve- power of connotative meanings. ment in this area. Instruction in word derivation should Students are expected to develop take place throughout the year as a rela- critical-thinking skills appropriate in all tively small part of several lessons. In academic areas, such as: addition, all work in vocabulary study • Synthesizing the content and ideas should be reviewed cumulatively and from several sources focused on a periodically throughout the year. New single issue or written by a single vocabulary—especially when it represents author new conceptual knowledge—is rarely • Producing evidence of comprehen- acquired without such review. Often, sion by paraphrasing ideas and students at this level may study word connecting them to other sources and derivations independently, but their work to related topics should be closely monitored by the teacher. • Extending ideas presented in primary Because the standards for the ninth and or secondary sources through original tenth grades emphasize Greek, Roman, and analysis, evaluation, and elaboration Norse mythology as sources for word In the ninth and tenth grades, the derivations, some reading assignments structural features of workplace documents should involve those topics. (e.g., business letters, memos, minutes, and procedural manuals) receive primary Reading Reading attention in contrast to the focus on Comprehension consumer materials in the eighth grade. In addition, students are required to demon- Comprehension and analysis of infor- strate their ability to follow the types of mational materials have not been focused sophisticated technical directions found in on in language arts instruction at the high advanced software programs or Internet school level. Instead, emphasis has tradi- resources. Students are likely to experience tionally been placed on the study of literary difficulties with technology guides because works. Although anthologies of literature the terminology is unclear or the material now provide many nonfiction selections is not well written or user-friendly. Instruc- (and suggested learning activities to tion should help students identify the accompany the selections), teachers may reasons for technological material to be need to expand classroom collections of difficult to follow. Moreover, the instruc- expository readings of various lengths. In tion should tie into students’ own exposi- addition, effective strategies for studying tory writing. 185

Students in the ninth and tenth grades requirements dictated by those standards, Chapter 5 Content Standards are required to produce bibliographies of teachers must ensure that many student and Instructional reference materials, using a variety of assignments and activities serve more than Practices— documents. Students preparing research a single purpose in the curriculum. Grades Nine Through Twelve reports in high school most frequently use In reading literary pieces, students in the works-cited model (including only the ninth and tenth grades should analyze reference sources quoted or otherwise such elements as the following: referred to in the student work) rather NInth Grade and • Character, interactions among Tenth Grade than the more extensive bibliography characters, and interactions between Standards and (including all materials used for back- characters and plot Instruction ground and research). Within the text • Time and sequence (e.g., foreshad- students more frequently use a parentheti- owing and flashbacks) cal model (author-date) rather than • Comparison of universal themes in endnotes or footnotes. For students to several works understand and appreciate the function of • Literary elements, such as figurative reference citations, they should consider language, allegory, and symbolism the types of problems researchers would • Ambiguities, contradictions, and have if one or more elements were missing ironies in the text from a citation or reference. Acceptable • Voice or persona (point of view) formats for presenting this information Although the elements of literature at include the guidelines published by the this level are fundamental and have been Modern Language Association and by the targeted in the earlier grades, many are American Psychological Association. sophisticated concepts that require explicit Whichever is selected, it should be used instruction in strategies before mastery can meticulously and consistently throughout be achieved. For instance, figurative the document. language holds a cluster of challenging concepts. The goal here for students is not Reading Literary Response simply to define literary elements but to and Analysis understand them in depth as an aid to The literary response and analysis reading and creating expressive discourse strand is an area of comfort and expertise of their own. As a scaffolding technique, for English teachers at the high school students should be prompted to look for level. Indeed, the opportunity to share very specific elements in reading. (Ex- literary works with students is a common ample: “Look for the metaphor in which motivating force in a person’s decision to something is compared to birds. Also, become a high school English teacher. look at the imagery the narrator uses to Typically, novels are the core texts for describe her garden.”) literary analysis in high school and are By the end of high school, students are supplemented with short stories, essays, expected to be familiar with the purposes and poetry. Teachers should note that and characteristics of the major genres of current anthologies of literature are much literature. These standards identify the more than compilations of short stories grade-level focus as follows: grade seven— and poems and offer a wealth of instruc- prose; grade eight—poetry; grades nine tional strategies and activities, many of and ten—drama; and grades eleven and which integrate several language arts twelve—subgenres that span genres, such standards. To meet the demanding as satire. 186

Chapter 5 One feature of this standard takes place Content Standards Writing Writing Strategies and Instructional largely outside the classroom. Students in Practices— the ninth and tenth grades are expected to At this level writing extends the empha- Grades Nine read independently about one and one- Through Twelve sis in earlier grades on establishing a half million words annually. (One million coherent controlling theme that conveys a words are expected to be read annually by clear and distinctive perspective on the the end of the eighth grade and two subject and maintains a consistent tone NInth Grade and million words annually by the end of the Tenth Grade and focus throughout the piece of writing. twelfth grade.) For the grade-level reader, Standards and Coherence can be a difficult concept for Instruction two million words translate to about 11 many students. On occasion students pages per day or one 335-page book each should work cooperatively in revising for month. coherence, using scaffolded think sheets as Although instructional formats and guides for helping one another obtain strategies used for outside reading have useful feedback and revise text. They are much in common for formats and strate- likely to need continuing assistance in gies used in teaching core literature works, developing themes that are clear and there are significant differences. The neither too broad nor too narrow for their students’ choices are more important in targeted document’s purpose and length. outside reading and may result in less This standard also includes require- diverse selections because young readers ments in research and technology. Stu- typically choose to focus on a single dents in the ninth and tenth grades should author, topic, or genre for a period of time. be competent in: Reading should not be limited to works of • Using clear, nontrivial research fiction or nonfiction but should include questions and suitable research magazines, especially those of special methodology from primary and interest to the students; newspapers; and secondary sources online sources. A variety of methods are • Synthesizing information from available to assess reading done outside the multiple sources to support the thesis classroom, including student-maintained • Identifying complexities, discrepan- reading logs and book reports in various cies, and differing perspectives in the formats. In relation to the standard, the researched information instructional focus should be placed on • Embedding quotations and citations the reading itself rather than on the final skillfully and using bibliographic report on the reading. conventions appropriately Independent reading significantly improves a student’s reading comprehen- Students are also expected to use sion and vocabulary and increases familiar- advanced publishing software to create ity with models of good writing and final documents. Ready access to technol- conventions of writing and spelling. It also ogy hardware, software, and Internet-based serves an important affective purpose; that resources is a prerequisite to student is, to develop a lifelong appreciation for proficiency in this area. As with reading for reading for pleasure and information. information, responsibility for instruction Recent research indicates that the volume in research and technology skills in high of reading also affects general cognitive school might be shared with teachers of development. other disciplines that require such skills. 187

• Correct spelling Chapter 5 Writing Writing Applications Content Standards • Manuscript conventions: title page, and Instructional This standard identifies the kinds of pagination, spacing and margins Practices— • Appropriate citations for source and Grades Nine writing that students in the ninth and Through Twelve tenth grades are expected to produce. support material These writing assignments allow students These standards are mostly the continua- to apply the general strategies of organization of standards from earlier grade levels. NInth Grade and tion and focus, revision, and research Some students will need explicit remedial Tenth Grade methodology described in the standard. instruction for some standards that were Standards and The specific genres or text structures previously introduced but not mastered. Instruction practiced in the eighth grade continue in The use of individualized instructional the ninth and tenth grades, with increasing software is one way in which teachers can sophistication and length. When appropri- efficiently address individual student ate, student texts should be 1,500 words in deficits. length (about five to six pages, typed and Many students will need help with some double-spaced). aspect of the conventions standards. The most important considerations for Although certain standards should require teaching students to write various text very little instruction (e.g., manuscript structures are: conventions), some usage topics will most 1. Interrelating different standards likely plague many students (e.g., whether that all address the same text to use affect or effect; case of pronouns). structure 2. Providing models of each text structure, including examples of Listening and Speaking student writing Listening and 3. Identifying the critical elements of Speaking Strategies each text structure for students Generally, these standards fall into two 4. Providing instructional opportuni- categories, delivering oral communications ties to learn about writing for a and analyzing oral and media communica- variety of purposes and helping tions. (Note: Not all of the standards are students achieve a sense of audience listed. See the English–Language Arts Content Standards for the complete list.) Written and Oral English- Delivering Oral Communications Language Conventions • Αpply standard structural elements Conventions emphasized at this level of expressive discourse. include: • Use various visual aids and electronic media. • Sentence and paragraph structure: • Use devices of oral rhetoric (intona- main and subordinate clauses, tion, gestures, eye contact). phrases, parallel structure, consis- • Produce concise notes for extempora- tency of verb tenses, placement of neous oral presentations. modifiers • Punctuation: semicolons, colons, Analyzing Oral and Media Presentations ellipses, hyphens • Compare how different media cover • Grammar and usage, diction, syntax the same event. 188

Chapter 5 • Compare significant historical Most of the genres in the standards for Content Standards and Instructional speeches and the rhetorical devices oral presentations are also targets of Practices— used. standards at other levels and within other Grades Nine • Analyze structural elements of oral domains. Such strongly related standards at Through Twelve and media presentations. this level should be taught in conjunction • Analyze rhetorical elements. with one another. Some oral presentations • Analyze orally presented arguments. should be carefully prepared and rehearsed; NInth Grade and • Evaluate the aesthetic effects and others should be extemporaneous. Tenth Grade techniques of media presentations. Students in the ninth and tenth grades Standards and Instruction The basic structural elements of oral are also required to apply appropriate presentations overlap significantly with interviewing techniques. This skill is useful written expression: logical patterns of in information gathering, such as inter- organization, techniques for developing viewing a Vietnam veteran about wartime introductions and conclusions, develop- experiences, and also relates directly to ment of a clear thesis, and so on. For that students’ future career and job opportuni- reason instruction should be made efficient ties. Students should be provided with by addressing the structural elements in background scenarios for interviews and conjunction with oral and written expres- then can work on interview techniques in sion. Students can present orally the cooperative learning groups. Interviews are compositions they have written, giving good examples of activities that combine them an opportunity to focus on the types listening and speaking skills. of rhetorical elements unique to speech. Text structures and skills in listening So that students can be assisted in and reading are connected in the same way analyzing oral and media presentations, in which speaking and writing are con- they should first be taught the basic nected. Just as reading comprehension is structures of such presentations through more than decoding and pronunciation, the use of models and formal instruction. listening is more than simply hearing They are thereby equipped with the tools spoken words. Students in the ninth and they need for their own analyses. For tenth grades are expected to analyze and example, students might first read a script evaluate a speaker’s arguments and tone for a situation comedy and then watch and the techniques used to create them. other comedies, evaluating the extent to The use of comparison and contrast is an which basic elements recur and identifying effective instructional strategy to help the elements of tone, timing, and delivery students note the key features in oral that contribute to creating humor. presentations. For example, students might compare and contrast Lincoln’s “Gettysburg Address” and Martin Luther Listening and Speaking King’s “I Have a Dream” or Shakespeare’s Speaking Henry V and Kenneth Branagh’s 1990 film Applications version of that play. Students are also required to evaluate the clarity, quality, and Students are required to deliver presen- effectiveness of live speakers (including tations of the following types: narrative their peers) and of media presentations. (autobiographical or fictional); expository Please see Appendix B for examples of (research); oral responses to literature; standards that span domains and strands. argument or persuasion; and descriptive. 189

Chapter 5 Content Standards Ninth Grade and Tenth Grade and Instructional Practices— Grades Nine Curricular and Through Twelve Instructional Profile

Reading Standard 1.3

DOMAIN STRAND SUBSTRAND STANDARD

Reading 1.0 Word analysis, Vocabulary 1.3 Identify Greek, Roman, fluency, and and concept and Norse mythology systematic development and use the knowledge vocabulary to understand the origin development and meaning of new words.

Prerequisite standards. Seventh-Grade Word Analysis, Fluency, and Systematic Vocabulary Development Standards 1.2, 1.3. Standard 1.2: Use knowledge of Greek, Latin, and Anglo-Saxon roots and affixes to understand content-area vocabulary. Standard 1.3: Clarify word meanings through the use of definition, example, restatement, or contrast. Corequisite standard. Ninth-Grade and Tenth-Grade Word Analysis, Fluency, and Systematic Vocabulary Development Standard 1.1: Identify and use the literal and figurative meanings of words and understand word derivations.

Curricular and Instructional Decisions

Instructional Develop vocabulary systematically, applying etymology and mor- Objective phology, with particular emphasis being given to the contributions of Greek, Roman, and Norse mythology to English vocabulary.

Instructional Beginning in the fourth grade, standards have emphasized the use of Design internal etymological and morphological cues as well as external context cues. Therefore, students should be very familiar with contributions that morphological and etymological cues can make to vocabulary development. 190

Chapter 5 Instructional In the ninth and tenth grades, that emphasis extends to analyzing Content Standards Design and Instructional words according to etymology and morphology, specifically to the Practices— (Continued) contributions of Greek, Roman, and Norse mythology to the Grades Nine English language. Such an analysis should include comparing literal Through Twelve etymological meanings with meanings currently in use. Words (e.g., roots) selected for initial instruction can lead to many other words, all of which contain that meaning (e.g., solar, solstice, so- NInth Grade and larium). Other useful roots can then be introduced (e.g., fortune, a Tenth Grade word derived from Fortuna, Roman goddess of luck and vengeance; Curricular and Instructional or cloth, derived from one of the three sisters of fate in Greek Profile mythology, Clotho, who spun the thread of life in her spindle). Words derived from mythology are often based on proper names, such as Narcissus as the basis for narcissistic. Students can study this category of word derivation beyond mythology as well. For instance, the word maverick is derived from the name of a Texas cattle rancher (Samuel A. Maverick), who did not brand his calves.

Instructional Many tools are available to students for working independently and Delivery successfully on morphological and etymological word derivations. Textbooks should supply the fundamentals for the study of derivations and effective activities for independent application. Several trade books found in the reference section of most bookstores also address the vocabulary and conceptual development standards well (e.g., books on word origins, morphemically based vocabulary books, dictionaries). Many of the tools are also available through the Internet. Throughout the year teachers, by themselves or with the aid of textbooks, should briefly review the fundamentals of instruction in derivations and particularly useful affixes and roots.

Assessment 1. Entry-Level Assessment for Instructional Planning. Students can be tested on their knowledge of high-frequency prefixes, Entry-Level suffixes, and some nonword bases. Tasks should include Assessment (a) asking students the meanings of some of the morphological elements; and (b) giving students some meanings and asking them to identify parts that correspond. Students should also be evaluated on their ability to break a word into its component parts.

Monitoring 2. Monitoring Student Progress Toward the Instructional Objective. Student The most important characteristic of monitoring student Progress progress in areas such as vocabulary (and oral and written language conventions) is cumulative monitoring; that is, checking periodically to determine whether students have 191

Assessment retained the knowledge and skill learned throughout the school Chapter 5 (Continued) Content Standards year. If they have not, teachers should provide additional and Instructional opportunities for study and review. Practices— Grades Nine Post-test 3. Post-test Assessment Toward the Standard. Students should Through Twelve Assessment demonstrate their ability to extract the meanings of unfamiliar words through internal morphological and etymological cues

(as well as context cues). They should show their work by Ninth Grade and indicating which meanings of which word parts led them to Tenth Grade their inferences of word meanings. Curricular and Instructional Profile Universal 1. Students with Reading Difficulties or Disabilities. Some students Access may require more instruction and practice than do others in extracting meanings. Support should be provided through Reading scaffolded activities, explicit instruction, and peer assistance. Difficulties or Disabilities 2. Students Who Are Advanced Learners. These students can be expected not only to work on systematic vocabulary develop- Advanced Learners ment independently but also to conduct sophisticated analyses of words. (Note: The morphology and derivation of many words are not always clear. For example, linguistic experts are uncertain about the derivation and morphological makeup of the word embarrassed.) Advanced students can investigate such words and offer hypotheses regarding their derivation and makeup, citing evidence and sources to support those hypotheses. These students can also investigate esoteric derivations, such as the relationship between the Latin meaning of port and words such as inopportune and porterhouse steak. Applications involving sophisticated linguistic puzzles also offer challenges to highly motivated students.

English Learners 3. Students Who Are English Learners. English learners often acquire the meaning of new words without being able to use them because they have not learned the grammatical rules governing usage and lack knowledge of the specific contexts in which the words are used. For instance, they may learn the meanings of such sophisticated words as torrid, pungent, and umbrage without having any idea how to use them in communication. (Consider, for instance, the learner who wrote, “She burned her tongue on the torrid food.”) Teachers should provide English learners with information concerning not only the origins of words but also the use of words. English learners need to be helped to use the words appropriately in sentences. English learners often have great difficulty in acquiring more basic academic words (such as comprise, denote, signify, summarize, and mention) than words of Greek, Latin, and Old Norse derivation. However, they benefit from instruction in the 192

Chapter 5 Universal academic words, which appear in great number in middle Content Standards Access and Instructional school and high school textbooks. They also benefit from Practices— (Continued) increased exposure to the words, opportunities to use them, Grades Nine and feedback as to usage. Through Twelve

Instructional Instructional materials should provide teachers with substantial NInth Grade and Materials means for teaching all the standards related to the more conven- Tenth Grade tional language arts instruction: vocabulary, grammar and usage, Curricular and spelling, capitalization, and punctuation. Students at this level will Instructional Profile differ in their ability to use the conventions. Instructional materials should, therefore, be focused on independent activities that can be assigned as needed. 193

Chapter 5 Content Standards Ninth Grade and Tenth Grade and Instructional Practices— Grades Nine Through Twelve English–Language Arts Content Standards

Reading including a wide variety of classic and contemporary literature, magazines, newspapers, and 1.0 Word Analysis, Fluency, online information. In grades nine and ten, and Systematic Vocabulary students make substantial progress toward this Development goal. Students apply their knowledge of word Structural Features of Informational origins to determine the meaning of new words Materials encountered in reading materials and use those 2.1 Analyze the structure and format of words accurately. functional workplace documents, Vocabulary and Concept Development including the graphics and headers, and 1.1 Identify and use the literal and figura- explain how authors use the features to tive meanings of words and understand achieve their purposes. word derivations. 2.2 Prepare a bibliography of reference 1.2. Distinguish between the denotative and materials for a report using a variety connotative meanings of words and of consumer, workplace, and public interpret the connotative power of documents. words. Comprehension and Analysis of Grade- 1.3 Identify Greek, Roman, and Norse Level-Appropriate Text mythology and use the knowledge to 2.3 Generate relevant questions about understand the origin and meaning of readings on issues that can be researched. new words (e.g., the word narcissistic 2.4 Synthesize the content from several drawn from the myth of Narcissus sources or works by a single author and Echo). dealing with a single issue; paraphrase 2.0 Reading Comprehension the ideas and connect them to other (Focus on Informational sources and related topics to demonstrate Materials) comprehension. Students read and understand grade-level- 2.5 Extend ideas presented in primary or appropriate material. They analyze the secondary sources through original organizational patterns, arguments, and analysis, evaluation, and elaboration. positions advanced. The selections in Recom- 2.6 Demonstrate use of sophisticated mended Literature, Grades Nine Through learning tools by following technical Twelve (1990) illustrate the quality and directions (e.g., those found with graphic complexity of the materials to be read by calculators and specialized software students. In addition, by grade twelve, students programs and in access guides to World read two million words annually on their own, Wide Web sites on the Internet). 194194

ChapterChapter 55 Expository Critique 3.5 Compare works that express a universal ContentContent StandardsStandards theme and provide evidence to support andand InstructionalInstructional 2.7 Critique the logic of functional Practices—Practices— documents by examining the sequence the ideas expressed in each work. GradesGrades NineNine of information and procedures in 3.6 Analyze and trace an author’s develop- ThroughThrough TwelveTwelve anticipation of possible reader misun- ment of time and sequence, including derstandings. the use of complex literary devices 2.8 Evaluate the credibility of an author’s (e.g., foreshadowing, flashbacks). NInth Grade and argument or defense of a claim by 3.7 Recognize and understand the signifi- Tenth Grade critiquing the relationship between cance of various literary devices, English–Language generalizations and evidence, the including figurative language, imagery, Arts Content comprehensiveness of evidence, and the allegory, and symbolism, and explain Standards way in which the author’s intent affects their appeal. the structure and tone of the text 3.8 Interpret and evaluate the impact of (e.g., in professional journals, editorials, ambiguities, subtleties, contradictions, political speeches, primary source ironies, and incongruities in a text. material). 3.9 Explain how voice, persona, and the choice of a narrator affect characteriza- 3.0 Literary Response and Analysis tion and the tone, plot, and credibility Students read and respond to historically or of a text. culturally significant works of literature that 3.10 Identify and describe the function of reflect and enhance their studies of history and dialogue, scene designs, soliloquies, social science. They conduct in-depth analyses asides, and character foils in dramatic of recurrent patterns and themes. The literature. selections in Recommended Literature, Grades Literary Criticism Nine Through Twelve illustrate the quality and 3.11 Evaluate the aesthetic qualities of style, complexity of the materials to be read by including the impact of diction and students. figurative language on tone, mood, and Structural Features of Literature theme, using the terminology of literary 3.1 Articulate the relationship between the criticism. (Aesthetic approach) expressed purposes and the characteris- 3.12 Analyze the way in which a work of tics of different forms of dramatic literature is related to the themes and literature (e.g., comedy, tragedy, drama, issues of its historical period. (Historical dramatic monologue). approach) 3.2 Compare and contrast the presentation of a similar theme or topic across genres Writing to explain how the selection of genre 1.0 Writing Strategies shapes the theme or topic. Students write coherent and focused essays that Narrative Analysis of Grade-Level- convey a well-defined perspective and tightly Appropriate Text reasoned argument. The writing demonstrates 3.3 Analyze interactions between main and students’ awareness of the audience and subordinate characters in a literary text purpose. Students progress through the stages (e.g., internal and external conflicts, of the writing process as needed. motivations, relationships, influences) and explain the way those interactions Organization and Focus affect the plot. 1.1 Establish a controlling impression or 3.4 Determine characters’ traits by what the coherent thesis that conveys a clear and characters say about themselves in distinctive perspective on the subject and narration, dialogue, dramatic mono- maintain a consistent tone and focus logue, and soliloquy. throughout the piece of writing. 195195

1.2 Use precise language, action verbs, organizational, and drafting strategies outlined ChapterChapter 5 5 sensory details, appropriate modifiers, in Writing Standard 1.0. ContentContent Standards Standards andand Instructional Instructional and the active rather than the passive Using the writing strategies of grades nine and Practices—Practices— voice. GradesGrades Nine Nine ten outlined in Writing Standard 1.0, students: ThroughThrough Twelve Twelve Research and Technology 2.1 Write biographical or autobiographical 1.3 Use clear research questions and suitable narratives or short stories: research methods (e.g., library, electronic a. Relate a sequence of events and media, personal interview) to elicit and Ninth Grade and communicate the significance of the Tenth Grade present evidence from primary and events to the audience. English–Language secondary sources. b. Locate scenes and incidents in specific Arts Content Standards 1.4 Develop the main ideas within the body places. of the composition through supporting c. Describe with concrete sensory details evidence (e.g., scenarios, commonly held the sights, sounds, and smells of a beliefs, hypotheses, definitions). scene and the specific actions, move- 1.5 Synthesize information from multiple ments, gestures, and feelings of the sources and identify complexities and characters; use interior monologue to discrepancies in the information and the depict the characters’ feelings. different perspectives found in each d. Pace the presentation of actions to medium (e.g., almanacs, microfiche, accommodate changes in time and news sources, in-depth field studies, mood. speeches, journals, technical documents). e. Make effective use of descriptions of 1.6 Integrate quotations and citations into a appearance, images, shifting perspec- written text while maintaining the flow tives, and sensory details. of ideas. 2.2 Write responses to literature: 1.7 Use appropriate conventions for a. Demonstrate a comprehensive grasp of documentation in the text, notes, and bibliographies by adhering to those in the significant ideas of literary works. b. Support important ideas and view- style manuals (e.g., Modern Language points through accurate and detailed Association Handbook, The Chicago Manual of Style). references to the text or to other works. 1.8 Design and publish documents by using c. Demonstrate awareness of the author’s advanced publishing software and graphic programs. use of stylistic devices and an appreciation of the effects created. Evaluation and Revision d. Identify and assess the impact of 1.9 Revise writing to improve the logic and perceived ambiguities, nuances, and coherence of the organization and complexities within the text. controlling perspective, the precision of 2.3 Write expository compositions, including word choice, and the tone by taking into analytical essays and research reports: consideration the audience, purpose, and a. Marshal evidence in support of a thesis formality of the context. and related claims, including information on all relevant perspectives. 2.0 Writing Applications (Genres b. Convey information and ideas from and Their Characteristics) primary and secondary sources Students combine the rhetorical strategies of accurately and coherently. narration, exposition, persuasion, and descrip- c. Make distinctions between the relative tion to produce texts of at least 1,500 words value and significance of specific data, each. Student writing demonstrates a command facts, and ideas. of standard American English and the research, 196

Chapter 5 d. Include visual aids by employing c. Include scenarios, definitions, and Content Standards appropriate technology to organize examples to aid comprehension and Instructional Practices— and record information on charts, (e.g., troubleshooting guide). Grades Nine maps, and graphs. d. Anticipate readers’ problems, Through Twelve e. Anticipate and address readers’ mistakes, and misunderstandings. potential misunderstandings, biases, and expectations. f. Use technical terms and notations Written and Oral English NInth Grade and Language Conventions Tenth Grade accurately. English–Language 2.4 Write persuasive compositions: The standards for written and oral English Arts Content language conventions have been placed a. Structure ideas and arguments in a Standards between those for writing and for listening and sustained and logical fashion. speaking because these conventions are b. Use specific rhetorical devices to essential to both sets of skills. support assertions (e.g., appeal to logic through reasoning; appeal to 1.0 Written and Oral English emotion or ethical belief; relate a Language Conventions personal anecdote, case study, or Students write and speak with a command of analogy). standard English conventions. c. Clarify and defend positions with Grammar and Mechanics of Writing precise and relevant evidence, including facts, expert opinions, 1.1 Identify and correctly use clauses quotations, and expressions of (e.g., main and subordinate), phrases commonly accepted beliefs and (e.g., gerund, infinitive, and parti- logical reasoning. cipial), and mechanics of punctuation d. Address readers’ concerns, counter- (e.g., semicolons, colons, ellipses, claims, biases, and expectations. hyphens). 1.2 Understand sentence construction 2.5 Write business letters: (e.g., parallel structure, subordination, a. Provide clear and purposeful proper placement of modifiers) and information and address the proper English usage (e.g., consistency intended audience appropriately. of verb tenses). b. Use appropriate vocabulary, tone, 1.3 Demonstrate an understanding of and style to take into account the proper English usage and control of nature of the relationship with, and grammar, paragraph and sentence the knowledge and interests of, the structure, diction, and syntax. recipients. c. Highlight central ideas or images. Manuscript Form d. Follow a conventional style with 1.4 Produce legible work that shows page formats, fonts, and spacing that accurate spelling and correct use of the contribute to the documents’ conventions of punctuation and readability and impact. capitalization. 1.5 Reflect appropriate manuscript 2.6 Write technical documents (e.g., a requirements, including title page manual on rules of behavior for conflict presentation, pagination, spacing and resolution, procedures for conducting a margins, and integration of source and meeting, minutes of a meeting): support material (e.g., in-text citation, a. Report information and convey use of direct quotations, paraphrasing) ideas logically and correctly. with appropriate citations. b. Offer detailed and accurate specifications. 197

Chapter 5 Listening and Speaking 1.8 Produce concise notes for extemporaneous delivery. Content Standards and Instructional 1.0 Listening and Speaking 1.9 Analyze the occasion and the interests Practices— Strategies of the audience and choose effective Grades Nine verbal and nonverbal techniques Through Twelve Students formulate adroit judgments about (e.g., voice, gestures, eye contact) for oral communication. They deliver focused and presentations. coherent presentations of their own that convey clear and distinct perspectives and solid Analysis and Evaluation of Oral Ninth Grade and Tenth Grade reasoning. They use gestures, tone, and and Media Communications vocabulary tailored to the audience and English–Language 1.10 Analyze historically significant speeches Arts Content purpose. (e.g., Abraham Lincoln’s “Gettysburg Standards Comprehension Address,” Martin Luther King, Jr.’s “I Have a Dream”) to find the rhetori- 1.1 Formulate judgments about the ideas cal devices and features that make them under discussion and support those memorable. judgments with convincing evidence. 1.11 Assess how language and delivery affect 1.2 Compare and contrast the ways in the mood and tone of the oral commu- which media genres (e.g., televised nication and make an impact on the news, news magazines, documentaries, audience. online information) cover the same 1.12 Evaluate the clarity, quality, effective- event. ness, and general coherence of a Organization and Delivery of Oral speaker’s important points, arguments, Communication evidence, organization of ideas, 1.3 Choose logical patterns of organization delivery, diction, and syntax. (e.g., chronological, topical, cause and 1.13 Analyze the types of arguments used by effect) to inform and to persuade, by the speaker, including argument by soliciting agreement or action, or to causation, analogy, authority, emotion, unite audiences behind a common and logic. belief or cause. 1.14 Identify the aesthetic effects of a 1.4 Choose appropriate techniques for media presentation and evaluate the developing the introduction and techniques used to create them conclusion (e.g., by using literary (e.g., compare Shakespeare’s Henry V quotations, anecdotes, references to with Kenneth Branagh’s 1990 film authoritative sources). version). 1.5 Recognize and use elements of classical speech forms (e.g., introduction, first 2.0 Speaking Applications (Genres and second transitions, body, conclu- and Their Characteristics) sion) in formulating rational arguments Students deliver polished formal and extempo- and applying the art of persuasion and raneous presentations that combine the debate. traditional rhetorical strategies of narration, 1.6 Present and advance a clear thesis exposition, persuasion, and description. statement and choose appropriate types Student speaking demonstrates a command of of proof (e.g., statistics, testimony, standard American English and the organiza- specific instances) that meet standard tional and delivery strategies outlined in tests for evidence, including credibility, Listening and Speaking Standard 1.0. validity, and relevance. 1.7 Use props, visual aids, graphs, and electronic media to enhance the appeal and accuracy of presentations. 198

Chapter 5 Using the speaking strategies of grades nine g. Evaluate the effectiveness of the Content Standards and ten outlined in Listening and Speaking interview. and Instructional Practices— Standard 1.0, students: 2.4 Deliver oral responses to literature: Grades Nine 2.1. Deliver narrative presentations: Through Twelve a. Advance a judgment demonstrating a a. Narrate a sequence of events and comprehensive grasp of the signifi- communicate their significance to cant ideas of works or passages the audience. (i.e., make and support warranted NInth Grade and b. Locate scenes and incidents in assertions about the text). Tenth Grade specific places. b. Support important ideas and English–Language c. Describe with concrete sensory viewpoints through accurate and Arts Content Standards details the sights, sounds, and smells detailed references to the text or to of a scene and the specific actions, other works. movements, gestures, and feelings of c. Demonstrate awareness of the characters. author’s use of stylistic devices and an d. Pace the presentation of actions to appreciation of the effects created. accommodate time or mood d. Identify and assess the impact of changes. perceived ambiguities, nuances, and 2.2 Deliver expository presentations: complexities within the text. a. Marshal evidence in support of a 2.5 Deliver persuasive arguments (including thesis and related claims, including evaluation and analysis of problems and information on all relevant perspec- solutions and causes and effects): tives. a. Structure ideas and arguments in a b. Convey information and ideas from coherent, logical fashion. primary and secondary sources b. Use rhetorical devices to support accurately and coherently. assertions (e.g., by appeal to logic c. Make distinctions between the through reasoning; by appeal to relative value and significance of emotion or ethical belief; by use of specific data, facts, and ideas. personal anecdote, case study, or d. Include visual aids by employing analogy). appropriate technology to organize c. Clarify and defend positions with and display information on charts, precise and relevant evidence, maps, and graphs. including facts, expert opinions, e. Anticipate and address the listener’s quotations, expressions of commonly potential misunderstandings, biases, accepted beliefs, and logical reason- and expectations. ing. f. Use technical terms and notations d. Anticipate and address the listener’s accurately. concerns and counterarguments. 2.3 Apply appropriate interviewing 2.6 Deliver descriptive presentations: techniques: a. Establish clearly the speaker’s point of a. Prepare and ask relevant questions. view on the subject of the presenta- b. Make notes of responses. tion. c. Use language that conveys maturity, b. Establish clearly the speaker’s sensitivity, and respect. relationship with that subject d. Respond correctly and effectively to (e.g., dispassionate observation, questions. personal involvement). e. Demonstrate knowledge of the c. Use effective, factual descriptions of subject or organization. appearance, concrete images, shifting f. Compile and report responses. perspectives and vantage points, and sensory details. 199

Chapter 5 Content Standards Eleventh Grade and Twelfth Grade and Instructional Practices— Grades Nine Through Twelve Standards and Instruction

he standards for the eleventh and Reading twelfth grades are the pinnacle of T all the standards for the language 1.0 Word Analysis, Fluency, arts. Most of the standards at this level are and Systematic Vocabulary sophisticated extensions of the knowledge Development and skills previously targeted in the earlier 2.0 Reading Comprehension grades. They highlight several interrela- (Focus on Informational Materials) tionships among the different domains of 3.0 Literary Response and Analysis language arts: reading, writing, written and oral English-language conventions, Writing and speaking and listening. The strands to 1.0 Writing Strategies be emphasized at the eleventh-grade and 2.0 Writing Applications (Genres twelfth-grade levels are listed in the and Their Characteristics) adjacent column under the appropriate domains. The following sections profile focus Written and Oral English- areas within each of the strands. Language Conventions 1.0 Written and Oral English-Language Conventions

Listening and Speaking 1.0 Listening and Speaking Strategies 2.0 Speaking Applications (Genres and Their Characteristics) 200

Chapter 5 evaluating and verifying facts and argu- Content Standards Reading Word Analysis, ments. At the structural level students and Instructional Fluency, and Practices— analyze the ways in which clarity of Grades Nine Systematic Vocabulary meaning interacts with elements such as Through Twelve Development word choice, organization, and syntax. Etymology and morphology are the The focus of the standards in this basis for systematically building vocabu- strand relates closely to the standards in Eleventh Grade writing (e.g., writing reports on historical and Twelfth lary at this level. The standards emphasize Grade using those strategies to attack terms from investigations); speaking (e.g., delivering Standards and political science, history–social science, multimedia presentations); and listening Instruction science, and mathematics. Once more, (e.g., identifying logical fallacies in oral however, issues of teacher responsibility arguments). Therefore, instruction should arise in a departmentalized school. English capitalize on those relationships by teachers may wonder how much time in addressing similar elements from different English class should be devoted to acquir- domains at one time. To do so contributes ing the vocabulary of other disciplines. not only to efficiency but also to learning Shared responsibility is obviously an ideal about important rhetorical considerations solution. Regardless, English teachers in more depth. For instance, students will should discuss the etymological and understand the elements of persuasion in morphological principles that help the greatest depth if they not only read students access meaning. persuasive discourse critically but also Vocabulary development should employ those elements in their own periodically occupy a small portion of writing and oral presentations. classroom time in the eleventh and twelfth grades. Most students should be able to Reading Literary Response study word derivations independently. and Analysis Teachers should continue to direct students’ attention to external context cues By the end of high school, students are for meaning. expected to be familiar with the purposes and characteristics of the major genres of literature. Reading Standard 3.0, Literary Reading Reading Response and Analysis, identifies the Comprehension grade-level emphasis as follows: grade Informational reading in the twelfth seven—prose; grade eight—poetry; grades grade is focused on public documents nine and ten—drama; and grades eleven (e.g., policy statements, speeches, debates, and twelve—subgenres that span genres, platforms). In addition to the documents, such as satire and parody. public statements contained in formal In these culminating years this standard speeches and informal interviews offer is focused on analyzing the historical abundant opportunities for students to genres and literary traditions of American practice the analytic and evaluative skills literature and world literature. The described in this standard. Point-of-view traditional emphasis on British literature essays in news magazines and editorials in in the twelfth grade has been expanded to newspapers are rich sources of additional include works from other countries. Some instructional materials. The strongest of the novels or selections students read emphasis at the content level is directed to should be drawn from historically or 201 culturally significant works of literature month. (Independent reading is discussed Chapter 5 Content Standards that reflect and enhance their studies of in greater detail in the literary response and Instructional history–social science at this level. and analysis strand for the ninth and tenth Practices— Whether reading American or world grades.) Grades Nine Through Twelve literature, students in the eleventh and twelfth grades are expected to: Writing Writing Strategies • Contrast the major literary forms and Eleventh Grade characteristics of the major literary Organization and Focus and Twelfth periods. Grade Students should demonstrate full • Relate literary works and authors to Standards and knowledge of the basic elements of Instruction major themes and issues of their eras. discourse (e.g., audience) as well as more • Analyze the philosophical, political, advanced literary devices, such as irony. religious, ethical, and social influences They should be able to write well-struc- that have shaped characters, plots, tured arguments with good support and and themes. employ rhetorical devices and visual aids Students at this level are expected to to enhance meaning. Their use of lan- achieve more advanced and sophisticated guage should be fresh and natural. standards. For the more challenging literary concepts, they need clear explanations and Research and Technology elaborations from teachers, together with Students should use a variety of extensive support throughout the process research strategies (e.g., experiments, of acquiring thorough knowledge of such interviews) and organize research informa- concepts. tion in systematic ways (e.g., through the Traditionally, literary evaluation has development of an annotated bibliogra- emphasized quality literature. Although phy). They should also integrate data- that emphasis should remain, instructional bases, graphics, and spreadsheets into benefits can occasionally be gained from word-processing documents. Students are exposure to less worthy examples of likely to need relatively brief but intense literature. For instance, to appreciate fully and explicit instruction in merging or the concept of satire as a subgenre, students importing various types of application files should read an example of satire in which into word-processing documents. Al- the author has not consistently separated though these activities fall into the the literal and satirical levels of the dis- language arts area of writing, classroom course. instruction and student activities may take The standards for both reading compre- place in a variety of subject-matter classes. hension (focus on informational materials) and literary response and analysis require Evaluation and Revision that “by grade twelve students read two Although students at this level should million words annually on their own, be familiar with all phases of the writing including a wide variety of classic and process, the standards focus on revising contemporary literature, magazines, text to highlight voice, improve sentence newspapers, and online information” (see variety and style, and enhance subtlety of pages 193 and 209 in this chapter). Two meaning and tone. The standards within million words translate to about 11 pages this strand should be addressed as students a day or about one 335-page book each work on their compositions for the 202

Chapter 5 writing applications strand and their style and format are still taught, equal Content Standards and Instructional presentations for the speaking applications emphasis is given to broader issues of Practices— strand. content, such as tone, clarity, and appro- Grades Nine priateness for the audience and purpose. Through Twelve Students will need less initial instruc- Writing Writing Applications tion for familiar writing genres than they Text structures in this category found will for those structures introduced at this Eleventh Grade level. Accordingly, the teacher may wish and Twelfth at earlier grade levels are fictional, auto- Grade biographical, and biographical narratives to: Standards and and responses to literature. In the eleventh • Interrelate different standards that Instruction and twelfth grades, the standards require address the same text structure when students to work with the structures at a possible. For instance, the standards more sophisticated level. When appropri- include both writing and presenting ate, student texts should be about 1,500 orally a report on a historical words in length (five to six pages, typed investigation. and double-spaced). • Provide models of each text struc- Three new types of composition are ture, including examples of student introduced in the eleventh and twelfth writing. Some of the models used grades. The first type is reflective composi- may be of lesser quality so that the tion. Although it resembles an autobiogra- impact of poor structures on the phy, it focuses on exploring the signifi- audience can be demonstrated. cance of personal experience or concerns. • Identify explicitly for students the A critical component is maintaining the critical elements of each text struc- appropriate balance between describing an ture. Students are unlikely to have incident and relating it to more abstract sufficient prior knowledge of the ideas. Like autobiographical writing, critical elements of a good multi- reflective writing has long been a focus of media presentation, for example. writing instruction in California’s high They need to become thoroughly schools. Instructional support materials familiar with such elements before should be readily available to assist the they attempt to integrate them into students. challenging and time-consuming Reports on historical investigation, the presentations. For instance, it is second type of composition, are new to crucial to resist the temptation to this standard. Students are required to use put more emphasis on the “bells and primary and secondary sources to compare whistles” of a multimedia presenta- different points of view regarding a single tion than on the effective communi- historical event and explain the reasons for cation of a theme. the similarities and differences. This • Have students do some cooperative activity is obviously appropriate in work throughout the varying phases history–social science classes as well as in of the writing process to provide English classes. additional instructional opportuni- The third new type of composition ties and help students achieve a sense acknowledges the issues of students’ of audience. approaching graduation from high school This standard also requires students to (i.e., filling out job applications and deliver multimedia presentations, a task writing résumés). Although conventional 203 that clearly integrates reading, writing, capitalization. Use of individualized Chapter 5 Content Standards and speaking and listening. Students are instructional software remains a valuable and Instructional expected to synthesize information from a remediation strategy. Practices— wide range of materials, including media Grades Nine Through Twelve sources, and create a culminating presen- Listening and Speaking tation that integrates text, images, and Listening and Speaking sound. Important elements in the process Strategies are the selection of an appropriate me- Eleventh Grade and Twelfth dium for each component of the presenta- Comprehension Grade tion and the skillful use of the selected At this level emphasis is given to Standards and Instruction media. To combine the requirements of analyzing media presentations of various several standards, students may wish to types (e.g., advertisements, speeches, film, adapt a composition they have already news) to help students recognize the written for use in the multimedia presen- strategies being used to inform, persuade, tation. or entertain. Access to an adequate number of computers and appropriate software is Organization and Delivery of Oral obviously a prerequisite to students’ Communication meeting this standard. In some schools Most of the standards at this level English teachers may need to work with concentrate on structural elements and other colleagues and departments to rhetorical techniques. Some elements and coordinate the use of equipment and techniques apply to several areas of training to accomplish this task. language arts, such as rhetorical questions, parallelism, concrete images, figurative language, and irony. Others, such as Written and Oral English- gesture, movement, vocalization, and Language Conventions rehearsal strategies, are unique to oral In the eleventh and twelfth grades, presentations. Students should use more emphasis is given to using standard standard English for clarity but recognize oral and written language conventions when informal language is effective and than to teaching them. Students are when technical language is needed. At this expected to control their use of grammar, culminating level students are required to paragraph and sentence structure, and use classic and contemporary forms of diction. In addition, their written work logical argument, including inductive and should be legible and edited to follow deductive reasoning and reasoning from standard conventions for spelling, capitali- analogies. zation, and punctuation. Writing should Analysis and Evaluation of Oral also reflect appropriate manuscript and Media Communications requirements. For many students explicit instruction Students critique oral presentations, will probably be necessary for some of the particularly media presentations, to content in this section. Individual instruc- evaluate rhetorical techniques as they tion or peer-mediated instruction is relate to the purpose of the presentation, appropriate for many students needing either stated or implied. In addition, they remedial work on conventions, such as are required to analyze the arguments improvement in legible writing and presented, a skill that requires some direct 204

Chapter 5 instruction. They should recognize com- delivered oral presentations from Content Standards and Instructional mon logical fallacies, such as false causality, fully written documents. A tactic for Practices— red herrings, and bandwagoning. Fallacies teaching students to present extem- Grades Nine are best taught in contrast to standard poraneous—or nearly extemporane- Through Twelve logical principles of premises and conclu- ous—presentations is first to make sions. brief outlines of major points on a variety of topics. Eleventh Grade • Allow students to present orally a and Twelfth Listening and Speaking discourse they had originally Grade Speaking Applications Standards and developed as a written composition. Instruction Students are required to deliver polished This approach also makes instruc- formal and extemporaneous reflective tion more efficient and encourages a presentations, oral reports on historical comparison between the same investigations, oral responses to literature, discourse as a written document and multimedia presentations, and recitations as a speech. Students will make of poems, selections from speeches, or some relatively minor changes in dramatic soliloquies. Except for recitations their written compositions to make of poetry, these same types of presentations them more effective in speech. For are targeted in the standards for the example, they will probably want to eleventh and twelfth grades within the break some complex sentences into writing applications strand. Even at this simpler structures as a general tactic level students may find it challenging to for giving speeches and as an aid to deliver oral presentations to a large group. varying intonation. The challenge can be made less frightening • Help students develop strong and more successful when teachers: introductions that will capture the • Allow students to deliver presenta- interest of their audience. tions initially to a small group of Please see Appendix B for examples of other students in a cooperative work standards that span domains and strands. group. • Postpone extemporaneous presentations until after the students have 205

Chapter 5 Content Standards Eleventh Grade and Twelfth Grade and Instructional Practices— Grades Nine Curricular and Through Twelve Instructional Profile

Reading Standard 3.8

DOMAIN STRAND SUBSTRAND STANDARD

Reading 3.0 Literary Literary 3.8 Analyze the clarity and response criticism consistency of political and analysis assumptions in a selection of literary works or essays on a topic (political approach).

Prerequisite standard. Ninth-Grade and Tenth-Grade Literary Response and Analysis Standard 3.12: Analyze the way in which a work of literature is related to the themes and issues of its historical period (historical approach). Corequisite standards. Eleventh-Grade and Twelfth-Grade Literary Response and Analysis Standards 3.1, 3.3. Standard 3.1: Analyze characteristics of subgenres that are used in poetry, prose, and so forth. Standard 3.3: Analyze the ways in which irony, tone, and mood achieve specific rhetorical and aesthetic purposes. Eleventh-Grade and Twelfth-Grade Writing Applications Standard 2.2: Write responses to literature. Eleventh-Grade and Twelfth-Grade Speaking Applications Standard 2.3: Deliver oral responses to literature.

Curricular and Instructional Decisions

Instructional Analyze the clarity and consistency of political assumptions in a Objective selection of literary works or essays on a particular topic.

Instructional A crucial element in achieving this objective is the assumption that Design students possess reasonably thorough knowledge about a given political topic. Although that knowledge can be obtained in con- 206

Chapter 5 Instructional junction with literary criticism activities, it is more efficient for Content Standards Design and Instructional learning that it take place through the coordination of the standards Practices— (Continued) for the eleventh and twelfth grades and those for the ninth and Grades Nine tenth grades. For example, one of the approaches to literary criti- Through Twelve cism in the ninth-grade and tenth-grade standards is historical. Accordingly, students might visit a topic at that level (e.g., establishment of labor unions) with a historical emphasis, then revisit the Eleventh Grade topic in the eleventh and twelfth grades, using more sophisticated and Twelfth Grade sources to learn the background necessary to conduct meaningful

Curricular and literary criticism through a political approach. Instructional Profile If readings are selected carefully, further economy in meeting ambitious standards can be achieved. For example, students might read some of Blake’s Songs of Innocence for background on child- labor abuses in England that contributed to the formation of labor unions there. Work with such literature can contribute to achieving other standards related to literary response and analysis as well. Students will learn that the contents of Songs of Innocence are not innocent and contribute to the students’ understanding of one way in which irony achieves a rhetorical effect. Simultaneously, students analyze characteristics of a variety of poems and other reading selections as part of their overall analysis of characteristics of the subgenres found within basic genres. Instruction should include portions of several other literary standards as well. The sequencing and selection of reading material can simultaneously influence the effectiveness and efficiency of instruction. One group of writing standards requires students to write responses to literature. When they have read several selections and have demonstrated their understanding of the political approach to literary criticism—either in an informal way or through class discussion or more formal assessments—the next logical step for students to take is to write a formal literary critique emphasizing responses to literature singled out in the writing standards.

Instructional Objective, thorough literary criticism is not easy to achieve. Instruc- Delivery tion should begin with a clear notion of what literary criticism is and how the approach currently under study (i.e., political) differs from approaches taught in earlier grades (e.g., historical). A good way to frame the instruction is to have students first read examples of political literary criticism before going to source selections and eventually writing a formal critique. Teachers should provide substantial guidance throughout this sequence, particularly in the form of explicit instruction in the elements of literary criticism unique to the political approach. 207

Chapter 5 Assessment 1. Entry-Level Assessment for Instructional Planning. Formal Content Standards pretesting at this level is neither practical nor necessary. and Instructional Practices— Entry-Level However, important prior knowledge assumed as prerequisite Grades Nine Assessment for instruction should be tested informally. For example, if Through Twelve instruction in a political approach to literary criticism assumes background knowledge of history, students should be tested

on that knowledge. The assessments can also serve as a mecha- Eleventh Grade nism for allowing students to review what they learned earlier. and Twelfth Grade Monitoring 2. Monitoring Student Progress Toward the Instructional Objective. Curricular and Student Throughout the year the activities students participate in Instructional Profile Progress provide multiple opportunities for ongoing evaluation of progress toward achieving standards. The crucial aspect of testing at this level is not the nature of the tests as much as how teachers use the results to make changes in the curriculum and instruction. For instance, if several students are having great difficulty with literary criticism, teachers should provide more scaffolded learning opportunities than they might do otherwise (e.g., procedural facilitators, such as think sheets).

Post-test 3. Post-test Assessment Toward the Standard. No single source of Assessment assessment can give a complete picture of student achievement of the standards. The types of tests required by the school district or the state contribute partially to the picture. Final independently produced compositions and oral presentations provide substantial significant data on achievement as well. For this standard in particular, a final written critique of a literary work is the best criterion-referenced assessment tool.

Universal 1. Students with Reading Difficulties or Disabilities. Doing sophis- Access ticated critical analyses of literature and writing about them are extremely challenging for students with disabilities or other learning difficulties. They will be helped enormously if Reading Difficulties teachers provide the substantial and explicit guidance previ- or Disabilities ously recommended. Teachers should read more challenging literary selections to the whole class. Lower-performing students may require significant support from peers while analyzing some literary selections. For very low performing students, the standards for writing sophistication may be adapted.

Advanced 2. Students Who Are Advanced Learners. Advanced students may Learners be exempted from the substantial and explicit instruction described previously if they demonstrate a satisfactory grasp of the concepts being taught. Independent study might be useful provided guidance by the teacher is available as needed. 208

Chapter 5 Universal (Advanced learners still need instruction and should not be Content Standards Access and Instructional expected to teach themselves.) Extending those students’ Practices— (Continued) learning to include the political analysis of writings about Grades Nine present-day concerns might prove to be stimulating, especially Through Twelve if students are thereby allowed to express their thoughts in genuine forums.

Eleventh Grade English Learners 3. Students Who Are English Learners and Twelfth Grade a. Teachers need to provide English learners with models of

Curricular and the types of literary analyses the learners are expected to Instructional produce. Also recommended are exercises that will help the Profile learners acquire the grammatical structures and vocabulary needed to perform the analyses and consistent feedback on the quality and accuracy of the learners’ written work. b. Because English learners may not have access to the same cultural knowledge as English speakers do in order to analyze political assumptions, teachers may need to provide the learners with additional information. c. English learners may not have acquired the grammatical structures and vocabulary needed to complete literary analyses. For instance, they may not have learned how to use the present tense to discuss specific types of literary texts. (Note how the present tense is used in this sentence: Hamlet dies and his son seeks revenge.) English learners require additional information on verb tense as well as instruction in introducing and incorporating short and long quotations into text to support literary analyses and in analyzing texts rather than merely summarizing them. d. As the learners acquire advanced academic vocabulary, they should be guided in the appropriate use of the words in their writing.

Instructional Instructional materials should provide the following: Materials 1. A sufficient number of examples of the genres targeted at this level that span reading, writing, and speaking 2. Procedural facilitators (i.e., devices designed to help facilitate acquisition of new knowledge and skills) 3. Reading selections coordinated to address more than a single standard 4. Examples of explicit strategies for achieving important standards 5. Substantial, significant resources for helping teachers accommodate a wide range of student achievement 209209

Chapter 5 Content Standards Eleventh Grade and Twelfth Grade and Instructional Practices— Grades Nine Through Twelve English–Language Arts Content Standards

students. In addition, by grade twelve, Reading students read two million words annually on 1.0. Word Analysis, Fluency, their own, including a wide variety of classic and Systematic Vocabulary and contemporary literature, magazines, Development newspapers, and online information. Students apply their knowledge of word Structural Features of Informational origins to determine the meaning of new Materials words encountered in reading materials and use those words accurately. 2.1 Analyze both the features and the rhetorical devices of different types of Vocabulary and Concept Development public documents (e.g., policy state- 1.1 Trace the etymology of significant ments, speeches, debates, platforms) terms used in political science and and the way in which authors use those history. features and devices. 1.2 Apply knowledge of Greek, Latin, and Comprehension and Analysis of Grade- Anglo-Saxon roots and affixes to draw Level-Appropriate Text inferences concerning the meaning of scientific and mathematical terminol- 2.2 Analyze the way in which clarity of ogy. meaning is affected by the patterns of 1.3 Discern the meaning of analogies organization, hierarchical structures, encountered, analyzing specific repetition of the main ideas, syntax, comparisons as well as relationships and word choice in the text. and inferences. 2.3 Verify and clarify facts presented in other types of expository texts by using 2.0 Reading Comprehension a variety of consumer, workplace, and (Focus on Informational public documents. Materials) 2.4. Make warranted and reasonable assertions about the author’s arguments Students read and understand grade-level- by using elements of the text to defend appropriate material. They analyze the and clarify interpretations. organizational patterns, arguments, and 2.5 Analyze an author’s implicit and positions advanced. The selections in Recom- explicit philosophical assumptions and mended Readings in Literature, Grades Nine beliefs about a subject. Through Twelve illustrate the quality and complexity of the materials to be read by 210

Chapter 5 Expository Critique b. Contrast the major periods, themes, Content Standards styles, and trends and describe how and Instructional 2.6 Critique the power, validity, and Practices— truthfulness of arguments set forth in works by members of different Grades Nine public documents; their appeal to both cultures relate to one another in Through Twelve friendly and hostile audiences; and the each period. extent to which the arguments antici- c. Evaluate the philosophical, political, pate and address reader concerns and religious, ethical, and social influ- Eleventh Grade counterclaims (e.g., appeal to reason, to ences of the historical period that and Twelfth authority, to pathos and emotion). shaped the characters, plots, and Grade settings. English–Language Arts Content 3.0 Literary Response and Analysis 3.6 Analyze the way in which authors Standards Students read and respond to historically or through the centuries have used culturally significant works of literature that archetypes drawn from myth and reflect and enhance their studies of history and tradition in literature, film, political social science. They conduct in-depth analyses speeches, and religious writings of recurrent themes. The selections in Recom- (e.g., how the archetypes of banishment mended Readings in Literature, Grades Nine from an ideal world may be used to Through Twelve illustrate the quality and interpret Shakespeare’s tragedy complexity of the materials to be read by Macbeth). students. 3.7 Analyze recognized works of world literature from a variety of authors: Structural Features of Literature a. Contrast the major literary forms, 3.1 Analyze characteristics of subgenres techniques, and characteristics of the (e.g., satire, parody, allegory, pastoral) major literary periods (e.g., Homeric that are used in poetry, prose, plays, Greece, medieval, romantic, novels, short stories, essays, and other neoclassic, modern). basic genres. b. Relate literary works and authors to the major themes and issues of their Narrative Analysis of Grade-Level- eras. Appropriate Text c. Evaluate the philosophical, political, 3.2 Analyze the way in which the theme or religious, ethical, and social influ- meaning of a selection represents a view ences of the historical period that or comment on life, using textual shaped the characters, plots, and, evidence to support the claim. settings. 3.3. Analyze the ways in which irony, tone, Literary Criticism mood, the author’s style, and the “sound” of language achieve specific 3.8 Analyze the clarity and consistency of rhetorical or aesthetic purposes or both. political assumptions in a selection of 3.4. Analyze ways in which poets use literary works or essays on a topic imagery, personification, figures of (e.g., suffrage, women’s role in orga- speech, and sounds to evoke readers’ nized labor). (Political approach) emotions. 3.9 Analyze the philosophical arguments 3.5. Analyze recognized works of American presented in literary works to determine literature representing a variety of whether the authors’ positions have genres and traditions: contributed to the quality of each work a. Trace the development of American and the credibility of the characters. literature from the colonial period (Philosophical approach) forward. 211

style, and enhance subtlety of meaning Chapter 5 Writing and tone in ways that are consistent Content Standards and Instructional 1.0 Writing Strategies with the purpose, audience, and genre. Practices— Grades Nine Students write coherent and focused texts that 2.0 Writing Applications (Genres Through Twelve convey a well-defined perspective and tightly and Their Characteristics) reasoned argument. The writing demonstrates students’ awareness of the audience and Students combine the rhetorical strategies of purpose and progression through the stages of narration, exposition, persuasion, and descrip- Eleventh Grade tion to produce texts of at least 1,500 words and Twelfth the writing process. Grade each. Student writing demonstrates a com- Organization and Focus English–Language mand of standard American English and the Arts Content 1.1 Demonstrate an understanding of the research, organizational, and drafting strategies Standards elements of discourse (e.g., purpose, outlined in Writing Standard 1.0. speaker, audience, form) when completing narrative, expository, persuasive, Using the writing strategies of grades eleven or descriptive writing assignments. and twelve outlined in Writing Standard 1.0, 1.2 Use point of view, characterization, students: style (e.g., use of irony), and related 2.1 Write fictional, autobiographical, or elements for specific rhetorical and biographical narratives: aesthetic purposes. a. Narrate a sequence of events and 1.3 Structure ideas and arguments in a communicate their significance to sustained, persuasive, and sophisticated the audience. way and support them with precise and b. Locate scenes and incidents in relevant examples. specific places. 1.4 Enhance meaning by employing c. Describe with concrete sensory rhetorical devices, including the details the sights, sounds, and smells extended use of parallelism, repetition, of a scene and the specific actions, and analogy; the incorporation of visual movements, gestures, and feelings of aids (e.g., graphs, tables, pictures); and the characters; use interior mono- the issuance of a call for action. logue to depict the characters’ 1.5 Use language in natural, fresh, and feelings. vivid ways to establish a specific tone. d. Pace the presentation of actions to accommodate temporal, spatial, and Research and Technology dramatic mood changes. 1.6 Develop presentations by using clear e. Make effective use of descriptions of research questions and creative and appearance, images, shifting critical research strategies (e.g., field perspectives, and sensory details. studies, oral histories, interviews, 2.2 Write responses to literature: experiments, electronic sources). 1.7 Use systematic strategies to organize a. Demonstrate a comprehensive and record information (e.g., anecdotal understanding of the significant scripting, annotated bibliographies). ideas in works or passages. 1.8 Integrate databases, graphics, and b. Analyze the use of imagery, lan- spreadsheets into word-processed guage, universal themes, and unique documents. aspects of the text. c. Support important ideas and Evaluation and Revision viewpoints through accurate and 1.9 Revise text to highlight the individual detailed references to the text and to voice, improve sentence variety and other works. 212

Chapter 5 d. Demonstrate an understanding of c. Modify the tone to fit the purpose Content Standards the author’s use of stylistic devices and audience. and Instructional Practices— and an appreciation of the effects d. Follow the conventional style for Grades Nine created. that type of document (e.g., resumé, Through Twelve e. Identify and assess the impact of memorandum) and use page perceived ambiguities, nuances, and formats, fonts, and spacing that complexities within the text. contribute to the readability and Eleventh Grade 2.3 Write reflective compositions: impact of the document. and Twelfth 2.6 Deliver multimedia presentations: Grade a. Explore the significance of personal experiences, events, conditions, or a. Combine text, images, and sound English–Language Arts Content concerns by using rhetorical and draw information from many Standards strategies (e.g., narration, descrip- sources (e.g., television broadcasts, tion, exposition, persuasion). videos, films, newspapers, maga- b. Draw comparisons between specific zines, CD- ROMs, the Internet, incidents and broader themes that electronic media-generated images). illustrate the writer’s important b. Select an appropriate medium for beliefs or generalizations about life. each element of the presentation. c. Maintain a balance in describing c. Use the selected media skillfully, individual incidents and relate those editing appropriately and monitor- incidents to more general and ing for quality. abstract ideas. d. Test the audience’s response and 2.4 Write historical investigation reports: revise the presentation accordingly. a. Use exposition, narration, description, argumentation, exposition, or Written and Oral English- some combination of rhetorical Language Conventions strategies to support the main proposition. The standards for written and oral English b. Analyze several historical records of language conventions have been placed a single event, examining critical between those for writing and for listening and relationships between elements of speaking because these conventions are the research topic. essential to both sets of skills. c. Explain the perceived reason or reasons for the similarities and 1.0 Written and Oral English- differences in historical records with Language Conventions information derived from primary Students write and speak with a command of and secondary sources to support or standard English conventions. enhance the presentation. 1.1 Demonstrate control of grammar, d. Include information from all diction, and paragraph and sentence relevant perspectives and take into structure and an understanding of consideration the validity and English usage. reliability of sources. 1.2 Produce legible work that shows e. Include a formal bibliography. accurate spelling and correct punctua- 2.5 Write job applications and resumés: tion and capitalization. a. Provide clear and purposeful 1.3 Reflect appropriate manuscript information and address the requirements in writing. intended audience appropriately. b. Use varied levels, patterns, and types of language to achieve intended effects and aid comprehension. 213

Chapter 5 Listening and Speaking 1.8 Use effective and interesting language, including: Content Standards 1.0 Listening and Speaking and Instructional a. Informal expressions for effect Practices— Strategies b. Standard American English for Grades Nine Through Twelve Students formulate adroit judgments about clarity oral communication. They deliver focused and c. Technical language for specificity coherent presentations that convey clear and 1.9 Use research and analysis to justify distinct perspectives and demonstrate solid strategies for gesture, movement, and Eleventh Grade reasoning. They use gestures, tone, and and Twelfth vocalization, including dialect, pronun- vocabulary tailored to the audience and Grade ciation, and enunciation. purpose. English–Language 1.10 Evaluate when to use different kinds of Arts Content Comprehension effects (e.g., visual, music, sound, Standards 1.1 Recognize strategies used by the media graphics) to create effective produc- to inform, persuade, entertain, and tions. transmit culture (e.g., advertisements; Analysis and Evaluation of Oral perpetuation of stereotypes; use of and Media Communications visual representations, special effects, language). 1.11 Critique a speaker’s diction and syntax 1.2 Analyze the impact of the media on the in relation to the purpose of an oral democratic process (e.g., exerting communication and the impact the influence on elections, creating images words may have on the audience. of leaders, shaping attitudes) at the 1.12 Identify logical fallacies used in oral local, state, and national levels. addresses (e.g., attack ad hominem, false 1.3 Interpret and evaluate the various ways causality, red herring, overgeneraliza- in which events are presented and tion, bandwagon effect). information is communicated by visual 1.13 Analyze the four basic types of persua- image makers (e.g., graphic artists, sive speech (i.e., propositions of fact, documentary filmmakers, illustrators, value, problem, or policy) and under- news photographers). stand the similarities and differences in their patterns of organization and the Organization and Delivery of Oral use of persuasive language, reasoning, Communication and proof. 1.4 Use rhetorical questions, parallel 1.14 Analyze the techniques used in media structure, concrete images, figurative messages for a particular audience and language, characterization, irony, and evaluate their effectiveness (e.g., Orson dialogue to achieve clarity, force, and Welles’ radio broadcast “War of the aesthetic effect. Worlds”). 1.5 Distinguish between and use various forms of classical and contemporary 2.0 Speaking Applications (Genres logical arguments, including: and Their Characteristics) a. Inductive and deductive reasoning Students deliver polished formal and extempo- b. Syllogisms and analogies raneous presentations that combine traditional 1.6 Use logical, ethical, and emotional rhetorical strategies of narration, exposition, appeals that enhance a specific tone and persuasion, and description. Student speaking purpose. demonstrates a command of standard Ameri- 1.7 Use appropriate rehearsal strategies to can English and the organizational and pay attention to performance details, delivery strategies outlined in Listening and achieve command of the text, and Speaking Standard 1.0. create skillful artistic staging. 214

Chapter 5 Using the speaking strategies of grades eleven b. Analyze the imagery, language, Content Standards and twelve outlined in Listening and Speaking universal themes, and unique aspects and Instructional Practices— Standard 1.0, students: of the text through the use of Grades Nine 2.1 Deliver reflective presentations: rhetorical strategies (e.g., narration, Through Twelve description, persuasion, exposition, a a. Explore the significance of personal combination of those strategies). experiences, events, conditions, or c. Support important ideas and concerns, using appropriate rhetori- viewpoints through accurate and Eleventh Grade cal strategies (e.g., narration, and Twelfth detailed references to the text or to description, exposition, persuasion). Grade other works. b. Draw comparisons between the English–Language d. Demonstrate an awareness of the specific incident and broader themes Arts Content author’s use of stylistic devices and Standards that illustrate the speaker’s beliefs or an appreciation of the effects generalizations about life. created. c. Maintain a balance between e. Identify and assess the impact of describing the incident and relating perceived ambiguities, nuances, and it to more general, abstract ideas. complexities within the text. 2.2 Deliver oral reports on historical 2.4 Deliver multimedia presentations: investigations: a. Combine text, images, and sound by a. Use exposition, narration, descrip- incorporating information from a tion, persuasion, or some combina- wide range of media, including tion of those to support the thesis. films, newspapers, magazines, b. Analyze several historical records of CD-ROMs, online information, a single event, examining critical television, videos, and electronic relationships between elements of media-generated images. the research topic. b. Select an appropriate medium for c. Explain the perceived reason or each element of the presentation. reasons for the similarities and c. Use the selected media skillfully, differences by using information editing appropriately and monitor- derived from primary and secondary ing for quality. sources to support or enhance the d. Test the audience’s response and presentation. revise the presentation accordingly. d. Include information on all relevant perspectives and consider the 2.5 Recite poems, selections from speeches, validity and reliability of sources. or dramatic soliloquies with attention to performance details to achieve 2.3 Deliver oral responses to literature: clarity, force, and aesthetic effect and to a. Demonstrate a comprehensive demonstrate an understanding of the understanding of the significant meaning (e.g., Hamlet’s soliloquy “To ideas of literary works (e.g., make Be or Not to Be”). assertions about the text that are reasonable and supportable). Assessment of Proficiency in the 6 Language Arts

Taken together [the three purposes of assessment] provide a road map to achieving the standards: the starting place, the routes to take, the points at which to change routes, and the destination.

deally, assessment and instruction are linked inextricably within any I curriculum. The key to using assessment effectively and efficiently in a program of instruction is to recognize above all that different types of assessment tools must be used for different purposes. The assessments most crucial to achieving the language arts content standards are the following: • Entry-level assessment: Do students possess crucial prerequisite skills and knowledge expected at their grade level? Do they already know some of the material to be taught? • Monitoring of progress: Are students progressing adequately toward achieving the standards? Do they need reteaching? Is emphasis on

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Chapter 6 specific instructional components and strategies, more discrete in the early Assessment of Proficiency needed in the next series of lessons grades, become progressively more complex in the or units? and intertwined in the advanced grades. Language Arts • Summative assessment: Have students Therefore, the differences require different achieved the goals defined by a given tasks. In the sections that follow, the standard or group of standards? differences in emphasis that assessment Although many other purposes exist for should accommodate are described for the assessment, the three just listed are critical three grade-level clusters: kindergarten to this framework because they inform through grade three, grades four through instruction. Taken together, they provide a eight, and grades nine through twelve. In road map to achieving the standards: the addition, examples of what and when to starting place, the routes to take, the points assess are indicated for kindergarten at which to change routes, and the destina- through grade three and grades four tion. Assessment to inform instruction does through eight. These examples are based not, however, address other purposes of on the English–language arts content assessment, such as supplying diagnostic standards. information to qualify students for special programs outside the classroom setting. Assessment in The discussion in this chapter also summarizes the Statewide Pupil Assessment Kindergarten Through System, including the statewide standards- Grade Three based summative assessment initiated in 1998—the Standardized Testing and Entry-Level Assessment Reporting Program (STAR). These assessments are used to determine Teachers may have well-founded the proficiency of individual students or apprehensions about assessment; some may groups of students according to a specific even be convinced that successfully achiev- standard or prerequisite skill or knowledge. ing the standards requires a large amount This determination informs the teacher of testing. But if language arts programs what needs to be included in upcoming and textbooks fully integrate assessment lessons or in preteaching or reteaching and instruction, most assessment activi- lessons. In some instances these more ties—especially the monitoring of discrete assessments will help the teacher progress—will contribute to learning and locate the level of the instructional program will not usurp precious instructional time. the students should enter. Entry-level assessment should not prevent a student from participating in grade-level instruc- Characteristics tion. Instead, teachers should use the of Assessment Across information gained from entry-level Grade Levels assessment to offer supplemental instruction in specific areas while including all No single measure or method of assess- students in grade-level instruction. ment can provide the scope of information needed to achieve all three purposes listed Monitoring of Progress previously. Except for contributing to These assessments focus on the general informing instruction, the three types of skills and knowledge students are to acquire assessment do not apply equally across all according to the standards. Through tests grade levels. The content and specific skills developed by publishers, teachers, or 217 districts and arranged as periodic assess- letter names, phonemic segmentation, the Chapter 6 Assessment ments for all students, the domains and reading of nonsense words, and fluency in of Proficiency strands of the standards are assessed at the oral reading are examples of the predictors in the end of each major set of lessons. The tests, or key indicators (Good, Simmons, and Language Arts which are curriculum embedded, should Smith 1998). Several commercial mea- be administered and scored frequently by sures are available to provide reliable the teacher. The results should be analyzed information about students’ ability to for each student and classroom on the recognize letters and to segment words basis of established levels that identify into phonemes. When used in timed 1) who is at mastery; and (2) what percent conditions, the measures can also be of students are at mastery. And the results reliably used to assess students’ rate of should influence how teachers modify or progress over time. The purpose of the emphasize parts of the curriculum. measures is to identify students who need additional instruction and assess the Summative Assessment effectiveness of instruction over time. These assessments include quarterly, An important caveat is that some of the midyear, and end-of-the-year tests devel- measures are indicators or predictors of oped by the publisher and the school reading difficulty but do not translate district. They are used to determine directly into instructional objectives. For whether the student has mastered the example, although the ability to name content and to document long-term letters is highly correlated with later growth. The state-required assessment, reading achievement (Adams 1990), that STAR, also functions as a summative ability should not be the exclusive focus of assessment for grades two and three. instruction (National Research Council Long-term outcomes should be the focus 1998). It is important to distinguish of summative assessment. For instance, between (1) identification of children at blending words enables the long-term risk of reading difficulty; and (2) instruc- outcome of decoding words accurately tion. For example, although the ability to and in turn enables fluency and meaning- read nonsense words is a strong predictor ful reading comprehension. Similarly, for students who will learn to read easily, kindergarten students should be assessed teaching the reading of nonsense words as on phonemic awareness. part of the first-grade curriculum is not Examples of What and When to Assess, recommended. Knowledge of letter-sound Kindergarten Through Grade Three correspondences and ability to blend those In the early grades Because of the large number of skills sounds into words are assessed by measur- key indicators or predictors can be and strategies students are to acquire in ing the student’s ability to read nonsense used to identify each grade, a critical decision has to be words and are stringent indicators of students making made to determine what knowledge to students’ acquisition and application of adequate progress letter sounds and ability to blend sounds. toward literacy assess and when. In the early grades key standards and indicators or predictors can be used to The table on the following page offers those likely to identify students making adequate suggestions for some of the important have continued progress toward literacy standards and measures available to teachers to inform difficulty in learning to read. those likely to have continued difficulty in them of their effectiveness in the delivery learning to read. Those key indicators are of the instructional program and the derived largely from research on students progress of their students toward mastery who learn to read easily in comparison of the standards. with those who do not. Knowledge of 218

Chapter 6 Grade Assessment Measure Description K One Two Three of Proficiency in the Phoneme Detect rhyme. Spring Fall/ winter Only if Only if Language Arts awareness Count syllables. needed needed Match initial sounds. Count phonemes.

Phoneme Initial sounds Spring Fall/ winter Only if Only if deletion Final sounds needed needed First sound of a consonant blend Embedded sound of a consonant blend

Phoneme Segment sounds. Spring Fall/ winter Only if Only if segmentation Count phonemes. needed needed

Beginning Alphabet names Spring Only if Only if Only if phonics Consonant sounds needed needed needed

Phonics Reading of nonsense words Fall/ winter/ Fall/ winter/ Only if Other decoding spring spring needed Spelling Every 4–6 Every 4–6 weeks until weeks until mastery mastery

Oral reading Words correct per minute on Spring 3–6 times 3–6 times per year per year (fluency) grade-level text Earlier as needed

Reading Main idea Fall/ winter/ Fall/ winter/ Fall/ winter/ compre- Author’s point of view spring spring spring hension* Analysis Every 8–10 Every 6–8 Every 6–8 Inference weeks weeks weeks

Vocabulary Antonyms Every 8–10 Every 6–8 Every 6–8 Synonyms weeks weeks weeks Multiple meanings Context meanings

Spelling Unit words Every 8–10 Every 6–8 Every 6–8 Regular/irregular words weeks weeks weeks Word patterns Single and multisyllabic words Sentence structure

Conventions Punctuation Every 8–10 Every 6–8 Every 6–8 Capitalization weeks weeks weeks Grammar Penmanship

Writing Narratives (fictional and autobio- Twice per Twice per Twice per graphical) year year year Organization/focus Single paragraph Topic sentence Facts/details Expository descriptions Friendly letter

*End-of-unit tests developed by publishers or teachers 219

growth. The state-required assessment, Chapter 6 Assessment in Grades Assessment STAR, also functions as a summative of Proficiency Four Through Eight assessment. Long-term outcomes should in the be the focus of summative assessment. Language Arts Entry-Level Assessment Consequently, in the areas of writing In these grades the quantity and variety applications, listening, and speaking not of prerequisite knowledge reach a point at covered by the STAR, the school district which it is impractical to pretest for more or school may need to establish summative than the most essential prior knowledge assessment for each genre of writing and and skills. Gradually, the emphasis speaking at each grade level that can be changes to evaluating the extent to which scored by teachers using district rubrics. students already have knowledge of planned content and the need students Examples of What and When to Assess, may have for instructional support. Grades Four Through Eight Assessment of skills development is Monitoring of Progress much less specific in grades four through Regularly scheduled testing of progress eight. However, many of the assessment is still appropriate, especially in fourth areas from earlier grades apply at this level. through sixth grades. But many forms of Fluency in oral reading is a reliable informal progress testing are also appro- indicator for students in grades four priate, useful, and relatively easy to use. through six and for middle school stu- Written products, both draft and final, dents whose oral reading fluency is and oral presentations students do as a significantly below grade level. Assess- part of their class assignments should be ments should be conducted to assist in scored and used to determine progress determining the next steps for instruction toward mastery of standards. and in planning interventions as necessary. Summative Assessment The table on the following page offers suggestions for some of the important These assessments include quarterly, measures available to teachers to inform midyear, and end-of-the-year tests devel- them of their effectiveness in the delivery oped by the publisher and the school of the instructional program and the district. They are used to determine progress of their students toward mastery whether the student has mastered the of the standards. content and to document long-term 220

Chapter 6 Grade Assessment Measure Description Four Five Six Seven Eight of Proficiency in the Oral reading Words correct 3–4 times 2–3 times 1–2 times As As Language Arts (fluency) per minute on per year per year per year needed needed grade-level text

Reading Main idea At the At the At the At the At the comprehension* Author’s point end of end of end of end of end of of view unit of unit of unit of unit of unit of Inference study study study study study Analysis Critique/criticism

Vocabulary Multiple meanings Every Every Every Every Every Word origins 4–6 4–6 4–6 4–6 4–6 Context meanings weeks weeks weeks weeks weeks Metaphors, similes, analogies

Spelling Derivations Every Every Every Every Every Multisyllabic 4–6 4–6 4–6 4–6 4–6 words weeks weeks weeks weeks weeks

Conventions Sentence structure Every Every Every Every Every Punctuation 4–6 4–6 4–6 4–6 4–6 Capitalization weeks weeks weeks weeks weeks Grammar Penmanship

Writing Narratives and At least At least At least At least At least responses to twice twice twice twice twice literature per year per year per year per year per year Expository compositions and research reports Persuasive compositions Documents

*End-of-unit tests developed by publishers or teachers 221

Summative Assessment Chapter 6 Assessment in Grades Assessment Each summative assessment at this level of Proficiency Nine Through Twelve in the should assess several standards at once. The Language Arts semester course tests that teachers give in Entry-Level Assessment English classes should be aligned to reflect Teachers need to attend closely to how well students are meeting the expecta- student performance in the early weeks of tions of end-of-year mastery of grade-level the school year to determine student standards. As with the previous grade strengths and weaknesses relative to given levels, the state STAR program will offer standards. Entering ninth graders and new annual assessments. Teachers in grades students should be assessed with a variety nine through twelve should routinely assess of measures, including standardized tests, students’ proficiency in all the writing which may be used to determine entry- applications appropriate for each grade level skills. Some students may require level—a process similar to that used in more extensive assessment of strengths and grades four through eight. weaknesses, including the use of specialized testing. Assessments of specific skills are less frequent in the high school years except for Monitoring of Progress assessments of students who read and write Tests for monitoring progress, as significantly below grade level (i.e., two described for grades four through eight, grade levels or more below a student’s are most appropriate throughout these current grade level) and for whom a plan grades. Instructional materials should of intervention has been established. emphasize which tasks double as instruc- Schoolwide writing assessments, com- tional and progress assessment tasks, along monly conducted in these grades once a with guidelines to assist teachers as they year, are a source of information on make data-based decisions. Because of the student achievement not typically available added complexities of the complete elsewhere. Most important, teachers in reading and language arts curriculum and grades nine through twelve determine the number of students assigned to each mastery of content standards by assessing teacher at these grade levels, teachers the students’ increasingly sophisticated should develop systems to organize records language arts skills and knowledge through of student test scores and analyze regularly an examination of their reading and the progress each student is making writing skills and strategies in the context toward achieving mastery of the grade- of literature and informational text. level standards. 222

Chapter 6 classrooms by grade level, this type of Assessment Similarities of of Proficiency assessment requires (1) the use of stan- in the Assessments Across dardized procedures to administer the Language Arts Grade Levels test; (2) the standardization of test form; (3) the use of standardized scoring All three types of assessments used to procedures with agreed-on answer keys inform instruction share some critical and interpretation guides (e.g., established characteristics across grade levels: cutoff scores for indicating mastery level); and (4) a procedure for the use of the Entry-Level Assessment information to determine instructional The exact purpose of each item of needs and appropriate interventions for assessment should be clear: Do the stu- each student. It is virtually dents have the prerequisite skills needed? It is virtually impossible to overstate impossible to Do they already know the planned the importance of using performance data overstate the content? To what extent? The results of as the basis for making well-informed importance of using performance entry-level assessments help guide the adjustments to instruction. Teachers need data as the basis teacher in setting the course of initial a solid basis for answering such questions for making instruction and determining modifications as the following: well-informed for specific students or groups of students. adjustments to • Should I move ahead? Or should instruction. Monitoring of Progress I spend a little more time on the current phase of instruction? The most critical guideline for the • Are students able to practice and monitoring of progress is that it should apply what they have learned occur at frequent intervals and that the adequately through independent assessment data should be used quickly to activities? Or do I need to provide adjust instruction. Each subtest should additional, specific instruction? have established or agreed-on cutoff scores • Can I accelerate the planned to indicate what score equates to mastery instruction for some or all students, (e.g., a score of eight out of 10 items given that there is sufficient evi- indicates mastery). Collecting and acting dence of student mastery? If so, on information frequently during instruc- what is the best way to proceed? tion is a sign of a highly effective program. In an effort to ensure the progress of every Summative Assessment student, the data should be examined by The most critical aspect of all individual students and classroom groups. summative assessment is that it measures Because the monitoring of progress is a generalization and transference of skills collaborative, professional activity, the data and knowledge required for mastery of should be shared among teachers at the grade-level standards. For example, if one same grade level and should be analyzed to summative evaluation in the early grades identify student needs and determine what involves a test of decoding a list of words, strategies are working most effectively. some or all of those words should be new Everything students do during instruc- to students (words not previously used tion provides an opportunity for monitor- extensively in decoding tasks). If a ing their progress. For the classroom summative assessment in later grades teacher and site administrator to be able to involves reading a passage and answering use the assessment information across comprehension questions, students should 223 not have read the measurement passages mathematics in grades two through Chapter 6 Assessment previously. If students are to write a eight and reading, writing, math- of Proficiency critical review of a literary work in high ematics, history–social science, and in the school, they should analyze and evaluate a science in grades nine through Language Arts new reading selection. eleven Many teachers are concerned about • Requires testing of academic teaching to the test. Summative assess- achievement in the primary language ments did not guide the development of for limited-English-proficient The most critical aspect of all the standards; rather, the standards students enrolled for fewer than 12 summative provide the basis for developing or months (optional thereafter) assessment is selecting summative assessments. Further, • Generates the results of testing for that it measures individual students and reports to generalization summative assessments aligned with the and transference standards and the curriculum are not mere the public the results for schools, of skills and reflections of retained knowledge but can school districts, counties, and the knowledge be the most valid and reliable indicators of state required for mastery of depth of understanding as demonstrated • Disaggregates the results by grade grade-level through generalization and transference. level as to English proficiency, standards. gender, and economic disadvantage for reporting to the public Statewide Pupil • Provides both norm-referenced and Assessment System standards-based results The State Board of Education has A major component of California’s adopted performance levels to be used in statewide testing system is the Standard- reporting the results of the augmented ized Testing and Reporting (STAR) test: advanced, proficient, and basic, with Program. For reading and the language an additional level designated as below arts, STAR, along with the Assessment of basic. The levels correspond with those Applied Academic Skills currently under used by the National Assessment of development, is the statewide system for Educational Progress. The augmented test summative assessment. addresses all the categories of the content Standardized Testing and standards except direct writing, listening, Reporting Program and speaking. STAR consists of three parts: (1) a standardized norm-referenced test; (2) an Additional Components augmentation test aligned with the Several additional components of the English–language arts content standards; Statewide Pupil Assessment System and (3) a standardized, norm-referenced enacted into law were being developed primary language assessment. Characteris- when this framework was being prepared tics of the STAR Program are that it: for publication. The components include • Requires the assessment of all the following: students in English with a test • Development of performance approved by the State Board of standards that define levels of Education student performance at each grade • Assesses achievement in reading, level in each of the areas in which spelling, written expression, and the content standards have been 224

Chapter 6 adopted. “Performance standards school and high school levels. Participation Assessment of Proficiency gauge the degree to which the in this program is voluntary, and students in the student has met the content stan- who do well on the tests receive a special Language Arts dards and the degree to which a honors designation. Work is under way to school or school district has met the align the Golden State Examination with content standards” (Education Code the content standards in the four core Section 60603[h]). areas. • Assessment of applied academic skills, based on the content and performance standards, that “re- Summary of the quires students to demonstrate their Chapter knowledge of, and ability to apply, Each of the three distinct types of academic knowledge and skills in assessment described previously—entry- order to solve problems and commu- level assessment, monitoring of progress, nicate” in grades four, five, eight, and summative assessment—contributes and ten. “It may include . . . writing substantially to informing effective instruc- an essay, conducting an experiment, tion. In particular the monitoring of or constructing a diagram or model” progress can play a key role in developing (Education Code Section 60603[b]). and delivering curricula and instruction • Adoption of a test to measure the that effectively lead to the achievement of development of reading, speaking, the goals embedded in the standards. This and writing skills in English for framework places substantial emphasis on students whose primary language is integrating an assessment system with not English. curriculum and instruction. Therefore, The Golden State Examination Pro- assessment and instruction must be interre- gram completes the assessment picture in lated in ways that minimize the loss of California. It provides a measure of instructional time and maximize the student achievement in several academic potential for assessment measures them- subjects normally taken at the middle selves to contribute to meaningful learning. Universal Access to the Language Arts 7 Curriculum

The ultimate goal of language arts programs in California is to ensure access to high-quality curriculum and instruction for all students in order to meet or exceed the state’s English–language arts content standards.

he diversity of California’s students presents unique oppor- T tunities and significant challenges for instruction. Students come to school with a wide variety of skills, abilities, and interests as well as varying proficiency in English and other languages. The wider the variation of the student population in each classroom, the more complex becomes the teacher’s role in organizing high-quality curriculum and instruction in the language arts and ensuring that each student has access according to the student’s current level of achievement. The ultimate goal of language arts programs in California is to ensure access to high-quality curriculum and instruction for all students in order to meet or exceed the state’s English–language arts content standards. To reach that goal, teachers need assistance in assessing and using the results of that assessment for planning

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Chapter 7 programs, differentiating curriculum and tional devices or instructional Universal Access to the Language instruction, using grouping strategies materials, such as Braille text, as a Arts Curriculum effectively, and implementing other way to respond to students’ indi- strategies for meeting the needs of stu- vidual needs. dents with reading difficulties, special education students, advanced learners, Alignment of Assessment English learners, and students with combinations of special needs. and Instruction Procedures that may be useful in One of the first tasks required of a planning for universal access are to: school district is to determine its students’ • Assess each student’s understanding achievement levels in the language arts so at the start of instruction and that each student or group of students can continue to do so frequently as be offered a structured language arts instruction advances, using the program leading to the attainment of all of What the student results of assessment for program the content standards. What the student already knows in placement and planning. already knows in the language arts should the language arts should form the • Diagnose the nature and severity of form the basis for further learning and basis for further the student’s difficulty and modify study. learning and curriculum and instruction accord- Assessment is the key to ensuring that study. ingly when students have trouble all students are provided with language with the language arts. arts instruction designed to help the • Engage in careful organization of students progress at an appropriate pace resources and instruction and from what they already know to higher planning to adapt to individual levels of learning. Knowing which stan- needs. A variety of good teaching dards have been mastered, teachers can strategies that can be used according better plan the instructional program. For to the situation should be prepared. a variety of reasons, gaps often appear in • Differentiate when necessary as to what has been learned by students with depth, complexity, novelty, or special needs. The gaps can be discovered pacing and focus on the language through assessment, and instruction can arts standards and the key concepts be designed to remediate specific weak- within the standards that students nesses without slowing down the students’ must master to move on to the next entire language arts program. grade level. • Employ flexible grouping strategies Successful Diagnostic according to the students’ needs and achievement and the instructional Teaching tasks presented. Students who have trouble in reading • Enlist help from others, such as and writing are at risk of failing to meet reading specialists, special education the standards, becoming discouraged, and specialists, parents, aides, other eventually dropping out of school. The teachers, community members, teacher should try to determine the cause administrators, counselors, and of the learning difficulties. Contributing diagnosticians when necessary and factors might include a lack of foundation explore technology or other instruc- 227 skills; limited-English proficiency; uncor- specialist, or other types of support to Chapter 7 Universal Access rected errors; confusing, inadequate, or ensure that they succeed in the regular to the Language inappropriate instructional resources or classroom. Once the concept or procedure Arts Curriculum instruction; or an undiagnosed specific has been grasped correctly by the student, learning disability. A teacher can use the additional practice is usually helpful. results of assessment and classroom observations to determine what interven- Strategic Group tions should be tried in the classroom and Students in the strategic group may be whether to refer the students to a student one to two standard deviations below the success team (student study team) or seek mean according to the results of standard- assistance from specialists. Most learning ized testing. However, their learning Most learning difficulties can be corrected with good difficulties, which must be examined with difficulties can be corrected with diagnostic teaching that combines repeti- systematic and, occasionally, intensive and good diagnostic tion of instruction, focus on key skills and concentrated care, can often be addressed teaching that understanding, and practice. For some by the regular classroom teacher with combines students modification of the curriculum or minimal assistance within the classroom repetition of instruction, focus instruction (or both) may be required to environment. A student success team on key skills and accommodate differences in communica- might be called on to discuss appropriate understanding, tion modes, physical skills, or learning support for the student. In addition to and practice. abilities. reteaching a concept, the teacher may wish To plan appropriate intervention to provide specific assignments over a strategies for helping students who are period of time for students to complete experiencing learning difficulties, teachers with a peer or tutor or by themselves at should consider the degree of severity home. Regular study groups working according to the three following major before or after school, in the evenings, or groups (Kame’enui and Simmons 1998): on weekends can provide an effective extension of the learning time. Some Benchmark Group students may need to schedule extended Students in the benchmark group are blocks of time for the study of language generally making good progress toward arts to master difficult content. Others the standards but may be experiencing may require specific accommodations and temporary or minor difficulties. Although modifications to the classroom environ- the needs of these students are not critical, ment, curriculum, or instruction as they must be addressed quickly to prevent identified in the students’ 504 plan. the students from falling behind. Often, Special education students may need the teacher can reteach a concept in a special modifications of curriculum or different way to an individual or a group instruction, as specified in their individu- of students or schedule a study group to alized education program, to enable them provide additional learning time. Occa- to participate successfully in a mainstream sionally, parents can be enlisted to rein- classroom. force learning at home. Ideally, instructional resources will be organized in ways Intensive Group that make it easy for parents to do so. Students in the intensive group are Some students may need periodic indi- seriously at risk as indicated by their vidual assistance, the help of a reading extremely and chronically low perfor- 228

Chapter 7 mance on one or more measures. The manipulatives, or with real objects Universal Access to the Language greater the number of measures and the to accompany oral and written Arts Curriculum lower the performance, the greater is their instructions. risk. These students perform well below 3. Provide assistance in the specific the mean and should be referred to a and general vocabulary to be used student success team for a thorough for each lesson prior to the lesson, discussion of options. A referral to special using reinforcement or additional education may be advisable. If eligible for practice afterward. Instructional special education services, these students resources and instruction should be will be given an individualized education monitored for ambiguities or program, which will describe the most language that would be confusing, appropriate services for the student. such as idioms. Often, specialized assistance will be 4. Set up tutoring situations that offer available through the special education additional assistance. Tutoring by a referral, perhaps including intensive qualified teacher is optimal. Peer or intervention by a qualified specialist, cross-age tutoring should be so tutoring, services of a classroom assistant, designed not to detract from the specialized materials or equipment, instructional time of either the changes in assessment procedures, or tutor or tutee and should be modification of the curriculum or supervised. instruction. 5. Extend the learning time by establishing a longer school day, Planning for Special weekend classes, and intersession or summer classes. Needs Students 6. Enlist the help of parents at home Experienced Experienced teachers develop a reper- when possible. teachers develop toire of successful instructional strategies 7. Establish special sessions to prepare a repertoire of to be used in special situations or with students for unfamiliar testing successful situations. instructional specific groups of students. Many of the strategies to be strategies can be explicitly taught or can be 8. Ask each student frequently to used in special embedded in the instructional materials to communicate his or her under- situations or with standing of the concept or assign- specific groups of help teachers plan differentiated instruc- students. tion. To establish successful instructional ment. Students should be asked to strategies for all students, the teacher verbalize or write down what they should: know, thereby providing immediate insight into their thinking and 1. Establish a safe and supportive level of understanding. In addition, environment in which the students students should be encouraged to are encouraged to talk and ask confer about each other’s under- questions freely when they do not standing of the concept being understand. taught and the class work or 2. Use a wide variety of ways to homework assignments, particu- explain a concept or assignment. larly if the students are not fully When appropriate, the concept or proficient in English. assignment may be depicted in 9. Check frequently for understand- graphic or pictorial form, with ing in a variety of ways. When a 229

student does not understand, For students experiencing difficulty in Chapter 7 Universal Access analyze why. the language arts, the same content might to the Language 10. Allow students to demonstrate their be extended over twice as long a period of Arts Curriculum understanding and abilities in a time for additional reinforcement in the variety of ways while reinforcing more difficult concepts. Alternatively, modes of communication that will some students with attention deficits be used on standardized tests. respond better to shorter, more frequent episodes of instruction. A key element in slowing down instruction is to ensure that Differentiation the content remains rigorous, that the Through Pacing students move ahead as quickly as they and Complexity can, and that the instruction leads to mastery of the content standards within a Advanced students and those with reasonable amount of time. learning difficulties in the language arts often require systematically planned Use of Complexity differentiation to ensure that curriculum Modifying instruction as to complexity and instruction are appropriately challeng- requires more training and skill on the part ing. The strategies for modification of of the teacher and the provision of instruc- curriculum and instruction for special tional materials that lend themselves to education or at-risk students are similar to such variations. For advanced students it those used for advanced learners and can be means enriched instruction that encourages considered variations along four dimen- students to address topics, time periods, or sions: pacing, depth, complexity, and connections across disciplines not normally novelty. Two dimensions will be discussed expected at that grade level. here, pacing and complexity. For addi- For students experiencing difficulty in tional discussion see Differentiating the the language arts, the teacher should focus Core Curriculum and Instruction to Provide on the key concepts within the standards Advanced Learning Opportunities (Califor- and eliminate confusing activities or nia Department of Education 1994). variables. The lessons should be even more organized and sequential and be focused Use of Pacing on the most important concepts. Instruc- Pacing is perhaps the most commonly tion is not thereby watered down. Instead, [Instruction] is it is distilled to ensure that instructional distilled to ensure used strategy for differentiation. That is, that instructional the teacher slows down or speeds up time is used to help students understand time is used to instruction. This strategy can be simple, the fundamental concepts or skills needed help students effective, and inexpensive for many stu- to master later standards. understand the Differentiation for special needs stu- fundamental dents with special needs (Benbow and concepts or skills Stanley 1996; Geary 1994). The instruc- dents is sometimes criticized by those who needed to master tional pace of the advanced learner can be say that struggling students never progress later standards. accelerated if the assessment indicates to the more interesting or complex assign- mastery of significant portions of the ments. This argument is often used to standards. Students can be helped to move move struggling students along or involve on to the content standards for the next them in complex assignments, even though grade level. they have not mastered the basics they 230

Chapter 7 need to understand the assignments. This their needs and to provide the needed Universal Access to the Language framework advocates a focus on the accelerated instruction. To promote Arts Curriculum standards and frequent assessment to maximum learning, the teacher should ensure that students are not just passed ensure that assessment is frequent, that along without the skills they will need to high-quality instruction is always pro- be successful in subsequent grades. vided, and that the students are frequently Struggling students are expected to learn moved into appropriate instructional the key concepts well so that they can groups according to their needs. develop a foundation on which further understanding can be built. Special Modifications Grouping as an Aid for Special Education to Instruction Students Educators who wish to help children Research shows that what students are with difficulties in a particular taught has a far greater effect on their domain need to know about the course achievement than how they are grouped of typical development in that domain, (Mosteller, Light, and Sachs 1996). The about the specific cognitive abilities first focus of educators should always be that are crucial at various points in on the quality of instruction; grouping is a development, about the cognitive secondary concern. This framework abilities in which a particular child is recommends that educators use common weak, and about how to best develop Grouping is a tool sense about grouping. Grouping is a tool these abilities. (Spear-Swerling and and an aid to and an aid to instruction, not an end in instruction, not Sternberg 1998, 400) an end in itself. itself. As a tool it should be used flexibly to ensure that all students achieve the Students eligible for special education standards. Instructional objectives should services often have specific needs described always be based on the standards and in an individualized education program. should dictate grouping strategies. It is Special resources may be available to the perfectly appropriate, even advisable, to students to help them meet the standards, group those students who do not under- including personnel (e.g., reading special- stand a concept or skill and to find time to ists, speech and hearing therapists, psy- reteach the concept or skill in a different chologists, and classroom aides). Assistive way and provide additional practice. At devices, such as wheelchairs, walkers, tape the same time those students might be recorders, sound-amplification devices, participating with a more heterogeneous and regular or Braille word processors, can mix of students in other classroom accommodate a student’s physical chal- activities. lenges so that the curriculum is accessible. In another setting teachers may dis- Specific learning disabilities that cover that they have a group of students in manifest themselves as deficits in language a grade who have mastered the standards arts achievement can be difficult to for that grade and are ready to go on to diagnose and at times difficult to remedy. the standards for the next grade. It is The approach recommended in this appropriate and advisable to group those framework, with its focus on “first best students for as long as the grouping meets teaching,” including frequent assessment, 231 systematic and explicit instruction in the Chapter 7 Differentiated Universal Access building blocks of word recognition and to the Language reading comprehension, and modifica- Instruction for Arts Curriculum tions of curriculum as needed, should Advanced Learners result in many more students reading. It should significantly reduce the number of Advanced learners are students who students identified as having learning demonstrate or are capable of demonstrat- problems or learning disabilities. No ing performance in the language arts at a single approach is as effective in teaching level significantly above the performance students to read, particularly in teaching of their peers. They may include (1) stu- those who have difficulty in reading, as dents formally identified by a school systematic, explicit instruction emphasiz- district as gifted and talented pursuant to ing phonemic awareness, decoding, and Education Code Section 52200; and phonics. (2) other students who have not been Nevertheless, some students with formally identified as gifted and talented learning disabilities affecting the process- but demonstrate outstanding capacity or ing of oral or written language, usually actual performance in the language arts. phonology, will be atypical in reading This situation is especially true in Califor- acquisition. For those students a thorough nia, where each district sets its own criteria diagnosis of what they can and cannot do for identifying gifted and talented stu- is helpful. The assessment should be dents, where the percentage of students so conducted by a learning specialist who identified varies, and where each district understands thoroughly the typical process may choose whether to identify on the students go through when learning to basis of ability in language arts. The read. The specialist should also under- research studies cited in this framework stand the specific areas of cognitive use the term gifted students, which is functioning in which learning-disabled defined in most areas outside California in students may have difficulty and ways in a more standardized way in accordance which instruction can be adapted. The with nationally normed tests of achieve- specialist can then work with the regular ment or intelligence. In that context the classroom teacher to implement specific term usually refers to the small number of strategies, which might include changes in students who score at the highest percen- the sequence of instruction, the methods tiles on the test. of instruction, the pacing of instruction, Standards-based education offers or the materials used. The strategies might opportunities for students who have the also include variations in assessment motivation, interest, or ability in the techniques (e.g., allowing more time for a language arts to excel. Several research student who processes or produces written studies have demonstrated the importance language more slowly). Regardless of the of setting high standards for all students, modifications made, however, the focus including gifted students. The content should always be placed on helping standards in the language arts have students meet the language arts content provided students with goals worth standards to the best of their ability and reaching for and identify the point at frequently assessing their progress in which skills and knowledge should be attaining the standards. mastered. The natural corollary is that 232

Chapter 7 when standards are mastered, students a heterogeneous group, as argued for Universal Access to the Language should either move on to standards at persuasively in the study (Delcourt et al. Arts Curriculum higher grade levels or focus on unlearned 1994). A previous study (California material not covered by the standards. Department of Education 1994) provides A research study (Shore et al. 1991) an outline on how to differentiate instruc- examined whether any evidence exists to tion for advanced students regardless of support 101 common practices in gifted how they are grouped. In referencing that When standards education and found that very few study, we do not mean to suggest that all are mastered, students should practices were supported by solid evi- gifted students be homogeneously either move on dence. However, the study also found that grouped. Decisions on how to group to standards at a combination of acceleration (in which students should be made locally. However, higher grade students move on to material above grade the Delcourt study underscores the levels or focus on unlearned level) and enrichment (in which students importance of providing support for material not study topics in more depth or complexity teachers so that they can effectively meet covered by the or study related topics not covered in the the individual needs of all students in their standards. normal curriculum) is supported by the classrooms. research and results in improved achievement for gifted students. Instructional How to group advanced learners has been controversial. In a longitudinal study Programs for (Delcourt et al. 1994) of grouping ar- English Learners rangements for over 1,000 elementary-age students, it was found that gifted students California’s diverse student population receiving an enriched and accelerated comes from many different ethnic groups, curriculum delivered in special schools, speaks a variety of languages and dialects, special day classes, and pullout programs varies in English proficiency, and comes to made statistically significant improvement school with a variety of experiences, in achievement in the language arts, academic and nonacademic. A 1997 mathematics, science, and history–social report issued by the California Depart- science in comparison with gifted students ment of Education revealed that 1.4 who did not receive such programming. million students enrolled in California The only type of programming arrange- public schools used a primary language ment that did not result in statistically other than English and were identified as significant improvement in achievement limited-English proficient (LEP). More was enrichment offered in the regular than 100 languages (other than English) heterogeneously grouped classroom. The were found to be represented. The top reason for the lack of success was that even four languages and percentages of LEP with the best of intentions, teachers did students were Spanish (81 percent), not have enough time to deliver the Vietnamese (3 percent), Hmong advanced or enriched curriculum for the (2 percent), and Cantonese (2 percent). gifted students that had been planned. English learners have as their goal Because most gifted students in California developing proficiency in English and in are served in the regular heterogeneously the concepts and skills contained in the grouped classroom, teachers must ensure English–Language Arts Content Standards. that enrichment or acceleration occurs Because of recent changes in California when advanced students are instructed in law, instruction for most English learners 233 must be presented “overwhelmingly in instruction in English to the point at Chapter 7 Universal Access English.” To learn English and achieve which their use of English compares with to the Language mastery of the English–language arts that of their native English-speaking peers. Arts Curriculum content standards, students must partici- Because of differing academic back- pate in instructional programs that grounds and ages, some students can be combine skill and concept development in expected to progress more quickly and both English literacy and the English others to require more support in the language. For those students whose English–language arts program. Instruc- parents have chosen a program that tional materials contain assessment tools teaches literacy in the primary language, to diagnose students’ proficiency in students must work to achieve the same listening, speaking, reading, and writing in standards contained in the English– English and to assist teachers in planning Language Arts Content Standards. Appro- initial instruction, monitoring progress, priate modifications should be made for and conducting summative evaluations. the language of instruction. Three groups of English learners must In a structured English immersion be considered in program planning: program, instruction in reading and students in kindergarten through grade Instruction in writing for English learners should not be two; those in grades three through twelve reading and delayed until the students have mastered who are literate in their primary language; writing for English learners should oral English. Effective early instruction in and those in grades three through twelve not be delayed English literacy, as described in Chapter 3, who have limited prior academic experi- until the students must be incorporated into a program of ence or literacy in their primary language. have mastered oral English. English-language development from the Typically, primary students who are very beginning. Students must be pro- learning English can participate fully in vided significant support to be successful classroom language arts instruction if in the language arts. Such support in- provided appropriate reading and writing cludes the preteaching of essential ele- supports and instruction in oral language. ments of lesson vocabulary and language Students in grades three through twelve structure and additional assistance after who have strong literacy skills in their the lesson during the school day and after primary language can be expected to school. Instruction in oral and written transfer many of those skills to English academic language for English learners is a and to progress rapidly in learning En- critical element that must be specifically glish. And students in grades three designed, planned, scheduled, and taught. through twelve with limited prior school- It includes direct instruction and experi- ing will require intensive support in ences for students in English phonology, beginning literacy instruction as well as in morphology, syntax, and semantics and learning English. supports students as they move toward English proficiency. Instruction and Support in Reading Instructional programs for English and Writing learners should be planned according to Students in kindergarten through grade the students’ assessed levels of literacy in two. Students who begin to learn reading English and their primary language as well and writing in English in the primary as their proficiency in English. English- grades should participate fully in the language proficiency progresses from the classroom program and receive additional students’ initial contact with formal support to achieve the English–language 234

Chapter 7 arts content standards. Whereas most paraprofessionals are other sources of Universal Access to the Language English-speaking kindergartners enter support. Additional instructional support Arts Curriculum school with 6,000 to 15,000 words in must align with classroom instruction and their English vocabulary, most English assist students in learning the specific learners do not. Instruction in English is a vocabulary, background knowledge, and critical component of the program for language structures needed to succeed. English learners and proceeds simulta- Students in grades three through twelve. Additional neously with direct, explicit, and system- English learners entering school in grades instructional support must align atic instruction in reading and writing. three through twelve with strong literacy with classroom Abundant opportunities to participate in skills in their primary language are instruction and oral language and speaking activities help advantaged in that they can concentrate assist students in students hear and develop the English on acquiring and learning English rather learning the specific vocabulary, sound system and lexicon and support the than on receiving initial instruction in background concurrent development of reading and reading and writing. However, the greater knowledge, and writing with comprehension. Beginning cognitive demands of the academic language structures program in those grades require that the needed to instruction in reading, particularly in succeed. phonemic awareness, concepts about students move quickly to more advanced print, and vocabulary development English vocabulary and language struc- commences immediately upon entry into tures. English-language development school and supports the acquisition of should be intensive and should emphasize English phonology and initial language the language students will need to know structures. In kindergarten and the first so that they profit from instruction in the grade, English learners progress to sound- language arts and other content areas at symbol correspondence and formation of their grade level. Again, students will need letters as they build vocabulary and an additional support to learn English and to understanding of the features of the understand the vocabulary and language English language. of instruction. School districts and schools Full comprehension of text will be need to consider additional allocations of limited by the students’ level of English instructional time to maximize students’ proficiency and should be supported by opportunities to acquire language and additional exposure to and study of participate in the overall language arts vocabulary and language patterns pre- program. sented in the text. Students should receive Students who enter school in grades preteaching in essential vocabulary, three through twelve with little prior background information, and language schooling and limited English must be patterns. A review of key lesson elements quickly identified and assessed to deter- and assessment of the students’ level of mine their level of reading and writing understanding should follow the lessons in skills in their primary language and in reading and writing. As described at the English. Learning to read and write while beginning of this chapter, additional concurrently learning English is a chal- instructional time, differentiated instruc- lenge for these students. School districts tion, flexible grouping, and smaller groups and schools need to structure the instruc- should provide students the support they tional program so that the students receive need to succeed in the language arts. the instruction they require in literacy and After-school programs, specialist teachers, language. The students require intensive, and the judicious use of tutors and systematic instruction in oral and written 235 language, including, for example, instruc- use their newly acquired academic vocabu- Chapter 7 Universal Access tion in the use of common nouns, verbs, lary in casual conversation. Instead, they to the Language adjectives, and adverbs. They also need to should specifically plan student-to-student Arts Curriculum learn common phrases, language patterns, discussions in which the students are and idiomatic expressions. Materials that expected to practice their new vocabulary address those skills, individualized instruc- and understanding of language forms in tion, and additional assistance and substantive academic discussions. Students instructional time will be needed to learn English phonology, morphology support English learners who have limited (including spelling and syllabication academic experience. The materials must patterns), syntax, and semantics through describe age-appropriate activities to teach teacher modeling, teacher-directed reading and English-language develop- instruction, and classroom interaction. ment. They build on classroom exposure and interaction with English sounds, word English-Language Development elements, sentence structure, and vocabu- Stages of instruction. From the earliest lary through directed study and practice of stages of their academic careers and in the linguistic elements. Analysis of the concert with instruction in reading and elements of instruction and materials writing, English learners participate in an increases in sophistication as students English learners instructional program that supports their progress through the grades and gain participate in an linguistic and academic competence. This instructional acquisition of informal English and program that teaches them the patterns of formal purposeful study of the features of the supports their academic English. The instruction is English language, which involves instruc- acquisition of designed to provide for students experi- tion in oral and written language, is informal English and teaches them ences with English that are understandable connected to the English–language arts the patterns of and meaningful and enable the students to content standards through the language formal academic communicate with peers and adults and arts and content-area instruction in which English. thereby participate fully in the academic students participate daily. program. Students begin by learning basic Instructional opportunities and materials. social conventions, rudimentary classroom Most important, teachers plan opportuni- vocabulary, and ways to express personal ties, supported by appropriate instruc- and safety needs. They participate in tional materials, for students to produce language study in a variety of contexts language they have acquired, use language ranging from informal classroom conver- in academic interactions with peers and sations to teacher-directed instruction in adults, and monitor and correct their oral language forms and structures. Effective and written language. Teachers create an teachers use a variety of activities to environment in which students feel introduce and reinforce language concepts comfortable in risking the use of new and (e.g., singing, presenting dramas, reading unfamiliar language. Instructional materi- aloud, using visuals and props, and als describe for teachers the linguistic practicing simple phrases and vocabulary). features of the most commonly spoken Teachers model and teach the language languages as they differ from English patterns and vocabulary needed to under- (e.g., analysis of similar and dissimilar stand and participate in the study of the sounds). Teachers apply the understand- language arts and other content areas. ing of similarities and differences among They should not assume that students will the languages in planning instruction and 236

Chapter 7 use questioning and other strategies to supported by high-quality instructional Universal Access to the Language foster substantive student discussion and materials, a sufficient amount of instruc- Arts Curriculum participation. Emphasis is placed on the tional time, and professional development students’ producing language in a variety for teachers. Language development and of contexts and the teachers’ eliciting literacy instruction are integrated with the student participation and thought. basic instructional materials and should be Students should receive specific, specifically identified in the teacher’s Students should constructive feedback from their teachers edition as differentiated instruction for receive specific, constructive regarding the accuracy of their oral and students not fully proficient in English. feedback from written work and their progress toward For students in grades three through their teachers mastery of conventional English. Teachers twelve who are just learning English, regarding the should analyze students’ errors to deter- instructional materials should be specially accuracy of their oral and written mine development in oral and written designed to provide intensive and exten- work and their English and plan appropriate instruction sive English-language development. progress toward to improve competence. Instructional Included should be development in oral mastery of conventional materials contain assessment tools that and written vocabulary, reading instruc- English. assist teachers in the analysis and specifi- tion (as described in this framework), and cally address instruction in those areas as systematic instruction in the forms and related to grade-level English–language features of English. Publishers are encour- arts standards. aged to develop materials for those Instruction for English learners in districts that choose to have students academic language helps bring the stu- spend most of their school day receiving dents to a level of English proficiency such instruction. The purpose of differen- comparable with that of their native tiated instruction in English is to move English-speaking peers. English-language English learners as quickly as possible development occurs daily; is specifically through stages of language proficiency and identified within the curriculum of the to enable them to achieve mastery of the school district and the school; and is English–language arts content standards. Responsibilities and Support for Proficiency 8 in the Language Arts

Together, the [school] community members can help refocus the school or district priorities for reading, writing, listening, and speaking.

or students to meet grade-level content standards, comprehensive F community systems of support should be developed to advocate a sustained focus on the development of language arts skills for every student. A support system for each school will help in the design, implementation, and evaluation of effective language arts instructional plans, classroom teaching strategies, instructional materials, and support systems for students with special needs. Responsibilities of the School Community

The school community includes parents and families, classroom teachers and specialist teachers, library media teachers, tutors, paraprofessionals, preschool educators, local educational

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Chapter 8 agencies, school administrators, profes- • Ensuring the availability of well- Responsibilities and Support sional developers, and business, civic, and stocked classroom libraries and a well- for Proficiency service organizations. Together, the equipped media center to provide in the Language students with access to a variety of Arts community members can help refocus the school or district priorities for reading, high-quality resources for language writing, listening, and speaking. arts development The school community can participate • Creating partnerships with business, in the development and implementation civic, and service organizations and of a literacy plan for each school by: establishing service-learning projects • Insisting on a sustained schoolwide to seek involvement and support for and communitywide discussion on promoting literacy for all students. students’ achievement in the lan- Parents and Families guage arts • Establishing clear and measurable Parents are their children’s first teach- reading improvement goals (Example: ers. The child’s home language and home “Every student who is reading below literacy experiences form the basis of more grade level will be provided with a formal language development in school. The involvement systematic intervention program no The involvement of parents in their of parents in their later than November 1 of each year.” children’s early years is an important children’s early predictor of the children’s success in years is an Or: “At Maple Street School the important percentage of students reading at or school (McCollum and Russo 1993; predictor of the above grade level will increase from Chavkin 1993; National Committee for children’s success Citizens in Education 1994) and is more in school and is 40 percent to 60 percent by more important June 1.”) important than economic status in than economic • Implementing a systematic process for predicting academic learning (Walberg status in predicting the selection of instructional materials 1984). The importance of parents’ reading academic learning. based on comprehensive informa- to their children is well documented tion, such as reviewing current and (Anderson, Wilson, and Fielding 1988), confirmed research or data provided and parents’ conversations with children by publishers or conducting pilot can be a rich source of language develop- tests ment. • Providing an effective program of In addition to support for early lan- professional development based on guage development at home, parents can current research and the English– provide a stable source of support for their language arts content standards for children’s schooling. Recent studies preservice, new, and continuing indicate that most parents care deeply teachers about their children’s education but may • Encouraging parent involvement in a not show their concerns in the same way variety of ways (e.g., through regular (Valdés 1996; Gándara 1995). For communication between parents and example, some parents may show their educators, multiple opportunities for support by voicing to their children volunteering, parent involvement in consistent respect for the value of educa- school decision making, collaboration. Other parents may support completion with community support tion of homework or volunteer in the agencies) classroom. In addition, parents may serve in an advisory capacity on a school-site 239 council or manage activities in the library years of formal college training, experience Chapter 8 Responsibilities media center, such as the shelving and in the classroom, periodic professional and Support checking out of books. Classroom teachers development, and an undying commit- for Proficiency or librarians can promote and expand ment to learning. in the Language Arts parent involvement through family The demands on teachers in California literacy events, visits by guest authors, are greater than ever before. More and summer reading programs, and book fairs. more teachers are being called on to be Regardless of the way in which parents or reading teachers regardless of whether they More and more teachers are being family members support education, they have had formal training in teaching called on should always be made to feel welcome students how to read. In standards-based to be reading and know that their contributions are education teachers will be expected to help teachers welcomed and appreciated. their students master areas of the curricu- regardless of whether they Parents and families should be well lum that were previously attempted only have had formal informed about the language arts curricu- by gifted students. Granted, class size has training in lum their children receive and the progress been reduced in most kindergarten teaching students how to read. their children are making in learning to through grade three classrooms in Califor- read, write, speak, and listen. The school nia. But in those classrooms and in and school district should provide out- classrooms for students in grades four reach to inform parents and families about through twelve, the diversity of students’ the English–language arts content stan- prior experiences provides a challenge as dards, the district’s curriculum and teachers try to adapt instruction to a range assessment programs, and the degree to of experience and ability. which students in the school and district To help teachers build expertise and are mastering the standards in the lan- find satisfaction in their work, ongoing guage arts. Materials and programs should professional development should target be organized so that parents and families specific knowledge and skills. It should can receive specific information and also provide consistent support for support for extending their children’s improved teaching through coaching, the learning at home. Parents and families pairing of teachers with a mentor or should be made aware, as appropriate, of buddy, and collegial discussions about the resources available to support their own design and implementation of effective literacy, such as Even Start or adult language arts programs. Teachers should education. Ultimately, parents and have a role in designing their own profes- families are the most essential partners in sional development, which should be promoting the value of reading and planned and organized and should lead to writing and in providing the home long-term goals and be supported over support needed for children to master the time. standards in the language arts. For new teachers the requirements for preparation and the support for their Classroom Teachers induction into the teaching profession are The impact of an outstanding class- changing rapidly. For example, to earn a room teacher on a child’s life can be multiple-subjects teaching credential, dramatic. Good teachers are effective teacher candidates must now pass the because they work hard at perfecting their Reading Instruction Competence Assessment teaching ability over a long period of time. (RICA), which tests the knowledge, skills, Development of their craft comes from and abilities of new teachers as related to 240

Chapter 8 teaching reading. Areas assessed include is especially important as teachers grapple Responsibilities and Support phonemic awareness; concepts about with the implementation of content for Proficiency print; systematic, explicit phonics and standards and shifts in instructional in the Language other word-identification strategies; materials and practices. Arts spelling instruction; vocabulary develop- Most importantly, specialists play a key ment; reading comprehension; student role in intervention by working with independent reading and its relationship teachers to identify students who need to improved reading performance; rela- assistance, conducting specialized assess- tionships between reading, writing, and ments, and providing the extra instruction oral language; diagnosis of reading and support students need to master the development; and the structure of the language arts standards. Specialists “could English language. Preservice programs specialize in knowledge about the cognitive specifically prepare teacher candidates for processes involved in typical acquisition of RICA as a part of their courses in reading academic skills, in knowledge about the instruction. ways in which children might go awry in acquiring important cognitive and aca- Specialist Teachers demic skills, and in adapting instruction Even with the most effective literacy for children with a variety of cognitive and instruction in place, some students, for a academic difficulties” (Spear-Swerling and variety of reasons, struggle with reading or Sternberg 1998, 401). are unable to read at grade level. “Such students will require supplementary Library Media Teachers services, ideally from a reading specialist The American Association of School who provides individual or small-group Librarians and the Association for Educa- intensive instruction that is coordinated tional Communications and Technology with high-quality instruction from the (1998) point to the importance of library classroom teacher” (National Research media teachers as learning resource and Council 1998, 12). technology specialists and instructional Reading specialists, resource specialists, partners. When the library media teacher, and speech and language therapists are key who knows the learning resources, tech- individuals in the provision of supplemen- nologies, skills, and information problem-

The role of tary services for students not achieving in solving process, acts as a partner with the specialists in reading and language arts as well as in the classroom teacher, who knows the students supporting the implementation of the overall language and the curricular content to be addressed, work of classroom arts program. As knowledgeable and they expand students’ learning opportuni- teachers is especially experienced teachers of reading and ties and directly improve achievement important as language, specialists can assume a leader- (Lance, Welborn, and Hamilton-Pennell teachers grapple ship role in the school by modeling 1993). By codesigning and implementing with the effective instruction, presenting profes- resource-based learning and other cross- implementation of content sional development activities, organizing disciplinary projects, library media teachers standards and early intervention, assisting with assess- and classroom teachers help students apply shifts in instruc- ment activities, consulting with classroom language arts skills to genuine information tional materials and practices. teachers, and facilitating schoolwide problems. planning and decision making for the Particularly at the elementary school language arts. The role of specialists in level but later too, library media teachers supporting the work of classroom teachers contribute to students’ success in literary 241 response and analysis. The library media careful monitoring, alignment with Chapter 8 Responsibilities credential equips library media teachers classroom instruction, and communica- and Support with extensive background in literacy tion among classroom teachers, tutors, for Proficiency genres for children and young adults. and parents. Yet it is exactly in those areas in the Language Arts They know the characteristics of different that programs are often planned ineffec- genres and authors; can easily connect tively or not at all (Topping 1998). books similar in setting, character, plot, or Among the goals of tutoring and other theme; and can work with teachers to remedial programs are improved literacy Tutoring is not a substitute for locate useful examples of literary devices, skills (in both reading and writing), teaching. Tutoring such as simile, metaphor, and personifica- reading fluency and comprehension at methods should tion. In effectively conveying that aspect grade level or above, significant gains in complement of reading comprehension to students, reading achievement, increased motiva- professional teaching, not they are essential partners with classroom tion, greater self-confidence in reading supplant it. teachers. and writing, and ability to transfer literacy Library media teachers, who are skills to other content areas. Some of the teachers primarily, have an additional most effective tutoring activities are those credential that extends their expertise into that involve modeling and scaffolding and literature, the research process, library are adaptive to the individual student. management, and information technolo- Because of the great number of tutoring gies. The dynamic library field is changing approaches (e.g., pullout programs, after- with the advent of expanded information school or before-school coaching classes, access afforded by the digital age. They peer or cross-age tutoring, paired reading, can contribute to expanding students’ and summer classes) and the variety of literacy, information acquisition, and potential providers (e.g., reading special- ability to become independent, self- ists, credentialed teachers, trained parapro- directed learners. Library media teachers fessional, college students, trained volun- provide motivation to read and guidance teers, and cross-age peers), setting up a in personal reading and reach out to the remedial program requires informed community and parents to encourage choices. Selection of the type of supple- family literacy. They also teach students mentary approach to be used and the type how to use the online catalog, how to of tutor to be provided should be based locate information, how to think about primarily on the specific needs of students. what they have found in relation to what For instance, students diagnosed with they need, and how to communicate what specific learning disabilities must be they have learned in print and in multi- supported by specialized professionals media formats. adequately trained to work with such students. As stated in Preventing Reading Tutors Difficulties in Young Children (National Tutoring is not a substitute for teach- Research Council 1998, 12), “Although ing. Tutoring methods should comple- volunteer tutors can provide valuable ment professional teaching, not supplant practice and motivational support for it. Pinnel and Fountas (1997) conclude children learning to read, they should not that effective tutoring embodies an be expected either to provide primary organized, well-articulated system that reading instruction or to instruct children includes strong leadership, quality train- with serious reading problems.” ing, appropriate instructional materials, 242

Chapter 8 According to Preventing Early School the classroom teacher, the specialist Responsibilities and Support Failure (1994), the tutoring programs teacher, and the paraprofessional works for Proficiency with the best long-term success in effect- well in maximizing the effectiveness of in the Language ing and maintaining achievement gains are paraprofessionals. Critical to the success Arts those that use teachers rather than aides as of this model is the ongoing training and tutors. Unfortunately, cost often restricts coaching of the paraprofessional. the use of that approach. Tutoring Similarly, bilingual paraprofessionals programs that employ paraprofessionals paired with monolingual teachers need should be carefully planned and super- time to communicate regularly with the vised. Available resources are also a factor classroom teacher under whose direction in the selection of the type of supplemen- they work. The paraprofessionals and the tary services used. “However, more is not teachers should discuss student needs and necessarily better; the cost effectiveness of progress, alternative strategies, and the use elaborate training programs requiring of appropriate materials to help students many hours [to train tutors] must be access fully the core curriculum and considered” (Topping 1998, 48). acquire English. Ideally, success in reading can be enhanced for most students who need Preschool Educators Preschool intervention through good learning Preschool educators and day-care educators and experiences in preschool and kindergarten, providers have a key responsibility and an day-care providers a quality reading program in the early opportunity to provide literacy experiences have a key responsibility and grades, brief intervention strategies or that will help children meet or exceed an opportunity to programs applied at critical points, and language arts standards in the elementary provide literacy family support. A smaller proportion of school. Expectations for language arts experiences that will help children students may require more extensive learning in the preschool years are pre- meet or exceed intervention strategies (Slavin, Karweit, sented in Teaching Reading (California language arts and Wasik 1993). Department of Education 1996b). standards in the Language development is a fundamental elementary school. Paraprofessionals element of success in literacy. Early Opportunities for planning, ongoing childhood educators recognize that communication, and collaboration with speaking and listening abilities are critical teachers are critical for all paraprofession- factors in young children’s cognitive and als, whether associated with the classroom social and emotional development. Young or the library media center, to ensure children begin to build a foundation for coordinated, systematic programs for reading and writing through oral commu- students. Regularly scheduled offerings for nication with adults and other children staff development specifically tailored to about everyday experiences. As young the needs of the paraprofessionals are also children make connections between important to improving their skills and spoken and written language, they extend knowledge. their understanding to include symbolic Research indicates that paraprofession- forms used to capture speech. als can have a positive impact on student Adults can aid language development in success when trained to provide structured children by creating a language-rich one-on-one tutoring (Slavin, Karweit, and environment that includes opportunities Wasik 1993). A collaborative model for language use and interaction, focused featuring open communication between stimulation on particular language 243 features, routines that connect events and tors to “spend time in one-on-one conver- Chapter 8 Responsibilities language, and social interaction between sations with young children, read books and Support children (see Fostering the Development of a with them, provide writing materials, for Proficiency First and a Second Language in Early support dramatic play that might incorpo- in the Language Arts Childhood, California Department of rate literacy activities, demonstrate the Education 1998b). Such behaviors may be uses of literacy, and maintain a joyful, encouraged in the context of children’s playful atmosphere around literacy play, small-group exploration time, or activities.” Those learning opportunities individual (one-on-one) awareness or are important for all children, especially exploration activities. those limited in their exposure to literacy The connection between language and vocabulary enrichment experiences development and literacy for young before entering school. children is featured in Preventing Reading For preschool programs to promote Difficulties in Young Children (National effectively children’s language and literacy Research Council 1998, 319–20): development, preschool educators must Research with preschoolers has demon- participate in ongoing professional strated that (a) adult-child shared book development, collaborate with elementary reading that stimulates verbal interaction school colleagues, and engage in support- can enhance language (especially ive interactions with families. vocabulary) development and knowledge about concepts of print; and Local Educational Agencies (b) activities that direct young children’s A major premise of local control within attention to the sound structure within the state’s educational system centers on spoken words . . . and to the relations the quality of instruction offered to all between print and speech can facilitate students. Local educational agencies learning to read. These findings are (LEAs) should establish a special priority buttressed by others showing that knowledge of word meanings, and for preventing reading difficulties affecting understanding that print conveys students from families living in poverty, meaning, phonological awareness, and students with disabilities, and English some understanding of how printed learners—all of whom constitute the letters code the sounds of language fastest-growing segment of America’s contribute directly to successful reading. school population. At the very least LEAs Preschool programs and day-care-home must set high standards for instruction experiences must, therefore, ensure that and programs in the language arts. children have abundant opportunities to Determining what is of “high” instruc- listen to stories, converse, play with tional quality should, however, result from language through rhymes and literature, research and demonstration and not from talk about a variety of words and their a consensus of opinion among content meanings, hear and repeat correct lan- experts, curriculum organizations, or guage structures, gain understanding of personnel in a state agency or local the rich and varied forms of print, learn educational agency. letters of the alphabet, and practice Local priorities are established within reading and writing behaviors. Preventing the requirements of state law and regula- Reading Difficulties in Young Children tions by a school district governing board, (National Research Council 1998, 171) whose members represent the electorate. encourages parents and preschool educa- A school district’s accountability rests, 244

Chapter 8 therefore, with the school board and the research-based programs and Responsibilities and Support public. Through policy development an interventions in the language arts. for Proficiency elected school board provides direction for Provide staff with the time needed in the Language the operation of a school system, including to discuss the standards and current Arts instruction. The school board is respon- research to establish and promote an sible for setting policy, and the administra- understanding of instructional tion is responsible for recommending programs demonstrated to improve policy to the school board and implement- student achievement. ing adopted board policy. This process • Maximize and protect instructional should include a data-based management time for the language arts and ensure system for analyzing, reporting, and that adequate personnel and re- representing student performance data as a sources are available to support critical factor in determining a school’s program implementation. success in the language arts. • Provide time for monthly grade-level meetings that focus on assessing School Administrators student work samples, progress- The school principal must know the monitoring data, and articulation of essential elements of a research-based the language arts standards through- language arts program. In addition, he or out the school. she must establish a culture within the • Build reflective practice among all school in which effective research-based faculty by (1) providing guidance programs are valued and demanded by and informed feedback on classroom teachers, parents, administrators, and instruction; and (2) facilitating and other stakeholders. encouraging structured dialogue The principals for kindergarten through among faculty members about grade three must establish the language results-oriented instruction and arts, especially beginning reading, as a top strategies to help every student meet priority for the curriculum. For grades grade-level standards. four through eight and nine through • Provide leadership in defining and twelve, the principals must establish the articulating the language arts language arts as a priority for all students program. A process should be and implement a specially designed system established for (1) examining results of instruction (e.g., extended language arts for individual students; and or remedial reading support) for support- (2) using data to identify program The principal ing students not proficient in the language needs and to ensure that all students should understand arts. Although the school principal is receive sufficient instruction and and provide staff responsible for staff support and resources, support to achieve mastery. with information about the English– the deployment of these resources should • Provide time for modeling effective language arts be guided by the school’s literacy plan and instruction, training, and coaching content standards priorities. Such a plan must have as an teachers whenever possible. Time and research- integral part an accountability system at should also be provided for teachers based programs and interventions each grade level. As the school instruc- to visit other classrooms at the in the language tional leader, the principal should: school and at model implementation arts. • Understand and provide staff with sites so that successful instruction information about the English– can be observed. language arts content standards and 245

• Monitor the implementation process support of new and experienced teachers. Chapter 8 Responsibilities and anticipate future opportunities, Their responsibility is to understand and Support needs, and problems through content standards, frameworks, and for Proficiency frequent classroom visits. assessment in California and to teach new in the Language Arts • Establish schoolwide systems to and continuing teachers about the key ensure that students with special features of the educational landscape in needs are (1) assessed early to the state. Professional organizations determine need for additional and support teachers with publications that Teachers well prepared to teach specialized instruction; (2) moni- support current and confirmed research in reading and the tored to determine when and if language arts instruction and opportuni- language arts are additional support is needed; and ties for networking and training. Funding vital to the (3) included in all state, school for professional development and the success of language arts district, and schoolwide assessments. support of new teachers has increased instruction. • Establish a schoolwide system to dramatically in recent years, providing ensure that students who are ad- schools and school districts with impor- vanced learners and have exceeded tant opportunities to increase teacher standards are placed at appropriate knowledge and effectiveness in language levels of instruction and are working arts instruction. Knowledgeable and toward standards they have not yet collaborative leadership within schools, mastered. school districts, counties, and regions is • Align the instructional methods, necessary to marshal the resources neces- materials, and schedules across sary to train, support, and coach programs and personnel to maximize California’s professional teaching staff learning. adequately.

Professional Developers, University Business, Civic, and Service and College Partners, and Professional Organizations Organizations Schools may create partnerships with a Teachers well prepared to teach reading variety of public and private organizations and the language arts are vital to the and agencies to seek support and partici- success of language arts instruction. The pation in the education of California’s adoption of content standards and recent children. Many private companies and changes in assessment and instructional organizations have education departments materials require teachers to gain new that seek opportunities to work with knowledge and alter classroom practices. youngsters. Schools are encouraged to Experienced teachers need support in (1) use those kinds of community re- learning and applying new curriculum and sources to provide the additional adult instructional strategies, and new teachers support that students need to meet their and teacher candidates need even greater literacy requirements; and (2) start to support in learning to teach reading and develop ideas about the workforce, careers, the language arts as they acquire the and students’ relationships to their fundamentals of teaching. communities. Service-learning projects Professional developers from school benefiting both partners can be established districts, county offices of education, between schools and community organiza- colleges and universities, and professional tions. When students work alongside organizations are key individuals in the others from their own communities to 246

Chapter 8 identify and solve local problems, they Schools foster literacy when they ensure Responsibilities and Support build civic responsibility and practice that students have access to extensive for Proficiency literacy skills. Literacy is improved when collections of high-quality, high-interest in the Language the students apply their language arts skills reading materials in the classroom, in the Arts in their service-learning activities and school library media center, in community perform research, read, write, and speak libraries, and in the home to allow for about their service projects and experi- daily teacher-directed and voluntary ences. Through service-learning projects reading. Schools also enhance literacy involving tutoring and mentoring, older when they provide students with access to students also support the literacy of other learning resources and technologies. younger students. Partnerships with business, civic, and Classroom Resources professional organizations can also serve to Children benefit from having age- keep schools focused on their mission— appropriate and skill-reinforcing maga- learning and reaching the goals of the zines, journals, and books in the class- At every grade literacy improvement plan. As schools room. At every grade level classroom level classroom accomplish their literacy goals, they gain collections should reflect a wide variety of collections should reflect a wide greater credibility and support in the reading interests, favorite authors, and variety of reading community. In the face of increased social, topics related to the instructional pro- interests, favorite technological, and cultural changes, a gram. In the primary grades classroom authors, and whole community can help educate a resources must include large numbers of topics related to the instructional child or at least help ensure that every highly readable books and other items that program. child will reach proficiency in the lan- allow students to practice and reinforce guage arts standards. their growing literacy. Classroom libraries are enhanced when students and teachers Instructional acquire outstanding, high-interest books by notable authors and illustrators for Materials young people. The books may be bor- Balanced, comprehensive language arts rowed from the school library media programs are based on high-quality center or the public library. Frequent learning materials—from basal series and access to extensive school library collec- literature to factual expository works in tions is an effective way to maintain fresh books and in other formats. A powerful classroom collections, allow students to language arts curriculum should engage select books of personal interest, and keep students with literature written in English reading motivation high. or translated from other languages. The Classrooms are enhanced when sup- high-quality materials should reflect the plied with adequate hardware, software, faces and resonate with the voices of and Internet-based resources for students learners in California, representing their to use in language arts instruction. diverse linguistic, cultural, and social Connect, Compute, and Compete (Califor- backgrounds. Access to materials in the nia Department of Education 1996c) students’ home languages promotes recommends a student-to-computer ratio growth in concept development and of four to one and telecommunications academic language as the students acquire access for students in every classroom and English as their second language. library. The recommendations are consis- 247 tent with the federal technology goals: works; and (2) allows students to benefit Chapter 8 Responsibilities (1) modern computers and learning from a broad spectrum of reading choices and Support devices will be accessible to every student; to meet their learning needs. Students for Proficiency (2) classrooms will be connected to one should be given access to outstanding in the Language Arts another and to the outside world; examples of multicultural literature across (3) educational software will be an integral genres to extend literary response and part of the curriculum; and (4) teachers analysis. The center should also provide will be ready to use and teach with the learning resources and technologies technology. students need to pursue problem solving, thereby applying and deepening essential Collections in the Library reading-comprehension skills. And the Media Center center should allow students to begin to In addition to the classroom library, develop the skills that will allow them to the school’s library media center is a focal become independent, self-directed learners point of reading. The center’s collection for the rest of their lives. Library media Library media consists of learning resources and tech- teachers, in collaboration with classroom teachers, in teachers, teach the skills and strategies that collaboration with nologies carefully selected to meet the classroom teaching and learning needs of teachers allow students intellectual access to the teachers, teach and their students and supports curricu- resources. the skills and lum and instruction at the point of need. Physical access to the collections in the strategies that allow students The collection should contain at least 20 library media center depends on: intellectual access books per student professionally selected • Having a sufficient number of to the resources. in accordance with a district selection qualified staff to keep the library policy (American Association of School open Librarians and the Association for Educa- • Having sufficient shelving space for tional Communications and Technology the recommended number of books 1998). The books should be classified and per student (20) labeled and should be accessible, prefer- • Having the technology resources that ably on computer via an automated allow for expanded access to informa- catalog. The collection should be up-to- tion, including adequate hardware, date and contain a wide variety of high- software, and Internet access quality expository works as well as a full • Developing flexibility in the schedule range of narrative genres, from picture so that students can come to books to contemporary fiction. Also to be the library every day if they need to included are fantasy, historical fiction, do so science fiction, folklore, poetry, biogra- • Developing policies that allow that phy, career-related books and materials, books be taken home and multiple and books representing many voices and titles to be borrowed and that make diverse points of view. the library a lively, welcoming center Access to a well-developed book for the school as a reading commu- collection and electronic resources, nity selected with the guidance of a credentialed school library media teacher and The schedule should allow for whole- housed in the school library media center, group visits, small-group work, and times (1) allows teachers to help students for individual browsing, exploring, and broaden and extend their study of core voluntary, self-selected reading. 248

Chapter 9 Development and Evaluation Development of Instructional Materials and Evaluation 9 of Instructional Materials

All of the content standards for each grade level should be addressed in a coherent fashion, and the instructional materials should thoughtfully and logically address the development of skills and knowledge that build throughout the grade levels.

he English–Language Arts Content Standards provides the basic T foundation for the design of instructional materials.* All of the content standards for each grade level should be addressed in a coherent fashion, and the instructional materials should thoughtfully and logically address the development of skills and knowledge that build throughout the grade levels so that the standards

*Education Code Section 60010(h): “Instructional materials means all materials that are designed for use by pupils and their teachers as a learning resource and help pupils to acquire facts, skills, or opinions or to develop cognitive processes. Instructional materials may be printed or nonprinted, and may include textbooks, technology-based materials, other educational materials, and tests.”

248 249 can be mastered. The standards should be to assume that there is only one correct Chapter 9 Development listed at the grade levels at which students way to implement the specifications in the and Evaluation are expected to have mastered the stan- standards. For example, the standards in of Instructional dards. Many standards will need to be kindergarten require students to learn letter Materials introduced at earlier grade levels. names and sounds. The particular order in This framework recommends a mini- which that information is taught is not set mum of two and one-half hours of in stone, and a definitive sequence for language arts instruction daily in kinder- teaching letter names and sounds has not garten through grade three. Because this been established empirically. time commitment constitutes the major Some reading programs recommend portion of the instructional day, instruc- introducing letter names first because they Instructional tional materials should, particularly in are typically easier and more familiar to materials kindergarten through grade three, address children. In other programs letter-sound should . . . address the content the content standards approved by the relationships are taught before letter names. standards . . . State Board of Education for other areas, Similarly, the treatment of uppercase and for other areas, especially history–social science and lowercase letters has varied. In some especially history– science, that can appropriately be taught programs both uppercase and lowercase social science and science, that can within the language arts context. Portions letters are introduced concurrently; in appropriately be of the history–social science and science others, the introduction of capital letters taught within the content standards that do not lend that are dissimilar to their respective language arts context. themselves to instruction in a language lowercase letters is delayed. Despite such arts context (e.g., investigation and differences deciding what to teach first experimentation activities) should not, should be based on student success and however, be a part of the instructional efficient instruction. time for the language arts. Instructional materials must be con- The content of this framework is structed with great care because they play designed to provide a road map for a major role in determining the content designers and developers of instructional students learn. They need to be effective, materials. The entire framework will be reliable tools that empower the teacher to used to develop specific criteria for the meet the instructional needs of all students, adoption of instructional materials. Those enabling them to meet or exceed the criteria are approved by the State Board of standards. The express intent of this Education at the beginning of the cycle framework is to provide research-based for the development of materials. Al- guidance when that guidance is available though much of what appears in this and to rely on validated principles of framework reports on effective practices, instruction when research has not addressed the framework is not to be construed as specific instructional procedures. containing definitive routes for every leg of the journey. For example, research on Importance the importance of systematic and explicit phonics instruction as a beginning reading of Systematic strategy establishes a general direction to Instruction follow in the lower grades. Although the developers of instructional materials are To that end instruction needs to be expected to examine the research on systematic. Systematic instruction is defined effective practices, they are not expected as the carefully planned design and delivery 250

Chapter 9 of instruction that examines the nature of Development Criteria for Evaluating and Evaluation the objective to be learned and selects and of Instructional sequences the essential skills and strategies Instructional Materials necessary to achieve the objective by: Materials • Allocating sufficient time to essential The major criteria that should be used skills in evaluating instructional materials are • Organizing information to minimize divided into five categories: confusion that learners may experience 1. Language arts content—alignment with • Introducing new information in standards specified for kindergarten manageable and sequential units through grade twelve and described in • Identifying prerequisite skills and detail in Chapter 3 through Chapter 5. building on the prior knowledge of For kindergarten through grade three, the learner instructional materials should align • Reviewing previously taught skills with the content standards in history– • Integrating old knowledge strategi- social science and science as much as cally with new knowledge possible and may also support the • Progressing from skills in more easily content standards in mathematics. managed contexts to more complex To the extent that the instructional contexts materials include content extraneous to • Including modification, as necessary, instruction in the Board-adopted for special-needs students standards in the four core areas, that content may not be fundamentally Instructional materials should describe contrary to any of the standards and specific ways for the teacher to address the may not detract from the ability of learning needs of different students and teachers to teach readily and students thereby ensure access for all students to to learn thoroughly the content the core grade-level materials and instruc- specified in the standards. tion. Modifications for special-needs 2. Program organization—sequence and students should include instructional organization of the language arts materials specifically designed to assist program. Sequential organization of students who are below grade level in their the language arts program provides development. The instructional materials structure concerning what students should be designed to supplement class- should learn each year and allows room instruction. Students who have teachers to convey the language arts fallen behind should have access to and instruction efficiently and effectively. participate in grade-level instruction. They The content should be organized should also receive additional assistance in logically and presented in a manner the form of review, reteaching, or tutoring consistent with providing all students supplemented by homework assignments an opportunity to achieve the essential in which review packets or units are used. knowledge and skills described in the Publishers may wish to identify those standards. portions of earlier grade-level materials 3. Assessment—strategies, procedures, and useful for review or to develop new tools presented in instructional material to reteach essential skills and materials for assessing what students concepts introduced in the earlier grades. know, how well they know it, and 251

what they are able to do. Assessment implement Education Code sections 60040, Chapter 9 Development tools should be provided by publishers 60041, 60042, and 60044. and Evaluation as part of the instructional materials. of Instructional They should assist teachers in using Category 1— Materials the results of assessment to plan and Language Arts Content modify instruction designed to help Textbooks, electronic learning re- all students meet or exceed the sources, and other instructional materials standards. should agree with the content in the 4. Universal access—practices supporting English–Language Arts Content Standards students with special learning needs and should reflect the information pre- whereby materials are designed to sented throughout this framework. maximize the learning of all students, Content should be carefully selected Content should be including special education students; according to current confirmed research in carefully selected students whose proficiency in English according to language arts instruction. Some standards current confirmed is significantly lower than that typical require much more teaching than others research in for age, classroom, or grade; and do. Although all standards are important, language arts students whose achievement is those that require extensive teaching and instruction. significantly below or above that are clear prerequisites for later standards typical for age, classroom, or grade. are essential. Cursory treatment of instruc- 5. Instructional planning and support— tion in the priority standards is unaccept- instructional planning and support able. Careful attention should be given to information and materials needed for the standards for early reading and the a successful course of study, typically importance of the alphabetic writing including a separate edition specifi- system. cally designed for use by the teacher, Students who meet or exceed the that assist teachers in the implementa- language arts standards will have developed tion of the language arts program. the essential skills and knowledge necessary Teacher support materials should be to be successful in all other content areas. built into the instructional materials For that reason publishers are encouraged and should help teachers teach to the to design materials that will allow for a standards. total of two and one-half hours of language Instructional materials in the language arts instruction daily in kindergarten arts must support teaching aligned with through grade three. It is assumed that the standards. Materials that fail to meet mathematics will also be allocated instruc- the language arts content criteria in tional time daily. Because this time Category 1 will not be considered satisfac- allocation does not leave sufficient instruc- tory for adoption. Only those materials tional time for the other content areas, that meet the Category 1 criteria will be publishers are strongly encouraged to evaluated under categories 2 through 5. In address the content standards in science addition to the criteria in the five catego- and history–social science within the time ries described in this chapter, all instruc- period for the language arts. Publishers tional materials must meet all applicable should include outstanding children’s requirements contained in codes and literature as an integral part of language regulations, including the “Standards for arts instruction at every grade level. They Evaluation of Instructional Materials with should also carefully select informational Respect to Social Content” developed to text in history–social science and science 252

Chapter 9 for reading instruction and practice as well period of time (e.g., teaching letter-sound Development and Evaluation as assignments in writing, listening, and correspondences is a continual daily of Instructional speaking consistent with the grade-level activity during much of kindergarten). Materials standards in those content areas. Several principles of organization are discussed as follows: Category 2— Arrangement of a sequence of skills. Skills Program Organization and standards should be sequenced within The scope and sequence of the instruc- and across domains and academic disci- tional materials should be aligned with the plines. In the sequence of instruction, language arts content standards and, students should learn the component skills ideally, should reinforce the content and then make the connections between standards in science, history–social science, skills and strategies. Important skills are and mathematics. Within a grade level integrated into a meaningful context standards do not have to be introduced and within and across domains. taught in exactly the sequence in which Instruction should be organized around they appear in the English–Language Arts major encompassing ideas. However, not Content Standards. Publishers should select all the concepts, skills, and strategies are of and develop a coherent structure for equal importance. The standards call for teaching to the standards that introduces continuing, progressive growth over a the standards in a logical sequence and broad range of concepts, skills and groups related standards into lessons, units, strategies. Major ideas are the concepts or chapters when those standards can be and principles that apply across a wide addressed simultaneously. range of examples and contexts. Organiz- Instructional Instructional materials should be ing instruction around the major ideas materials should arranged to make the rate of learning and maximizes student learning because small be arranged to make the rate of its effectiveness optimal and to enhance the ideas can often be best understood in learning and its likelihood of information being retained relationship to larger umbrella concepts or effectiveness and generalized. Sequential, logical organi- major ideas. An example of a major idea in optimal and to zation of language arts instruction that reading comprehension is story grammar, enhance the likelihood of addresses all standards but allocates more which describes the pattern of stories (For information being time and emphasis to key standards example: Who is the leading character? retained and throughout the grades will help students What is the problem? How does the generalized. develop comprehensive skills and knowl- character try to solve the problem? How is edge in the language arts. the problem finally resolved?). In addition, The time and type of instruction it helps children anticipate the plot of a allocated to the instructional standards and narrative text. component skills must be differentiated Instruction should use a strand design. according to the complexity and dimen- The construction of a language arts sions of the standards. Therefore, instruc- curriculum can be thought of as weaving tional units of varying lengths will be together the strands of a strong rope. required to meet the individual standards The power of instruction depends on or groups of standards. Units should not be (1) the strength of the individual strands; fixed as to the number of units per week or (2) the strategic integration of all strands; the number of pages per unit. Some topics and (3) the effective binding or connect- will require instruction over an extended ing of all strands. Instruction according to 253 a strand design should include the follow- first recognize the problem as an analogy Chapter 9 Development ing: calling for a missing word; know the and Evaluation • The dimensions of a complex task meaning of architect, ruler, and plumber; of Instructional Materials are analyzed, and the strands are and be familiar with the concept of tools. identified (e.g., in writing: content, The student would also have to know that organization and focus, grammar, a wrench is a tool of a plumber. punctuation, clarity, editing). Provisions for assessing students’ • The specific objectives within a knowledge of prerequisite skills and strand are identified and sequenced adequate guidance for the teacher in individually. teaching critical prerequisite skills need to • Cross-strand skills are integrated be incorporated into the instructional once learners are proficient in resources as additional manuals or by the Students who individual strand skills and strate- identification of specific sections in manuals used in earlier grades. Instruction know critical gies. information • Previously taught skills and strategies for students who do not know the pre- should not be are reviewed cumulatively. requisite skills should be thorough. On subjected to pointless • The strands may be continued over the other hand students who know critical information should not be subjected to exercises the course of the year or may be focusing on discontinued at designated points. pointless exercises focusing on the same the same The instructional analysis of the information. information. content will prescribe the length of The suggested sequence to be followed the instructional sequence. Whether in introducing content is to: additional instruction is necessary • Introduce prerequisite skills before will be determined according to the more advanced applications that proficiency of the learner. require the use of those skills. The The order in which information is program should be designed so that presented in instructional materials can the students can master the prerequi- influence student learning. The recom- site skills before being required to mended sequence to be followed in apply those skills in the more introducing content is to teach prerequi- advanced applications. site skills and then build on those skills to • Introduce the easier content before develop more sophisticated skills and the more difficult content. When understandings. teaching students about several Prerequisite skills are the information applications of a skill or concept, the and applications that students need to teacher should not try to teach all of complete a task. For example, to sound the applications at once. Instead, the out the word hum, the student must know teacher should begin with an easy and be able to produce the sound repre- application and progress to the more sented by each of the letters, know that difficult ones. For example, in works are read from left to right, and be teaching students to identify words able to blend the sounds for each letter as nouns, the teacher should not and then translate the blended sounds into initially include verbals—words that a word said at normal rate. To complete are partly nouns and partly verbs in the analogy “An architect is to a ruler as a function (e.g, Running is fun.). plumber is to a _____,” the student must 254

Chapter 9 • Separate the introduction of content Similarly, language forms must be Development and Evaluation and strategies likely to be confused. appropriate to the skill levels and ages of of Instructional The more similar the characteristics the students. For example, in teaching Materials of two items, the more likely it is young students phonological skills, the that students will confuse them. For words first, middle, and last are commonly example, the letters b and d are used. Teachers must ensure that kinder- similar in shape and sound, and the gartners understand those words. Further, words where and were are similar in the examples used in teaching a concept letters, content, and sound. As a rule should be carefully designed to rule out the teacher should have the students likely misinterpretations. For example, if practice with one item or application the color red is being taught and the so that they master and are comfort- teacher shows a red towel, a red shirt, and able with that item before a second a red hat, a naïve student might logically similar item is introduced. think that red refers to the material and • Introduce information that has not to the color. And if, in the learning of greater utility before information more complex vocabulary, the student The transition with less utility. When letter-sound encounters only this example (“Chad had from initial correspondences are introduced, an innate understanding of how to talk teacher-directed, with strangers; he quickly made them feel modeled, those that appear more frequently prompted teaching should be introduced before those at ease”), the student could quite possibly to independent that appear less frequently. For misinterpret the word innate. use of a new skill example, the letters s, r, m and d Assistance to students during transitions. or extended application by the appear in more words than the The transition from initial teacher- student should letters v, q, x and z. directed, modeled, prompted teaching to not be taken for • Control the amount of new informa- independent use of a new skill or extended granted. tion so that it is comfortably and application by the student should not be reasonably challenging for students. taken for granted. Merely demonstrating a Students should learn new informa- complex strategy or application and then tion at a rate that requires effort but requiring students to apply that strategy is is not overwhelming. When too often not realistic. The transition can be much information is presented at provided by gradually changing the design one time, learning can be slowed of tasks and examples or by changing the because confusion may result, level of assistance the teacher provides. causing the students to adopt Careful monitoring and assistance by the inappropriate guessing strategies. teacher should occur as students make the transition from guided instruction to Clear communication by the teacher. The independent work and mastery. words and examples a teacher uses during Adequate practice and review. Practice instruction need to be carefully planned so and review, when thoughtfully planned that students apprehend and understand and organized, are critical ingredients of the concept that the teacher is trying to efficient instruction. They are not synony- communicate. Clarity is in part facilitated mous with “drill and kill.” Students by carefully guiding the vocabulary and should not practice what is not challeng- language structures teachers use. The ing and what they have already mastered. words used to explain new information A carefully planned review of instructional must be known to the students. 255 materials enables the teacher to focus on learned the letters b and d and p is Chapter 9 Development student performance rather than on the introduced, the practice exercise and Evaluation time-consuming creation of activities for would include all three letters so that of Instructional extra practice. Students will vary widely in the teacher can provide the student Materials the amount of practice required. Put with the opportunity to practice and differently, not all students require the receive feedback in identifying all same amount of practice and review to three similar letters. master and maintain what they are Without cumulative review students learning. are likely to misapply new strategies. Instructional materials should be For example, when students initially designed so that teachers can readily learn to punctuate sentences that provide the practice needed by students. begin with a dependent clause by Clear provisions should be made about placing a comma after the dependent how to accelerate or enrich instruction for clause (e.g., After the game ended, advanced learners who need less practice the sun came out), they will often and how to provide extra practice for begin placing commas in all sen- learners who have difficulty acquiring skills tences with dependent clauses, even and knowledge. when not needed (e.g., The sun Factors to be considered when planning came out, after the game ended). practice and review are that the review Providing students with punctuation must be sufficient, distributed, cumulative exercises that include sentences that and varied: do not need commas gives students • Sufficient review involves the amount practice on when to use the new of practice needed for the student to skill. acquire and become facile with the • Varied review refers to providing a new information. range of meaningful activities that • Distributed review refers to providing reinforce learning. the practice over a period of time to Make connections. Instructional re- facilitate retention. When distributed sources must also make connections for review is not scheduled, instruction students. For example, as students learn becomes less efficient because stu- about a declarative sentence, they should dents forget information learned be asked explicitly to practice writing that earlier. type of sentence and integrate it with • Cumulative review is the means by other writing activities. Similarly, if which students learn when to apply students practice writing sentences with new learning. The new content is correct punctuation and capitalization but mixed with similar content previously never apply those skills in larger contexts taught. Sufficient review and distrib- or for authentic purposes, the instruction uted review provide the student with becomes fragmented and the skills seem- practice in how to do something. The ingly without purpose. The goal in cumulative review provides practice designing instruction must, therefore, be in when to apply the skills. Cumula- to ensure that component parts (skills, tive practice is very important because strategies, structures) are (1) identified; it is the vehicle by which likely (2) carefully sequenced according to their confusions can be preempted. For complexity and utility and used in more example, if students have already 256

Chapter 9 advanced applications; (3) developed to of instruction. Materials should not be so Development and Evaluation mastery; and (4) progressively and pur- constructed that extensive modifications of Instructional posefully connected and then incorporated are necessary for the teacher to meet the Materials in authentic writing exercises. learning needs of a full range of students. English learners need materials to help Category 3— them (1) master the standards of language Assessment arts—notably, to read, write, and speak As described throughout this frame- at academically proficient levels; and work, frequent assessment is the key to (2) learn to understand, speak, and use planning instruction that is appropriate to their new language of English to accom- students’ needs and to determining plish purposes ranging from the personal whether students are meeting or exceeding to the academic and professional. Accord- standards. (Assessment is fully described in ingly, instructional materials will need to Chapter 6.) Instructional materials should provide specific support for English furnish tasks and exercises to assess student learners in lessons in reading and writing learning. Measures should be available to and to contain specific instruction in inform instruction at entry level, monitor English-language development, including progress during instruction, and evaluate phonology, morphology, syntax, and mastery of information on completion of semantics. instruction. Students need materials to study Assessment should help teachers learn English explicitly and other materials to what students know and how well they support them as they learn to read and know it. Frequent assessment should be write. The materials are mutually reinforc- included to help teachers determine ing in that both have the same eventual whether students are learning and retaining goal; however, each type is unique in its what has been taught. Because assessment specific content and learning objectives. measures what students have been taught, Ideally, materials for kindergarten through the tasks in the assessment should parallel grade two or three should integrate the those in the instructional materials. development of both literacy and the English language. For students arriving in

Suggestions and Category 4— this country or learning English in grades procedures for Universal Access three or four and beyond, materials may meeting the include separate strands of instruction for Instructional materials should present instructional literacy and language development. needs of students comprehensive guidance for teachers in For advanced students publishers with special providing effective, efficient instruction for should include suggestions or materials for learning needs all their students. The materials must be must not be students who need an enriched or acceler- constructed to meet the needs of those superficial . . . ated program. Materials may provide or be mere who enter school with less-developed suggestions for the teacher to use to help afterthoughts to vocabulary and language background and the main focus students study a particular author, theme, those with a more sophisticated language of instruction. or concept in more depth. Strategies for background. Suggestions and procedures students to conduct independent research for meeting the instructional needs of projects or to do a more critical analysis students with special learning needs must than that normally included at a particular not be superficial and lack a central focus grade would be helpful. Reminders for or be mere afterthoughts to the main focus 257 teachers of standards at higher grade levels that the connections of all the component Chapter 9 Development would also be useful in helping teachers parts of a program are apparent. They and Evaluation provide a challenge for all students. should explain what each component of of Instructional the program is and how to use it in a Materials Category 5— particular lesson or set of lessons. A list of Instructional Planning all components of the program should be and Support included as well as a list of materials The application of instructional design required for each lesson or unit. The principles in constructing instructional publisher should identify which compo- materials is important in providing nents of the program are necessary to students with a successful and efficient teach at each grade level and which are learning experience. A final organizational optional. If instructional materials come issue is that of the format of the materials with assessment or instructional tools or rather than the arrangement of the informational technology resources, content. The teacher resource materials technical support and suggestions for should provide a clear road map for the appropriate use must be included. The teacher to follow in delivering instruction. teacher’s manual or guide should explain High-quality when to use the tools. If included, elec- literature and There should be a planning guide to all of informational the materials contained in the program. tronic learning resources should be an reading selections They should describe for teachers what is integral part of the program. should be to be taught, how it is to be taught, and High-quality literature and informa- included at every grade level. when it is to be taught. Further, they tional reading selections should be should be organized so that the learning included at every grade level. The teacher objectives are clearly discernible and the resource materials should provide back- relation of the parts of the lesson to the ground information about the reading objective clear and coherent. The materi- selection, including author, context, als should clearly explain to teachers how content, and illustrations, if any. Instruc- the objectives and activities relate to skills tions for the teacher on salient features of within the standards or to the standards the reading material and suggestions on themselves. Language and terms from the how to use each reading selection in the standards should be used whenever lesson or lessons should also be included. appropriate. Lesson plans and suggestions A list of books for independent reading for organizing materials for the lesson that span at least two proficiency levels should be clear, and critical components and match the topic of the unit should be of the lesson should be prioritized and included so that classroom teachers and designated as such. Extraneous resources library media teachers can acquire them and activities should be kept to a mini- for their libraries. Specific guidance for mum and should not detract from teach- teachers on how to use texts at different ing to the standards or contradict the levels to increase reading fluency would be standards. helpful. Usually, a teacher’s edition is included Instructional practices recommended in that contains important support and the instructional materials should be based planning information for teachers. These on current and confirmed research materials should be organized and de- wherever such research exists. If all scribed in a clear and coherent manner so students are to have access to reaching 258

Chapter 9 high levels of proficiency in the English– Homework suggestions should extend or Development and Evaluation language arts content standards, the time reinforce classroom instruction or provide of Instructional available for language arts instruction will additional practice and should be varied Materials have to be used efficiently. Instruction is enough so that the teacher can differenti- more efficient when it is presented explic- ate homework assignments according to itly than implicitly. The modeling of students’ needs. Because parents should be strategies to solve problems can make informed about standards, instruction, instructional time more effective for and their children’s progress toward learners. Research suggests that students in meeting the standards, materials should general and students whose achievement is include suggestions on how to explain below grade level in particular benefit from student assessment data and involve having good strategies made conspicuous parents so that they may better support for them provided great care is taken to the achievement of their children in ensure that the strategies are designed to language arts. result in widely transferable knowledge of A format that clearly distinguishes the their application. Publishers should role of the teacher from that of the student include examples of common student is also recommended. Materials should be misconceptions or mistakes and how to formatted so that additional examples of a address them. Options for instructional skill or strategy for review or reteaching or strategies should be described, including extension or acceleration suggested for information about instruction that can be advanced learners are easy to locate. best delivered in a whole-group setting, as The goal to be achieved is to make well as suggestions for teaching activities examples easily accessible to the teacher that lend themselves to small groups, pairs for moment-to-moment adjustments in of students, or individual work. response to learner performance so that all Parental involvement in the language students can be assisted to meet or exceed arts program supports classroom learning. the standards as efficiently as possible. 259

Appendix A Matrix for the English–Language Arts Content Standards, by Grade

Domain, Strand, Substrand K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Word Analysis, Fluency, and Systematic Vocabulary Development: Concepts about print X X Phonemic awareness X X Decoding and word recognition X X X X Word recognition X X X Vocabulary and concept development X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Reading Comprehension:

READING Structural features of informational materials X X X X X X X X X X X X X Comprehension and analysis of grade-level- appropriate text X X X X X X X X X X X X X Expository critique XXXXXXXX

Literary Response and Analysis: Structural features of literature X X X X X X X X X X Narrative analysis of grade-level-appropriate text X X X X X X X X X X X X X Literary criticism XXXXXXXX 260

Appendix A (Continued)

Domain, Strand, Substrand K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Writing Strategies: Organization and focus X X X X X X X X X X X X X Penmanship X X X X X Research X X Research and technology X X X X X X X X X WRITING Evaluation and revision X X X X X X X X X X X

Writing Applications (Genres and Their Characteristics) X X X X X X X X X X X X

Written and Oral English-Language Conventions: X X

Sentence structure X X X X X X X X X Grammar X X X X X X X X Punctuation X X X X X X X Capitalization X X X X X X X Spelling X X X X X X X X X Punctuation and capitalization X

LANGUAGE CONVENTIONS Grammar and mechanics of writing X X WRITTEN AND ORAL ENGLISH- Manuscript form X X 261

Appendix A (Continued)

Domain, Strand, Substrand K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Listening and Speaking Strategies: Comprehension X X X X X X X X X X X X X Organization and delivery of oral communication X X X X X X X X X X X X Analysis and evaluation of oral and media SPEAKING communications X X X X X X X X X X LISTENING AND Speaking Applications (Genres and Their Characteristics) X X X X X X X X X X X X X 262

Appendix B Representative Content Standards and Instructional Connections for the Language Arts

The tables contained in this appendix illustrate representative content standards that span domains and present opportunities for critical instructional and content connections reinforcing, extending, and generalizing learning. The standards represent knowledge and skills that should first be taught independently but can be combined or connected in lessons to gain instructional efficiency and enhance learning. Note: Some of the content standards have been abbreviated. Kindergarten

Standards-based Written and oral English- instructional topics Reading Writing language conventions Listening and speaking Concepts about print 1.6 Recognize and name all 1.4 Write uppercase and and writing strategies: uppercase and lowercase lowercase letters of the letter names and letter letters of the alphabet. alphabet independently. formation

Phonemic awareness, 1.9 Blend vowel-consonant 1.2 Write consonant-vowel- 1.2 Spell words, using decoding, and spelling: sounds orally to make consonant words. prephonetic knowledge, consonant-vowel- words or syllables. sounds of the alphabet, and consonant words knowledge of letter names. 1.14 Match all consonant and short-vowel sounds to appropriate letters. 1.15 Read simple one-syllable words.

Narrative text: elements 2.4 Retell familiar stories. 1.2 Speak in complete, coherent of stories sentences. 3.3 Identify characters, settings, and important events. 2.3 Relate a creative story in a logical sequence. 263

First Grade

Standards-based Written and oral English- instructional topics Reading Writing language conventions Listening and speaking

Decoding, spelling, and 1.10 Generate the sounds from 1.8 Spell three- and four-letter writing strategies: all letters and letter short vowel words and phonetically regular patterns and blend those grade-level-appropriate words of three to four sounds into recognizable sight words correctly. letters words.

1. 11 Read common irregular sight words.

Narrative text structure 2.2 Respond to who, what, 2.1 Write brief narratives 2.2 Retell stories, using basic when, where, and how describing an experience. story grammar and relating questions. the sequence of story events 2.7 Retell the central ideas of by answering who, what, expository or narrative when, where, why, and how passages. questions. 3.1 Identify plot, setting, and characters in a story as well as the beginning, middle, and ending. 264

Second Grade

Standards-based Written and oral English- instructional topics Reading Writing language conventions Listening and speaking

Decoding and spelling 1.1 Recognize and use knowl- 1.8 Spell basic short-vowel, edge of spelling patterns long-vowel, r-controlled, (e.g., diphthongs, special and consonant-blend vowel spellings) when patterns correctly. reading.

Narrative text 3.1 Compare and contrast 1.1 Group related ideas and 1.8 Retell stories, using charac- structure plots, settings, and charac- maintain a consistent focus. ters, plot, setting. ters presented by different 2.1 Write a brief narrative 2.1 Recount experiences or authors. based on experience, present stories, moving 3.3 Compare and contrast moving through a logical through a logical sequence different versions of the sequence of events and of events and describing same stories that reflect describing the setting, story elements. different cultures. characters, objects, and events in detail. 265

Third Grade

Standards-based Written and oral English- instructional topics Reading Writing language conventions Listening and speaking

Word recognition and 1.1 Use knowledge of complex 1.8 Spell correctly one-syllable spelling word families (e.g., ight) to words that have blends, decode unfamiliar words. contractions, compounds, 1.2 Decode regular multisyllabic orthographic patterns, and words. common homophones.

Reading and speaking 1.3 Read aloud narrative 1.9 Read prose and poetry fluency and expository text fluently aloud with fluency, rhythm, and accurately and with and pace, using appropriate appropriate intonation, intonation and vocal pacing, and expression. patterns to emphasize important passages.

Writing conventions 1.1 Write a single paragraph. 1.1 Use complete and correct 2.1 Make brief narrative and speaking 2.1 Write narratives. declarative, interrogative, presentations. applications imperative, and exclamatory 2.2 Write descriptions. 2.2 Present dramatic interpreta- sentences in writing and tions. 2.3 Write personal and formal speaking. letters, thank-you notes, and 2.3 Make descriptive presenta- invitations. tions.

Narratives 2.1 Write narratives, providing 2.1 Make brief narrative a context, well-chosen presentations, providing a details, and insight into why context, well-chosen details, incidents are memorable. and insight into why an incident is memorable. 266

Third Grade (Continued)

Standards-based Written and oral English- instructional topics Reading Writing language conventions Listening and speaking

Expository text 2.5 Distinguish the main idea 1.1 Write a single paragraph, and supporting details in developing a topic sentence expository text. and include supporting facts and details. 1.4 Revise drafts to improve the coherence and logical progression of ideas by using an established rubric.

Descriptive text 2.2 Write descriptions that use 2.3 Make descriptive presenta- concrete details to present tions that use concrete and support unified impres- sensory details to set forth sions of people, places, and support unified impres- things, or experiences. sions of people, places, things, or experiences. 267

Fourth Grade

Standards-based Written and oral English- instructional topics Reading Writing language conventions Listening and speaking

Narrative text 1.1 Read narrative and exposi- 2.1 Write narratives that relate 1.1 Use simple and compound 2.1 Make narrative presentations structure tory text aloud with grade- ideas, observations, or sentences in writing and that relate ideas, observa- appropriate fluency and recollections of an event or speaking. tions, or recollections about accuracy and with appropri- experience; provide a events and provide a context ate pacing, intonation, and context; use sensory details; and insight. expression. and provide insight. 2.3 Deliver oral summaries of 3.2 Identify the main events of articles and books that the plot, their causes, and contain the main ideas of the the influence of each event event and the most signifi- on future actions. cant details.

Informational text 2.1 Identify structural patterns 1.2 Create multiple-paragraph 1.1 Use simple and compound 2.2 Make informational presenta- structure found in informational text compositions that provide sentences in writing and tions that frame a key (compare and contrast, an introductory paragraph, speaking. question, include facts and cause and effect, order, establish and support a 1.2 Combine short, related details, and incorporate proposition, and support). central idea with a topic sentences with appositives, more than one source of sentence, include supporting participial phrases, and so information. paragraphs, and conclude forth. with a summary paragraph. 268

Fifth Grade

Standards-based Written and oral English- instructional topics Reading Writing language conventions Listening and speaking

Analysis of media as 1.1 Read aloud narrative and 1.2 Create multiple-paragraph 1.1 Correctly use prepositional 1.8 Analyze media as sources for information source expository text fluently and compositions that establish phrases, appositives, and information, entertainment, with appropriate pacing, a topic in sequence or independent and dependent persuasion, interpretation intonation and expression. chronological order, provide clauses; use transitions and of events, and transmission conjunctions to connect 2.1 Understand how text details and transitional of culture. ideas. features (e.g., format, expressions, and offer a 2.2 Deliver informative presen- graphics, sequence, concluding summary 1.5 Spell frequently misspelled tations about an important diagrams) make information paragraph. words correctly idea, issue, or event by accessible and usable. 2.3 Write research reports (e.g., their, they’re, there). framing questions to direct about important ideas, the investigation. issues, or events by framing questions that direct the investigation, establishing a controlling idea or topic, and developing the topic with simple facts, details, examples, and explanations. 269

Sixth Grade

Standards-based Written and oral English- instructional topics Reading Writing language conventions Listening and speaking

Expository 1.1 Read aloud narrative and 1.2 Create multiple-paragraph 1.1 Use simple, compound, and 1.4 Select a focus, an organiza- compositions expository text fluently and expository compositions. compound-complex tional structure, and a point accurately and with Engage the reader, state a sentences; use effective of view, matching the appropriate pacing, clear purpose, develop the coordination and subordina- purpose, message, occasion, intonation, and expression. topic, and conclude with a tion of ideas to express and vocal modulation to the audience. 1.4 Monitor expository text for detailed summary. complete thoughts. unknown words or words 1.3 Use a variety of effective 1.2 Identify and properly use 2.2 Deliver informative presen- with novel meanings by and coherent organizational indefinite pronouns and tations. Pose relevant using word, sentence, and patterns. present perfect, past questions sufficiently limited in scope to be completely paragraph clues to deter- 1.6 Revise writing to improve perfect, and future perfect and thoroughly answered mine meaning. the organization and verb tenses; ensure that and develop the topic with 2.6 Determine the adequacy consistency of ideas within verbs agree with compound facts, details, examples, and and appropriateness of and between paragraphs. subjects. so forth. evidence for an author’s 2.2 Write expository composi- 1.4 Use correct capitalization. 2.5 Deliver presentations on conclusions. tions (e.g., description, 1.5 Spell frequently misspelled problems and solutions. explanation, comparison and words correctly (e.g., their, Theorize on the cause and contrast, problem and they’re, there). effect of each problem and solution). establish connections. Offer persuasive evidence. 270

Seventh Grade

Standards-based Written and oral English- instructional topics Reading Writing language conventions Listening and speaking

Reading 1.1 Identify idioms, analogies, 1.3 Use notetaking, outlining, 1.3 Identify all parts of speech 1.2 Determine the speaker’s comprehension metaphors, and similes in and summarizing to impose and types and structure of attitude toward the subject. prose and poetry. structure on composition sentences. 2.1 Deliver narrative presenta- 1.2 Use knowledge of Greek, drafts. tions. Establish a context, Latin, and Anglo-Saxon 1.4 Identify topics; ask and standard plot line, and point roots and affixes to evaluate questions; and of view. understand content-area develop ideas leading to vocabulary. inquiry, investigation, and 1.3 Clarify word meanings research. through the use of defini- 1.6 Create documents by using tion, example, restatement, word-processing skills and or contrast. publishing programs. 2.1 Understand and analyze the Develop simple databases differences in structure and and spreadsheets to manage purpose between various information and prepare categories of informational reports. materials. 271

Eighth Grade

Standards-based Written and oral English- instructional topics Reading Writing language conventions Listening and speaking

Comparison and 2.1 Compare and contrast the 1.6 Revise writing for word 1.1 Use correct and varied 2.1 Deliver narrative presenta- contrast—similarities features and elements of choice; appropriate sentence types and sentence tions. Employ narrative and and differences consumer materials to gain organization; consistent openings to present a lively descriptive strategies meaning from documents. point of view; and transi- and effective personal style. (e.g., comparison or contrast 2.3 Find similarities and tions between paragraphs, 1.4 Edit written manuscripts to of characters). differences between texts in passages, and ideas. ensure that correct 2.2 Deliver oral responses to the treatment, scope, or 2.2 Write responses to grammar is used. literature. Interpret a reading organization of ideas. literature. Support judg- 1.5 Use correct punctuation and provide insight. 3.3 Compare and contrast ments through references and capitalization. 2.2 Deliver oral responses to motivations and reactions to the text, other works, literature. Support judg- of literary characters from other authors, or personal ments through references to different historical eras who knowledge. the text, other works, other confront similar situations 2.5 Write documents related authors, or personal or conflicts. to career development. knowledge. Present information purposefully and succinctly and meet the needs of the intended audience. 272

Ninth and Tenth Grades

Standards-based Written and oral English- instructional topics Reading Writing language conventions Listening and speaking

Expository (research) 2.2 Prepare a bibliography of 1.3 Use clear research ques- 1.0 Write and speak with a 2.2 Deliver expository presenta- discourse reference materials for a tions and suitable research command of standard tions. report, using a variety of methods to elicit and English conventions. consumer, workplace, and present evidence from 1.5 Reflect appropriate public documents. primary and secondary manuscript requirements, 2.3 Generate relevant questions sources. including integration of about reading on issues that 1.4 Develop the main ideas source and support material can be researched. within the body of the with appropriate citations. 2.4 Synthesize the content from composition through several sources or works by supporting evidence. a single author dealing with 1.5 Synthesize information from a single issue. Paraphrase multiple sources and identify the ideas and connect them complexities and discrepan- to other sources and cies in the information and related topics to demon- the different perspectives strate comprehension. found in each medium. 2.5 Extend ideas presented in 1.6 Integrate quotations and primary or secondary citations into a written text sources through original while maintaining the flow of analysis, evaluation, and ideas. elaboration. 1.7 Use appropriate conventions for documentation in the text, notes, and bibliographies by adhering to those in style manuals. 2.3 Write expository compositions, including analytical essays and research reports. 273

Ninth and Tenth Grades (Continued)

Standards-based Written and oral English- instructional topics Reading Writing language conventions Listening and speaking

Argument and 2.7 Critique the logic of 2.4 Write persuasive composi- 1.1 Formulate judgments about persuasion functional documents by tions. the ideas under discussion examining the sequence of and support those judgments information and procedures with convincing evidence. in anticipation of possible 1.3 Choose logical patterns of reader misunderstandings. organization to inform and 2.8 Evaluate the credibility persuade by soliciting of an author’s argument agreement or action or to or defense of a claim by unite audiences behind a critiquing the evidence common belief or cause. and the way in which 2.5 Deliver persuasive argu- the author’s intent affects ments (including evaluation the structure and tone and analysis of problems and of the text. solutions and causes and effects).

Technology 2.6 Demonstrate use of 1.8 Design and publish docu- sophisticated learning tools ments by using advanced by following technical publishing software and directions. graphic programs. 274

Eleventh and Twelfth Grades

Standards-based Written and oral English- instructional topics Reading Writing language conventions Listening and speaking

Responses 3.1 Analyze characteristics of 2.2 Write responses to literature. 2.3 Deliver oral responses to to literature subgenres that are used in literature. poetry, prose, plays, novels, short stories, essays, and other basic genres. 3.2 Analyze the way in which the theme or meaning of a selection represents a view or comment on life, using textual evidence to support the claim. 3.3 Analyze the ways in which irony, tone, mood, the author’s style, and the “sound” of language achieve specific rhetorical or aesthetic purposes or both. Note: Standards 3.4–3.9 also connect across domains.

Fundamentals 2.1 Analyze both the features 1.1 Demonstrate an under- 1.1 Demonstrate control of 1.4 Use rhetorical questions, of discourse and the rhetorical devices of standing of the elements of grammar, diction, paragraph parallel structure, concrete different types of public discourse when completing and sentence structure, and images, figurative language, documents and the way in narrative, expository, an understanding of English characterization, irony, and which authors use those persuasive, or descriptive usage. dialogue to achieve clarity, features and devices. writing assignments. force, and aesthetic effect. 275

Eleventh and Twelfth Grades (Continued)

Standards-based Written and oral English- instructional topics Reading Writing language conventions Listening and speaking

Fundamentals 2.2 Analyze the way in which 1.2 Use point of view, charac- 1.5 Distinguish between and use of discourse clarity of meaning is affected terization, style, and related various forms of classical and (Continued) by the patterns of organiza- elements for specific contemporary logical tion, hierarchical structures, rhetorical and aesthetic arguments. repetition of the main ideas, purposes. 1.6 Use logical, ethical, and syntax, and word choice in 1.3 Structure ideas and emotional appeals that the text. arguments in a sustained, enhance a specific tone and 2.3 Verify and clarify facts persuasive, and sophisti- purpose. presented in other types of cated way and support them 1.7 Use appropriate rehearsal expository texts by using a with precise and relevant strategies to pay attention to variety of consumer, examples. performance details, achieve workplace, and public 1.4 Enhance meaning by command of the text, and documents. employing rhetorical create skillful artistic staging. 2.4 Make warranted and devices, including the 1.8 Use effective and interesting reasonable assertions about extended use of parallelism, language. the author’s arguments by repetition, and analogy, the using elements of the text incorporation of visual aids, 1.9 Use research and analysis to to defend and clarify and the issuance of a call for justify strategies for gesture, interpretations. action. movement, and vocalization, including dialect, pronuncia- 2.5 Analyze an author’s implicit 1.5 Use language in natural, tion, and enunciation. and explicit philosophical fresh, and vivid ways to assumptions and beliefs establish a specific tone. 1.10 Evaluate when to use about a subject. different kinds of effects to create effective productions. 276

Glossary of Selected Glossary of Selected Terms Terms

alphabetic principle. The assumption description. One of the four traditional forms underlying an alphabetic writing system of composition in speech and writing. Its that each speech sound or phoneme of a purpose is to provide a verbal picture of a language has its own distinctive graphic character, event, setting, and so forth. representation. editing. The process of reviewing text in draft automaticity. The ability to recognize a word form to check for correctness of the (or series of words) in text effortlessly and mechanics and conventions of writing rapidly. (e.g., spelling, grammar, punctuation, capitalization. The act of writing or printing a capitalization, and format). particular word (e.g., a proper noun) and encoding. Transferring oral language into using an uppercase (capital) letter of the written language. alphabet for the first letter of the word. environmental print. Any print found in the concepts about print. Insights about the ways physical environment, such as street signs, in which print works. Basic concepts about billboards, labels, business signs. print include identification of a book’s etymology. The study of the history of words. front and back covers and title page; directionality (knowledge that readers and explicit instruction. The intentional design and writers move from left to right, top to delivery of information by the teacher to the bottom, front to back); spacing (distance students. It begins with (1) the teacher’s used to separate words); recognition of modeling or demonstration of the skill or letters and words; connection between strategy; (2) a structured and substantial spoken and written language; understand- opportunity for students to practice and ing of the function of capitalization and apply newly taught skills and knowledge punctuation; sequencing and locating skills. under the teacher’s direction and guidance; and (3) an opportunity for feedback. decodable texts. Reading materials that provide an intermediate step between exposition. One of the four traditional forms words in isolation and authentic literature. of composition in speech and writing. Its Such texts are designed to give students an purpose is to set forth or explain. opportunity to learn to use their under- expository text. A traditional form of written standing of phonics in the course of reading composition that has as its primary purpose connected text. Although decodable texts explanation of the communication of may contain sight words that have been details, facts, and discipline- or content- previously taught, most words are wholly specific information. decodable on the basis of the letter-sound fluency. The clear, easy, and quick written or and spelling-sound correspondences taught spoken expression of ideas; freedom from and practiced in phonics lessons. word-identification problems that might decoding. A series of strategies used selectively hinder comprehension in silent reading or by readers to recognize and read written the expression of ideas in oral reading; words. The reader locates cues (e.g., letter- automaticity. sound correspondences) in a word that formative evaluation. The gathering of data reveal enough about it to help in pronounc- during the time a program is being devel- ing it and attaching meaning to it. oped to guide the development process. 277 genre. A term used to classify literary works, completed charts are posted on the wall so Glossary such as novel, mystery, historical fiction, that the students can reread them or rely on of Selected Terms biography, short story, poem. them for standard spelling. grammar. The system of rules for the use of learning center or station. A location within a language; the study of the collection of classroom in which students are presented specific spoken and written conventions with instructional materials, specific that exist in a language. directions, clearly defined objectives, and graphic organizer. A visual representation of opportunities for self-evaluation. facts and concepts from a text and their listening comprehension. The act or ability of relationships within an organized frame. understanding what a speaker is saying and Graphic organizers are effective tools for seizing the meaning. thinking and learning. They help teachers literary analysis. The study or examination of and students represent abstract or implicit a literary work or author. information in more concrete form, depict the relationships among facts and concepts, literary criticism. The result of literary analysis; a judgment or evaluation of a aid in organizing and elaborating ideas, work or a body of literature. relate new information with prior knowledge, and effectively store and retrieve Matthew effect. The “rich-get-richer, poor- information. get-poorer” effects embedded in the independent practice. The phase of instruc- educational process. The term is derived from Matthew’s Gospel. tion that occurs after skills and strategies have been explicitly taught and practiced minilesson. Direct instruction on specific under teacher direction or supervision. topics or skills. This direct and explicit Independent practice involves the applica- instruction can also be conducted to benefit tion of newly taught skills in familiar students who need more information or formats or tasks and reinforces skill further clarification of skills or topics acquisition. already taught. The lessons or series of informational text and materials. Text that lessons are connected to the broader goal of getting students to become independent has as its primary purpose the communica- readers and writers. They are presented tion of technical information about a specific topic, event, experience, or briefly and succinctly on the assumption that such information will be added to the circumstance. Informational text is typically set of ideas, strategies, and skills to be found in the content areas (e.g., science, history–social science) in grades four drawn upon as needed. through twelve. morpheme. A linguistic unit of relatively interactive writing. A shared writing experi- stable meaning that cannot be divided into smaller meaningful parts; the smallest ence used to assist emergent readers in meaningful part of a word. learning to read and write. With help from the teacher, students dictate sentences narration. One of the four traditional forms of about a shared experience, such as a story, composition in speech and writing. Its movie, or event. The teacher stretches each purpose is to tell a story or give an account word orally so that students can distinguish of something dealing with sequences of its sounds and letters as they use chart events and experiences. paper to write the letter while repeating the narrative. A story or narrated account of actual sound. After each word has been com- or fictional events. pleted, the teacher and students reread it. onset and rime. Intersyllabic units that are The students take turns writing letters to smaller than words and syllables but larger complete the words and sentences. The 278

Glossary than phonemes. The onset is the portion of predictable text. Reading material that of Selected the syllable that precedes the vowel (e.g., in supports the prediction of certain features Terms the word black the onset is bl). The rime is of text. Text is predictable when it enables the portion of the syllable including any students to predict quickly and easily what vowels and consonants that follow (e.g., in the author is going to say and how the the word black the rime is ack). Although author is going to say it on the basis of their not all syllables or words have an onset, all knowledge of the world and of language. do have a rime (e.g., the word or syllable Predictable books can also contain rhyth- out is a rime without an onset). mical, repetitive, or cumulative patterns; orthographic. Pertains to orthography, the art familiar stories or story lines; familiar or study of correct spelling according to sequences; or a good match between established usage. illustrations and text. peer editing. A form of collaborative learning prewriting. The initial creative and planning in which students work with their peers in stage of writing, prior to drafting, in which editing a piece of writing. the writer formulates ideas, gathers information, and considers ways in which persuasion. One of the four traditional forms to organize a piece of writing. of composition in speech and writing. Its purpose is to move a reader by argument or primary language. The first language a child entreaty to a belief, position, or course of learns to speak. action. print-rich environment. An environment in phonemes. The smallest units of speech that which students are provided many opportu- distinguish one utterance or word from nities to interact with print and an abun- another in a given language (e.g., the /r/ in dance and variety of printed materials are rug or the /b/ in bug.) available and accessible. Students have many opportunities to read and be read to. phonemic awareness. The insight that every In such an environment reading and spoken word is made up of a sequence of writing are modeled by the teacher and phonemes or speech sounds. This insight is used for a wide variety of authentic essential for learning to read an alphabetic everyday purposes. language because these elementary sounds or phonemes are represented by letters. punctuation. The appropriate use of standard Without phonemic awareness phonics marks, such as periods, commas, and makes no sense; consequently, the spelling semicolons, in writing and printing to of words can be learned only by rote. separate words into sentences, clauses, and phrases to clarify meaning. phonemic awareness instruction. Teaching awareness of words, syllables, and pho- reading comprehension. The ability to nemes along a developmental continuum apprehend meaning from print and that includes rhyming, recognition and understand text. At a literal level compre- production, isolation, blending, matching hension is the understanding of what an of phonemes, segmentation, and substitu- author has written or the specific details tion. Early phonemic instruction should provided in a text. At a higher-order level, focus on exploration of the auditory and comprehension involves reflective and articulatory structure of spoken language, purposeful understanding that is thought- not on letter-sound correspondences. intensive, analytic, and interpretive. phonics. A system of teaching reading and recreational reading. Voluntary or leisure spelling that stresses basic symbol-sound reading for which students use self-selected relationships and their application in texts that can be read comfortably and decoding words. independently. 279 retelling. The paraphrasing of a story in a spelling, temporary/invented. An emergent Glossary student’s own words to check for compre- writer’s attempt to spell a word phoneti- of Selected Terms hension. Sometimes, retelling can be cally when the spelling is unknown. followed by questions to elicit further Temporary spelling is a direct reflection of information. the writer’s knowledge and understanding revising. The process of changing a piece of of how words are spelled. By engaging writing to improve clarity for its intended students in thinking actively and reflec- audience and make certain that it accom- tively about the sounds of words and their plishes its stated purpose. spellings, temporary spelling lays a strong cognitive foundation for both formal scaffolding. The temporary support, guidance, spelling and phonics. It does not, however, or assistance provided to a student on a eliminate the need for learning how to spell new or complex task. For example, students correctly. Support for temporary spelling work in partnership with a more advanced should be combined with formal instruc- peer or adult who scaffolds the task by tion in spelling to move students toward engaging in appropriate instructional rapid growth in word recognition and interactions designed to model, assist, or correct spelling. provide necessary information. The interactions should eventually lead to story frame/map. A graphic organizer of major independence. events and ideas from a story to help guide students’ thinking and heighten their schema. A reader’s organized knowledge of the awareness of the structure of stories. The world that provides a basis for compre- teacher can model this process by filling out hending, learning, and remembering ideas a chart on an overhead while reading. Or in stories and texts. students can complete a chart individually self-monitoring. Students learn to monitor or in groups after a story is read, illustrating their own reading behaviors and use or noting characters, setting, compare/ appropriate strategies to decode and contrast, problem/solution, climax, comprehend text effectively. conflict, and so forth. sentences: story grammar. The important elements that Declarative—a sentence that makes a typically constitute a story. In general the statement. elements include plot, setting, characters, Exclamatory—a sentence that makes a conflict or problem, attempts or resolution, vehement statement or conveys strong twist or complication, and theme. or sudden emotion. structured/guided practice. A phase of Imperative—a sentence that expresses a instruction that occurs after the teacher command or request. explicitly models, demonstrates, or Interrogative—a sentence that asks a introduces a skill or strategy. In this phase question or makes an inquiry. students practice newly learned skills or sentence structure. The formal pattern or strategies under teacher supervision and grouping of words that make up a sentence, receive feedback on performance. This are grammatically dependent on one critical interactive phase involves teachers another, and convey an idea or message. and students. sight vocabulary/sight words. Words that are summative evaluation. An overall assessment read automatically on sight because they are or decision regarding a program. familiar to the reader. syllabication. The division of words into spelling. The forming of specific words with syllables, the minimal units of sequential letters in the correct order according to speech sounds composed of a vowel sound established usages; orthography. or a vowel-consonant combination. 280

Glossary systematic instruction. The strategic design about the definitions of words is accompa- of Selected and delivery of instruction that examines nied by attention to their usages and Terms the nature of the objective to be learned meanings across contexts. The development and selects and sequences the essential of an extensive reading vocabulary is a skills, examples, and strategies necessary necessary phase of good comprehension. to achieve the objective by (1) allocating web. A graphic organizer used to involve sufficient time to essential skills; students in thinking about and planning (2) scheduling information to minimize what they will study, learn, read about, or confusion on the part of the learner; write about within a larger topic. A teacher (3) introducing information in manageable may begin with a brainstorming discussion and sequential units; (4) identifying of topics related to a particular theme and prerequisite skills and building on prior then represent subtopics through the use of knowledge of the learner; (5) reviewing a web drawn on the board. Webbing can be previously taught skills; (6) strategically used to encourage students to consider integrating old knowledge with new what they know about each subtopic or knowledge; and (7) progressing from skills what they want to know. in easier, manageable contexts to more word attack (or word analysis). Refers to the complex contexts. process used to decode words. Students are text difficulty (relative to student’s ability): taught multiple strategies to identify a • The independent reading level is the level word. This sequence progresses from of reading material a child can easily decoding of individual letter-sound read independently with high compre- correspondences, letter combinations, hension, few problems with word phonics analysis and rules, and syllabication identification, and an accuracy rate rules to analyzing structural elements of 95–100 percent. (including prefixes, suffixes, and roots). • The instructional reading level is the Advanced word-analysis skills include level of reading material a child can strategies for identifying multisyllabic read successfully with instruction and words. support and an accuracy rate of word play. A child’s manipulation of sounds 90–94 percent. • The frustration reading level is the level and words for language exploration and practice or for pleasure (using alliteration, of reading material a child can read with creating rhymes, singing songs, clapping an accuracy rate of 89 percent or less. At this level “reading skills break down, syllables, and so forth). fluency disappears, errors in word word recognition. The identification and recognition are numerous, comprehen- subsequent translation of the printed word sion is faulty, recall is sketchy, and signs into its corresponding sound, leading to of emotional tension and discomfort accessing the word’s meaning. become evident” (statement of the writing as a process (or process writing). Committee on the Prevention of The process used to create, develop, Reading Difficulties of Young Children, and complete a piece of writing. Depend- quoted in Harris and Sipay 1975, 213). ing on the purpose and audience for a vocabulary and concept development. particular piece of writing, students are Instruction in the meaning of new words taught to use the stages of prewriting, and concepts. Vocabulary instruction is drafting, revising, editing, and publishing. most effective when specific information 281

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Publications Available from the Department of Education This publication is one of over 600 that are available from the California Department of Education. Some of the more recent publications or those most widely used are the following:

Item no. Title (Date of publication) Price 1372 Arts Work: A Call for Arts Education for All California Students (1997) ...... $11.25 1438 California School Accounting Manual, 1998 Edition ...... 28.50 1398 California Year-Round Education Directory, 1997-98 (1998) ...... 10.00 0488 Caught in the Middle: Educational Reform for Young Adolescents in California Public Schools (1987) ...... 9.25 1373 Challenge Standards for Student Success: Health Education (1998)...... 10.00 1409 Challenge Standards for Student Success: Language Arts Student Work Addendum (1998) ...... 12.75 1298 Challenge Standards for Student Success: Mathematics (1997) ...... 15.75 1435 Challenge Standards for Student Success: Physical Education (1998) ...... 8.50 1429 Challenge Standards for Student Success: Visual and Performing Arts (1998) ...... 12.50 1290 Challenge Toolkit: Family-School Compact (1997) ...... 9.95* 1439 Check It Out! Assessing School Library Media Programs (1998)...... 9.25 1281 Connect, Compute, and Compete: The Report of the California Education Technology Task Force (1996) ...... 5.75 1093 Differentiating the Core Curriculum and Instruction to Provide Advanced Learning Opportunities (1994) ...... 7.00 1389 English–Language Arts Content Standards for California Public Schools, Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve (1998) ...... 9.25 1244 Every Child a Reader: The Report of the California Reading Task Force (1995)...... 5.25 1064 Health Framework for California Public Schools, Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve (1994) ...... 10.00 1284 History–Social Science Framework for California Public Schools, 1997 Updated Edition (1997) ...... 12.50 1245 Improving Mathematics Achievement for All California Students: The Report of the California Mathematics Task Force (1995) ...... 5.25 1024 It’s Elementary! Elementary Grades Task Force Report (1992) ...... 9.00 1442 Joining Hands: Preparing Teachers to Make Meaningful Home-School Connections (1998) ...... 13.25 1457 Mathematics Content Standards for California Public Schools, Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve (1999) ...... 8.50 1065 Physical Education Framework for California Public Schools, Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve (1994) ...... 7.75 1221 Practical Ideas for Teaching Writing as a Process at the Elementary School and Middle School Levels (1996) ...... 18.00 1222 Practical Ideas for Teaching Writing as a Process at the High School and College Levels (1997) ...... 18.00 0831 Recommended Literature, Grades Nine Through Twelve (1990) ...... 8.00 1171 Recommended Readings in Literature, Kindergarten Through Grade Eight (Revised annotated edition) (1996) ...... 10.00 0870 Science Framework for California Public Schools, Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve (1990) ...... 9.50 1276 Teaching Reading: A Balanced, Comprehensive Approach to Teaching Reading in Prekindergarten Through Grade Three (1996) ...... 5.75 1261 Visual and Performing Arts Framework for California Public Schools, Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve (1996) ...... 15.00 1392 Work-Based Learning Guide (1998) ...... 12.50 1390 Work Permit Handbook (1998) ...... 13.00 1381 Workforce Career Development Model (1998) ...... 9.50

* Other titles in the Challenge Toolkit series are Outline for Assessment and Accountability Plans (Item 1300), Safe and Healthy Schools (Item 1299), School Facilities (Item 1294), Site-Based Decision Making (Item 1295), Service Learning (Item 1291), Student Activities (Item 1292), and Student Learning Plans (Item no. 1296). Call 1-800-995-4099 for prices and shipping charges.

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