Sufism, Sufi Leadership and ‘Modernisation’ in South Asia since c. 1800 Thesis submitted for the degree of Ph.D Claudia Liebeskind Royal Holloway, University of London ProQuest Number: 11010461 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a com plete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest ProQuest 11010461 Published by ProQuest LLC(2018). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C ode Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 School o f African Studikp THISBOOK HAS-BEEN mTHDRAWh From The Librzry 2 Abstract Relatively little research has been devoted to the responses of sufism, the Islamic spiritual tradition, to processes of ‘modernisation’. I have been concerned to study the responses of Indian sufism to the growth of the colonial state, which established new forms of knowledge and new forms of order, and to the emergence of Muslim movements of revival and reform, which saw, and still see, sufism as inimical to the capacity of Muslims to sustain an Islamic society. It is a context more hostile for sufism than ever experienced before. I have approached the problem by examining the responses of three working spiritual traditions in nineteenth and twentieth century India. The first sufi shrine had an educated, urban following; the second had a largely rural following; the third appealed to all conditions of men and across all religious barriers. Unlike the other two this last tradition was a product of the colonial environment. It was notable in that the charisma of the saint was not ‘routinised’ through his familial descendants but through the workings of a committee. The responses of each spiritual tradition to the changing social, economic and political context have been examined. The analysis of the doings and sayings of the saints as well as their miracles has shown how they responded to the changing needs of their followers. The areas of insecurity in the social and psychic life of the followers have been charted to indicate how these changed through time. The three spiritual traditions have certainly been marginalised by the processes of ‘modernisation’ and Islamic reform, but not as much as might have been anticipated. Sufi affiliation has moved from being the norm for Muslims to being one option among many. The capacity of the sufi shrines to survive has been closely related to their flexibility adapting to changing times and to the skilful fostering of their constituencies. 4 CONTENTS List of maps and tables 5 Acknowledgements 6 Abbreviations 11 Note on transliteration 12 Introduction 13 1. The context 20 2. Kakori: a spiritual tradition for the service classes 47 3. Salon: a spiritual tradition for the Awadhi countryside 146 4. Dewa: a spiritual tradition bom in the colonial era 215 5. Sufis and spiritual intervention in the changing uncertainties of life 276 6. Sufis and the changing ideological environment 309 Conclusion 326 Appendices 338 Glossary 383 Note on sources 392 Bibliography 396 5 List of Maps and Tables Maps Takiya Sharif, Kakori 102 Dargah of Shah Muhammad Kazim Qalandar 109 Dargah of Shah Turab ‘Ali Qalandar 110 Dargah of Shah ‘Ali Anwar Qalandar 113 ‘ Branch’-khanqahs of the Khanqah Karimiya 166 Rawzah Ashrafi and Tomb of Shah Na‘im ‘Ata 190 Khanqah Karimiya, Salon 191 Mausoleum of Haji Warith ‘Ali Shah 255 Tables The Founder and the Saiiada Nashins of Takiya Sharif 49 The Ways of the Silsilas of Takiya Sharif 52 Age of Saiiada Nashins on Taking Office, Takiya Sharif 122 Buildings of Takiya Sharif 138 The Founder and the Saiiada Nashins of the Khanqah Karimiya 148 Age of Saiiada Nashins on Taking Office, Khanqah Karimiya 194 6 Acknowledgements Funding for this research has come from a number of sources: the ESRC paid my tuition fees for three years and nine months; Royal Holloway granted me a College Scholarship for 1994/5; the Department of History contributed towards travel costs and other research expenses incurred particularly during my fieldwork in India. I am grateful to them all. Without the financial support of my parents, however, this Ph.D thesis would not have come about. Libraries and archives have played an important role in my research and I am indebted to Nadeem and the Kitabkhane Anwariya, Takiya Sharif, Kakori; Zaheer and the Salon Archive, Delhi. I have had access to the Muzzamillah Khan Library, Aligarh, and am very grateful to the Nawab Sahib for letting me use it. My thanks go to the librarians and staff of the Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University, in particular Dr. Safi Ahmad and the librarian of the Urdu Section; the Delhi University Library; the Uttar Pradesh State Archives, Lucknow, with special thanks to the ladies in charge of the reading room; the National Archives of India, New Delhi; the India Office Library and Records, London; the library of the School of Oriental and African Studies, London; and the Bedford and Founder’s Libraries of Royal Holloway, where I am particularly indebted to Peter Kiely for his unfailing efforts to retrieve out-of-the-way material for me. Two years of my research were spent on learning the necessary languages. I have benefited enormously from being given a thorough grounding in Persian by Mr. Sandy Morton, SOAS, and from receiving my Urdu training from Professor Christopher Shackle, 7 Dr. Qadri and Mr. Kalsi, SO AS. Nevertheless, I have received help with the translations of the important source texts. Mr. Said Kazembeyki spent some time with me decoding the miracles of Shah Muhammad Kazim Qalandar of Kakori. Mr. Abid Suhail, Aminabad, Lucknow, helped with three texts on the Khanqah Karimiya, Salon. My greatest debt in terms of translations is, however, to Dr. Sabiha Anwar (and her family), Nakhas, Lucknow, who patiently sat next to me for many months and endured the biographies of the saints of Takiya Sharif and of Warith ‘Ali Shah. In preparation of, and during my stay in, India many people and institutions have been helpful. Thanks go to Mr.S. Mukherji, the Student Welfare Officer at the High Commission of India in London; Dr. Zia Shakeb, who first introduced me to Takiya Sharif, Kakori; the Centre for Human Sciences (C.S.H.), New Delhi; the guesthouse of Delhi University, Delhi; the History Department, Centre for Advanced Study, and the guesthouse, Aligarh Muslim University; Mr. Ashok Priyadarshi, the District Magistrate for Lucknow; Jamia Millia Islamia, Delhi, to which I was affiliated during my fieldwork; and Professor Mushirul Hasan, who agreed to be my supervisor while I was in India. This work could not have succeeded without the help of many saintly families. My thanks go to the saiiada nashin of the Khanqah Niyaziya, Bareilly, who allowed me to observe the ‘Urs in December 1991. I am much obliged to Mr. Chaudhry Atae Waris, Chairman Town Area, Dewa, and Assistant Secretary, Haji Waris Ali Shah Mausoleum Trust, and his family, Dewa, for extending their hospitality to me, for allowing me to consult books in their possession and for giving time to my endless list of questions. I am completely indebted to ‘my’ two shrine-families at Salon and Kakori. I would like to thank Shah Ahmad Husain, the saiiada nashin of the Khanqah Karimiya, Salon, for his hospitality and for letting me participate in the ‘Urs in November 1991. I am grateful to Dr. Naqi Jafri, Delhi, for talking about Salon and the khanqah which created a vivid image particularly of the time of his grandfather, Shah Na‘im ‘Ata. I am grateful, too, for his patient support of my endeavours during and after my stay in India and for answering my seemingly endless series of questions. Dr. Zaheer Jafri took me under his wings for a month at Delhi University and shared his collected materials on the history of the shrine with me. I remain indebted to him for making facilities available to me at Delhi University and for the many, many hours spent talking about sufism and Salon. My thanks go also to the Zenana in Salon and in particular to Seema. At Kakori I would like to thank Shah Mustafa Haidar Qalandar, the saiiada nashin of Takiya Sharif, and his brother, Shah Mujtaba Haidar Qalandar, for making me feel welcome, allowing me to consult books from the Kitabkhane Anwariya, enabling me to observe the ‘Urs in October-November 1991 and, on many occasions, the daily life of the khanqah. I am grateful to ‘Ain al Haidar for numerous conversations on sufism and Kakori. The brunt of my desire to know more was born by Dr. Masud Anvar Alavi, before, during and after my stay in India. I am indebted to him for organising books for me, answering my questions, introducing me to family and followers, and his many attempts to make me understand what Takiya Sharif was, and is, all about. I would also like to thank the Zenana at Kakori for the hospitality extended to me there on many occasions; a big ‘thank you’ go to the wife of Shah Mujtaba Haidar and Nadeem. There were many friends in India who made my fieldwork enjoyable and who contributed to its success. To name everyone would be impossible but my thanks go to them all. I am particularly indebted to (the late) Colonel Seth and his wife; Dr.