LUGWORM Abarenicola pacifica Healy and Wells, 1959 (Arenicolidae)
Global rank GNR (recommended change to G5, 16Aug2005) State rank S4S5 (15Jun2006) State rank reasons Distribution in poorly documented; abundant Ecology where it is known to occur. Population trend Lugworms play an important role in sediment unknown. Plays an important ecological role in turnover (bioturbation) and bioaccumulation of sediment turnover and has been recommended toxins by consuming deeper sediments, for use in monitoring chronically contaminated processing organic material, and depositing feces sediments. Threats are few and related to at the surface (Augenfeld 1980, Swinbanks 1981, degradation of habitat through pollution, Augenfeld et al. 1982, Kozloff 1983, Toonen development, and subtidal trawling. 1998). In a study conducted at Boundary Bay on the Fraser Delta, B.C., high densities (200 Taxonomy individuals/m2) of lugworms were able to Healy and Wells (1959) recognized Abarenicola completely rework the substrate to a depth of 10 pacifica as distinct from the Mediterranean cm in 100 days (Swinbanks 1981). A. pacifica lugworm A. claparedi based on morphological may aid in the recovery of intertidal zones from characteristics. Molecular work by Bleidorn et al. the effects of oil pollution, by transporting (2004) shows A. pacifica is most closely related sediment from the lower anoxic areas to the to A. claparedi. surface where hydrocarbons can be metabolized by aerobic microbes (Augenfeld 1980). General description A large, subsurface deposit eating polychaete; Sediment turnover can result in the release of elongated body, tapered at both ends; coloration heavy metals such as methylmercury into the ranges from yellow and green to brown. overlying water (Brown 1997). Sediment Midsection has several pairs of bright red movement by A. pacifica has been associated branched gills (Kozloff 1983). Young worms have with mortality and a decline in abundance of the pigmented photoreceptors, but adults lack these spinoid polychaete Pygospio elegans and the organs (Bleidorn et al. 2004). See Healy and cumacean crustacean Cumella vulgaris; Wells (1959) for detailed morphological conversely, both species reduce the survivorship description. of juvenile A. pacifica, presumably by predation Length (cm) 8-10 (Wilson 1981). Lugworm burrowing and feeding Weight (g) 0.25-0.3 (dry weight) activities have also caused declines in abundance of juvenile clams Macoma and Mya Reproduction (Lees et al. 2001). The Schmitt Pea Crab Sexes are listed as separate (see Healy and (Pinnixa schmitti) is found in the burrows of A. Wells 1959), but there is no reference to specific pacifica (O’Clair and O’Clair 1998). Migratory investigations showing this to be strictly true predators such as Rock Sandpipers (Calidris (Linton and Taghon 2000). Broods are produced ptilocnemis), crangonid shrimp (Crangon spp.), annually. Reproduces in the spring (March-May) and the large isopod, Saduria entomon, probably which coincides with increased levels of lipid play a role in lugworm recruitment success and storage (Wilson 1981, Taghon et al. 1994). adult survival (Lees et al. 2001). Embryos are brooded in the burrow; larvae are non-feeding and only briefly pelagic or possibly Migration totally benthic (Wilson 1981, Brown 1997, Linton Nonmigratory. and Taghon 2000). Larvae move out of the cocoon no later than the 5-6 setiger stage and Food burrow in the top few millimeters of sediment Subsurface deposit-feeder. Feeds upon microbial (Wilson 1981). Generation time approximately 1- flora and organic matter in sediment and passes 2 years (Linton and Taghon 2000). rope-like fecal strands to surface sediments (Kozloff 1983, Lees et al. 2001). Irrigates its burrow to create an oxidizing micro-environment State abundance in which the micro-organisms on which it feeds Overall abundance unknown, but common in (ciliates, flagellates, and nematodes) flourish known areas of occurrence. In Upper Cook Inlet, (Swinbanks 1981). densities of 42 individuals/m² reported from Kalifornsky Beach; 40 individuals/m² at southeast Habitat Kalgin Island, Redoubt Creek, northeast Chisik Near low tide line to 4.5 m; muddy sand in Island, and Light Point, Kalgin Island; less shallow bays. In areas where mud content is low common at north Tuxedni Bay (9 individuals/m²) and varies little, wetness of sediment during and Oldmans Bay, Kalgin Island; lowest densities exposure at low tide is the dominant factor reported at northeast Chisik Island (2 governing distribution; A. pacifica was most individuals/m²), northwest Kalgin Island, and abundant in the upper sand wave zone (between southwest of the Beluga River (Lees et al. 2001). mean sea level and +0.75 m) of Boundary Bay, B.C.; also found in eelgrass and lower sand wave Global trend zones below mean sea level (Swinbanks 1981). Unknown. In Cook Inlet, Alaska, most common at sites with sandy silt, moderate or weaker current intensity, State trend and moderate to weak wave action (Lees et al. Unknown. 2001). Sediment must be somewhat unconsolidated rather than stiff and plastic (like Global protection some underlying consolidated clays) in order for Protected under the U.S. Coastal Zone lugworms to feed (Lees et al. 2001). Management Act (CZMA; NOAA 1996). The outer Continental Shelf Lands Act (OCSLA) Global range mandates that orderly development of Outer North Pacific; from California north through Continental Shelf resources be balanced with Alaska to Japan (Healy and Wells 1959, Toonen protection of human, marine, and coastal 1998). environments and any project that could adversely impact the Coastal Zone is subject to State range federal consistency requirements under the Distribution incomplete; probably occurs widely CZMA (Committee on Environment and Public throughout coastal regions. Known occurrences Works 2000). include: Upper Cook Inlet at Redoubt Creek, southwest of the West Foreland, south of the State protection Beluga River, Kalifornsky Beach, Chisik Island, Habitat protected in Kachemak Bay Reserve, a Kalgin Island, and the north Tuxedni Bay Spit part of the National Estuarine Research Reserve (Lees et al. 2001); in Lower Cook Inlet at System (ADFG 2000). Also, see Global Kachemak Bay (ADFG 2000), Glacier Spit, protection comments. Chinitna Bay and Deep Creek (Dames & Moore 1979). A single individual was found on the East Global threats Reef of Three Saints Bay, Kodiak Island Threats include habitat loss or degradation due to (Nybakken 1969). pollution and development. Because this species feeds on bottom sediments, it may be sensitive to Global abundance contamination through bioaccumulation and may Common in almost every bay from central also transfer concentrated carcinogens to marine California northward (Toonen 1998). Densities of predators (Augenfeld et al. 1982, Weston 1990, 200 individuals/m² have been reported from Penry and Weston 1998). Bioturbation by A. Boundary Bay, on the Fraser Delta, B.C. pacifica in contaminated sediments can (Swinbanks 1981). Kozloff (1983) gave a rough significantly increase levels of methylmercury in estimate of 50 individuals/m² (maximum overlying water by redistributing it from anoxic densities) on the north Pacific Coast (Washington zone sediments to the surface where it can to California), and Wilson (1981) reported that reenter the ecosystem (Brown 1997). Species is adult densities often reached 1,000 individuals/m² tolerant of direct contact with sediments in the Straits of Juan de Fuca, Washington. containing 1,000 ppm crude oil (Augenfeld 1980). Common in Upper Cook Inlet, Alaska, where If oil pollution is not too severe, A. pacifica can densities as high as 42 individuals/m² have been continue to turn over the equivalent of its own reported (Lees et al. 2001). body weight in sediment, but high concentrations
Lugworm 2 of oil may reduce the sediment working rate of with the sediment column rather than water-borne surviving worms by as much as 70%, which contaminants (Lees et al. 2001). would substantially retard movement of sediments to the surface and recovery of polluted systems (Augenfeld 1980). LITERATURE CITED Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADFG). State threats 2000. Kachemak Bay Ecological Threats include habitat loss due to filling and Characterization: Kachemak Bay commercial or residential development, and invertebrates annotated species list. habitat alteration due to trawling in subtidal areas Available online at or pollution by oil or heavy metals. http://www.habitat.adfg.state.ak.us/geninfo/kb rr/coolkbayinfo/kbec_cd/html/ecosys/species/l Global research needs ists/invert.xls (Accessed 5 May 2005). Research needed on reproductive ecology; in particular, determine if hermaphroditism is Anderson, J. W., J. M. Augenfeld, E. A. present (Linton and Taghon 2000). Further Crecelius, and R. Riley. 1978. Research to investigation needed on the role this species determine the accumulation of organic plays in recovery of oil-affected systems. constituents and heavy metals from petroleum-impacted sediments by marine State research needs detritivores of the Alaskan continental shelf. Research needed on reproductive ecology; in In: Environmental Assessment of the Alaskan particular, determine if hermaphroditism is Continental Shelf. Annual Reports of present (Linton and Taghon 2000). Further Principle Investigators for the year ending investigation needed on the role this species March 1978. Volume VII: Effects. plays in recovery of oil-affected systems. A. pacifica is considered the second most suitable Augenfeld, J. M. 1980. Effects of Prudhoe Bay sentinel species (after Macoma balthica) for crude oil contamination on sediment working monitoring contamination in Upper Cook Inlet rates of Abarenicola pacifica. Marine because of its wide distribution and abundance Environmental Research 3: 307-313. near oil production facilities (Lees et al. 2001). Augenfeld, J. M., J. W. Anderson, R. G. Riley, Global inventory needs and B. L. Thomas. 1982. The fate of Species is widespread and apparently common. polyaromatic hydrocarbons in an intertidal No inventory needs at this time. sediment exposure system: bioavailability to Macoma inquinata (Mollusca: Pelecypoda) State inventory needs and Abarenicola pacifica (Annelida: Knowledge of species’ distribution in the state is Polychaeta). Marine Environmental Research incomplete; lugworms collected opportunistically 7: 31-50. during intertidal surveys may help to increase occurrence records and better define species’ Augenfeld, J. M, J. W. Anderson, S. L Kiesser, G. range. Conduct inventories and monitor W. Fellingham, R. G. Riley, and B. L. populations at index sites to assess trends. Thomas. 1983. Exposure of Abarenicola pacifica to oiled sediment: effects on State conservation and management needs: glycogen content and alterations in sediment- Species has been recommended for use in bound hydrocarbons. Pp. 443-449 in: pollution monitoring for a number of reasons Proceedings of the 1983 Oil Spill Conference: including its widespread distribution in sensitive Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup. sand and mud ecosystems; because petroleum American Petroleum Institute. hydrocarbons and other contaminants reach higher concentrations in lugworm tissues; Bleidorn, C. 2004. Molecular phylogeny of because glycogen storage in lugworms is lugworms (Annelida, Arenicolidae) inferred sensitive to contamination and anoxia and could from three genes. Chapter 6 in: Phylogenetic provide a sensitive means to measure relationships of sedentary polychaetes contamination (Anderson et al. 1978, Augenfeld (Annelida) inferred from molecular data. et al. 1983); and because this species interacts Ph.D. dissertation, Freie Universität Berlin. Available online at http://www.diss.fu-
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berlin.de/2004/248/indexe.html (Accessed 20 Alaska. Biological Papers of the University of May 2005). Alaska, Number 9.
Brown, R. W. 1997. Effects of the burrowing O’Clair, R.M. and C.E. O’Clair. 1998. Southeast polychaete, Abarenicola pacifica, on the Alaska’s rocky shores: animals. Plant Press, distribution of methylmercury in marine Auke Bay, AK. 564 pp. sediments. Ph.D. dissertation, Clemson University, Clemson, SC. Penry, D. L. and D. P. Weston. 1998. Digestive determinants of Benzo[a]Pyrene and Committee on Environment and Public Works. Phenanthrene bioaccumulation by a deposit- 2000. Outer Continental Shelf Act. Available feeding polychaete. Environmental online at http://epw.senate.gov/ocsla.pdf Toxicology and Chemistry 17: 2254-2265. (Accessed 12 May 2004). Swinbanks, D. 1981. Sediment reworking and the Dames & Moore. 1979. Ecological studies of biogenic formation of clay laminae by intertidal and shallow subtidal habitats in Abarenicola pacifica. Journal of Sedimentary Lower Cook Inlet. Prepared for the Outer Petrology 51:1137-1145. Continental Shelf Environmental Assessment Program (OCSEAP). Environmental Taghon, G. L., F. G. Prahl, M. Sparrow, and C. M Assessment of the Alaskan Continental Shelf: Fuller. 1994. Lipid class and glycogen annual reports of principle investigators for content of the lugworm Abarenicola pacifica the year ending March 1979. Volume IV. in relation to age, growth rate, and Receptors- fish, littoral, benthos. Dames & reproductive condition. Marine Biology Moore Firm, Anchorage, AK. 120:287-295.
Healy, E. A. and G. P. Wells. 1959. Three new Toonen, R. 1998. Generally benign errant lugworms (Arenicolidae, Polychaeta) from the polychaetes. Part 12 in: Reefkeepers guide to North Pacific area. Zoological Society of invertebrate zoology. Available online at London (Proceedings) 130:315-335. http://www.reefs.org/library/aquarium_net/099 8/0998_1/html (Accessed 5 May 2005). Kozloff, E. N. 1983. Seashore life of the northern Pacific coast: an illustrated guide to northern Weston, D. P. 1990. Hydrocarbon California, Oregon, Washington, and British bioaccumulation from contaminated sediment Columbia. University of Washington Press, by the deposit-feeding polychaete Seattle, WA. Abarenicola pacifica. Marine Biology 107:159-169. Lees, D. C., W. B. Driskell, J. R. Payne, and M .O. Hayes. 2001. Final report of CIRCAC Wilson, W. H., Jr. 1981. Sediment-mediated intertidal reconnaissance survey in Upper interactions in a densely populated infaunal Cook Inlet. Prepared for Cook Inlet Regional assemblage: the effects of the polychaete Citizens Advisory Council, Kenai, AK. Abarenicola pacifica. Journal of Marine Research 39:735-748. Linton, D. L. and G. L. Taghon. 2000. Feeding, growth, and fecundity of Abarenicola pacifica in relation to sediment organic concentration. Acknowledgements Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 254:85-107. State and Global Conservation Status, Element Ecology & Life National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration History Author(s): Gotthardt, (NOAA). 1996. Coastal Zone Management T.A., and A. Jansen, Alaska Natural Heritage Act. Available online at Program, University of Alaska Anchorage, 707 A http://www.ocrm.nos.noaa.gov/czm/czm_act. Street, Anchorage, AK, html (Accessed 12 May 2004). http://aknhp.uaa.alaska.edu. State and Global Conservation Status, Nybakken, J. W. 1969. Pre-earthquake intertidal Element Ecology & Life History Edition Date: ecology of Three Saints Bay, Kodiak Island, 15June2006
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