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7/13/2015 Archaeology ­ Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Archaeology From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Archaeology or archeology,[1] is the study of human activity in the past, primarily through the recovery and analysis of the material culture and environmental data that has been left behind by past human populations, which includes artifacts, architecture, biofacts (also known as eco­facts) and cultural landscapes (the archaeological record). Because archaeology employs a wide range of different procedures, it can be considered to be both a social science and a humanity,[2] and in the United States, it is thought of as a branch of anthropology,[3] although in Europe, it is viewed as a discipline in its own right, or related to other Roman ruins, Lausanne, Switzerland. disciplines. For example, much of archaeology in the United Kingdom is considered a part the study of history, while in France it is considered part of Geology. Archaeology studies human prehistory and history from the development of the first stone tools in eastern Africa 4 million years ago up until recent decades.[4] (Archaeology does not include the discipline of paleontology). It is of most importance for learning about prehistoric societies, when there are no written records for historians to study, making up over 99% of total human history, from the Paleolithic until the advent of literacy in any given society.[2] Archaeology has various goals, which range from studying human evolution to cultural evolution and understanding culture history.[5] The discipline involves surveying, excavation and eventually analysis of data collected to learn more about the past. In broad scope, archaeology relies on cross­disciplinary research. It draws upon anthropology, history, art history, classics, ethnology, geography,[6] geology,[7][8][9] linguistics, semiology, physics, information sciences, chemistry, statistics, paleoecology, paleontology, paleozoology, paleoethnobotany, and paleobotany. Archaeology developed out of antiquarianism in Europe during the 19th century, and has since become a discipline practiced across the world. Since its early development, various specific sub­disciplines of archaeology have developed, including maritime archaeology, feminist archaeology and archaeoastronomy, and numerous different scientific techniques have been developed to aid archaeological investigation. Nonetheless, today, archaeologists face many problems, such as dealing with pseudoarchaeology, the looting of artifacts, a lack of public interest, and opposition to the excavation of human remains. Contents 1 History 1.1 Antiquarians 1.2 First excavations 1.3 Development of archaeological method 2 Purpose https://en.wikipedia.or2g/.w1ik iT/Ahrcehaoeroylogy 1/24 7/13/2015 Archaeology ­ Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2.1 Theory 3 Methods 3.1 Remote sensing 3.2 Field survey 3.3 Excavation 3.4 Analysis 3.5 Virtual archaeology 3.6 Drones 4 Academic sub­disciplines 4.1 Historical archaeology 4.2 Ethnoarchaeology 4.3 Experimental archaeology 4.4 Archaeometry 4.5 Cultural resources management 5 Popular views of archaeology 6 Current issues and controversy 6.1 Public archaeology 6.2 Pseudoarchaeology 6.3 Looting 6.4 Descendant peoples 6.4.1 Repatriation 7 Fictional archaeologists 8 See also 9 References 10 Bibliography 11 Further reading 12 External links History Antiquarians The science of archaeology (from Greek ἀρχαιολογία, archaiologia from ἀρχαῖος, arkhaios, "ancient" and ­ λογία, ­logia, "­logy")[10] grew out of the older multi­disciplinary study known as antiquarianism. Antiquarians studied history with particular attention to ancient artefacts and manuscripts, as well as historical sites. Antiquarianism focused on the empirical evidence that existed for the understanding of the past, encapsulated in the motto of the 18th­century antiquary, Sir Richard Colt Hoare, "We speak from facts not theory". Tentative steps towards the systematization of archaeology as a science took place during the Enlightenment era in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries.[11] In Europe, philosophical interest in the remains of Greco­Roman civilisation and the rediscovery of classical culture began in the late Middle Age. Flavio Biondo an Italian Renaissance humanist historian created a systematic guide to the ruins and topography of ancient Rome in the early 15th century for which he has been called an early founder of archaeology. Antiquarians, including John Leland and William Camden, conducted surveys of the English countryside, drawing, describing and interpreting the monuments that they encountered. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology 2/24 7/13/2015 Archaeology ­ Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia First excavations One of the first sites to undergo archaeological excavation was Stonehenge and other megalithic monuments in England. John Aubrey was a pioneer archaeologist who recorded numerous megalithic and other field monuments in southern England. He was also ahead of his time in the analysis of his findings. He attempted to chart the chronological stylistic evolution of handwriting, medieval architecture, costume, and shield­ shapes.[12] An early photograph of Stonehenge taken July 1877 Excavations were also carried out in the ancient towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum, both of which had been covered by ash during the Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79. These excavations began in 1748 in Pompeii, while in Herculaneum they began in 1738. The discovery of entire towns, complete with utensils and even human shapes, as well the unearthing of ancient frescos, had a big impact throughout Europe. However, prior to the development of modern techniques, excavations tended to be haphazard; the importance of concepts such as stratification and context were overlooked.[13] Development of archaeological method The father of archaeological excavation was William Cunnington (1754–1810). He undertook excavations in Wiltshire from around 1798,[14] funded by Sir Richard Colt Hoare. Cunnington made meticulous recordings of neolithic and Bronze Age barrows, and the terms he used to categorise and describe them are still used by archaeologists today.[15] One of the major achievements of 19th century archaeology was the development of stratigraphy. The idea of overlapping strata tracing back to successive periods was borrowed from the new geological and palaeontological work of scholars like William Smith, James Hutton Artefacts discovered at the 1808 and Charles Lyell. The application of stratigraphy to archaeology first Bush Barrow excavation by Sir took place with the excavations of prehistorical and Bronze Age sites. Richard Colt Hoare and William In the third and fourth decades of the 19th century, archaeologists like Cunnington. Jacques Boucher de Perthes and Christian Jürgensen Thomsen began to put the artifacts they had found in chronological order. A major figure in the development of archaeology into a rigorous science was the army officer and ethnologist, Augustus Pitt Rivers,[16] who began excavations on his land in England in the 1880s. His approach was highly methodical by the standards of the time, and he is widely regarded as the first scientific archaeologist. He arranged his artefacts by type or "typologically, and within types by date or "chronologically". This style of arrangement, designed to highlight the evolutionary trends in human https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology 3/24 7/13/2015 Archaeology ­ Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia artefacts, was of enormous significance for the accurate dating of the objects. His most important methodological innovation was his insistence that all artefacts, not just beautiful or unique ones, be collected and catalogued.[17] William Flinders Petrie is another man who may legitimately be called the Father of Archaeology. His painstaking recording and study of artefacts, both in Egypt and later in Palestine, laid down many of the ideas behind modern archaeological recording; he remarked that "I believe the true line of research lies in the noting and comparison of the smallest details." Petrie developed the system of dating layers based on pottery and ceramic findings, which revolutionized the chronological basis of Egyptology. Petrie was the first to scientifically investigate the Great Pyramid in Egypt during the 1880s.[18] He was also responsible for mentoring and training a whole generation of Egyptologists, including Howard Carter who went on to achieve fame with the discovery of the tomb of 14th­century BC pharaoh Tutankhamun. The first stratigraphic excavation to reach wide popularity with public was that of Hissarlik, on the site of ancient Troy, carried out by Heinrich Schliemann, Frank Calvert, Wilhelm Dörpfeld and Carl Blegen in the 1870s. These scholars individuated nine different cities that had overlapped with one another, from prehistory to the Hellenistic period.[19] Meanwhile, the work of Sir Arthur Evans at Knossos in Crete revealed the ancient existence of an equally advanced Minoan civilization.[20] The next major figure in the development of archaeology was Sir Mortimer Wheeler pioneered Mortimer Wheeler, whose highly disciplined approach to excavation systematic excavation in the early and systematic coverage in the 1920s and 1930s brought the science 20th century. Pictured, are his on swiftly. Wheeler developed the grid system of excavation, which excavations at Maiden Castle, Dorset, was further improved by his student Kathleen Kenyon. in October 1937. Archaeology became a professional activity in the first half of the

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