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Liza A. Gijanto of African ancestry prior to and during the Rachel L. Horlings post-emancipation eras in various regions of "L #$$&7 M #$$&7 L #$$$7 N * #$$$7 Connecting African Diaspora #$$$7 Q #$$$ >??+7 >???7 Q and West African Historical >??>7 >??V7 Q < Archaeologies >??&7 * >??@7 I >??+7 K >??$7 ! >?#?' The most visible aspect of diaspora studies ABSTRACT throughout its historical trajectory has been New World to those in West Africa through in West Africa. Since the 1980s, there has been a steady increase in the number of studies related to the Atlantic trade the material culture created by different com- and indigenous/European interaction. As the departure point munities in the Americas and their imagined for Africans entering the diaspora, West Africa should be at Q the forefront of the African Atlantic archaeology, a concept still incorporate attempts to trace direct connec- most recently championed by Ogundiran and Falola. Despite OP "! QI >??&7 * >??@' in West Africa that can inform diaspora and African Atlantic < archaeology. By presenting the current state of West African et al. (2009) with isotopic studies concerning historical archaeology as it relates to common questions and the origins of enslaved Africans in the Carib- themes within African diaspora studies, the following review serves as a means of initiating and encouraging in-depth engage- bean, have proved somewhat more concrete. As ment and discussion between researchers in archaeology and between populations tend to be deterministic, Introduction as the goal, rather than the initiation of further examination. In doing so, archaeologists silence African diaspora archaeology began on the dynamic nature of African societies in the ! "#$%&' "\ #$$+7 and others (Handler * #$%+7 ; ! ] >??$7 < >??$' ^ 1980) who sought to prove that African slaves attempts are additionally hampered by the lim- < ited amount of archaeological data from West in the archaeological record (Orser 1998:66– Africa on sites from Africa’s more recent past. =$' < As a result, these studies are informed more by within historical archaeology in the Americas, historical or current ethnographic data and not diaspora studies have moved beyond the basic - identification of slave quarters to address "< #$$$7 ! >???7 relationships of power and resistance (Orser Leone 2008). ! >??#'7 " A truly African Atlantic focus within his- #$$&7 #$$&7 ! #$$@7 #$$% >??&'7 " #$$%7 research in West Africa and in the Americas, #$$%7 ! #$$+7 ; #$$+G=+7 is not possible if there is not a move away #$$$7 ! >???7 ; >??%'7 of enslaved populations in the United States and communities as the goal of research. A more the Caribbean, including changes surrounding fruitful avenue of inquiry is an examination of "I >??+7 K >??$'7 how communities of African descent on all sides understanding the experiences of free persons of the Atlantic negotiated the socioeconomic

Historical Archaeology, 2012, 46(2):134–156 Permission to reprint required. Accepted for publication 23 January 2011 LISA A. GIJANTO AND RACHEL L. HORLINGS—African Diaspora and West African Historical Archaeologies 135

"N\ >??#7 interaction, a brief overview of the past and I >??#7 < >??#7 >??=7 present avenues of inquiry in African diaspora QN >??=7 ; >??% >??$7 archaeology in the Americas is considered. This K` >?#?7 < L >?#?' ^ is followed by a discussion of what has come serve to extend research perspectives across the " OL Atlantic and will also provide a more substantial P | >???7 Q L >??#7 foundation for gaining a better understanding of Q >??@}' the lives of all peoples entwined in the Atlan- facets of this in West Africa. This discussion tic trade. To accomplish this, it is necessary to KR "#$$V' merge current approaches and broaden theoreti- L cal perspectives toward historical archaeology by Atlantic, and how cultures on all sides of the researchers in West Africa and the Americas. Atlantic highlight the hybrid nature of these In particular, the capitalist focus in American past and present cultures, as well as the former, "QK #$$>7 k current, and past interactions with the Americas #$$=7 ; #$$=' and Europe in forming these cultures. Drawing upon current themes and research agendas in economic structure as opposed to a more holis- both regions, including multiscalar approaches to tic view of past interactions between Africans, "Q #$$+7 < >??#7 Europeans, Americans, and creoles in West K >??$7 >?#?7 K` >?##' Africa, incorporates a deep time perspective "< >??%7 K "< >??%) but is incomplete. The varied >??$7 ; >??$' contexts in which these communities lived and "I #$$%7 QN >??=7 Q >?#?7 < L >?#?' "K >???' By of action for a comprehensive African Atlantic z \ archaeology recently called for by Ogundiran the impact of interaction on them, it is possible ! ">??%' to address how contemporary African com- the constant process of identity negotiation munities throughout the Atlantic basin enacted and reformation within the multiple contexts creative ways of engagement, resistance, and of the African Atlantic. By bringing Africanist wealth accumulation tied to their position in the researchers into the discussion, the resulting Atlantic World. Such an approach not only adds epistemology will incorporate aspects of African depth to African Atlantic studies but engages diaspora archaeological studies that can best with discourses of memory and the meaning be informed by archaeological investigations in embedded in heritage sites. This is a renewed West Africa on Atlantic World sites, drawing and more directed call towards a meaningful on current research that addresses sociopolitical archaeology of the African Atlantic. aspects of African identity. While this is not a In order to develop a more nuanced call for Africanist archaeologists to mimic the archaeological approach to the African Atlantic, it is imperative to maintain a dialogue between African diaspora archaeological investigations in the United States and the Caribbean are useful those in West Africa. Through this dialogue it guides in this endeavor, summaries of which may will be possible to address shared perspectives ; "#$$=' ! QI and avenues of inquiry that are of interest, (2004), and, most recently, Fennell (2011). while simultaneously informing historical archaeological research on all sides of the Themes and Trends in Atlantic. Before this can occur, however, all African Diaspora Studies researchers, regardless of affiliation, must understand their respective positions, the The initial goal of early archaeological investigations of enslaved communities in the American Southeast was to determine how to understand and interpret the archaeology of the identify these persons materially. Though the African diaspora. As a means to initiate this presence of documents noting the location of 136 HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY 46(2) former slave villages and burial locales enabled disciplines due to the technical nature of many researchers to choose which sites or areas of the reports and disciplinary jargon. Her proposed plantation to excavate, it was often not possible solution was for archaeologists to direct their O P "! #$%&G$?' order to create a dialogue (Singleton 1988:364). a new area of inquiry, it was thus necessary Interestingly, there have been some echoing calls by historians to incorporate archaeological data "! #$$@7 1995), demonstrating that this is not necessarily as Africanisms. The search for Africanisms or - African survivals was not unique to historical matic one (Stahl and Laviolette 2009). A perusal #$%? " #$&V7 - of the historical literature by Africanists and #$$?7 ; >??#'7 Western scholars suggests that some archaeolo- to the present. Rather than rehashing former gists did heed the call to an extent, focusing debates including the acceptance, rejection, and frustration embedded in this search as seen in Q L ethnomusicology (Waterman 1963), linguistics "! >???7 "^ #$&$7 Q #$$@' d African stud- Falola and Usman 2009). Unfortunately, the ies (Owomoyela 1994), archaeologists are ready pitfalls and lessons learned from similar quests to move forward in other directions (Ogundiran "; ! >??%7 ; >??+' ^ 2001). A more comprehensive understanding of forward is a dialogue among archaeologists the experiences of persons of African descent studying African communities on all sides of throughout the Atlantic World would be gained the Atlantic that highlights the unique nature of through dialogue between Africanist archaeolo- those communities in their particular historical gists and those studying the diaspora. O- Throughout the course of African diaspora can” elements. This requires the development of archaeology’s history, many scholars have a comprehensive African Atlantic archaeology presented their data, perspectives, and goals "; ! >??%' the early studies and that addresses current volumes of journals or individual texts (Single- questions of the impact of cultural interaction on L #$$@7 QN L #$$%7 ; #$$+7 #$$$7 < ] #$$$7 ! QI >??&7 !R QN >??=7 ; ! >??%7 “African American” material signature does not Fennell 2011). A careful reading of these pres- exist has not been fully embraced. Some cul- ` tural elements of the numerous African peoples desire to prove a distinct African American that arrived in the Americas via the Atlantic presence in the archaeological record of planta- 7 tions in the United States to studies focused on more pressing question is how they negotiated " #$$%7 ! and adapted to their new socioeconomic setting QI >??&GVM@' Q - through material means. ers have recognized the role archaeological In 1988, Singleton addressed the newness of what was then referred to as “slave archaeol- movements both within and outside the United ogy” in the United States. She lamented that < "! #$+%7 N most of the information gathered archaeo- #$$?7 >??=7 < >??$' logically was “buried in unpublished sources,” ! QI ">??&G#' thus resulting in the inability of historians to such exercise, “reviewing earlier visions of - the future of African diaspora archaeological toriography (Singleton 1988:363). Additionally, research leaves one with a considerable gap she suggested that the published sources were R equally inaccessible to researchers from other its actual accomplishments.” LISA A. GIJANTO AND RACHEL L. HORLINGS—African Diaspora and West African Historical Archaeologies 137

Currently, studies of the diaspora in the though not in nearly the same numbers as Americas are dominated by community-based those investigating African diaspora sites in the approaches that bring to the fore the need to United States, Caribbean, and South America. understand the constant recreation of the past, ; \ as well as the influences of interest groups M "#$$$G>#' in archaeological interpretation (Haviser and observed that “no concerted effort had been QN >??=' made to examine the archaeology from West - \ atlantic slave trade are transferred to modern million Africans brought to the Americas as West Africa, the lines of history are further slaves originated.” This oversight is in many blurred, and the complexity of past interactions, ways the result of disinterestedness, demon- Q strated by many Africanists, in what has come the changes in African culture, politics, and O P "\ economic access that occurred throughout the #$$+' M (1999:21) asserts, if African diaspora archaeol- favor of two opposing views of the impact ogy is “rooted in the study of African archae- of the slave trade: it was either catastrophic P ^ or had no influence on local cultures (Yerxa >??+7 ; >??$GV@>' " ' - about African archaeology and what has been tic era hope to see yet another development in accomplished in West Africa since the 1990s "N\ #$$+7 M #$$$7 < with West African studies of the Atlantic trade, >??#7 I >??&' thus forming an “Archaeology of the African The most recent comprehensive effort to high- P "; ! >??%7 ;- light the concepts, approaches, methodologies, ran 2008). As an all-encompassing approach, and research of Africanist scholars addressing common questions focusing on past interactions, the recent past (i.e., the 16th to 19th centuries) socioeconomic identity, creolization, or hybridity in West and Central Africa is Ogundiran and can be brought to the fore in lieu of a search Falola’s edited text, Archaeology of Atlantic for eternal ties. The deep connections, some of Africa and the African Diaspora ">??%' In which are quite clearly direct, between diasporic their introductory chapter, perhaps the most and West African communities is not denied succinct published discussion available of the "K #$$V7 \ #$$+7 Q #$$$7 N\ >??V7 >??$' for creating an African Atlantic archaeology, in favoring this line of inquiry archaeologists Ogundiran and Falola reiterate the need for inadvertently deny the uniqueness and creativ- comparative datasets from West Africa in order ity of African American and African Caribbean \ connections between past populations as other Atlantic. " #$+%7 N\ #$$+7 M #$$$7 < >??#7 I Closing the Gap: Developing an 2004). African Historical Archaeology Perhaps the greatest disconnect between Afri- can diaspora archaeology and African Atlantic In their 1986 article in this journal, Pos- archaeology in the Americas and West Africa N\ can be found in the overarching discipline to "M which they both lay claim. Since its incep- and DeCorse 1986). Since then, the number tion, researchers self-identifying as historical of researchers, both foreigners and African archaeologists in the United States have been - at odds with regard to a single all-encompassing cal research, as defined from an Americanist "Nz #$$#7 ; #$$=' perspective, on the period of the Atlantic trade Alternatively, Africanist interpretations of his- "Q #$$&' torical archaeology are tied to a wide array of 138 HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY 46(2) sources available to them, including oral, docu- it is surprising that researchers of the African mentary, and archaeological data (DeCorse 1996, #$$%7 #$$%7 >??&GV%$MV+?7 counterparts in parts of western Africa. < z >??%' As a means of moving forward with an in the Americas and Europe (particularly Eng- ' and comparative datasets, the following discus- "k #$$=7 sion details the current state of historical archae- Orser 1996), Africanists who examine the period ological research in a number of areas of West between the 16th and 19th centuries have identi- Africa. Here, we are adopting the Americanist - definition focusing on the time period rather torical archaeological inquiry in West, Central, and even South Africa that is ideally suited to Atlantic era. Recognizably, this limits the range - of studies currently being carried out in parts ology: the archaeology of the African Atlantic of West Africa that would fall under historical "; ! >??%' < z Furthermore, because of African archaeology’s ">??%' ! early relationship with African historical inquiry, historical archaeological studies concerning the primarily as a means to dispel the myth of a diaspora in Africa is limited to West Africa stagnant, underdeveloped continent (Robertshaw as the primary source of slaves and point of 2004:281), historical archaeological studies are exchange for Africa in the Atlantic Era. A con- necessarily situated in the longue duree and are scious choice was made to limit our discussion "I #$$%7 I geographically within West Africa due to the Norman 2006). The indigenous communities that space afforded in a journal article. Additionally, came into contact and interacted with European a focus on those projects that engage methods, traders had longstanding traditions that already questions, and theoretical perspectives that are had undergone change due to socioeconomic complementary and can inform diaspora studies contacts with trade in the interior. These were in the Americas is engaged. anything but stagnant societies, and the processes of change, continuity, and reinvention of Current Research in West Africa past practices continued throughout and after the Atlantic trade. Considering this, it is necessary to Just as the current trend within African understand the long-term history of these com- diaspora archaeology is to examine a diverse munities before analogies can be made with dia- range of socioeconomic settings in which sporic communities and their interactions with the people of African origin and descent lived and Atlantic trade in the Americas. The nature and interacted outside the plantation, it is equally epistemologies of Africa and the Atlantic World important to incorporate sites of a similar nature are the focus of an ongoing dialogue with histo- outside the Americas. The counterpart to African "Q #$$V7 #$$@7 diaspora archaeology in West Africa is the >???7 N\ \ >??V7 archaeology of the slave trade, which has been a Q >??@7 < >??%7 >??+7 < major focus of historical archaeological inquiry * >??$' "M #$$$G>VM>@' the past, but which needs to be further developed not emphasizing the trade itself, other studies before the full potential of this interdisciplinary were presented as examining the period “during endeavor is realized (Stahl 2009:242). the Atlantic slave trade” (DeCorse 2001b). Robertshaw (2004:381) observed that “in West While the slave trade and the African diaspora Africa historical archaeology’s initial raison are often used synonymously in Americanist R 7 < circles, the research in West Africa discussed it was the study of the impact of colonialism.” here demonstrates that Africanists view the trade For some researchers this may be the case, but as a force of changing, driving socioeconomic this singular claim disregards the scope of his- and political change along the Atlantic coast "N\ >??#7 Q ; >?#>' the continent. However, if one accepts this claim, In West Africa, archaeological excavations LISA A. GIJANTO AND RACHEL L. HORLINGS—African Diaspora and West African Historical Archaeologies 139 carried out by national universities and local problems of accessibility addressed above, thus, archaeologists are often salvage or rescue sources believed to be more readily accessible ` "Q * >?#?' to Americanist researchers (in terms of physical although there are robust research programs and linguistic access) are highlighted. Finally, growing in a number of areas. Q this discussion is confined to West Africa, site reports and relevant literature that result because, while it can be argued that East and ` South Africa should be included (Reid and Lane American or European academic journals. >??&7 < >??$' Rather, they exist in the gray literature similar an addition is beyond the scope of this piece, to cultural resource management reports in though their importance is not underestimated, ] < resources, an important aspect of this disconnect other than English. between American and West African researchers Ghana K K K \ of the research carried out in francophone has received the greatest attention by Africanist " archaeologists interested in the Atlantic trade, done by European and American scholars). centering initially on investigations of the Euro- Africanist journals such as Azania and the pean trade forts and castles of the coast (van African Archaeological Review do print articles Nz #$+?7 N\ >?#?' Q in French and English, however, translations investigations encompassing other areas, time beyond abstracts are not often provided. These periods, and research questions, particularly journals, as well as Nyame Akuma, Journal addressing the impacts and effects of the of African Archaeology, and the West African slave trade on indigenous societies, have been Journal of Archaeology have been important "I N\ >??&7 venues for the dissemination of research by < >??@7 \ >??%' West African archaeologists. Conversely, West African scholars are often unable to procure DeCorse and his students involved in the edited volumes, site reports, or journals printed \ M` "N\ >???7 outside Africa or not focused on Africa, and N\ >??#7 I >??V7 < often struggle to marshal the necessary funds >??& >??@ >??$7 < >??%7 I to attend international conferences where the >??$7 N\ >?#?7 \ >?#>' dialogue advocated here can best be fostered. K While none of these reasons is individually "< >??#7 N\ insurmountable, the cumulative effect is a >??#7 \z >??V7 >??+7 < >??+7 >??$' L history and involvement in the Atlantic trade diaspora studies on any side of the Atlantic. K The following discussion is by no means been the central focus of Africanist historians exhaustive and is not meant to provide an " Nz #$%+7 #$+>7 Nz Africanist perspective on historical archaeology. k #$+%7 ! #$+$7 *` #$+$7 Even though the focus is on current research #$$@7 N >??V' Q that can directly inform archaeological inquiry N\R ">??#' in the Americas emphasizing the historical investigation into culture contact and change African Atlantic and on areas where large- in Elmina during the period of the Atlantic scale or unique research has been carried out, trade, have provided invaluable contributions certain areas of West Africa are not addressed K in detail due to space limitations (de Barros continue to provide useful insights, dialogue, >??#7 >??#7 Q >??#7 I >??=7 N\ >??%7 QN \ the Atlantic trade and African diaspora through- 2012). It is also necessarily restricted by the out Western Africa. Local and international 140 HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY 46(2) researchers are investigating these problems in K \ ` K - K "K mentary, oral, and archaeological resources. 2009). He discusses the complex changes and < "#$$& #$$$ >??# >??%' - continuities of cultural traits and identities "\z >??V7 < >??+' L among relocated indigenous peoples, as well addressed the colonial period, situating their \ in the transatlantic trade, including freed or to global encounters in the interior regions of LR ">??$' K <R - at Fort Amsterdam, a European slave-trading graphic research and historical documentation stronghold in the central coastal region of to ascertain potential parallels with events and K processes in the past. However, she cautions the European occupants of the fort with local against drawing direct comparisons because of the dynamic nature of peoples and cultures, trade across the coastal region. His comparative including rapid change over time. In a similar analysis of ceramics at different sites points to K adaptations of Europeans to local resources and begun to draw attention to the effects of the \ K I of local peoples, as well as factors affecting (2009) investigates historical sites in the hinter- sites of the Atlantic trade. Among other areas K LQR ">??& >??+' the fact that the Atlantic diaspora was but one route in the dissemination of enslaved Africans resistance and manipulation within the very and is just one of the factors that impacted deliberately created and controlled landscape trade and the daily lives of peoples in the hin- N K ^ terland before, during, and after the abolition of "#$$V >??=' I weighed-in in the cross-Atlantic arena and has suggests that by expanding diasporic archaeol- used ethnographical and archaeological research ogy to the more remote hinterland areas, it is K - discontinuities with certain resistant groups and ing for ancestral roots, including an emphasis on maroons in the Caribbean. He, too, laments the K " the past and present). This involves highlighting and in the investigation of the African diaspora, the connections to various other slave trades at the same time cautioning African and other "I >??&7 \ k >??=7 < historical communities across the Atlantic or 2009a). Along similar lines, and in associa- cultures in the present with those of the past tion with UNESCO’s International Slave Route (Agorsah 1996:221,223). M` ">??$' N\R sources, routes, and effects of the slave trade in K K predominantly woven through it are themes research, collection of oral histories, and archae- of change and adaptation in African societies ological investigations focus on one particular over time due to the multifarious facets of raiding tribe, the Zambarina, and the devastation international cultural contact (DeCorse 1992, I 1993, 2001a, 2010). The result of several culture, and industries, in addition to conduct- K \ ing an analysis of appropriate sources of data Project incorporates both terrestrial and maritime for this research. investigations into the era of the Atlantic K ^ explore the country’s K cultures and cultural change in central coastal published preliminary results of his ethnographic K "< >??%' and archaeological research into the internal landscape use and transformations over time diasporas (and slave trades) of indigenous "N\ >??#GV#MV%' LISA A. GIJANTO AND RACHEL L. HORLINGS—African Diaspora and West African Historical Archaeologies 141

(DeCorse and Spiers 2009), and the inland related vein, Wesler (1998a) discusses archaeo- K logical perspectives from Nigeria and how they "< >??& >??@7 I >??$' engage with those of Western researchers, pro- Underwater archaeological investigations have viding avenues of further discussion. focused on maritime surveys for submerged Q cultural resources relating to the Atlantic trade Atlantic trade in West Africa has been focused "\ < >??&7 >?#?' on coastal communities, with less emphasis on #% the interior regions where the majority of the enslaved people brought to the New World most "\ < >??&7 N\ " >??$7 >?##7 Mz >?##7 \ ` |>???}' >?#>' Q ;R ">??# >??% >??$' more widely inclusive than the African diaspora, but play a crucial role in the investigation of the he examines the ripple effect of the incorpora- mechanism of trade—that is, the shipping and tion of the Yoruba hinterlands into the Atlantic "Q World, focusing on change and stabilities, reac- Q >??+' tions, migrations, cultural transformations, and landscapes of the Atlantic trade in West Africa. innovations within a dynamic cultural perspec- This new area of research is just scratching the surface of the potential for learning about between the coastal and more interior regions of maritime interactions and cultures, the people Nigeria, including, for example, the examination included and affected, and how these changed of Ede-Ile as the connective corridor between over time as the nature of the trade morphed. the Yoruba in Oyo and the polities in the Bight Recognizing the importance of this arena of of Benin (Ogundiran 2009b:360). Related to this ; ! ">??%GV@' ]R "] connect the maritime histories of Africans with >??%' z various historical events on the people of the freed Africans and their descendants in the New Yoruba hinterland, such as the rise of the Oyo World, highlighting the need to explore these Empire, the multiple slave trades in the region, connections across the Atlantic. and the Atlantic trade. As with other regions in Africa in general Nigeria and West Africa in particular, historians have contributed a great deal to investigations of the Q - "` >???' ! ria has focused on sites from before and after " the time of the Atlantic trade (Wesler 1992, #$$?7 ] #$$#' "L #$$+7 ; >??+7 I >??$' K >??V' or on loosely related research questions (Wesler provided extensive resources for archaeologists #$$$' "; addressing this. An example may be found in #$$V7 #$$$ >??@' Ogundiran’s (2002) “historicization” of African material culture by following adaptations to affected by the Atlantic trade, in general, imputed values and meanings of small, seem- little archaeological emphasis has been placed ingly minor artifacts introduced into Nigeria as directly on the trade itself, although some part of the Atlantic trade. In the end, he dem- research has investigated its impacts on local onstrates how this process of historicization can "; >??# >??%7 ] >??%' aid archaeologists in understanding processes Ogundiran has published most extensively on of global and local change in West Africa, and both the historical archaeology associated with how they affected and shaped “the contours the transatlantic trade in Nigeria (Ogundiran of human experience in the Atlantic basin” 2002, 2005), as well as on the connections and "; >??>G&@%' dialogues among Africanist archaeologists on of African Atlantic archaeology are appearing in all sides of the Atlantic (Ogundiran 2008). In a 142 HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY 46(2) primarily focused on the Yoruba, even though the former capital of Savi, in the Hueda state, this is just one of a plethora of peoples entangled \ #=%? within it. While it is certainly the case that there #%>% "I #$$=G=++' IR was a strong connection between the New World Savi is situated within an interactive view of the and Nigeria, and the Yoruba in particular, it is Atlantic World (Kelly 1996) and is characteristic of the initial historical archaeological studies of peoples and research questions that can provide ^ alternative and balanced views of groups from understand the local response to European trade, the Slave Coast (now primarily Nigeria) and their experiences in the Atlantic World. a result of these interactions (Kelly 1995, 2001). K L environment to the historic Atlantic trade in has developed independent research programs - addressing two distinct aspects of the Atlantic "* #$+V #$$&7 * Q period in present-day Benin. While Kelly’s #$$$7 *` #$$$' Norman (2008) expanded this investigation to archaeological inquiry as well. It is hoped that the surrounding countryside. Norman’s research in the future maritime archaeological investiga- also addresses vodun religious practices and tions will be initiated in this country with such has the potential to inform African diaspora a rich internal and international history. While interpretations of ritual and religion (Kelly and ;R >??=7 >??$ >??$' (2002, 2009b) discussion of the relationship of ; money cowries with Yoruba associations with Q the ocean, the accumulation of wealth, and perceptions of slavery provides one possible "Q >?#?' - direction in which maritime associations may QR #+ #$ become an integral part of Atlantic trade archae- Dahomey focusing on the royal architecture in ology in Nigeria. the Abohomey Plateau is one of the few studies in West Africa that examines the transitional Benin period from the height of the Atlantic trade to its decline and the impact of this shift in socio- < K "Q investigations in the modern nation of Benin >??V >??% >??% >?#?' \- * ;R "; >??#' <R K "< K - >??%' ticular is still in its infancy here. Though there out thus far in Benin examines the ripple effect are locally trained archaeologists, much of this of the incorporation of these regions into the Atlantic World, focusing on change, reactions, European researchers with some local involve- and innovations within a dynamic regional " #$$$7 Q >??VG#? >??%G#?#' cultural perspective. The historical connections ^ between this region and the Yoruba to the north historians and archaeologists are Hueda (Law \ #$$?7 I #$$@ #$$= #$$% >??#7 I "Q >??%7 ; #$$$7 L >??#7 * >??&7 I >??$' QR >??=7 >??+ >??$' examining 19th-century transformations at the N " #$V+7 Q #$+>7 L interface of the Atlantic trade and African #$$+ >??#7 Q >??V >??&' ^ colonial era. Finally, historians of Benin have Kingdom was a major slave-exporting power also addressed these connections and examined in West Africa during the transatlantic slave how the broader Atlantic impacted the region’s trade, and the earliest historical archaeological "L >??#7 < investigations there were conducted by Kelly at >??#7 * >??&' LISA A. GIJANTO AND RACHEL L. HORLINGS—African Diaspora and West African Historical Archaeologies 143

The Senegambia Q ^ < ! < Until recently, archaeological investigations in "^ #$$$7 Q >??#G>$' >??& the Senegambia were concentrated on megalithic K` "Q Q- #$$V7 * >??V' ! K ^ I historical trajectory as the rest of West Africa, emerged as a local center of trade in the historical archaeological investigations began #% with standing trading sites such as the island of commercial center represent various populations K K and levels of involvement in commerce, thus several archaeologists from Senegal (Thiaw 2003) providing an ideal setting for examining the and the United States (Croff 2009), including the impact of increased socioeconomic interactions ] "K` >?#?' < I Q L K`R Thiaw and Richard have completed long-term and Royal African Company trading factory at archaeological projects incorporating Atlantic Juffure with comparisons drawn from the nearby period sites in Senegal, though this period has Luso-African village and a late Royal African not been the exclusive focus of any study to date Company filling station at San Domingo, as < "^ #$$$7 Q >??#7 Q * \ >??%7 K >?##' ^ Her research demonstrates that, more than archaeology in northern Senegal, as opposed to expressions of ethnic or cultural identity, change \ K in local material culture is highly situational and primarily to the presence of the Institut Fonda- ` "K` mental d’Afrique Noire (IFAN) N " >?## >?##' 2009). A substantial body of archaeological litera- Juffure reveals heightened acts of social display ture produced by researchers and students at the utilizing pre-existing practices to assert status IFAN is beyond the scope of the present discus- and wealth that incorporated new materials, sion but can be found in the Bulletin de l’IFAN. and an increased diversity in local resources The development of archaeological inquiry k in Senegal and the training of Senegalese z L researchers is the opposite of that in the fort on James Island, addressing problems of K conservation and threats to site preservation on the impact of colonial legacy varied dramatically "K` >??$' L throughout Africa, and a big part of this begun archaeological investigations on the involved the infrastructure left behind (de island, investigating the lives of castle slaves L #$$?' ! \ residing there alongside British military and Anta Diop University in Senegal were amongst Royal African Company employees. In an effort the earliest universities in West Africa and in to aid in site interpretation, she has presented a operation before independence, the University K< "L K "]^K' ^ >??=7 L >??%' decade old. At present there is no Department K ]^K the coastal region and has begun to identify position for an archaeologist in either the Royal African Company factories in the upriver university or the National Centre for Arts and "N\ >?#?' Culture, which maintains all the country’s scratching the surface of Atlantic era sites. cultural resources. It is this situation that has R "#$=%' K k k >??+ of the potential for archaeological examinations the Banjul Heritage Project was initiated by Bob Agee of Annapolis and Orlando Rideout of the K`R Q ^ ^ to focus directly on the Atlantic trade and is project is to assess the potential for establish- K ">??% >?#?' ing an historic district in Banjul, the capital of 144 HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY 46(2)

K demonstrating either the entanglements of the structures (Agee and Rideout 2008). Currently, coastal and interior trades in Central and West K M Africa and the material manifestations of this - " L >??#7 Q- cant portion of Half Die, one of Banjul’s oldest ern 2012) is highlighted but not restricted to neighborhoods. Coupled with this construction the research noted in this brief overview. The project is the rapid destruction of many of aim here, then, is to begin and encourage a the former 19th-century warehouses and other sustained dialogue between American scholars structures throughout the city in the name of K` and those in the Americas that will develop into developed a small urban archaeology project in \ Banjul focused on the neighborhood of Half Die of approaches and American, European, African, "K` >??$' - and Caribbean scholars. Therefore, this cursory tation of the area that would be demolished for overview of West African archaeological studies the port expansion, involving interviews, map- is presented from an Americanist perspective for ping, and photography. Additionally, excavation a largely American audience. While this discussion of historical archaeologi- K M ` cal investigations in West Africa is necessarily demonstrates, more than in the United States, limited to regions where research is ongoing archaeological and heritage sites related to the and published material is accessible and largely Atlantic trade are under constant threat of devel- printed in English, it also recognizes the con- "I N\ >??&7 ;^ >??%7 ! >??=7 <= >?##' \ greater efforts at archaeological inquiry through- A View of the African Atlantic: Toward out the region. The comparatively few studies Addressing Common Questions carried out in various parts of West Africa compared to those in the Americas underscores A common theme throughout many of the the necessity for those investigating the dias- projects described above is a desire to understand the impact of the Atlantic trade on coastal connections to groups from across the Atlantic, West African polities and hinterland communities as well as highlighting the need for additional directly involved in commerce, including, but archaeological investigations in West and Central N Q L K on in West Africa has been focused on com- < munities engaged in coastal trade rather than constant transformation and political reorganiza- the interior regions where the majority of the tion leading to shifts in economic access and enslaved people brought to the New World most wealth, as well as cultural adaptations and transformations. The second trend is the examination across time and the Atlantic even more tenuous. of the surrounding hinterland associated with the This trend has shifted, and Africanists continue commercial towns that were directly involved to situate their discussions of the Atlantic era with the Atlantic trade. Just a few examples "N\ >??#7 address ritual, religion, and the often-impossible < >??%7 ^ >?#>' act of identifying ethnic identity (DeCorse "; >??$' #$+$7 ; >??%7 >??$' <- leading to this disconnect is the publication of ies in most areas of West Africa have not been addressed in detail, including those in Liberia, Portuguese and French, less utilized by Ameri- < * K Q can scholars, and vice versa. The combination Coast, as they are beyond the limited focus of of these factors greatly stymies in-depth com- this article. The importance of the reformulation parisons between diaspora populations and their of our understanding of Cameroon, for example, communities of origin in West Africa. LISA A. GIJANTO AND RACHEL L. HORLINGS—African Diaspora and West African Historical Archaeologies 145

In order to provide more complete understand- an engaged dialogue between archaeologists (as ing of the African Atlantic from the vantage of ' \ "N Atlantic, an engagement that includes cognizance K >??%' R settlements (associated with both the slave and to embrace approaches that may provide more commodities trades), areas where slave raiding fruitful results, even if they are not what is occurred, and points in the interior along these anticipated or hoped for. While an in-depth multiple trade routes must be carried out and the results disseminated to the academic and not been included here, the dialogues between public communities at large. In the same way them and Africanist archaeologists are extremely that Ogundiran and Falola intentionally embraced relevant (particularly those published in the *`R "#$$%' O - journal History in Africa, vol. 22). torical experience thesis,” the approach to West Shared avenues of inquiry on both sides of Africa and the African diaspora engaged here is the Atlantic should incorporate discussions of drawn from the belief that “not only do we have \ "< historical continuity between Atlantic Africa and 2009). For example, examining the globalization African Diaspora, but we have also come to the M point where both should be integrated into one Reverend Samuel Johnson were a Yoruba P "; ! >??%G@' "M >??@G&V' In addition to historical analysis using an array of his life beginning with his birth in Sierra of oral and documentary sources, the examples * \ cited here demonstrate the vibrant, dynamic #$?# M nature of West Africa at the time of the Atlantic ^ kR "M #$$$G>V' own scholarship on “Yoruba-ness” and self- possibilities for cross-Atlantic studies. profession of this identity as an adult, tied to Despite the fact that serious archaeological his vision of a Christian Yoruba Nation. It was inquiry focused on Atlantic World sites in k West Africa began at nearly the same time M as African diaspora archaeology in the United constantly changing, situational nature of iden- States, the former has not received nearly the tities that are often confused with ethnicity by equivalent interest, activity, or support. While ";` >??$7 there are numerous reasons, including political Oshineye 2009). This example demonstrates how it is often problematic to trace African origins professionals in West Africa to mirror the even within West Africa over the course of growth of their New World counterparts, the several centuries, let alone between communities interpretation of material connections between in isolation from one another living on opposite West Africa and the Americas has often not sides of the Atlantic. Rather than pursuing such connections between groups, presupposing static of caution. Arguing support for an Africanist identities that bridge time and space, it is best perspective of diaspora culture composed to view the development of Atlantic and colonial identities in West Africa and the Americas survivals as opposed to creolized identities through shared processes within the overarch- "Qz M #$%=' interaction, contact, and change in contemporary were communities of African origin affected by ! !R ">?##G%' their incorporation into the Atlantic World? The recent argument drawing on new documentary Atlantic trade was a period of rapid change and evidence for the importation of slaves from reorientation of political power, as is clearly Africa into the United States as late as the 1820s seems to support this Africanist perspective. throughout the region. The recurring themes in This suggests the continued problematic all these studies are the impacts, changes, and assumption of a static, unchanging African reactions to heightened interactions at times cultural landscape, and reiterates the need for 146 HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY 46(2)

(Europeans and local Africans) were brought N\ >??&7 >??=7 ;^ >??%7 into continuous socioeconomic contact. Ogundiran 2008).

Concluding Remarks Acknowledgements

In the United States, African diaspora studies ! - Q - ^ the focus on identity and its expression, incor- paper. Christopher DeCorse and Bill Roberts porating numerous paradigms found throughout provided invaluable guidance to us while in archaeological inquiry such as gender, power, K K Q indebted to all those who have given us the ^ is tied to community action, public archaeology, the vastly different sides of the Atlantic profes- and heritage tourism. It is the latter that can sionally and personally. We are grateful for the be most directly related to the past and cur- insightful comments and suggestions provided rent state of West Africa and its place in the by our reviewers. "K 1993), although research in West Africa has References adaptations and change in local and regional AGEE, ROBERT, AND ORLANDO RIDEOUT communities. It is these multiple avenues of 2008 The Banjul Heritage Cultural Resource Project: MQ]<y, Banjul, scholarship that necessitate yet another shift in Kbia. African diaspora archaeology to an archaeology of the African Atlantic, one which necessar- AGORSAH, KOFI E. 1993 Archaeology and Resistance History in the Caribbean. African Archaeological Review ##"#'G#%@M#$@ the experiences of African communities in the #$$& Q < k. In Atlantic basin from the 16th through the 19th Maroon Heritage: Archaeological, Ethnographic, "! Q >??&G>' and Historical Perspectives, K. E. Agorsah, editor, As scholars of the African Atlantic, the aim is #=VM#+%\MIk to move beyond the role of Africa at this time 1996 The Archaeology of the African Diaspora. African Archaeological Review 13(4):221–224. as a point of departure, and, rather, to situate 2006 Reconstructing the African Diaspora: Evidence and this period as one of interaction. For scholars Interpretation. In Africa and the African Diaspora: interested in the colonial era in West Africa, Cultural Adaptation and ResistanceI it is important to understand the African dias- K^\@%M$= Bloomington, IN. where liberated Africans originated, just as it is ALLEN, SCOTT 1994 Africanisms, Mosaics, and Creativity: The Historical to be done in West Africa on Atlantic period Archaeology of Palmares. Doctoral dissertation, sites to truly understand the people who were Department of Anthropology, Brown University, brought to the Americas and formed diasporic M]Q Q communities there. It is vitally important to see what and who came to West Africa, as well ALPERN, STANLEY B. as who and what left. Finally, because of the #$$@ K^<GQ* shared interactions and engagements over time ^KHistory in Africa 22(1):5–43. and space in the historic Atlantic trade, associ- ANQUANDAH, JAMES (EDITOR) ated archaeological and heritage sites, whether 2008 The Transatlantic Slave Trade: Landmarks, Legacies, they be on an island in the Caribbean or inland Expectations<<K K AREMU, DAVID preserved by the complex community of those #$$$ MN<G whose present research worlds are connected in Towards the Promotion of Nigeria’s Cultural Heritage. "z]z >???7 I African Archaeological Review 16(4):199–210. LISA A. GIJANTO AND RACHEL L. HORLINGS—African Diaspora and West African Historical Archaeologies 147

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