Paleontology of Middle and Upper Devonian Formations of Northwest Ohio: Documenting Earth System Evolution for Scientific and Educatonal Purposes

Home , Acervularia, Ancyrognathus, Antrim Shale, Archaeopteridales, Atrypa, Camarotoechia

PALEONTOLOGY OF MIDDLE AND UPPER DEVONIAN FORMATIONS OF NORTHWEST OHIO: DOCUMENTING EARTH SYSTEM EVOLUTION FOR SCIENTIFIC AND EDUCATONAL PURPOSES

Chad Mason

A Thesis

Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

August 2019

Committee:

Margaret M. Yacobucci, Advisor

Peter Gorsevski

Chad Mason

Margaret M. Yacobucci, Advisor

Northwest Ohio's Middle and Upper Devonian bedrock units, including the carbonates of the Middle Devonian Detroit River Group and Dundee Formation and the siliciclastics of the

Traverse Group and Upper Devonian Antrim Shale, are relatively understudied. The goal of this project was to investigate the geology and paleontology of Devonian units exposed at Stoneco's

Auglaize Quarry in Paulding County and Boy Scout Camp Lakota in Defiance County. These localities provide insights into variations in the paleoenvironments and faunas of the Michigan

Basin during the Middle-Late Devonian.

Field observations, thin sections, and acid and peroxide digestions were used to characterize these units. The Detroit River Group represents a peritidal to subtidal environment, as evidenced at Auglaize Quarry by rip-up clasts, microbial mats, tabulate corals (Favosites,

Emmonsia or Coenites), and large stromatoporoids. Only one microfossil type, paulinitid scolecodonts, was recovered. The Dundee Formation represents a subtidal environment above storm wave base. The Auglaize locality experienced more dissolution and recrystallization, indicated by calcite and fluorite crystals, stylolites, and calcite-infilled vugs, than the Dundee at

Lucas County's Whitehouse Quarry. The gastropod Euryzone arata is also more abundant at

Auglaize. The conodonts Icriodus angustus, Icriodus expansus, and Icriodus nodosus confirm a late Eifelian age for the Dundee.

The Antrim Shale at Camp Lakota contained shales and siltstones. Abundant Tasmanites algal cysts indicate an environment between fair and storm wave base. These cysts also acted as iv places for early diagenetic pyrite growth. One bivalve fossil (Ptychopteria?) and abundant aggregative microconchid tubes suggest dysoxic rather than anoxic conditions. Two fossil plant specimens were collected and tentatively identified as the lycopod Clevelandodendron ohioensis, known from the equivalent-aged Ohio Shale in northeast Ohio.

New online educational tools exploring Earth system evolution through the Devonian were created. These materials meet Ohio and Next Generation Science Standards for 6th, 8th, and high school grades. Resources are housed in nodes on online maps of the field sites, with text, images, and videos taken from this research project. The materials follow an inquiry cycle and are designed to use kinetic, audio, and visual learning styles. These educational resources can be accessed at: http://personal.bgsu.edu/~chadmas/. v

I would like to dedicate this thesis to my family and friends. For without all their invaluable assistance this thesis would most likely have taken far longer than what it has. For that they all

have my eternal gratitude. vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Many people helped me in this endeavor, and I would like to extend my appreciation for them all. I would like to thank my advisor Dr. Yacobucci for her insight and helpfulness during this project, and my committee members Dr. Gorsevski and Dr. Hensley for being a part of this project and offering insight into areas that I might not have thought about. I express my gratitude to the Bowling Green State University Department of Geology and the family of Charles F.

Kahle for the funding that made this project possible. Thank you to Dr. Ciampaglio and Lauren

Fuelling at Wright State University Lake Campus for offering help, insight, and the use of a variety of equipment that was extremely useful in this project. Thank you to the Auglaize

Stoneco Quarry for allowing us to come and collect samples from the quarry. To the staff at

Camp Lakota, you have my utmost appreciation and thankfulness towards you all for the summers of 2017, 2018, and 2019. These people include Tammy and Doug Speer, Dave

Vrooman, Jack Wallace, Jon Smith, Neil Metzger, Scott Steward, Max, Jacob, and Bruce Sauber,

Griffen Jennings, Pat Bohn, Nolan Ligget, Brady Kohlenberg, Brandon and Jacob Moll, Derek

Koehlinger, Haden Sullivan, Shannon Joseph, Reagan Polasek, Austin Rearick, and many others that made those summers such a fun time to be doing research. Without their permission to do my research on camp this would not have been possible, and they helped carrying rock, giving me a smile or a laugh, lending an ear to what I have to say, or simply nodding their heads as I go off on another geology and paleontology ramble. You all have my thanks for making this thesis possible and a highly enjoyable thing to have undertaken. vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

INTRODUCTION ...... 1

PREVIOUS WORK ...... 3

Geologic Background ...... 3

Detroit River Group ...... 7

Dundee Formation ...... 8

Traverse Group ...... 13

Antrim Shale ...... 13

EDUCATIONAL DESIGN ...... 15

Ohio's State Educational Standards ...... 15

Next Generation Science Standards ...... 16

Camp Lakota and the Scouts BSA Merit Badge Requirements ...... 16

Online Educational Resources ...... 21

OBJECTIVES ...... 22

METHODS ...... 23

Field Work ...... 23

Stratigraphic Sections ...... 23

Sampling Protocol ...... 23

Field Photography ...... 24

Lab Work ...... 24

Sample Preparation ...... 24

Thin Section Petrography ...... 25 viii

Acid and Peroxide Digestions ...... 25

Fossil Identification ...... 27

Photograph Stacking ...... 27

Photograph Enhancement ...... 28

Development of Educational Materials ...... 29

Conceptual Overview...... 29

Content Development ...... 30

Texts ...... 30

Photographs and Videos ...... 31

Construction of Online Maps ...... 32

Google Maps ...... 32

Website ...... 33

RESULTS ...... 34

Field Observations of Stratigraphy and Lithology...... 34

Stoneco Auglaize Quarry ...... 34

Camp Lakota ...... 43

Thin Section Petrography ...... 45

Detroit River Group Pile 1 ...... 45

Dundee Formation Pile 4 ...... 47

Antrim Shale B3 ...... 47

Antrim Shale B11 ...... 50

Antrim Shale B16 ...... 53

Antrim Shale M13...... 54 ix

Antrim Shale Nodules ...... 56

Small Nodule ...... 56

Large Nodule ...... 59

Paleontology ...... 59

Overview of Fossil Content ...... 59

Detroit River Group, Auglaize Quarry Pile 1 ...... 64

Dundee Formation, Auglaize Quarry Pile 4 ...... 64

Dundee Formation, Whitehouse Quarry ST-07 ...... 64

Dundee Formation, Whitehouse Quarry FS-05 ...... 64

Dundee Formation, Whitehouse Quarry FS-08 ...... 64

Dundee Formation, Whitehouse Quarry S3-02 ...... 65

Antrim Shale, Camp Lakota B16, B2, B10, M13 ...... 65

Age Constraints on Samples ...... 65

Middle Devonian Fossil Descriptions ...... 67

Corals and Sponges ...... 67

Euryzone arata ...... 70

Scolecodonts ...... 72

Icriodus angustus ...... 74

Icriodus expansus...... 76

Icriodus nodosus ...... 78

Fish Teeth...... 80

Charophytes ...... 82

Late Devonian Fossil Descriptions ...... 84 x

Bivalve ...... 84

Lycopsid Plants ...... 86

Microconchid Tubes ...... 88

Tasmanites ...... 90

Possible Statoliths or Otoliths ...... 90

Educational Materials ...... 93

DISCUSSION ...... 96

Geology and Paleontology .………………………………………………………… 96

Detroit River Group ...... 96

Dundee Formation ...... 97

Antrim Formation ...... 98

Educational Materials ...... 101

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ...... 103

REFERENCES ...... 105 xi

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1 Michigan Basin and Findlay Arch in Ohio and Michigan ...... 4

2 Geologic Map of Silurian and Devonian Units in Southeast Michigan and Northwestern

Ohio ...... 5

3 Geologic Map Showing the Age of the Bedrock in Northwest Ohio ...... 6

4 Stratigraphic Column for Northwestern Ohio...... 7

5 Thickness of the Dundee Formation in Northwest Ohio ...... 9

6 Antrim Shale at Camp Lakota...... 14

7 Georeferenced Points at Stoneco Auglaize Quarry ...... 35

8 Auglaize Quarry East High Wall ...... 35

9 Auglaize Quarry West High Wall ...... 36

10 Auglaize Quarry South High Wall ...... 36

11 Boundary between the Detroit River Group and Dundee Formation at Auglaize

Quarry ...... 37

12 Boundary of the Detroit River Group and the Dundee Formation ...... 38

13 Crystal Formations at Auglaize Quarry ...... 38

14 Stylolites in Detroit River Group ...... 39

15 Rip-up Clasts in the Detroit River Group ...... 39

16 Wavy Bedding or Dissolution Surfaces at Auglaize Quarry ...... 41

17 Calcite Infilled Vugs in Dundee Formation ...... 42

18 Georeferenced Points at Camp Lakota ...... 44

19 Pyrite Seam in the Antrim Shale ...... 44 xii

20 Pyrite Nodules on the Antrim Shale ...... 45

21 Calcite in the Detroit River Group at the Auglaize Quarry ...... 46

22 Calcite in the Dundee Formation at the Auglaize Quarry...... 47

23 Minerals in Thin Section of Sample B3 from Antrim Shale ...... 48

24 Fossils in Thin Section of Sample B3 from Antrim Shale ...... 49

25 Thin Section of Sample B11 from Antrim Shale ...... 51

26 Additional Views of Thin Section of Sample B11 from Antrim Shale ...... 52

27 Thin Section of Sample B16 from Antrim Shale ...... 54

28 Thin Section of Sample M13 from Antrim Shale ...... 55

29 Cementation Inside Smaller Nodule and Tasmanites from Antrim Shale ...... 57

30 Thin Section of Small Nodule Sample from Antrim Shale ...... 58

31 Thin Section of Large Nodule from Antrim Shale ...... 59

32 Time Scale with Stratigraphic Ranges of Sampled Fossils ...... 66

33 Branching Colonial Coral from Dundee Formation, Auglaize Quarry...... 68

34 Large Stromatoporoid Sponge from the Dundee Formation, Auglaize Quarry...... 69

35 Gastropod Euryzone arata from Pile 4, Dundee Formation, Auglaize Quarry ...... 71

36 Paulinitid Scolecodonts ...... 73

37 Conodont Icriodus angustus from Sample ST-07, Dundee Formation, Whitehouse

Quarry ...... 75

38 Conodont Icriodus expansus from Sample FS-08, Dundee Formation, Whitehouse

Quarry ...... 77

39 Conodont Icriodus nodosus from Sample FS-08, Dundee Formation, Whitehouse

Quarry ...... 79 xiii

40 Fish Teeth from Samples ST-07 and FS-08, Dundee Formation, Whitehouse

Quarry ...... 81

41 Charophyte from Sample FS-08, Dundee Formation, Whitehouse Quarry ...... 83

42 Bivalve from M11, Antrim Shale, Camp Lakota ...... 85

43 Lycopsid Plant Fossils from Antrim Shale at Camp Lakota...... 87

44 Worm Tubes from Sample M13, Antrim Shale ...... 89

45 Possible Statoliths or Otoliths from Sample M13, Antrim Shale, Camp Lakota ...... 92 xiv

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1 Fossil Species Found at Whitehouse Quarry ...... 11

2 Fossil Genus and Species Counts, with Duplicate Species Removed, at Whitehouse

Quarry ...... 12

3 Requirements for the Geology Merit Badge in the Boy Scout Summer Camp ...... 20

4 Fossil Occurrences at Auglaize and Whitehouse Quarries ...... 60

5 Fossil Occurrences at Camp Lakota ...... 61

6 Whitehouse Quarry Dundee Formation Sample FS-05 Acid Digestion Results ...... 62

7 Whitehouse Quarry Dundee Formation Sample FS-08 Acid Digestion Results ...... 62

8 Whitehouse Quarry Dundee Formation Sample S3-02 Acid Digestion Results ...... 62

9 Whitehouse Quarry Dundee Formation Sample ST-07 Acid Digestion Results ...... 63

10 Auglaize Quarry Detroit River Group Pile 1 Acid Digestion Results ...... 63

11 Auglaize Quarry Detroit River Group Start Pile 1 Acid Digestion Results ...... 63

12 Auglaize Quarry Detroit River Group Start Pile 2 Acid Digestion Results ...... 63

13 Auglaize Quarry Dundee Formation Pile 4 Acid Digestion Results ...... 63 1

INTRODUCTION

The Middle Devonian Dundee Formation is an understudied formation in the Michigan

Basin. In northwest Ohio, this unit has primarily been studied in the Whitehouse Quarry in Lucas

County (Stauffer 1909; Bassett, 1935; Bose, 2006; Wright, 2006; Walters 2016), but also in

Grand Rapids by Reid (1994). This research has shown the depositional environment of the

Dundee to range from a tidal flat (Reid, 1994) to a shallow subtidal environment (Wright, 2006) with some subaerial exposure (Birchard, 1990). Roughly 50 km southwest of the Whitehouse

Quarry is the Stoneco Auglaize Quarry in Paulding County. This quarry has a large exposure of the lower portion of the Dundee Formation and the top of the underlying Detroit River Group.

The site provides a useful comparison to better understand these understudied formations' paleoecology and paleoenvironment.

Boy Scout Camp Lakota is a 640-acre reservation, about 10 km north of the Stoneco

Auglaize Quarry, with its northern border being the Auglaize River. On the banks of the river is a large exposure of the Late Devonian Antrim Shale. The formation of this organic rich black shale is due to the transgression of the interior seaway from the Middle to the Late Devonian. As sea level rose, the waters reached a depth at which they became stratified with anoxic bottom waters so organic material falling in could no longer decompose, resulting with organic rich sediments.

My scientific research goals were to investigate these two sites to document their paleoenvironments and paleoecology and then compare results to other known localities, providing new insights in the Middle to Late Devonian transition within the southern margin of the Michigan Basin. 2

Along with these scientific goals, information from this research was used to create an online interactive map exploring the concept of Earth system evolution while meeting Ohio State

Educational Standards and Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) for 6th, 8th, and high school grade levels.

Fossils and rock samples were collected from the Detroit River Group and Dundee

Formation at Stoneco Auglaize Quarry and the Antrim Shale exposure at Boy Scout Camp

Lakota. Thin sections and polished slabs were used to characterize the lithology, facies, and diagenetic history for these units, while formic acid and hydrogen peroxide digestion was used to isolate microfossils for biostratigraphy. Fossil occurrences from these units were documented and compared with existing data for other Michigan Basin sites to assess spatial and temporal variation in the paleoenvironment and paleoecological structure of these units. Educational materials created include an interactive online map that explains methods from my research, provides images and videos of the findings and locations, and details what the results tell us about the evolution of the Earth system through the Middle and Late Devonian. This online tool will be tested with Boy Scouts at Camp Lakota in Summer 2019 and distributed to teachers from several different school districts in northwest Ohio to be classroom tested to assess its effectiveness before final dissemination.

PREVIOUS WORK

Geologic Background

The two localities of interest, Stoneco Auglaize Quarry and Camp Lakota, are within the

Findlay Arch in the northwest portion of Ohio (Figure 1). This area is part of the southeastern portion of the Michigan Basin (Figures 1-3). The Middle Devonian Detroit River Group and

Dundee Formation outcrop at the Auglaize Quarry while the Upper Devonian Antrim Shale is exposed at Camp Lakota (Figure 4). The Detroit River Group was deposited during several transgressive and regressive sea level cycles (Sparling, 1988). The Amhertsburg Dolomite was deposited during an interval of sea level rise. The overlying Lucas Dolomite was deposited as sea level fell and the basin became more restricted (Sparling, 1988). This regression ultimately formed the unconformity at the top of the Detroit River Group. The Dundee Formation was deposited during a time of renewed sea level rise, creating a carbonate platform (Reid, 1994;

Wright, 2006). Later, in the Late Devonian, waters in the Michigan Basin became deep enough to become stratified and anoxic, which inhibited the decomposition of organic material. This bottom anoxia resulted in the formation of organic rich black shales that are now named the

Antrim Shale. 4

Figure 1. Michigan Basin and Findlay Arch in Ohio and Michigan. (Modified from Coogan

1996) 5

Figure 2. Geologic Map of Silurian and Devonian Units in Southeast Michigan and

Northwestern Ohio. (Source: Stewart, 1955) 6

Figure 3. Geologic Map Showing the Age of the Bedrock in Northwest Ohio. The red circle shows the location of the Stoneco Auglaize Quarry, and the blue circles shows the location of

Camp Lakota. (Modified from: Coogan, 1996) 7

Figure 4. Stratigraphic Column for Northwestern Ohio. Red square shows the interval of interest, ranging from the Detroit River Group to the Antrim Shale. (Modified from: Larsen et al., 2004)

Detroit River Group

The Middle Devonian Detroit River Group in northwestern Ohio consists of the Sylvania

Sandstone, Amherstburg Dolomite, and Lucas Dolomite. The Sylvania Sandstone is a mostly quartz sand or sandy dolomite that is friable fine to medium-grained, and well-rounded. The cement is either dolomite or silica (Aitken, 1967; Janssens, 1970). The Amherstburg and Lucas

Dolomites, nearly indistinguishable from one another, are light to medium gray, gray-brown, and brown dolomicrite or dolosiltite. Throughout the formation, gypsum and anhydrite can be found

(Aitken, 1967; Janssens, 1970). The contact with the overlying Dundee Formation is marked by a change from the brown dolomicrite of the Lucas Dolomite into the gray sandy medium-grained or crystalline dolomite and limestone of the Dundee Formation (Janssens, 1970).

Fossils known from the Detroit River Group are mainly stromatoporoids, brachiopods, gastropods (Fagerstrom, 1983), and tabulate and rugose corals (Pratt, 1988). The 8 stromatoporoids have been used to determine the age of the formation, with dispute in the literature between Prosh and Stearn (1993) and Klapper and Oliver (1995) as to whether they play a larger part in age dating than the conodonts found in the formation. While not plentiful, conodonts include Polygnathus linguiformis bultyncki, and I. latericrescens robustus, both of which place the Detroit River Group in the early Eifelian (early Middle Devonian) costatus conodont zone (Sparling, 1988).

Dundee Formation

The Middle Devonian Dundee Formation was first investigated in Dundee, Monroe

County, Michigan, and can be separated into two sections. The lower portion is described as 12.8 meters thick, sparsely fossiliferous, dolomitic limestone or dolomite with nodular chert and has the appearance of sucrosic sand with fine and medium-crystalline light gray to brown dolomite with an abundance of white or light brown chert. The upper portion of the Dundee Formation is described as 20 meters of fossiliferous limestone. Stylolites are found throughout the formation

(Janssens, 1970).

The depositional environment for the Dundee Formation has been investigated at several different sites where it is exposed. The unit was generally formed in a shallow subtidal environment (Reid, 1994; Wright, 2006). During this time portions of it were also subaerially exposed (Birchard, 1990). Janssens (1970) briefly discussed the Dundee exposures at the

Stoneco Auglaize Quarry, labeled as Q3 in Figure 5, suggesting that the Dundee Formation may have been subjected to restriction of circulation, based on evidence of the area being hypersaline. 9

Figure 5. Thickness of the Dundee Formation in Northwest Ohio (Janssens, 1970). The Stoneco

Auglaize Quarry, Q3, has been circled in red, and Whitehouse Quarry circled in blue.

Three larger studies of the paleontology of the Dundee Formation at Whitehouse Quarry

have been performed by Stauffer (1909), Bassett (1935), and Wright (2006). Tables 1 and 2

show the fossil species identified in these three studies. The Dundee Formation fossil assemblage

at Whitehouse is diverse and abundance, including stromatoporoid sponges, solitary and colonial

corals, bryozoans, brachiopods, bivalves, gastropods, cephalopods, rostroconchs, tentaculitoids,

crinoids, trilobites, and fish. Orr (1971) cited the conodonts Icriodus angustus, I. expansus, I.

latericrescens robustus, I. nodosus, and Polygnathus webbi as being present in the Dundee

Formation. Sparling (1988), Reid (1994), Brett et al. (2011), and DeSantis et al. (2011) all

documented two conodont species, Tortodus kockelianus and Tortodus australis, from two correlative formations, the Columbus and Onondaga Limestones of north central Ohio and New

York State, respectively. These conodonts are consistent with a Late Eifelian age for the Dundee

Formation. Conodonts from the Dundee Formation itself include Icriodus angusts, Icriodus expansus, Icriodus latericrescens robustus, and Polygnathus “webbi” (Orr, 1971).

Table 1. Fossil Species Found at Whitehouse Quarry. (Source: Wright, 2006)

Stauffer (1909) Bassett (1935) Wright (2006) Acervularia Pentamerella sp. Asterodesma occidentale Camarotechia sp. davinsoni Amphigenia Phacos cristata Atrypa costata Coenites reticulata elongata Athyris vittata Pholidops patina Atrypa reticularis Coleolus sp. Atrypa Pholidostrophia Atrypa spinosa Crinoidea reticularis iowaensis Platyceras Atrypa spinosa Callonema lichas Emmonsia polymorpha carinatum Platyceras Aviculopectin sp. Conocardium Subtrigonale Euryzone arata dumosum Calcisphaera Platyceras sp. Chonetes cornatus Favosites sp. robusta Callonema Pleurotomaria Cladopora roemeri Fenestella erectipora lichas arata Camarotoechia Pleurotomaria Coleolus sp. Fish fragments billingsi lucina Chonetes Pleurotomaria sp. Concardium cuneus Hexagonaria anna coronatus Chonetes Productella Cyrtina umbonata Hippocardia cunea mucronatus spinulacosta Proetus Chonetes sp. Cystiphyllum vesiculosum Limoptera macoptera crassimarginatus Cladopora sp. Proteus sp. Cystodictya gilberti Megastrophia concava Proteus Cladopora tela Favosites hemisphericus Meoellerina greeni planimarginatus Coleolus Pterinea flabellum Favosites limitaris Mucrospirifer mucronatus crenatocinctus Concardium Rhipidomella Idiostrom sp. Nephriticerina metula cuneus vanuxemi Schizophoria Cryptonella lens Leptostrophia periplana Paracyclas elliptica propinque Cyrtina Crassiproteus (Proteus) Spirifer acuminatus Montrypa sp. hamiltonensis crassimarginatus Cyrtina umbonata Spirifer audaculus Orthoceras sp. Pseudotrypa c. P. devoniana alpinensis Cystiphyllum Spirifer acuminatus Paracyclas elliptica Rhipidomella vanuxemi vesiculosum Cystodictya Spinifer audaculus Pholidostrphia iowaensis Spinulicosta spinulicosta gilberti Cythophyllum Spirifer gregarius Platyceras carnatum Spyroceras thoas sp. Dalmanites sp. Spirifer grieri Pleurotomaria lucina Stromatoporoid Dipterus Spirifer lucasensis Poterioceras sp. Strophodonta demissa eastmani Eunella Spirifer manni Prismatophyllum daidsoni Tentaculites scalariformis lincklaeni Favosites Spirifer sp. Productella spinulicosta Tropidoleptus carninatus emmonsi 12

Favosites Stromatopora Pretus crassimarginatus Unidentifiable brachiopod hemishpericus nodulata Favosites Stromatopora Pretus planimarginatus Zaphrenthis perovalis nitellus ponderosa Strophodonta Sfavosites sp. Pterinea flabellum demissa Strophodonta Fenestella sp. Rhipidomella variabilis demissa Glytodesma Strophodonta Spirifer grieri erectum inaequiradiata Glyptodesma Strophonddonta Spirifer lucasensis occidentale perplana Gyroceras sp. Syringopora sp. Spirifer manni Loxenema Syringostoma densa Spirifer sp. robustum Monotrypa Tentaculites Stromatopora ponderosa tenuis sclariformis Murchisonia cf. Troidoleptus Strophodonta demissa maia carrinatus Murchisonia Zaphrentis Strophodonta hispherica desiderata cornicula Orthoceras sp. Zaphrentis gigantea Tentaculites sclariformis Orthothetes Zaphrentis comicula pandora Paracyclas Zaphrentis gigantea elliptica Pentamerella Zaphrentis prolifica arata Zaphrentis simplex

Table 2. Fossil Genus and Species Counts, with Duplicate Species Removed, at Whitehouse

Quarry. (Source: Wright, 2006)

Cumulative Taxon Count Stauffer (1909) Bassett (1935) Wright (2006) All Whitehouse

Species 77 15 20 112 Genera 50 5 15 70 13

Traverse Group

The Traverse Group in northwestern Ohio consists of the Silica Formation and Tenmile

Creek Dolomite. The Silica Formation is, at its thickest, 16.5 meters thick and is an argillaceous, very fossiliferous, fine to coarse-grained grayish-brown limestone. Interbedded with the limestone is fossiliferous and calcareous bluish to brownish-gray shale (Stewart, 1927; Janssen,

1970).

The Tenmile Creek Dolomite is described as a dense to medium-crystalline light yellow to light grayish brown dolomite with a large amount of nodular white chert throughout. At its thickest this layer is 16.5 meters thick (Ehlers, 1951; Janssen, 1970). The contact between the

Middle Devonian Traverse Group and the Upper Devonian Antrim Shale is a sharp, unconformable contact between the light-colored dolomite and the dark brown shale.

Antrim Shale

Covering most of Defiance County, Sprowls and Angle (2008) in their groundwater study describe the Antrim Shale as being dark brown to black fissile or platy, carbonaceous shale of marine origin. Throughout the shale there is an abundance of pyrite, as well as natural gas pockets, making the Antrim an important shale gas source in the Michigan Basin. Curtis (2002) reported that portions of the Antrim Shale also have limestone and dolomite concretions while lower portions have a combination of lime mudstone and gray shales. At Camp Lakota, there is a large exposure of this unit along the Auglaize River, one of the few places in northwest Ohio where this unit is well-exposed (Figure 6). 14

Figure 6. Antrim Shale at Camp Lakota. Photo taken in late October when the Auglaize River

was at a low water level.

The organic-rich composition of the Antrim Shale suggests that bottom waters were

dysoxic to anoxic (Curtis, 2002). While the Antrim Shale in general is therefore not very

fossiliferous, Cooper et al. (1942) discussed fossils that can be found in the unit. The

tentaculitoid Styliolina is one of the more abundant fossils found; also known from the Antrim are the inarticulate brachiopod Barroisella subspatulata and the goniatite ammonoid Tornoceras.

Cooper et al. (1942) stated that there are conodonts in the Antrim Shale but did not identify

them. Hass (1958) documented four species of conodonts in the Antrim Shale, Ancyrognathus

bifurcata, Palmatodella delicatula, Palmatolepis glabra, and Palmatolepis perlobata. These

species were what Hass used for biostratigraphic purposes; the species are consistent with a late

Frasnian to early Famennian (Late Devonian) age for the Antrim Shale (Huddle, 1968). 15

EDUCATIONAL DESIGN

Ohio's State Educational Standards

Educational standards are established to define what students should be able to accomplish at each grade level. They set out a basic plan that instructors can use to help create lesson plans to meet these standards. This project proposes the creation of educational tools that will meet Ohio educational standards, making them more easily used by instructors as they will align with existing lessons.

Ohio’s Science Education Standards have the goals of creating an experience that allows students to experience excitement in learning about the world’s natural phenomena, gives them the tools to analyze and come to an understanding of the processes behind these phenomena, and to participate in these activities with the necessary tools to do so. In developing educational materials, I used Ohio’s New Learning Standards for Science, adopted in 2011 (Ohio

Department of Education, 2011).

Grade 6 students learn about how rocks and minerals develop in certain environments, such as how limestone and shale were deposited due to the shallow sea covering Ohio during the

Devonian. Maps, field investigations, experiments, and virtual field trips can be utilized to help a student better understand these concepts through a hands-on, interactive approach (Ohio

Department of Education, 2011).

The Grade 8 standard expands and deepens what a student has already learned about the geological processes in grade 6. This standard includes learning about the age of the Earth, the use of index fossils, and the concept of relative dating. Data gained from field work can be used in maps, to demonstrate the use of relative dating, as well as the concept of uniformitarianism, which is the idea that processes operating now also operated in the past. Along with showing the 16 use of relative dating, fossils also allow a student to learn about the environments of the past when these organisms lived, which then ties in the idea that the Earth’s environments have changed over the course of Earth’s history (Ohio Department of Education, 2011).

Next Generation Science Standards

Created for use through grades K-12, the national Next Generation Science Standards

(NGSS) cover a wide variety of different sciences including engineering, physics, biology, and geology (NGSS State Leaders, 2013). The NGSS’ purpose is not to remove the states’ education standards, but to build upon them with knowledge that has been learned since the state standards have been in place. These sets of standards take this new knowledge pertaining to how students can learn more efficiently into consideration and give students a better understanding of what the science field is like so that they may take a career path into the field.

To build upon what was discussed about Ohio’s Science Education Standards, the standard to be met for the NGSS is high school Earth and Space Science Standard HS-ESS2-7.

This standard has the student learn how to construct an argument based upon evidence that Earth and its life have co-evolved. They should be able to explain how Earth’s geologic processes have affected how life lived, and how living organisms have changed how those geologic processes have occurred (NGSS State Leaders, 2013).

Camp Lakota and the Scouts BSA Merit Badge Requirements

On June 14, 1941, the Shawnee Council, now part of the Black Swamp Area Council

(BSAC), donated 225 acres of land south of Defiance, Ohio to the Boy Scouts of America. This land, named Camp Lakota, was to be used for boys to learn skills and earn merit badges in an area preserved in a natural state. In the 1960s, more land was bought south of Powell Creek and named Camp Neil Armstrong, as he used to be a camper at Camp Lakota. Construction of Lake 17

Glengary on the Armstrong side of camp began in 1969 (Camp Lakota Boy Scouts of America:

Black Swamp Area Council).

The summer camp program currently runs in June and July. By the time campers arrive, camp staff have been on the camp’s grounds between one and two weeks completing setup, finishing lesson plans for their areas, and preparing a diverse range of activities in which scouts may participate. Scouts stay at camp for a week at a time, attending classes to complete and earn merit badges. Over the course of the summer camp season, around 2,000 scouts go through the programs held at Camp Lakota.

The Scouts BSA merit badge program covers a wide variety of different skills in multiple different fields. Scouts earn merit badges as they advance on their way to being an Eagle Scout.

Merit badges included in the STEM and Eco Conservation areas include aviation, chemistry, biological sciences, engineering, and geology. These merit badges are not always as in-depth as a traditional school curriculum but act more as a way for scouts to learn about different skills that can later be developed into a career or as a hobby as the scout grows older.

The merit badges give a good overview of the field that the badge covers. For example, the geology merit badge has five requirements that must be met before the badge can be given

(Table 3). Requirements 1 through 3 are relatively simple, as the first requirement is simply to define what geology is, the second requires the scout to discuss with their counselor three materials that are mined and how they are processed, and the third requires the scout to look at a geologic map of their state and discuss the different rock types and geologic ages that appear in the state (Boy Scouts of America, 2016).

Requirements four and five are where the geology merit badge can become more in-depth and more tailored to what the scout or the counselor has decided to emphasize. Requirement four 18 is broken into two different requirements but only one of them must be met before the requirement can be approved. Option a is to meet with a geologist, discuss what the tools are that they use to accomplish their research, and to talk about that geologist’s current research. Option b requires the scout to look up three career opportunities in the geology field, do some research on those three careers, and report their findings back to their counselor as to why these careers might interest them (Boy Scouts of America, 2016).

Requirement five is more in-depth than the other requirements but has been broken down into four different options, each with their own unique requirements and where one of them must be completed for requirement five to be approved. These options are surface and sedimentary processes (5.a), energy resources (5.b), mineral resources (5.c), and Earth history (5.d). For this study, I have focused on the Earth history option, which has been broken into five different requirements, with the fifth containing four options, of which one must be completed.

Requirement 5.d.1 has the scout create a chart of geologic ages and then discuss and determine the age of the rocks from their area. Requirement 5.d.2 has the scout discuss with their counselor the process of burial and fossilization, then discuss the concept of extinction. Requirement 5.d.3 requires the scout to discuss how, and what information, can be gained from the examination of fossils about the environment of the past, ancient life, climate, and geology. Then they must discuss how organisms were able to gather food in multiple environments: benthonic, pelagic, littoral, lacustrine, open marine, brackish, fluvial, eolian, and protected reefs. Requirement 5.d.4 has the scout either collect ten fossils or identify fifteen fossils while recording where each was found, how the organism obtained food, survived, and any other information that can be discussed about the fossils that they are examining. The last requirement for 5.d only requires one to be met, so I shall use option c, which has the scout visit a fossiliferous outcrop and record 19 the evidence of the type of rock and any other fossil evidence they may find at the site (Boy

Scouts of America, 2016).

The Scouts BSA states that each requirement must be met before the merit badge can be given, and that these requirements can’t be changed or have more requirements added or removed. However, more information can be taught to strengthen what a scout learns from these requirements without changing or modifying the requirements already set. More detailed explanation of these requirements can be found online by searching for BSA Geology Merit

Badge, or by reading the BSA’s geology merit badge handbook (Boy Scouts of America, 2016).

In 2017, it was announced that girls would be allowed into the Scouts BSA program. This transition has already begun in some parts of the United States, but for Camp Lakota it is not believed that it will play a very large part of the camp program until 2019. Once this transition is complete, then girls who are participating in the scouting program will be able to earn merit badges and be eligible for the Eagle Scout award as well.

Table 3. Requirements for the Geology Merit Badge in the Boy Scout Summer Camp (Boy

Scouts of America, 2016). Requirements used in 2017 season. Scouts must complete requirements 1, 2, and 3. Requirement 5 includes section d on Earth history, on which my work focuses. Scouts must complete 5.d.1 through 5.d.4 plus one option under 5.d.d

Geology Merit Badge Requirements used in Summer Camp 2017 Requirements Define geology. Discuss how geologists learn about rock formations. In geology, explain 1 why the study of the present is important to understanding the past. Pick three resources that can be extracted or mined from Earth for commercial use. Discuss 2 with your counselor how each product is discovered and processed. Review a geologic map of your area or an area selected by your counselor and discuss the 3 different rock types and estimated ages of rocks represented. Determine whether the rocks are horizontal, folded, or faulted, and explain how you arrived at your conclusion. With your parent's and counselor's approval, visit with a geologist, land use planner, or civil engineer. Discuss this professional's work and the tools required in this line of work. Learn 4.a about a project that this person is now working on and ask to see reports and maps created for this project. Discuss with your counselor what you have learned. Create a chart showing suggested geological eras and periods. Determine which period the 5.d.1 rocks in your region might have been formed. Explain to your counselor the processes of burial and fossilization and discuss the concept 5.d.2 of extinction. Explain to your counselor how fossils provide information about ancient life, environment, climate, and geography. Discuss the following terms and explain how animals from each 5.d.3 habitat obtain food: benthonic, pelagic, littoral, lacustrine, open marine, brackish, fluvial, eolian, protected reef. Collect 10 different fossil plants or animals OR (with your counselor's assistance) identify 15 different fossil plants or animals. Record in a notebook where you obtained (found, 5.d.4 bought, traded) each one. Classify each specimen to the best of your ability and explain how each one might have survived and obtained food. Tell what else you can learn from these fossils. Visit a science museum or the geology department of a local university that has fossils on display. With your parent's and counselor's approval, before you go, make an appointment 5.d.5.a with a curator or guide who can show you how the fossils are preserved and prepared for display. Visit a structure in your area that was built using fossiliferous rocks. Determine what kind 5.d.5.b of rock was used and tell your counselor the kinds of fossil evidence you found there. Visit a rock outcrop that contains fossils. Determine what kind of rock contains the fossils 5.d.5.c and tell your counselor the kinds of fossil evidence you found at the outcrop. Prepare a display or presentation on your state fossil. Include an image of the fossil, the age of the fossil, and its classification. You may use maps, books, articles from periodicals, and 5.d.5.d research found on the Internet (with your parent's permission). Share the display with your counselor or a small group (such as your class at school). If your state does not have a state fossil, you may select a state fossil from a neighboring state. Prepare a display or presentation on your state fossil. Include an image of the fossil, the age of the fossil, and its classification. You may use maps, books, articles from periodicals, and 5.d.5.d research found on the Internet (with your parent's permission). Share the display with your counselor or a small group (such as your class at school). If your state does not have a state fossil, you may select a state fossil from a neighboring state. 21

Online Educational Resources

In sciences such as geology or paleontology, sometimes important concepts are difficult for students to grasp without seeing real-world examples of the concept. Using videos, photographs, and drawing can give a better idea of what these concepts are, and with the use of the internet, this visual approach can be made easier to accomplish. Schools in China, for example, began using online practices to allow students to make connections easier with the use of online tools such as interactive maps, allowing the learning to transition from a teacher- centered learning environment to a question-based and student-centered approach (Dong et al.,

2009). Even in the U.S., using online maps has been shown to get students more interested in being able to make these connections in their local area, allowing them to apply new information to what they already know about their environment (Cohn et al., 2014). This approach of using online interactive maps has also been shown to be effective in allowing students to test what they have learned in a manner that allows them to explore the area the map covers (Navarrette et al.,

2011).

OBJECTIVES

My research goal was to investigate the Detroit River Group and Dundee Formation at the Auglaize Quarry and the Antrim Shale at Camp Lakota to document their paleoenvironments and paleontology and then compare results to other known localities, providing new insights into the Middle to Late Devonian transition within the southern margin of the Michigan Basin.

In addition to this scientific goal, I also created new online educational tools exploring

Earth system evolution through the Devonian. These materials meet Ohio State Educational

Standards and Next Generation Science Standards, and are targeted to 6th, 8th, and high school grades. 23

METHODS

Field Work

Stratigraphic Sections

Dr. Yacobucci and I conducted field work at the Auglaize Quarry in May 2018. Due to the risk of falling rock, we were not permitted by the operator to go within 13 meters of the quarry’s high wall. Thus, stratigraphic sections could not be constructed for this site. At Camp

Lakota, heavy rainfall during the spring, summer, and fall of 2018 meant the Auglaize River was too high to record the full vertical exposure of the Antrim Shale at this locality. While detailed stratigraphic sections could not be constructed for either site, field observations and photographs provided information about the overall bedding and variations in bed thickness, color, and resistance to weathering.

Sampling Protocol

Sampling at the Auglaize Quarry was performed in multiple locations around the site with samples taken from large aggregate piles. Sampling along the high wall was not permitted.

For each sample, a one-gallon Ziploc bag of material was collected, with the precise location georeferenced.

At Camp Lakota, sampling vertically through the Antrim Shale exposure was not possible due to the high river level. Horizontal sampling was performed roughly every 10 meters unless there was a large difference in the lithology, in which case more frequent sampling was used. All collected samples were placed into one-gallon Ziploc bags, and labeled with their location, date, formation, and age. Two roughly linear sets of samples were taken in transects along the exposure, one near the back of the exposure along the hill (B), and the other closer to the river’s waterline, at approximately the middle of the exposure (M). These two transects were 24 sampled to check for the presence of more fissile shale near the hillside further from the river’s edge where more erosion was likely to have occurred, and to see how the lithology changed from the hillside to the rivers bank due to erosion.

As a comparison the Dundee Formation exposed at the Auglaize Quarry, samples of the

Dundee Formation from Whitehouse Quarry were also examined and processed for microfossil content. These samples were previously collected by Wright (2006) and stored at Bowling Green

State University. The samples from Whitehouse Quarry represent four different horizons within the Dundee Formation.

Field Photography

In addition to rock samples, numerous photographs of the Auglaize Quarry and Camp

Lakota sites were taken, including images of the quarry’s high wall, and details of the lithology, sedimentary structures, and fossil content of the exposed units. The Nikon D3200 camera was set to manual, and aperture and shutter speed were adjusted based upon the weather on that day.

Neutral density filters (0.6 and 0.9) were used as needed to compensate for bright sunlight. These filters allow for easier adjustments when used to block out more sun entering the camera, producing sharper quality images prior to computer processing. GPS coordinates where each photograph was taken were recorded so the images could be georeferenced.

Lab Work

Sample Preparation

Prior to any other laboratory methods, samples went through several different preparation stages, the first of which was to be properly labeled. Tags were written on the receptacle in which rock and fossil samples were stored, listing the date collected, locality information including GPS coordinates, formation and unit from which they were collected, and their 25 geologic age. Any samples selected for thin section petrography or acid digestion were washed off to remove any loose dirt and dust from the surface of the sample, then were cut with a rock saw to remove any visible macrofossils to prevent them from being dissolved in the acid digestion process. Once any visible macrofossils had been removed, selected samples were cut or broken down to a size around 2 inches by 3 inches, a size appropriate both for mounting to glass microscope slides and for acid digestion, allowing for good surface area coverage. Samples cut using an oil cooled saw were also scrubbed using Dawn dish soap and a toothbrush to remove the oil. The oil, if not removed, prevented the formic acid from attacking the samples exposed to it.

Thin Section Petrography

Several rock samples from the Antrim Shale at Camp Lakota were selected to be thin sectioned, including two shale and two siltstone samples. B11 was chosen for the clear presence of the pyrite seam and for how fissile the rock was. B3 and B16 were selected because they were on nearly opposite sides of the exposure. M13 was selected as it was one of the thicker siltstone beds in the exposure. Once each sample had been cut and polished down to the correct size to fit on a glass slide, the epoxy Epo-Teck was used to bind samples to slides for further cutting and grinding down to the proper thickness for examination under a microscope. Heating was used for curing of the Epo-Teck. Thin sections were then examined with a petrographic microscope to identify lithology, texture, cements, fossils, diagenetic alterations, and other key features.

Acid and Peroxide Digestions

Two chemical preparation techniques were used to break apart rock samples in order to extract microfossils. Acid digestion breaks down carbonate rocks, allowing conodonts and other phosphatic fossils to be removed for analysis. The process for the acid digestion was similar to 26 that of Jeppsson and Anehus (1995) but some modifications were made to the process. A solution of 95% formic acid was acquired from DudaDiesel and brought down to a concentration of 10% (by combining 1.56 liters of 95% formic acid and 12.44 liters of tap water) before the introduction of samples of the Detroit River Group and Dundee Formation. The alteration to the method of Jeppsson and Anehus (1995) is not using additional calcium carbonate to buffer the solution. At 10% concentration, the formic acid quickly breaks down the existing carbonate in the rocks, which rapidly buffers the solution and decreases effervescence, slowing damage to phosphatic fossil contents. To begin, 500 grams of carbonate rock were placed in a two-gallon bucket with four liters of acid. After the process began, each bucket was checked every 24 hours to assess how much rock has been broken down. Once enough had been broken down, if needed, more rock samples were introduced into the acid to continue the process. Each of these acid bucket ran for between a week and a half to two weeks, at which point the dissolution process began to slow down to the point of being ineffective and the solution was changed out for more formic acid at 10% concentration.

The material recovered from the acid digestion was sieved (sizes: 850 μm, 600 μm, 250

μm, 180 μm, 150 μm, and 74 μm) and washed down to prevent any remaining acid from crystallizing, then dried. Once sieved and dried, the contents of each sieve were weighed. This measurement allowed calculation of the percentage of rock dissolved by the acid and the percentages of residue at each sieve size. Once done, the sieved material was put into containers to be examined under a microscope so microfossils could be picked out and identified.

Peroxide digestion breaks up organic-rich shales and siltstones. Samples from the Antrim

Shale were put into 30% hydrogen peroxide to oxidize and break down the high carbon material to retrieve microfossils present. About 250 grams was placed into the buckets to cover most of 27 the bottom of the two-gallon bucket while allowing some gaps for the hydrogen peroxide to infiltrate beneath the samples. 2 liters of 30% hydrogen peroxide were then added to the bucket.

After two weeks, the remaining material was sieved using the same sizes as for the acid digestions, washed to end any further chemical reactions, and then dried. Dried residues were placed in containers and viewed under a microscope for microfossil retrieval.

Fossil Identification

Fossil identification was made using the Fossils of Ohio volume (Feldmann, 2005), the

Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology (Moore et al., 1953-current), and Baird et al. (1983), which describes several Middle Devonian coral species. Identifications were made to the genus or species level whenever possible. For conodonts recovered from the acid digestion, Hass

(1958), Orr (1971), Sparling (1988), Birchard et al. (1990), Brett et al. (2011), and DeSantis et al.

(2011) were used to identify them. As fossils were identified, relevant information (including taxonomic name, formation and stratigraphic unit, locality, abundance, and quality of preservation) was saved into a Microsoft Excel (Microsoft, 2011) file and photographs were taken of the specimens.

Photograph Stacking

Fossils acquired from the acid digestion process proved to be too tiny to photograph through normal means. Thus, photograph stacking procedures were used to acquire photographs of the microfossils. This process used a shot stacker device with a Nikon D7200 camera to take pictures at a zoom sufficient to observe small sections of the microfossils in focus. The shot stacker moves the mounted camera with a stepper motor to take images at a distance of 10 μm from one another. Setting the start position and end position allows a series of photographs to be taken with small slices of the fossil in focus in each image. The shot stacker software determines 28 how many photographs are between those two positions. The stepper motor moves exactly that distance with a delay time following each movement to allow all vibrations to cease. Once the photographs were taken, they were put into the Helicon Focus software program (Helicon Soft,

2019), which stacks the images to create an in-focus image of whatever microfossil was placed in front of the camera.

Photograph Enhancement

Photographs were modified within the open source software applications Darktable

(Lebedev et al., 2019) and GIMP (GNU Image Manipulation Program; Kimball et al., 2019) to add lines to better show features within the rock facies, and to clear up any light errors within the picture made when taking the image. Darktable is functionally similar to Lightroom used in

Photoshop but is a free program to download and use. Basic corrections were performed on the

RAW files by adjusting the exposure, contrast, brightness, saturation, shadows, and highlights sliders. On occasion adjusting the tone curve was also performed to create a more S-curve shape to create a little more contrast. After the corrections were made, the images were exported from

Darktable as TIFF files. These corrected images were then opened in GIMP, also a free program for download and use, for further corrections or to add different objects to the image such as the scale bars in the microfossil images. These images, unenhanced and enhanced, were also uploaded to Flickr.com under an Attribution-Noncommercial free use license. This license allows others to use these images for their own use, as long as they are attributed back to the page and not used for commercial purposes. 29

Development of Educational Materials

Conceptual Overview

Interactive online maps of the two field sites and associated educational materials were created from the findings of this study. The purpose of these maps and tools is to create an inquiry-based learning experience through the stimulation of curiosity in learners and to allow them to explore the materials in their own way. To get learners to engage with the materials, questions are posed at places in the maps, giving details on how the study was performed, and how these findings were used to interpret what the past was like at the sites of interest. All these features will drive learners to further explore the details within the maps while formulating their own questions and gaining insight into the scientific process.

These materials are designed using the Ohio State Educational Standards for the 6th and

8th grades, and the Next Generation Science Standards for the high school ages. For 6th graders, they will learn how certain types of rocks are deposited in specific types of environments, and at the end of their exploration of the materials, they should be able to explain how sedimentary rocks are formed. For 8th graders, they will learn more and build upon what was discussed in the

6th grade, including the age of the Earth, the concept of using fossils in relative dating, and the idea of uniformitarianism. By the end of the lesson, 8th graders should be able to explain why fossils are useful for determining the age of sedimentary rocks, and how those fossils give insight into what the environment in the past was like. For high schoolers, they will be learning how to use the evidence learned in the 6th and 8th grades to construct arguments about the Earth of the past and the organisms that lived during that time. By the end, they should be able to construct arguments based upon evidence they find or are given. Along with these standards, the educational materials also incorporate the Scouts BSA requirements for the Geology Merit 30

Badge. The maps will help scouts learn the content required to earn the badge. The requirements these materials help complete are 3, 5.d.1, 5.d.2, 5.d.3, and parts of 4.a, 5.d.4, and 5.d.5.c (Table

3).

A website was created to act as a hub, making all the educational materials easily accessible to the public. This website contains several different pages that lead to the maps, links to images and videos, background information, reference materials, and a glossary of terms.

Content Development

Texts

In the creation of the texts it was kept in mind different learning techniques through kinesthetics, audio, and visual learning with the texts meeting the need for visual. The texts for the maps were created from the findings of the geological and paleontological portions of this study. These texts were written in such a way that all the details are scattered over several different nodes on the map. This was done to encourage readers to explore, which meets the kinesthetics learning style, and to formulate their own questions as they gather pieces of the larger picture. As they assemble this larger picture, questions posed to them will be answered, and they can also try to answer any questions they may have thought of as they explored.

To accompany the maps, a review sheet was developed that encourages exploration of the information in the nodes. This review sheet asks questions that can be answered by giving explanations of subjects discussed, such as why particular fossils are noteworthy or why fossils are useful for dating rock units. The review sheet promotes deeper learning by requiring learners to physically write down (or type) the target concepts as they are found throughout the nodes.

On the website are several different pages that contain information useful for further education in or out of the classroom. The Reference Materials page includes web links to 31

Understanding Evolution (Caldwell et al., 2018), RockD (Macrostrat Lab, 2016), and FossilMe

(Muñoz et al., 2017), resources that can be utilized by educators or students. RockD and

FossilMe are free to download phone or tablet applications that can be used to provide information on geologic formations and fossils, respectively. Understanding Evolution is a website dedicated to the furthering of evolution education, and includes materials designed for use in classroom settings. The Glossary page includes terms that might not be fully understood by students or other readers. Some of these include the Frasnian and Famennian time periods and the currently accepted length of time they include. Other terms include anoxia, dysoxia, explanations of the fossil species found, different kinds of ocean or near ocean environments, and other geology terms, such as uniformitarianism.

Photographs and Videos

The edited photographs, which meets the visual learning style, that were used in the maps were selected to show different lithologic features, fossils, or how the site itself looks. Most of the fossils found during this study were in the size range of 0.25 to 2 millimeters, including several conodont species, sarcopterygian teeth, scolecodonts, and charophytes.

Microphotographs are therefore necessary to view them. Photographs of the larger fossils, such as stromatoporoid sponges, corals, gastropods, bivalves, and plants, are included to show what the ancient ecosystem was like and how fossils can help reconstruct the paleoenvironment.

Images showing the lithology from the Auglaize Quarry include rip-up clasts, microbial mats, two types of crystals, stylolites, and the high walls. These photos are used to illustrate how geologists interpret these features to draw conclusions about the past, either with or without additional evidence from fossils. Images from the shale beds at Camp Lakota include what the 32 outcrop looks like plus photographs of recovered fossils, including micronchid tubes, Tasmanites cysts, possible statoliths or otoliths, a bivalve, and plants.

Videos were created using Microsoft PowerPoint (Microsoft, 2011) to demonstrate and explain concepts using conodont fossils and use both visual and audio learning stylesaudio learning styles. The first video explains differences between two of the species of conodonts and how they are distinguished from each other by one small anatomical difference. The second video uses conodonts as an example of how fossils can be used to perform relative dating on a rock unit and why index fossils are critical to defining geologic time intervals. The videos give the time frame in which these species existed and emphasize the importance of understanding the anatomy, evolution, and stratigraphic record of fossil groups.

Construction of Online Maps

Google Maps

Using Google Maps ensures a large audience can access the information uploaded to the map. With a Gmail account created for this purpose, the Google Maps My Maps function was accessed. This application allows for textual information stored in a spreadsheet to be uploaded to the Google Maps interface and displayed in association with georeferenced points. Clicking on these points on the map opens a small window that can display images, videos, and text. These markers can also have their appearance and color changed to match more specifically the information displayed. This platform has been selected due to its ease of access and low costs.

Several maps were created using this process, one for the Stoneco Auglaize Quarry and three (described later) for Camp Lakota. The tour maps have several different markers, each with their own information displayed when clicked. The information displayed includes images of the site, fossil images, links to videos located on Google Maps or found on a YouTube channel, and 33 textual information about the findings from the research and how that covers the specific target concepts from the selected education standards.

Website

A website on the BGSU personal pages domain was created to act as a hub for all the educational materials: http://personal.bgsu.edu/~chadmas/. Creation of the website was done within Microsoft Publisher 2016 following instructions from Kennesaw State University (2017).

Files were uploaded to the website server using a Secure File Transfer Protocol (SFTP) called

FileZilla Client (Kosse, 2001). This program allows easy transfer of files from a local hard drive to a remote system.

On the website, links direct users to the maps, the Flickr account where the images are stored, the YouTube channel with the educational videos, a glossary of terms, self-check quizzes, printable pamphlets, and other online information sources such as Berkeley’s Evolution 101 website (Caldwell et al. 2018). Additional links direct users to the Black Swamp Area Council

(BSAC) BSA Camp Lakota website, which contains a history of the camp, and to a section describing the educational goals of this project and providing a small introduction to the NGSS. 34

RESULTS

Field Observations of Stratigraphy and Lithology

Stoneco Auglaize Quarry

During the trip to the Stoneco Auglaize Quarry, we were not permitted to approach the high wall due to the risk of falling rubble. Rocks accessible in piles of rubble were examined for stratigraphic and paleontological features, with the caveat that the exact stratigraphic position of these rocks is unknown. However, the two units (Detroit River Group and Dundee Formation) could generally be distinguished from each other. Georeferenced coordinates of these rubble piles were taken using the GPS unit (Figure 7). Photographs taken at the east, west, and south high walls were edited to improve the image quality, making the strata easier to discern (Figures

8-10).

In Figure 11, the boundary between the Detroit River Group and the Dundee Formation has been drawn to make it clearer. This boundary can be seen all along the high wall in the quarry. The boundary is drawn at the contact between light brown limestone with microbial mats

(underlying Detroit River Group) and light gray microcrystalline limestone (overlying Dundee

Formation) (Figures 11, 12). The Dundee Formation is also distinguished by the prevalence of calcite and purple fluorite crystals, reflecting diagenetic alteration and fluid flow through the unit

(Figure 13). Stylolites are present in both units and are evidence of diagenetic dissolution surfaces (Figure 14). Rip-up clasts also occur in both units, suggesting that the depositional environment was intertidal to shallow subtidal marine (Figure 15). In both formations, large sections contain stromatoporoid sponges (see Results section c, Figure 34). 35

Figure 7. Georeferenced Points at Stoneco Auglaize Quarry. (Google Maps, Stoneco Auglaize

Quarry)

Figure 8. Auglaize Quarry East High Wall. 36

Figure 9. Auglaize Quarry West High Wall.

Figure 10. Auglaize Quarry South High Wall. 37

Figure 11. Boundary between the Detroit River Group and Dundee Formation at Auglaize

Quarry. 38

Figure 12. Boundary of the Detroit River Group and the Dundee Formation. Also present are microbial mats. Red line is the boundary and the arrow points to some of the microbial mats.

Figure 13. Crystal Formations at Auglaize Quarry. The calcite and fluorite are mainly constrained to the Dundee Formation at the quarry. A) Calcite. B.) Fluorite. 39

Figure 14. Stylolites in Detroit River Group.

Figure 15. Rip-up Clasts in the Detroit River Group. Scale bar blocks are 5 mm square.

The Detroit River Group alternates between browns and grays in color and feels sandy to the touch while being friable. The samples collected from the Detroit River Group were of a dark brown limestone with calcite crystals that are smaller in size than those found within the Dundee 40

Formation. The strata at the bottom of the quarry wall and right below the upper boundary with the Dundee Formation are planar without much detail that can be seen at a distance. About halfway up the wall, a package of wavy bedding can be seen, indicative of either wave action in shallower water or the presence of dissolution surfaces (Figure 16).

Figure 16. Wavy Bedding or Dissolution Surfaces at Auglaize Quarry. A.) South high wall. B.)

West high wall.

The Dundee Formation at the Auglaize Quarry is a light gray microcrystalline limestone, and in some areas has calcite infilled vugs (Figure 17). Rocks in several of the rubble piles, particularly the west pile, displayed rip-up clasts. Large calcite (Figure 13A) and fluorite crystals

(Figure 13B) are found in these sections of the quarry and in some areas coincide with stylolites.

Figure 17. Calcite Infilled Vugs in Dundee Formation. Smaller blocks on scale bar are 1 cm square.

Camp Lakota

Figure 18 shows the georeferenced sampling localities for the Antrim Shale exposure at

Camp Lakota. The Antrim Shale at Camp Lakota alternates between being a fissile shale and a much more resistant siltstone. The shale beds are exposed in some areas while others are capped by this siltstone. The siltstone varies in its thickness across the entire exposure. The middle (M) sampling transect has more shale exposed, possibly due to it being covered more frequently during flood events, exposing different pockets or layers of the shale. The bank (B) transect has less shale, probably due to the initial top layer of shale being eroded by the river during higher flooding events. This is thought to be the case because more shale is exposed as the hillside bank is cut into by the river. Present in almost the entire exposure is a thin seam of pyrite (Figure 19) with large pyrite nodules along it. Nodules also appear in other areas further from this seam but are usually smaller in size (Figure 20), and those away from the seam also show a tendency to occur in groups along a bedding plane without straying from it.

Figure 18. Georeferenced Points at Camp Lakota. A.) Georeferenced points for the bank (B) row. B.) Georeferenced points for the middle (M) row. Scales are 100 feet or 30.5 meters.

(Google Maps, Shale Beds Camp Lakota)

Figure 19. Pyrite Seam in the Antrim Shale. The seam varies in width and disappears briefly but is present along almost the entire length of the exposure. 45

Figure 20. Pyrite Nodules in the Antrim Shale. Nodules range in size from almost microscopic to seventeen centimeters across.

Thin Section Petrography

Detroit River Group Pile 1

One thin section was made from a sample of the Detroit River Group collected in the

Auglaize Quarry. As is typical for this unit, the sample is a dark brown crystalline carbonate with occasional calcite seams and mud stringers. In thin section, diagenetic calcite crystals ranging from 0.5 to 2 mm across are visible within a relatively uniform crystalline matrix (Figure 21).

Figure 21. Calcite in the Detroit River Group at the Auglaize Quarry. A) Thin seam of calcite.

Common throughout the sample piece. B) Larger calcite crystal. Found throughout but of variable sizes. Scale bars are 1 mm.

Dundee Formation Pile 4

A sample of the Dundee Formation from the Auglaize Quarry was selected for thin section. The hand sample is a light gray crystalline carbonate with variably sized calcite crystals on the surface and on the cut side. In thin section, it has a light gray to white crystalline carbonate matrix with large seams of calcite crystals varying in size from 0.5 to 2.5 mm (Figure

22).

Figure 22. Calcite in the Dundee Formation at the Auglaize Quarry. The cubes seen in the crystal are instances of twinning in the calcite crystal. Scale bar is 1 mm.

Antrim Shale B3

The sample was taken from one end of the Antrim Shale exposure along the hillside. The hand sample is a dark brown to dark gray or black siltstone with small inclusions of pyrite visible to the naked eye. The thin section contains coarse to medium quartz silt, which is rounded and moderately sorted, with calcite cement. There are spherical infilled shapes roughly 250 μm in size that are likely infilled Tasmanites cysts (Figure 23A), and interspersed pyrite crystals 48 ranging around 1 mm in size (Figure 23B). More Tasmanites cysts that were crushed (Figure

24A, C) and other fossils roughly 250 - 500 μm across (possibly microconchid tubes) (Figure

24B, D) can also be seen.

Figure 23. Minerals in Thin Section of Sample B3 from Antrim Shale. A) Spherical infilled

Tasmanites cyst. B) Pyrite clusters scattered throughout sample B3. Scale bar is 1 mm.

Figure 24. Fossils in Thin Section of Sample B3 from Antrim Shale. A, C) Center of images shows what is likely to be microconchid tubes. B, D) The arrows point to partially crushed

Tasmanites cysts. Scale bars are 1 mm.

Antrim Shale B11

This sample was taken from the Antrim Shale at the entrance to the exposure, about halfway between either end of the exposure. The hand sample is a dark brown to dark gray or black shale with a seam of pyrite that ranges in width running the length of the sample. The bottom half of the thin section contains a medium to fine silt with well-rounded and well sorted grains with quartz infilled spaces, some of which are the spherical or collapsed infilled

Tasmanites cysts (fossil green algae) about 225 μm across (Figure 25).

Separating the top and bottom halves of the thin section is a seam of pyrite crystals that ranges in width from 2mm to a few microns (Figure 25, 26A, C). This seam of pyrite can be found for great lengths in the field stretching across the Antrim Shale exposure at Camp Lakota.

The top half of the thin section is dark brown and contains a coarse to medium silt, sub rounded to well-rounded and moderately sorted (Figures 25, 26C, D). More Tasmanites cysts with infilling are present along the boundary pyrite seam (Figure 25B). Both the top and bottom halves of the thin section show a preferential horizontal orientation of the grains throughout.

Figure 26A and B shows where the pyrite seam is the thickest, around 2 mm in width. The preferential orientation of the grains that can be seen in Figure 26B and D is a sign of post depositional compaction, and since the grains aren’t as well sorted this indidcates that the paleoflow during deposition was probably faster. So, after the time of major pyrite growth the speed of the flow had increased enough to deposit larger grains alongside the smaller ones.

Figure 25. Thin Section of Sample B11 from Antrim Shale. The top of each image is the top of the sample. The pyrite seam is visible in the center of both images, running from left to right. A)

Pyrite seam separating top and bottom of the sample. Note that the top of the sample is darker in color and coarser in its grain size compared to the bottom half of the sample, which is lighter in color and not as coarse grained. B) Another view showing difference in lithology between the top and bottom, and examples of the fossil content. Several spherical Tasmanites cysts sit on the pyrite seam and a crushed cyst is below it. Scale bars are 1 mm.

Figure 26. Additional Views of Thin Section of Sample B11 from Antrim Shale. Top of the thin section is the top right corner for all images. A) Edges of the pyrite seam near its thickest zone

(about 2mm). B) Top half of the thin section with larger grain size than lower half. C) Pyrite seam separating upper and lower halves. D) Preferred orientation of grains in upper half of thin section. Scale bars are 1 mm.

Antrim Shale B16

This sample is from the opposite side of the Antrim Shale exposure as B3. The hand

sample is a dark brown to dark gray or black fissile shale with visible pyrite crystals. The rock in

thin section is brown in color and comprised of coarse to medium quartz silt, which is sub-

rounded to well-rounded and is well sorted. Some calcite cementing and infilling is present.

Tasmanites are also seen scattered throughout the section, and are around 0.450 μm across,

which is slightly larger in size than those in the other thin sections (Figure 27A, B). The

Tasmanites can also appear as an orange streak if they are crushed sufficiently, as it makes the

organic “skin” of the Tasmanites easier to see, e.g., top left circle of Figure 27A (Schieber and

Baird, 2001). Also scattered throughout this section are pyrite crystals ranging in size from 0.3

μm and 3 mm (Figure 27C). The fossils display a preferential orientation to the horizontal position is likely due to post-depositional compaction of the unit.

Figure 27. Thin Section of Sample B16 from Antrim Shale. Fossils demonstrate a preferred

orientation which is showing the possible direction of the flow during deposition. A) Several

Tasmanites found scattered throughout the sample. The top left circle is around a crushed

Tasmanites with the organic “skin” still intact. The black object at the bottom is a pyrite crystal.

B) Circled is a Tasmanites cyst that has been partially crushed. C) Pyrite cluster near edge of

slide. Scale bars are 1 mm.

Antrim Shale M13

In hand sample, Sample M13 is a dark brown to a dark gray or black siltstone with a few

small pyrite crystals visible; the crystals are smaller than those seen in other hand samples. In

thin section, it is brown with medium to fine quartz silt, with the grains being rounded and

moderately sorted, and some calcite cement. The fossils present are in greater numbers near the

top of the sample but can still be found throughout. Fossil contents include long cones that are

probably microconchid tubes ranging in size from 0.75 to 2 mm (Figure 28A), and Tasmanites

infilled cysts that have retained their spherical shapes, ranging in size from 250 μm to 0.9 mm in

size (Figure 28B, C, D). This sample does not display as much preferential orientation of grains or fossils as the other samples observed from the Camp Lakota Antrim Shale exposure. 55

Figure 28. Thin Section of Sample M13 from Antrim Shale. A) Cone like microconchid tubes varying from about 1.0 to 2.5 mm in length. B, C, D) Tasmanites cysts were found throughout the thin section but were at a higher concentration near the top of the sample.

Antrim Shale Nodules

Small Nodule

The smaller of the two nodules was taken closer to the river side of the exposure which is

below the pyrite seam running throughout the entire exposure. The hand sample is dark brown on

its exterior, but internally is a metallic silver that smells of iron and sulfur. In thin section it is

predominantly pyrite crystals supported with small areas of calcite cement (Figure 29A, B), and

the more red or orange shapes appear to be Tasmanites cysts that have collapsed (Figure 29C,

D). Figure 30A shows a variety of different Tasmanites cysts at different points of being crushed ranging from the spheres to the more pinched shapes, and Figure 30B, C, and D provide different examples of the cysts with different amount of pyrite encroachment.

Figure 29. Cementation Inside Smaller Nodule and Tasmanites from Antrim Shale. Around these seams are pyrite crystals. A, B) Examples of the calcite cement inside of the nodules. C, D)

The more reddish orange streaks are identified as Tasmanites.

Figure 30. Thin Section of Small Nodule Sample from Antrim Shale. A) Spherical Tasmanites cysts. B) Almost perfectly spherical fossil, but some sections are encroached upon by pyrite crystals. C) Crushed Tasmanites cysts. D) Crushed spherical Tasmanites cyst encroached heavily by pyrite crystals. Scale bars for A, D are 1 mm; for B, C are 250 μm.

Large Nodule

The larger nodule is taken from a position closer to the hillside and above the pyrite seam on the Antrim Shale exposure. The hand sample is dark brown with spots of orange rust on its exterior, but internally is a metallic silver that smells of iron and sulfur. In thin section it is almost exclusively pyrite with a little bit of calcite cement scattered throughout. It is pyrite crystal supported (Figure 31). There are a few Tasmanites cysts, but not as many as in the smaller nodule or in any of the other samples. Either they were present but not captured in the thin section, or they were entirely replaced by the growth of pyrite.

Figure 31. Thin Section of Large Nodule from Antrim Shale. Note sparse cement found in this larger nodule. Scale bars are 1 mm.

Paleontology

Overview of Fossil Content

Fossil species were identified and tallied for the different sites, based on field observations of macrofossils and laboratory observations of microfossils in thin section and the chemical preparation residues. Table 4 shows the fossil counts for the Middle Devonian units from Auglaize Quarry and Whitehouse Quarry, and Table 5 has the counts for the Upper 60

Devonian Antrim Shale at Camp Lakota. For the Middle Devonian units, Dundee Formation sample FS-08 from Whitehouse Quarry is noticeably the most diverse. From the Antrim Shale, the most diverse sample is M13, which had a plethora of microfossils seen in thin section and statoliths/otoliths and worm tubes in the sieved residues.

Table 4. Fossil Occurrences at Auglaize and Whitehouse Quarries.

Stoneco Auglaize Quarry Whitehouse Quarry

Detroit River Dundee ST-07 FS-05 FS-08 S3-02

Group Pile 1 Formation Pile 4

Euryzone arata Present

Favosites Common Common

Emmonsia/Coenites Common Common

Stromatoporoids Common Common

Paulinitidae sp. Common Common Common

I. angustus 8 2 6 3

I. expansus 1 3

I. nodosus 1

Fish Teeth >15 >15

Charophytes >20

Table 5. Fossil Occurrences at Camp Lakota.

Antrim Antrim Antrim Antrim Antrim Thin Sections

Shale B2 Shale B10 Shale B16 Shale M13 Shale M11 B3, B11, B16,

Large/Small

Nodules

Ptychopteria 1

Lycopsid 2

Plants

Worm Very Very Very Very

Tubes Common Common Common Common

Statoliths/O Uncommon

toliths

Tasmanites Very Very Common in all

cysts Common

Tables 6 through 13 report the final weights of acid digestion residues by sieve size and the percentage of rock mass remaining after the acid treatment. The amount of material digested can be affected by the composition of the rock, such as how much quartz is present, and in the case of the rock from the Auglaize Quarry, remaining oil from the cutting process which protected the rock from acid breakdown. For Dundee Formation samples from Whitehouse

Quarry, the S3-02 sample was most digested and the FS-05 sample the least digested. For the

Auglaize Quarry samples, the Detroit River Group sample from Pile Start 1 had the most material digested, and the Dundee Formation samples had the least.

Table 6. Whitehouse Quarry Dundee Formation Sample FS-05 Acid Digestion Results.

Sieve size 0.701 mm + 0.5 mm 0.147 0.074 0.991 Total + 0.0295 mm mm mm mm Final weight 3.6g 1.6g 53.3g 314.9g 373.3g

Starting rock 499.8g weight Percent left after 74.70% digestion

Table 7. Whitehouse Quarry Dundee Formation Sample FS-08 Acid Digestion Results.

Sieve size 0.701 mm + 0.0295 0.147 0.074 0.991 Total 0.51 mm mm mm mm mm Final weight 1.9g 1.9g 8.2g 36.7g 178g 226.7g

Starting rock 500.5g weight Percent left after 45.30% digestion

Table 8. Whitehouse Quarry Dundee Formation Sample S3-02 Acid Digestion Results.

Sieve size 0.701 mm + 0.0295 0.147 0.074 0.991 Total 0.51 mm mm mm mm mm Final weight 1.4g 2.1g 4.3g 18.1g 174g 199.9g Starting rock 500.7g weight Percent left after 39.90% digestion

Table 9. Whitehouse Quarry Dundee Formation Sample ST-07 Acid Digestion Results.

Sieve size 0.51 mm + 0.147 0.074 0.991 Total 0.0295 mm mm mm mm Final weight 1.6g 14.9g 28.9g 207.4g 251.8g Starting rock 497.8g weight Percent left after 50.60% digestion

Table 10. Auglaize Quarry Detroit River Group Pile 1 Acid Digestion Results.

Sieve size 0.147 0.074 0.991 Total mm mm mm Final weight 1g 4.7g 285.1g 290.8g Starting rock 425.6g weight Percent left after 68.10% digestion

Table 11. Auglaize Quarry Detroit River Group Start Pile 1 Acid Digestion Results.

Sieve size 0.147 0.074 0.991 Total mm mm mm Final weight 1g 4.7g 285.1g 290.8g Starting rock 425.6g weight Percent left after 68.10% digestion

Table 12. Auglaize Quarry Detroit River Group Start Pile 2 Acid Digestion Results.

Sieve size 0.701 mm + 0.147 0.074 0.991 Total 0.5 mm mm mm mm Final weight 0.9g 0.8g 0.6g 263.9g 266.2g Starting rock 498.1g weight Percent left after 53.40% digestion

Table 13. Auglaize Quarry Dundee Formation Pile 4 Acid Digestion Results.

Sieve size 0.0295 mm + 0.147 mm 0.991 Total + 0.074 mm mm Final weight 1.8g 415.1g 416.9g Starting rock 500g weight Percent left after 83.40% digestion

Detroit River Group, Auglaize Quarry Pile 1

The Detroit River Group sample from Pile 1 contained only scolecodonts, however, these fossils were relatively abundant in the residue from the formic acid digestion.

Dundee Formation, Auglaize Quarry Pile 4

No microfossils were collected from the samples in the acid digestion, but several large gastropod fossils, tentatively identified as Euryzone arata, were observed in the field (Figure 35).

Dundee Formation, Whitehouse Quarry ST-07

This sample contained the largest number of specimens of the conodont Icriodus angustus with a count of eight recovered from the acid residue. Also present in this sample were fish teeth tentatively assigned to Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fish).

Dundee Formation, Whitehouse Quarry FS-05

Two specimens of the conodont Icriodus angustus and one specimen of the conodont

Icriodus expansus were recovered from the acid residue of this sample.

Dundee Formation, Whitehouse Quarry FS-08

Sample FS-08 contained the most fossil specimens recovered from the acid digestion process. Three species of conodonts were present in this one sample: six specimens of Icriodus angustus, three specimens of Icriodus expansus and one specimen of Icriodus nodosus.

Sarcopterygian teeth as well as charophytes and scolecodonts were present as well. There was no 65 preferred sieve size; rather, specimens were scattered in the 250 μm, 180 μm, 150 μm, and 74 μm sieves.

Dundee Formation, Whitehouse Quarry S3-02

Similarly to sample ST-07, the only conodont species found in S3-02 was Icriodus angustus but with a much lower count of only three. Sarcopterygian teeth were not observed in this sample.

Antrim Shale, Camp Lakota B16, B2, B10, M13

The only fossils found in the Antrim Shale were a large abundance of worm tubes, which were found in each of the samples listed above, and possible statoliths or otoliths, which were only seen in sample M13.

Age Constraints on Samples

Figure 32 summarizes the stratigraphic ranges of the species collected from the Detroit

River Group and Dundee Formation at Stoneco Auglaize Quarry, the Dundee Formation at

Whitehouse Quarry, and the Antrim Shale at Camp Lakota. Ranges are derived from the literature where the fossils have definitively been identified (black lines). For fossil specimens that have not been identified or have only been tentatively identified, their ranges have been limited to their respective units (red lines). 66

Figure 32. Time Scale with Stratigraphic Ranges of Sampled Fossils. Black lines indicate full published ranges for species. Red lines indicate range of rock unit from which specimen was recovered. Ranges derived from: Bahrami et al., 2017; Branson and Mehl, 1938; Herbig and

Buggisch, 1984; Narkiewicz and Bultynck, 2010; Narkiewicz and Bultynck, 2016; Sandberg and

Dreeson, 1984; Turnau and Narkiewicz, 2011.

Middle Devonian Fossil Descriptions

Corals and Sponges

Abundant colonial tabulate corals and stromatoporoid sponges were found throughout the

Auglaize Quarry in both the Detroit River Group and the Dundee Formation (Figure 33, 34).

Corals include the dome-shaped tabulate Favosites and a branching tabulate species, likely

representing the genus Emmonsia or Coenites. These three were widespread and diverse due to the warm, shallow tropical waters that allowed for carbonate environments and reefs to form

(Feldmann et al., 2005).

Figure 33. Branching Colonial Coral from Dundee Formation, Auglaize Quarry. 69

Figure 34. Large Stromatoporoid Sponge from the Dundee Formation, Auglaize Quarry. The stromatoporoids also appeared in the Detroit River Group. Blocks on scale bar are 5 mm square. 70

Euryzone arata

Fossils of the gastropod Euryzone arata are abundant in the Dundee Formation in the south side of the Auglaize Quarry (Figure 35) (Feldmann et al., 2005). The fossils are preserved as internal molds as is common in Ohio, but they still retain their shape. They were commonly found in the light gray, calcite filled, vuggy limestone beds. The numbers at the Auglaize Quarry are higher than what Wright (2006) reported from Whitehouse Quarry. The largest specimens were 8-10 cm in diameter. 71

Figure 35. Gastropod Euryzone arata from Pile 4, Dundee Formation, Auglaize Quarry. Blocks on scale bar are 5 mm square. 72

Scolecodonts

Scolecodonts, the jaw elements (Figure 36) of polychaete annelid worms, were recovered from acid residues of a sample from the Detroit River Group at the Auglaize Quarry and several samples of the Dundee Formation from Whitehouse Quarry. Specimens appears to be from the same or closely related genera from the family Paulinitidae (Howell, 1962). Some of the individual cusps along the jaw are well preserved in most of the specimens (Figures 36B, C, D), and some show signs of weathering or destruction of these cusps while leaving much of the jaw intact (Figures 36A, E). Many pronged tips were found without the rest of the jaw (Figure 36F,

G, H). 73

Figure 36. Paulinitid Scolecodonts. A) Worn specimen from Sample FS-05, Dundee

Formation, Whitehouse Quarry. B) Specimen from Pile 1, Detroit River Group, Auglaize

Quarry. C-E) Specimens from Sample FS-08, Dundee Formation, Whitehouse Quarry. F-

H) Broken off prongs of fossils similar to specimen in image B. Scale bar is 1 mm 74

Icriodus angustus

Conodonts are the phosphatic, tooth-like mouth elements of jawless fish that existed from the Late Cambrian to the Late Triassic. Conodonts are important biostratigraphic index fossils for the Devonian. The conodont species I. angustus has three rows of denticles running from the anterior to the posterior of the element, with the front denticle being taller than the denticles behind (Orr, 1971). The element of this species has a narrower form than the other two species of conodonts (I. expansus and I. nodosus which are described later) found in samples from the

Dundee Formation at Whitehouse Quarry, and this narrower form covers most, if not all, of the platform from a top down view (Figure 37A). In the specimen from sample ST-07, the front denticle that juts up higher than the others can be clearly seen in side view (Figure 37B), and the root like structure that is covered by the platform above is visible in the bottom view (Figure

37C). This species is constrained mainly to the Middle Devonian Eifelian age (387.7 to 393.3 million years ago; Branson and Mehl, 1938). 75

Figure 37. Conodont Icriodus angustus from Sample ST-07, Dundee Formation, Whitehouse

Quarry. A) Top view. Note that the platform is covered completely by the denticles. B) Side view. The arrow is pointing to the rostral denticle can clearly be seen jutting up higher than the other denticles behind it, a diagnostic trait for this species. C) Bottom view. The root structure is visible and obscures the denticles above. Scale bar is 1 mm. 76

Icriodus expansus

I. expansus is more robust than I. angustus, but nearly identical in appearance to I. nodosus (described later) (Orr, 1971). The central denticles are uncompressed unlike I.

alternatus, which serves to distinguish the two. In a top down view of the specimen from sample

FS-08 (Dundee Formation, Whitehouse Quarry), the denticles do not cover the platform below,

which juts out on either side to form a larger base than what it seen in I. angustus (Figure 38A).

From the side, you can clearly see the denticle separation (Figure 38B), and from below, the

platform structure can be seen as it tapers down at the anterior of the element (Figure 38C). This

species has significant overlap with the other two conodont species found within the Whitehouse

Quarry samples, but its stratigraphic range is longer, from the Middle Devonian Eifelian through

the middle of the Late Devonian Frasnian age (393.3 to 378 million years ago; Bahrami et al.,

2017; Branson and Mehl, 1938; Narkiewicz and Bultynck, 2010; Sandberg and Dreeson, 1984;

Turnau and Narkiewicz, 2011). 77

Figure 38. Conodont Icriodus expansus from Sample FS-08, Dundee Formation, Whitehouse

Quarry. A) Top view. Individual denticles are visible and do not cover the platform completely.

B) Side view. C.) Bottom view. The platform can be clearly seen; note how the platform juts out to a point on the right side of the image and curves down towards the back. Scale bar is 1 mm.

Icriodus nodosus

I. nodosus is nearly identical to I. expansus in all regards except for a small spur that juts out from the posterior part of the platform. In the specimen from sample FS-08 (Dundee

Formation, Whitehouse Quarry), this spur is visible extending out from the left of the specimen in Figure 39A and from the right of the specimen in Figure 39C (Orr, 1971). From the side the two species are indistinguishable (Figure 39B). This species has the longest stratigraphic range of the three Icriodus species recovered, from the Middle Devonian Late Eifelian through the Late

Devonian Famennian ages (387.7 to 358.9 million years ago; Branson and Mehl, 1938; Herbig and Buggisch, 1984). 79

Figure 39. Conodont Icriodus nodosus from Sample FS-08, Dundee Formation, Whitehouse

Quarry. A.) Top view. Note the spur near the left posterior side of the sample. B) Side view. C)

Bottom view. The spur seen on the right posterior side of the sample distinguishes I. nodosus from I. expansus. Scale bar is 1 mm.

Fish Teeth

Several possible sarcopterygian (lobe-finned fish) teeth were found in multiple samples of the Dundee Formation from Whitehouse Quarry (Figure 40). Visible on these teeth are nonparallel striations running the length of the sample, which could be wear lines from when the fish was alive (Figure 40C, D). An opening is present at the bottom of the specimens (Figure

40A, B, E) where the veins for the pulp cavity would have gone into the tooth. The sarcopterygian Onychodus eriensis, reported from the Dundee Formation on Pelee Island in Lake

Erie, has similar teeth (Mann et al., 2017), but the specimens from Whitehouse Quarry also have a resemblance to Onychodus sigmoides (Feldmann et al., 2005). 81

Figure 40. Fish Teeth from Samples ST-07 and FS-08, Dundee Formation, Whitehouse Quarry.

A, B, E) These images show the opening for the pulp cavity, which has been infilled in A and B.

C, D) Longitudinal ridges are visible on the samples, and D also shows areas that have been worn down or eroded away. Scale bar is 1 mm. 82

Charophytes

Charophytes are a type of freshwater to brackish green algae still alive today, with a fossil record that extends back into the Late Silurian. Fossil charophytes typically represent sub- spherical reproductive bodies. These tough structures can be washed into shallow marine settings, explaining their presence in the Dundee Formation at Whitehouse Quarry. Figure 41 shows a charophyte specimen from sample FS-08 rotated at 90 degrees for each view. Other materials have grown on the specimen after the initial infilling and have distorted the surface, making some of the features hard to distinguish. Some areas have upraised plateaus, lines and angles, e.g., lines indicated by arrow in Figure 41. The specimen is distorted enough that identifying what it was initially is difficult.

Figure 41. Charophyte from Sample FS-08, Dundee Formation, Whitehouse Quarry. Views of specimen from multiple sides. Scale bar is 1 mm. 84

Late Devonian Fossil Descriptions

Bivalve

One fossil bivalve was recovered from sample M11, Antrim Shale, Camp Lakota (Figure

42). The specimen is broken around the edges but is close to one centimeter in length and about a

half a centimeter in width. Macrofossils are rare in the Antrim Shale and limited mainly to the

tentaculite Styliolina, the inarticulate brachiopod Barroisella subspatulata, and the goniatite

ammonoid Tornoceras. Hence, the recovery of a bivalve is significant. This specimen most

resembles the genus Ptychopteria, known from the Middle Devonian Detroit River and Traverse

Groups in Ohio (Feldmann et al., 2005). The valve line is very asymmetrical, and Ptychopteria is

commonly found in both anaerobic and fully oxygenated environments (Nagel-Myers et al.,

2009). This genus is also known to have been an epibenthic suspension feeder and would have

sat right on top of the substrate (Nagel-Myers et al., 2009).

Figure 42. Bivalve from M11, Antrim Shale, Camp Lakota. Possibly a Ptychopteria species as the valve line is asymmetrical and this species has been recovered from low-oxygen settings.

Lycopsid Plants

A terrestrial plant fossil was found during a preliminary search of the Camp Lakota

Antrim Shale beds in late October of 2017, and a second was found after a flooding event

happened in the summer of 2018 (Figure 43A, B). The first specimen closely matches plant

fossils collected from black shales of similar age, such as the lycopsid species

Clevelandodendron ohioensis from the Upper Devonian Cleveland Shale in northeast Ohio

(Chitaley and Pigg, 1996). Another possibility is Callixylon newberryi, the wood of the progymnosperm Archaeopteris, which has been found in the Antrim Shale before. However,

Cross and Hoskins (1951) describe it as demonstrating short rectangular joints, which are either not present on this sample or the sample did not weather to the point of them being able to be seen. They also describe it as having large stems while this specimen is not wide nor large.

Comparing these specimens to Chitaley and Pigg’s (1996) Figure 3, which shows the decorticated stem of Clevelandodendron ohioensis, and to their actual specimen housed in the

Cleveland Museum of Natural History, the Antrim Shale specimen is incredibly close in appearance and description. However, because the Antrim Shale specimens are fragmentary, no further identification is attempted at this time. It is presumed that the plant material was washed off land and into the marine setting of the Antrim Shale. 87

Figure 43. Lycopsid Plant Fossils from Antrim Shale at Camp Lakota. 88

Microconchid Tubes

A wide variety of marine animals construct calcium carbonate tubes in which to live. Soft sediment tube worms would have been part of the primary frame builders (Vinn, 2010). A large number of small tubes were recovered from sample M13, Antrim Shale, Camp Lakota (Figure

44). The inside and outside of the tubes bear irregular boring holes as well as more regular shaped circular holes where more tubes may have branched off. One specimen (Figure 44G) is possibly a piece of the infilling seen in Figure 44E that broke off and fell out of another sample; it provides a clear image of what these irregular and regular shaped holes look like. These specimens are tentatively assigned to Microconchida, an order of small encrusting tubes that range in the fossil record from the Late Ordovician to Middle Jurassic. At the time of the Antrim

Shale’s deposition microconchids had developed the ability to aggregate in large groups to stay on the surface of softer or soupy muds without the need for a hard surface. 89

Figure 44. Worm Tubes from Sample M13, Antrim Shale. A-F) Several different tubes showing inside and outside views. G) Possible interior of a tube that broke off and fell out, showing the regular circular shapes and irregular bore holes. Scale bar is 1 mm. 90

Tasmanites

Tasmanites are spore-like microfossils, ranging in diameter from 0.05 to 0.81 mm, that probably represents the cyst stage of fossil green algae (Schieber and Baird, 2001). What is seen of these microfossils is the remnant of the cyst walls that fall to the ocean floor after the motile cells are released (Schieber and Baird, 2001). The organic walls are resistant to chemical breakdown and are able to hold their shape relatively well unless a high sedimentation rate causes the walls to crumple under the weight of overlying sediment. Once settled they can become infilled with pyrite growth and other cements that hold them together; Schieber and

Baird (2001) argued that pyrite spheres in Devonian black shales may typically form as infills of

Tasmanites cysts. Both partially crushed (Figure 27 A, B) and spherical (Figure 30 A, B) examples of Tasmanites were recovered. The organic “skins” which remain can also be seen in other thin sections (e.g., Figure 29 C, D).

Possible Statoliths or Otoliths

Otoliths (in vertebrates) and statoliths (in invertebrates such as cephalopods) are both small mineralized structures that function as balance organs, helping the animal with balance and sensing gravity to permit better maneuvering when moving. Several specimens of possible statoliths or otoliths were recovered from sample M13, Antrim Shale, Camp Lakota (Figure 45).

Specimens range in color from beige to an orange brown and have several symmetrical holes that run through the interior of the sample. There are signs of possible boring events as well. The specimen in Figure 45A and 45B shows a more crystalline sheen and more of a lip near the top, possibly due to growth. Figure 45C is a side view of 45D, but both photographs show the symmetrical holes. On Figure 45D, the more irregular boreholes are more easily seen. Due to 91 their composition, size, and flattened round shape, these specimens are interpreted as either statoliths or otoliths.

Figure 45. Possible Statoliths or Otoliths from Sample M13, Antrim Shale, Camp Lakota. A)

Note more crystalline appearance and several holes that go into the interior of the specimen. A lip curls over the top of the sample. B) Same specimen as A, but with a more front facing view.

C) Side and D) top views of second specimen. Several symmetrical holes can be seen, one near the center and another on the right side of the sample. Other irregular shaped holes are possibly boreholes due to their shape. Scale bar is 1 mm. 93

Educational Materials

Educational materials are available at the hub website: http://personal.bgsu.edu/~chadmas/index.htm. The content is organized around digital maps. The map for the Auglaize Quarry (“Quarry Map>Stoneco Auglaize Quarry Map”) has been created with sample locations, although links to images and other content are still being developed.

Multiple maps were created for the Camp Lakota site, including a campsite and trail map for the camp, a research map with sample locations and rock types, and the educational virtual tour map

(“Camp Lakota Map>Camp Lakota Shale Bed Tour Map”). The maps contain “nodes” that link to a variety of information, including background information, methods, and results. In addition to text, photographs taken in the field and lab and short videos are provided. The videos focus on explanations of several key concepts, such as the usefulness of index fossils like conodonts and how they are used for relative dating of rock formations.

Each map has a “Start Here” node (red dot with star) that explains the general location and setting, such as geologic units and their age. The other nodes do not have a set order and have been written so that they interconnect with one another, including the “Start Here” node.

This is done so that each node holds only a piece of the larger picture that is being explained, permitting students to freely explore the nodes in their own way. The nodes also link to field and lab photographs and to videos posted on YouTube. When the map node is viewed, the first image will be displayed at the top of the educational content window, and all other images can be accessed by clicking that or the photos tab at the bottom of every node when selected. Links to

YouTube videos work the same way.

Images have been uploaded to Flickr under an Attribution-Noncommercial free use license, which allows anyone to use the images as long as they attribute where they originate 94 from and without being used for commercial purposes. The images have all the information that goes with them such as species, geologic unit, and geologic age attached through their descriptions. Including this information allows other instructors to use these materials in ways that they deem fit and allows further creative usages. The YouTube channel created for this project (located at https://tinyurl.com/y575d8bx) houses all the explanatory videos, with the option to create more videos based on suggestions and feedback.

To go along with the maps, images, and videos, a review sheet that has questions and fill in the blanks is going to be linked in the hub website. The questions will not pertain to one individual node as answering the questions will require details that have been spread out over the nodes.

Several other pages on the website provide useful information for teachers and parents.

The “Educational Goals” page describes the Ohio and Next Generation science standards targeted by the educational materials. The “Reference Materials” page includes links to

Understanding Evolution (Caldwell et al., 2018), the Geology Merit Badge for the Scouts BSA, and several free mobile applications such as RockD (Macrostrat Lab, 2016) and FossilMe

(Muñoz et al., 2017), both of which were tested in the field during this research. The “Glossary” provides definitions of key terms.

The website was created to be easily used on a computer or on a mobile phone or tablet.

It is also easy to update, allowing for more information, links, sites, and images to be added, following suggestions or new research results. The maps are also designed to be easy to update and change as they can be edited in the My Maps editor, or by editing the Excel file and re- uploading and attaching the images and videos again to the corresponding nodes. The educational portion of this thesis project will be an ongoing endeavor, with periodic updates to 95 improve access and students’ learning. Therefore, feedback will be solicited from teachers and students alike from both formal (school classrooms) and informal (Boy Scout programs) forms of teaching. 96

DISCUSSION

Geology and Paleontology

Detroit River Group

The Middle Devonian Detroit River Group has three members, from oldest to youngest,

the Sylvania Sandstone, the Amherstburg Dolomite, and the Lucas Dolomite. The Lucas

Dolomite is described as a brown dolomicrite or limestone (Janssens, 1970). While Janssens

(1970) said that only the Dundee Formation was exposed at the Stoneco Auglaize Quarry, the

Lucas Dolomite is described here from the Auglaize Quarry up to its contact with the overlying

Dundee Formation. The strata are predominantly laid flat except near the center of the package,

where wavy bedding or dissolution surfaces can be seen from a distance. In agreement with

Sparling (1988), it is very likely that they show wavy bedding, as the Lucas Dolomite was

deposited in a peritidal to subtidal environment, which would also be congruent with the large

number of microbial mats and rip-up clasts that are present. The Lucas Dolomite did experience

some dissolution, as evidenced by stylolites, but not as much as in the Dundee Formation.

The presence of the tabulate corals Favosites and either Emmonsia or Coenites further lends credence to the conclusion that the area was a shallow subtidal environment. The large stromatoporoids also coincides with what Prosh and Stearn (1993) and Klapper and Oliver

(1995) reported from the Detroit River Group. From the acid digestion, only species of the scolecodont family Paulinitidae were found and only from the samples from Pile 1 of the Detroit

River Group, with none being found in the Dundee Formation at the Auglaize Quarry. Close to

50% or more of the digested Detroit River Group material broke down, so the low number of microfossils recovered from this locality may indicate low living populations or a lack of suitable conditions for preservation. 97

In future studies, equipment for making more detailed observations on the high walls from a distance should be used, especially in the areas of the wavy bedding to fully determine if they are indeed wavy bedding or if they are dissolution surfaces. Further analysis of the walls would allow for better determination of precisely where in the stratigraphic section the corals, microbial mats, and stromatoporoid sponges occur. It is possible that oil from the saw and the presence of smaller calcite crystals interfered with the acid digestion. It is recommended that additional digestions of cleaned samples be performed to further characterize the microfossil assemblage.

Dundee Formation

The lower portion of the Dundee Formation is present at the Auglaize Quarry, while this part of the unit seems to be absent from Whitehouse Quarry, which exposes the middle and top of the formation. The findings at the Auglaize Quarry agree with what was reported by Wright

(2006) for the Reed City Member of the Dundee Formation, consistent with the interpretation that the depositional environment was subtidal and above storm wave base. The Dundee

Formation at the Auglaize Quarry has experienced a large amount of dissolution and recrystallization, as evidenced by large calcite and fluorite crystals, calcite infilled vugs, and stylolites.

Another difference between the Dundee Formation at the Auglaize vs. Whitehouse

Quarry is the number of Euryzone arata found in Pile 4 at Auglaize. Wright (2006) found four specimens of this species in horizon FS-08, and one specimen in horizon FS-09. In the Auglaize

Quarry, they were found in high abundance ranging between five to ten per boulder in Pile 4 where the calcite infilled vugs were observed. The tabulate corals Favosites and either Emmonsia 98 or Coenites are found at the Auglaize Quarry locality, but if they appear only in the Detroit River

Group or also in the Dundee Formation is unknown.

The acid digestion performed on samples from the Whitehouse Quarry gave insight into species not described in the studies of Stauffer (1909), Bassett (1935), Bose (2006), Wright

(2006), and Walters (2016). The presence of the conodont species Icriodus angustus indicates a late Eifelian age for the Dundee Formation at the quarry, consistent with the findings of Orr

(1971). The fish teeth, likely belonging to either Onychodus eriensis or O. sigmoides, have not previously been reported from Whitehouse Quarry but are similar to fish reported from other

Dundee Formation localities (Mann et al., 2017). The fossil counts from the acid digestion also show that Wright’s horizon FS-08 was the most diverse and had the highest number of microfossils.

No microfossils were recovered from the Dundee Formation at Auglaize Quarry, possibly because calcite crystal growth and rock saw oil interfered with the acid digestion. It is recommended that additional samples be thoroughly cleaned prior to acid digestion. In addition, a return to the quarry to better observe the upper portions of the high walls is warranted.

Antrim Formation

The Antrim Shale exposure at Camp Lakota is a dark gray to black shale or siltstone. The shale and siltstone varied in bed thickness, but most samples were to some degree fissile. Field observations and thin sections are consistent with the description of this unit by Sprowls and

Angle (2008). The pyrite seam is also present throughout the length of the exposure, but ranges in its width. The reason for the change to larger and less well sorted grains above the pyrite seam is unclear. It could relate to a gradual increase in current energy or a brief high-energy event, but requires further investigation. 99

The presence of Tasmanites in thin section is indicative of an environment below fair- weather wave base but above storm wave base. During storms, Tasmanites cysts may have been concentrated into single layers, as seen at this locality. In the process of being transported by the storm, the organic amber colored “skin” would be removed. Tasmanites alongside pyrite is indicative of early diagenetic pyrite formation, within the first couple of millimeters in the sediment column (Schieber and Baird, 2001). A key condition for such a diagenetic process to occur is a dysoxic or an anoxic environment. Warm, stratified waters in the Michigan Basin during the Frasnian would have limited the circulation of oxygen-rich surface waters to the seafloor. Additionally, a high flux of organic matter to the seafloor would fuel microbial decay, consuming oxygen to produce a dysoxic to anoxic environment on the seafloor and within the sediments. While these conditions would have supported pyrite growth in the sediments, further processes are needed to explain the near continuous pyrite seam that stretches across this exposure and the much larger pyrite nodules. While the much smaller Tasmanites pyritized cysts could have aggregated to one another to form the seam and nodules, this does not seem to be the case based on the observations from the thin sections. It is more likely that a period of slower deposition occurred, permitting pyrite nodules to remain at a depth favorable to pyrite growth for a longer time.

Macrofossils such as the bivalve reported here are rare in the Antrim Shale. The possible

Ptychopteria species found in this study is therefore of interest, as it implies suitable living conditions on the seafloor, despite the evidence for dysoxic conditions. The hydrogen peroxide digestion only returned microconchid tubes and possible statoliths or otoliths. Microconchids were an aggregative soft-bottom dweller and as such would form frameworks with one another to allow them to live directly on muddy bottoms, as is inferred for the Antrim Shale (Vinn, 100

2010). The statoliths or otoliths are signs of possible nektonic animals (fish or cephalopods)

living within the water column, which may have been more oxygenated that the seafloor.

The two plant fossils found are notable, as not many plant specimens are reported from

Late Devonian marine black shales. The progymnosperm Callixylon newberryi was described by

Cross and Hoskins (1951) as a large, square segmented, woody slab. Callixylon species have been reported to range in width from 10 (Decombeix and Meyer-Berthaud, 2013) to 35 cm

(Snigirevskaya and Snigirevsky, 2001), while the two plant specimens from the Antrim Shale at

Camp Lakota are only 1.0 to 1.75 cm wide. The specimens also do not display the segmentation described by Cross and Hoskins (1951). On the other hand, the Camp Lakota material is similar in width and surface features to the lycopsid Clevelandodendron ohioensis from the Upper

Devonian Cleveland Shale of northeast Ohio. Interestingly, Chitaley and Pigg (1996) dated

Clevelandodendron ohioensis to the Famennian and argued that their material showed that relatively large lycopsids were present by the Late Devonian, earlier than previously thought.

The presence of possible C. ohioensis specimens in the Antrim Shale at Camp Lakota therefore presents two options: either this species is even older that previously understood (Frasnian and not Famennian) or the Antrim Shale exposure at Camp Lakota is younger than thought

(Famennian and not Frasnian).

Future research on the Antrim Shale at Camp Lakota should focus on recovering additional fossils, including more plant material and additional macrofossils of benthic invertebrates. Another way to break down the shale and siltstone needs to be investigated that is not affected as heavily as the hydrogen peroxide was by the large amount of pyrite in the collected samples, which limited the digestion. Due to the Auglaize River flooding during the timing of this research, virtually no data were collected on the vertical stratigraphic context of 101 this exposure; additional field work when the river is low is clearly warranted. A search for additional exposures further up and down the Auglaize River would also be helpful.

Educational Materials

The methods and findings from field work and lab work were utilized in the creation of the education tools in an inquiry-based learning context. The information for the Antrim Shale exposure at Camp Lakota and the Detroit River Group and Dundee Formation at Stoneco

Auglaize Quarry have been separated into two maps, and placed into the nodes to create an setting that stimulates a student’s curiosity, which has shown to increase learning potential in students (Pluck and Johnson, 2011). To accomplish this goal, not all the information for any content element is kept in a single node, and questions are posed in nodes to encourage students to explore the videos and images. This model for student inquiry is similar to the learning cycle approach proposed by Pedaste et al. (2015), who described five general inquiry phases that break down into different smaller stages: 1) Orientation, 2) Conceptualizing, 3) Investigation, 4)

Conclusions, and 5) Discussion. The Orientation stage here involves simply introducing the topic through the “start node” on the digital map. The topic is introduced with a little information, which begins the process of asking questions, hypothesizing, and predicting what might be or happen. The Conceptualizing stage involves student exploration of the other nodes on the map.

The Investigation stage is how information is gathered through the use of planning and investigating, and then how this information is represented to show any significant patterns or other features. The Conclusions and Discussion stages are both covered in the review sheet created for the maps. This learning tool brings the information presented to the students together for them to see how it all connects and how the conclusions that were drawn from the information were made. 102

The educational materials associated with this project are a work in progress. In Summer

2019, the materials will be tested with scouts participating in programming at Camp Lakota, and several teachers in the region have expressed interest in testing the materials in their classrooms in the 2019-2020 academic year. Both groups will provide feedback to improve the content and the usability of the website interface. Further work will include more images, videos, construction of quizzes, and more worksheets. Future research on these and other sites can be incorporated into new maps, and thus into new maps and tools like the ones created for this project.

103

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The objectives of this research were to investigate the paleoenvironments and

paleoecology of the Middle Devonian Detroit River Group and Dundee Formation at the Stoneco

Auglaize Quarry and the Upper Devonian Antrim Shale at Camp Lakota. The Detroit River

Group at Auglaize Quarry represents a peritidal to shallow subtidal environment, as evidenced

by wavy bedding structures, rip-up clasts, microbial mats, tabulate corals, and stromatoporoid

sponges. While the formation has been diagenetically altered, with some evidence of dissolution,

it does not appear to have been as severe as what happened within the overlying Dundee

Formation, which has larger calcite and fluorite crystals and more prevalent stylolites.

Consistent with the findings of Wright (2006) for the Dundee Formation at Whitehouse

Quarry, the Dundee Formation was deposited in a subtidal environment above storm wave base.

There are some differences between the Dundee Formation at the Whitehouse Quarry versus the

Auglaize Quarry, including a higher degree of dissolution and recrystallization at Auglaize, as

seen in the extensive large calcite and fluorite crystals, calcite infilled vugs, and stylolites. The

abundance of the gastropod Euryzone arata is also higher at Auglaize. The presence of the conodont species Icriodus angustus at Whitehouse supports a late Eifelian age for the Dundee

Formation, in agreement with other literature.

The Antrim Shale outcrop at Camp Lakota provides a rare window into a rock unit that otherwise is poorly exposed in the southeast Michigan Basin. The inferred depositional environment was shallow marine, above storm wave base, and with dysoxic to anoxic bottom waters. The presence of the green algal cyst Tasmanites allowed for diagenetic growth of pyrite

spheres during deposition, likely in the first few millimeters of the sedimentary column (Schieber

and Baird, 2001). The infilling of Tasmanites cysts explains the smaller pyrite spheres that can 104 be seen on some of the shale samples, but it does not explain the near continuous pyrite seam or the much larger pyrite nodules that appear in both the siltstones and the shale. The thin sections did not support the hypothesis that the nodules or the seam formed from the aggregation of smaller Tasmanites pyrite cysts; a different causal process must have been involved. The presence of microconchid tubes indicates a soft muddy bottom, as they were adapted to be aggregative soft-bottom dwelling animals (Vinn, 2010), and both the microconchids and a single epifaunal bivalve (likely Ptychopteria) suggest dysoxic rather than fully anoxic bottom conditions. Two plant fossils were found, with similarities to the lycopsid Clevelandodendron ohioensis known from the Famennian Cleveland Shale of northeast Ohio. Hence, either the

Antrim Shale at Camp Lakota is actually Famennian and not Frasnian in age, or this lycopsid is older than previously thought.

Online inquiry-based educational tools, including maps, text, images, and videos, were created based on the methods and results of this study. These materials are freely available to educators at: http://personal.bgsu.edu/~chadmas. The tools were created in such a way as to stimulate creativity, by allowing learners to explore the nodes of maps of the field sites at their own pace, viewing descriptions, photographs, and short video explanations tied to those locations. The maps are designed to be easy to modify as suggestions and requests are made by students or educators, which makes this portion of the project a “organic” endeavor that will continue to grow and change. 105

REFERENCES

Aitken, J.D., 1967, Classification and environmental significance of cryptalgal limestones and

dolomites, with illustrations from the Cambrian and Ordovician of southwestern Alberta:

Journal Sedimentary Petrology, v. 37, p. 1163–1178.

Bahrami, A., Königshof, P., Boncheva, I., Yazdi, M., Khalaji, M.A.N., and Zarei, E., 2017,

Conodont biostratigraphy of the Kesheh and Dizlu sections, and the age range of the

Bahram Formation in central Iran: Palaeobiodiversity and Palaeoenvironments, v. 98, p.

315–329.

Baird, G.C., and Brett, C.E., 1983, Regional variation and paleontology of two coral beds in the

middle Devonian Hamilton Group of western New York: Journal of Paleontology, p.

417–446.

Bassett, C.F., 1935, Stratigraphy and paleontology of the Dundee Limestone of southeastern

Michigan: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 46, p. 425–462.

Birchard, M.C., and Risk, M. J., 1990. Stratigraphy of the Middle Devonian Dundee Formation,

southwestern Ontario. Ontario Geological Survey Miscellaneous Paper No. 150: p. 1–

136.

Bose, R., 2006, Epibionts on brachiopods from the Devonian Dundee Formation of Ohio (M.S.

Thesis): Bowling Green State University, Ohio, p. 1–74.

Boy Scouts of America, 2016, Geology: Irving, TX.

Branson, E.B., and Mehl, M.G., 1938, The conodont genus Icriodus and its stratigraphic

distribution: Journal of Paleontology, v. 12, p. 156–166. 106

Brett, C.E., Baird, G.C., Bartholomew, A.J., DeSantis, M.K., and Straeten, C.A.V., 2011,

Sequence stratigraphy and a revised sea-level curve for the Middle Devonian of eastern

North America: Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 304, p. 21–53.

Caldwell, R., Lindberg, D., Scotchmoor, J., Thanukos, A., Frankel, J., Smith, D., Gishlick, A.D.,

Janulaw, A., Meikle, E., Scott, E.C., Strömberg, C.A.E., Thanukos, A., Whitney, C.,

Zimmer, C., et al., 2018, Welcome!: Understanding Evolution,

https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/home.php.

Camp Lakota Boy Scouts of America: Black Swamp Area Council,

http://www.blackswampbsa.org/camping/camp-lakota/63303.

Chitaley, S., and Pigg, K.B., 1996, Clevelandodendron ohioensis, gen. et sp. nov., a slender

upright lycopsid from the Late Devonian Cleveland Shale of Ohio: American Journal of

Botany, v. 83, p. 781–789.

Cohn, T.C., Swanson, E., Him, G.W.R., Hugs, D., Stevens, L., and Flamm, D., 2014, Placing

ourselves on a digital Earth: sense of place geoscience education in Crow Country:

Journal of Geoscience Education, v. 62, p. 203–216.

Coogan, A.H., 1996, Ohio surface rocks and sediments:

http://geosurvey.ohiodnr.gov/portals/geosurvey/PDFs/Misc_State_Maps&Pubs/OH_Surf

aceRocks_Sediments.pdf.

Cooper, G.A., Butts, C., Caster, K.E., Chadwick, G.H., Goldring, W., Kindle, E.M., Kirk, E.,

Merriam, C.W., Swartz, F.M., Warren, P.S., Warthin, A.S., and Willard, B., 1942,

Correlation of the Devonian sedimentary formations of North America: Geological

Society of America Bulletin, v. 53, p. 1729–1793. 107

Cross, A.T., and Hoskins, J.H., 1951, Paleobotany of the Devonian-Mississippian Black Shales:

Journal of Paleontology, v. 25, p. 713–728.

Curtis, J.B., 2002, Fractured shale-gas systems: AAPG Bulletin, v. 86, p. 1921–1938.

Decombeix, A.-L., and Meyer-Berthaud, B., 2013, A Callixylon (Archaeopteridales,

Progymnospermopsida) trunk with preserved secondary phloem from the Late Devonian

of Morocco: American Journal of Botany, v. 100, p. 2219–2230.

DeSantis, M.K., and Brett, C.E., 2011, Late Eifelian (Middle Devonian) biocrises: timing and

signature of the pre-Kačák Bakoven and Stony Hollow Events in eastern North America:

Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 304, p. 113–135.

Dong, S., Xu, S., and Lu, X., 2009, Development of online instructional resources for Earth

system science education: an example of current practice from China: Computers &

Geosciences, v. 35, p. 1271–1279.

Ehlers, G.M., Stumm, E. C., and Kesling, R. V., 1951, Devonian rocks of southeastern Michigan

and northwestern Ohio: Field guide for Geological Society America Detroit meeting, p.

1–40.

Fagerstrom, J.A., 1983, Diversity, speciation, endemism and extinction in Devonian reef and

level-bottom communities, eastern North America: Coral Reefs, v. 2, p. 65–70.

Feldmann, R.M., Hackathorn, M., and Anstey, R.L., 2005 (reprint of 1996 volume), Fossils of

Ohio: Ohio Department of Natural Resources, Division of Geological Survey, Bulletin

70, 577 p. 108

Google Maps, 2019, Shale Beds, Camp Lakota. <

https://drive.google.com/open?id=1rXWUCSuBYtJCvdWANstWwI4obkB2ulls&usp=sh

aring>

Google Maps, 2019, Stoneco Auglaize Quarry. < https://drive.google.com/open?id=1Hocuba_jahWIbYigT6Osn_lWiKYYkJYX&usp=sharing>

Hass, W.H., 1958, Upper Devonian conodonts of New York, Pennsylvania, and interior states:

Paleontological Notes, v. 32, p. 765–769.

Helicon Soft, 2019, Helicon Focus. https://www.heliconsoft.com/heliconsoft-products/helicon-

focus/

Herbig, H.-G., and Buggisch, W., 1984, Frasnian limestone intercalations in the Nocedo

Formation of N-Leon (Cantabrian Mountains/NW-Spain: Zeitschrift der Deutschen

Gesellschaft für Geowissenschaften, v. 135, p. 149–161.

Howell, B.F. 1962. Worms. Pp. W144-W177 in: Moore, R.C. (ed.), Treatise on Invertebrate

Paleontology, Part W Miscellanea. Geological Society of America, Boulder, Colorado,

and University of Kansas Press, Lawrence, Kansas.

Huddle, J.W. 1968. Redescription of Upper Devonian conodont genera and species proposed by

Ulrich and Bassler in 1926. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 578.

Janssens, A., 1970, Middle Devonian formations in the subsurface of northwestern Ohio: Ohio

Department of Natural Resources, Division of Geological Survey, Report of

Investigations No. 78, p. 1–22. 109

Jeppsson, L., and Anehus, R., 1995, A buffered formic acid technique for conodont extraction:

Journal of Paleontology, v. 69, p. 790–794.

Kennesaw State University, 2017, PDF:

Creating a Website with Publisher 2016 - Getting Started, PDF tutorial by Kennesaw

State University.

Kimball, S., Mattis, P., and the GIMP Development Team, 2019, GIMP 2.10.8.

Klapper, G., and Oliver, W.A., 1995, The Detroit River Group is Middle Devonian: Discussion

on "Early Devonian age of the Detroit River Group, inferred from Arctic

stromatoporoids": Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 32, p. 1070–1073.

Kosse, T., 2001, FileZilla: FileZilla.

Larsen, G.E., and Slucher, E.R., 2004, Generalized column of bedrock units of Ohio: Ohio

Department of Natural Resources, Division of Geological Survey.

Lebedev, R., Obry, P., et al., 2019, Darktable 2.6.1. https://www.darktable.org/

Macrostrat Lab, 2016, RockD.

Mann, A., Rudkin, D., Evans, D.C., and Laflamme, M., 2017, A large onychodontiform

(Osteichthyes: Sarcopterygii) apex predator from the Eifelian-aged Dundee Formation of

Ontario, Canada: Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 54, p. 233–241.

Microsoft, 2011, Microsoft Office 365. 110

Moore, R.C., Teichert, C., and others (eds.), (1953-to current). Treatise on Invertebrate

Paleontology. Geological Society of America, Boulder, Colorado, and University of

Kansas Press, Lawrence, Kansas.

Muñoz, C., Lopez, R., Mañe, A., Sanchez, J., Fuente, J., 2017, FossilMe.

Nagel-Myers, J., Dietl, G.P., and Brett, C.E., 2009, First Report of Sublethal Breakage-Induced

Predation on Devonian Bivalves: Palaios, v. 24, p. 460–465.

Narkiewicz, K., and Bultynck, P., 2010, The Upper Givetian (Middle Devonian) Subterminus

Conodont Zone in North America, Europe and North Africa: Journal of Paleontology, v.

84, p. 588–625.

Narkiewicz, K., and Bultynck, P., 2016, Taxonomy and biostratigraphic significance of Icriodus

orri Klapper and Barrick and related Middle Devonian conodont species: Journal of

Paleontology, v. 90, p. 1181–1196.

Navarrete, T., Santos, P., Hernández-Leo, D., and Blat, J., 2011, QTIMaps: a model to enable

web maps in assessment: International Forum of Educational Technology & Society, v.

14, p. 203–217.

NGSS State Leaders, 2013, Next Generation Science Standards: For States, By States:

https://www.nextgenscience.org/pe/hs-ess2-7-earths-systems.

Ohio Department of Education, 2011, Ohio's Learning Standards-Science:

http://education.ohio.gov/Topics/Learning-in-Ohio/Science.

Orr, R.W., 1971, Conodonts from Middle Devonian Strata of the Michigan Basin: Indiana

Geological Survey Bulletin, v. 45, 110 p. 111

Pedaste, M., Mäeots, M., Siiman, L.A., Jong, T.D., Riesen, S.A.V., Kamp, E.T., Manoli, C.C.,

Zacharia, Z.C., and Tsourlidaki, E., 2015, Phases of inquiry-based learning: Definitions

and the inquiry cycle: Educational Research Review, v. 14, p. 47–61.

Pluck, G., and Johnson, H., 2011, Stimulating Curiosity to Enhance Learning: GESJ: Education

Science and Psychology, v. 2, p. 24–31.

Pratt, B.R., 1988, Lower Devonian Stromatoporoid Reef, Formosa Reef Limestone (Detroit

River Group) of Southwestern Ontario: Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists, p.

506–509.

Prosh, E.C., and Stearn, C.W., 1993, Early Devonian age of the Detroit River Group, inferred

from Arctic stromatoporoids: Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 30, p. 2465–2474.

Reid, W.H., 1994, Nature and significance of hummocky cross-stratification and associated

storm features in the Devonian Dundee Formation, Grand Rapids, Ohio: Unpublished

M.S. thesis, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio, 98 p.

Sandberg, C.A., and Dreesen, R., 1984, Late Devonian icriodontid biofacies models and alternate

shallow-water conodont zonation: Conodont Biofacies and Provincialism, Geological

Society of America Special Papers, v. 196, p. 143–178.

Schieber, J., and Baird, G., 2001, On the origin and significance of pyrite spheres in Devonian

black shales of North America: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 71, p. 155–166.

Snigirevskaya, N.S., and Snigirevsky, S.M., 2001, New locality of Callixylon

(Archaeopteridaceae) in the Late Devonian of Andoma Mountain (Vologda Region, 112

north-west Russia) and its importance for the reconstruction of archaeopterids

distribution: Acta Palaeobotanica , v. 41, p. 97–105.

Sparling, D.R., 1988. Middle Devonian stratigraphy and conodont biostratigraphy, North-Central

Ohio: Ohio Journal of Science, v. 88, p. 2–18.

Sprowls, K., and Angle, M.P., 2008, Ground water pollution potential of Defiance County, Ohio:

Ohio Department of Natural Resources Division of Water rep.

Stewart, G.A., 1955, Age relations of the Middle Devonian limestones in Ohio: Ohio Journal of

Science, v. 55, p. 147–186.

Stauffer, C. R. 1909. The Middle Devonian of Ohio. Geological Survey of Ohio 4th Series

Bulletin 10: p. 204.

Turnau, E., and Narkiewicz, K., 2011, Biostratigraphical correlation of spore and conodont

zonations within Givetian and ?Frasnian of the Lublin area (SE Poland): Review of

Palaeobotany and Palynology, v. 164, p. 30–38.

Vinn, O., 2010, Adaptive strategies in the evolution of encrusting tentaculitoid tubeworms:

Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 292, p. 211–221.

Walters, D.G., 2016, Geospatial analysis of ecological associations and successions in Middle

Devonian bioherms of the Great Lakes region (M.S. Thesis): Bowling Green State

University, Ohio, 1–123 p.

Wright, C.E., 2006, Paleoecological and paleoenvironmental analysis of the middle Devonian

Dundee Formation at Whitehouse, Lucas County, Ohio (M.S. Thesis): Bowling Green

State University, Ohio, 1–195 p.