Literacy and Socio-Economic Marginalization of the Muslim Population in Malda District, West Bengal, India1

Literacy and Socio-economic Marginalization of the Muslim Population in Malda District, West Bengal, India1

Farasat Ali Siddiqui and Nazmul Hussain

Department of Geography, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh-202002, Uttar Pradesh, India Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/12/1-2/62/1448391/arwg_12_1-2_m5h5j86546781w21.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021

Literacy and education are like oxygen for tive examine les relations entre l’alphabétisation human beings in the contemporary technology- et les déterminants socio-économiques comme la driven world and knowledge economy. Low conséquence du faible niveau de développement levels of literacy and education impede national socio-économique de la communauté musul- growth and violate human rights as well as the mane du district de Malda, dans l’État indien du rights of religious communities; conversely, Bengale-Occidental. Au plan quantitatif, l’étude higher literacy rates bring social change, montre qu’un taux d’alphabétisation plus élevé cultural advancement, and economic develop- réduit la proportion de la population de moins ment. The present deductive study examines the de six ans ainsi que la croissance démogra- reciprocal relationship between literacy and phique ; ce taux induit aussi une urbanisation et socio-economic determinants as a consequence un niveau d’emploi plus élevés, autant d’indica- of the low level of socio-economic development teurs de développement humain. En conclusion, of the Muslim community in the Malda district of l’article propose quelques suggestions pour West Bengal, India. The study shows quantita- améliorer l’alphabétisation de la communauté tively that a higher literacy rate reduces both the musulmane, la meilleure solution pour réduire proportion of the population under 6 years of les disparités de développement socio-écono- age and overall population growth; it is also an mique entre les groupes de ce district. impetus to higher urbanization and employment, which are indicators of human development. The Mots clés : alphabétisation, enseignement, popu- article concludes with some suggestions to lation musulmane, marginalisation, développe- enhance Muslim literacy, which is an ultimate ment humain, développement socio-économique, solution to reduce existing group disparities in Inde socio-economic development in the district. Introduction Keywords: literacy, education, Muslim population, marginalization, human development, Religion is an important and perhaps the socio-economic development, India basic cultural characteristic of India’s popula- L’alphabétisation et l’enseignement sont pour tion. India is a secular country; historically, it l’économie du savoir contemporaine propulsée has been incredibly religiously diverse. par la technologie comme une bouffée d’oxygène Invaders came with distinct races, religions, pour les Hommes. De faibles taux d’alphabétisa- cultures, and languages and left their imprints tion et d’enseignement freinent la croissance on the country, which now bears testimony to nationale et violent les droits de l’homme et ceux social unity in cultural, racial, religious, and des communautés religieuses. Des taux plus linguistic diversity. India is rich in accommo- élevés d’alphabétisation apportent au contraire dating multi-religious people. Several reli- du changement social, du progrès culturel et du gions have thrived here, and every decennial développement économique. Cette étude déduc- census provides an interesting picture of the religious classifications of the people; The Arab World Geographer/Le Géographe du monde arabe Vol 12, No 1-2 (2009) 62–75 © 2009 by AWG Publishing, Toronto, Canada Literacy & Socio-economic Marginalization of the Muslim Population in Malda District 63 however, religious communities show education, and social inequalities of caste, inequality in the level of literacy consequent class, and gender have been identified as the upon variations in socio-cultural and major source of educational disparities economic status, which cause disparities among India’s population. among groups. In any society, the system of India has registered phenomenal growth education plays an important role in training, in the sphere of education since independ- development, and allocation of human ence. But the benefits of educational develop- resources (Mondal 1997, 17). Illiteracy may ment have not percolated down to the poorest generally be taken as the root cause of a lag in of the poor. As a result, educational inequali- Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/12/1-2/62/1448391/arwg_12_1-2_m5h5j86546781w21.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021 socio-economic development among groups. ties do not merely persist but are also increas- Literacy levels are highly associated with the ing day by day. Growing intergroup role of the state; no country in the world has educational disparities are one of the most been able to educate all its children without challenging problems. Under-served and state intervention (Sen 2007). Education marginalized groups are far behind others in plays a dominant role in influencing the qual- literacy and education. Two of the country’s ity of human resources (Siddiqui and Naseer religious groups—Muslims and Neo- 2004); in the contemporary world, and partic- Buddhists—were found to be the most educa- ularly in developing countries, modern tionally backward at the national level by a education is seen as both a means of and a high-powered panel headed by Dr. Gopal goal for modernization (Pundey 1988). Singh, appointed by the Ministry of Home Three sets of factors—parental literacy, Affairs at the beginning of 1980 to look into economic status, and caste discrimination— the conditions of minorities, Scheduled that influence school attendance and enrol- Castes (SC), and Scheduled Tribes (ST). ment in rural India, resulting in regional, Educational conditions for Muslims have not caste, community, and gender disparities in improved in the last 23 years, despite the educational attainments (Ramachandran, government’s Area Intensive Madarsa Swaminathan, and Rawal 2003). Jean Drèze Modernisation Programme, launched in 1992 and Geeta Gandhi Kingdon (2001) have iden- in the wake of the Gopal Singh Committee’s tified factors affecting school enrolment and findings. Muslims were again found to be the grade attainment and observed that the most educationally backward community in father’s education is more important for boys the country by the Prime Minister’s High while the mother’s education is more impor- Level Committee under the chairmanship of tant for girls. School attendance rate is posi- Justice Rajinder Sachar. The committee’s tively affected by adult literacy and female report states that work participation and is negatively affected by poverty, increased household size, caste Muslims are at a double disadvantage with (for girls only), and decreased school accessi- low levels of education combined with low bility (Jayachandran 2002). Other studies on quality education; their deprivation the determinants of school participation and increases manifold as the level of education attainment in India today (Kingdon 2007; rises. In some instances the relative share for Dostie and Jayaraman 2006; Broach and Iyar Muslims is lower than even the SCs who are 2005; Drèze and Kingdon 2001; Srinivasan victims of a long standing caste system. and Kumar 1999) acknowledge socio-reli- Such relative deprivation calls for a signifi- gious differences in the population and docu- cant policy shift, in the recognition of the ment the profile of educational achievement problem and in devising corrective meas- by caste, religion, and gender. It has been ures, as well as in the allocation of resources widely acknowledged that socio-economic (GOI 2006, 50). conditions in India constrain the process of

The Arab World Geographer/Le Géographe du monde arabe 12, no 1-2 (2009) 64 Farasat Ali Siddiqui and Nazmul Hussain

The 2001 census recorded that the Zaidi 1986; Nuna 1989; Mehta 1990; Dash literacy rate of India’s population was 1993; Hazra 1997; Chaubey and Chaubey 65.38 % (75.3 % for boys and men; 53.7 % for 1998; Joshi 2000; Yasmeen, Siddiqui, and women and girls), based on the concept that Khan 2005) have attempted to highlight any person aged six or above who can read, educational levels and their relation to the write, and understand any language is literate. socio-economic continuum. The literacy rate among Muslims was found Dhanpal and Ahmad (1982) examined the to be 59.13 %, 6.25 percentage points below spatial inequalities in the distribution of educa- the national average. If Muslims and the tional services in different parts of the world, Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/12/1-2/62/1448391/arwg_12_1-2_m5h5j86546781w21.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021 SC/ST, with an even lower literacy level of with the goal of finding out where such dispar- 52.23 %, are excluded, the remaining cate- ities exist in India. Basu (1991) quantitatively gory of “All Others” shows a relatively high assessed the causes and consequences of occu- literacy level of 70.8 %. The low level of liter- pational structures in urban centres. Shafiqul- acy among Muslims and other minority lah and Siddiqui (2001), using standard groups is one of the strongest indicators of the statistical techniques, attempted to correlate developmental lag associated with their the workforce with regional variations in deprived socio-economic conditions. In socio-economic development. Siddiqui and terms of literacy, there is marked variation Naseer (2004) assessed regional patterns of among regions as well as different levels of association between educational development literacy among different social groups and employment, using multiple regression (Kumar, Kumar, and Anurag 2007). Some models. Singh and Shukla (2006) attempted to reflections from the Sachar Committee’s focus on the occupational mobility of tribes report reveal the facts of the developmental consequent upon the decentralization of Indian lag of Muslims in India: planning policy, working from the hypothesis that urbanization and industrialization have as with many Indians, the main reason for adverse environmental and ecological impacts educational backwardness of Muslims is that adversely affect tribal occupations. The subject poverty due to which children are interstate disparities in educational develop- forced to dropout after the first few classes. ment have been analyzed by several authors This is particularly true for Muslim girls. (Tilak 1979; Reddy 1985; Zaidi 1986; Mehta Little children are expected to provide for 1990; Malhotra 1999); inter-district inequali- their families by working in Karkhanas ties in terms of educational development have (small workshops) as domestic help (GOI been the subject of study by others (Sarada- 2006, 15). moni 1981; Dash 1993), while the relationships between education and economic The report argues that poor economic condi- development have been examined by Dube and tions are responsible for the low level of liter- Misra (1981), Chaudhary and Nair (1981), and acy among Muslims in India. Singh (1986). The socio-cultural factors affect- Some significant studies on educational ing the education and work participation of status have been attempted with reference to women, the occupational structure of popula- literacy rate, both in general and by sex and tion, and its distribution with respect to major place of residence (Gosal 1964; Siddiqui categories and residence are highly relevant to 1977; Burke 1983; Mathur 1988; Tiwari and productivity and economic growth (Malathay Tripathi 1993), while other scholars have 1994; Saha and Mathur 2001; Kothari 2003). dealt with the correlation of educational These factors have also been analyzed with development and working population reference to their implications in terms of a (Acharya 1984; Singh 1986). A series of stud- series of independent variables (Rafiullah and ies (Kumar 1982; Raza and Aggarwal 1982; Siddiqui 1981).

The Arab World Geographer/Le Géographe du monde arabe 12, no 1-2 (2009) Literacy & Socio-economic Marginalization of the Muslim Population in Malda District 65 Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/12/1-2/62/1448391/arwg_12_1-2_m5h5j86546781w21.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021

FIGURE 1 Location map of Malda District It should be noted that the studies cited district, to analyze human disparities in socio- above address regional disparities in literacy, economic development; and, third, to assess whereas the present study attempts to uncover the interrelationship of literacy and socio- regional disparities in socio-economic devel- economic determinants. opment and their influence on literacy. More For this purpose, two hypotheses were specifically, the present study is an attempt to formulated: (1) literacy is inversely propor- analyze the relationship between levels of tionate to growth of population, and they Muslim literacy and other socio-economic stand in a cause-and-effect to each other; and determinants in Malda, the least socio- (2) literacy is a function of urbanization, and economically developed district in West literacy and socio-economic development Bengal (GWB 2004). have a reciprocal relationship. These The main objectives of the study are, hypotheses are explained and tested using first, to examine the distribution of Muslim Malda district as a case study. Malda district population and literacy rates by districts in lies between latitudes 24°40’20” and West Bengal; second, using shift and share 25°32’8” north and between longitudes analysis of population by religion in Malda 87°45’50” and 88°28’10” east (see Figure 1).

The Arab World Geographer/Le Géographe du monde arabe 12, no 1-2 (2009) 66 Farasat Ali Siddiqui and Nazmul Hussain

2 It is 3733.0 km in area; its population is Xi is the original value of the individual obser- 3.290 million, of whom 1.636 million vation, X is the mean of the variable, and (49.72 %) are Muslims and 1.621 million denotes standard deviation. (49.28 %) are Hindus. The remaining popula- The z-score values are added and their tions account for less than 1 % each, includ- average is taken to obtain the composite mean ing Christians (8 388), Sikhs (283), Buddhists z-score, which is also known as the index of (1 640), Jains (2 930), and others (23 701). development and is expressed algebraically as The district records a 50.28 % literacy rate, a CS = Zij / N Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/12/1-2/62/1448391/arwg_12_1-2_m5h5j86546781w21.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021 40.50 % work participation rate, and a 7.32 % where CS is the composite mean z-score, Zij urban population, almost the lowest of India’s denotes the sum of z-scores of variable j in districts (Census of India 2001a). observation i, and N denotes the number of variables. Database and Methodology To examine the relationship between literacy and other socio-economic determi- Statistical techniques have been used to nants, a correlation matrix based on Pearson’s analyze the data obtained from India’s 2001 product-moment correlation coefficient has census. To show the regional disparities in been used, and Student’s t-test has been Muslim population in each district of West adopted to identify the level of significance of Bengal, the location quotient (LQ) method is their correlation. used, which is expressed as: LQ= (Mpd / Tpd*100) / (Mpd / Tps *100) Distribution of Muslim Population and where LQ is index of concentration, Mpd is Literacy Rate Muslim population in the district, Tpd is total population in the district, Mps is Muslim Muslims occupy an important position in population in the state, and Tps is total popu- society and culture. Muslims are in the lation in the state (for details see Siddiqui minority, both numerically and in terms of 1984; Mahmood 2002). their position in the greater socio-economic The arithmetic method of population and political structure of the country; the projection has been used to project popula- total population of Muslims in West Bengal, tion by community population, expressed as as of the 2001 census, is 20 million, out of a PP = P1 + (r x t) r = (P2 – P1) / 10 total population of 80 million, meaning that where PP is projected population, P1 is popu- Muslims constitute 25 % of the total popula- lation in base year, P2 is population in the tion of the state. The concentration of succeeding year, r is annual population Muslims in the various districts can be growth rate over two consecutive years (i.e., presented in terms of absolute concentration P1and P2), and t is time interval between the of Muslim population. Table 1 shows the base year and the year for which the popula- areal variations in distribution of Muslim tion is projected. population in the districts of West Bengal. The z-score method has been used to The highest concentration has been recorded transform the raw data for each variable into in Murshidabad district (2.52), and the standard scores. The z-score measures the lowest in Hugli (0.03); Malda is in second departure of individual observations from the place, with an index of 1.96. The table also arithmetic mean of all observations in a shows three regions of concentration of comparable form. The model (first used by Muslims in the state: high (>1.00), medium Smith 1973 and later by Slater 1975) is (0.51–1.00), and low (<0.50) concentration expressed as index of Muslim population. Five districts— Zi = (Xi – X) / δ Murshidabad (2.52), Malda (1.96), Uttar where Zi is the standard score of ith variable, Dinajpur (1.87), Birbhum (1.38), and South

The Arab World Geographer/Le Géographe du monde arabe 12, no 1-2 (2009) Literacy & Socio-economic Marginalization of the Muslim Population in Malda District 67

TABLE 1 District wise Distribution of Muslim Population and Literacy Rate in West Bengal, 2001

District Muslim Rank* General Rank* Muslim Rank* Gap in Rank* Concentration Literacy Literacy Literacy

1 Darjeeling 0.21 17 71.79 6 50.38 14 21.41 1 2 Jalpaiguri 0.42 14 62.85 13 55.34 12 7.51 11 3 Koch Bihar 0.96 7 66.30 10 56.07 11 10.23 6 4 U.Dinajpur 1.87 3 47.89 18 36.04 18 11.85 5 5 D. Dinajpur 0.94 9 63.59 9 67.21 5 -3.62 18 Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/12/1-2/62/1448391/arwg_12_1-2_m5h5j86546781w21.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021 6 Malda 1.96 2 50.28 16 45.30 17 4.98 13 7 Murshidabad 2.52 1 54.35 15 48.63 16 5.72 12 8 Birbhum 1.38 4 61.48 14 59.86 9 1.62 15 9 Barddhaman 0.78 11 70.18 7 68.79 2 1.39 17 10 Nadia 1.00 6 66.14 11 49.41 15 16.73 2 11 N.24 Parganas 0.95 8 78.07 3 65.05 6 13.02 3 12 Hugli 0.03 18 75.1 4 73.50 1 1.6 16 13 Bankura 0.29 15 63.44 12 54.54 8 8.9 10 14 Purulia 0.28 16 55.57 15 53.44 13 2.13 14 15 Medinipur 0.44 13 74.90 5 64.97 7 9.93 7 16 Haora 0.57 12 77.01 2 67.80 4 9.21 9 17 Kolkata 0.80 10 80.86 1 68.06 3 12.8 4 18 S.24 Parganas 1.31 5 69.45 8 59.83 10 9.62 8 West Bengal - - 68.64 - 57.47 - 11.17 -

*Note: Rank within the state of West Bengal Source: Computed from Census of India 2001, West Bengal Final Population Totals. 24 Parganas (1.31)—are regions with a high (<0.50): Jalpaiguri (0.42) and Darjeeling concentration of Muslims (index >1.00). (0.21) in the north and Medinipur (0.44), The historical Muslim regime in Bengal— Bankura (0.29), Purulia (0.28), and Hugli Iliyas Shah’s monarchy at Gour and Sultan (0.03) in the south-western part of the state. Nasiruddin Shah’s at Pandua (Malda district), and Nawab Shiraj-ud-Dawla’s Muslim Literacy Rate kingdom at Hazarduary (present-day Murshidabad district)—is the main reason Education is like oxygen for multidimensional for this higher concentration of Muslims in development, for both individuals and for the central part of the state. The demo- society. Of several indicators used to deter- graphic concentration of Muslims in this mine the level of educational development of region may be significant for their socio- any area or population group, the literacy rate economic and educational development if is the most basic. Since data on any other sincere efforts are made (Hussain 2009). Of educational indicators by religion are not these six districts, however, only Murshid- available, literacy data alone are used to gauge abad records a more than 50 % Muslim the level of educational development of population. Seven districts fall into the Muslims in India. The literacy figures moderate category (0.51–1.00): Nadia reported and analyzed here are drawn from the (1.00), Koch Bihar (0.96), North 24 First Report on Religion (Census of India Parganas (0.95), Dakshin Dinajpur (0.94), 2001b). Like other phenomena, literacy rate Kolkata (0.80), Barddhaman (0.78), and varies by region and religion. The variation in Howra (0.57). The remaining six districts literacy rate may be the cause of socio- show a low concentration of Muslims economic differences among religious

The Arab World Geographer/Le Géographe du monde arabe 12, no 1-2 (2009) 68 Farasat Ali Siddiqui and Nazmul Hussain groups. Muslims account for 25.25 % of the to the education of Muslims in these districts. total population but only 13.75 % of total liter- The highest concentrations of Muslims are in ate persons in West Bengal; the Muslim liter- Murshidabad (63 %) and Malda (49.72 %); acy rate in the state (57.47 %) is far below the Muslims’ literacy rate is reported to be 48.63 % state average literacy rate of 68.64 % (see in Murshidabad, below the 50.28 % literacy Table 1). In Malda district, 49.72 % of the total rate of Malda. It should be noted that the population, but only 21.83 % of the total liter- Muslims of Malda are educationally the most ate population, is Muslim. The gap between marginalized in the state, while those of general and Muslim literacy rates is highest in Murshidabad are slightly ahead. Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/12/1-2/62/1448391/arwg_12_1-2_m5h5j86546781w21.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021 Darjeeling district (21.41), followed by Nadia (16.73), and lowest in Barddhaman (1.39). The Relationship between Muslim The general literacy rate in Malda district Population and Literacy Rate is only 45.30 %, which again is below the state Muslim average literacy rate of 57.47 % (see Data disaggregated by religion are presented Table 1). It should be noted that the gap above to determine the level of educational between general and Muslim literacy rates development of Muslims in West Bengal. The varies by district. As Table 1 shows, the largest present analysis reveals a causal relationship gaps are seen in the districts of Darjeeling between distribution of Muslim population (X) (21.41 %), Nadia (16.73 %), North 24 as independent variable and general literacy Parganas (13.02 %), and Kolkata (12.8 %). rate (Y) as dependent variable. The analysis Another noticeable gap is observed in Darjee- reveals that X and Y are significantly negatively ling district, where the overall literacy rate correlated (r = -0.547, p = 0.05). This confirms stands at sixth rank (71.79 %) while Muslim that a higher concentration of Muslim popula- literacy stands at the fourteenth rank tion is associated with low levels of literacy (50.38 %). Malda district, with 50.28 % aver- and thus with deprived socio-economic condi- age literacy rate, stands at sixteenth rank in the tions. Table 1 shows that, generally, the lower state, but Muslims, with a 45.30 % literacy the concentration of Muslims in a district, the rate, are at seventeenth rank. It is clear and higher the general literacy rate; and interest- disheartening to note that of 18 districts, only ingly, further analysis of the data reveals that in in Dakshin Dinajpur (67.21 %) is the Muslim districts where the Muslim population concen- literacy rate above the state average literacy tration is low, the overall literacy rate is high, rate (63.59 %), and this is only because of the while in districts where the Muslim population dominance of Scheduled Castes (whose concentration is high, the general literacy rate litereacy rates are far below the average) in this is low and the Muslim population is socio- district. economically deprived. So, does the concen- It is thus clear that Muslims lag behind in tration of Muslims in one place prevent them terms of education in West Bengal. In Hugli from acquiring education? Or does the govern- district, however, the literacy gap is only1.6 %, ment discriminate against those areas where placing this district in fourth position for Muslims are concentrated by depriving them general literacy and first for Muslim literacy. of the opportunities they deserve? Whichever Of the 18 districts in West Bengal, only four the case, it is obvious that in those districts with record a Muslim literacy rate of below 50 %. It a high concentration of Muslim population, may be inferred that, as far as major districts there is a need for maximum focus on the are concerned, Muslims are the farthest behind education of Muslims in general and on educationally in Uttar Dinajpur, Malda, improving their literacy rates in particular. For Murshidabad, and Nadia, all of which have Malda as well as Murshidabad, the need of the Muslim literacy rates below 50 %. Indeed, the hour is to focus on literacy in general. This is state government needs to pay special attention because in these districts, not only Muslim

The Arab World Geographer/Le Géographe du monde arabe 12, no 1-2 (2009) Literacy & Socio-economic Marginalization of the Muslim Population in Malda District 69

Share of Population and Literacy Rate

Table 2 shows trends in share of population (1951–2041) by religious communities in the district. In 1951, the Hindu population was as high as 62.92 % of total population, followed by Muslims at 36.97 %. The Hindu population,

despite declining trends, remained Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/12/1-2/62/1448391/arwg_12_1-2_m5h5j86546781w21.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021 above 50 % of total population up to 1991 (52.25 %). The proportion of the Hindu population declined over the decades (with the exception of 56.63 %

literacy rates but general literacy rates are very in 1971), reaching 49.28 % in 2001. On the low. It is expected that if Muslim literacy other hand, the Muslim population was increases, general literacy will also increase. observed to be trending higher in the district It is generally recognized that a low level over this period. In 1951, Muslims accounted of literacy in a community is caused by the for only 36.97 % of the district’s population, community’s poor socio-economic conditions. but their share of the population has tended to To investigate the facts associated with literacy increase since then (with the exception of rates and socio-economic characteristics, 43.13 % in 1971), reaching 49.72 % by 2001. detailed study of both aspects by community is The interruptions in this trend were due mainly indicated; such research should form the basis to Hindu immigration to India (and largely to of diagnostic planning for future social devel- Malda district) from Bangladesh during the opment. Indo–Pakistani War of 1971. By 2001, Muslims’ share of the population (49.72 %) Disparities in Development by Religion had overtaken that of Hindus (49.28 %). It should be noted further that population growth The issue of disparities in development by reli- continues the same trend and that the Muslims gion is addressed from two perspectives. The share of the population is predicted to increase first part of this section is devoted to popula- to 53.72 % by 2041, much higher than that of tion trends and literacy patterns among reli- the Hindu population (43.97 %). gious communities in Malda district; the An impressive disparity in literacy rates second examines in detail the disparities in has been registered across the religious socio-economic development in the district. communities in Malda district (see Table 3). Of six selected religious communities (Hindu, Muslim, Christian, Sikh, Buddhist, and Jain),

The Arab World Geographer/Le Géographe du monde arabe 12, no 1-2 (2009) 70 Farasat Ali Siddiqui and Nazmul Hussain

Muslims have recorded the lowest literacy rate socio-economic indicators that have been Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/12/1-2/62/1448391/arwg_12_1-2_m5h5j86546781w21.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021 (45.30 %), while Jains record the highest taken to measure the relative human develop- (94.98 %). The Muslim female literacy rate is ment of each religious community are male 38.68 %, while the male literacy rate is literacy rate (X1), female literacy rate (X2), 51.56 %, in Malda district; these rates are far percentage of male workers to total male reli- below the state average (male literacy rate: gious population (X3), percentage of female 64.61 %; female literacy rate: 49.75 %). workers to total female religious population It may be observed that, in Malda district, (X4), percentage of population by religion female literacy rates are highly inconsistent living in urban areas (X5), percentage of 0–6 across religious communities, accounting for population to total religious population (X6), 29.91 % of the coefficient of variation (CV) decadal growth rate of religious population against the state average (18.98 %). It may be (X7), percentage of male cultivators to total ascertained from the above analysis that male religious population (X8), percentage of women have fewer opportunities for education female cultivators to total female religious than men do. In addition to the gender gap, a population (X9), percentage of male agricul- higher variation in literacy rate is observed tural labourers to total male religious popula- among religious communities in the study area tion (X10), and percentage of female (CV = 24.64) than the state average agricultural laboures to total female religious (CV = 15.29). population (X11). No data on any educational indicator other Using the z-score method, the variables than literacy rate is available to show the status have been standardized, and their composite of Muslims or any other religious group. This mean z-scores have been estimated to examine is a serious constraint in planning for the the comparative difference of each religious education of Muslims, whose literacy rate is community. For simplicity, and to avoid bias in lower than that of the general population. the investigation, the socio-economic indica- In general, poor socio-economic condi- tors have been grouped under two broad head- tions are one of the major constraints on liter- ings (encouraging and depressing) to examine acy levels, while deprived socio-economic disparities separately, as shown in Tables 4 and conditions may be the outcome of low levels of 5. While one group of variables (literacy, literacy as well as education. The causal link employment, and urbanization) is generally between literacy and socio-economic status linked with socio-economic and cultural has been established elsewhere; this is the basis improvement, another group (0–6 year popula- of planning for human development. tion, growth of population, and primary occupation) is positively associated with Socio-economic Disparities in Development marginalization of the community.

Disparities in socio-economic development Disparities in Literacy, Employment, and among religious groups are common. In many Urbanization societies, while one religious community is flourishing, another is deprived. The major Literacy is a catalyst of social change, cultural

The Arab World Geographer/Le Géographe du monde arabe 12, no 1-2 (2009) Literacy & Socio-economic Marginalization of the Muslim Population in Malda District 71 Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/12/1-2/62/1448391/arwg_12_1-2_m5h5j86546781w21.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021 development, and economic advancement of Disparities in Child Population, Population human beings. Urban life can fulfil the desired Growth, and Primary-Sector Occupations quality of life, enhancing per capita productivity and employment opportunities as well as Population below 7 years of age, growth of ensuring the basic amenities of life (Singh and population, and primary-sector occupations Singh 1981). It should be noted that only are significant indicators in assessing the 1.62 % of the total Muslim population is resid- process of social change and economic ing in urban centres of Malda district, as development by religion. Generally, high 0– opposed to 13.17 % of Hindus, 24.03 % of 6 population and high population growth are Sikhs, 41.46 % of Buddhists, and 45.39 % of taken to denote a low level of socio- Jains (Census of India 2001b). Employment is economic development. In primary-sector another indicator of economic development occupations (agriculture, forestry, fishing, that can change social structure and bring etc.), labour input is greater than economic cultural advancement. There is a reciprocal output; therefore, people involved in such relationship between employment and literacy. occupations are generally not in healthier Table 4 shows that the Jain community, economic condition. Analysis based on the with z-scores of 1.21, 1.59, and 1.40 is at the variables X6, X7, X8, X9, X10, and X11 reveals top in male literacy (X1), female literacy (X2), an inverse correlation between socio- and urbanization (X5) respectively. Muslims, economic development and the indicators with z-scores of -1.64 (male literacy), -1.33 depicted in Table 5: low values of these vari- (female literacy), -1.10 (male workers), and - ables are associated with high levels of 1.19 (urbanization), is at the bottom of the socio-economic development, and vice scale and is in fourth position for female work versa. participation rates (X4). Table 4 further reveals Table 5 also shows that Muslims stand at a wide range of disparities in socio-economic the top, having a very broad-based age–sex development: Sikhs, with a composite mean z- pyramid and recording higher population score of 3.92, are in first rank, followed by growth of population (z-scores of 1.70 and Jains (2.45) and Buddhists (1.71), while 1.78 respectively). The Muslim community Muslims, with composite mean z-score of - is also at top in percentage of female cultiva- 5.33, are identified as least developed in the tors (X9) and percentage of male agricultural district. Socio-economic marginalization labourers (X10), with z-scores of 1.88 and among Muslims is due mainly to a low level of 1.34 respectively. The Jain community is education, a very poor share in government observed to stand at the bottom in all these jobs, a lack of social awareness, and a large indicators, except percentage of female share in agricultural labour and the other low- cultivators with fifth position. Muslims, wage economic activities. with mean composite z-score of 6.63, stand at the top overall, followed by Christians

The Arab World Geographer/Le Géographe du monde arabe 12, no 1-2 (2009) 72 Farasat Ali Siddiqui and Nazmul Hussain Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/12/1-2/62/1448391/arwg_12_1-2_m5h5j86546781w21.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021

(6.46) and Hindus (3.42), while the Jain The negative correlation between liter- community, with mean composite z-score of acy and population growth suggests that low -4.93, is at the bottom of the scale. The levels of literacy lead to higher population analysis clearly shows that higher percent- growth, and vice versa. The hypothesis that age of 0–6 year population, higher rate of literacy is inversely proportional to growth population growth, and higher numbers of of population is quantitatively proved. The women working in cultivation indicate analysis further reveals that literacy rate and marginalization of Muslims in the district. primary-sector occupations are inversely correlated. This is because illiterate people Inter-relationships among Indicators of are usually not eligible for employment Socio-economic Development except in manual labour, which means that primary-sector occupations are their main The correlation matrix shown in Table 6 source of livelihood. Insufficient income reveals the relationship among the variables from primary-sector occupations prevents of literacy and other socio-economic deter- them from sending their children to the minants of human development (X1 … X11). school, which perpetuates low literacy rates Highly negative correlations exist between into the next generation. literacy (X1 and X2) and the following vari- On the other hand, the positive correla- ables: population 0–6 years (X6), population tion of male literacy (X1) and female literacy growth (X7), male cultivators (X8), female (X2) with male work participation (X3) and cultivators (X9), male agricultural labourers urbanization (X5) suggests that high literacy (X10), and female agricultural labourers rates are both cause and consequence of (X11). The correlation coefficient values of higher rates of employment and urbaniza- X1 with X6 and X10 and pf X2 with X10 are tion. Thus, the hypothesis that literacy and significant at 1 % and 5 % levels respectively. employment are cause and consequence of These correlations imply that social uncon- one another is supported. Again, as literate sciousness associated with low levels of liter- people within a religious community acy accounts for the high proportion of 0–6 migrate to urban centres to seek better jobs population and high population growth. Illit- and better educational opportunities for their erate people have to work in the agricultural children, the result is a relatively high level sector because they are unqualified for of urbanization for that community. Thus, higher-skilled, higher-paying work; illiterate the hypothesis that literacy is a function of populations also have high fertility rates, urbanization is statistically supported in the leading to high population growth. study area.

The Arab World Geographer/Le Géographe du monde arabe 12, no 1-2 (2009) Literacy & Socio-economic Marginalization of the Muslim Population in Malda District 73

The negative association of variable X5 higher literacy reduces the 0–6 population, (urbanization) with variables X6, X7, X8, X9, as well as population growth, but is an impe- X10, and X11 suggests that higher 0–6 popu- tus to higher urbanization and employment, lation, high population growth, and high which are indicators of human develop- proportions of people engaged in primary- ment. In Malda district, Muslims are analyt- sector occupations significantly hampers ically identified as the least developed the expansion of urbanization, synonymous community, coming in last in terms of liter- with socio-economic development. How- acy, urbanization, and employment and first Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/12/1-2/62/1448391/arwg_12_1-2_m5h5j86546781w21.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021 ever, the positive correlation of X6 with X7 in 0–6 population and population growth. (r = 0.858, p = 0.05) suggests that higher 0– The low level of literacy is the main problem 6 population is associated with higher popu- in the socio-economic underdevelopment of lation growth, while both increase in the Muslim community in Malda district. proportion to increasing illiteracy within a Improving literacy is the only solution to religious community. Again, the positive raise social consciousness so that decreases association of X6 and X7 with the variables in 0–6 population and population growth related to primary-sector occupations (X9, and increases in urbanization and employ- X10, X11) suggests that a community in ment will follow. The entire socio-economic which a larger proportion of the population development of the Muslim community is engaged in primary-sector occupations depends on raising their literacy rate, which produces large numbers of children as a may diminish the overall disparities among result of social unconsciousness consequent religious communities in the district. upon low levels of literacy. Major initiatives to enhance the Muslim literacy can be suggested. The Conclusion Muslim workforce should be assured of full employment, mainly in secondary and terti- Muslims constitute 25.25 % of the popula- ary sectors, based on required minimum tion of West Bengal; their concentration in eligibility and efficiency. Parents should be six districts is of much significance. The encouraged to ensure 100 % enrolment of data show that, generally, the lower the their children in school. Schools and proportion of Muslims in a district’s popula- colleges should be established in the vicin- tion, the higher the overall literacy rate. On ity. Free short-term professional education the surface, it might appear that the Muslim and training for youth (vocational teaching community is responsible for their socio- centres, poultry farming, kitchen garden- economic conditions. Statistical analysis ing, etc.) should be initiated. Social aware- shows, however, that a high concentration of ness among the community should be Muslims is related to low levels of general augmented to encourage smaller family literacy, which is the root cause of the socio- sizes. Moreover, government and policy economic marginalization of this region in makers should initiate and implement all general and of the Muslim community in these programs effectively. particular. Thus we may conclude that mass We hope that, if all these programs illiteracy, widespread among Muslims, may could run successfully, Muslims’ literacy or may not be self-imposed. The present rate would be enhanced, their socio- analysis confirms an inverse relationship economic condition would be improved, between concentration of Muslim popula- and, subsequently, the disparities among the tion and literacy rate. No doubt, Muslims communities would be reduced in general are not the problem; rather, mass illiteracy and in Malda district in particular. among them is the basic cause of their marginalization. It may be observed that

The Arab World Geographer/Le Géographe du monde arabe 12, no 1-2 (2009) 74 Farasat Ali Siddiqui and Nazmul Hussain

Note 43:278–85. 1 An earlier version of this paper was Gosal, G. S. 1964. Literacy in India: An inter- presented at the Fourth International pretative study. Rural Sociology 9:261–77. Congress of the Islamic World Geographers Government of India [GOI]. 2006. Social, (ICIWR 2010), 14–16 April 2010, at the economic and educational status of Muslim University of Sistan and Baluchistan, community of India: A report (Justice Zahedan, Iran. Rajinder Sachar, Chair). New Delhi: Prime Minister’s High Level Committee, Cabinet References Secretariat, Government of India. Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/12/1-2/62/1448391/arwg_12_1-2_m5h5j86546781w21.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021 Acharya, P. 1984. Problems of the weaker Government of West Bengal [GWB]. 2004. West section of the rural community. ICSSR Bengal human development report 2004. Research Abstract Quarterly 13(3/4):29– Kolkata: Development and Planning 40. Department. http://www.wbplan.gov.in. Basu, S. 1991. Occupational structure of the Hazra, J. 1997. Women and literacy. urban units in the Lower Damodar Valley. Geographical Review of India 59:62–72. Geographical Review of India 53(4):19–26. Hussain, N. 2009. Muslims of West Bengal: An Broach, V. K., and Iyar, S. 2005. Vidya, Veda, analysis of the educational status of a and Varna: The influence of religion and minority community in India. Journal of caste on education in rural India. Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 29:249–60. Development Studies 41:1370–404. Jayachandran, U. 2002. Socio-economic deter- Burke, F. 1983. Spatial disparities in the literacy minants of school attendance in India of scheduled castes of Uttar Pradesh. Paper (Working Paper No. 103). Delhi: Centre for presented at the 51st Annual Congress of Development Economics, Delhi School of the National Association of Geographers, Economics. India, December 26–28, A. M. U. Aligarh. Joshi, H. 2000. Educational development in Census of India. 2001a. Final population totals, India: Spatiotemporal appraisal. Indian West Bengal. New Delhi: Register General Journal of Regional Science 32(2):87–93. of India. Kingdon, G. G. 2007. The progress of school ———. 2001b. The first report on religion. New education in India. Oxford Review of Delhi: Registrar General of India. Economic Policy 23:168–95. Chaubey, R. K., and Chaubey, G. 1998. Rural– Kothari, N. S. 2003. Female occupational struc- urban disparity in literacy: Inter-state varia- ture in Rajasthan: A regional analysis. tion in India. Indian Journal of Regional Indian Journal of Regional Science Science 30(2):107–18. 35(1):99–107. Chaudhary, M. D., and Nair, K. P. G. 1981. Kumar, U. R. 1982. Rural disparities in educa- Educational and regional development in tional development in Karnataka. In India. Indian Journal of Regional Science Regional inequalities in India, ed. S. Bhat et 13(2): 170–80. al., 244–69. New Delhi: Society for Study of Dash, T. R. 1993. Characteristics and correlates Regional Disparities. of literacy among scheduled tribes of India. Kumar, R., Kumar, S., and Anurag. 2007. Indian Journal of Regional Science Regional dimension of disparities in slum 25(1):19–29. literacy in India. Research and Practice in Dostie, B., and Jayaraman, R. 2006. Social Sciences 2(2):103–23. Determinants of school enrolments in Mahmood, A. 2002. Statistical methods in Indian villages. Economic Development geographical studies, 6th ed. New Delhi: and Cultural Change 54:405–21. Rajesh Publication. Drèze, J., and Kingdon, G. G. 2001. School Malathy, R. 1994. Education, and women’s time participation in rural India. Review of allocation to non-market work in an urban Development Economics 5(1):1–24. setting in India. Economic Development Dube, R. S., and Misra, R. P. 1981. Level of and Cultural Change 42:743–46. education: A versatile indicator of regional Malhotra, N. 1999. Human development in India development. Geographical Review of India and inter-state pattern. Indian Journal of

The Arab World Geographer/Le Géographe du monde arabe 12, no 1-2 (2009) Literacy & Socio-economic Marginalization of the Muslim Population in Malda District 75

Regional Science 31(1):31–45. in Uttar Pradesh. Indian Journal of Mathur, B. B. 1988. Rural literacy in Uttar Regional Science 33(1):41–50. Pradesh: A spatial analysis. The Siddiqui, F. A. 1984. Regional analysis of popu- Geographer 15(2):80–90. lation structure: A study of Uttar Pradesh. Mehta, G. S. 1990. Educational equality: Reality New Delhi: Concept Publishing. or myth. Indian Journal of Regional Siddiqui, F. A., and Naseer, Y. 2004. Educational Science 12(1):87–93. development and structure of employment Mondal, S. R. 1997. Educational status of in Western Uttar Pradesh. Population Muslims: problems, prospects and priori- Geography 26(1/2):25–37. ties. New Delhi: Inter-India Publications. Siddiqui, M. 1977. The geography of literacy in Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/12/1-2/62/1448391/arwg_12_1-2_m5h5j86546781w21.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021 Nuna, S. C. 1989. Regional disparities in educa- Uttar Pradesh. Geographical Review of tional development: Policy and planning India 39:374–88. implications. Paper presented at National Singh, D. N. 1986. The role of education in Seminar on Regional Disparities in national development. Bhu- Vigyan l(1):32– Educational Development, NIEPA, New 37. (In Hindi). Delhi, 25–27 September. Singh, J., and Singh, P. B. 1981. Dimension and Pundey, P. N. 1988. Education and social mobil- implications of urbanization in the least ity: A text with reference to scheduled caste. developed countries. Paper presented at the New Delhi: Daya Publication. international conference on Urban and Rafiullah, S. M., and Siddiqui, F. A. 1981. Regional Change in Developing Countries, Analysis of occupation regions of Uttar Kharagpur, 11–15 December. Pradesh. National Geographical Journal of Singh, R., and Shukla. 2006. Regional dispari- India 30(1):30–37. ties in level of socio-economic development Ramachandran, V. K., Swaminathan, M., and in post reforms period: A district level Rawal, V. 2003. Barriers to expansion of analysis. Annals of the National Association mass literacy and primary schooling in of Geographers of India 26(2):87–94. West Bengal: A study based on primary Slater, D. 1975. The poverty of modern geograph- data from selected villages (Working Paper ical inquiry. Pacific Viewpoint 16:159–76. No. 345). New Delhi: Centre for Smith, D. M. 1973. The geography of social well- Development Studies, Jawaharal Nehru being in the United States. New York: University. McGraw-Hill. Raza, M., and Aggarwal, Y. P. 1982. Inequalities Srinavasan, K., and Kumar, S. 1999. Economic in the levels of literacy in India. In and caste criteria in definition of backward- Spectrum of modern geography, ed. M. ness, Economic and Political Weekly 10:16– Shafi and R. Raza, 193–225. New Delhi: 23. Concept Publications. Tilak, J. B. G. 1979. Inter-state disparities in Reddy, U. B. 1985. Regional disparities in educational development. Eastern educational development in India: An inter- Economist 73(3):140–46. state analysis. Geographical Review of Tiwari, R. P., and Tripathi, R. S. 1993. Literacy India 47(2):22–27. among scheduled castes in Tikamgarh Saha, D. K., and Mathur, Y. N. 2001. (M.P.). The Geographer 40(1):75–81. Differentials characters and work participa- Yasmeen, N., Siddiqui, F. A., and Khan, K. 2005. tion of women in an arid village of Western Dimensions of educational development Rajasthan. Man in India 81:305–11. and its correlates in western Uttar Pradesh. Saradamoni, K. 1981. Education level: A probe Indian Journal of Regional Science into Kerala’s experience. In Regional 37(1):101–10. disparities in India, ed. K. R. G. Nair, 121– Zaidi, A. N. 1986. Educational planning and 35. New Delhi: Rajesh Publication. regional disparities. In Education and Sen, A. 2007. The Hindu. Daily News Paper, 20 regional development, ed. J. B. G. Tilak, December. 170–82. New Delhi: Yatan Publication. Shafiqullah and Siddiqui, F. A. 2001. Work force and level of socio-economic development

The Arab World Geographer/Le Géographe du monde arabe 12, no 1-2 (2009)