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Philosophy in the Age of Reason Prepare to Read

Philosophy in the Age of Reason Prepare to Read

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Jean-Jacques Rousseau WITNESS HISTORY AUDIO Step-by-Step and quill pen SECTION 1 Instruction Rousseau Stirs Things Up 1 In Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s most important work, The , he argued that in order to be Objectives free, people should do what is best for their As you teach this section, keep students community. Rousseau had many supporters who focused on the following objectives to help were inspired by his passionate writings. them answer the Section Focus Question European monarchs, on the other hand, were and master core content. angry that Rousseau was questioning authority. 1 As a result, Rousseau worried about persecution ■ Explain how led to the for much of his life. The “chains” below represent Enlightenment. the social institutions that confined . ■ Compare the ideas of Hobbes and “ Man is born free, and everywhere he is in Locke. chains.” —Rousseau, The Social Contract ■ Identify the beliefs and contributions of the . Focus Question What effects did Enlightenment have on and society? ■ Summarize how economic thinking changed during this time. in the Age of Prepare to Read

Build Background Knowledge L3 Objectives By the early 1700s, European thinkers felt that nothing was Remind students that during the Scien- • Explain how science led to the Enlightenment. beyond the reach of the human mind. Through the use of reason, tific , scientists used reason to • Compare the ideas of Hobbes and Locke. insisted these thinkers, people and could solve every social, political, and economic problem. In essence, these writers, explain why things happened in the phys- • Identify the beliefs and contributions of the ical universe. Then ask them to predict philosophes. scholars, and philosophers felt they could change the world. what other aspects of life people could • Summarize how economic thinking changed study using the new scientific method. during this time. Scientific Revolution Sparks Terms, People, and Places the Enlightenment L3 Set a Purpose natural The Scientific Revolution of the 1500s and 1600s had transformed ■ WITNESS HISTORY Read the selection the way people in Europe looked at the world. In the 1700s, other

aloud or play the audio. Diderot scientists expanded European knowledge. For example, Edward social contract Rousseau Jenner developed a vaccine against smallpox, a disease whose AUDIO Witness History Audio CD, natural right laissez faire path of death spanned the centuries. Rousseau Stirs Things Up philosophe Scientific successes convinced educated Europeans of the power Ask students to explain in their own of human reason. , or rules discoverable by reason, words what Rousseau meant by Reading Skill: Summarize Draw a table like govern scientific forces such as gravity and magnetism. Why not, “chains.” What might have been some the one shown here. As you read the section, then, use natural law to better understand social, economic, and examples of such “chains” in his time? summarize each thinker’s works and ideas. political problems? Using the methods of , reform- What are some examples today? ers thus set out to study human behavior and solve the problems ■ Focus Point out the Section Focus Thinkers’ Works and Ideas of society. In this way, the Scientific Revolution led to another rev- Question and write it on the board. Hobbes Leviathan, social contract olution in thinking, known as the Enlightenment. Immanuel Tell students to refer to this question Locke Kant, a German best known for his work The Critique Montesquieu of Pure Reason, was one of the first to describe this era with the as they read. (Answer appears with Section 1 Assessment answers.) ■ Preview Have students preview the Section Objectives and the list of Vocabulary Builder Terms, People, and Places. ■ Reading Skill Have students use the Use the information below and the following resources to teach the high-use word from this section. Reading Strategy: Summarize work- Teaching Resources, Unit 4, p. 5; Teaching Resources, Skills Handbook, p. 3

sheet. High-Use Word Definition and Sample Sentence Teaching Resources, Unit 4, p. 6 philosophy, p. 547 n. the love of, or the search for, wisdom or knowledge

Jonathan’s philosophy of nature comes from his many hikes in the wilderness, where he observes wildlife.

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word “Enlightenment.” Despite Kant’s skepticism about the power of rea- ■ Have students read this son, he was enthusiastic about the Enlightenment and believed, like section using the Paragraph Shrinking many European philosophers, that natural law could help explain strategy (TE, p. T20). As they read, aspects of humanity. have students fill in the table describing What convinced educated Europeans to accept the each thinker’s works and ideas. power of reason? Reading and Note Taking Study Guide, p. 158 Hobbes and Locke Have Conflicting Views Thomas Hobbes and John Locke, two seventeenth-century English thinkers, set forth ideas that were to become key to the Enlightenment. Both men lived through the upheavals of the English Civil War. Yet they Teach came to very different conclusions about human nature and the role of government. Scientific Revolution/ Hobbes in Powerful Government Thomas Hobbes out- Hobbes and Locke L3 lined his ideas in a work titled Leviathan. In it, he argued that people were naturally cruel, greedy, and selfish. If not strictly controlled, they Instruct would fight, rob, and oppress one another. Life in the “”— ■ Introduce: Key Terms Ask students without or other control—would be “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, to find the key term natural law (in and short.” blue) in the text. Point out that during To escape that “brutish” life, said Hobbes, people entered into a the 1500s and 1600s, scientists used social contract, an agreement by which they gave up their for natural law and the scientific method an organized society. Hobbes believed that only a powerful government to challenge long-held beliefs. could ensure an orderly society. For him, such a government was an abso- lute , which could impose order and compel obedience. Hobbes Writes the Leviathan ■ Teach Compare Hobbes’s and Locke’s The title page from Leviathan (1651) views on government. Then ask In the Locke Advocates Natural John Locke had a more optimistic by Hobbes demonstrates his in 1700s, what type of government view of human nature. He thought people were basically reasonable and a powerful ruler. The monarch here represents the Leviathan who rises existed in most European states? moral. Further, they had certain natural rights, or rights that belonged above all of society. to all humans from birth. These included the right to life, , (divine-right monarchy) How did and property. Locke’s ideas challenge Europe’s In Two Treatises of Government, Locke argued that people traditional order? (His theory of nat- formed governments to protect their natural rights. The best ural rights contradicted the theory of kind of government, he said, had limited power and was divine rights.) What was the long- accepted by all citizens. Thus, unlike Hobbes, Locke rejected term effect of these ideas? (They absolute monarchy. England during this time experienced a shift influenced across the globe.) in political power known as the . James II, ■ Quick Activity Ask students if they an unpopular absolute monarch, left the throne and fled recognize Locke’s ideas about natural England in 1688. Locke later wrote that he thought James II rights in our government. Have them deserved to be dethroned for violating the rights of the English. Locke proposed a radical idea about this time. A government, read the excerpt from John Locke’s Two he said, has an obligation to the people it governs. If a govern- Treatises of Government on page 549. ment fails its obligations or violates people’s natural rights, the Then discuss if and when people have people have the right to overthrow that government. Locke’s the right to overthrow their government. idea would one day influence leaders of the American Revolu- tion, such as , , and James Independent Practice Madison. Locke’s idea of the would also echo Pair students and have them write a dia- across Europe and Latin America in the centuries that followed. logue between Locke and Hobbes on the How did Hobbes and Locke differ in their dethroning of James II in England. views on the role of government? Monitor As students compose the dialogues, check to ensure they understand that Hobbes and Locke would have had different views on the dethroning.

Solutions for All Learners

L1 Special Needs L2 Less Proficient Readers L2 English Language Learners

Help students understand the importance of reason to Use the following study guide resources to help Answers the Enlightenment. Explain that reason is thought students acquiring basic skills: scientific successes based on logic. Previously, people accepted things on Adapted Reading and Note Taking faith, which is an unquestioning belief. Have students Study Guide Hobbes believed that the government needed

brainstorm the advantages and disadvantages of using ■ Adapted Note Taking Study Guide, p. 158 to impose order and compel obedience. Locke reason rather than faith. ■ Adapted Section Summary, p. 159 thought governments should have limited power and be sanctioned by all citizens.

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The Philosophes L3 The Philosophes BIOGRAPHY In the 1700s, there was a flowering of Instruct Enlightenment thought. This was ■ Introduce: Vocabulary Builder when a group of Enlightenment Have students read the Vocabulary thinkers in applied the meth- Builder term and definition. Ask ods of science to understand and students to define philosophy in improve society. They believed that their own words. Then ask students to the use of reason could lead to explain who the philosophes were. reforms of government, law, and soci- ety. These thinkers were called ■ Teach Create a two-column chart on philosophes (fee loh ZOHFS), which the board, labeling one column means “philosophers.” Their ideas “Thinker” and the other “Main Ideas.” soon spread beyond France and even Ask volunteers to fill in the chart with beyond Europe. the thinkers discussed in the section and each thinker’s ideas and accom- Montesquieu Advances the Idea plishments. Then have students use of An the chart to summarize the main ideas Voltaire Montesquieu early and influential thinker was Baron de Montesquieu (MAHN tus of the Enlightenment. Using the Think- François-Marie Arouet, known as Born to wealth, Charles Louis de Voltaire (1694–1778), was an impas- kyoo). Montesquieu studied the gov- Write-Pair-Share strategy (TE, p. T23), Secondat (1689–1755) inherited the sioned poet, , essayist, and title Baron de Montesquieu from his ernments of Europe, from Italy to ask students to discuss what made philosopher who wrote with cutting uncle. Like many other reformers, he did England. He read about ancient and these ideas in the 1700s. sarcasm and sharp wit. Voltaire was not let his privileged status keep him medieval Europe, and learned about ■ Quick Activity Display Color Trans- sent to the Bastille prison twice due from becoming a voice for . Chinese and Native American cul- parency 101: Enlightenment Ideas to his criticism of French authorities His first book titled ridi- tures. His sharp criticism of absolute and was eventually banned from Par- culed the French government and social monarchy would open doors for later About Government. Use the lesson is. When he was able to return to classes. In his work published in 1748, debate. suggested in the transparency book to France, he wrote about political , he advanced guide a discussion. Ask how the philos- and religious freedom. Voltaire spent the idea of separation of powers—a In 1748, Montesquieu published ophes helped create new assumptions his life fighting enemies of freedom, foundation of modern democracy. The Spirit of the Laws, in which he about the proper use of power and the such as ignorance, superstition, and What did Montesquieu think discussed governments throughout history. Montesquieu felt that the best attributes of a just government. intolerance. What did Voltaire was necessary to protect liberty? attack in his writings? way to protect liberty was to divide the Color Transparencies, 101 various functions and powers of

government among three branches: Independent Practice the legislative, , and judicial. He also felt that each branch of gov- ernment should be able to serve as a check on the other two, an idea that ■ Biography To help students better we call checks and balances. Montesquieu’s beliefs would soon profoundly understand the courage it took to criti- affect the Framers of the United States . cize powerful institutions, have them read Voltaire and complete the work- Voltaire Defends Probably the most famous sheet. of the philosophes was François-Marie Arouet, who took the name Voltaire. “My trade,” said Voltaire, “is to say what I think,” and he Teaching Resources, Unit 4, p. 7 did so throughout his long, controversial life. Voltaire used biting wit as a ■ Viewpoints To help students learn weapon to expose the abuses of his day. He targeted corrupt officials and about different viewpoints on education idle aristocrats. With his pen, he battled inequality, injustice, and super- at the time, have them read Enlighten- stition. He detested the slave trade and deplored religious prejudice. ment Views on Education and complete Voltaire’s outspoken attacks offended both the French government the worksheet. and the . He was imprisoned and forced into exile. Even as he saw his books outlawed and even burned, he continued to defend Teaching Resources, Unit 4, p. 10 the principle of .

Monitor Progress Diderot Edits the Encyclopedia (DEE duh roh) worked for years to produce a 28-volume set of books called the As students fill in their tables, circulate Encyclopedia. As the editor, Diderot did more than just compile articles. to make sure they understand each thinker’s ideas. For a completed version of the table, see Note Taking Transparencies, 133 History Background

Science and Philosophy , the study of political climate controls behavior, and that the extent human behavior and the development of human societ- of freedom in a society is determined by its institu- ies, came out of the science practiced by the eigh- tions. He examined laws, customs, and behaviors of teenth-century philosophes, in particular Baron de various . His method of study was to compare Answers Montesquieu. He can legitimately be called the father the features of past and present societies. This is simi- of sociology. In his great treatise, The Spirit of the Laws, lar to the methods of comparative sociology today. BIOGRAPHY Montesquieu wrote that religion shapes , that Voltaire: the French authori- ties and enemies of freedom; Montesquieu: separation of the powers of government

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His purpose was “to change the general way of thinking” by explaining Vocabulary Builder ideas on topics such as government, philosophy, and religion. Diderot’s philosophy—(fih LAHS uh fee) n. love of, New Economic Encyclopedia included articles by leading thinkers of the day, including or the search for, wisdom or knowledge Thinking L3 Montesquieu and Voltaire. In these articles, the philosophes denounced slavery, praised freedom of expression, and urged education for all. They Instruct attacked divine-right theory and traditional religions. Critics raised an ■ Introduce Ask students to read the outcry. The French government argued that the Encyclopedia was an introductory sentences under the red attack on public morals, and the threatened to excommunicate heading New Economic Thinking. Have Roman Catholics who bought or read the volumes. students predict how natural law could Despite these and other efforts to ban the Encyclopedia, more than apply to economics. Then have them read 4,000 copies were printed between 1751 and 1789. When translated into to find out whether their predictions other languages, the Encyclopedia helped spread Enlightenment ideas were accurate. throughout Europe and across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas. ■ Teach Discuss the new economic Rousseau Promotes The Social Contract Jean-Jacques Rousseau thinking. Ask What are two differ- (roo SOH), believed that people in their natural state were basically good. ences between the physiocrats This natural innocence, he felt, was corrupted by the evils of society, and the mercantilists? (mercantil- especially the unequal distribution of property. Many reformers and rev- ists: favored government regulation, olutionaries later adopted this view. Among them were believed in building wealth through and Marquis de Lafayette, who were leading figures of the American and trade; physiocrats: opposed govern- French Revolutions. In 1762, Rousseau set forth his ideas about government and society in ment regulation, believed in building The Social Contract. Rousseau felt that society placed too many limita- wealth through land productivity) tions on people’s behavior. He believed that some controls were neces- How did Adam Smith’s ideas build sary, but that they should be minimal. Additionally, only governments upon those of the physiocrats? (He that had been freely elected should impose these controls. agreed that government should not Rousseau put his faith in the “,” or the best conscience of interfere with the economy.) According Heated Debate the people. The good of the community as a whole, he said, should be to Smith, what should rule the Rousseau (left) and Voltaire (right) are placed above individual interests. Rousseau has influenced political and pictured here in the midst of an argument. economy? (market forces of supply social thinkers for more than 200 years. Woven through his work is a Even though the philosophes were reform- and demand) hatred of all forms of political and economic oppression. His bold ideas minded, they disagreed about some issues. ■ Quick Activity Display Color Trans- would help fan the flames of revolt in years to come. Compare the beliefs of Rousseau and Voltaire. parency 102: Law of Supply and Women Challenge the Philosophes The Enlightenment slogan Demand. Use the lesson suggested in “free and equal” did not apply to women. Though the philosophes said the transparency book to guide a dis- women had natural rights, their rights were limited to the areas of cussion on the ways Smith’s ideas are home and family. included in modern economic theory. By the mid- to late-1700s, a small but growing number of Color Transparencies, 102 women protested this view. Germaine de Staël in France and Catharine Macaulay and in Britain argued that women were being excluded from the social con- Independent Practice tract itself. Their arguments, however, were ridiculed and Laissez-faire economists argue that soci- often sharply condemned. ety would be better off if the government Wollstonecraft was a well-known British social critic. She did not interfere with business and the accepted that a woman’s first duty was to be a good mother marketplace. Discuss what students but felt that a woman should be able to decide what was in believe to be the proper role of govern- her own interest without depending on her husband. In 1792, ment in a nation’s economy. Wollstonecraft published A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. In it, she called for equal education for girls and boys. Only education, she argued, could give women the tools they Monitor Progress needed to participate equally with men in public life. Check Reading and Note Taking Study Guide entries for student understanding. What topics were addressed by the philosophes in their Encyclopedia articles?

Solutions for All Learners

L4 Advanced Readers L4 Gifted and Talented Answers While Locke and Montesquieu were rethinking the On Crimes and Punishment, he wrote that the object Answers may include topics such as slavery, role of government, was rethinking of the penal system should be to preserve order, not the role of criminal . At this time, critics of the to punish people excessively. Have students research freedom of expression, and education. king or the church could be punished for their views. Beccaria’s ideas and write a paragraph on his influ- Caption Rousseau believed that a freely elected Beccaria objected to the use of torture, secret pro- ence on today’s justice system. government should exercise minimal control ceedings, and brutal punishments. In his treatise, over the people; Voltaire believed in free speech, equality, justice, and reason.

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Assess and Reteach New Economic Thinking French thinkers known as physiocrats focused on economic reforms. Like the philosophes, physiocrats based their thinking on natural laws. The Assess Progress L3 physiocrats claimed that their rational economic system was based on ■ Have students complete the the natural laws of economics. Section Assessment. Laissez Faire Replaces Mercantilism Physiocrats rejected mercan- ■ Administer the Section Quiz. tilism, which required government regulation of the economy to achieve Teaching Resources, Unit 4, p. 2 a favorable balance of trade. Instead, they urged a policy of laissez faire (les ay FEHR), allowing business to operate with little or no government ■ To further assess student under- interference. Physiocrats also supported and opposed tariffs. standing, use Progress Monitoring Smith Argues for a Scottish economist Adam Smith Transparencies, 72 greatly admired the physiocrats. In his influential work The Wealth of Nations, he argued that the free market should be allowed to regulate business activity. Smith tried to show how manufacturing, trade, wages, Reteach profits, and economic growth were all linked to the market forces of sup- If students need more instruction, have ply and demand. Wherever there was a demand for goods or services, he them read the section summary. said, suppliers would seek to meet that demand in order to gain profits. Reading and Note Taking L3 Smith was a strong supporter of laissez faire. However, he felt that gov- ernment had a duty to protect society, administer justice, and provide Study Guide, p. 159 public works. Adam Smith’s ideas would help to shape productive econo- mies in the 1800s and 1900s. Adapted Reading and L1 L2 Note Taking Study Guide, p. 159 Why did Smith support laissez faire? Investors in , France, 1720 Spanish Reading and L2 Note Taking Study Guide, p. 159

Extend L4 Organize the class into small groups. Have each group think of areas in modern society that are based on or represent Enlightenment ideas. (Sample: govern- ment, , education, gender roles) Have them choose one Enlighten- ment idea and discuss the similarities and differences between that idea and the present-day manifestation of the idea. Progress Monitoring Online For: Self-quiz with vocabulary practice 1 Web Code: naa-1711 Answer Terms, People, and Places Comprehension and ● Writing About History Quick Write: Explore a Topic On some Smith believed the market would be more 1. For each term, person, or place listed at 3. Summarize How did the achievements the beginning of the section, write a of the Scientific Revolution contribute to essay tests, you may have a choice of topic. productive without government regulation. sentence explaining its significance. the Enlightenment? You should choose one that you feel most 4. Recognize Cause and Effect What knowledgeable about. Choose from the did the philosophes do to better under- following, and draft a single sentence 2. Reading Skill: Summarize Use your stand and improve society? that identifies the main idea: completed tables to answer the Focus 5. Synthesize Information Explain the (a) social contracts (b) freedom of speech Question: What effects did Enlighten- connection between the policy of laissez (c) women in the mid-1700s ment philosophers have on government faire and natural economic laws. and society?

human nature and government as well as ● Writing About History Section 1 Assessment to the physical world. Sentences should show an understanding of 1. Sentences should reflect an understanding 4. They applied the methods of science to the main idea of one of the three writing of each term, person, or place listed at the study and improve society. topics given. beginning of the section. 5. Laissez faire means allowing the free 2. They contributed new ideas such as sepa- market to operate “naturally,” or with lit- ration of powers and freely elected tle or no government interference. government. 3. They led to greater faith in the power of For additional assessment, have students reason. People began to apply reason to access Progress Monitoring Online at Web Code naa-1711.

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John Locke: John Locke: Two Two Treatises of Government Treatises of Government English philosopher John Locke (1632–1704) published Two Objectives Treatises of Government in 1690. Locke believed that all ■ Explain the ideas presented in John people had the same natural rights of life, liberty, and Locke’s Two Treatises of Government. property. In this essay, Locke states that the primary ■ Understand the impact of this doc- purpose of government is to protect these natural rights. ument on the French and American He also states that governments hold their power only revolutions. with the consent of the people. Locke’s ideas greatly influenced revolutions in America and France. Build Background Knowledge L3 Ask students to recall what they know about John Locke and his ideas on gov- ut though men, when they enter into society give up the ernment. Tell them that Locke explained Bequality, liberty, and executive power they had in the state of some of his ideas in this essay. Nature into the hands of society . . . the power of the society or legislative constituted by them can never be supposed to extend farther than the common good. . . . Whoever has the legislative Instruct L3 or supreme power of any commonwealth, is bound to govern by ■ Direct students to the introduction at established standing laws, promulgated1 and known to the the top of the page. Then ask What people, and not by extemporary2 decrees, by indifferent and does Locke believe is the primary upright judges, who are to decide controversies by those laws; purpose of government? (to protect and to employ the force of the community at home only in the people’s natural rights of life, liberty, execution of such laws, or abroad to prevent or redress foreign and property) Ask students to recall 3 injuries and secure the community from inroads and where else they have heard this idea. invasion. And all this to be directed to no other end but the Point out that Locke’s ideas about nat- , safety, and public good of the people. . . . ural rights and the obligations of gov- The reason why men enter into society is the preservation of their John Locke and a book of his writings ernment later influenced Thomas property; and the end while they choose and authorize a legislative is that Jefferson’s writing of the Declaration of there may be laws made, and rules set, as guards and fences to the properties of all the society, . . . Independence. This document states Whensoever, therefore, the legislative [power] shall transgress4 this that all men are created equal and are fundamental rule of society, and either by ambition, fear, folly, or given “certain unalienable Rights, that corruption, endeavor to grasp themselves, or put into the hands of any among these are Life, Liberty and the other, an absolute power over the lives, , and estates of the people, pursuit of Happiness.” by this breach of trust they forfeit the power the people had put into their ■ As students read the selection, have 5 hands for quite contrary ends, and it devolves to the people; who have a them list each of Locke’s ideas on gov- right to resume their original liberty, and by the establishment of a new ernment. When students have finished, legislative (such as they shall think fit), provide for their own safety and Thinking Critically have them compare their lists, and security. . . . 1. Draw Inferences According to then create a master list on the board. Locke, how should a land be (Lists should include: People have natu- governed? Why do you think this is ral rights; people form governments the case? 1. promulgated (PRAHM ul gayt id) vt. published or made known. to protect their natural rights; if a 2. extemporary (ek STEM puh rehr ee) adj. without any preparation. 2. Identify Central Issues What does government fails this obligation, the 3. inroads (IN rohdz) n. advances at the expense of someone. Locke say can happen if a government fails to protect the rights of its people have a right to overthrow that 4. transgress (trans GRES) vt. go beyond; break. people? 5. devolves (dih VAHLVZ) vt. passes. government.) Monitor Progress To confirm students’ understanding, ask History Background them to briefly summarize Locke’s ideas. Solutions for All Learners How does modern American government L2 Less Proficient Readers L2 English Language Learners incorporate his ideas?

Use shared reading to help students read this docu- dents enter school, they hand over certain things, ment. First, read aloud the first paragraph of the such as decisions as to how they may dress. Next, Thinking Critically excerpt. As you read, model how to summarize the have them go back and read the primary source 1. by a government chosen by the people; Sample: meaning of each section. For example, after you silently. Then, have students work in groups to All people have the same natural rights and read aloud the first sentence, think aloud: When explain the meaning of a few sentences. After should be able to choose the body that protects people join a society, they hand over certain pow- the groups have had sufficient time, discuss their them. ers to that society. Provide an example: When stu- conclusions as a class. 2. The people can overthrow the government.

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