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A Sufi Reading of Jesus View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by The University of Sydney: Sydney eScholarship Journals... Representations of Jesus in Islamic Mysticism: Defining the „Sufi Jesus‟ Milad Milani Created from the wine of love, Only love remains when I die. (Rumi)1 I‟ve seen a world without a trace of death, All atoms here have Jesus‟ pure breath. (Rumi)2 Introduction This article examines the limits touched by one religious tradition (Islam) in its particular approach to an important symbolic structure within another religious tradition (Christianity), examining how such a relationship on the peripheries of both these faiths can be better apprehended. At the heart of this discourse is the thematic of love. Indeed, the Qur’an and other Islamic materials do not readily yield an explicit reference to love in the way that such a notion is found within Christianity and the figure of Jesus. This is not to say that „love‟ is altogether absent from Islamic religion, since every Qur‟anic chapter, except for the ninth (surat at-tawbah), is prefaced In the Name of God; the Merciful, the Most Kind (bismillahi r-rahmani r-rahim). Love (Arabic habb; Persian Ishq), however, becomes a foremost concern of Muslim mystics, who from the ninth century onward adopted the theme to convey their experience of longing for God. Sufi references to the theme of love starts with Rabia al-Adawiyya (717-801) and expand outward from there in a powerful tradition. Although not always synonymous with the figure of Jesus, this tradition does, in due course, find a distinct compatibility with him. Thus, the synonymic relationship Milad Milani is a research assistant at the Centre for the Study of Contemporary Muslim Societies, and a tutor and lecturer at the School of Humanities and Languages at the University of Western Sydney. 1 This is a free adaptation of Rumi‟s verse from Koliyat-e Shams-e Tabrizi, ed. B. Forouzanfar (Tehran: Talayeh, 1380), ghazal 683, line, 7109. Original lyrics cited in Shahram Nazeri‟s song „Gandom‟ from the album Motrebe Mahtabroo (2007). 2 R.A. Nicholson (ed.), The Mathnawi of Jalaluddin Rumi: Edited From the Oldest Manuscripts Available with Critical Notes, Translation and Commentary, 3 vols (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1925-1940), Book 1, line 798. Literature & Aesthetics 21 (2) December 2011 page 45 Representations of Jesus between „Jesus‟ and „love‟ can be noted particularly within the works of later Persian mystics such as Fariduddin Attar (1145/6-c.1221), Jalaluddin Rumi (1207-1273), Hafiz-i Shirazi (1325/6-1389/90), and Muhyeddin ibn al-‟Arabi (1165-1240). The French Orientalist, Louis Massignon (1883-1962) went so far as to analogise the martyrdom of Mansour al-Hallaj (c.858-922) with the crucifixion of Christ.3 That the Sufis drew primarily from the Qur’an, and other Islamic materials, when referring to Jesus Christ is undisputed. Jesus is one of the more frequently mentioned figures in the Qur’an (cited twenty-five times) and is seen as a great prophet second only to Muhammad. He is designated „Jesus the son of Mary‟ (Isa ibn Maryam) and, according to the Qur’an, Jesus was born of a virgin, performed miracles, raised the dead, and restored monotheism by revealing the Gospel (Injil).4 Yet, Muslims maintain that Jesus did not die on the cross, was not divine, nor was he the Son of God or part of the Trinity; that is, they deny all doctrines that contravene the uncompromising Muslim doctrine of tawhid (Unity of God; that God is one and without partners). To the observer this may seem nothing more than a doctrinal dispute, which is taken up by the Qur‟anic literature as a rebuttal to the ecumenical councils.5 Perhaps bearing some degree of pertinence, the Sufis have in the past ventured to offer interpretations of Jesus that apparently come closest to Christian reckonings of him. For certain, there are those verses which convey a „Christian-like‟ sensibility which illustrate an aspiration to be „Jesus-like‟. Beware: don‟t say, “There aren‟t any [real] travellers on the Way,” (Or), “There aren‟t any who are Jesus-like and traceless.” Since you aren‟t an intimate of secrets, You have been thinking that others are not as well.6 The above verse, however, and others like it, can be misleading. When Sufis refer to Jesus in their works, the reference is chiefly to the Qur‟anic Jesus. Even when it is not, all other citations are either deemed subordinate, or made to conform to, the Qur‟anic account. 3 See Louis Massignon, The Passion of al-Hallaj: Mystic and Martyr of Islam, ed. and trans. Herbert Mason (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994). 4 Mark Vernon, Chambers Dictionary of Beliefs and Religions (Edinburgh: Chambers, 2009). 5 The Uthmanic standard codex was commissioned in 651. See A.F.L. Beeston, The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature: Arabic Literature to the end of the Umayyad Period (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), pp. 239-40. 6 „Ruba„iyat,‟ 745. See Foruzanfar, Koliyat-e Shams-e Tabrizi, p. 1289, trans. Ibrahim Gamard and Ravan Farhadi, „Diwan-e Kabir,‟ at http://www.dar-al-masnavi.org/rub- 0745.html. Accessed 25/10/2011. Literature & Aesthetics 21 (2) December 2011 page 46 Milad Milani This article will examine the way Jesus is portrayed within the broader scope of Islamic literature, but with the specific aim of contextualising him within the history of Islamic mysticism. This approach is one of the History of Religions, with some attention paid to literary analysis and the interpretation of major mystical writers and their works. My aim is to offer a definitive standpoint on Muslim interpretations of Jesus, especially as he is portrayed by the Sufis. Moreover, the specific aim of this work will be to clarify and sort through misconceptions associated with Sufi representations of Jesus. For instance, a cursory reading of Sufi literature may give the false impression that Jesus was accepted as a quasi-mystical demigod, that Jesus is secretly adored and revered by Muslims, and that Sufis, in particular, fashion themselves and their tradition upon the image and teachings of Jesus.7 Conversely, Jesus is particularly limited within the scope of Islamic history and literature as a figure confined to the station of prophethood and his humanity, although some instances of irregularity can be seen in the imagination of Islamic mystics where the „Sufi Jesus‟ is made comparable with a Christian Jesus. The next segment will provide a general sketch of the issues raised. A Literary and Historical Overview of Jesus in Islamic Mysticism The Sufi reading of the Qur‟anic Jesus gives emphasis to the internalisation process through which the Sufis themselves (re)imagined Jesus Christ in a mystical light. At best, they saw Jesus as a “proto-Sufi” who dressed in woollen garb.8 Indeed, the Sufis recognised the reality of Jesus as a historical prophet of Islam. More often than not, however, Jesus was treated figuratively in their works. All of this was indicative of the Sufi preoccupation with the inward meaning of the Qur’an. The esoteric importance of such references as the “spirit” or “breath” (of God) become apparent in a special Sufi representation of Jesus as the „Perfect Man‟ (insan al-kamil), a phrase adapted from the mystical works of Ibn al-‟Arabi.9 Extrapolating that the „Sufi Jesus‟ has some degree of thematic correlation with the Christian Jesus, at least on a superficial level, is 7 It is possible that such ideals could have their origin in early Orientalist thought, which mainly observed the East through a Christian European lens. On the question of Orientalism see Adam J. Silverstein, Islamic History: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), pp. 96-97. 8 Oddbjorn Leirvik, Images of Jesus Christ in Islam (London: Continuum, 2010), p. 84; quoting Tarif Khalidi, The Muslim Jesus: Sayings and Stories in Islamic Literature (Cambridge Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2001), p. 202. 9 See The Meccan Revelations (Futuhat al-Makiyya), ed. Michel Chodkiewicz, trans. William C. Chittick and James W. Morris (New York: Pir Press, 2002). Literature & Aesthetics 21 (2) December 2011 page 47 Representations of Jesus unavoidable. To deny this would be to ignore obvious parallels, which must nonetheless be carefully treated and explained within their appropriate context. The most significant likeness is that of Jesus as the embodiment of love and perfection. There is, however, an important distinction to be made here between the Christian and Sufi view. Muslim mystics never accredit „exclusivity‟ to Jesus, which Christians who see him as their chief means of salvation do. For the Sufi, Jesus is just one of many notable prophets within Islam, some of whom, like Moses, are given slightly more space in their works.10 For instance, James Roy King had already pointed out that for Sufis both Jesus and Joseph were on equal footing as perfect embodiments of humanity.11 What is unique about the treatment of Jesus across the vast corpus of Sufi materials is that he is, for them, emblematic of several important qualities: purity, perfection, love, and healing. As a result, Jesus has maintained a consistent role in both the orthodox and heterodox forms of Sufism.12 The question may arise as to why Jesus is a frequent feature of Sufi works. The obvious answer, apart from his presence in the Qur’an, is a result of Sufi contributions made towards the Christian-Muslim dialogue. The case can also be made with the early Sufis dressing up as Christian mendicants; a possible deflection intended to make a dialogue of access to Jesus important for both sides.
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