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The Reading-Writing Connection THE READING–WRITING CONNECTION eading and writing development begin in early and supports, and is a complex issue in its own right. This childhood and are linked in daily function and decision in no way diminishes the importance of read- Rin classroom activities from kindergarten or ing, writing and their connection in this group, but rather prekindergarten through high school and beyond. They should indicate that the topic deserves separate consid- form an integral part of the now widely adopted Common eration. (See August & Shanahan, 2008, which addresses Core State Standards for English Language Arts. Although reading and writing in second language learners.) few would argue that reading and writing are related in important ways, there is little research addressing that re- lationship, or when and how best to integrate these two BACKGROUND critical areas instructionally. A panel of individuals with There is general agreement that there is a connection be- expertise in reading, writing, instruction, intervention, tween reading and writing, yet we know surprisingly little assessment, and research methods convened under a part- about the nature of this connection or the interactions nership activity of the International Reading Association between reading and writing with regard to development and the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of and student achievement (Graham & Hebert, 2010, in Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) here press; Fitzgerald & Shanahan, 2000). For example, how offers a consensus about some issues to consider in mov- does learning in one influence or alter learning in the ing the field toward more fully understanding the nature other, and how does the instructional process for reading and importance of the reading–writing connection. The relate to instruction in writing or the instructional pro- document presents the panel’s thinking on instructional cess in writing relate to reading instruction? Does instruc- issues, technology, the sharing of existing information, and the need for new approaches to assessment. The doc- tion in reading improve performance in writing and is the ument ends with a summary of what the panel agreed are converse true? As we study the reading–writing trajectory, important areas for future research for better understand- it will be important to include listening and speaking (i.e., ing and instructionally addressing the reading–writing oral language), since all of these skills develop interde- connection. pendently. How does the relationship among these skills To simplify the consideration of the connection be- change with age and growth/development over the course tween reading and writing, reading is here defined as the of childhood and adolescence, and how might these asso- ability to decode written text quickly and accurately and ciations change as features of the text change (e.g., genre, to comprehend what is read. Writing is defined as the complexity of vocabulary, sentence structure)? ability to produce connected text (sentences, paragraphs, While reading and writing are closely correlated, the and documents), either by handwriting or keyboarding, correlation is far from perfect. Little research has been that communicates an idea or information. Note also done on reading reading–writing relations across differ- that the panel specifically does NOT address the issue of ent ability levels in each (Fitzgerald & Shanahan, 2000). the reading–writing connection in the learning and in- Examining the connection between reading and writing struction of students learning English as a second or ad- should inform us regarding what attributes and aptitudes ditional language. Some of the broader statements in the characterize those who struggle with one of these skills document could apply directly to that population, while but not the other, and what characterizes those with dif- others would require significant nuancing, as instruction ficulties in both? Some interesting similarities and dif- for second language learners requires specific expertise ferences can be noted between reading and writing. Both – 1 – (along with the other language arts skills, listening and There is far less research on writing and writing speaking) involve knowledge of vocabulary (words, their instruction, yet there are some promising new research internal morphology, and their meanings in context) and findings. Recent research syntheses and additional re- syntax (sentence structure, complex sentences, and how search into writing instruction and remediation have usage can change the intended message). At their higher demonstrated aspects of intervention that have positively levels all of these require reasoning, critical thinking, and impacted the quality and quantity of students’ written analytic ability, and all draw upon background knowl- products (Graham & Perin, 2007; Rogers & Graham, edge. Both skilled writing and reading are complex, re- 2008; Sandmel & Graham, 2011) as well as indicating quiring extensive self-regulation of flexible, goal-directed, the positive impact that instruction on writing can have problem-solving activities; both require genre knowledge for improving reading comprehension skills (Fitzgerald and effective use of strategies (Harris, Graham, Brindle, & Shanahan, 2000; Graham & Hebert, in press, 2010; & Sandmel, 2009). Moats, 2005/2006; Neville & Searls, 1991; Tierney & While the prevalence of reading and writing dis- Shanahan, 1991). Research on professional development abilities have been noted to be similar (Katusic, Colligan, for teachers has begun to demonstrate how they can be- Weaver, & Barbaresi, 2009), the two do not always co- come highly effective in teaching strategies for writing occur. However, the co-occurrence of writing problems and self-regulation of the writing process (Harris et al., and reading problems is large; the prevalence of second 2012; Harris, Lane, et al., 2012). This work has served grade students identified with writing disabilities and to heighten awareness of the importance of writing in comorbid reading disabilities is approximately 45% the development of literacy and the educational process (Hooper, Roberts, Nelson, Zeisel, & Kasambira, 2010). generally. Good readers can have problems writing, but it is re- Despite accumulating evidence in both reading and writing, the field continues to struggle with how best portedly rare to have poor readers who are good writers to ensure that students achieve higher levels of reading (Myklebust, 1973; Stotsky, 1983; Tierney & Shanahan, comprehension and to elucidate optimal trajectories for 1991). Whereas students are often aware that they are writing development. When students receiving remedia- having trouble reading, many earlier grade students tion make important gains, it is not clear what support(s) and older struggling writers overestimate their writing are needed for them to build on these skills and main- abilities (Harris et al., 2009; Harris, Graham, & Mason, tain them. Despite the need for ongoing research, re- 2006). Anecdotally, many people love to read, and read search findings are encouraging enough that teachers for pleasure and learning, whereas fewer people report a can incorporate current research knowledge and use it in love of writing or that they write for pleasure or to learn. their classrooms with their students. A collection of user- Indeed, many students’ attitudes towards writing decline friendly documents exists (e.g., companion documents to with grade (Harris et al., 2009; Knudson, 1991; 1992, the Report of the National Reading Panel [NICHD, 2000; 1995). The National Assessment of Educational Progress Partnership for Reading, 2003a, 2003b]) on early reading data in writing indicate that the majority of 4th, 8th and instruction, covering grades K–12 but focusing more heav- 12th grade students demonstrate only partial mastery of ily on elementary school (where there was more research the writing abilities needed at their grade level (Graham available). The National Early Literacy Panel (NELP; & Perin, 2007). National Institute for Literacy, 2008) synthesized the sci- There is a substantial body of research on the com- entific evidence on early literacy development and home ponents of reading, and on reading instruction and and family influences on that development, covering early reading intervention (NICHD, 2000). Although more childhood with accompanying documents for teachers is known about early reading, inroads are being made and child care providers addressing early literacy and lan- into understanding the effect of reading instruction in guage development (National Institute for Literacy, 2009, the middle and higher grades, and while it appears that 2010). More recently, summary documents have been intervention with struggling adolescent readers is gener- produced on adolescent literacy (addressing both reading ally less effective than are interventions with children in and writing) through a partnership between the Alliance K–3, there have been some successes with these popula- for Excellent Education and the Carnegie Corporation of tions (Edmonds et al., 2009; Vaughn et al., 2011). Work New York (Biancarosa & Snow, 2004; Graham & Hebert, is needed on reading comprehension at all levels, but es- 2011; Graham & Perin, 2007), which are freely available pecially as students engage with more complex texts and and provide a starting point. A document regarding as- are required to use more advanced reasoning and analytic sessment of writing is also available
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