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Home , General will, John Locke, Montesquieu

Hobbes, Locke, making life, , and , and possible. Hobbes called this Rousseau on agreement the “.” Hobbes believed that a govern - ment headed by a king was the best form that the sovereign Starting in the 1600s, European could take. Placing all power in philosophers began debating the the hands of a king would mean question of who should govern a more resolute and consistent nation. As the absolute rule of exercise of political authority, kings weakened, Enlightenment Hobbes argued. Hobbes also philosophers argued for differ - maintained that the social con - ent forms of . was an agreement only n 1649, a civil war broke out among the people and not over who would rule — between them and their king. IParliament or King Charles I. The Once the people had given abso - war ended with the beheading of lute power to the king, they had the king. Shortly after Charles was no right to revolt against him. executed, an English philosopher, Hobbes warned against the (1588–1679), meddling with the king’s wrote The , a defense of The English philosopher believed that government. He feared religion the absolute power of kings. The people were endowed with the natural of “life, could become a source of civil liberty, and property.” (Brooklyn College, History of the book referred to a Dept.) war. Thus, he advised that the leviathan, a mythological, whale- church become a department of like sea monster that the king’s government, which devoured whole ships. Hobbes likened the would closely control all religious affairs. In any con - W leviathan to government, a powerful created flict between divine and royal , Hobbes wrote, the to impose order. should obey the king or choose death. O Hobbes began The Leviathan by describing the But the days of absolute kings were numbered. A new R “state of ” where all were natu - age with fresh was emerging—the European rally equal. Every was free to do what he Enlightenment. L or she needed to do to survive. As a result, every - one suffered from “continued fear and danger of Enlightenment thinkers wanted to improve human con - D violent death; and the life of man [was] solitary, ditions on earth rather than concern themselves with poor, nasty, brutish, and short.” religion and the afterlife. These thinkers valued , , , and what they called “natu - In the , there were no or any - ral rights”—life, liberty, and property. H one to enforce them. The only way out of this sit - uation, Hobbes said, was for individuals to create Enlightenment philosophers John Locke, Charles I some supreme power to impose on every - Montesquieu, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau all devel - S one. oped theories of government in which some or even all the people would govern. These thinkers had a pro - T Hobbes borrowed a from English con - found effect on the American and French tract law: an implied agreement. Hobbes asserted and the democratic that they produced. O that the people agreed among themselves to “lay Locke: The Reluctant Democrat down” their natural rights of equality and free - R dom and give absolute power to a sovereign. The John Locke (1632–1704) was born shortly before the sovereign, created by the people, might be a per - . Locke studied science and medicine Y son or a group. The sovereign would make and at Oxford University and became a professor there. He enforce the laws to secure a peaceful , sided with the Protestant against the Roman Catholic King James II in the Glorious of 10 Montesquieu: The Balanced Democrat 1688–89. This event reduced the power of the king and made Parliament the major authority in English gov - When Charles Montesquieu (1689–1755) was born, ernment. was ruled by an absolute king, Louis XIV. In 1690, Locke published his Two of Montesquieu was born into a noble family and educat - Government . He generally agreed with Hobbes about ed in . He traveled extensively throughout the brutality of the state of nature, which required a Europe, including England, where he studied to assure peace. But he disagreed with Parliament. In 1722, he wrote a book, ridiculing the Hobbes on two major points. reign of Louis XIV and the doctrines of the Roman . First, Locke argued that natural rights such as life, lib - erty, and property existed in the state of nature and Montesquieu published his greatest work, The Spirit of could never be taken away or even voluntarily given up the Laws , in 1748. Unlike Hobbes and Locke, by individuals. These rights were “inalienable” (impos - Montesquieu believed that in the state of nature indi - sible to surrender). Locke also disagreed with Hobbes viduals were so fearful that they avoided violence and about the social contract. For him, it was not just an war. The need for food, Montesquieu said, caused the agreement among the people, but between them and the timid humans to associate with others and seek to live sovereign (preferably a king). in a society. “As soon as man enters into a state of soci - ety,” Montesquieu wrote, “he loses the of his According to Locke, the natural rights of individuals weakness, equality ceases, and then commences the limited the power of the king. The king did not hold state of war.” absolute power, as Hobbes had said, but acted only to enforce and protect the natural rights of the people. If a Montesquieu did not describe a social contract as such. sovereign violated these rights, the social contract was But he said that the state of war among individuals and broken, and the people had the right to revolt and estab - nations led to human laws and government. lish a new government. Less than 100 years after Locke Montesquieu wrote that the main purpose of govern - wrote his Two Treatises of Government , Thomas ment is to maintain law and order, political liberty, and Jefferson used his theory in writing the Declaration of the property of the individual. Montesquieu opposed Independence. the absolute of his home country and favored Although Locke spoke out for of , the English system as the best model of government. speech, and religion, he believed property to be the Montesquieu somewhat misinterpreted how political most important natural right. He declared that owners power was actually exercised in England. When he may do whatever they want with their property as long wrote , power was concentrated as they do not invade the rights of others. Government, pretty much in Parliament, the national . he said, was mainly necessary to promote the “public Montesquieu thought he saw a separation and balanc - good,” that is to protect property and encourage com - ing of the powers of government in England. merce and little else. “Govern lightly,” Locke said. Montesquieu viewed the English king as exercising Locke favored a representative government such as the power balanced by the law-making English Parliament, which had a hereditary House of Parliament, which was itself divided into the House of Lords and an elected House of . But he want - Lords and the House of Commons, each checking the ed representatives to be only men of property and busi - other. Then, the executive and legislative branches ness. Consequently, only adult male property owners were still further balanced by an independent court sys - should have the right to vote. Locke was reluctant to tem. allow the propertyless masses of people to participate in government because he believed that they were unfit. Montesquieu concluded that the best form of govern - ment was one in which the legislative, executive, and The supreme authority of government, Locke said, judicial powers were separate and kept each other in should reside in the law-making legislature, like check to prevent any branch from becoming too power - England’s Parliament. The executive (prime minister) ful. He believed that uniting these powers, as in the and courts would be creations of the legislature and monarchy of Louis XIV, would lead to . under its authority. While Montesquieu’s theory did 11 (Continued on next page) not accurately describe the govern - “general ” to make laws for ment of England, Americans later the “public good.” adopted it as the foundation of the Rousseau argued that the gener - U.S. . al will of the people could not Rousseau: The Extreme Democrat be decided by elected represen - tatives. He believed in a direct Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712– democracy in which everyone 1778) was born in Geneva, voted to express the Switzerland, where all adult male and to make the laws of the citizens could vote for a representa - land. Rousseau had in a tive government. Rousseau traveled democracy on a small scale, a in France and Italy, educating him - city-state like his native . Geneva. In 1751, he won an contest. In Rousseau’s democracy, any - He wrote that man was naturally one who disobeyed the general good and was corrupted by society. will of the people “will be He quickly became a celebrity in the forced to be free.” He believed French salons where artists, scien - that citizens must obey the laws tists, and writers gathered to discuss or be forced to do so as long as the latest ideas. they remained a resident of the French writer Charles Montesquieu’s greatest state. This is a “civil state,” A few years later he published work was The Spirit of the Laws. He believed that Rousseau says, where security, another essay in which he described the best government had separate legislative, exec - , liberty, and property are savages in a state of nature as free, utive, and judicial branches that could check and protected and enjoyed by all. equal, peaceful, and happy. When balance each other. (University of Kansas Libraries) people began to claim of All political power, according to property, Rousseau argued, inequal - Rousseau, must reside with the ity, murder, and war resulted. people, exercising their general will. There can be no separation of powers, as Montesquieu proposed. The According to Rousseau, the powerful rich stole the people, meeting together, will deliberate individually land belonging to everyone and fooled the common on laws and then by majority vote find the general will. people into accepting them as rulers. Rousseau con - Rousseau’s general will was later embodied in the cluded that the social contract was not a willing agree - words “We the people . . .” at the beginning of the U.S. ment, as Hobbes, Locke, and Montesquieu had Constitution. believed, but a fraud against the people committed by the rich. Rousseau was rather vague on the mechanics of how his democracy would work. There would be a govern - In 1762, Rousseau published his most important work ment of sorts, entrusted with administering the general on political theory, The Social Contract . His opening will. But it would be composed of “mere officials” line is still striking today: “Man is born free, and who got their orders from the people. everywhere he is in chains.” Rousseau agreed with Locke that the individual should never be forced to Rousseau believed that religion divided and weakened give up his or her natural rights to a king. the state. “It is impossible to live in peace with people you think are damned,” he said. He favored a “civil The problem in the state of nature, Rousseau said, was religion” that accepted God, but concentrated on the to find a way to protect everyone’s life, liberty, and sacredness of the social contract. property while each person remained free. Rousseau’s solution was for people to enter into a social contract. Rousseau realized that democracy as he envisioned it They would give up all their rights, not to a king, but to would be hard to maintain. He warned, “As soon as “the whole community,” all the people. He called all any man says of the affairs of the State, ‘What does it the people the “sovereign,” a term used by Hobbes to to me?’ the State may be given up for lost.” mainly refer to a king. The people then exercised their 12 A C T I V I T Y

The Philosophers Take a Stand 1. Divide the class into four groups, each taking on the role of Hobbes, Locke, Montesquieu, or Rousseau. 2. The members of each of the role group will need to research why their philosopher would agree or dis - agree with the debate topics listed below. The arti - cle contains some clues, but students should find out more about their philosophers’ views by using the school library and Internet. 3. After research has been completed, each role group will state its philosopher’s position on topic A. The groups should then debate the topic from the point of view of the philosopher they are role playing. Follow the same procedure for the rest of the topics. 4. After all the debates are finished, class members should discuss which one of the four philosophers they agree with the most and why.

Swiss philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau thought that the best Debate Topics form of government was a direct democracy. (North American A. The best form of government is a representative for the Study of Rousseau) democracy. For Discussion and Writing B. Only the president should have the power to 1. Of the four philosophers discussed in this article, declare war. which two do you think differed the most? Why? C. A good way to make laws is for all the people to 2. Which of the democratic forms government pro - directly vote on them. posed by Locke, Montesquieu, and Rousseau do D. Religion should be a part of the government. you think is the best? Why? E. The government should have the authority to con - 3. Rousseau wrote in The Social Contract , “As soon fiscate a person’s property for the public good. as any man says of the affairs of the State ‘What does it matter to me?’ the State may be given up for Be the First to Know—Join CRF’s lost.” What do you think he meant? How do you Listserv think his words relate to American democracy today? CRF sends out periodic announcements For Further Reading about new publications, programs, trainings, and lessons. Don’t miss out. Conroy, Peter V. Jean-Jacques Rousseau . New York: E-mail us at [email protected] . On the Twayne Publishers, 1998. line, write CRF Listserv. In the message, put your name, school, subject Levine, Andrew. Engaging from you teach, state, and e-mail address. If you’ve changed Hobbes to Rawls . Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2002. your e-mail address, please notify us.

13 CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS FOUNDATION

SPRING 2004B I L L O F R I G H T S I N A C VOLUTME 2I0 O NUMBN ER 2 How Women Won the Right to Vote

In 1848, a small group of visionaries started a move - ment to secure equal rights for women in the United States. But it took more than 70 years just to win the right for women to vote. fter male organizers excluded women from attending an anti- conference, American abolitionists EAlizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott decided to call the “First Woman’s Rights Convention.” Held over several days in July 1848 at Seneca Falls, New York, the conven - tion brought together about 300 women and 40 men. Among them was Charlotte Woodward, a 19 year-old farm In 1913, Alice Paul organized a massive parade through the streets of Washington, D.C., for women’s suffrage. (Library of Congress) girl who longed to become a printer, a trade then reserved for males. widely held assumption that women were by nature deli - By the end of the meeting, convention delegates had cate, childlike, emotional, and mentally inferior to men. approved a statement modeled after the Declaration of In the United States and in other democratic countries, the Independence. The Seneca Falls “Declaration of right to vote (also called the “elective franchise” or “suf - Sentiments” began with these words: “We hold these frage”) remained exclusively within the men’s “sphere.” to be self-evident: that all men and women are created The Seneca Falls declaration promoted a radical vision of equal . . . .” in all areas of American public life, includ - The declaration then listed “repeated injuries” by men ing women’s suffrage. Women in most states did not gain W against women, claiming that men had imposed “an the right to vote until 1919, after their role in American U absolute tyranny” over women.” These injuries society had dramatically changed. included forcing women to obey laws that they had (Continued on next page) no voice in passing. They included making married S women “civilly dead” in the eyes of the law, without Developments in Democracy rights to property, earned wages, or the custody of H their children in a divorce. The injuries included This issue of Bill of Rights in Action looks at develop - barring women from most “profitable employ - ments in democracy. Two articles focus on the women’s I ments” and colleges. movement in the United States—the first examines how women achieved the right to vote and the second explores The convention also voted on a resolution that said, S whether women have achieved equality in our society. “it is the duty of the women of this country to secure The final article looks at four Enlightenment philoso - T to themselves their sacred right” to vote. This reso - phers—Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Charles lution provoked heated debate. It barely passed. Montesquieu, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau—and their O In the middle of the 19th century, most Americans, views on democracy. R including most women, accepted the of “sepa - U.S. History: How Women Won the Right to Vote rate spheres” for males and females. Men worked Current Issues: Have Women Achieved Equality? Y and ran the government. Women stayed home and World History: Hobbes, Locke, Montesquieu, and cared for the family. This was based on the Rousseau on Government

© 2004, Constitutional Rights Foundation, Los Angeles. All Constitutional Rights Foundation materials and publications, including Bill of Rights in Action , are protected by copyright. However, we hereby grant to all recipients a license to reproduce all material contained herein for distribution to students, other school site personnel, and district administrators. ( ISSN: 1534-9799 ) Susan B. Anthony and the Women’s Suffrage Movement judge at Anthony’s trial ruled that because she was a woman, she was incompetent to testify. The jury found One of the main leaders of the women’s suffrage move - her guilty, and the judge ordered her to pay a fine of ment was Susan B. Anthony (1820–1906). Brought up $100. Anthony told the judge she would never pay it. in a Quaker family, she was raised to be independent She never did. and think for herself. She joined the abolitionist move - In 1875 in the case of Minor v. Happersett , the U.S. ment to end slavery. Through her abolitionist efforts, Supreme Court decided that women were citizens she met Elizabeth Cady Stanton in 1851. Anthony had under the 14th Amendment. But the court went on to not attended the Seneca Falls Convention, but she say that citizenship did not mean women automatically quickly joined with Stanton to lead the fight for wom - possessed the right to vote. en’s suffrage in the United States. The “Anthony Amendment” The Civil War interrupted action to secure the vote for women. During the war, however, the role of women in In 1878, the NWSA succeeded in getting a constitu - society began to change. Since many men were fight - tional amendment introduced in Congress. The pro - ing, their wives and daughters often had to run the fam - posed amendment stated, “The right of citizens of the ily farm, go to work in factories, or take up other jobs United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by previously done by men. the United States or by any state on account of sex.” This became known as the “Anthony Amendment.” After the war, Anthony, Stanton, and others hoped that because women had contributed to the war economy, While NWSA lobbied Congress for the “Anthony they along with the ex-slaves would be guaranteed the Amendment,” another advocacy group, the American right to vote. But most males disagreed. Woman Suffrage Association, concentrated on cam - paigning for women’s right to vote in states and territo - The Republicans who controlled Congress wrote three ries. Before 1900, only a few of these efforts in the new amendments to the U.S. Constitution. The 13th western territories succeeded. Amendment abolished slavery. The 14th Amendment awarded citizenship to all people born within the When the Territory of Wyoming applied for statehood United States and granted every person “the equal pro - in 1889, Congress threatened to deny it admission tection of the laws.” The 15th Amendment dealt with because its laws allowed women to vote. In response, voting. It stated: “The right of citizens of the United the territorial legislators wrote Congress, “We will States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the remain out of the Union a hundred years rather than United States or by any State on account of race, color, come in without the women.” The following year, or previous condition of servitude.” It failed to grant Congress admitted Wyoming as a state, the first one women the right to vote. with women’s suffrage. This set the trend for a few oth - In 1869, Anthony and Stanton organized the National er Western states to pass women’s suffrage laws Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) to work for a (Colorado, 1893; Utah, 1896; and Idaho, 1896). federal constitutional amendment, guaranteeing all In 1890, the two national women’s suffrage organiza - American women the right to vote. Some activists dis - tions merged to form the National American Woman agreed with this tactic. They believed the best way to Suffrage Association (NAWSA) with Elizabeth Cady get the vote for women was to persuade the Stanton as the president. Susan B. Anthony took over of each state to grant women suffrage. in 1892 and remained president until she retired in Ironically, the first place to allow American women to 1900. vote was neither the federal government nor a state. In In the late 1800s, the Women’s Christian Temperance 1869, the all-male legislature of the Territory of Union (WCTU) was actually the largest national orga - Wyoming passed a law that permitted every adult nization promoting women’s suffrage. The WCTU led woman to “cast her vote . . . and hold office.” In the a “Home Protection” movement aimed at prohibiting West, pioneer women often worked shoulder-to-shoul - “strong drink” because of its damaging effects on men der with men on farms and ranches and thus proved and their families. WCTU leaders realized that to they were not weak or inferior. increase its influence and affect lawmakers, women Meanwhile, in Rochester, New York, Anthony con - needed to be able to vote. spired with sympathetic male voting registrars who White and middle-class women dominated the WCTU, allowed her and other women to cast ballots in the 1872 NAWSA, and most other national women’s groups. presidential election. The following year, she was put The groups usually rejected black women for fear of on trial for illegally voting, a criminal offense. The alienating white supporters in the racially segregated 2 The Final Push South. In addition, the groups rarely recruited immigrant wom - Western states continued to lead en. The failure to include all wom - way in granting women’s suffrage. en in the movement, while Washington state allowed women politically expedient, undermined the right to vote in 1910. California the cause. followed in 1911. Arizona, Kansas, Toward the turn of the 20th centu - and Oregon passed laws the next ry, Congress dropped its consider - year. ation of the Anthony Amendment, The presidential election of 1912 and in the states, most attempts to saw the two major parties, the grant women the right to vote Republicans and Democrats, failed. Heavy opposition from tra - opposing women’s suffrage. But ditionalists and liquor and brewing the 1912 election featured two interests contributed to these major independent parties, the defeats. Progressives (led by former The “New Woman” Republican President Theodore Roosevelt) and the Socialists (led The concept of a new American Elizabeth Cady Stanton (seated) and Susan B. by Eugene Debs). Both the woman emerged after 1900. Anthony were two of the first leaders in the wom - Progressives and Socialists favored en’s suffrage movement. Neither lived long Writers and commentators enough to see the passage of the 19th women’s suffrage. And they described the “New Woman” as Amendment. (Library of Congress) received about one-third of the independent and well-educated. votes cast. She wore loose-fitting clothing, Alice Paul headed NAWSA’s effort played sports, drove an automobile, and even smoked in to lobby Congress to consider again the Anthony public. She supported charities and social reforms, Amendment. Brought up as a Quaker, Paul including women’s suffrage. She often chose to work (1885–1977) graduated from Swarthmore College and outside the home in offices, department stores, and pro - received postgraduate degrees in social work. Traveling fessions such as journalism, law, and medicine that to Great Britain, she encountered radical feminists were just opening up to women. The image of the “New demanding the right to vote. She joined them in hunger Woman” also usually made her white, native born, and strikes and demonstrations. On returning to the United middle class. States, she joined NAWSA. In 1913, 28-year-old Paul organized a massive parade in By 1910, “feminist” was another term used to Washington, D.C. Hostile crowds of men attacked the describe the “New Woman.” Feminism referred to a marchers, who had to be protected by the National new spirit among a few middle-class women to liberate Guard. themselves from the old notion of “separate spheres.” Paul and the president of NAWSA, Carrie Chapman An early feminist writer condemned this traditional Catt, disagreed over using public demonstrations to pro - view of the role of women since it prevented their full mote women’s suffrage. Catt (1859–1947) had grown development and robbed the nation of their potential up in the Midwest, graduated from Iowa State College, contribution. and gone on to work as a teacher, high school principal, and superintendent of a school district (one of the first Of course, working outside the home was nothing new women to hold such a job). She worked tirelessly for for poor white, immigrant, and black women. They women’s causes, and in 1900 she was elected to succeed toiled as housekeepers, factory workers, and in other Anthony as president of NAWSA. menial jobs in order to survive. Female factory workers earned only a quarter to a third of what men earned for Catt’s tactics contrasted sharply with Paul’s. She pre - ferred to quietly lobby lawmakers in Congress and the the same job. There were no sick days or health bene - state legislatures. Paul favored demonstrations. Both fits. Women were known to have given birth on the leaders, however, were dedicated to equal rights for floors of factories where they worked. Since they did women. not have the right to vote, they had little opportunity to In the election of 1916, Catt supported Democratic pressure lawmakers to pass laws that would have President Woodrow Wilson. Wilson was running on the improved their wages and working conditions. slogan, “He kept us out of war.” Paul opposed Wilson.

3 (Continued on next page) She parodied his slogan, saying, “Wilson kept us out of August 18, 1920, half the adult population of the suffrage.” United States won the right to vote. Paul broke with NAWSA and founded the National Women voted nationwide for the first in the presi - Woman’s Party. Soon afterward, she organized daily dential election of 1920. Among the new voters was picketing of the White House to pressure President 91-year-old Charlotte Woodward, the only surviving Wilson to support the Anthony Amendment. After the member of the Seneca Falls Convention. In her life - United States entered World War I in 1917, Paul kept time, she had witnessed a revolution in the role of up the picketing. The women demonstrators silently women in American society. carried signs with slogans like “Democracy Should For Discussion and Writing Begin at Home” and “Kaiser Wilson.” Onlookers assaulted the White House picketers, calling them 1. In what ways did the role of women in American traitors for insulting the wartime president. society change between 1848 and 1920? In June 1917, police began arresting the picketers for 2. Do you think Alice Paul or Carrie Chapman Catt obstructing the sidewalks. About 270 were arrested and had the best strategy for winning the right to vote almost 100 were jailed, including Paul. She and the for women? Why? others in jail went on hunger strikes. Guards force-fed the women hunger strikers by jamming feeding tubes 3. Why do you think women won the right to vote in down their throats. The force-feeding was reported in 1920 after failing for more than 70 years? all the major newspapers. Embarrassed by the publici - For Further Reading ty, President Wilson pardoned and released them. Matthews, Jean V. The Rise of the New Woman, The Meanwhile, women replaced men by the thousands in Women’s Movement in America, 1875–1930 . Chicago: war industries and many other types of jobs previously Ivan R. Dee, 2003. held by men. By 1920, women made up 25 percent of the entire labor force of the country. Schneider, Dorothy and Carl. American Women in the President Wilson was disturbed that the push for wom - Progressive Era, 1900–1920 . New York: Facts on File, en’s suffrage was causing division during the war. He 1993. was also deeply impressed by Carrie Chapman Catt. In January 1918, he announced his support for the A C T I V T Y Anthony Amendment. By this time, 17 states as well as Great Britain had granted women the right to vote. Petitioning President Wilson Wilson’s support helped build momentum for the amendment. In the summer of 1919, the House and In this activity, students will petition President Wilson Senate approved the 19th Amendment by a margin well to support the Anthony Amendment. beyond the required two-thirds majority. Then the 1. Form the class into small groups. Each group will amendment had to be ratified by three-fourths of the write a petition to President Wilson, listing argu - states. ments why he should support the Anthony Those opposed to women’s suffrage, the so-called Amendment. “antis,” assembled all their forces to stop ratification. The liquor and brewing industries, factory owners, rail - 2. Each group should review the article to find argu - roads, banks, and big city political machines all feared ments in favor of the amendment. The group women would vote for progressive reforms. Southern should also list counterarguments against the posi - whites objected to more black voters. Some argued that tions taken by the “antis” who opposed the amend - the 19th Amendment invaded states’ rights. Others ment. claimed that it would undermine family unity. Besides, 3. Each group should only list those arguments on its the “antis” said, wives were already represented at the petition that all members of the group agree with. ballot box by their husbands. But state after state ratified the amendment. With one 4. Each group should read its petition to the rest of the last state needed for ratification, the Tennessee legisla - class. ture voted on the amendment. The outcome depended 5. The class members should then debate what they on the vote of the youngest man in the Tennessee state believe was the best argument for persuading legislature. He voted for ratification, but only after President Wilson to support the “Anthony receiving a letter from his mother, urging him to be a Amendment.” “good boy” and support women’s suffrage. Thus, on 4 Standards Addressed Sources How Women Won the Right to Vote National High School U.S. History Standard 20: Understands how Progressives and others addressed Chafe, William H. The Paradox of Change, American Women in the 20th Century . New York: , 1991. • Coggins, Ross. “Before problems of industrial , urbanization, and Women Had the Vote.” Hartford Courant . 28 Aug. 1994. • Crocco, Margaret political corruption. (5) Understands efforts to achieve Smith. “The Road to the Vote: Women, Suffrage, and the Public Sphere.” women’s suffrage in the early twentieth century (e.g., Social . Sept. 1995. • Flexner, Eleanor. Century of Struggle, The Women’s Rights Movement in the United States . Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap methods used by Carrie Chapman Catt in her leadership Press, 1959. • Matthews, Jean V. The Rise of the New Woman, The Women’s of the National Women’s Suffrage Association to get the Movement in America, 1875–1930 . Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2003. • Schneider, 19th amendment passed and ratified, why President Dorothy and Carl. American Women in the Progressive Era, 1900–1920 . New York: Facts on File, 1993. Wilson changed his mind about the amendment, which of Catt’s tactics were most successful). Have Women Achieved Equality? California History- Content Standard Bock, Hal. “Coming to Grips with Title IX.” The Columbian . 23 June 2002. • Brunner, Borgna. “The Wage Gap: A History of Pay Inequality and the Equal 11.5: Students analyze the major political, social, eco - Pay Act.” Infoplease . 2003. URL: nomic, technological, and cultural developments of http://www.infoplease.com/spot/equalpayact1.html • Chafe, William. The the 1920s. (4) Analyze the passage of the Nineteenth Paradox of Change, American Women in the 20th Century . New York: Oxford University Press, 1991. • Coontz, Stephanie. “Marriage: Then and Now.” Amendment and the changing role of women in society. National Forum . June 2000. • “Educational Attainment by Sex, 1910-2001.” Infoplease . 2003. URL: National High School U.S. History Standard 29: http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/0/7/7/9/8/0/A0779809.html • Epstein, Understands the struggle for racial and gender Barbara. “What Happened to the Women’s Movement?” Monthly Review . May equality and for the of civil . (2) 2001. • “Fairness for the Fair Sex.” National Conference of State Legislatures . Feb. 2003. • Gladstone, Leslie. “The Long Road to Equality: What Women Understands conflicting perspectives on different issues Won from the ERA Ratification Effort.” Library of Congress addressed by the women’s rights movement (e.g., the Bulletin . 1 Jan. 2001. • Hoff-Wilson, Joan, ed. Rights of Passage, The Past and Future of the ERA . Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press, 1986. • Equal Rights Amendment, Title VII, and Roe v. Wade). McGlen, Nancy E. and O’Connor, Karen. Women’s Rights, The Struggle for Equality in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries . New York: Praeger, 1983. California History-Social Science Content Standard • Matthews, Jean V. The Rise of the New Woman, The Women’s Movement in 11.11: Students analyze the major social problems America, 1875–1930 . Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2003. • National Council of and domestic policy issues in contemporary Catholic Women. “ERA—Do You Know WHAT it Means?” EagleForum.org. URL: http://www.eagleforum.org/era/2003/ERA-Brochure.shtml • “New American society. (3) Describe the changing roles of Gender Roles Get a Mixed Review.” About Women & Marketing . 1 Nov. 1998. women in society as reflected in the entry of more wom - • Posnanski, Joe. “Title IX Critics Are Missing the Mark.” Kansas City Star . 31 en into the labor force and the changing family structure. Jan. 2003. • Reiss, Cory. “ of Title IX at Center of Debate.” Sarasota Herald-Tribune . 22 Dec. 2002. • Sanders, Jo. “A Special Section on Gender National High School World History Standard 27: Equity.” Phi Delta Kappan . 1 Nov. 2002. • “The Wage Gap.” Infoplease . URL: http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0763170.html • “Who Needs An Equal Understands how European society experienced Rights Amendment? You Do!” National Organization for Women. 4 Oct. 2002. political, economic, and cultural transformations in URL: http://www.now.org/issues/economic/cea/who.html • “Women by the an age of global intercommunication between 1450 Numbers from the U. S. Census Bureau.” Fact Monster from Information Please . URL: http://www.factmonster.com/spot/womencensus1.html • and 1750. (4) Understands influences on the spread of “Women in Congress.” Infoplease . URL: http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/ scientific ideas and Enlightenment thought . . . . A0801429.html • “Women in State Legislatures.” National Conference of State Legislatures. 2003. URL: http://www.ncsl.org/programs/legman/about/ California History-Social Science Content Standard women03.htm • “Women’s Earnings: Work Partially Explain 10.2: Students compare and contrast the Glorious Difference Between Men’s and Woman’s Earnings.” General Accounting Office Reports & Testimony. 1 Dec. 2003. Revolution of England, the , and the and their enduring effects Hobbes, Locke, Montesquieu, and worldwide on the political expectations for self-gov - Rousseau on Government ernment and individual liberty. (1) Compare the major Aaron, Richard I. “Locke.” New Encyclopaedia Britannica Macropaedia . ideas of philosophers and their effects on the democratic 2002 ed. • Abbott, Leonard Dalton, ed. Masterworks of Government . Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday & Co., 1947. • Conroy, Peter V. Jean-Jacques revolutions in England, the United States, France, and Rousseau . Twayne Publishers, 1998. • Cranston, Maurice. “Jean- Jacques Latin America (e.g., John Locke, Charles-Louis Rousseau,” New Encyclopaedia Britannica Macropaedia . 2002 ed. • Montesquieu, Jean-Jacques Rousseau . . . ). Ebenstein, William. Great Political Thinkers, to the Present , 3rd ed. New York: Holt, Rinhart and Winston, 1963. • Havens, George R. Jean-Jacques Standards reprinted with permission: Rousseau . Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1978. • “Hobbes, Thomas.” The New National Standards copyright 2000 McREL, Mid-continent Research Encyclopaedia Britannica Micropaedia . 2002 ed. • Levine, Andrew. Engaging Political Philosophy From Hobbes to Rawls . Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, for Education and Learning, 2550 S. Parker Road, Suite 500, Aurora, 2002. • Robertson, John. “The Enlightenment.” History Review . 1 Sept. 1997. • CO 80014, Telephone 303.337.0990. Shackelton, Robert. “Montesquieu, Charles.” New Enccyclopaedia Britannica California Standards copyrighted by the California Department of Micropaedia . 2002 ed. • Shklar, Judith N. Political Thought and Political Education, P.O. Box 271, Sacramento, CA 95812. Thinkers . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998.

5 Have Women Achieved Equality?

In 1920, American women won the right to vote, but they did not attain legal equality with men in other areas. Since 1920, women have won many other rights, but some people argue today that women have not yet achieved equality. fter the ratification of the 19th Amendment in 1920, politicians learned that women, like mAen, did not always agree and vote as a bloc. At first women did not even vote in large numbers. Since a powerful “female vote” did not occur, both Republicans and Democrats gave the of women for equal rights a low priority. Alice Paul was a leader in the women’s suffrage movement and later in Women’s rights leaders felt disappointed that their trying to get the Equal Rights Amendment passed. Here, she sewed the 36th (and last) star on the women’s suffrage flag. Each star stood for a hard-won fight for suffrage did not bring about state that had ratified the 19th Amendment. (Library of Congress) immediate equality with men in all areas of American life. In 1921, Alice Paul, head of the reformers wanted to work within the political system National Woman’s Party, charged that “women to pass laws for equal pay scales for men and women, today. . . are still in every way subordinate [inferior] to the right of females to serve on juries, and other specif - men before the law, in the professions, in the church, in ic rights. The feminists, led by Paul’s National industry, and in the home.” In many states women still Woman’s Party, argued for immediate legal equality could not serve on juries, make contracts, or between the sexes in all areas of American society. control their own earnings. Also, federal C courts had ruled that the 14th Amendment’s The biggest difference between the reformers and the guarantee of “equal protection of the laws” feminists concerned so-called “protective legislation.” U did not apply to women. In 1923, Paul began These laws limited the hours women could work, pro - lobbying Congress to consider a new constitu - hibited them from working at night, set maximum R tional amendment that would guarantee equal weights they could lift, and banned them from danger - rights for women. ous jobs like mining. In 1908, the U.S. Supreme Court R The Equal Rights Amendment had upheld these laws as necessary to protect the health and future motherhood of women. E Paul’s Equal Rights Amendment stated that, N “Men and women shall have equal rights The reformers feared that the Equal Rights throughout the United States and every place Amendment would make protective legislation uncon - T subject to its jurisdiction.” With the amend - stitutional since such laws appeared to discriminate ment, Paul intended to eliminate all sex dis - against men. Alice Paul and the feminists, however, crimination and inequality in the law in one favored doing away with these laws. They argued that I bold move. women should be treated as individuals and that pro - tective laws often resulted in excluding them from S Paul’s amendment did not make clear exactly good-paying jobs. This division between the reformers what “equal rights” meant or included. As a and feminists stopped action by Congress on the Equal S result, a split occurred in the women’s rights Rights Amendment for decades. movement between “reformers” and “femi - U nists.” After the United States entered World War II, millions of women flooded into jobs to replace men in industry, E The League of Women Voters, which had the professions, and government. Protective legisla - S replaced the National American Woman tion was suspended. Equal pay for males and females Suffrage Association, led the reformers. The doing the same job became an issue. The National War 6 Labor Board, in charge of regulating labor during the Phyllis Schlafly, a and leader of conservative war, issued rules to equalize pay. But differences causes. Schlafly appealed to political and religious remained. conservatives who resented feminist criticisms of the traditional homemaker role of women. ERA, said By 1945, 20 million women worked in the American Schlafly, would undermine marriage and the family labor force. After the war, massive layoffs affected while erasing male and female differences. “We don’t many women as veterans returned to the job market. want to be men,” she declared. Many women workers wanted to remain in the jobs they had proven they could do rather than go back to Schlafly defended laws that guarded alimony and pro - low-paying “women’s work” in offices, stores, and tected women in the workplace, which she called “our restaurants. privileges.” She also took advantage of the uncertainty The Women’s Liberation Movement of “equal rights” in ERA. According to Schlafly, ERA would require: During the war, supporters of the Equal Rights • drafting mothers into the military Amendment changed its wording to conform to other civil rights amendments: “Equality of rights under the • eliminating rape as a crime law shall not be denied or abridged by the United • funding abortions with taxpayer money States or by any state on account of sex.” Although • establishing unisex public restrooms both the Democratic and Republican parties supported • integrating women into men’s sports teams ERA, Congress failed to approve it in several tries In addition, she predicted that ERA would legalize after the war. homosexuality, homosexual marriage, and the adop - In 1963, Betty Friedan inspired a “women’s liberation” tion of children by homosexual couples. Schlafly final - movement with her book, The Feminine Mystique . ly argued that federal and state laws had already Friedan wrote that the traditional woman’s role as a prohibited sex discrimination, and so ERA was unnec - homemaker held her back from achieving her full essary. potential. In effect, women were prisoners in their own Schlafly and her STOP-ERA (“Stop Taking Our homes, she argued. Friedan and other “new feminists” Privileges”) movement almost single-handedly defeat - formed the National Organization for Women (NOW) ed the Equal Rights Amendment even after Congress in 1966 to push for equal pay, abortion rights, and the extended the period of ratification. While polls indicat - Equal Rights Amendment. ed that two-thirds of Americans approved of the Despite continued inaction on ERA by Congress, amendment, slightly less than three-fourths of the women made progress toward equality. In 1963, states ratified it. In the end, Schlafly and her supporters Congress passed the Equal Pay Act. Alice Paul then led successfully clouded the difference between equal a successful lobbying effort to include a ban on sex legal rights for women and treating males and females discrimination in the Civil Rights Act of 1964. In the same in all areas of American life. 1972, more federal legislation prohibited practices that Is ERA Needed Today? limited the admission of women to colleges and their During and after the ERA ratification campaign, participation in school sports programs. Congress and the states continued to pass anti-sex dis - The Defeat of ERA crimination laws. Legislation also improved women’s In 1972, the “new feminists” along with 87-year-old rights in the areas of employment, education, credit, Alice Paul finally got Congress to approve the Equal housing, and pensions. Rights Amendment by a margin far exceeding the The U.S. Supreme Court began to apply the equal pro - required two-thirds majority. ERA then had to be rati - tection clause of the 14th Amendment to sex discrimi - fied by three-fourths of the states (38). Confident of nation cases. In 1976, the Supreme Court ruled that victory, those lobbying the state legislatures for ratifi - under the 14th Amendment men and women could be cation were unprepared for the “anti-feminist” back - treated differently by the law only if it served an lash that followed. “important governmental objective.” The Supreme After half the states quickly ratified the amendment, Court later used this standard to uphold draft registra - the pro-ERA forces hit a solid wall of opposition led by tion for males but not females. 7 (Continued on next page) By 1980, a substantial majority of women had perma - nently joined the labor force. Women entered college in large numbers. They also moved into many non-tradi - tional jobs such as police officers, doctors, and business executives. Nevertheless, despite their advances, women continue to lag behind men in earnings, and large numbers remain in low-paying jobs such as retail clerks and restaurant waitresses. Women also remain underrepre - sented in management and top executive positions. NOW claims that females still suffer from unequal treatment in employment, education, insurance poli - cies, health care, Social Security benefits, and other Anti-Equal Rights Amendment protesters gathered in front of White House. Opposition to the amendment led to its defeat. (Library of areas. Congress) NOW and others argue that the piecemeal federal and state civil rights laws for women have loopholes, some - and tenure, years and type of education, are ignored, and can be changed or repealed. hours of work, and industry and occupation . . . .” In Many of these laws require that the woman must fact, argues Hattiangadi, when comparing the median assume the burden of in sex discrimination cases. annual earnings of men and women with the same occu - The advocates for women’s rights say that we should pation and educational major, the gap disappears. adopt a constitutional amendment that would complete - ly abolish all legal inequalities between men and wom - Women have perhaps achieved the greatest equality in en once and for all, as envisioned by Alice Paul in 1923. education. Slightly more females than males now grad - Have Women Achieved Equality? uate from high school. Men 25 and older still surpass women in holding a college degree. Since 1982, howev - Despite the defeat of ERA in 1982, Congress and the er, more women than men have earned a ’s states continued to pass laws against sex discrimination degree. Thus, more young women possess degrees now and for the equal treatment of women. Have women than young men. Also, since 1979, the majority of all achieved equality with men in the United States today? college students have been women. The average earnings of male and female workers have Title IX of the 1972 Education Amendments Act barred gotten closer over the years. Women’s advocates argue sex discrimination in schools that received federal that a “wage gap” still persists. When the Equal Pay Act funds. This law has greatly affected school and college was passed in 1963, women earned an average of 59 sports programs. In 1972, about 300,000 high school cents for every dollar earned by men. Today, women girls took part in athletics. Today nearly 3 million par - earn 76 cents per dollar. A 1998 White House Council of ticipate in school sports. At the college level, the num - Advisors report stated: “Although the gap ber of female college athletes has increased 80 percent between women and men’s wages has narrowed sub - since 1980. Nevertheless, studies indicate that many stantially since the signing of the Equal Pay Act in colleges are still not in compliance with Title IX. The 1963, there still exists a significant wage gap that can - National Collegiate Athletic Association recently not be explained by differences between male and reported that male athletes receive $133 million more in female workers in labor market experience and in the scholarships than female athletes. characteristics of jobs they hold.” Probably the most profound changes in the equality of Critics argue that the wage gap is largely an illusion. It men and women in the United States have occurred “is not evidence that women are paid less than men for within the family. Before 1800, most husbands and the same job,” states Anita U. Hattiangadi of the wives worked and reared their children together on Employment Policy Institute. Instead, she continues, “It farms or in family businesses. The Industrial is simply the ratio of men’s to women’s average annual Revolution changed the center of work for millions of earnings. It does not account for many relevant eco - Americans from the home to the factory and office. As a nomic factors that affect wage determination, such as result, men generally became the breadwinners while 8 women (except black and immigrant women) stayed A C T I V I T Y home to care for the family. After 1900, however, labor laws, two major wars, and an increase in the cost Are Girls and Boys Treated Equally in of living motivated large numbers of women to return to Schools? the workforce. Today, most married couples are joint breadwinners, as they were before 1800. Education has been a priority for those seeking equal gender treatment. State and federal laws mandate equal More women working outside the home has produced access to education and treatment of female students in more equality between husbands and wives within the schools. What has been your experience? Conduct the home. Today, wives are more likely to have a larger following activity to discuss the issue. voice in family decisions. Also, husbands are more like - ly to accept the sharing of household chores and child - 1. Form small groups consisting of roughly the same care. Yet, the working wife is still the one who most numbers of male and female students. Select a dis - often does such things as arranging transportation for cussion leader who will moderate the discussion the children and staying at home to care for a sick child. and report the group’s conclusions. 2. Conduct a discussion using the questions below. Most Americans agree that two incomes are necessary Use your whole education experience when think - nowadays to maintain a decent standard of living. Thus, ing about a given question, not just your experience the growing equality of husbands and wives within the in a particular school or class. Be prepared to dis - family has come at the price of both having to work out - cuss your findings with the class. side the home. a. Do male and female students have equal oppor - For Discussion and Writing tunity to select courses or extracurricular activi - 1. Why do you think the writers of the Constitution ties? Why or why not? required amendments to be passed by a two-thirds b. Do female and male athletes have equal opportu - majority in Congress and ratified by three-fourths nities to participate in sports and are facilities of the states? Do you agree? Why? and equipment adequate for both? Why or not? 2. Do you think women are unsuited for any of the fol - c. Do male and female students have equal oppor - lowing? Explain your position on each one. tunities to participate and get called on in class? firefighter Why or why not? combat soldier d. Are female and male students treated equally in miner college football player terms of grading or opportunities for academic president of the United States honors? Why or Why not? 3. How have the roles of husbands and wives changed e. Are female and male students subject to the in the United States since 1900? Do you think this same amount of discipline and treated equally change is a good or bad thing? Why? when they are disciplined? Why or why not? For Further Reading f. Are there any other ways in which one gender is discriminated against or treated unfairly? Chafe, William H. The Paradox of Change, American Explain Women in the 20th Century . New York: Oxford 3. Conduct a discussion with the entire class by asking University Press, 1991. each group to report on its responses to the above Hoff-Wilson, Joan, ed. Rights of Passage, The Past and questions. Future of the ERA . Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana 4. After the discussion, debrief the activity by asking: University Press, 1986. a. Were there any significant differences in the “Women by the Numbers from the U.S. Census responses of male or female students to the Bureau.” Fact Monster from Information Please. 2003. items? URL: www.factmonster.com/spot/womencensus1.html b. Based on your , do you think gender equity has been achieved in education?

9 CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS FOUNDATION

RESOUPRCES oANDs MAtTERSIALSc FORr CIViIC pEDUCt ATION NEW from CRF

• CityWorks project activities follow CityYouth: Ancient History CityWorks each lesson. These activities and Travel with your students on an exciting, Engaging Students in Government assignments help students explore standards-based journey to ancient Egypt, problems, institutions, and public poli - China, Greece, and Rome. Grades 9–12 cy issues in their own community. Students are guided through a civics- Grades 6–9 CityWorks is a stan - dards-based, local based service-learning project that CRF’s new CityYouth: Ancient History pro - government curricu - addresses a local community problem vides teachers with 13 social lum designed to fit they have studied. studies lessons and into any civics or CityWorks curriculum materials consist of related lesson ideas government class. three components: for core teachers of An independent, • The CityWorks Teacher’s Guide language arts, math - multi-year, research- includes everything you need—instruc - ematics, and science. based study released in 2002 concluded tions for lessons, reproducible masters It integrates civic par - that classes using CityWorks improved for all lesson handouts (including the ticipation and service student of both regular and Bugle ), instructions for the CityWorks learning into the regu - local government and helped prepare stu - project activities, and reproducible lar curriculum. Its four dents for effective citizenship by increas - masters of the Student Handbook. units focus on ancient ing student civic competencies as • The Central Heights Bugle , six issues history and can culmi - compared to students in traditional govern - of a simulated newspaper in class sets nate in a service project. ment courses. of 35. Each edition is linked to one of CityYouth: Ancient History is divided into Students become citizens of the fictional the lessons in the teacher’s guide and four units. city of Central Heights to learn about issues provides students with readings and of state and local government and practice information for the lesson. Unit 1: Ancient Egypt explores the social critical-thinking skills. Along the way they • A Student Handbook containing and political order of the ancient Egyptian take on the role of local political leaders detailed instructions for completing the city of Thebes; shows how the Nile helped and active citizens to address political and CityWorks project activities and serving shape ancient Egyptian civilization; traces social issues facing the community. the political history of ancient Egypt through as a portfolio for students to record the three kingdoms; and outlines the rela - The curriculum has two elements: much of their work. tionship between religion and Egypt’s social • Six interactive lesson modules center - CityWorks and political order. ing on specific local government content, #35351CBR Teacher’s Guide $39.95 such as the executive, legislative, and #35355CBR Student Handbook (Set of 35) $64.95 Unit 2: Ancient China explores the geogra - judicial functions of local government #35360CBR Central Heights Bugle $115.95 phy of China and the development of and on realistic public policy issues, such Class Set (6 issues, 35 ea.) ancient Chinese civilization; introduces the as the economy and crime and safety. social, legal, and political impact of Qin Dynasty Emperor Shi Huangdi; examines the Also included are Hands-On History ancient of and Project History Projects , giving students an opportunity to Daoism; and looks at developments in the U.S. History for pursue a U.S. history topic in depth. Project Middle School Han Dynasty, including the opening of the History includes four Hands-On History Silk Road. Grades 6–9 Projects: Project History is a Unit 3: Ancient Greece looks at the rise of new and exciting way • Leaders Forum. Students portray American Greek city-states and Athenian democracy to teach standards- leaders who meet to discuss issues in U.S. under Pericles; compares two contrasting based U.S. history to history from the perspective of the leaders Greek city-states: democratic Athens and middle-school students. they are portraying. militaristic Sparta; and explores ideas about Each lesson features: • History Network Newscast. Students cre - what makes a good society from three of the • A reading based on a ate news-format presentations describing an U.S. history standard. event in U.S. history and its background, Western world’s greatest philosophers— • Questions to engage students in a discus - , Plato, and . causes, consequences, and significance. sion. • American History Museum Exhibit. Unit 4: traces the history of • A product-based activity that helps students delve more deeply into the reading and Students create an exhibit using visuals and Rome from its founding myths through the develop skills. narrative descriptions. Roman ; examines the political and Six standards-based, interactive lessons: • Project History Book. Students create an social institutions of the republic; explores 1: and the Declaration of alphabetically arranged “encyclopedia” the leadership of when Rome Independence defining, illustrating, and describing the sig - made its transition from republic to empire; 2: nificance of words or phrases. and discusses religious and perse - 3: Slavery in the American South Web Links: The CRF website ( www.crf- cution in the . 4: How the Women’s Rights Movement usa.org ) supports each lesson with online links Began to focused readings and other resources. CityYouth: Ancient History 5: Black Soldiers in Union Blue #61401CBR Student/teacher materials 155 pp. $24.95 6: Rockefeller and the Standard Oil #32030CBR Project History, 138 pp. $21.95 Monopoly About Constitutional Rights Foundation Constitutional Rights Foundation is a non-profit, non-partisan educational organization committed to helping our nation’s young people to become active citizens and to understand the , the legal process, and their constitutional heritage. Established in 1962, CRF is guided by a dedicated board of directors drawn from the worlds of law, business, government, educa - tion, and the media. CRF’s program areas include the California State Mock Trial, History Day in California, youth internship programs, youth leadership and civic participation programs, youth conferences, teacher professional development, and publications and curriculum materials.

Officers: Louis P. Eatman, President; Publications Committee: Marvin Sears, Chairperson ; Gerald Chaleff, Katrina M. Dewey, Marshall P. Horowitz, Thomas E. Patterson, Thomas D. Phelps, Patrick Rogan, Peggy Saferstein, Gail Midgal Title, Lois Thompson, Carlton Varner. Staff: Todd Clark, Executive Director ; Marshall Croddy, Director of Program and Materials Development ; Carlton Martz, Writer; Bill Hayes and Marshall Croddy, Editors ; Andrew Costly, Production Manager ; Gail Midgal Title, CRF Board Reviewer .

Funding Available for Service-Learning Help Support Bill of Rights in Action Projects This issue, like all issues, of Bill of Rights in Action is sent free of CRF’s Maurice R. Robinson Mini-Grants Program gives grants of charge to educators across the nation. Back issues are also available up to $600 as seed money to teacher-student teams and com - on our web site. The cost is paid for by individual contributors. If you munity organizations for service-learning projects. A list of the carefully balanced material in Bill of Rights in Actio n, we 2004–05 awardees and the guidelines and application for this would greatly appreciate a contribution from you. Your contribution is -deductible to the full extent of the law. Constitutional Rights year’s competition are available on CRF’s web site at www.crf- Foundation is a 501(C)3 non-profit organization. Please make your usa.org . check out to Constitutional Rights Foundation and make a notation on your check that it go toward Bill of Rights in Action . Send your Be the First to Know—Join CRF’s contribution to: Constitutional Rights Foundation, 601 South Listserv Kingsley Drive, Los Angeles, CA 90005. Thank you for your help. CRF sends out periodic announcements about new publications, programs, trainings, and lessons. Don’t miss out. E-mail us at [email protected] . On the subject line, write CRF Listserv. In the message, put your name, school, subject you teach, state, and e- mail address. If you’ve changed your e-mail address, please notify us.

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