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Asians & other newcomers in ’s classrooms ContFebruary-March, 1994, Volume 14, No. 109 ext:

Some past issues of Context are Context is published eight times during the academic year as a way out of print, but contain articles that to provide staff are still timely. This issue contains with information and ideas concerning their newcomer students and parents. selected pre-1993 pieces that address While the focus is on Southeast Asians, questions that are frequently re- most articles and resources apply to other newcomer groups as well. quested: This newsletter is developed •What role do teachers play in with Economic Impact Aid funds, and staff with English learners students’ acquisition of language, receive an automatic subscription. literacy, and culture? Other district staff may request a subscription, •What does Becoming a of at no cost. Outside subscribers pay $10.00 per year Readers recommend, and how do to cover mailing and handling costs. those recommendations apply to

Editor: learners? Judy Lewis •If a student is already literate in

Transitional English Programs, another language, where can s/he Folsom Cordova Unified School District, begin in building a base of English 2460 Cordova Lane, Rancho Cordova, CA 95670 vocabulary? What are the most Phone (916) 635-6815 frequently occurring in writ- Fax (916) 635-0174 ten English? •Why do you do what you do? We ask newcomers to explain them- selves, but cannot explain the char- acteristics of macro-culture. Refugee Educators Network This group of educators •What do we teach: “all of us are meets at the above address alike” or “each of us is different”? 5 times per year to share information •How can names help you recog- and plan an annual conference, nize the language background of the Southeast Asian Education Faire— refugee students? 9:00-11:30, 3rd Thursdays. •What are common questions Join us! aked about the newest group of

September 16, 1993 refugees the former Soviet Union? November 18, 1993 •What is current demographic January 20, 1994 February 17, 1994 information about language minor- May 19, 1994 “Lemongrass” ity students in California? Halinka Luangpraseut 2 CONTEXT: Southeast Asians & other newcomers in California’s classrooms

Intercultural Programs: Two Approaches

This panel is recognized by the peoples of , , and as Buddhist—each group could claim it as their own because Buddhism is a common cultural “People are all alike....” characteristic. Yet the , the Lao, and the Thai have cultural characteristics that distinguish one group from the Deductive learning other. Choosing to emphasize either the commonalities or the differences depends on the situation and on the experience (general to specific) and attitude of the person doing the choosing.

8 Commonalities

1. Life cycle (birth, growth, death).

2. Use of symbolic systems (language).

3. Respond to the aesthetic.

4. Recall the past, anticipate the future.

5. Belong to groups.

6. Part of nature (ecology of Earth).

7. Produce & consume.

8. Search for meaning (answers to “why....”)

Ernest Boyer. Quest for Common Learning. Carnegie Institute of Advancement of Teaching. Taken from speech, May 1992.

“People are each different....”

Inductive learning

(specific to general)

1. Compare differences without judgement.

2. Brain generalizes commonalities.

3. Process more important than content.

4. “Deep” structure changes.

5. Mirrors language acquisition process.

•First language acquisition: •Enculturation

•Second language acquisition: •Acculturation

6. Critical thinking skills in social world.

7. Compatible with group process skills.

8. Allows cultural pride, human dignity. Volume 14, No. 109, February-March, 1994 3

reached eighth grade, he could read land roving gangs while in Sacra- Teachers & and write at about a second grade mento. Henry ended up shooting a acquisition of level, could understand and speak waiter in a Chinese restaurant dur- fairly well, and fought regularly ing a robbery, and went to the language, reading, with other students. His parents Youth Authority for six years. hoped for the best, but gave him Causes and culture very little direction and few restric- Henry’s outcome was not caused tions on his activity. Henry became solely by his impoverished rural very good at being very bad; this background, nor the fact that his Henry Ho arrived in 1980 as an was his chosen area of competence. parents had never been to school, eleven-year old, a refugee from the His parents moved the family to and could not read or write Chi- rural fishing islands off the coast of Oakland, where there was a large nese, Vietnamese or English. It was , unable to write his name Chinese community. After a year not because his parents had been and unfamiliar with the school the family returned to our area raised under a communist system setting. We plunked him into a fifth because Henry and his brothers had that removed personal initiative, grade class, with one or two others begun to run around with thugs. nor because major cultural values in who spoke his language, and Henry was very likely recruited by Asia reflect the fatalism of Bud- waited a couple of years for him to older gang members, and contin- dhism. It was not because of the gap absorb the language. By the time he ued his association with the Oak- between the children and parents,

Using Krashen’s Model for Language Acquisition for Acquisition of Culture

Krashen’s Hypotheses Implications for Language Acquisition Implications for Acquisition of Culture

Input •Provide exposure to English. •Interact with persons from other cultures. Hypothesis •Make input comprehensible. •Use information or analysis of conflicts to bring implicit rules of culture to awareness.

•Oral Language: listening produces speaking. •Non-verbal input produces generalizations about how people interact. Use discrepant events to force change in generalizations. •Textual Language: reading produces writing.

Natural Order •Language is acquired in stages; rich language •Universal human categories of behavior. Differences exist in Hypothesis input provides the necessary structures. ways behavior is expressed in different cultures. Hall’s ten areas of human activity: interaction; association; subsistence; reproduction; terri-toriality; temporality; adaptation; recreation; protection; exploitation.

•Avoid teaching grammar without plenty of •Avoid teaching cultural facts without interaction. English input.

Monitor •Receptive before expressive. Expect a “silent •Use interaction to drive “need to know” then provide inform- Hypothesis period.” ation that helps understand how each way of doing things makes sense.

•Editor hampers expressive process. •Teach, model process for becoming aware of underlying cultural “rules”; else tendency is to either ignore or destroy differences.

Affective •Anxiety blocks input. •Respect and non-judgemental curiosity allow interaction, input. Filter Hypothesis •Arrange interaction in pursuit of mutually desirable non- •Focus on message; provide interesting input. threatening goal. 4 CONTEXT: Southeast Asians & other newcomers in California’s classrooms

nor because there was a lack of able—if there is a person who knows overgeneralize when first acquir- reading material in the home. the student and has realistic, pro- ing English (one car/two cars; one Henry’s first cousin, son of his gressive expectations of him (or her), cat/two cats; one man/ two father’s brother, a couple of years one who can help him see the goal mans), and the way in which younger than Henry, went on to and work towards it, one who helps pieces can produced in novel graduate with a 4.0 GPA, one of the him understand and surmount ob- arrangements. first rural Sino-Vietnamese to ac- stacles—few will make choices that Reading & writing complish that remarkable goal. turn them into outcasts. Apparently competence is acquired Henry’s tragic outcome was some are more “disadvantaged” Krashen most recently has been likely the result of a number of than others: Henry required more publishing and lecturing on the factors in combination, including from us than did his cousin. way in which reading and writing very poor choices on his part. I skills are acquired, not learned. know that we did not give Henry Model for Acquisition of Not surprisingly, reading—a the best start in school, although his Language—Oral, Textual, receptive skill like the comprehen- cousin had the same sort of start. Cultural In California, over the past ten sion of oral language—is acquired For whatever reason, Henry never years, the theoretical model for sec- when there is comprehensible found an area within the school ond langauge acquisiton has been input; we learn to read by reading. setting in which he could see him- driven by Chomsky’s “language Writing—an expressive skill like self as competent, or even with the acquisition device,” a label for the speaking—is output that repre- hope of becoming competent. neural activity that turns input into sents the end result of the textual We didn’t know enough at that generalizations that structure out- language acquistion process. To time to pair him up with an adult put. The theory is interpreted and write well requires sufficient read- mentor or a well-respected peer applied to the classroom by re- ing input. buddy, to structure his learning searchers like Jim Cummins and Virtually everyone learns to tasks so he could see his own Krashen, and the outcome is understand and speak a language progress; or even to know him well an emphasis on methods that call for (or in the case of the deaf, to un- enough to know what his interests understanding and communicating derstand and sign a language), but and (socially acceptable) strengths ideas rather than rote output drill. not everyone learns to read and were. We benevolently ignored write. Some front-end direct him, expecting little but compli- Rule-driven production teaching is required before the ance. Much to our surprise, while Linguistic research refines and language acquisition device can he was acquiring oral language he validates the basic mechanism of operate in reading acquisition: was also acquiring a second cul- language acquisition—that neural recognizing two-dimensional ture—the unwritten rules that gov- processes of some sort equip the shapes, association of written ern interaction with others in brain to sort out input, decipher symbol with a unit of sound (or a American society. He learned about regular patterns, form generaliza- unit of concept, in the case of confrontation, competition, and tions about how the pieces are put Chinese), left-to-right organiza- peer recognition; he developed together, and then produce output tional rules (in the case of En- areas of competence in fighting, that conforms to the generalizations. glish), breaking apart words into intimidation, and survival. Feedback then becomes additional component sounds and blending Because of Henry, we have come input that allows a shifting of the them back together. Once the to believe that a newcomer arrives patterns and revising of generaliza- fundamental skills are in place, here with an expectation of success, tions. The classic evidence of rule- reading well is the result of read- but that experience teaches power- driven production, rather than ing enough, and writing well is ful lessons about the available memorization and recitation of pat- the result of reading enough. choices. If better choices are avail- terns, is the way in which children Volume 14, No. 109, February-March, 1994 5

Direct learning of writing gener- acquired, nor how our cultural maps automatic, and the generalizations alizations is also necessary, but it are changed by contact with others. interconnect and build upon one helps the editing process rather We understand what we need to do to another, pushing the level of com- than the writing process. speak or write a second language, but munication with the computer to a not what we need to do to operate new level. LAD underlies culture “fluently” in a second culture. How- acquisition Teacher’s role: scaffold & ever, we do now know that newcom- Why should the neural lan- coach ers are actively acquiring second guage acquisition device be lim- What, then is the teacher’s role cultures from the moment they first ited to generalizations derived in the acquisition of language, encounter the new culture. In Henry’s from input through only the ears literacy, and culture? Put very case, I can only assume that the kind and eyes? Why not assume for simply, the first is to make input of input he received resulted in gener- the moment that it also operates comprehensible. The second, which alizations that led to generally com- on other kinds of input: touch, is closely related to the first, is to bative and anti-social output space, smell, heat, pupil size, arrange events so that a student (behavior). duration of eye contact, gesture, realizes competence. The first role facial expression, and so on. If we IBM: Macintosh= is sometimes called scaffolding in can assume that the language learning: acquisition the process of acquiring a first acquisition device is a construct I had brief experience with IBM- language; the second role is that of for the neural process of deriving like computers, and found myself coaching. generalizations from input, no frustrated by not knowing the rules Scaffolding matter what kind of input, then it for input; a misplaced space, a capital In first language acquisition, makes sense that second cultures letter in the wrong place, or a colon scaffolding refers to simplification are acquired in much the same used “illegally” resulted in a message of language, repetition of key ele- way second languages are ac- that basically said, “I don’t under- ments, responding in predictable quired. (See the chart.) stand.” Compare this to interaction ways, altering the input so that it While great attention is paid with a Macintosh computer, in which just a bit more difficult than the to skill in second or third lan- input is given directly by moving an current level of output, and so on. guages, little attention is paid to arrow, clicking on icons, or double- It also refers to pulling meaning skill in second or third cultures clicking on key verbs. When an “ille- from what output is produced. (the unwritten rules by which we gal” operation occurs, it’s because the “Oh, ‘di-di’...you mean ‘kitty’. Yes, behave and interact). There is process is wrong, not the format of the there’s the kitty.” very little educational research input. Some people unpack a new Teachers who use what are on acquisition of culture, yet computer, plug it in, then sit down called “sheltered English” methods hundreds if not thousands of and read the manual—this is the are scaffolding aural and textual studies focus on the most minute grammar-translation method of learn- input. They provide simplified text, details of the acquisition of lan- ing a new language. Others plug in drawings, models, real objects; they guage and spell out the rules that the computer, turn it on, and begin tell stories that have a sequence and underlie various languages. We clicking on various icons until some- can be located in space; they dem- accept that “culture” is all that is thing happens. There is a basic belief onstrate actions. They make input learned, the knowledge that that the computer operates according more comprehensible in a variety passed from one generation to to a logical set of rules, and that it is of ways. another, all that portion of our- possible to figure out what to do. Persons who act as cultural selves that we are not born Trial and error revises generaliza- interpreters or cultural brokers knowing, but we don’t know tions until they are confirmed and make the unwritten rules of culture exactly how such knowledge is internalized; actions then become more comprehensible. Sometimes 6 CONTEXT: Southeast Asians & other newcomers in California’s classrooms

this takes the form of explaining comraderie of the team, the admira- the rewards that success will bring; why, of making the implicit ex- tion of peers, and the fact that he 4) shared sacrifice and reciprocal plicit, of pointing out the connec- has tackled something difficult and obligation between the coach and tions between things. At other overcome the seemingly impos- child; 5) willingness to try; 6) not times, it means accompanying sible. “lowering the bar” but finding a people into unfamiliar cultural The coaches can be foul- way to get over it. Various summer situations and letting experience mouthed, rough, hostile, quick to camp self-esteem programs that itself provide the input. Scaffolding, criticize, and they single out favor- have children walking tightropes then, is making input—aural, tex- ites; all the things a teacher is cau- are an example of this: accomplish- tual, cultural—more comprehen- tioned not to do. On the other ment, not praise, engenders self- sible. The teacher’s role—like a hand—and this seems to be the esteem. parent’s role in first language and key—they devote tremendous time Scaffolding, coaching and culture acquisition—is to provide and energy to the pursuit of foot- computerese acquisition scaffolding. ball, associating with thirty-some Let’s look at the Macintosh adolescent boys rather than doing Coaching again, in terms of scaffolding and something else from June to De- The other major part of a coaching to competence. We have cember every year. The players teacher’s role is arranging condi- Macintosh computers in the office understand that the adults’ sacrifice tions so that the student is success- for people to use, with fonts for requires sacrifice on their parts. ful. Good parents do this with Vietnamese, Korean, Chinese, Lao, The coaches are very clear in children: they understand, they Armenian, Russian, and so on. their expectations, and they have follow directions, they respond to When a person first begins, I have inspiring slogans they repeat every requests. They give choices that are to start the computer, open the day, in every huddle, at every prac- consistent with the child’s level: do document, choose the font and type tice. There’s no need for empty you want cereal or oatmeal? do you size, and click the cursor on the compliments, only to recognize want your egg scrambled or fried? page where the typing will begin. correct play. When a boy does will you put your toys away now or After the person is finished, I have make a mistake, the coaches ana- after dinner? do you want to do to save the document and print it. lyze the wrong moves in very clear your homework in the kitchen or in In this way, the very first time, the terms. They draw mistaken plays the den? Parents encourage tod- person produces a page of wonder- on boards and then draw in the dlers to test out their walking skills, ful type, in various sizes and styles. correct plays; they videotape the then step back just out of range, but As time goes by, I don’t have to plays and go over the mistakes (and not too far. Teachers, ideally, would turn on the computer or open the the correct plays) frame by frame. know their students as well as good document any more, but I have to Once a mistake is clearly identified, parents do, although this is very set up the footer so a page number they show the boys how to do it difficult when there are 35 or 150 is automatically printed, break the right; then the players try it again students for each teacher, changing document in various places, or and again until they have it right. every semester or every year. place a graphic in the document. Clear goal; point out mistakes; clear I used to think that football was “Teacher Sam”, our Chinese aide, instruction; try it again. an over-rated expense in the school began this way, but since I couldn’t There are a variety of situations district’s budget, but after watching read the Chinese operating system, in which a child can enter into a coaches and players’ responses to he had to experiment on his own. It coaching relationship with an adult. the them over the past two seasons, took hours of perseverance. He The key elements appear to be: 1) I have changed my mind. When my took the computer home on week- choosing to participate; 2) seeing son comes home exhausted and ends and over vacations; eventually clearly the goal and the steps lead- demoralized, I ask him why he he learned three completely differ- ing up to it; 3) valuing the goal and continues. He says that he likes the ent Chinese -processors Volume 14, No. 109, February-March, 1994 7

(which required learning Pinyin Scaffolding World of Difference, conflict resolu- encoding as well as figuring out 1. Choose any interesting materials tion resource books, Simon’s three different keyboard input (this requires knowing the stu- Values Clarification, and so on. methods). He now faxes messages dent well enough to know what Teach psychology at secondary to for technical advice, and is interesting). levels.) has worn out the reference manual 2. Mix and match methods, selected Coach to competence to Pagemaker, looking for solutions to fit with background of stu- 1. Choose any progression of skills to problems and seeking out new dents. (For example, (Barnell-Loft, SRA reading or things to do. He has become com- audiolingual methods work well math, computer-based hierarchi- petent, and has acquired with Hmong, and grammar- cal programs) and make the steps Macintoshese (in Chinese). translation works well with Rus- clear. Let students know where sians, Armenians, and Implications they stand on the progression Ukrainians. Realize that these In summary then, what are some (tell them their scores on reading methods provide a level of “secu- practical implications of the propo- tests for example), and ensure rity” consistent with beliefs about sition that oral skills, reading and that they accomplish the next learning English; acquisition writing skills, and cultural interac- step. takes place during the communi- tion skills are all the result of the cation that surrounds the activity 2. Point out mistakes; show how to “language acquisition device” (per- at hand.) correct mistakes, keep in mind haps better re-named a “generaliza- differences in background and 3. Provide impetus to interact with tion-formulating device”)? The cross-cultural cognitive differ- text (minimum of 20 minutes per following are specific practices that ences. have had promising results in our day of self-selected reading). 3. Know who the students are, and district. Anything interesting with En- glish words will do: comic books, have expectations of them. Begin Gatekeeper & magazines, Nintendo hints, by recognizing ethnicity of names Transition Specialist newspapers, encyclopedias, and knowing familial connec- A gatekeeper has experience with Hirsch’s Cultural Literacy book(s), tions. other languages and cultures. A computer-based libraries on CD- Bilingual aides transition specialist is selected from rom, question-and-answer books; 1. Hire aides from the same back- the group least likely to succeed in fashion magazines. grounds as students. Make selec- the district. They serve as co-work- 4. Teach the most frequently occur- tion criteria group-specific. ers (sharing power, making budget ring words directly; teach basic and program decisions); their re- 2. Have aides explain key vocabu- analysis and blending techniques sponsibilities include: lary and summarize lessons’ directly. (Dolch words or any 1. Learning the names and back- main ideas in the native language other frequency-based sight grounds of each student. (“preview-review”, not concur- reading word lists; explicit phon- rent translation). 2. Establishing connections with ics methods; word families; 3. Have aides help students deal parents. sound blending charts and recita- with the grief-like stages that 3. Providing access to information. tion, dictation). precede acculturation. 4. Resolving problems and conflicts. 5. Arrange learning situations that 4. Realize that aides help parents require interaction: computer understand American schools’ Teachers work, cultural journalism teams. Teachers provide scaffolding and expectations. Teach and model the process of coach to competence in any one 5. Aides provide role models, espe- making implicit rules of culture area. cially if they share a common explicit. (Use materials from A background with students. 8 CONTEXT: Southeast Asians & other newcomers in California’s classrooms

Why do you ...... ? Characteristics of American culture

Category Macroculture assumptions & behaviors

Activity

ACTIVITY (“DOING”) Greetings? “Whatcha doin’?” “What d’ya do?” “Can do” approach. Identity = occupation and achievement.

PACE OF LIFE (TIME) Fast, busy, productive, efficient. Leisure conveys status. Events organized by time.

IMPORTANT GOALS IN LIFE Accomplishment, advancement, contribution. Material acquisitions, newness. Comfort, no pain, happiness, fulfillment. Control over events, future, others.

DECISIONS Choices have consequences. Decision-maker bears consequences. Decision evaluated by consequences: Did it work? Verbal contract.

PROBLEM SOLVING Identify problem, predict outcomes, brainstorm solu tions, make a plan of action, evaluate outcome (based on belief in universal laws). Conflict results in better solution

NATURE OF LEARNING Active, student-centered. Assumption that all students can learn. Idea of “potential”—used/unused. Equal access, minimal level of literacy. Abstract, inductive/deductive.

Social Relations

ROLES Loosely defined, negotiable. “Be true to yourself”

STATUS Stress equality, minimize differences. Status depends on extent of power. Earnable.

GROUP MEMBERSHIP Fluid membership, member of many groups. Limited liability. Responsibility varies. Voluntary membership. Volume 14, No. 109, February-March, 1994 9

FRIENDSHIP Short commitment, shared friends. Few responsibilities. Secondary to spouse, family. Come on strong early, terminate easily.

SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY Nonbinding, equal (Dutch treat) Not clearly defined. Apology erases insult or affront. Acceptable to be competitive, confrontational, aggres sive. Competition, conflict healthy, productive.

Motivation

MOTIVATING FORCE Achievement, acquisition, contribution.

SOCIAL CONTROL Persuasion, appeal to reason. Guilt. Power.

World View

WHY THINGS HAPPEN World operates according to knowable logical rules. Subject to man’s intervention and control. Man vs. nature (winner/loser) Misfortune due to chance, probability.

NATURE OF MAN Separate from natural world. Man controls own fate. Man should exploit nature for his own ends. Man v. nature (pioneer spirit)

NATURE OF TIME Future-oriented. Time is a commodity—saved, spent, used. Activity is organized by time—one activity after another—linear. Emphasis on punctuality, efficiency. Youthfulness is valued. Privacy (time alone) and leisure is valued. Higher status people determine others’ use of time.

NATURE OF SPACE Space communicates status (office location, size) Privacy is valued. 10 CONTEXT: Southeast Asians & other newcomers in California’s classrooms

A Dinh, in Ha-Dong region. Detail of a Vietnamese roof. Halinka Luangpraseut. Vietnamese Family Names

Mid-level …u choe ( with toe) [inh ding L‘ lay Ng‰ ngo (rhymes with toe); if you can’t hear the initial ng, say no Phan fahn (not fawn or , but in between) TrıÍng ju-uhng (u is similar to the oo in book with the teeth together; uh is the hesitation sound) VıÍng vu-uhng Low, abrupt end [»ng dahng (not dang or dong, but in between) Ph¬m fahm (like a New Yorker saying farm) Trfinh jing Low falling Hoøng hwong (rhymes with song) HÒynh hwing (rhymes with sing) TrÀn jun (rhymes with fun) High L˚ lee (not lie) Broken L˘ lu-u Nguyÿn ngoo-ien; (oo as in soon); settle for nu-yen V‚ vaw-aw (rhymes with law) VÛ voo-oo

Characteristics

• Social status and role are reinforced every time one speaks (even the pronouns have to be chosen carefully to show the proper respect and relative status). One-footed Temple, . • Mayahana Buddhism and Catholicism are major belief systems; ancestor Halinka Luangpraseut worship extends respect back through time. Buddhists tend to be fatalis- tic about life’s events; the ability to endure well is important. • Education is important in demonstrating social status. Differences in background (urban, rural) are related to education. • Maintaining harmonious interpersonal relations is very important (“face”). “I’ll try” or “We’ll see” probably means “no”. “Yes” may mean “I hear you.” • Addressing the teacher as “teacher” shows respect. • Potential is much less important than performance. Volume 14, No. 109, February-March, 1994 11

Vietnamese Given Names HuŸ hway LŸ lay LÈc loke (don’t release the k) Mid-level Ng„ ngaw (rhymes with law) Anh ahn Ng„c ngawp; nawp (this is another Cung koong “double articulation”: close Dung zoong the throat for the k, and the Hoa hwah lips for the p.) Hıng hung NguyŸt ngoo-iet; nwet HıÍng hu-uhng PhıÔng fu-uhng Khang kahng Th¬ch tyke Khi‘m kee-em ThiŸn tee-en (T..) Kh‰i koy Th„ taw (rhymes with law) Kim keem Lam lahm Low falling L…m luhm B¤ bing Lan lahn (between lan/lawn) [øo dow (rhymes with how) L…n luhn [i÷n dee-en (D.N.) L‘ lay Hi÷n hee-en Li‘n lee-en HÊng hongm (the o is long: home) Linh ling HÒng hoongm Loan loo-ahn MÒi moo-ee Long longm (long o; for the final Tøi dtai (as in mai-tai) consonant, do ng with the Th¤n teen lips closed) Toøn dtoe-ahn Mai mai (like mai-tai) Tuy÷n dtoo-ien Minh ming Nam nahm High Nga ngah; or else, nah B⁄ch bick Ninh ning [ˆc duk PhıÍng fu-uhng Ph foo Qu…n koo-uhn Ph c fook (don’t release the k) Quang kwahng Qy kwee Sang sahng Sæng sahng SÍn suhn (the ; my son) Thƒng tahng T…m dtuhm Tu`n dtoo-uhn T…n dtuhn Tuy’t dtoo-iet Thao (rhymes with Lao, how) Xuy’n soo-ien tee-en (T.N.) Thi‘n Broken Thu too DÛng zoo-oong Tr…m juhm Diÿm zee-em …n soo-uhn Liÿu lee-oo Low, abrupt end M˛ mee-ee bike B¬ch Rising (?) DŒu zoe (rhymes with toe) B¿o bow? (rhymes with how?) DiŸp zee-ep H¿i high? DiŸu zee-o (.O.) H¿o how? [finh ding Th¿o tow? (rhymes with how?) H¬nh haing ThÚy too-ee? 12 CONTEXT: Southeast Asians & other newcomers in California’s classrooms

Chinese Family Names

Chinese children from Vietnam have their names spelled in the Vietnamese Chinese Given Names style. Some change to the Taiwanese or Hong Kong style when they get their citizenship. Common Sino-Vietnamese names are listed below, with typical Chinese children from rural Vietnam often have a “home” name that is their and common Vietnamese spelling (the choice of ordinal position in the family: #1 son, #2, #3, and so on. Urban (educated) may come from a close-sounding name, or a word that Chinese tend to have an “outside” name that has a meaning, to do with sounds different but means the same). character or aspirations. High falling (Vietnamese form) A Nhat ah-nyut #1 Cheung, Jung TrıÍng A Nhi (Yee) ah-nyee #2 Chau, Jew Ch…u Chu Chu A Xam (Tam) ah-sahm #3 Giang A Xay (Say) ah-say #4 Fong PhıÍng A Ung ah-uhm #5 Van ¢n A Loc ah-loke #6 So T‰ A Chat ah-chut #7 High rising A Bat ah-baht #8 Yuen Nguyÿn A Cau ah-cow #9 A Sap ah-sahp #10 Low falling Chan, Chin TrÀn Other “home” names also denote the position in the family: Wong Hoøng/HÒynh Wong VıÍng Ho Hø Dai, Tai dtai old, big Lam L…m Mui, Muoi moo-ee sister Lai L‘ Tay, Tai dtai brother Fung PhÒng Leung LıÍng Lau Lıu Characteristics Man V√n Ng, Eng Ng‰ • Chinese culture culture is ancient and has influ- Pang Bønh enced Vietnamese, Mien, Hmong, Korean, and Tang [»ng Japanese cultures. Many of the Vietnamese Wu HÊ values towards scholarship, the role of children , Yee Du twoard parents, and the nature of interpersonal Low level relations are similar to the values of the Chinese. Cheng Trfinh • Filial piety and ancestor worship is a strong part Chiu TriŸu of every family. Fan Ph¬m • Families are patrilineal, large groups of men Luk LÙc who share a common ancestor and their wives. Shum/Sam ThÃm Yeung, Young DıÍng Kin keep track on one another by common “gen- eration” names. • Confucianism is a way of teaching values and behavior, not a religion. • The Chinese came to the as ethnic refugees—the Vietnamese expelled them from the country after the war ended. Volume 14, No. 109, February-March, 1994 13

Hmong Family (Clan) Names

High, short duration Khab, Khaab Khang kah, kahng! Hmong Given Names Phab Pha fah! Tsab Cha jah!, jahng! Tswb Chue ju! (u like book, teeth together) High, short duration High falling (like an exclamation!) Dawb Der duh Faj, Faaj Fang fah!, fahng! (between fang and fong) Hnub Nou noo Hawj Her huh! (uh, bite the teeth together) Iab Ia ee-ah Lauj Lor, Lo low! (not high) Kub Kou koo Thoj Thao taw! (rhymes with law) Ntsuab Youa njoo-ah Tsheej Cheng cheng! Txiab Xia dzee-ah Vaj, Vaaj Vang vah!, vahng! (between vang & vong) Yeeb Ying ying Vwj Vue vu! Neeb Neng neng Xyooj shyong! (long o) Tsab Cha jah Yaj, Yaaj yah!, yahng! (between yang & yong) Tswb Chue ju Xeeb Seng seng Mid, longer duration High falling Koo Kue kong (cold with ng in place of ld) Tooj Tong dtong! (long o) Low, short duration Leej Leng leng! Lis Ly, Lee lee Nyiaj Nhia nyee-ah! Muas Moua moo-ah Txiaj Chia dzee-ah! Txhiaj Xia tsee-ah! Low, abrupt end Ham, Haam Hang hah, hahng Mid, longer duration Kwm Kue ku Hli Hli hlee Ntxhoo Song nsong (long o) Low, short duration Mos Mao maw (like law) Characteristics Npis Bee, By mbee Low, abrupt end • Hmong are organized into patrilineal clans. The last name repre- Foom Fong fong sents the clan. People from the same clan can never marry. (long o) • There are two main dialect groups: White Hmong and Ntxawm Yer ntzuh Hmong. White Hmong is the standard written form, although Txhim Chi tsee the only two-way dictionary is Green Hmong. Low falling, breathy end • Hmong believe in the power of various spirits and their ances- Lag La lah tors. Many Hmong have converted to Christianity. Ntxawg Yer ntzuh • Hmong came to the United States as political refugees because of Rising (?) their affiliation with the “secret army” that fought the commu- Maiv Mai mai? (mai- nists during the war. tai) • In the mid-1970’s there were only about 35 Hmong at the univer- Diav Dia dee-ah? sity level, all overseas. 14 CONTEXT: Southeast Asians & other newcomers in California’s classrooms

Iu-Mien Family (Clan) Names Characteristics

• Mien are related to the Hmong in history, High, short, abrupt end but their languages are not mutually com- Zuaq (Sae)Chou dzoo-ahk prehensible. High falling (!) • Mien culture has absorbed more Chinese Yangh (Sae)Yang yahng! ways than Hmong. For example, Mien use to write their lineage Bienh (Sae)Phan pbee-en! history and ritual texts, eat with , Lorh (Sae)Lo law! have generation names, and follow a Mien Lioh (Sae)Liew lee-o! form of the Chinese belief system Taoism. Zanh (Sae)Chin dzahn! Ancestor worship is important. Siouh (Sae)Sio see-ow! • “Mien” means “people”; “Iu-Mien” means Low, abrupt end “Iu () people”. Dangc (Sae)Teurn dtahng • There are several Roman writing systems Bungc (Sae)Fong pboong for the Mien language. All are affiliated with missionaries, and are rejected by those Rising Mien who see Christianity as destructive of Zeux (Sae) Chao dzay-oh ancient beliefs and customs. There is a Falling, rising world-wide Mien effort to adopt one of the systems as the standard, to form a common Leiz (Sae)Lee lay communication link. There is no dictionary Mid yet, but there are Mien classes in churches Tong (Sae)Tong dtong and schools. (long o) • Mien came to the U.S. as political refugees for their role with anti-communist war effort.

Lao Names

Surnames are multisyllable and given names have two —a prefix and a main part. Friends may drop the prefix and use just the second . To pronounce the names, break them up into parts.

Family names Given names

Souk-som-boun (health, prosperity) Kham-sy

Vieng-kham (golden city) Kham-say

Vong-kham-keaw (gold lineage) Kham-phanh

Vong-pra-chan (moon lineage) Other common word parts in given names: thong, sone, souk, dang, vong, Luang-pra-seut (very precious) boun, pheng, phone, phoun, phouang, kham, bang, bone, my, ma, manh. Volume 14, No. 109, February-March, 1994 15

Cambodian Names Names are generally of two parts: the family name is one syllable and the given name is two or three syllables. Examples are:

Family Name Given Name

Chea Sokha

Chhom Neary

Angkor walls. Halinka Luangpraseut. Pok Bona Characteristics Hem Chantha • The are descen- dants of an ancient powerful and Som Rattana widespread kingdom, rich with arts and literature. • Most Khmer follow Theravada Only Cambodian names have 2 h’s in a row! Examples of other family Buddhism. names are: Ang, Ay, Boeun, Buon, Chham, Chhan, Chhay, Chhem, • The Khmer refugees have suf- Chheng, Chhoeum, Chhuon, Choeun, Chuon, Hang, Hean, Heng, Hoeum, fered tremendous social shatter- Hoeun, Hoeung, Hong, Hok, Huon, Keo, Kheung, Khlok, Khoeung, ing, and most are holocaust Koeuh, Lim, Loeun, Loeuth, Lon, Loun, Luom, Luy, Ma, Mai, Mee, Men, survivors. Without Buddhist Mon, Moung, Nay, Nem, O, Oeu, Ok, On, Ou, Ouk, Oum, Oun, Phen, temples, villages, or family, there Phoeun, Phuon, Pok, Ra, Ram, Roeun, Roeung, Sam, San, Sat, Seng, Som, is little social support during Sous, Ta, Thoun, Vann, Voeun, Voeuth, Vuy, Vy, Yam, Yan, Yang, Yay. acculturation to American life. • Homeland political allegiances cause factions among Cambodian communities in the U.S.

Characteristics

• Lao are culturally more similar to the Thai and Cambodians than the Vietnamese, Chinese, Hmong or Mien. • Lao are Theravada Buddhists, a belief system shared by only the Thai, Cambodians, Ceylonese, and Burmese. • Village temples provided teaching of values and behavior, especially for boys. • Families are organized bilaterally rather than patrilineally. • The Lao had access to education, but once basic Lao literacy was learned, they turned to French textbooks. The best Lao dictionary is one-way only, and is no longer published. Thai dictionaries may be of use to some Lao. • The Lao were the ethnic majority in Laos, but the many minority groups (including Hmong and Mien) comprised almost half the population. Lao girl going to the temple during the new year observances. Halinka Luangpraseut. • Lao came to the U.S. as political refugees. 16 CONTEXT: Southeast Asians & other newcomers in California’s classrooms

Ukrainian Names Armenian Names Russian Names

Tend to end with “o”, “ik”, “uk”: End with “ian”: Surnames have a male and female form: Eryomenko Muradyan Male Female Goroshko Avagyan Kozlov Kozlova Kirichenko Ayvazyan Petrov Petrova Lyashenko Bunyatyan Melnik Mgeryan Fedorov Fedorova Yakimchuk Deukmejian Ivanov Ivanova Zaharchuk Zaikin Zaikina Ivanyuk The “g” in Armenian names is a Istomin Istomina hard “h” sound; transliterated into Bachinsky Bachinskaya First names are the same for Ukrai- Russian, which does not have the nians and Russians. There is a short sound, it became a “g”. form for most: The middle name identifies the “Mgeryan” is “mm-hair-ee-an”. Natalya Natasha father. Ivan Kozlov has two chil- Nadezhda Nadya dren (note the last name first): Dmitry Dima Kozlov Petr Ivanovich Mikhiel Misha Kozlova Svetlana Ivanova Volume 14, No. 109, February-March, 1994 17

Soviet Union (read: Reagan and that congregation to help newcom- Soviet Refugees Gorbachev), an agreement was ers with their settlement and adjust- Why does the United States reached allowing greater freedom ment. let Russians come here— for political dissidents (like aren’t they communists? Sakarov), and religious dissidents Is there a correct term for the Not everyone living in the fif- (primarily the Jewish). The program people who come from the teen republics formerly called the ends in 1994. former Soviet Union? Soviet Union was a communist. Once people left the country, A good question, one with Thousands—millions—of people they became refugees, on the basis which Dan Rather, Peter Jennings had a government imposed upon of persecution due to religious and other journalists wrestle. The them 75 years ago. Their lack of group membership. (The U.S. later organization of republics is now support for the communist govern- defined the Christians, Jews and known as the Commonwealth of ment comes at a cost: “Oh, you’re Russian Orthodox as refugees with- Independent States (CIS), but there not a party member? Well, the out having to leave their country of is no equivalent term for the schools are full. There are no ration origin.) people— CISeans?! coupons for you. There is no hous- Israel accepted (and continues to Before the USSR changed to the ing for you in the city. There is no accept) millions of Jews from the CIS, we could call people by the job for you.” former Soviet Union. The U.S. pro- general term “Soviet,” although this At various times, party member- vides some financial support for the term smacks of , and ship was much more directly “en- resettlement of Jews in Israel, and thus represents what people have couraged”: non-members could the international Jewish community fled. There is no other term—like expect a visit from the KGB, reloca- has gathered millions of dollars for “European” or “Scandanavian”— tion to the remote frontier, a new Operation Exodus. They privately that refers to the various peoples as job in a labor camp. sponsor ten thousand or so in the a group. Using the USSR flag as a Despite these efforts to “win the U.S. each year, assuming full costs. way to greet newcomer students is hearts and minds of the people,” Another forty-five thousand or so obviously a mistake. some people continued to resist the have come each year since 1989 as One recourse is to use “Russian- communist system. Religious official refugees. speaking peoples” as a reference groups—Jews and Christians in In addtion, some five thousand (which may not include everyone particular—recognized that perse- others are Christians who were also and is politically incorrect—see cution was part of maintaining religious dissidents. Sacramento below), or to actually know to which beliefs. has become a favorite settlement of the different ethnic/linguistic Those who have come here— site for these religious refugees and groups you are referring. Europe Russian, Ukrainian, Uzbek, Arme- the relatives they sponsor. provides a useful analogy. Italians nian, Moldovian, Estonian, Belarus, The reason for this is probably are not Polish, Spanish are not Irish, Georgian, Latvian—are by defini- that two of the pastors who have Serbians are not Greeks; each tion anti-communist because they been broadcasting short-wave reli- speaks a different language. French maintained their religious beliefs gious programs into the Soviet is one of the near-universal lan- and practices. Union for decades have congrega- guages: do we call all these differ- tions in this area. It is not because ent people “French-speaking the Capital Christian Center peoples”? Probably not, within Why have they come, and why brought Pentacostal refugees here earshot. English is growing in do so many settle in Sacra- and then left them to flounder, as mento? popularity as a : how many mistakenly believe. The bond In 1988, as part of thawing rela- about “English-speaking peoples”? of Pentacostal faith has, however, tions between the U.S. and the Again, probably not—this kind of produced many volunteers from 18 CONTEXT: Southeast Asians & other newcomers in California’s classrooms

linguistic colonialism doesn’t pro- been ruled by Germans, Swedish, the dominant , and vide much useful information. and Russians in the past. The the has been nation was independent between the lingua franca (like it or not) the world wars (1918-40). for all the various peoples sub- What are the 15 new , •Georgians—They have had a sumed under the Soviet Union. what are the people called, written language since the 400’s. Russia has colonized all the other and are they likely to be in the republics—sent Russians to live U.S.? Turks, Persians, and Russians in other peoples’ lands—and are •Armenians—Armenia was the have fought for control of Geor- generally resented by non-Rus- first Christian state in the 300’s gia. There are some Georgians sians. Within Russia are autono- with a written language in 401. here as Christian refugees. mous regions (“ethnic groups Religion is a strong part of •Kazakhs—They speak a Turkic without armies”?) inhabited by peoples’ identity. Much of their language, are Muslim, and are non-Russian ethnic groups like history can be read in the Bible. descendants of the Mongols, who the Tartars and the Bashkirs. There are many Armenian conquered various other peoples Pentacostals and Baptists here, over the course of history. They •Tajiks—These people from and Armenians are particularly are a minority in their own re- Tajikistan are ethnically and sensitive about having to use the public (41% are Russian, 36% are linguistically related to the Irani- Russian language in the U.S.— Kazakh). Kazakhs are not likely ans. The Tajiks found an unsuc- most would rather use English! to be here as Christian refugees, cessful guerrilla war against the Because they began arriving but Russians from Kazakhstan Soviets for several years after about a year later than other might be. Tajikistan’s annexation. Christian refugees, the schools •Kirghiz—These people speak a •Turkmen—The people of and agencies are likely to have Turkic language, and have no Turkmenistan were nomadic Russian or Russian/Ukrainian tradition of literacy other than tribesmen until the Soviets orga- interpreters already on board. Russian. The nation is called nized a republic in 1924. (The •Azerbaijianis—They are Shiite “Kyrgyzstan”, the nationality land they occupied was con- Moslems, their language is “Kirghiz” (singular or plural). quered by the Russian Empire in closely related to Turkish, and •Latvians—Latvia has been ruled the 1800’s.) they have ties to Iran. The conflict by Germans, Swedish, Polish, •Ukrainians—Byzantine Christian- between Armenians and and Russians in the past. There ity was imported in the 900’s and Azerbaijianis stem from Chris- are Latvians here as Christian became Russian Orthodoxy, -Muslim and Turkish-Cauca- refugees. outlawed by the Soviets along sian hostilities over the past 600 •Lithuanians—Lithuania was once with other religions. Ukraine was years. Azerbaijianis are not combined with Poland in a pow- once part of Poland, so many likely to be here as Christian or erful union against first Germans Ukrainians and Polish are ethni- Jewish refugees, but Armenians and then Russians. The nation cally the same (look at the family from Azerbaijian are. was independent between the names: “—sky”). The majority of •Belarus—Belarus (the name is the world wars. There could be Pentacostal refugees in Sacra- same for the nation, nationality, Lithuanian Christians here. mento are Ukrainian. and language) was formerly •Moldovans—They are ethnically •Uzbeks—They speak a Turkic Byleorussia. Many are Christian, Romanian, and Moldova may dialect, and follow Muslim. and this group is well-repre- eventually reunite with Romania. Uzbekistan has been part of the sented among recent refugees. There are Moldovian Christians Russian Empire since the mid- •Estonians—Estonians may be here here. 1800’s. There are Uzbeks (or Russians or Ukrainians from as Christians. The people have •Russians—They have long been Volume 14, No. 109, February-March, 1994 19

Uzbekistan) here as Christian quests all too often meet with an old has been revered in Russia. refugees. automatic nyet. But Russians re- •The tradition of the group pre- spond to a human approach, and dates the communalism of com- How can I tell who is who? they can be warm and helpful once munism. Russians carry the Ask. Most newcomers are a good interpersonal relationship group with them. Sobornost (com- thrilled to know that someone won- has been established. When this munal spirit, togetherness) distin- ders who they are, what language point is reached, nyet becomes da, guishes Russians from they speak, what language they and deals can be done. This is the Westerners for whom individual- read. key to understanding the Russians. ism and competitiveness are •The harsh climate explains the more common characteristics. Russians’ strength, their ability to •There is no real translation for N T O E F endure extreme hardship, and privacy... M J U T their bleak outlook on life. Cli- S •Sobornost helps explain behavior T mate has also made them cau- A in crowds. Physical contact with I

P

C tious.

R strangers does not bother U

E

U

I E

T D •The Ukraine, located in a south- I them...in crowds, they touch,

P U R Q E ern, more temperate push, shove, and even use elbows I O E M C S I M V D I R zone...Ukrainians tend to be more without hard feelings. G O A E M I R T S A I N I T A U S T N I J I O outgoing and optimistic than O T •The importance of the group af- N ZA & L I N A T U R A their northern cousins. fects Russians’ attitudes towards •Weather, wars, violence, cataclys- individual success. It may be

Immigration policy—changing lives forever. When people around mic changes, and oppressive rule morally wrong to get ahead at the you begin to complain, find a chart that shows the historical peaks and valleys; also, check the proportion of refugees to legal have made the Russians pessi- expense of others. immigrants (about 6-8%) mistic. should not be •Heritages of the past include a put off by their doom and gloom, Russian preference for the spo- nor should they try to make ken form of communication, optimists of them. The best ap- which favors oral over written From Nyet to Da: proach is to express understand- Understanding the Russians exams, and a dependence on rote ing and sympathy. (Richmond, Yale, Yarmouth, Maine: Intercultural replies. Press, 1992). •America’s commercial experience •Masses of people and a chronic and Russia’s lack of a mercantile scarcity of goods and services can A book designed for Americans tradition have given the two make Russians appear brusque, going to Russia—but helpful for countries different world out- demanding, and insistent—very Americans interacting with Rus- looks. ...”Commerce is by its very aggressive about trying to ac- sians (and to some extent Ukraini- nature conducive to compro- quire things they need but do not ans and Belarus) in this country. In mise.” Compromise is native to have. A “no” is the expected addition to comments about the America but not to Russia. official response, and is never impact of history, recent events, •The New World is new, only some accepted as the final word. Be- geography, climate, and religion on 400 years old, compared to lieving that every response can cultural characteristics of the Russia’s more than 1,000. Rus- be manipulated and changed, people in comparison to Ameri- sians have been living in their they will repeat their requests cans, there is a chapter devoted to native environment from the over and over again, adding a negotiating with Russians. Among beginning of time, and change new twist each time. the author’s observations: has come slowly. The new has •Moscow can be a cold and imper- been welcomed in America, the sonal place, where a visitor’s re- 20 CONTEXT: Southeast Asians & other newcomers in California’s classrooms

background knowledge. Resources strategies with them; students Learning to Read like Hirsch’s Dictionary of Cul- with no prior school will need to be tural Literacy may be helpful. taught strategies explicitly.] Classroom periodicalss like the one Report of the Commission on Reading, 1984 (National Institution of Education, U.S. Dept of from New Reader’s Press or US •Skilled reading is motivated. Education, DC 20208.) Express from Scholastic are de- Having access to a variety of signed for second language stu- written materials at a variety of Most newcomer students acquire dents. The old SRA rate-builder levels is important. Watching the oral language skills of English cards are great for general knowl- others in the home/school actu- quickly—within two years, usually. edge when used for comprehension ally reading, by choice, is also However, their reading skills often rather than speed.] important. lag behind, and go unnoticed by [Reading anything is still reading. teachers who listen to them speak- •Skilled reading is fluent. Basic Steve Krashen recommends comic ing fluently. Students who arrive word recognition must be auto- books, which provide plenty of in American schools after third matic. context, along with dialogue and grade, and those who arrive with- [Ideally students should know a story elements. Imagine the num- out much prior school experience word—recognize it in oral lan- ber of comics every school’s PTA find reading English especially guage as well as know the mean- could collect for every classroom!] difficult. Overall, recommendations ing—before reading or writing the for improving the reading skills of word. This is why learning to read •Reading skill improves with more native English speakers also apply the language one understands and reading. to second language learners, with speaks best is easier and more [Just as language acquisition im- some modification. meaningful. Literate students can proves with “comprehensible in- In a nutshell, students learn to learn the new decoding rules fairly put”, literacy improves with read by reading with understanding. easily, and for older students there “comprehensible reading”. Steve In addition, reading—as a form of needs to be a comprehensive, se- Krashen said recently that literate language input—increases general quential program that covers an students read a million words a language skills. Speaking and entire phonics course in a fairly year. Each small reading experi- writing (both forms of language short period of time.] ence builds towards that goal.] output) emerge as the result of acquisition; thus, reading im- •Skilled reading is strategic. Read- •Parents begin the process of learn- proves both these skills as well. ers should learn to monitor ing to read. The single most The major conclusions of the comprehension and take correc- important thing that parents can Commission on Reading are listed tive actions (keeping the prob- do for children is to read aloud below, with parenthetical state- lem “on hold” in the hope that to them, in any language, over ments related to LEP students later parts of the text will clarify; and over again. inserted by the editor. rereading parts of the text; look- [Parents begin to “scaffold” a ing ahead; seeking help from child’s language environment from Findings: outside sources). the earliest age. This means reduc- [Second language learners may ing the number of new words, •Skilled reading is constructive. miss , for example, every fifth simplifying the structure of sen- Pulling meaning from text in- word....try it and see how difficult tences, repeating key words, creat- volves reasoning and the use of it is to comprehend a passage. ing routines in which the language background knowledge. Students with prior school experi- is very predictable. It also means [Use bilingual personnel to build ence will bring competent reading expecting the child to communi- Volume 14, No. 109, February-March, 1994 21

cate, and guessing at what the child approach the local standard with expectations for logical sequences means to say. All these same fac- continued exposure and feedback. and the structure of paragraphs, tors are important in reading, and Teachers who wish to improve etc.] reading the child’s favorite story students’ pronunciation should over and over again helps “scaf- provide adequate listening practice •Students need to do more inde- fold” the early reading experiences. with minimal pairs...sounds that pendent reading. By the 3rd or If parents don’t read any language, are not heard cannot be produced. 4th grade, students should be provide experiences in school with Sight words have to be memorized, actively reading self-chosen read-along books, cross-aged as most do not follow decoding materials for a minimum of two “story-tellers”, etc.] principles.] hours per week. [Remember, the goal is one million •Parents should support reading •Both oral and silent reading are words a year, more or less!] throughout childhood and be- important. Children should yond. This is done by acquiring read a passage silently before •Teachers should maintain class- books, magazines, newspapers, reading it aloud. Repeated rooms that are stimulating and and other reading materials and reading of the same passage by well-disciplined. There should by taking children to the public different members of a reading be time allotted to independent library. group until an acceptable level reading, the pace should be [Providing newcomer students of fluency is reached is a good brisk, and the rates of student with reading materials they can strategy. Most errors should be success should be high. take home is helpful. Schools can ignored unless they affect the collect magazines and distribute meaning. them; can send home discarded [Repeated reading of the same books; can encourage community passage a good strategy for second groups to buy up paperbacks and language students. They have the comics for distribution; etc. What- opportunity to hear the words and ever happened to the bookmobile?] sentences several times before having to produce the passage.] •Phonics instruction improves word identification skills. The •Reading lessons should be de- most important skills are learn- voted to explicit teaching of the ing the sounds of letters in isola- reasoning sequences used to tion and in words; learning to arrive at conclusions. The blend sounds together; thinking teacher explains, models, dem- of other words with a similar onstrates, and illustrates the pattern (word families or decod- strategies the students should ing by analogy). Phonics should be using. Teachers need to be taught early and kept simple. teach comprehension strategies There should be immediate directly. This needs to be done practice by reading interesting for science and social studies as sentences and stories. well as literature. [For second language learners, it is [This is especially important for important to separate the issues of students without prior schooling standard pronunciation from de- in their own country. It is also coding skills. Pronunciation will important in teaching the cultural 22 CONTEXT: Southeast Asians & other newcomers in California’s classrooms

Words to Know

1st 100 The High-Utility 500 (Rebecca Sitton)

the of and a to in is you that it

he for was on are as with his they at

be this from I have or by one had not

but what all were when we there can an your

which their said if do will each about how up

out them then she many some so these would other

into has more her two like him see time could

no make than first been its who now people my

made over did down only way find use may water

long little very after words called just where most know

2nd 100

get through back much go good new write our me

man too any day same right look think also around

another came come work three must because does part even

place well such here take why help put different away

again off went old number great tell men say small

every found still between name should home big give air

line set own under read last never us left end

along while might next sound below saw something thought both

few those always show large often together asked house don't

world going want school important until form food keep children

3rd 100 feet land side without boy once animals life enough took

four head above kind began almost live page got earth

need far hand high year light country father let

night picture being study second soon story since white ever

paper hard near sentence better best across during today however

sure knew it's try told young sun thing whole hear

example heard several change answer room sea against top turned

learn point city play toward five himself usually money seen

didn't car morning I'm body upon family later turn move

face door cut done group true half red fish plants Volume 14, No. 109, February-March, 1994 23 a Place to Begin 4th 100

living black eat short United run book gave order open States

ground cold really table remember tree course front American space

inside ago sad early I'll learned brought close nothing though

idea before lived became add become grow draw yet less

wind behind cannot letter among able dog shown mean English

rest perhaps certain six feel fire ready green yes built

special ran full comlete oh person hot anything hold

state list stood hundred ten fast felt kept notice can't

strong probably area horse matter stand box start that's

class piece surface river common stop am talk whether fine

5th 100

round dark past ball girl road blue instead either held

already warm gone finally summer understand moon animal mind outside

power problem longer winter deep heavy carefully follow beautiful everyone

leave everything game system bring watch shall dry within floor

ice ship themselves begin fact third quite carry distance although

sat possible heart real simple snow rain suddenly leaves easy

lay size wild weather miss pattern sky walked main someone

center field stay itself boat question wide least tiny hour

happened foot care low else gold build glass rock tall

alone bottom walk check fall poor map friend language job

The key words are those replaced with xxx: Here’s a paragraph from a 6th grade text....the words that are not on the “High Utility 500” are replaced with “xxxx”.... worship By the time of the xxxx xxxx, xxxx in the long, xxxx ancestors line of xxxx had xxxx to the xxxx of xxxx. When a person soul xxxx, the xxxx of that person xxxx into two parts, the split xxxx and the xxxx . The xxxx went to xxxx and the xxxx hun had to stay on earth. It was the xxxx of the family to feed po the xxxx and look after it until it slowly xxxx to nothing. heaven If the xxxx was not cared for, it xxxx xxxx and could duty xxxx the xxxx. restless disturb 24 CONTEXT: Southeast Asians & other newcomers in California’s classrooms

Things we keep hearing....

“Speak English at home so Why preview key vocabulary? Some teachers have students your children learn English An example: peanuts and copying from their book or faster.” Is that good advice? public. from the board. Is this really helpful?

Think about it: if parents are Recently a Vietnamese youth in limited in English, how much ver- a Sheltered English class for Family It’s not as bad as we think at bal interaction will there be with Life asked the bilingual aide: first, especially for students who children? “Why is this teacher talking about can read and write another lan- Studies like the Caplan report on peanuts so much? Do we study guage. If a student is literate in Lao the success of boat children (Scien- about food in Family Life?” or Farsi or Chinese or Russian or tific American, February 1992) report What the teacher said was penis; Korean or Vietnamese, it is a famil- that one factor associated with what the student heard was pea- iar procedure to look at a series of higher achieving students is having nuts. Since Vietnamese has few shapes, place them in short-term been read to—in the home lan- final consonants, and no final con- memory, then recall them in the guage or in English. sonant blends, he heard penis and correct order and orientation and What this advice reveals is the thought of peanuts, a word he had write them so that someone else teacher’s lack of awareness of the heard before. can recognize them. It is only the language acquisition process. It Another student wondered why particular shapes and sequences of also sends a message that the the teacher was talking about a English that are different. teacher de-values the home lan- public bone—what kind of bone is The process of copying text guage, and thinks that the human there that people can see? (Pubic verbatim is a decent exercise in brain is capable of acquiring only bone, not public bone.) shape recognition and reproduc- one language at a time. It is also This kind of confusion can be tion, and gives students practice criticism of the child’s progress in lessened when the key vocabulary with the basic 200-300 reading so speaking English. is listed on the board, on the over- words that make up more than Helpful advice is for parents to head, or on a sheet of paper. Pre- 50% of any text. For languages that ask children questions and really viewing the vocabulary (hearing it; are written right to left, for lan- listen to their answers; to read or seeing it; understanding it) helps guages that do not use spaces to tell stories; to make plenty of read- limit the range of guesses about the separate words, or for languages ing material available in the lan- words heard during a lesson. that do not use punctuation marks, guages the child is learning to read. this kind of practice is good for learning new formats. Finally, if the student knows some of the words, this is a pre- Language aptitude includes dictable and “do-able” task that • ability to identify and remember sounds. provides additional reading input, • ability to memorize words. which will result in acquisition of • ability to show how words function grammatically. reading and writing skills. • ability to induce rules from examples. Volume 14, No. 109, February-March, 1994 25

How can the choice of words “We’re teaching our students Traits of the culturally profi- affect interpersonal relations? their own language so they cient... can talk to their parents.” Is “You should...” that so?

Do you find that the people Think about it. Children grow up in CULTURAL FLEXIBILITY a household and community in you’ve been helping are ungrateful Can tolerate ambiguity. and difficult? It may be a matter of which Russian is spoken. They Search for multiple explanations. your chosen vocabulary. Record begin school in kindergarten, and Can change point of view. and listen to what you say to acquire English quickly. By 2nd or people: how often do the words 3rd grade, most are speaking ac- cent-free English and reading En- should and ought occur? ENTHUSIASM ABOUT INTER- glish as well as many of their peers. Teachers and parents are gener- CULTURAL RELATIONSHIPS ally allowed to use words like How could teaching these children should and ought. It is an accepted Russian help them communicate Lower levels of anxiety in intercul- role for teachers and parents to with their parents?! They already tural encounters. instruct children in the unwritten do. This is another example of “one Positive behaviors (enjoyment). rules of conduct in our particular brain, one language” thinking. In Alert to culturally sensitive (and cultural groups. fact, these children have oral skills insensitive) behaviors. Problems occur when we slip in two languages (“bilingual”), but into the teacher/parent role in literacy skills in only one. The goal inappropriate situations, for ex- is to encourage reading and writing EFFECTIVE CONFLICT ample, when dealing adult-to-adult in two languages (“biliteracy”). RESOLUTION Why is this a good idea? Several with people from other languages Solve problem, save relationship. and cultures. We assume that reasons: Look for issues, colloborate on people will appreciate our taking • being able to read a language solution, assure mutual under- on the teacher/parent role, greatly increases the amount of standing but....would you, in similar circum- “input” the brain receives, and Verbalize both sets of “unwritten stances? can take place whether or not rules” without judgement. By using should and ought, we there are any speakers of that are implicitly saying to an other: other language. “you are a child and it is my re- • being able to read a bilingual WILLINGNESS TO sponsibility to instruct you”. If this dictionary greatly helps develop- COMMUNICATE is an un-asked-for relationship, the ment in both languages. response will likely be (1) challeng- • exposing the brain to the Use various ways to be under- ing the implied subordinate status experiece of sorting out the rules stood. or (2) avoiding future interactions. of four different language sys- Assume equal share of responsibil- tems (oral English and Russian, ity for understanding. written English and Russian) Monitor non-verbal counter- makes the brain much better at messages. solving complex problems. Maintain confidence that commu- • helping parents provide literacy nication will occur. classes for students creates a strong bond of trust. 26 CONTEXT: Southeast Asians & other newcomers in California’s classrooms

Language Minority Students in California, 1993

Language LEP FEP Language LEP FEP

Arabic 4,748 5,451 Portuguese 2,870 4,297 Armenian 15,156 4,551 Punjabi 3,880 3,013 Assyrian 815 614 Rumanian 1,415 977 Burmese 269 196 Russian 5,586 2,186 Cambodian 21,040 7,219 Samoan 1,840 2,098 Cantonese 22,772 22,778 Serbian 88 174 Croatian 108 209 Spanish 887,757 393,783 Dutch 86 347 Taiwanese 807 1,512 Farsi 5,874 9,524 Thai 1,641 1,860 French 548 1,154 Tongan 1,355 959 German 596 1,488 Turkish 101 142 Greek 239 669 Urdu 1,291 1,450 Guamanian 44 135 Vietnamese 48,890 28,613 Gujarati 1,089 1,862 Visayan 338 215 Hebrew 976 1,869 All other 9,993 19,628 Hindi 2,972 3,163 Hmong 26,219 4,516 Total 1,151,819 626,491 Hungarian 208 349 65% 35% Ilocano 1,634 1,858 Indonesian 875 522 Italian 275 857 Japanese 5,499 5,617 Khmu 332 92 Korean 16,496 21,766 Lahu 440 30 Lao 11,926 4,701 Mandarin 9,123 15,538 Marshallese 60 21 Mien 4,691 661 Mixteco 222 4 Native American 117 425 Other Chinese 5,513 8,023 Other Filipino 1,259 1,910 Pashto 462 175 Pilipino 20,755 36,575 Polish 529 715 Volume 14, No. 109, February-March, 1994 27

LEP Students in Selected Counties, by Language (R30 1993)

County Spanish Viet Hmong Cant’se Khmer Other Total Alameda 13,517 2,691 3 3,627 1,214 9,758 30,810 Butte 1,090 15 991 9 12 353 2,470 ContraCosta 6,687 582 14 290 49 3,600 11,222 El Dorado 862 3 0 4 0 108 977 Fresno 23,489 400 9,495 34 1,699 4,427 39,544 Los Angeles 414,762 8,454 190 7,492 7,302 55,659 493,859 Merced 8,140 31 3,271 10 13 1,548 13,013 Orange 83,634 13,255 249 281 872 11,235 109,526 Placer 840 21 0 3 1 130 995 Sacramento 6,349 2,554 3,863 1,953 228 8,071 23,018 San Francisco 6,287 1,108 0 5,986 399 4,107 17,887 San Joaquin 9,797 2,426 2,496 197 4,184 3,433 22,533 San Mateo 11,466 88 0 614 7 3,743 15,918 Santa Clara 24,909 9,991 22 1,389 1,085 9,677 47,073 Shasta 146 10 59 0 3 676 894 Solano 3,149 204 114 24 14 1,537 5,042 Sonoma 4,496 97 22 36 225 625 5,501 Stanislaus 9,563 273 453 26 1,332 2,193 13,840 Sutter 1,587 3 134 0 10 788 2,522 Yolo 2,728 24 91 12 87 1,178 4,120 Yuba 783 4 1,604 2 21 79 2,493

Relative need: Percent of students who are LEP R30 LC—% of each group that is LEP, statewide 90% 80% 1993 70% 1992 60% 50% 1991 40% 1990 30% 1989 20% 10% 0% Lao Lahu Mien Hmong Spanish Russian Armenian Cantonese Cambodian Vietnamese 28 CONTEXT: Southeast Asians & other newcomers in California’s classrooms

Make payable to Folsom Cordova USD/SEACRC— #9308 Selected Resources: People from Cambodia, Laos & Vietnam. Lewis, ed. $5.00. No carton discount.

#9207 Minority Cultures of Laos: Kammu, Lua’, Lahu, Hmong, and Mien. Lewis; Kam Raw, Vang, Elliott, Matisoff, Yang, Crystal, Saepharn. 1992. 402 pages. $15.00 (carton discount $12.00, 16 per carton)

#S8801 Handbook for Teaching Hmong-Speaking Students Bliatout, Downing, Lewis, Yang, 1988. $4.50 (carton discount for lots of 58: $3.50)

#S8802 Handbook for Teaching Khmer-Speaking Students Ouk, Huffman, Lewis, 1988. $5.50 (carton discount for lots of 40: $4.50)

#S8903 Handbook for Teaching Lao-Speaking Students Luangpraseut, Lewis 1989. $5.50 (carton discount for lots of 42: $4.50)

#S8904 Introduction to the Indochinese and their Cultures Chhim, Luangpraseut, Te, 1989. $9.00. Will be reprinted early next year.

#S8805 English-Hmong Bilingual Dictionary of School Terminology Cov Lus Mis Kuj New— Txhais ua Lus Hmoob Huynh D Te, translated by Lue Vang, 1988. $2.00 (no carton price)

Amerasians from Vietnam: A #S9006 Materials Sourcebook Huynh Dinh Te, 1990 $2.00 (no carton discount) California Study, Chung & Le, 1994. $5.00. Add California tax if applicable. For orders under $30.00 add $2.00 per copy shipping and handling. For orders over $30.00, add 10% shipping/handling. If you wish UPS for quantity orders, please request it. Proceedings from the Confer- ence on , 1994, $5.00. #S9999 CONTEXT: Southeast Asians & other newcoemrs in California, annual subscription. $10.00.

Hmong Visual, Oral, and Make payable to Refugee Educators’ Network— Make payable to Lue Vang, Social Design: Innovation PO Box 423, Rancho Cordova CA #R001 Lao Alphabet Pstr $3.50 within a Frame of the Familiar, #R002 Lao Primer $4.00 95741-0423. Lewis, master’s thesis 1993, #R003 Lao 1st Gr. Reader $5.00 $35.00. #R004 Lao 2nd Gr. Reader $5.50 Grandmother’s Path, #R005 Lao 3rd Gr. Reader $6.50 #R006 Hmong Primer $4.00 Grandfather’s Way #R007 Hmong dict’n’ry $30.00 (Vang & Lewis, rev. printing 1990) #R008 1992 Faire poster $5.00

$14.95, plus $2.00 shipping/handling, Includes tax; $1.00 per item shipping/handling up to applicable CA tax. $30.00. Over $30.00, 10% s/h.

Context: Non-profit c/o Folsom Cordova USD Bulk Rate Transitional English Programs Office U.S. Postage Paid 125 East Bidwell St Permit No. 140 Folsom CA 95630 Folsom, CA