Doctoral Dissertation Academic Year 2015 Phonological Representations of the Japanese Language: Levels of Processing and Orthographic Influences Graduate School of Media and Governance Keio University Miyoko Nakamura CONTENTS Acknowledgments …………………………………………..... iv Abstract (English) ..…………………………………………. vii Abstract (Japanese) ..………………………………………… ix List of Figures ………………………………………….xi List of Tables ……………………………………….. xiii Chapter 1: Introduction …………………………………. 1 1.1 Phonological Representations ……………………………………………... 3 1.2 Orthographic Influences …………………………………………….. 5 1.2.1 From Sound to Letters: from phonology to orthography …………………….. 5 1.2.2 Orthographic Influences on Speech Processing ……………………………. 6 1.3 The Objectives of the Present Study ……………………………………………8 1.4 Approach ………………………………………………………………………. 8 1.4.1 General Approach ………………………………………………………... 8 1.4.2 Specific Approach: Levels of Speech Processing …………………………. 9 1.5 Dissertation Outline ………………………………………………………. 14 Chapter 2: Related Studies ………………………………..16 2.1 Japanese Phonology and Writing System ………………………………... 16 2.1.1 Japanese Phonology on Syllable and Mora ……………………………… 16 i 2.1.2 Japanese Phonology and the Writing System …………………………… 18 2.2 Research Background of Linguistic Awareness ....………………………... 22 2.2.1 Metalinguistic Ability and/or Linguistic Awareness ……………………. 22 2.2.2 Language as an Object: Metalinguistic Thinking …………………….. 24 2.2.3 Phonological Awareness and Phonemic Awareness …………………….. 26 2.2.4 Previous Studies on Phonological Awareness in Alphabetic Language Speakers ..…………………………………………………… 27 2.2.5 Previous Studies on Phonological Awareness in Japanese and Non-alphabetic Language Speakers ……………………………………. 28 2.3 Research Background of Speech Segmentation …………………………….. 36 2.3.1 Background of Speech Segmentation and Perceptual Units ..………… 36 2.3.2 Previous Studies on Speech Segmentation in Japanese ..……………… 38 2.3.3 Influence of Writing System on Speech Segmentation in Japanese ……. 40 Chapter 3: Phonological Awareness in Japanese Native Speakers and the Influence of Orthography 44 3.1 Objectives ………………………………………………………………… 44 3.2 Experiment 1: Is the Phoneme Spontaneously Used in a Reversal Task? … 45 3.2.1 Method: Participants, Material and Procedure ……………………….. 45 3.2.2 Results and Discussion ……………………………………………... 48 3.3 Experiment 2: Mora-versus Syllable-based Spontaneous Reversals ……... 50 3.3.1 Method: Participants, Material and procedure ………………………… 50 3.3.2 Results and Discussion …………………………………………………. 51 3.4 Experiment 3 : Induced Phonemic Reversal Task …………………………... 54 3.4.1 Method: Material and Procedure ……………………………………… 56 3.4.2. Results and Discussion ……………………………………………….. 56 3.5. General Discussion ………………………………………………………. 61 Chapter 4: Speech Segmentation in Japanese and the Influence of Orthography ………… 63 4.1 General Framework ……………………………………………………… 63 4.2 Research Questions and Objectives ……………………………………… 67 ii 4.3 Experiment 1: Units that Migrate in Japanese: Are They Affected by the Target Script? ……………………………………... 70 4.3.1 Method: Participants, Material, and Procedure ………………………… 71 4.3.2 Results …………………………………………………………….. 76 4.3.3 Discussion …………………………………………………………….. 80 4.4 Experiment 2: French Listeners …………………………………………. 80 4.4.1 Method: Participants, Material and Procedure …………………………... 80 4.4.2 Results ………………………………………………………………… 81 4.4.3 Discussion, Cross-experiment Comparison, and Control Metaphonological Experiment ………………………………………………………………..84 4.5 Experiment 3: Are Migrations in Japanese Listeners Affected by the (Un)availability of Kanji Representations? ……………. 86 4.5.1 Method: Participants, Material, and Procedure ……………………… 87 4.5.2 Results ……………………………………………………………… 90 4.5.3 Discussion and Cross-experiment Comparison ……………………….. 93 4.6 General Discussion ………………………………………………………… 94 Chapter 5: Concluding Remarks ……………………. 101 5.1 Conclusion ……………………………………………………….. 101 5.2 Implications for Further Studies …………………………………………... 103 5.2.1 Implications from the Research Work in Chapter 3 ………………………. 103 5.2.2 Implications from the Research Work in Chapter 4 ………………………. 107 5.3 Future Directions ………………………………………………………….. 109 Bibliography …………………………………………..114 List of Publication ……………………………………….. 140 Notes …………………………………………………… 141 Appendix …………………………………………………. 150 iii Acknowledgments First and foremost, I would like to express my gratitude to Professor Mutsumi Imai of Keio University for her supervision and support on my dissertation. Without her generosity of succeeding the role of supervisor from Professor Emeritus Shun Ishizaki of Keio University, I could not have accomplished my doctorate. I would like to express my special gratitude to Dr. Ishizaki, Professor Emeritus of Keio University, my ex-supervisor and one of the present advisors, for his continuous encouragement as a cognitive scientist all through my research life in order never to give up my research interests as well as for his support and direction in order to complete my doctorate. Without him, I would not have even challenged for a doctorate. I also would like to express my appreciation to Professor Minoru Shimozaki, and Professor Yuko Nakahama for their precious comments and advice as well as warm encouragement as advisors at Keio University. I would also like to address my gratitude to Professor Yasunori Morishima of International Christian University as an advisor in the beginning of the doctoral course as well as for his help and encouragement all through the way for maintaining my energy and research interests. The main research works in my dissertation were supported by the Human Frontier Science Program(HFSP) grant (project entitled Processing Consequences of Contrasting Language Phonologies) and had been done in collaboration with the professors and researchers of the Free University of Brussels (Université Libre de Bruxelles) in Belgium with the understanding of the professors at Keio University. First, my special acknowledgements are due to Professor Régine Kolinsky of Université Libre de Buxelles(ULB) for her rigorous collaboration and precious advice for the main research works, especially in order to submit and make the research to be published in the international journals as well as for helping me from more advanced psychological point of view, including statistical analyses, and improving the research writing into a better-organized and more refined fashion. I extend my acknowledgements to her warm thoughts and compassion even in my private life. My special acknowledgements are also due to Dr. José Morais, Professor Emeritus of the above university(ULB), for giving me a direction and an incentive to this research field as well as his precious comments and advice for the main research works. I would very much like to express my sincere appreciation from the bottom of my heart for their continuous encouragement and support all through the long research period including my private life, especially the physically hard time. Without their further supervision as iv specialists and authorities of cognitive speech processing and literacy, I could not have accomplished my challenge for obtaining a doctorate. My gratitude should also be addressed to Professor Toshio Watanabe, Professor Masaki Suwa, Professor Yoko Hamada, Professor Takaaki Kato, Professor Atsushi Aoyama of Keio University as well as Dr. Michiyo Asano, Dr. Kyoko Teraoka-Sakamoto and all the graduate school project members of Imai’s lab. for their precious comments and advice. I would also like to add my gratitude to Dr. Jun Okamoto, Dr. Takehiro Teraoka, and Ms. Nao Sekiguchi-Tatsumi of ex-Ishizaki Lab. for their kind support and comments. Concerning the research work in Chapter 3, the basis of which is my master’s thesis, I would like to express my special appreciation to Professor Emeritus Yuji Suzuki of Keio University, for his supervision and encouragement at that time. I am very grateful to Ms. Carmela Spagnoletti, the third author of the research paper, for her keen insight on linguistic consideration and the overall judgment of the participants’ reading level of performance on French language. I thank Dr. Kazuaki Miyagishima and Dr. Kazuhiko Kakehi for their very helpful remarks on an oral presentation of the research. I am also very grateful to Dr. Takashi Muto and Dr. Sumiko Sasanuma, Dr. Katsuo Tamaoka, Dr. Anne Cutler, Dr. Haruo Kubozono, and Dr. Hirofumi Saito, for their precious comments and continuous encouragements, to Frank Rupert for his help in evaluating participants’ mastery of the English language, and to Michiko Makita and Naoko Sakurai for their help in judging the Japanese sounds of the stimuli and responses. I also express my special thanks to all the people who volunteered to participate in the experiments carried out in the research. As for the research work in Chapter 4, I warmly thank Dr. Haruo Kubozono and the entire HFSP team for the fruitful discussions, and particularly, thank Dr. Takashi Otake for providing testing facilities at Dokkyo University. I also thank Dr. Hajime Oiwa and Dr. Shun Ishizaki for providing testing facilities at Keio University. I also thank Ms. Mireille Cluytens and Ms. Fiorella Germeau for materials preparation, Ms. Josiane Lechat for testing help with the French-speaking participants. I would like to express my special thanks to Ava and David Junça de Morais for analyses of sound files as well as their encouragement in my private life. I express my gratitude to all the participants from the Japanese community in Brussels and from Dokkyo University, Keio